The Contribution of Philip's Commentary on Job to the History of the Text of the Book of Job: Outline of a Study EABS Conference -6th July 2022 Marie Frey Rébeillé-Borgella First of all, I would like to thank the research unit chairs for having accepted this paper.

It will focus on a Latin commentary on the book of Job written by Philip, a disciple of Jerome, and on the two ways in which the studying of this commentary can make a contribution to the history of the text of the book of Job. The first way, which will be the main part of my paper, will deal with the contribution to the textual criticism of the Latin translation Jerome has made of the book of Job, on the Hebrew text. It will also deal with the diffusion of Philip's readings of this translation. Some authors, as well late-Antiquity as mediaeval authors, are using readings that are not known in the manuscripts that editors have used when editing the critical text of the Vulgate, or that, on the basis of the critical editions of the Vulgate, can be thought to be specific to a state of the text in a particular century where as they have been actually used and quoted at other times. I won't go as in-depth in presenting the second way in which Philip's commentary could make a contribution to biblical textual criticism. However, if I have some time left, I will expose readings specific to Philip that let me think Philip may have had under his eyes other versions of the book of Job than the Hebrew, Greek and Latin ones that we currently know.

Philip's commentary and its manuscripts

To begin with, some words on Philip and his commentary. Philip is known through his commentary, although manuscripts are sometimes misattributing the commentary, and through Gennadus of Massilia, who devoted a note to him in a section of his De uiris illustribus on illustrious men of Provence, in South France. On Philip, we don't know anything more than what Gennadius said: he was Jerome's "optimus auditor", "best disciple", and he died in 455-456. When he wrote his commentary is actually uncertain. The commentary is dedicated to Nectari pater beatissime, but who was Nectarius remains a disputed question. It was either between 390 and 397, either between 439-455.

What is much more important for today's paper is the textual tradition of Philip's commentary. Philip's commentary has a Clavis Patrorum Latinorum number, CPL 643. However, he had not been included in its time into Migne's Patrologia Latina. Migne's Patrologia has included an 9 th century-abredged version of the commentary, which Clavis number is CPL 757, which I will not address today. There are three manuscripts of this epitome.

Much more manuscripts of the commentary are currently known. There are indeed thirteen of them, some of which are very fragmentary, plus an edition published in 1527 by Johannes Sichard on the basis of a now lost manuscript to which Sichard has said to have got access through the abbot of Fulda. There is still no critical edition of the work, and I am currently working on one. Through this work, I have been to distinguish between what I believe to be three manuscripts families.

One of the family survives, as far as I know, in only one manuscript: Oxford, Bodleian Library, Bodl. 426 [SC 2327], ninth century, f. 1-118v, England, only Books I and II. When the two other families have divergent readings, Oxford is the manuscript with whom we can decide on which should be considered as the original reading. Therefore, the current paper is taking its examples in books I and II of the commentary, that is in books 1 to 31 of the book of Job.

Another family includes the following:

 Cambrai, Bibliothèque Municipale, 470, eighth century, ff. 205, which is complete and comes from England.  The manuscript that Sichard copied, whose date and place of copying are unknown, provided that Sichard didn't altered the readings of this very manuscripts while copying it.

A third family is represented in the following manuscripts:  The Hague, Huis van het boek (olim Museum Meermanno-Westreenianum), 10 A 1, ff. 1-41, 44-199, first half of the eighth century, originally from Tours, that contains the three books, except for a short excerpt missing  Fragments that are Berne, Burgerbibliothek, 99, ninth-century, ff. 1-8, f. 170-171, fragments most likely from Western France  Vatican City, Biblioteca Apostolica Vaticana, Reg. lat. 111, second half of the ninth century, ff. l-99v, West France, which lacks the end of Book III, from the middle of chapter 40 to the end of chapter 42  Troyes, Médiathèque Jacques-Chirac (olim Bibliothèque Municipale), 552, second half of the ninth century, ff. l-88v, + Paris, BNF, Lat. 1764, ff. 9-10, whose origin is uncertain and in which the first eight chapters of Book I and part of the ninth chapter are missing. What is quite interesting with Philip's manuscripts is that the biblical text has NOT been harmonized. There is therefore critical editing work to do with the lemmas and all the biblical material used by Philip.

Philip's commentary and textual criticism of the Latin Bible I am beginning with Philip and Jerome's translation iuxta emendationem Graecam, as said in the title of the preface Jerome himself gave to the translation, with which I will deal very quickly. This translation has conveyed by three manuscripts:

 Tours Bibliothèque Municipale 18 = La μ  Oxford Auct. E infra 2 (Bodl 2426) = La β  Sankt Gallen 11 = La γ
This translation has been used by Augustine in the lemmas he has commented on in his Adnotationes in Iob.

There is no complete edition currently available. In 1893, C. P. Caspari published Das Buch Hiob 1,1-38,16 in Hieronymus's Uebersetzung Aus Der Alexandrinischen Version. There have also been two thesis dissertations: J.H. Gailey, Jerome's Latin Version of Job from the Greek. 1-26, Princeton 1948 , and P. J. Erbes, Die Iob-Übersetzungen des hl. Hieronymus, Freiburg-im-Brisgau 1950.

As Philip has often resorted to comparison between the two Latin translations, there are many quotations from this translation. I have listed a few ones. None of these examples have been used by Philip as lemmas. All are used for textual comparisons, often preceded sentences such as: sic (or ut) dixerunt alii interpretes / sic (or ut) habet alia editio.

Here Caspari's edition was a printing of La γ with a critical apparatus filled with readings from La μ La β and Augustine (named A). For the above examples, La γ and Philip's readings are the same:

[6:7] uideo escas meas sicut est odor leonis (in agreement with La μ , while La β has uideo carnes)

[13:27] posuisti in conpede pedem meum (La μ and La β have conposuisti)

[27:6] nec enim conscius sum mihi iniquum quid commisisse (in agreement with La μ , while La β has iniquid cŏmisse)

It also happens that Philip is using readings common to La μ , La β and Augustine, that La γ doesn't have. Here are a few examples:

[3:17] ibi impii deposuerunt furorem suum
The reading in La γ is posuerunt, while La μ and La β both have the reading deposuerunt, as does Augustine.

[6:22] numquid aliquid uos petii, aut fortitudine uestra indigeo

The reading in La γ is petit, while La μ and La β both have the reading deposuerunt, as does Augustine.

[9:32] non est etenim homo sicut et ego, cui contradicam, ut ueniamus pariter ad iudicium La γ is the only manuscript whose reading is contradicat, while the two other manuscripts, Augustine and Philip have the reading contradicam.

I could provide with many other examples of this situation, where there are discrepancies between Philip's and La γ readings.

Philip's commentary on Job is also interesting as it has provided with readings with which Caspari didn't met during his edition.

[15:27] incrassata ceruice scuti sui Sichard, p. 61: Augustine, La μ and La γ 's reading is in crassa ceruice scuti sui. (La β 's one is nearly the same, with scutis.)

[18:19] non erit cognoscibilis in populo suo La γ has non cognoscibilis in populo suo, while La β , La μ and Augustine have non sit cognoscibilis.

[19:27] haec omnia mihi consumata sunt in sinu La γ , La β , La μ and Augustine : omnia mihi (no critical apparatus) While theses reading from Philip are currently unparalleled, there are nonetheless interesting as they are the proof that there was some state of the text that didn't survive in the manuscripts of the translation iuxta Graecum we have kept.

From all of this, one can suggest that, if a critical edition of Jerome's translation were to be made, it would be legitimate for the editors to consider whether Philip's text should be used to decide between alternate readings, especially when Philip and Augustine's readings are in agreement against some of the three manuscripts.

When it comes to Philip's readings of Jerome's translation of the book of Job iuxta Hebraeos, these readings are, of course, often to be found in Vulgate manuscripts or in late-Antiquity or Middle Ages authors. Philip's commentary has been widely used by the Benedictine monks of Saint Jerome who worked on a critical edition of the Vulgate. The lemmas of his commentary have been of great help when it came to reconstructing the text of the archetype -if there has ever been an archetype. Here is one, amongst many.

