Silvia Cruz1
email: silviacruz@ige.unicamp.br

Sônia Paulino2
email: sonia.paulino@usp.br

Faïz Gallouj3
email: faiz.gallouj@univ-lille1.fr

Public Service Innovation: Solid Waste Sector from the Perspective of Clean Development Mechanism Landfill Projects

Keywords: ServPPIN, public service innovation, clean development mechanism, landfill

This paper is devoted to public services innovation in the municipal solid waste sector. It analyses the implementation of Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) projects in the Bandeirantes and São João landfills in the municipality of São Paulo, Brazil. The study is based on the concept of Public-Private Innovation Networks in services (ServPPINs). Using the ServPPIN concept it was possible to identify competence gaps affecting the stakeholders involved in these CDM projects. We focus in particular on those organisational and relational competence gaps that are likely to weaken innovation feasibility in services related to solid waste. In fact, innovation is closely linked to the development of new competences among service providers and users. For the most part, these will arise out of changes in interactions between actors -given that the projects in question include the coordination of various actors (public, private, and citizen).

Introduction

The Kyoto Protocol was adopted in 1997 at the Third Conference of Parties of the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) and came into force in 2005. This Protocol established that countries included in Annex I were to reduce their greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by at least 5% between 2008 and 2012, in relation to 1990 emission levels. At the United Nations Climate Conference COP-18, held in Doha, Qatar, in December 2012, it was confirmed that the Kyoto Protocol would continue until 2020 (UNFCCC, 2013).

In order to assist Annex I countries to comply with their GHG emission reduction targets, the Protocol established the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM), which entails the implementation of project activities in emerging and developing countries, resulting in Certified Emission Reductions (CERs), which can be bought by Annex I countries.

CDMs encompass activities for reducing GHG emissions by establishing projects across a wide range of sectors, including landfill sites. These projects have excellent potential for GHG reduction given that, due to the municipal solid waste management model adopted in countries like Brazil, which is characterized by the disposal of its waste via intensive use of landfills, and other disposal methods in the ground (controlled landfills, and open dumpsites) with common practice allowing gas to escape directly from landfills to the atmosphere via a methane drainage pipe.

Methane is a greenhouse gas, the global warming potential of which is 25 times higher than that of carbon dioxide. According to the United States Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), it is estimated that methane emissions from landfills comprise about 6% to 13% of total global emissions of methane [START_REF] Rubio-Romero | Profitability analysis of biogas recovery in Municipal Solid Waste landfills[END_REF].

It is worth noting that the CDM concept encompasses both global issues linked to climate change and the promotion of development in the local context (Brazil, 1997). In this way, beyond the objective of assisting Annex I countries to fulfill their goals of GHG emission reduction (in line with article 12 of the Kyoto Protocol) these projects must also assist in promoting sustainable development in the host countries in which they are held [START_REF] Fernández | Exploring Co-Benefits of Clean Development Mechanism Projects: Lessons Learned from Santa Catarina -Brazil[END_REF][START_REF] Fernández | Social development benefits of hydroelectricity CDM projects in Brazil[END_REF]Ventura et al, 2012).

The importance of civil society's effective participation throughout the approval process of a CDM project cannot be overstated. Another crucial point is that project proponents should send letters of invitation to all project stakeholders, taking into consideration the following agents in the case of Brazil: local authorities and chamber of deputies for all municipalities involved, municipal and state environmental departments; Brazilian NGOs and social movement forums, community associations both directly and indirectly associated with project activities, as well as both State and Federal Public Prosecution offices.

Within this general context, this paper aims to discuss the challenges raised by the promotion of public services innovation in the municipal solid waste sector. We focus on the implementation of CDM landfill projects in the municipality of São Paulo, Brazil. The theoretical background of the analysis is the concept of Public-Private Innovation Networks in Services (ServPPINs), highlighting the important role for service innovation played by public and private organisations working in collaboration.

Rather than being implemented with the explicit goal of promoting service innovation, the CDM landfill projects aim to reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, in line with the Kyoto Protocol. However, these projects must also promote local sustainable development in host countries (by creating local co-benefits) and this can also lead to innovation dynamics.

In this paper, we focus on competences development based on interactions and relationships between the stakeholders involved in CDM landfill projects, highlighting the importance of network construction and opportunities for achieving local co-benefits from this.

Discussion of the development of organisational and relational competences for public services innovation is apt, since most studies on this subject are still technology-biased (Schmidt and Rammer, 2007;Mothe and Nguyen, 2010). Therefore, for better comprehension of public services innovation, it is necessary to examine other aspects, going beyond technological factors.

Innovation studies concentrate on the private sector. The literature generally neglects or underestimates the role of public sector in the innovation process (Djellal et al., 2013, Windrum;García-Goñi, 2008). The public sector is often portrayed as a facilitator of innovation activities, merely drafting the legal framework. However, there is a growing literature pointing out a more active role played by the public sector in innovation (both its own innovation and that of other sectors) [START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in Services[END_REF]Mulgan and Albury, 2003;[START_REF] Hartley | Innovation in Governance and Public Services: Past and Present[END_REF]Halvorsen et al. 2005;Koch and Hauknes, 2005;Windrum and García-Goñi, 2008;[START_REF] Potts | Public sector innovation research: What's next?[END_REF][START_REF] Fuglsang | Bricolage and invisible innovation in public service innovation[END_REF]Sundbo, 2011;Djellal and Gallouj, 2013;Djellal et al. 2013).

The public sector is extremely heterogeneous. Although public services are often provided by public organisations, other provision modes have recently emerged. Public services can be provided by public actors, private actors, or both [START_REF] Di Meglio | The place of ServPPINs in the range of public-private collaboration arrangements for services provision[END_REF][START_REF] Weber | ServPPINs as instruments for realizing system innovations: two case studies in passenger transport in Austria[END_REF]. In the case of the municipal solid waste sector and the implementation of carbon market projects within landfills, innovation opportunities are strongly related to the interactions and relationships built by stakeholders at the different levels at which they are involved.

The paper is structured in four sections. Following the introduction, section 2 discusses the ServPPIN concept , focusing on the importance of relational and organisational competences for service innovation. Section 3 is devoted to the presentation of the empirical cases, focusing on the competences that should be developed by each stakeholder involved in the selected CDM landfill projects. Our conclusions are set out in section 4.

The ServPPIN Concept: a Multi-agent Framework for Innovation in Services

The purpose of this section is to discuss the concept of Public-Private Innovation Network in Services (ServPPIN), highlighting the roles played by public and private actors, and the interaction processes between them, in order to promote innovation -both technological and non-technological. The subsection 2.1 aims to show the main features as well as the differences between ServPPINs and traditional Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). Finally, the subsection 2.2 aims to present the relational and organisational barriers within a multi-agent context.

