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A recent paper in this journal reported on the catalytic activity of cobalt-based catalysts used for the hydrogenation of CO 2 into higher hydrocarbons 1 . Interesting selectivities to C 5+ and C 21+ were obtained at high CO 2 conversion. In situ diffused reflectance FT-IR spectroscopy (DRIFTS) was used at high temperatures and pressures for cobalt reduction in H 2 (350 °C and 30 bars) and to monitor CO 2 + H 2 reaction (up to 270 °C and 40 bars). The authors concluded, partly based on these in situ DRIFTS data, that various oxidic and metallic phases of cobalt were present and that formates were possibly involved in the reaction mechanism. Unfortunately, several important flaws can be found in both the collection and the analysis of the DRIFTS data that invalidate the corresponding conclusions.

First and most significant, the assignment of most IR bands is incorrect. Figure 1 compares the DRIFTS bands assigned to surface species by Jo et al. 1 (Fig. 1.A) and the gasphase spectra of CO 2 and H 2 O recorded in a 2-m pathlength transmission IR gas-cell by us (Fig. 1.B). All the bands assigned to CO adsorbed on various cobalt species (Fig. 1.A.) are actually those of CO 2 (g) (Fig. 1.B.). The (very) weak CO 2 bands next the main asymmetric stretching of 12 C 16 O 2 at 2349 cm -1 (with intensity saturated here), are due to energy transitions (notably between excited states that are more populated at high temperatures) of CO 2 isotopic variants (with 12 C or 13 C and 16 O, 17 O or 18 O). The details of more than five hundreds CO 2 bands located between 400 and 10000 cm -1 have been tabulated by Rothman et al. 2,3,4 . The same conclusion can be drawn for the bands near 1000 cm -1 assigned by Jo et al. 1 to various methoxy and carbonates species (Fig 1 .A.), which are again actually associated with CO 2 (g) (Fig. 1.B.). Note that the sharp band at 949 cm -1 superimposed on that of CO 2 is specifically that of gas-phase C 2 H 4 .

The numerous bands in the region 1800-1300 cm -1 assigned by Jo et al. 1 to various adsorbates (Fig. 1.A.) are actually those of the gas-phase rotovibrational spectrum of water (Fig. 1.B.) 5,6 . This is especially obvious because these roto-vibrational bands are very narrow, the full width at half height (FWHH) being about 9 cm -1 . In contrast, bands of truly adsorbed species are significantly larger, e.g. on ZrO 2 the FWHH of the band of adsorbed water 7 at 1640 cm -1 is about 44 cm -1 and that of formate 8 at 1575 cm -1 is about 52 cm -1 . Therefore, it appears that the current DRIFTS analysis reported by Jo et al 1 . cannot be used to support the presence of various cobalt carbonyls and other surface species (whether or not those are actually present), since these authors mostly monitored the gas-phase signals of CO 2 and water, which overwhelmed the signal of adsorbates.

A second concern arises from the experimental conditions used in a spectroscopic cell (High-Temperature High-Pressure reaction cell from Harrick) that is renowned to exhibit major temperature control issues 9,10 . The temperature of the top of the catalyst bed under Ar at atmospheric pressure was measured to be only 285 °C when that in the bed bulk was 350 °C10 . The temperature of bed surfaces in most DRIFTS cells is typically lower than that expected (i) because the beds are heated underneath and (ii) because of the heat loss through the gas-mediated convective thermal contact between the bed and the cell dome, usually kept at room temperature. The temperature gradient is expected to be far greater if H 2 or He are used, because of the higher thermal conductivity of these gases. The pressure of 30 bars of pure H 2 used by Jo et al. 1 to reduce the cobalt catalyst at 350 °C would have led to a far lower temperature of the catalyst top layer, possibly preventing the reduction of cobalt oxides. This would explain the apparent lack of Co 0 carbonyl bands, that normally gives major IR signals in the 2060-1900 cm -1 region 11,12 .

A third concern is the use of a highly KBr-diluted catalyst sample, using proportions 5:95. This would inevitably lead to a low signal coming from the catalyst and, especially, likely give rise to chemical or structural modifications of the sample by KBr, as already reported by Bianchi and co-workers 13 .