[16:16] saccum consui super cutum meam et opere cinere cornu meum None of the Vulgate manuscripts used by the monks for their work convey cornu meum. However, some similar lessons are conveyed by some of them : corpus meum K (Köln, Dombibliothek 43, 8 th century) carnem meam L (Vatican City, Vat. Palat. Lat. 24, 7 th -8 th century), A (Amiatinus, Firenze, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana Amiatino 1, 7 th -8 th century), Λ L (León, Real Colegiata de San Isidoro 2, 10 th century) As all of Philip's manuscripts convey cornu meum, and as it is consistent with the Hebrew text, the Benedictine editors of the Vulgate assumed that Philip's text may have been the archetypal one.

Another case is when Philip's text is often in agreement with readings that can be found in the critical apparatus of the Benedictine Vulgate. Therefore, Philip's text may reflect a state of the text whose diffusion and use were wide in the Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages, but which was neither a majority nor a marginal state of the text.

There are also a few cases when Philip's readings are known by the monks of St Jerome whereas they are not attributed to Philip in the Benedictine Vulgate apparatus:

[22:11] impetu aquarum inundantium non oppressum iri (vs oppressurum BV) Alcuinian manuscripts have it, as do the Corbeiensis (E = Paris BNF Lat. 11533) and most of 9 th manuscripts. This reading is unparalleled in Latin authors.

But there are also cases in which Philip's reading, which is not found in any manuscript used for the critical edition of the Benedictine Vulgate, is not included in the critical apparatus of the BV, whereas Philip has used it and it is not unique to him.

[31:16] si negabam quod uolebant pauperibus (negaui BV) Bernard of Clairvaux is using the reading si negabam his Sermones super Cantica, XII, 3, 1, as per the Sancti Bernardi opera, J. Leclercq, C.H. Talbot et H.M. Rochais (edd.) [1957][1958] One of the main questions to deal with when addressing the parallels for Philip's readings is: are there are some authors whose works have more than others parallels with Philip's readings, especially when Philip's readings have no cowitnesses in Vulgate manuscripts? Among them, there are the pelagianist bishop of Eclanum, Julian, and the pope Gregory the Great.

The 5 th -century commentary by Julian, the pelagianist bishop of Eclanum, is, like Philip's one, a lemmatic commentary. It may have written a little before Philip's commentary, or after. Julian has some readings similar to Philip. As an example, he has commented this one, who is also found in commentaries on Job by Gregory the Great, Bruno of Segni (12 th century) Denis the Carthusian (15 th century): While the Benedictine Vulgate has edited in terra, some Vulgate manuscripts have also in terram, as do Philip, Julian and Gregory's commentaries, but neither of the main manuscripts used as the most reliable ones by the Benedictine Vulgate editors has them. Two manuscripts on which I will speak again during this paper also have in terram: Π F and Σ T . Σ T , a 10 th -century manuscript, is the Toletanus, a witness for the Spanish text of the Vulgate. Π F is the Codex Casinensis 521, a 11 th -century manuscript of Cassinian type, that is with high Spanish influences. The common readings and the discrepancies between Philip's and Julian's versions of the book of Job is a subject for further research.

Amongst the authors whose readings identical to Philip's readings should be investigated is, of course, the Pope Gregory the Great, who wrote the Moralia in Iob. Gregory's biblical text is not always coincidental with/common with Philip's one, but both authors shared common readings, such as:

[10:5] numquid sicut dies hominis dies tui aut anni tui (vs aut anni tui BV) Gregory, Moralia in Iob, IX, 47

After a time jump, in the 12 th century, Bruno of Segni's commentary is to be noted as he seems to have retained some readings unique to Philip.

[2:6] egressus igitur Satan a facie Domini percussit Iob uulnere pessimo (vs ulcere pessimo BV) Bruno of Segni, Expositio in librum Iob, II, PL 164, 560, and XIX, 617. This reading is an insertion of the translation Graecum into the one iuxta Hebraeos. It is also found in the whole family of manuscripts Φ, the Alcunian ones.

A 12 th century-commentary on Job that is very probably from Rupert, abbot of Deutz, is following closely the Moralia in Iob written by Gregory. It is therefore not surprising that Rupert's commentary has common readings of the Latin Job with Philip, such as this one, which is also shared by Guerric d'Igny, but which is not found in any of the manuscripts studied by the Benedictine Vulgate: It is therefore no surprise that Rupert is quoting a reading unique to Philip where Philip has inserted a Septuagint textual feature in Jerome's translation on Hebrew.

[11:4] et mundus sum in conspectu eius (vs in conspectu tuo BS) LXX : καὶ ἄμεμπτος ἐναντίον αὐτοῦ Rupert: Commentarius in Iob, X, PL 168, 1016. Some 13 th -century authors have also used readings that Philip has used, and that could give us a clue on where Philip's readings were read are were circulating. Thomas of Aquinas is one of them.

[20:6] si ascenderit usque in caelum (vs ad caelum BV) Vulgate manuscripts: Λ L , E 2 , Θ HA , Ω M Thomas of Aquinas Expositio super Iob iuxta litteram, XX l. 48 But also Bonaventura Commentarius in Euangelium sancti Lucae X, 15, 25 Bernardine of Siena Quadragesimale de christiana religione XIII, 2, 2 (The Vulgate manuscript E is the result of a comparison between Alcuinian Bibles and Theodulfian ones.) Several 13 th -century Franciscan authors also have readings common to Philip's commentary that are a minority in the textual tradition. As we just saw, Bonaventura and Bernardine of Siena are two of them.

Peter of John Olivi, whose Postilla super Iob are commenting Thomas of Aquinas' commentary on Job, is one of them. I will only give an example of reading he has in common with Philip:

[21:15] quid nobis prodest si orauerimus eum (vs illum BV) Only two of the manuscripts looked at by the Benedictine Vulgate are sharing the reading: si orauerimus eum: Π F , a manuscript with Spanish features, and Ω S . Alain Boureau, who edited the Postilla in the Corpus Christianorum collection, wondered whether Olivi could have used a "Franciscan Vulgate" while working.

Could this "Franciscan Vulgate" have had some links with another text still unidentified? In his praefatio to the Leonine edition of the Expositio super Iob ad litteram by Thomas of Aquinas, Antoine Dondaine has examined the difficult matter of the Biblical text that Thomas had under his eyes while commenting the book of Job. According to Dondaine, Thomas of Aquinas' biblical text was quite close to the Ω family, and especially to Ω S , but it also seems that this text was sharing readings with Π F . As Peter of John Olivi has written his commentary partly as a reaction to Thomas of Aquinas' one, it is not surprising that both commentaries have common readings with Π F . My question today is: could theses commentaries be witnesses for Philip's readings that get somehow lost in the wide manuscript tradition of the Vulgate for the book of Job, for example through the Spanish family of manuscripts whose some manuscripts would have kept Philip's readings ?

The purpose of the survey I have made here was qualitative and not quantitative. A quantative study could only been made on the basis of a critical edition of Philip's commentary, and this edition is still not achieved, or at least through a comprehensive comparison between all the manuscripts for Philip's commentary on one hand and on the critical apparatus for the Benedictine Vulgate and the full critical edition of each commentary on Job in the second hand. The present paper's scope is way too small for such a huge task, but I am planning to work on it.

This comprehensive survey would lead to study more precisely the links that Philip's readings have with each Vulgate manuscript, or manuscripts families, that the editors of the Benedictine Vulgate have used. The question is indeed: is there a state of the text that was circulating, which was very close to Philip's one, and who had influence on Vulgate manuscripts that are currently known ? Were there one or several biblical manuscript for the book of Job whose text what Philip's one? As for now, I have noticed that Philip's readings seemed to have a particular closeness to either some of the family named Ω -which may not be as homogeneous as usually thought -or to at least one manuscript of this family. This closeness is some kind of proof that, while they were undocumented before the 13 th century in the Benedictine Vulgate, some readings of the Ω could be traced back to the end of the 4 th or the middle of the 5 th century. Here is an example, on which all of Philip manuscripts and Ω M agreeing:

[8:4] dimisit eos inquitatis eorum (vs suae BV)

The biblical text of Job kept in Philip's manuscripts also seems to have links with Π F and Σ T , on which I just said some words. Here are two examples. The first is these reading whose only other witness is, De aduentu et statu et uita Antichristi, by the Dominican friar Jacopo de Benevento. The text was printed with Thomas of Aquinas's works.