Public-Private Innovation Networks in a Service Context

Innovation networks and systems have been the subject of an extensive literature in economics, sociology and management [START_REF] Callon | The management and evaluation of technological programs and the dynamics of techno-economic networks: The case of the AFME[END_REF][START_REF] Edquist | Systems of innovation[END_REF]Lundvall, 1992;Nelson, 1993 among others). In the same vein, more recently, there has been a growing literature on Public-Private Partnerships (PPPs). Although these are not necessarily devoted to innovation (being mainly set up to produce infrastructure and/or services), PPPs can also be used as mechanisms for the production of innovations. One of the factors encouraging interest in examining Public-Private Innovation Networks is the growing recognition of the important role played by public sector organisations in the innovation process. The innovation network concept is biased towards manufacturing and technology. It has only recently been applied to innovation in services -which is surprising, given the interactional nature of service activities.

A network is the establishment of relationships based on trust [START_REF] Fuglsang | Collaboration and trust in a public-private innovation network: a case study of an emerging innovation model[END_REF], on reputation, and on mutual dependency between selected partners. The concept of the innovation network (in the traditional sense) suffers from a certain number of shortcomings, namely: a technology bias (with largely predominance of tangible technological innovation), a manufacturing bias (linked to the previous one), and a market bias (centrality of the private actors in the innovation dynamics). This means, to make it short, that innovation networks are mainly focused on technological innovation produced by the collaboration of private actors in the manufacturing sector.

The ServPPIN concept provides a way of overcoming these various biases (Djellal and Gallouj 2013;Gallouj, Rubacalba and Windrum, 2013;[START_REF] Gopakumar | Public-Private Innovation Networks in Services[END_REF][START_REF] Labarthe | Effects of institutions on the integration of end-users' knowledge in ServPPINs: lessons from two case studies in agroenvironmental knowledge-intensive services[END_REF]. It goes beyond the technologistic view of innovation. It adopts a broader perspective, incorporating non-technological aspects of innovation (table 1), including organisational innovation, ad hoc innovation, social innovation, and bricolage innovation, i.e. innovation through non-programmed activities, trial-and-error processes and adaptation to random events [START_REF] Fuglsang | Bricolage and invisible innovation in public service innovation[END_REF].

IN ServPPIN

Visible Source. The authors, based on Djellal and Gallouj (2013).

Besides, the ServPPIN contributes to opening up the traditional innovation network concept to new actors: all market services, as well as third-sector organisations (NGOs, associations etc.). It extends potential forms of participation for certain actors, for example, the involvement of civil society in the decision-making and consultation processes. This is particularly the case with regard to the role civil society plays in the ServPPIN contexthelping to translate social preferences which are not merely reflected by market prices [START_REF] Fuglsang | Collaboration and trust in a public-private innovation network: a case study of an emerging innovation model[END_REF] -where there is a need to empower the public and users to foster a successful cooperation.

Public administrations are thus no longer restricted to playing a support role in the innovation process. They may be active participants in that process, particularly insofar as their own activity is concerned [START_REF] Rubalcaba | Which policy for innovation in services?[END_REF].

ServPPINs are also networks of collaborative partnerships between public and private organisations, but they are more comprehensive open and flexible than traditional PPPs, which entail relations between actors that are more closed, with predefined functions, rules and formal procedures (particularly contracts) that can bureaucratize the process, and limit the potential for innovation. The high number, and diversity, of participants in a ServPPIN can lead to a complex and intensive process of interaction in which a large amount of heterogeneous information and knowledge (tacit and non-tacit) are likely to be exchanged, since plenty of channels are opened for interaction.

According to [START_REF] Bučar | Weak institutional framework as incentive for service innovation networks[END_REF], ServPPINs can be understood as a place for social interaction and the construction of social relations aimed at innovation. Nevertheless, of all case studies based in ServPPIN concept, several were not explicitly oriented towards the innovation target. For example, in some hospital case studies the main objective was to reduce costs in the use of technologies [START_REF] Farias | Technology adoption in service organizations: a framework proposal for studying ICT diffusion in healthcare and hospital services[END_REF][START_REF] Schartinger | An institutional analysis of innovation in healthcare services[END_REF][START_REF] Windrum | The co-production of health innovations[END_REF]). Similarly, the CDM landfill projects we examined were implemented in order to reduce GHG emissions, rather than with the explicit goal of promoting service innovation. In fact, the technology and innovation outcomes appear to be additional results of the local co-benefits generation.

In other words, interesting changes and innovations are likely to arise out of such networkswhich can then be retrospectively labeled 'innovation networks'. Taking into account nontechnological, incremental and non-programmed innovations (ad hoc, bricolage, rapid application etc.) it is also possible to consider even those networks which are not explicitly (or immediately) oriented towards innovation to be ServPPINs. This is one difference between ServPPINs and traditional innovation networks (IN) (Table 1).

It should be noted that in ServPPINs, interaction between the public and private sectors occupies a central position. This interaction is favourable to the various parties involved, and not just in monetary terms. In this sense, from a perspective based on the notion of network, ServPPINs are a means of deepening studies related to public services innovation -an innovation field that is yet to be explored in depth [START_REF] Brandão | Inovação no setor público: análise da produção científica em periódicos nacionais e internacionais da área de administração[END_REF]Djellal and Gallouj, 2013;Gallouj et al., 2013).

The ServPPIN concept is particularly relevant as a theoretical basis for our research since it allows us to take into account the relational and organisational competences, as well as the goals, of the various stakeholders involved -and these are important elements of service innovation (Djellal and Gallouj, 2013;[START_REF] Labarthe | Effects of institutions on the integration of end-users' knowledge in ServPPINs: lessons from two case studies in agroenvironmental knowledge-intensive services[END_REF][START_REF] Lima | Estudos internacionais sobre inovação no setor público: como a teoria da inovação em serviços pode contribuir?[END_REF][START_REF] Weber | ServPPINs as instruments for realizing system innovations: two case studies in passenger transport in Austria[END_REF].

One of the essential characteristics of the service supply is the inseparability of the productive process from its results. The output of a service cannot be dissociated from its process. Therefore, in such activities (characterized by the interaction between customer/user and service provider) the service interface component should be taken into account, as well as the human or technical competences necessary to service provision.

Organisational processes and innovation management are important issues in service innovation [START_REF] Kahn | Research and development in the services sector of an emerging economy: the case of South Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in Services[END_REF][START_REF] Lima | Estudos internacionais sobre inovação no setor público: como a teoria da inovação em serviços pode contribuir?[END_REF], since, in services, innovation processes are rarely carried out in a particular R&D or innovation department. In other words, organisational structure and competences play an important role in the processes of innovation in services [START_REF] Hertog | Capabilities for managing service innovation: towards a conceptual framework[END_REF][START_REF] Lima | Estudos internacionais sobre inovação no setor público: como a teoria da inovação em serviços pode contribuir?[END_REF]Djellal et al., 2013;Gallouj et al., 2013). However it should be noted that even in manufacturing industries, organisational factors are often singled out as mechanisms that block innovation (Sundbo, 2011). These factors include: poor targeting of resources; motivation and decisions; inadequate employee competences or weak company culture; an inefficient communication system, and lack of technology or knowledge. Public and private actors must be able to cooperate in order to share risks and mobilize resources and complementary competences devoted to non-technological as well as to technical innovations.

This cooperation is especially important for traditional public services such as the solid waste sector, which (in this context) require new structures -in terms of approaches, strategies, solutions -in order to adapt to the rapid and complex changes induced by new environmental policies.

Mainly because of their important institutional and regulatory role, public institutions are decisive in the success and sustainability of ServPPINs (Djellal et al, 2013;[START_REF] Weber | ServPPINs as instruments for realizing system innovations: two case studies in passenger transport in Austria[END_REF][START_REF] Windrum | The co-production of health innovations[END_REF].

Thus, the emergence of an open and collaborative culture is crucial to the development of such a network. Organisational boundaries need to be opened up to facilitate the collaboration and integration of various competences and (sometimes divergent) goals.

ServPPIN: Relational and Organisational Barriers Within a Multi-Agent Relationship Context

The typology of ServPPINs is based on the specificities of the innovation implemented. The criteria used for this typology are: the nature of the innovation (tangible/ intangible); its degree of simplicity; its origin (adoption/ production) and its planned or unplanned nature. Four types of ServPPINs are identified. These are, in increasing order of complexity: 1) simple ServPPINs set up to adopt a technology; 2) simple ServPPINs set up to produce technological innovation; 3) simple ServPPINs set up to produce non-technological innovation; 4) complex or architectural ServPPINs that engage in various types of innovation. These ServPPIN types are also related to traditional service innovation perspectives 1 : assimilative (or technologistic), demarcative (or service-oriented), and integrative, as set out in the Figure 1. It turns out that innovation dynamics within an architectural ServPPIN are the result of complex and non-complex processes of interactions between various actors having heterogeneous competences and goals (Djellal and Gallouj, 2013), whereas the various stakeholder goals influence the adoption and/or production of innovations. The complex nature of this type of ServPPIN describes the multiple forms of innovation that it includes and, consequently, the various competences and goals to be considered.

Within the integrative service innovation approach, [START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in Services[END_REF] suggested a characteristics-based model which define any product/ service as a system that combine tangible or intangible technologies and competences (belonging to the service provider and/or the service user) in order to produce service characteristics.

The characteristics-based model highlights the importance of interface and interaction among agents participating in the service relationship. Although [START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in Services[END_REF] emphasise the importance of organisational and relational competences, they do not ignore the important role of technical knowledge, which is also part of the service supply.

More recently, through the ServPPIN concept, Di Meglio (2013), Gallouj et al (2013) and [START_REF] Langergaard | Specificities of public sector service innovation[END_REF], emphasizes the importance of multiple links and feedbacks (interfaces) between public and private sector, and also with users (in our case, representatives of associations from the communities surrounding landfills) and policy makers for service innovation. As pointed out by Djellal and Gallouj (2013):

ServPPINs are multi-agent service relationship systems. The actors involved in interaction have to deal with the ill-defined nature of their respective products, their non-stockability, a diversity of systems of interaction, the multiplicity of possibly competing value systems and the fact that their products are located in different spatial and temporal scales. ServPPINs introduce the traditional research questions of service economics into network-based analyses of innovation. (Djellal and Gallouj, 2013 p. 30. highlighted by the authors).

In this manner, the ServPPIN set up to adopt/produce complex or architectural innovation fits appropriately for analyzing public service innovation, once, according to [START_REF] Bugge | The public sector in innovation systems[END_REF] and [START_REF] Bloch | Public sector innovation From theory to measurement[END_REF] the multi-faceted and heterogeneous nature of the public sector is a result of the multiple interfaces which characterize public organisations: 1) interface with the private sector; 2) interface between the public sector and citizens, and 3) internal interfaces within the public sector (between government levels and between different areas of activity).

These various interfaces, which illustrate the heterogeneity of the public sector [START_REF] Brandão | Inovação no setor público: análise da produção científica em periódicos nacionais e internacionais da área de administração[END_REF], and also the permeability between organizations (private, public, and third sector) (Gallouj et al, 2013), can be useful in understanding the logic of public service innovation.

Focusing on relational and organisational aspects to innovation in a multi-agent public service relationship context, Figure 2 provides a list of limitations/barriers. It is observed that although is tenuous the distinction between organisational and relational innovations, we decided to analyze this issue separately, as a subgroup within the organisational innovation. The organisational and relational distinction is justified through the focus of this study, emphasizing that the opportunities for innovation are strongly linked to interactions and relationships built by stakeholders related to the CDM projects.

In brief, according to Figure 2, the organisational aspects to innovation in a multi-agent context are more related to cultural and behavioural heterogeneity between public and private sectors as well as the lack of flexibility of the public sector. The relational aspects are more linked to poor relationships between the actors, with the necessity to develop competences to work in a network context, diminishing asymmetric information problems and increasing transparency, mutual trust, and common language. From the perspective of several authors, such as Fleury and Fleury (2001) and [START_REF] Zarifian | Objetivo Competência: Por uma Nova Lógica[END_REF], individual competences are essential for a service provider carries out its activities in an appropriate manner. In this manner, the relational skills are more linked to individual skills, in which individuals develop competences to act. Within this context, the service users also play an important role: presenting feedback on their needs, desires and preferences, and for that, they also need to develop specific skills [START_REF] Lima | Estudos internacionais sobre inovação no setor público: como a teoria da inovação em serviços pode contribuir?[END_REF].

The analysis of relational and organisational barriers under this context allows us to identify the competence gaps that need to be remedied in order to promote public services innovation (in this case, the municipal solid waste sector through landfill CDM projects) as shown in next section.

Empirical results: The Case of Two Brazilian Landfill CDM Projects

51 of the 330 Brazilian CDM projects are developed on landfills -23 of which are located in the State of São Paulo (UNEP RISOe, December, 2014). The landfills selected for our empirical research are the Bandeirantes and São João landfills, both located in the municipality of São Paulo, a city of great complexity in terms of the role played by local government management.

From 1979 to 2007 these landfills received almost all of the municipal solid waste collected in São Paulo -Brazil's most populous city, with around 11 million inhabitants -and the country's largest generator of municipal solid waste. In addition, 50% of CER (Certified Emission Reduction) revenues are allocated to the municipal City Hall, specifically for the Environment and Sustainable Development Fund (FEMA) which is administered by the Municipal Department for the Environment.

The data on the CDM landfill projects was obtained through documentary research in Monitoring Reports (MR) and Project Design Documents (PDD), between 2003 and 2010. The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP Risoe) database was also consulted: this provides monthly updates on CER status, generation, purchasers, and the Designated Operational Entity (DOE) responsible for CDM landfill project validation. Another data source used was the CDM registry (UNFCCC) -the online platform for CDM project registration.