[19:29] quoniam ultor iniquitatis gladius est (vs iniquitatis BV) According to the BV apparatus, three Vulgate manuscripts also have it: Π F , Σ T , and a Theodulf Bible, Θ G . I would like to point out that, Π F , Σ T and the family Ω are very probably NOT the only manuscripts in which Philip's readings may have survived, and there is need to look closely at other Vulgate manuscripts.

The comprehensive comparative survey that needs to be done is not without complications. There are sometimes, as usual in textual history, conflicting readings in Philip's manuscripts. It happens that some of the readings have very few parallels in Latin and Biblical literature, except in works by authors I have always named today. As for an exemple, 23:13 is as such in the Benedictine Vulgate [23:13] anima eius quodcumque uoluerit hoc facit (BV) Another reading, quodcumque uoluerit hoc fiet, is supported by the Oxford Bodl. 426 and by part of the biggest family of manuscripts (The Hague MMW10A1 ; Troyes 559), the one whose head is MMW 10 A 1. But Cambrai and Sichard, as well as another part of the MMW 10 A 1 family, have another reading anima eius quodcumque uoluerit hoc fecit which has no cowitness other than Philip in the Benedictine Vulgate apparatus but which also used by Thomas of Aquinas, in his Expositio super Isaiam ad litteram (chapter XIV). manuscripts of Philip's commentary are therefore conveying an unique reading that was known by Thomas of Aquinas.

The same happens with this example: [24:13] ipsi fuerunt rebelles luminis It is the Benedictine Vulgate text, supported by all Philip's manuscripts BUT two: Cambrai and Sichard's transcription, whose variant reading is rebelles lumini. According to the Benedictine Vulgate's apparatus, rebelles lumini is a reading that is not to be found before the 13 th However, it is widely used during the late Antiquity and in the Middle Ages : Julian, Gregory, Lathcen, Bernardino of Siena, Bonaventura, Thomas of Aquinas. And it is the reading of an 8 th century-manuscript, Cambrai BM 470.

To sum up: most of, or at least an huge part of, Philip's readings are known and conveyed in Vulgate manuscripts. However, some others aren't known in Vulgate manuscripts. Amongst those actually unknown through Vulgate manuscripts, some are common to other theological or exegetical works, but some others are currently unknown outside Philip's work. As stated by Robert A. Kraft in his review of the volume 12 of the Benedictine Vulgate (Sapientia Salomonis. Liber Hiesu Filii Sirach), "The goal of this edition, as of the earlier Benedictine volumes, is not to determine the 'original' Latin form of the Vulgate text […] but to recover as nearly as possible a presumed 5 th /6 th century archetype from which the extant MSS derive." 1 Could Philip's commentary help to recover a state of text closer to the 'original' Vulgate than the 5 th /6 th century archetype? It seems to me that the question should be considered.

Philip's commentary and other biblical versions

1 Gnomon, Dec., 1965, 37. Bd., H. 8 (Dec. 1965), pp. 777-781. As I am coming to the end of my paper, after having gone through the posterity of Philip's readings, I would now make the opposite move and address the topic of the links between Philip's readings and ancient textual traditions for the book of Job in other than Latin and Greek. As I am absolutely not specialized in these languages, I didn't through the whole textual tradition of the book of Job and I began to work with the French translations from these languages which were available to me. Therefore, what I will say now is nothing else than the beginning of a work I hope to extend in the months and years to come.

My first example is in the first chapter of the book of Job. From 1:15 to 1:19, four messengers come to Job and they announce him the calamities he and his family have just suffered. The end of the verses are: "And I remained alone and I came to announce it to you." On which translation did Hesychius, who was bishop in the first half of the 4 th century, wrote his commentary? Antoine Wenger has shown that Hesychius' homilies on Leviticus, although known only through their Latin translation, had been written on the basis of the Septuagint text2 . Did Hesychius worked on a Greek text for his homilies on Job? There is not parallel for "remansi"/"remain" in the Hexapla, so this Greek may not be one from Theodotion, Aquila or Symmachus. Could Hesychius have used a rabbinic exegesis, such as a Targumic, in despite of him being anti-Semitic, a source he would have shared with Jerome and Philip? The recent works of Matthew Kraus on Jerome's translations and the rabbinic exegesis they are sometimes reflecting make this hypothesis credible. I haven't time to deepen into this matter today but I have begun to work on traces of Targum Job in Philip's commentary and there are some, so the hypothesis of a common rabbinic source to Philip and Hesychius shouldn't, in my opinion, be discarded too soon.

I have looked at other textual traditions of the book of Job which may have links with some readings of Philip, the Ethiopic one and the Coptic bohairic one, and even though I didn't go very far, I found interesting points that call for further investigations. While commenting Job 22:23, Philip has quoted what "alii dixerunt", and a translation which doesn't match with the one on the Septuagint but which has a parallel in the Ge'ez Bible, the Ethiopic one:

[22:23] instauraberis si te factorum tuorum poenitat

The Hebrew word is shuv, 'to return', and it has the meaning 'to repent'. However, Philip's reading has no parallel in Vulgate manuscripts nor in the translation according to the Septuagint, nor in the Hexapla. The Ge'ez word, nassǝḥa, used in this verse has a specific sense of "repent", which makes the Ge'ez verse match with Philip's one. Is this only coincidental? The Ethiopic version of the Old Testament raises a lot of problems that specialized scholars have explored, such as Hebrew influences on the different stages of the text and the moment they were added to the text. Therefore, I can't discard the hypothesis of a common rabbinic source for Philip's reading and the Ethiopic Bible one, which may be traced to the rabbinic exegesis, or may not. This rabbinic exegesis was, according to me, known by Philip. Indeed, in some verses, he is using themas and wordings which match with the translation or the wording of the Aramaic Targum of Job for this very precise verse. Here The latin text I am quoting here is the one transcribed by Sichard. I could quote more from Philip's commentary, and specially the beginning of chapter 32, where he has inserted a development on Heliu and Barachel being descended from Abraham, and this in the very verse for which the Targum Job replaces the name Ram by the name Abraham. Inserting part of verses on Patriarchs is a topos for targumic literature, and it is no coincidence that Philip has used this thema in his commentary. The dating of the Targum Job is still disputed, and, as Céline Mangan, who edited it, wrote, almost every century from Gamaliel to the 8 th has been proposed. My hypothesis on the link between Philip's commentary and the Targum Job is that Philip had access to part of the material which was used to collate or gather what has become the Targum Job as we know it now. Philip was Jerome's best disciple, according to Gennadius, and through recent researches, for example Matthew Kraus' ones3 , we know that the access Jerome had to rabbinic teaching and exegesis is reflected in his work.

To conclude, I hope I have shown that Philip's commentary on Job is a work that could be studied as much to go into two lines of research. The first on the diffusion of the two Latin translations of the book of Job, especially the most known and used one, the translation and Hebrew, and could be new pieces of the sophisticated puzzle that are the versions of the Vulgate with multiple influences which were circulating in the Middle Ages. The second line is a contribution to renewal of the way we look at Jerome's and his disciples' work. This renewal is, for years, taking into consideration the sources that Jerome, and in his wake Philip, had at his hand when he worked into his translations of the Hebrew Bible into Latin. The writing style of Philip's commentary on Job may be not be sophisticated. Nonetheless, the work itself is valuable when it comes to the study of the biblical text.

[

  15:29] nec mittet in terram radicem suam (vs in terra BV) Julian, Expositio super librum Iob, XV, CCSL 88 Bruno of Segni, Expositio in librum Iob, XV, PL 164, 606 Denis the Carthusian, Ennaratio in librum Iob, articuli 35 et 36

  [20:23] pluat super eum bellum suum (vs pluat super illum bellum suum BV) Guerric of Igny: Sermones in resurrection II, Sources Chrétiennes n°202, 242. Rupert of Deutz: Commentarius in Iob, XX, PL 168, 1050.