Data was also collected through semi-structured interviews organised into six categories (environmental quality monitoring, gas emissions monitoring, closing of the landfill, access to CDM projects, relationships between stakeholders, and the contribution of CDM project resources to the management of solid waste). These interviews were conducted with both public and private sectors, and with service users, in the second semester of 2011.

Application of the ServPPINs framework made it possible to map and systematize the competence gaps of the stakeholders involved in the Bandeirantes and São João CDM landfill projects -and in particular, the competence gaps relating to interactions between stakeholders, making innovation feasible and improving the quality of solid waste services supply in the city of São Paulo. Using the ServPPIN concept, the analysis assists in the identification of important elements for innovation promotion in public services, and highlights the relational and organisational aspects.

It is observed that it is common practice in CDM landfill projects to have several parties involved in the landfill gas (LFG) recovery activities: concession-holders responsible for managing the landfill, for capturing LFG, Municipal Departments, and representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills. The challenge is thus to elucidate the goals of each of these, as well as the competence gaps that need to be remedied in order to promote public services innovation. According to Di Meglio (2013), collective action is essential to ensuring the adequate supply of public goods and services.

In this sense, focusing on CDM project implementation -which demands publication of the activities and civil society participation-service users also have an important role to play within the context analysed. In other words, there is a need to develop interaction between private, public and third sector organisations, aimed at restructuring the municipal solid waste sector. It will then be pertinent -given that these projects involve the interaction of different actors -to discern these aspects in the analysis of GHG reduction projects in the solid waste sector.

Characterization of the Landfills, and Identification of Stakeholder

Table 2 provides the main characteristics of Bandeirantes and São João landfills, regarding to the year of beginning landfill operation and year of landfill closure; the amount of waste received per day; the project registration date on CDM Registry; average of carbon credits (tCO 2e ) generated per year; concession-holders responsible to develop different activities regarding to landfill management and biogas recovery. Application of the ServPPIN concept to the context studied has enabled systematization of the agents identified as stakeholders involved in the Bandeirantes and São João landfill CDM projects as well as the differences in preferences between the various stakeholders involved in the development of CDM projects in landfills (Table 3). The agents are separated in: public, private and user sectors, and each agent, with their own preferences.

Table 3. Agents involved in the Bandeirantes and São João CDM landfill projects and their preferences

In the next section, we discuss the competence gaps and public service innovation opportunities emerging from the interface/interaction between the various stakeholders identified (public, private and user).

Competence Gaps and Public Service Innovation Opportunities

The analysis of the CDM landfill projects from the ServPPIN (using inter-stakeholder interface/interaction) shows that the promotion of innovation is limited by a wide range of factors (Table 4).

Interface/ Interaction between... Key points identified a)... representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills and municipal departments and private concession-holders -the need to develop a common language -the need to publicize activities related to CDM projects -the need to open up a communication channel b)... concession-holders: private concession holder managing the landfills and private concession holders responsible for LFG recovery and power generation -coordination issues between concession-holders at the landfills c)... municipal departments and representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills -problems of access to revenue from the sale of Certified Emission Reductions d)... municipal departments and private concession-holders managing the landfills -lack of communication -lack of characterization of the municipal waste -absence of empirical data on local climate and humidity conditions e)... municipal departments and the private concession holders responsible for LFG recovery and power generation -absence of local regulatory standards for fugitive gas monitoring, as well as regarding the establishment of criteria for the surface waterproofing system that enables LFG recovery -ongoing implementation of legal requirements regarding the solid waste inventory in the municipality Table 4. Limitations on inter-stakeholder interface/ interaction. Source: The authors.

These limitations are also associated with the interface/ interaction level between agents. Largely, the interactions are restricted to public audiences related to CDM projects (Figure 3). There is a need to develop competences in order to meet the above-mentioned gaps (Table 4 and Figure 3), specifically with regard to the following points: 1) understanding of complementarities between actors; 2) flexibility; 3) coordination; 4) training and 5) communication.

a) Interaction between the representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills and municipal departments and private concession-holders

Regarding the relational aspect, communication between the representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills and the other agents was identified as a core competence to be promoted. One challenge was to improve channels for the presentation of information about the objectives, and technical parameters to be met -in landfill management as well as in the development of CDM projects.

Two key points were identified as limiting and obstructing the process of innovation: lack of a common language and the need for the public sector and the private sector to publicize2 the activities related to CDM projects. In other words, the establishment of an effective communication channel with the surrounding communities is required.

Without a common language, surrounding communities may remain unaware of any possible benefits arising out of project implementation. Furthermore, the establishment of a common language can improve exposure of the different interests at stake. Publicizing activities related to CDM projects and implementing an effective communication channel would improve discussions, negotiations and disclosure to the various stakeholders via public consultations and dialogue mechanisms.

In terms of organisation, in the projects studied those competences aimed at establishing new organisational models need to be better exploited. This is particularly important for models supporting the role that civil society/service users and the third sector could play in order to promote improvements to public services. In this sense, third sector organisations can be important protagonists in ServPPINs, particularly with regard to social innovations.

b) Interaction among private concession-holders: both those managing landfills and those responsible for LFG recovery and power generation

In terms of the relational aspect, the empirical investigation highlights the importance of the development of competences aimed at improving interaction between private concessionholders in landfills: those who are responsible for managing landfill areas and those who are responsible for LFG recovery and power generation. Once again, the difficulty of organising competences for the purposes of cooperation and communication was acknowledged.

With regard to the organisational aspect, the empirical investigation identifies a gap in competences for working in a network (lack of complementary competences, lack of ability to make use of a partner's competence).

Private companies could better interact by seeking to solve everyday problems, aggregating their knowledge of events occurring in a variety of situations in landfills -for example the problems of impermeability, or of capturing biogas.

Relational performance development would also improve landfill closure processes (for example, in relation to the material used for the landfill cover layer; maintenance of the landfill plant cover; damage to the biogas drains caused by the pruning of vegetation; cases of breakdowns to the LFG recovery system). In addition, other CDM projects in this sector may benefit from the replication of these learning processes.

c) Interaction among municipal departments and representatives of associations from the communities surrounding the landfills

With regard to the relational aspect, the communication issue was once again identified as a core competence to be promoted. It is thus necessary to develop the competences of the associations (from the communities surrounding the landfills) to discuss technical indicators about landfill operation and closure plans, as well as other alternatives for final disposal of waste. There is a need on the part of technicians at the municipal departments to ensure that data communicated about CDM projects can be easily understood by the communities surrounding the landfills.

With regard to the organisational aspect, it should be noted that access to CER resources occurs through public tenders. However, sub-districts need to develop competences in order to be able to publicize good quality projects and thus access revenue from the sale of carbon credits.

Monitoring and management of budgetary compliance with the Special Fund for the Environment and Sustainable Development (FEMA) (the Municipal Fund of the Municipal Secretariat for the Environment, which receives the CER revenues) requires the development of competences for financial management of these revenues, as well as staff training aimed at improving management of these various revenue streams.