  [1:15] et euasi ego solus ut nuntiarem tibi [1:16] and [1 :19] et effugi ego solus ut nuntiarem tibi [1:17] et ego fugi solus ut nuntiarem tibi Philip has commented the following wording: et remansi ego solus, ueni ut nuntiarem tibi This is not a quotation from the translation Jerome has made on the Greek text. So where does it come from? Is this an invention or a mistake by Philip? This wording has actually a parallel in the Armenian translation of the third homily on Job of Hesychius of Jerusalem, whose original Greek text is lost. Here is an English translation of the Armenian text:

  is an example: Call to mind now what person who was innocent like Abraham ever perished, and where have the upright like Isaac and Jacob been destroyed? (Tg Job 4, 7) (Translation by Céline Mangan) RECORDARE, OBSECRO, TE, QUIS UNQUAM INNOCENS PERIERIT, AUT QUANDO IUSTI DELETI SUNT Ergo ignoras Abel innocentem in principio creationis occisum ? Et Abraham patriarcham propter uxorem suam fuisse periclitatum ? Isaac quoque, et Iacob passos in sectationem Palaestinorum […] ? REMEMBER, I PRAY THEE, WHICH INNOCENT MAN EVER PERISHED AND WHEN THE RIGHTEOUS WERE DESTROYED. You are unaware that the innocent Abel was killed at the beginning of creation, that the patriarch Abraham was in danger of death due to his wife, and that Isaac also and Jacob suffered while pursuing the Palestinians […] (In Iob, I, 4; 12)



  Troyes, Médiathèque Jacques-Chirac (olim Bibliothèque Municipale), 559, end of the ninth century, ff. 119-238v, which may come from Auxerre and in which Book III is missing, as is the end of Book II  Paris, Bibliothèque de l'Arsenal, 315, eleventh century, 116 ff., printed by Jean de Roigny

	under Bede's name. It lacks only one bifolium.
	 Florence, Biblioteca Medicea Laurenziana, San Marco 722, twelfth century, 246 ff., nearly-
	complete, lacking only the last chapter-chapter 42-of Book III
	 Madrid, Biblioteca Nacional, 437 (olim A.82), fourteenth century, ff. 102-175v, complete.
	The three left manuscripts are:
	 Paris, Bibliothèque Nationale de France, Lat. 1839, ninth century, ff. 123-200v, probably
	from Eastern France, which has only the text of the third book.
	 Paris, BNF, Lat. 12157, ninth century, ff. 97v-116v, 88-95v, 117-142. that has only Book
	III, and which may have been copied from Paris BNF lat. 1839.
	 Paris, BNF, Nouvelles acquisitions latines, 2332, ninth century, f. 3, one-folio fragment.

  posuisti in conpede pedem meum : Philip, In Iob, Sichard (ed.) 50 ; Augustine, Adnotationes in Iob, XIII, CSEL 28/2, 538 [18:11] multi circa pedes eius : Philip, In Iob, Sichard (ed.) 75 ; Augustine, Adnotationes in Iob, XVIII, CSEL 28/2, 547 [27:6] nec enim conscius sum mihi iniquum quid commisisse: Philip, In Iob, Sichard (ed.) 108 ; Augustine, Adnotationes in Iob, XXVII, CSEL 28/2, 564

	are a few examples of Philip's readings that are common to him and to Augustine. I won't
	comment it further.
	[6:7] uideo escas meas sicut est odor leonis : Philip, In Iob, Sichard (ed.) 20 ; Augustine, Adnotationes
	in Iob, VI, CSEL 28/2, 519
	[13:27]

https://www.brepolsonline.net/doi/pdf/10.1484/J.REA.5.103934

M. Kraus, Jewish, Christian, and Classical Exegetical Traditions in Jerome's Translation of the Book of Exodus: Translation Technique and the Vulgate, Boston-Leiden 2017.


domain: sde sdv

text:
Sun Feng

F M Sekou

Nathalie Coulibaly

Christian Cheviron

Mickael Mougin

Pierre-Alain Hedde

Sylvie Maron

Jean Recous

Cécile Trap

Matthieu Villenave
email: matthieu.chauvat@univ-rouen.fr

Chauvat

The multi-year effect of different agroecological practices on soil nematode and soil respiration

Keywords: Agroecology practices, Tillage, Plant residues, Nitrogen fertilization, Nematode community, Soil respiration

Background and Aims

Introduction

Long-term conventional agricultural practices were shown to simplify landscapes, disturb soil structure and increase greenhouse gas emissions [START_REF] Chabert | Conservation agriculture as a promising trade-off between conventional and organic agriculture in bundling ecosystem services[END_REF][START_REF] Akakpo | Challenging agroecology through the characterization of farming practices' diversity in Mediterranean irrigated areas[END_REF]. New challenges to global food security, a primary concern for humanity, are posed by global change and the urgent need to achieve this goal in a sustainable manner for the next centuries. Agroecological approaches that seek to promote agricultural production in order to meet the increasing demand of an exponentially growing human population, and ecosystem services for mitigating climate change, for example, are ways to favour sustainable agricultural productivity [START_REF] Pittelkow | Productivity limits and potentials of the principles of conservation agriculture[END_REF]. Agroecology is the use of environmentally friendly farming practices, which has been argued to sustain crop productivity, increase food security, and enhance soil nutrient availability [START_REF] Coulibaly | Effect of different crop management practices on soil Collembola assemblages: A 4-year follow-up[END_REF][START_REF] Pittelkow | Productivity limits and potentials of the principles of conservation agriculture[END_REF][START_REF] Akakpo | Challenging agroecology through the characterization of farming practices' diversity in Mediterranean irrigated areas[END_REF].

Diversifying crop rotation, agroforestry, cover cropping, and soil management measures (such as reducing tillage) are all agroecological practices [START_REF] Kerr | Can agroecology improve food security and nutrition? A review[END_REF]. These practices can induce profound changes in soil physical and chemical properties, and inevitably in uence soil biological properties and soil fertility, as well as soil functioning, over time [START_REF] Panettieri | Long-term impacts of conservation tillage on Mediterranean agricultural soils: shifts in microbial communities despite limited effects on chemical properties[END_REF].

By contributing to about 10% of the global soil respiration [START_REF] Yu | Assessment of the effect of plastic mulching on soil respiration in the arid agricultural region of China under future climate scenarios[END_REF], agricultural soils are important sources of carbon dioxide (CO 2 ) emissions.

Previous studies identi ed management practices, such as N fertilization [START_REF] Yan | Response of soil respiration to nitrogen fertilization: Evidence from a 6-year eld study of croplands[END_REF], tillage [START_REF] Faust | Respiration response to different tillage intensities in transplanted soil columns[END_REF] and cover with crop residues [START_REF] Buysse | Fifty years of crop residue management have a limited impact on soil heterotrophic respiration[END_REF] as driving factors of such greenhouse gas emissions. However, we still lack understanding of how soil biodiversity responds to agroecological practices; to what extent such practices, alone or in combination, can be bene cial for soil functioning; and what services they can provide [START_REF] Puissant | Quanti cation of the global impact of agricultural practices on soil nematodes: a meta-analysis[END_REF]. Understanding soil respiration and their biological determinants under different agroecology practices is important for predicting carbon cycling in agroecosystems.

Nematodes are one of the most abundant and diverse invertebrates in the soil. Their vast genetic diversity, phenotypic plasticity and feeding habits enable them to colonise and occupy a great number of habitats (van Megen et al., 2009, Viney & Diaz, 2012, [START_REF] Van Den Hoogen | Soil nematode abundance and functional group composition at a global scale[END_REF]. Nematodes are divided into different feeding groups covering trophic levels from bacterivores to predators and herbivores [START_REF] Yeates | Feeding habits in soil nematode families and genera-an outline for soil ecologists[END_REF]. Furthermore, according to their lifehistory strategies, free-living nematodes are classi ed into 5 groups on a coloniser-persister continuum [START_REF] Bongers | The maturity index: an ecological measure of environmental disturbance based on nematode species composition[END_REF]. Group 1 is made of coloniser species corresponding to r-strategy species, while group 5 is composed of K-strategy species known as persisters [START_REF] Bongers | The maturity index: an ecological measure of environmental disturbance based on nematode species composition[END_REF]. The relative abundance of either feeding groups or life-history groups was successfully used to calculate different micro food web indices (e.g. the maturity indices, the enrichment indices) that provide a direct overview of soil functioning state [START_REF] Ferris | Structural and functional succession in the nematode fauna of a soil food web[END_REF][START_REF] Ferris | Form and function: Metabolic footprints of nematodes in the soil food web[END_REF]. In a cropping context, free-living nematodes had a close link with bacteria and fungi in soil food webs, and their interactions had consequences for soil organic matter decomposition, and therefore for carbon and nutrient cycling [START_REF] Jiang | Nematode grazing promotes bacterial community dynamics in soil at the aggregate level[END_REF][START_REF] Sun | Speci c legumes allay drought effects on soil microbial food web activities of the focal species in agroecosystem[END_REF]. Recently, [START_REF] Jiang | Nematodes and microbial community affect the sizes and turnover rates of organic carbon pools in soil aggregates[END_REF] suggested that bacterivore grazing had a signi cant impact on the turnover rates of soil organic carbon (SOC) pools at the aggregate scale through the bacteria/fungi ratio.