The São Paulo Municipal Annual Accounting Reports confirm that FEMA's 2008 and 2009 revenues from the carbon credits of the Bandeirantes and São João CDM landfills projects were applied in programmes and projects. However, according to the data analysed, it was observed that only a small amount of the resources from the auctions of the Bandeirantes and São João projects was employed, as a proportion of the updated budget (24.21% in 2008 and 12% in 2009).

In addition, the need to develop competences was noted, with a view to developing actions directed at environmental education and the inclusion of informal rubbish collection linked to landfill CDM projects, so as to provide opportunities for improving the services linked to landfill operations.

d) Interaction between municipal departments and the private concession-holders managing landfills

With regard to the relational aspect, the investigation highlights the feedback gap among the actors involved; a serious lack of communication was identified. It is fundamental that clear communication channels be established between private and municipal organisations working on CDM projects.

One practical example is the issue of fugitive gas emission and gas monitoring. If technical personnel, within both public and private sectors, were to enjoy more effective communication, sharing and communicating sampling results, the control of fugitive gas emissions could be improved, increasing the efficiency of the gas capture system.

The lack of empirical data relating to the characterization of municipal waste also harms development of landfill GHG emission reduction projects, since this diagnosis allows the recognition of types of materials contained in the waste, facilitating a realistic estimate of the amount of LFG to be generated. This means that the project proponents avoid being surprised by outlined values of CER generation that are too different from those calculated at the phase of project design.

Residues characterization could also provide a diagnosis that would support a recycling market analysis seeking to understand the actual levels of demand and supply in terms of materials. This would contribute to an increase in the useful life of landfills.

With regard to the organisational aspect, the gap linked to networking competences is highlighted. This is likely to result from the (behavioural/ cultural) heterogeneity of the public and private sectors. More open organisational boundaries are therefore necessary in order to facilitate collaboration as well as the integration of various competences and goals.

e) Interaction between municipal departments and the private concession-holders responsible for LFG recovery and power generation

Once again, with regard to the relational aspect, the investigation identifies a feedback gap among the actors involved, especially concerning the lack of data characterization of municipal waste. Characterization data should describe the type and quantity of municipal waste generated locally, defining the amount of organic waste produced, thus facilitating a realistic estimate of the amount of LFG to be generated. The availability of such data could better align the methodology to the reality of the landfill, making calculations more precise.

Data offered by the IPCC (1996 and[START_REF] Rubalcaba | Which policy for innovation in services?[END_REF]) is generally used. The difficulty is that this information is based on average values for medium and low-income economies, which may be inconclusive and merely extrapolated to arrive at average values for a country of continental dimension, such as Brazil.

Regarding the organisational aspect, besides the networking competences gap, a further gap is highlighted relating to the absence of local regulatory standards for fugitive gas monitoring. The concession-holders apply the standard developed by the EPA (Environmental Protection Agency) even though this is not designed for local conditions in Brazilian landfills. The development of competences based on the establishment of a standard suited to local conditions would improve the efficiency of the biogas capture system.

Conclusion

The Public-Private Innovation Network in Services (ServPPINs) can be useful in establishing new approaches to public, private and user interactions, based on the identification of competences and preferences, existent or to be developed. The analysis of the Clean Development Mechanism (CDM) landfill projects studied using the ServPPINs perspective (i.e. through interface/interaction between stakeholders) shows that a wide range of factors limits and affects the promotion of innovation -mainly in terms of relational and organisational aspects, highlighting the lack of involvement of citizens/service users and the lack of synergy between public and private sectors.

There is need to develop competences in order to meet the above-mentioned gaps, generally with regard to the following points: 1) understanding of complementarities between actors; 2) flexibility; 3) coordination; 4) training and 5) communication.

Although CDM landfill projects are implemented with the purpose of reducing GHG emission, rather than with the explicit goal of promoting service innovation in the project host countries, technology and innovation issues are aspects of local co-benefits generation, which have to be managed.

ServPPINs are useful insofar as they provide a theoretical framework for addressing contexts that are marked by multiple agents, and the role of competences and goals in promoting public services innovation.

The carbon market's potential for promoting improvements in municipal solid waste management by using CDM projects in landfill sites and resources from certified emission reductions need to be better understood.

Both public and private proponents must interact and plan how the Bandeirantes and São João CDM projects can be turned into an effective tool for local sustainable developmenttaking into account the surrounding communities' participation. The public sector could have a prominent coordinating role in this sense, favouring the promotion of improvements to services.

Opportunities for innovation relating to the final disposal of solid waste in the Bandeirantes and São João landfills are associated with the establishment of a new organisational structure, guided by the inclusion and participation of the various stakeholders identified in the research -who are already engaged in implementation of the CDM projects.

Innovation is dependent on the development of new competences by service providers and service users. These competences will mainly arise out of changes in interactions between these agents (public, private, and citizen) in the relational and organisational aspects. Such innovations will also arise out of changes in the environmental aspect, since in addition to monitoring of the technical parameters required for general operation of landfill sites in landfills which implement CDM projects -auditing is also carried out by the Designated Operational Entities (DOE), which are responsible for validation of these projects.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. ServPPINs types related to service innovation approaches and goals.Source: Data based onDjellal and Gallouj (2013).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Barriers to innovation in public services in a multi-agent public service relationship context. Source: The authors, based on Di Meglio (2013); Djellal et al (2013); Gallouj et al (2013); Weber and Heller-Schuh (2013); Windrum and García-Goñi (2008).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Interface/ interaction level between agents. Source: The authors.

Table 1 . Main differences: Innovation Network (IN) and ServPPIN

 1

	innovations (technological)	Visible (technological) and Invisible (technological and non-technological) innovations
	Simple innovation	Simple innovation	and	complex
	Predictable innovation	Predictable unpredictable innovation	and

Table 2 . Characterization of the Bandeirantes and São João Landfills

 2

Source: The authors, based on PMSP (2012); UNFCCC (2005a); UNFCCC (2005b) *this data is based on the preliminary modelled/ projected emission reductions from the PDD.

The São Paulo Municipal Accounting AnnualReports (2008 and[START_REF] Langergaard | Specificities of public sector service innovation[END_REF] shows that no plan was published showing how revenue would be employed -which relates to the disclosure of plans, programmes and projects developed with the resources of the Environment and Sustainable Development Fund (FEMA) which is administered by the Municipal Department for the Environment Fund that receives 50% of the CER (certified emission reduction) revenue deriving from these projects.