As recently noted in a meta-analysis by [START_REF] Puissant | Quanti cation of the global impact of agricultural practices on soil nematodes: a meta-analysis[END_REF], much work has been performed over the last 50 years on describing soil nematodes communities in croplands. Their results demonstrate that, while changing the tillage system generated a relative weak response, chemical inputs (both fertilizers and pesticides) had the strongest effects on soil nematodes at the global scale. High mineral fertilization rates induced lower richness and diversity of nematodes [START_REF] Puissant | Quanti cation of the global impact of agricultural practices on soil nematodes: a meta-analysis[END_REF]. Crop straw is rich in organic material, and straw application could improve the aggregate structure and stability [START_REF] Karami | Organic resource management: Impacts on soil aggregate stability and other soil physicochemical properties[END_REF]. Thus, crop residue practices could change the soil nematode community and structure. There is also a need to consider the temporal aspects of agricultural practices that have been adopted, because nematodes at the higher trophic level need a long period to be re-established after changes in management strategies [START_REF] Ferris | Form and function: Metabolic footprints of nematodes in the soil food web[END_REF][START_REF] Villenave | Rapid changes in soil nematodes in the rst years after technosol construction for the remediation of an industrial wasteland[END_REF]). However, the number of studies addressing the effects of conversion of practices (multi factor effects) and not only a single factor effect (e.g., tillage, pesticides, fertilization) is rather low -less than 5 to 10, according to the variable considered. This clearly indicates the importance of pursuing our effort to document how agricultural practices or management may affect soil nematode communities and their associated functions over time.

The overall objective of this study was to identify how agroecology practices modi ed the soil microbe and nematode communities, and how this affected soil respiration. By taking advantage of a long-term agricultural experimental research station located in northern France, we monitored, over a period of 3 years, soil microbes, nematodes and soil respiration in response to conversion of conventional agricultural practices towards different agroecology practices linking the rate of N fertilization (low vs high), the tillage type (deep vs reduced), and the crop residue management (retain vs removal). We hypothesised that (1) reduced N fertilization and reduced tillage would increase both maturity and structure indices (i.e. indicating a more complex soil food web) as well as increase microbial enzymatic activities, as both fertilization and tillage are known to disturb the soil system favouring opportunistic or r-species; (2) crop residue removal would negatively impact soil nematode community, by reducing the alpha diversity and the Enrichment indices, for example; (3) perennial crops would increase nematode density, maturity indices and the structure indices by strongly reducing external soil disturbances and prompting successional processes that favour K-strategist species, with this becoming more and more obvious with time; and (4) a less disturbed system would show a stronger connection between soil organisms and soil processes (i.e. soil respiration in our case). Brie y, before this experiment, we applied the same crop (wheat in 2008, then barley in 2009) and the same conventional management to homogenize the soil. In 2010, a six-year rotation was initiated, composed of spring pea (Pisum sativum, L.), winter wheat (Triticum aestivum, L.), rapeseed (Brassica napus, L.), spring barley (Hordeum vulgare, L.), maize (Zea mays, L.) and again winter wheat. Alternatively, a perennial and bioenergy crop of switchgrass (Panicum virgatum, L.) was also planted. Six treatments were set up, with 4 replicates within a randomized block design. Five of these treatments, a total of 20 plots, were investigated in the present study: conventional tillage (CT), conventional tillage and reduced N fertilization (CT-RN), reduced tillage (RT), reduced tillage and residue removal (RT-RR), and perennial bioenergy crop (P-BC). In the RT-RR and P-BC treatments, crop residues were removed after harvest, while in the other treatments, crop residues were incorporated in soil by ploughing. Thus, over the rotation time, the mean amounts of carbon retained in the RT-RR and P-BC treatments were 1.6 t carbon ha - 1 yr - 1 , while those in the other treatments were 3.2 t carbon ha - 1 yr - 1 . For detailed information, see Table 1.

Materials

Soil and sampling

Soil samples were collected in spring 2012, 2013, 2014 and 2020, at the start of the vegetation season. Sampling in early spring allows researchers to catch the impact of former crop residue addition and soil tillage of the previous year, without having too large an impact of crop growth and rhizodeposition of the new cropping period. Steel cylinders (5 cm diameter, depth 5 cm) were used for sampling each year in each of the 20 plots. Each sampling year, ve cores were taken from each plot, carefully mixed and then transported to the laboratory in cool boxes, and stored at 4 ℃ for microbial biomass, enzyme activity and nematode community analysis.

Soil microbial biomass, heterotrophic respiration, and enzymatic activities

Microbial biomass carbon (MBC) was determined using the fumigation-extraction method described by [START_REF] Vance | An extraction method for measuring soil microbial biomass C[END_REF]. The extraction of dissolved organic C (DOC) from soil samples, either fumigated with chloroform or not, was performed with 40 mL of K 2 SO 4 0.3 M (soil-solution 1:4, agitation 30 min, 20°C) and the concentration of DOC in extracts was analysed with a C-analyser (1010, O.I. analytical, Globalspec, NY, USA). The amount of C in microbial biomass was calculated as the difference in DOC contents between fumigated and unfumigated samples, with a correction factor [START_REF] Jenkinson | Measuring soil microbial biomass[END_REF]). C mineralisation was measured in standardised conditions using C-CO 2 emitted from soils during a 72-h incubation at 15°C, and was used as a proxy of soil heterotrophic microbial activity. For that purpose, moist soil samples (42 g equivalent dry soil at 18.6 g H 2 O 100 g - 1 soil) were placed in jars containing a beaker with water and a vial with 0.25 M NaOH solution to trap the CO 2 produced. The concentration of CO 2 trapped in the NaOH solution was measured by continuous ow colorimetry [START_REF] Chaussod | Mesure en routine de la biomasse microbienne des sols par la méthode de fumigation au chloroforme[END_REF]) using an autoanalyser (TRAACS 2000, Bran and Luebbe, Norderstedt, Germany).

Finally, enzyme activities involved in C, N, S and P cycles such as β-Glucosidase, Urease, Arylsulfatase, and Phosphatase were quanti ed using colorimetric method according to the ISO standard (ISO:20130:2018; Cheviron et al., 2022). All measurements were performed at the soil pH, in an unbuffered soil water solution. Soil enzymatic activities were expressed in mU.g - 1 of dry soil corresponding to nmol of hydrolyzed substrate per minute for a gram of dry soil.

Soil nematode community analysis

Nematodes were extracted from 300 g fresh soils using the Oostenbrink elutriation method. On average, 185 nematodes per mass slide were identi ed to the genus level at 400 magni cation [START_REF] Bongers | De Nematoden van Nederland. Pirola[END_REF]. We classi ed them into four trophic groups: bacterivores, fungivores, omnivores-predators and herbivores [START_REF] Yeates | Feeding habits in soil nematode families and genera-an outline for soil ecologists[END_REF].