HAL is

Introduction

Faïz Gallouj, Marja Toivonen

To cite this version: marja.toivonen@vtt.fi Contemporary economies are inescapably service economies, innovation economies and sustainable development economies. First, for several decades now, the tertiary sector has been the main source of wealth and job creation in all developed countries, and emerging economies provide another example of what can be called the Fisher-Clark-Fourastié law, reflecting a sectoral shift of the workforce from the primary to the secondary and then to the tertiary sector. Second, innovation and knowledge are considered the main drivers of socioeconomic progress. While this argument is not new, the magnitude and rapidity of innovation and cognitive dynamics are greater than ever. This is the reason why modern economies are often labelled permanent innovation economies or knowledge economies. Finally, these economies are, or aspire to be, sustainable development economies, and green economies in particular. Thus, environmental issues are no longer considered only militant and utopian concepts but are now a major part of socio-economic and political discourses.

The articles included in this issue of the Journal of Inspiration Economy are devoted (independently or in an interlinked way) to these three themes which have obvious relationships with the inspiration issue: i) services and particularly cultural and creative services, ii) innovation and entrepreneurship in their various forms (technological and nontechnological innovation, business and social entrepreneurship) and iii) sustainable development, particularly in its environmental dimension.

The first four articles of the issue are drawn from presentations made at the 24th annual Conference of RESER, the European Association for Research on Services. This 24th edition of the conference coordinated by VTT (Aalto University) under the responsibility of Marja Toivonen is original in two respects. First, beyond the usual focus on business services and particularly on Knowledge Intensive Business Services (KIBS), the conference is also interested in special services hitherto neglected (at least within the RESER community): cultural and creative services. Then, another opening is made towards geographical areas underexplored from the perspective of service activities: emerging and developing countries such as Brazil, China or Syria.

The first paper by Bao Sen and Marja Toivonen is devoted to the cultural and creative industries in China. These activities are rarely addressed in the field of service economics to which they nevertheless often belong. They are sometimes analysed as part of innovation economics. Anyway, they are now recognized as important factors for economic growth and innovation and they are therefore taken seriously by public authorities, that implement supportive policies in their favour. The article analyses how the development of these activities is faced with Chinese national characteristics: centralized power, piracy, some creativity hampering dimensions of Confucianism defined as a philosophy promoting collective goods to the detriment of individual initiative.

The second article by Pedro Costa, Margarida Perestrelo and Giles Teixeira adopts a more microeconomic perspective. Its goal is to map visitors' experiences and their visiting styles in order to reinforce museum offers. The article distinguishes four main types of cultural experiences: (i) intellectual, (ii) emotional, (iii) social and (iv) recreational. On the basis of an empirical investigation conducted in two Lisbon's museums, it analyses how these visitors' experiences and these behavioural types occur in different situations (types of audience categories): permanent collections, temporary exhibitions, other events. Thus the article identifies the main determining factors of the cultural behaviour such as socio-demographic categories (age, gender, professional status, nationality, place of residence, other cultural practices, etc.) and cultural habits (visits to other cultural facilities and events). It also derives from it a certain number of recommendations for business management and public policy.

As suggested by its title, the article by Noama Abbas and Véronique Cova is dedicated to the relationship between acculturation and customer perception of the physical environment of the service. The assumption is that there are significant differences in perceptions of the physical environment according to the degree of acculturation of customers. This hypothesis is tested in the case of a palace renovated and transformed into a restaurant in the old city of Damascus, Syria. The empirical investigation includes interviews with five different types of customers which illustrate different levels of acculturation: i) Syrian living in Syria, ii) expatriates (Syrian residing in France), iii) non-natives (Syrians of the second and third generation living in France) iv) foreigners (French living in Syria) and v) tourists (French residing outside Syria).

Culture is also at the heart of Cristina Castro-Lucas, Eda Castro Lucas de Souza and Fernanda Nogueira's article. Dedicated to Brazilian firms, this article examines how culture influences entrepreneurial and innovation skills. The cultural variables are expressed by the following dimensions: individualism/collectivism and verticalism/horizontalism. The analysis shows that the cultural form " horizontalism and collectivism " (in which individuals perceive the group as the source of their identity and have little confidence in their authority) is positively correlated with entrepreneurial and innovative attitudes.

The following three articles (contributions by Moreira and Raupp, Cruz et al., and Naji et al.) have in common their dual focus on the sustainable development issue and that of the innovation and knowledge economy.

Marina Moreira and Eduardo Raupp's contribution is devoted to « reuse practices » in software services. These practices consist in reusing existing modules and solutions with a view to reducing costs and time and more generally seeking for sustainable development. On the basis of the theory of innovation in services (characteristics based approach ) and on a thorough survey of Brazilian firms, the article shows how these reuse practices can also lead to service innovation within the general framework of the so-called recombinative innovation model.

The article by Silvia Cruz, Sônia Paulino and Faïz Gallouj also addresses the question of service innovation in Brazil, in a sustainable development perspective. However it is local public services that are concerned this time. At the theoretical level, the paper is based on a new version of the innovation network concept developed within the ServPPIN project in order to account for innovation dynamics based on partnerships between service firms, non market organisations (public, semi-public and third sector organisations) and citizens. This new concept of Public Private Innovation Network in services (ServPPINs) is mobilized to analyse innovation collaborations in the municipal solid waste treatment industry (landfills in the municipality of São Paulo) in the context of the implementation of the so-called Clean Development Mechanism (CDM). The paper identifies the organisational and relational competence gaps that are likely to hamper innovation in the service sector in question.

Education at all levels is clearly an essential lever for sustainable development. The article by Majda Naji, Phil Smith, Ana Vovk Korže, Nada Trunk Širca and Valerij Dermol analyses the role played in this field by higher education institutions (i.e. universities and colleges of higher education) through their research and teaching functions. This article focuses on the active strategies engaged to design curricula specifically devoted to « education for sustainable development ». It presents and discusses, in a benchmarking perspective, a set of experiments and good practices carried out in Slovenia.

The last contribution of this issue falls within the scope of the heading « expert point of view note ». It is devoted to the history of benchmarking and its role in inspiration. Within this note, Robin Mann, Head of COER and Chairman of the Global Benchmarking Network reviews the history of benchmarking and thoroughly analyses how it contributes to inspire individuals and organizations in order to meet as closely as possible social needs. This note also provides a prospective analysis of the relationship between benchmarking and inspiration.

Faïz

  Gallouj, Marja Toivonen. Introduction. Journal of Inspiration Economy, 2015, 2 (2), pp.7


Faïz Gallouj
email: faiz.gallouj@univ-lille1.fr

"Inspiration Economy": A New Journal

Introduction

It is always good to present something that has only just come into being, which is why it is such a pleasure to be inaugurating the first edition of the Journal of Inspiration Economy. In this foreword, our objective is to outline the general reasons underlying the creation of this review, as well as the objectives assigned to it. The founding hypothesis is that contemporary economies have reached a new stage in evolution such that we are in need for more inspiration in our socioeconomic practices.