We calculated nematode Shannon-Weaver diversity indices (H′) and Simpson dominance indices (λ) as follows: H′ = -∑pi(lnpi) and λ = ∑pi 2 , where pi is the proportion of individuals in the ith taxon [START_REF] Yeates | Nematode diversity in agroecosystems[END_REF]. Evenness indices were calculated as J = H′/ln S, where S is the total number of nematode genera in the community. We also calculated the nematode maturity indices (MI) and plant parasite indices (PPI) as follows: MI = ∑v(i)cp1-5 × ƒ(i)cp1-5, PPI = ∑v(i)cp2-5 × ƒ(i)cp2-5, where v(i) is the cp value of taxon i, and ƒ(i) is the proportion of that taxon of the total number of nematodes in a sample, and the value of cp1-5 are nematode functional guilds [START_REF] Bongers | The maturity index: an ecological measure of environmental disturbance based on nematode species composition[END_REF]. Enrichment indices (EI) and structure indices (SI) were also calculated as in [START_REF] Ferris | A framework for soil food web diagnostics: extension of the nematode faunal analysis concept[END_REF], where a high EI value indicates that the soil is enriched, and a high SI value indicates the soil food web is stable. The nematode channel ratio (NCR) explains the relative contributions of the channels and is calculated as NCR = B/(B + F), where B and F are the relative densities of bacterivores and fungivores, respectively, to the total nematode density. The NCR is constrained to values between 1 (totally bacteria-mediated) and 0 (totally fungus-mediated) [START_REF] Ferris | Structural and functional succession in the nematode fauna of a soil food web[END_REF].

Statistical analyses

Repeated measure ANOVAs were employed to determine the effects of the factor "Treatment" on nematode density, diversity and ecological indices, enzyme activity, MBC and soil heterotrophic respiration. Tukey tests were used to locate signi cant differences between treatments. The principal response curves (PRC) method was used to determine the temporal trends of soil nematode community composition (represented by both trophic groups and genus) for each treatment using CANOCO 4.5 (Ithaca, NY, USA). PRC is conducted by redundancy analysis (RDA). The result is a diagram showing the rst principal component of the variance, explained by treatment on the y-axis along the sampling periods on the x-axis. The control treatment (conventional tillage in our case) is treated as a zero baseline (the horizontal line). The treatment effect is represented by the deviation of each uctuating line from the zero baseline through time [START_REF] Lepš | Multivariate Analysis of Ecological Data Using CANOCO[END_REF]. Structural equation modelling (SEM) was used to test how soil respiration was affected by soil microbes and nematode trophic group density. A conceptual model (Fig. S1) was designed to show the basic trophic relationships among these predictors, and several tests were conducted to assess model t, i.e. the χ2-test, the Bentler-Bonnet normed t indices (NFI), and the goodness-of-t indices (GFI) using AMOS 7.0 software [START_REF] Eisenhauer | From patterns to causal understanding: Structural equation modeling (SEM) in soil ecology[END_REF].

Results

Agricultural treatments and nematode community

When compared with CT (conventional tillage), RT (reduced tillage) treatment tended to increased total nematode density (Table 3, F = 3.919, P = 0.095), P-BC (perennial biomass crop) treatment signi cantly decreased total nematode density (Fig. 1a). No difference was found regarding the total nematode density in RT-RR (reduced tillage and residue removal) and RT treatments. P-BC treatment signi cantly decreased absolute herbivore density compared to CT treatment (Fig. 1b), while the herbivore density did not differ between RT-RR and RT treatments (Table 3, F = 0.001, P = 0.971). When compared with CT, both CT-RN (conventional tillage and reduced N fertilization) and RT treatments signi cantly increased bacterivore and fungivore density (Fig. 1cd). The bacterivore and fungivore density in RT-RR treatment were signi cantly lower than in RT treatment (Table 3, F = 16.056, P = 0.007; F = 21.175, P = 0.004, respectively). RT treatment signi cantly increased omnivore-predator density compared to CT treatment (Fig. 1e). The omnivore-predator density in RT-RR treatment was signi cantly lower than in RT treatment (Table 3, F = 10.185, P = 0.019).

When compared to CT, repeated measure ANOVAs did not show signi cant treatment effect on either Shannon-Wiener indices, Pielou evenness indices, or Simpson dominance indices (Table 2). However, the Shannon-Wiener indices in RT-RR treatment were signi cantly lower than in RT treatment (F = 6.272, P = 0.046). In our ve treatments, no differences in the enrichment indices and nematode channel ratio were found (Fig. 2ac). The structure and maturity indices were signi cantly higher in P-BC treatment than in CT treatment (Fig. 2bd), while the plant parasite indices and PPI/MI were signi cantly lower in P-BC treatment than in CT treatment (Fig. 2ef). No differences in the enrichment indices, structure indices, nematode channel ratio, plant parasite indices, maturity indices and PPI/MI were found in RT-RR and RT treatment. (Table 4).

The temporal dynamics of soil nematode functional guilds under four agroecology practices were similar (Fig. 3a). Speci cally, compared to the control CT, the effect of CT-RN treatment increased the contribution of Ba 2 (F = 85.928, P = 0.000) and Fu 2 (F = 9.592, P = 0.021), while it decreased the contribution of He 2 (F = 49.429, P = 0.000) and He 3 (F = 7.575, P = 0.033). RT signi cantly (F = 30.145, P = 0.002) increased the contribution of Ba 2 and decreased the contribution of He 3 (F = 10.084, P = 0.019), as did P-BC treatment (F = 19.338, P = 0.005). The nematode functional guilds showed apparent successions from communities dominated by He 3 and He 2 to communities dominated by Ba 2 and Fu 2 after N and tillage were reduced (Fig. 3a).

Principal response curves demonstrated that the four agroecology practices affected the successions of soil nematode genus (Fig. 3b) during the course of the experiment. Speci cally, when compared with CT, CT-RN and RT treatments signi cantly (F = 32.944, P = 0.001; F = 26.189, P = 0.002) increased the contribution of Cephalobus in nematode communities, while CT-RN and RT signi cantly (F = 8.248, P = 0.028; F = 13.106, P = 0.011) decreased the contribution of Meloidogyne. When compared with CT, CT-RN and P-BC signi cantly (F = 9.638, P = 0.021; F = 40.434, P = 0.001) decreased the contribution of Paratylenchus sp2. Alternatively, compared with CT, P-BC signi cantly (F = 21.079, P = 0.004) increased the contribution of Psilenchus, but signi cantly (F = 20.215, P = 0.004) decreased the contribution of Meloidogyne.

Different agricultural treatments on enzyme activity, microbial biomass and respiration

When compared with CT, CT-RN, RT and P-BC signi cantly increased soil arylsulfatase, glucosidase, phosphatase and urease activities (Fig. 4). When compared with RT, RT-RR signi cantly (F = 14.901, P = 0.008; F = 60.076, P = 0.000) decreased soil glucosidase and urease activities, and tended to decrease (F = 4.76, P = 0.072; F = 5.597, P = 0.056) arylsulfatase and phosphatase activity (Fig. 4). The CT-RN, RT and P-BC treatments had higher MBC than CT (Fig. 5a).

When compared with RT, RT-RR signi cantly (F = 185.83, P = 0.000) decreased soil MBC (Fig. 5a). CT-RN signi cantly stimulated soil respiration compared to CT (Fig. 5b) and RT-RR signi cantly (F = 6.359, P = 0.045) decreased soil respiration (Fig. 5b) when compared to RT.

Relationships between soil food web and respiration

Structural equation modelling showed that each agroecological practice led to different relationships, and thus paths, between MBC and soil respiration (Fig. 6). In RT treatment, the model was not signi cant, while the three other models (CT-RN, RT-RR and P-BC) were (Fig. 6a-d). Within the CT-RN treatment, MBC had positive correlation with bacterivores and fungivores, as well as with soil heterotrophic respiration. Bacterivores had positive correlation with omnivorespredators. Within the RT-RR treatment, MBC and bacterivores had positive correlation with soil respiration, while fungivores had negative correlation with soil respiration (Fig. 6c). In the P-BC treatment, MBC had negative correlation with fungivores and bacterivores. Omnivores-predators had positively correlation with soil respiration. Finally, herbivores had negative correlations with soil respiration in all the treatments (Fig. 6).

Discussion

Effects of reduced N fertilization

A meta-analysis suggested that high fertilizer N inputs simplify the nematode community structure and functions [START_REF] Liu | Carbon-rich organic fertilizers to increase soil biodiversity: Evidence from a meta-analysis of nematode communities[END_REF]. Thus, we hypothesised that reduced N fertilization would increase maturity and structure indices. In contrast to our rst hypothesis, we observed that the nematode ecological indices did not differ. It takes a long time to restore the nematode community structure and ecological indices in farmland, and this may depend on organic matter content. The higher the soil organic matter content, the faster the nematodes settle and mature. However, reduced N fertilization signi cantly increased absolute bacterivore and fungivore densities. Thus, the absolute densities of trophic groups were more responsive to reduced N than the relative densities of functional guilds on which the indices of maturity and enrichment are based. The higher density of bacterivores and fungivores with reduced N may have been mainly due to the parallel increase in microbial biomass, as con rmed by the structural equation modelling. When compared with CT, the increase in microbial biomass (+ 42%, + 71% and + 46% in 2012, 2013 and 2014, respectively) following a reduction of N supply is in line with many studies showing that N addition generally suppresses microbial biomass (see [START_REF] Wang | Decreasing soil microbial diversity is associated with decreasing microbial biomass under nitrogen addition[END_REF] due to a combination of different factors, like soil acidi cation and leaching of major elements such as magnesium and calcium [START_REF] Vitousek | Human alteration of the global nitrogen cycle: sources and consequences[END_REF] and changes in osmotic balance. Alternatively, reduced N fertilization signi cantly increased the soil respiration, which was consistent with a previous study showing that excessive N can inhibit the activity of soil enzymes, reduce belowground carbon allocation and eventually cause reductions in soil respiration [START_REF] Yan | Response of soil respiration to nitrogen fertilization: Evidence from a 6-year eld study of croplands[END_REF].

The nematode communities were previously shown to be regulated by resources (bottom-up controlled) (Neher, 2010). The higher microbial biomass carbon in CT-RN would then stimulate the microbial-feeding nematodes, and could result in a faster turnover of nutrients in soil, which could be con rmed by the higher enzyme activities. However, in this study, the nematode ratio channel was not affected by reduced N, but the high NRC values (above 0.5) indicated that bacterial decomposition pathways dominated and con rmed that bacterivores were more favoured than fungivores. Furthermore, across years, as con rmed by the principal response curves, the temporal trajectories of nematode community composition in CT-RN showed an increase of Ba 2 and Fu 2 functional guilds.

Effects of reduced tillage

Supporting our hypothesis, we found that reduced tillage (RT) was less harmful to nematodes than conventional tillage (CT), and tended to increase in their total density (P = 0.095). This is not surprising, as tillage is known to be rather destructive to soil food webs by not only disrupting the physical structure of soil, but by shifting the community to an earlier stage of ecological succession, with greater dominance of the bacterial than fungal pathway [START_REF] Neher | Nematode communities and microbial biomass in soils with annual and perennial crops[END_REF]Treonis et al., 2010). Our results supported this nding, but alleviating tillage-linked-disturbance resulted, in our case, in an increase of both microbial feeders, namely bacterivores and fungivores. In contrast, it was shown that densities of both bacterial-feeding and fungal-feeding nematodes did not signi cantly change with tillage system, as indicated in a recent global meta-analysis [START_REF] Puissant | Quanti cation of the global impact of agricultural practices on soil nematodes: a meta-analysis[END_REF], even if contrasting local patterns did emerge. Reduced tillage signi cantly increased omnivore-predator density, mainly due to the higher microbial biomass in reduced tillage soil, which stimulated the bacterivores and omnivore-predators (Fig. 6). Alternatively, reduced tillage might have increased the stability of soil aggregates, and then increased physical protection to omnivore-predators [START_REF] Martin | A meta-analysis of nematode community composition across soil aggregates: Implications for soil carbon dynamics[END_REF]. However, the general increase in density that we observed was not paralleled by an increase in diversity indices, structure indices or maturity indices in RT compared to CT, as we had postulated. It seems that, in our case, reducing tillage did not lead to more stable nematodes communities, or a micro-food web composed by persistent taxa, as could have been expected [START_REF] Yeates | Nematode diversity in agroecosystems[END_REF][START_REF] Villenave | Rapid changes in soil nematodes in the rst years after technosol construction for the remediation of an industrial wasteland[END_REF]. As a matter of fact, the density of omnivore-predators, even if it increased, remained too low at the end of the trial to generate a signi cant increase in the structure indices, as the density of Ba 2 also increased. Over time, RT signi cantly increased the contribution of the Ba 2 functional group, with an increase of Cephalobus. In parallel a decrease of the herbivore Meloidogyne was also noticeable.

Effects of crop residues removal

Supporting our hypothesis, crop residue removal negatively affected soil nematode density with only herbivores not being affected (RT-RR vs RT). Alpha diversity of soil nematodes was also lower after crop residue removal, as was soil microbial biomass. Retaining crop residues is known to result in a higher microbial biomass, because crop residues serve as an energy source for soil microorganisms [START_REF] Govaerts | In uence of tillage, residue management, and crop rotation on soil microbial biomass and catabolic diversity[END_REF]. Through a bottom-up control, nematodes bene t from this increase in basal resources, allowing for a higher diversity through resource partitioning. Alternatively, retaining crop residues improves soil chemical and physical conditions, such as aggregate stability, penetration resistance and surface slaking [START_REF] Govaerts | A minimum data set for soil quality assessment of wheat and maize cropping in the highlands of Mexico[END_REF]. However, crop residue retention is not always favourable for decomposers. In the same study site, the higher decomposer group (e.g. Collembola) did not respond to the residue removal [START_REF] Coulibaly | Effect of different crop management practices on soil Collembola assemblages: A 4-year follow-up[END_REF], possibly due to the mechanical disturbance resulting from the super cial burying of residuals with disk ploughing, in combination with an increase of top-down regulation imposed by predators favoured by the new topsoil habitat conditions provided by crop residues. When it comes to micro-food webs or basal trophic levels, it seems clear that removing crop residues is unfavourable and pauperizes the communities. As a consequence of decreases in nematode communities and microbial biomass, soil respiration also decreased in RT-RR compared to RT.

Effect of perennial crop

Supporting our hypothesis, SI and MI clearly increased in P-BC treatment during the course of the experiment, in contrast to the other practices. P-BC, the most conservative practice in our case and one that did not involve soil disturbance, led to a more stable micro-food web (high maturity and structure indices). Our results support the ndings that established perennial crops support more highly structured and complex food webs relative to annual cropping systems [START_REF] Chauvat | Foraging patterns of soil springtails are impacted by food resources[END_REF][START_REF] Coulibaly | Effect of different crop management practices on soil Collembola assemblages: A 4-year follow-up[END_REF][START_REF] Sprunger | Perennial grain crop roots and nitrogen management shape soil food webs and soil carbon dynamics[END_REF], through a stimulation of the microbial system mostly due to i) inputs above-or belowground of fresh organic material or easily assimilable rhizodeposits [START_REF] Sun | Speci c legumes allay drought effects on soil microbial food web activities of the focal species in agroecosystem[END_REF] and ii) buffering of microclimatic conditions [START_REF] Kim | Soil organic matter pools response to perennial grain cropping and nitrogen fertilizer[END_REF]. This could also be con rmed by the higher enzyme activities. We also hypothesised that perennial crops would increase nematode density. However, P-BC treatment did not have signi cant effects on bacterivore and fungivore density. This might have been due to their being regulated through the top-down role imposed by omnivore-predators. P-BC treatment signi cantly decreased herbivore density, which was favourable for root growth. Thus, perennial crops are bene cial to many soil functions in agroecosystems [START_REF] Zhang | Integrating perennial bahiagrass into the conventional rotation of cotton and peanut enhances interactions between microbial and nematode communities[END_REF].

Temporal trends of different agricultural practices

Alpha diversity indices seem poor predictors of practices' effects in comparison to nematode indices, with the taxonomic diversity of the nematode community being unaffected even after 5 years. As all the plots were under conventional tillage prior to our experiment, it seems that at least 4 to 5 years are necessary for nematode genera from the surrounding landscape to colonise plots that have been converted to different management. Free-living nematodes, due to their small size, are known to be poor active dispersers, especially in a large agricultural landscape matrix like the one we investigated, although they can be easily passively dispersed by wind or water runoff. Therefore, profound changes in community composition due to colonisation might take at least 4 to 5 years to occur [START_REF] Villenave | Rapid changes in soil nematodes in the rst years after technosol construction for the remediation of an industrial wasteland[END_REF]. However, changes in guilds dominance were already detectable 2 years after treatment establishment, with a strong interannual variation in trophic groups.