Inspiration: from art and religion to business

Inspiration is a complex phenomenon that is difficult to define. It describes a particular psychological dynamic, a fortuitous creative whisper, which is said to give rise, in blossoming, to satisfaction, joy and a feeling of being comforted. It is an ancient notion originally associated with the sacred and religious, as well as with artistic or literary creation. Etymologically speaking, the term 'inspiration' is rooted in the Latin 'in spiritum' -which literally means 'having the Spirit (that is, God) within you'. We should also bear in mind that, in Ancient Greece, artists were meant to be inspired by the Muses, daughters of Zeus and Mnemosyne.

The sacred, non-rational dimension of inspiration would not, a priori, be conducive to this notion of conquering the business and management field. Although it clearly does not fall into the scope of substantial calculatory rationality, neither does it fit with procedural rationality, unlike intuition -which -in the managerial field in particular, is sometimes (though wrongly) considered a synonym. Yet inspiration, as a creative force, is propagated through economic activity. This propagation is not surprising for those economic activities closest to artistic activity (the whole creative activities field) or those which share with the religious activities -if not a moral aspiration, at the very least an ethical and civic onealongside a preoccupation or empathy for one's neighbour (public services, care services, etc.). However, this propagation goes well beyond: indeed it is universal (pervasive). Increasingly, all economic activity is affected. As the notion of inspiration shifts away from the artistic and religious sphere, and toward the economic sphere, we note that its transcendental nature is coupled with a relational one. In this way, the external environment is also commonly designated as a source of inspiration.

A working general definition of inspiration might be: "the process that lets humans (re-)discover their potentials, in interaction with others, so as to trigger their learning, creativity, innovation, competitiveness and welfare, for their own benefit as well as for the benefit of their community, organisation/firm, or the world " [START_REF] Buheji | Notes on Journal of Inspiration Economy Editorial team deep dialogue and minutes of meetings[END_REF].

Towards an inspiration economy

Economic and managerial literature has multiplied the labels we use to designate contemporary economies. Examples we might mention include: information economy, knowledge economy, intangible economy, permanent innovation economy, quality economy, experience economy, access economy, new economy, net-economy, services economy, transformative economy, etc. These labels, each of which refers back to a more or less solid and/or influential theoretical corpus, describe the facets of a single reality, namely: the third industrial revolution, founded on information technologies. Inspiration is a further facet, now fully emerging out of this reality, a facet that some have no hesitation in considering the premise for a fourth industrial revolution. Thus, contemporary economies are economies in which inspiration is playing an increasingly important role. These are inspiration economies. Such an observation fully justifies the creation of a journal devoted to the analysis of their dynamics. However, inspiration is not just another facet of contemporary economies. Its effects come earlier (upstream). It constitutes an essential springboard which contributes to triggering other facets -whether in terms of innovation, knowledge, experience, service, insights, mindset and paradigm shift or other aspects. In an inspiration economy, inspiration is not an end in itself, but rather the helm which allows a course to be set towards an end (for example, the production of an innovative service, the consumption of goods whose production is not harmful to the environment, or the development of inclusive technologies).

The inspiration economy is an economy of relations (or interactions) and meaning. The rising importance of an "everything is service" logic supports this interactive or relational dimension of the inspiration economy. As for the search for meaning, this is implicitly present in the paradigm of the experience economy (Pine and Gilmore, 1999), which considers consumers to be no longer in search of consuming goods or services but rather of having an enriching experience (one which is meaningful, involving engagement, an experience which transforms the consumer). Therefore one can consider inspiration economy as "a collective effort of how we rediscover inspiration and how we manage it towards better economy" [START_REF] Buheji | Notes on Journal of Inspiration Economy Editorial team deep dialogue and minutes of meetings[END_REF].

The inspiration economy can be seen as an economy of relations at various analytical levels: individual, company, city-wide, regional, or national (cf. the following point). It is an economy that would enhance our societies contribution by re-discovering our potentials, thus helping even the less fortunate individuals or communities overcoming their limitations.

These various agents are linked by reciprocal inspiration relations. Thus, even as they are competitors, producers inspire one another, consumers inspire producers and vice-versa, and consumers are invited to co-produce and co-create. Regions and nations inspire one another in the same way. Even disciplines would be aligned to exchange practices more openly.

The relational dimension of the inspiration economy may manifest itself horizontally, or vertically. In this second case, inspiration can work top-down, or bottom-up. For example, in terms of innovation, the bottom of the pyramid can inspire the tip. This is the approach known as 'Bottom of the Pyramid' (BoP): it is brilliantly illustrated by the works and experiences of Nobel Peace Prize winning Muhammad Yunus (micro-credit), as well as those of C.K. Pralahad (2006). This BoP approach underlies frugal innovations (Jugaad innovation), that is, simple innovation (technological or not), produced at low cost, yet having considerable social repercussions and impacts. It is noteworthy that BoP and frugal innovations (as well as green / social innovations more generally) born in developing countries can be sources of inspiration for developed countries. This is particularly true of micro-finance, which has spread through developing countries in the wake of the economic crisis.

It is this relational dimension of inspiration that we find in well-known economic phenomena such as, for example, spillovers, open innovation, networks and innovation systems. Spillovers are the spin-offs of what others inspire in us. These come to light, for example, in job rotation, or open innovation situations, that is, where there is co-operation, reciprocal inspiration between multiple actors to produce innovation. Innovation alliances, partnerships, systems and networks are just specific modalities for setting up an open innovation model.

As an economy of meaning, the inspiration economy goes one step beyond the experience economy, which, as we have already stressed, postulates that a consumer consumes an experience, rather than a given item or service. The postulate of the inspiration economy is that consumers only consume (and producers only produce) what inspires them -in other words, what is meaningful to them. So it is no longer just a matter of product quantity (goods or services or a goods-services systems) or product quality which counts, but the end result (aesthetic, ethical, social) of production and consumption. The inspiration economy calls both consumerism and productivism into question. We are seeking to maximise neither consumption or production; rather, we are asking questions about the meaning of our consumption (production) and the consequences of our consumptions (productions) on ourselves, on others and on our environment. It is a different mindset approach. We are also asking questions about our work, and its meaning, with a desire to raise our aspirations. In an inspired economy, this quest for meaning is at the heart of sustainable development issues in their various facets: economic, environmental, and social. As a facet of the inspiration economy, the environment economy is concerned with the preservation of our physical environment, whereas the care economy, in contrast to the traditional economic rationality (individualistic and optimizing) is one that is focused on others rather than on the self, an economy that's concerned with the well-being of others, through a rediscovery of the virtues of altruism, trust and empathy with the problems of others.

This twin dimension of the inspiration economy raises several issues:

-First and foremost, we note that the quest for meaning can lead to a quest for connection. A product consumed by a given actor may be meaningful only because it creates connections (social relationships). This is what can lead a consumer to choose the local market, rather than the supermarket.