We also observed variations between years in functional guilds, resulting in signi cant shift in EI and especially SI (EI exhibited signi cant but still low variations, between 30 and 50%). Furthermore, speci c functions like enzymatic activities or soil respiration were affected by the interactions between the factors 'year' and 'practices', and closely related to microbial C biomass and nematodes.

All enzymatic activities followed the same pattern, with a clear differentiation across time and constantly lower values in CT and RT-RR, which seemed to be the less favourable practices for soil biodiversity and associated functions. The residue removal in RT-RR might lead to a lower amount of fresh soil organic matter combined with a high level of fertilization, and these are probably the key factors diminishing microbial enzymatic activities, especially bacterial ones. According to our SEM results, it is clear that overall nematodes are closely associated to microbial biomass and soil respiration. Nematodes were already shown to drive microbial communities, their functions and, indirectly, plant performances as well (see [START_REF] Wilschut | Nematodes as drivers of plant performance in natural systems[END_REF]. Interestingly, the connections between nematodes and microbial biomass C differed according to the agricultural practices, but there were still consistent linkages, with, for example, a negative correlation between the density of herbivores and the soil respiration or positive correlation between bacterivores and omnivores/predators. This was true even if inter-annual variations were quite important in our dataset. Such linkages may either be direct or indirect; it is still unclear, from a mechanistic point of view, how changes in agricultural practices and level of soil system disturbance might modify relationships between groups, or between groups and processes. However, several factors might come into play. For example, by ltering out particular traits of a trophic group, soil disturbance might lead to disconnections between trophic levels. This traits-dismatching between trophic groups, already noticed in a different context of soil disturbance [START_REF] Brousseau | Invasive knotweed modi es predator-prey interactions in the soil food web[END_REF] may have potential consequences for soil functions. Furthermore, functional consequences of traits ltering were also demonstrated in the literature [START_REF] Wolf | Trait-based ltering mediates the effects of realistic biodiversity losses on ecosystem functioning[END_REF].

To conclude, our results suggest that converting conventional agricultural practices towards agroecological ones modify not only belowground nematofauna, but also connections between trophic groups and associated processes. While reducing disturbances like fertilization or tillage allow the development of a more mature and structured nematode community, interannual variation due to climatic conditions seems to be a strong driver too. Only a multi-year follow-up of practices can provide reasonable estimates of modi cations of the soil micro-food web taking place after changes in agricultural practices, which has been too rarely done in the literature so far.

Declarations Tables

Figure 3 Principal

 3 Figure 3 Principal response curves (PRC) with weights of density of each soil nematode functional guild (a) and nematode genus (relative abundance > 1%) (b) under ve different agricultural treatments in each sampling event (2012, 2013 and 2014). CT: Conventional tillage, CT-RN: Conventional tillage and nitrogen reduced, RT: Reduced tillage, RT-RR: Reduced tillage and crop residues removal, P-BC: Perennial and bioenergy crop. The horizontal axis represents the control treatment. He, herbivores, Ba, bacterivores; Fu, fungivores; Om, omnivore-predators.

Figure 4 Soil

 4 Figure 4 Soil enzyme activities under ve different agricultural treatments in each sampling event (2012, 2013 and 2014). CT: Conventional tillage, CT-RN: Conventional tillage and nitrogen reduced, RT: Reduced tillage, RT-RR: Reduced tillage and crop residues removal, P-BC: Perennial and bioenergy crop. Bars indicate standard errors of means. Only signi cant (P < 0.05) effects of treatments compared to conventional tillage (CT) found with repeated measure ANOVAs and Tukey tests are shown on the graphs.

  And Methods 2.1. Site description and experimental design We performed this study at the long-term experimental eld station (Systèmes d'Observation et d'Expérimentation pour la Recherche en Environnement Agrosystèmes Cycles Biogéochimiques et Biodiversité) 'arable crops', located at Estrées-Mons, Northern France (49.873 N, 3.032 E). The mean annual temperature is 10.8 ℃, and the mean annual precipitation is 678 mm. The soil is classi ed as Luvisol (IUSS Working Group WRB. 2007). The physical, chemical and biological soil properties and crop rotations have been fully described in previous papers (Coudrain et al., 2016; Coulibaly et al. 2017).

Table 1

 1 Description of the 5 experimental treatments of the experimental eld-station SOERE ACBB located in Estrées-Mons, France, according to three main practices: tillage depth, crop residue management, and N fertilization rate.

	Treatment	Tillage depth (cm)	Crop residues management	Nitrogen fertilization rate (kg nitrogen ha -1 yr -1 )
	conventional tillage (CT)	25	Crop residue retained (3.2 t carbon ha -	134
			1 yr -1 )
	conventional tillage and reduced N fertilization (CT-RN)	25	1 yr -1 ) Crop residue retained (3.2 t carbon ha -	43
	reduced tillage (RT)	8	Crop residue retained (3.2 t carbon ha -	134
			1 yr -1 )
	reduced tillage and residues removal (RT-RR)	8	Crop residue removed (1.6 t carbon ha -	134
			1 yr -1 )
	perennial and bioenergy crop (P-BC)	25	Crop residue removed (1.6 t carbon ha -	134
			1 yr -1 )

Table 2

 2 Alpha diversity indices of soil nematode communities under ve different agricultural treatments in three sampling years (2012, 2013 and 2014). CT: Conventional tillage, CT-RN: Conventional tillage and nitrogen reduced, RT: Reduced tillage, RT-RR: Reduced tillage and crop residues removal, P-BC: Perennial and bioenergy crop. H', J and λ stand for Shannon-Wiener diversity indices, Pielou evenness indices, and Simpson dominance indices. Mean ± standard error of means.

	2012

Table 3

 3 Results of repeated measure ANOVAs on nematode density. Tukey tests were used to locate signi cant differences between treatments.

		Total nematodes Herbivores	Bacterivores	Fungivores	Omnivore-predators
		F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.
	CT and CT-RN 0.077	0.790	2.637	0.156	9.546	0.021	18.568	0.005	0.612	0.464
	CT and RT	3.919	0.095	1.103	0.334	37.575	0.001	50.437	0.000	7.194	0.036
	CT and RT-RR	0.166	0.698	0.574	0.477	0.061	0.814	0.327	0.588	0.111	0.750
	CT and P-BC	10.816	0.017	15.780	0.007	2.931	0.138	2.414	0.171	1.481	0.269
	RT and RT-RR	2.308	0.180	0.001	0.971	16.056	0.007	21.175	0.004	10.185	0.019

Table 4

 4 Results of repeated measure ANOVAs on nematode indices. Tukey tests were used to locate signi cant differences between treatments. Nematode channel ratio: NCR. Plant parasite indices: PPI. Maturity indices: MI.

		Enrichment indices Structure indices NCR		Maturity indices PPI		PPI/MI
		F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.	F	Sig.
	CT and CT-RN 1.359	0.288	3.408	0.114	0.326	0.589	1.055	0.344	3.677	0.104	0.018	0.896
	CT and RT	0.018	0.899	2.910	0.139	0.516	0.500	1.963	0.211	6.077	0.049	0.178	0.688
	CT and RT-RR	2.329	0.178	3.088	0.129	0.354	0.574	0.338	0.582	1.327	0.293	0.328	0.588
	CT and P-BC	1.006	0.355	27.769	0.002	0.045	0.839	15.274	0.008	24.86	0.002	24.723	0.003
	RT and RT-RR	2.024	0.205	0.403	0.549	1.149	0.325	1.283	0.300	0.085	0.780	0.081	0.785

Funding: the present study was funded through the SOFIA project (Agence Nationale de la Recherche, AO Agrobiosphere, ANR-11-AGRO-0004) leading by SR.

We thank all members of the SOFIA project, from the SOERE ACBB, and from the Ecodiv lab for technical assistance and fruitful discussions. Biochem-Env (https://doi.org/10.15454/HA6V6Y) is a service of the "Investissement d'Avenir" infrastructure AnaEE-France, overseen by ANR (ANR-11-INBS-0001).

Competing Interests: the authors have no relevant nancial or non-nancial interests to disclose

Author Contributions : MC, MH, PAM, NC, and SR contributed to the study conception and design. Data collection was performed by all authors. Data analysis was performed by FS. The rst draft of the manuscript was written by FS and MC and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the nal manuscript.

Data Availability: the datasets generated during and/or analysed during the current study are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

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