-This quest for meaning and connection comes together in the emergence and development of what we have termed Public Private Innovation Networks in Services (ServPPINs) [START_REF] Gallouj | Public Private Innovation Networks in Services[END_REF]. Indeed, ServPPINs describe collaborations between public and private service organisations within the innovation field. These differ from traditional innovation networks in several ways. Firstly, relations between the public actors, the third sector (non-profit associations and NGOs) and private actors are positioned at the centre of the analysis. Next, service providers (often from the third sector) are the principal actors in this. Finally, non-technological innovation (service innovation and social innovation), often neglected in the literature, are taken into account here.

-From these two perspectives, the inspiration economy calls for new tools with which to measure wealth. This can no longer be evaluated simply in terms of quantities produced and monetary values, but must now also include alternative wealth indicators which take into account intangible values, which reflect an economy's degree of inspiration: not just its Gross Domestic Product, but in a way, its Gross National Happiness [START_REF] Gadrey | Croissance et productivité: des indicateurs en crise larvée[END_REF][START_REF] Stiglitz | Report of the commission on the measurement of economic performance et social progress[END_REF].

All in all, we could say that contemporary economies are (or will increasingly be) governed by a truly universal law of inspiration, which is somewhat reminiscent of the universal law of imitation put forward by a precursor of Joseph Schumpeter, French thinker Gabriel Tarde (1890).

A generalist, multidisciplinary journal

Bearing in mind the above remarks, it would be a mistake to believe that the JIE is aimed at a thematic niche. On the contrary, it is a generalist journal covering a broad thematic spectrum: innovation, creativity, knowledge, services, leadership, sustainable development, etc; whom are presented in table (1) below for a more detailed (though not exhaustive) list. However, we cannot help but recognise that certain themes give rise to relations more quickly than others, with the inspiration issue or in relevance to reviving economies. This is true, for example, of innovation and sustainability problems. Similarly, given the origin of the concept (art, the sacred, religion), and its psychological nature, the notion of inspiration, applied to the various thematic fields mentioned above, calls for a multidisciplinary approach. This is why the JIE seeks to become a resolutely multidisciplinary journal. Inspiration is also at the heart of inter-Humanities and Social Sciences relations. In this way, the economic paradigm (founded on homo oeconomicus) has successfully inspired many fields such as politics (cf. public choice) and history (new economic history) -to the extent that we have been able to talk about a veritable imperialism of economics. However, to limit ourselves to a single example, economics was itself inspired by psychology, in order, for example, to develop what we refer to as 'behavioural economics'.

Different levels of analysis of the inspiration economy

As we have emphasised above, the notion of inspiration originally applied to the individual (transcendental dimension). Yet inspiration is not a closed, inward-looking attitude -it is about being open to others and to one's environment. We are inspired, and we inspire others.

The management sciences have made these individual and micro-economic levels their own in many interesting fields: for example, inspirational leadership, coaching, benchmarking, etc. Unlike transactional leadership (founded on hierarchy and constraint, the rewardpunishment regime), inspirational or transformational leadership inspires, motivates, is more about making people want to achieve than imposing targets upon them, offering a model to be followed. Generally, we consider such leadership to have a more positive effect on the performance of followers than does transactional leadership. Coaching is a methodology whose objective is to unbridle people's capacity for inspiration, in such a way as to allow them to reach deep inside themselves, the better to ground their relation to others. Benchmarking is a method which allows people to draw inspiration from best practice. Management clearly stands to gain from the laws of inspiration-however we could also ask whether inspiration might not also generate certain undesired effects: the risks of cognitive lock-in, autocratic drift, or mystical illusion, for example. If the inspiration economy is, as we have stated, an economy of relations, then we might well ask: what is the optimal degree of openness favourable to inspiration, and does inspiration increase with the degree of openness to others? Does it fall off once it has reached a certain threshold? In other words, should we be multiplying openings to others in order to be inspired (extensive conception of inspiration) or reducing the amount of openings in order to make them deeper (intensive conception)?

As we have already stressed, inspiration is not just an individual phenomenon. It can exist at other analytical levels: collective, city, regional, national, and so on. Thus, of the five cities or worlds of [START_REF] Boltanski | De la justification. Les économies de la grandeur[END_REF] (who describe the forms of agreement, different social objects and different modes of conflict/controversy resolution), one city is described as inspired. The 'inspired city' is defined by the following characteristics: Its key values are inspiration, creation, imagination, and interiority. The characteristics it values are: the unexpected, passion, the marvellous, spontaneity, and emotion. Those it shuns are: habit, external signs and realism. The subjects it values most highly are the artist, the child, the fairy, the fool, the genius, and the visionary. Its model tests are creation from scratch, the interior adventure, and spiritual wanderlust.

Certain nations are more inspired than others. This is truer of certain historical eras than others (for example, the France of revolutionary times). Certain nations are sources of inspiration for others. This is often true of developing countries, which seek to take inspiration from developed economies.

Regarding the analytical levels of the law of inspiration, an important question which arises is the question of the shift from individual to the next level, from micro to macro, in other words: how do individual inspirations come together to result in a meso/macro-economic, or macro-social, state of inspiration? This question is addressed in the same terms as the familiar one about the shift from individual to collective or organisational learning. Indeed, organisational learning exists only in so far as it cannot be reduced to the sum of individual learning. Similarly collective inspiration (i.e. inspiration of a group, a community, a company, a town, a region, or a nation) is different from the sum of the inspirations of the individuals or entities that make it up. In this way, it is probable that established institutions play an essential role in the logics of inspiration at national, regional and/or international levels.

Finally, this very first issue of JIE is composed of a wide variety of contributions, reflecting the importance and diversity of inspiration practices and methodologies in various fields and in different regions and countries of the world (Ireland, Bahrain, New Zealand, Finland, UK and France). The issue starts with a paper entitled "why inspiration matters?", which, in a certain way, outlines the main missions of the journal. The next papers reflect different moves towards inspiration economy within different service areas such as education, healthcare, communication, leadership, e-government, project management and benchmarking. Together with the JIE editorial board, I hope this issue would encourage more authors and readers to be part of the inspiration driven community and I look forward to their scientific contribution to JIE.

Table (

 (

	1) List of thematic fields for JIE
	• Economy Inspiration	• Society Co-existence	• Healthcare Improvement
	• Inspiration Economy	• Social Integration	• Healthcare Leadership
	• Society Inspiration	• Disruptive innovation	• Healthcare Management
	• Organizational Learning	• Accelerated learning	• Technology inspiration
	• Organizational Innovation	• Business of	• Technological excellence
	• Organizational	Inspiration	• Electronic entrepreneurship
	Competitiveness	• Service economy	• Technological innovative
	• Organizational Excellence	• Experience economy	diffusion
	• Organizational Knowledge Management • Knowledge Economy • Learning Economy • Innovation Economy • Social Engineering	• Social innovation • Alternative welfare indicators • Sustainable development • Healthcare Inspiration	• Inclusive technology • Technology Competitiveness • Government Inspiration • Society Development • Entrepreneurship Spirit
		• Healthcare Innovation	• Organizational Psychology
		• Healthcare Quality