In conclusion, we believe that the DRIFTS data reported in the paper by Jo et al. 1 should be wholly reconsidered in view of the above-comments. We hope that these comments will provide a useful source of information to those using in situ and operando DRIFTS spectroscopy to investigate catalytic reactions, which is clearly not straightforward both on the experimental and data interpretation aspects, as discussed elsewhere 9,14 .

  Comment on "Unraveling the role of cobalt in the direct conversion of CO2 to high-yield liquid fuels and lube base oil" by Jo et al. [Appl. Catal., B 2022, 305, 121041] Frederic Meunier, Canio Scarfiello To cite this version: Frederic Meunier, Canio Scarfiello. Comment on "Unraveling the role of cobalt in the direct conversion of CO2 to high-yield liquid fuels and lube base oil" by Jo et al. [Appl. Catal., B 2022, 305, 121041]. Applied Catalysis B: Environmental, 2023, 330, pp.122610. 10.1016/j.apcatb.2023.122610. hal-Comment on "Unraveling the role of cobalt in the direct conversion of CO 2 to high-yield liquid fuels and lube base oil" by Jo et al., Appl. Catal., B 2022, 305, 121041 Frederic C. Meunier 1,* , Canio Scarfiello 2

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Comparison of (A) in situ DRIFTS spectra reported in Figure 5 by Jo et al. in ref. [1] and (B) corresponding regions showing the IR gas-phase spectra of pure CO 2 and H 2 O/He collected by the present authors at 80 °C in a 2 m-long IR gas-cell.


Anne Vessières

Michael J Mcglinchey

Bioorganometallic Chemistrythe early years

Keywords: Metal carbonyls, organometallic tracers, FT-IR spectroscopy, 2D NMR, estrogen receptor, immunoassay, Dedicated

come   L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire

Introduction

Bioorganometallic chemistry is now a well-established field with a large world-wide assemblage of research groups, a continuous flow of publications in major journals and an increasing number of textbooks [START_REF] Jaouen | Bioorganometallics ; Biomolecules, Labeling, Medicine[END_REF][START_REF] Jaouen | Bioorganometallic Chemistry, Applications in Drug Discovery, Biocatalysis and Imaging[END_REF][START_REF] Jaouen | Medicinal Organometallic Chemistry[END_REF][START_REF] Weigand | Bioorganometallic Chemistry[END_REF][START_REF] Hirao | Advances in Bioorganometallic Chemistry[END_REF][START_REF] Simonneaux | Topics in Organometallic Chemistry[END_REF] and reviews [START_REF] Hartinger | Bioorganometallic chemistry-from teaching paradigms to medicinal applications[END_REF][START_REF] Barry | Exploration of the medical periodic table: towards new targets[END_REF][START_REF] Jaouen | Ferrocifen type anticancer drugs[END_REF][START_REF] Albada | Organometallic-Peptide Bioconjugates: Synthetic Strategies and Medicinal Applications[END_REF][START_REF] Vessières | Multifaceted chemical behaviour of metallocene (M = Fe, Os) quinone methides. Their contribution to biology[END_REF][START_REF] Vessières | Metal carbonyl tracers and the ferrocifen family: Two facets of bioorganometallic chemistry[END_REF][START_REF] Fish | Bioorganometallic chemistry: structural diversity of organometallic complexes with bioligands and molecular recognition studies of several supramolecular hosts with biomolecules, alkali-metal ions, and organometallic pharmaceuticals[END_REF]. This was not the case almost four decades ago when the neologism bioorganometallic chemistry first appeared in the literature [START_REF] Top | Chromium tricarbonyl complexes of estradiol derivatives: differentiation of .alpha.-and .beta.-diastereoisomers using 1-and 2-dimensional NMR spectroscopy at 500 MHz[END_REF]. In a conscious decision to make a break from the already heavily studied medicinal properties of transition metal coordination complexes, as typified by Rosenberg's seminal discovery of the anticancer activity of cisplatin [START_REF] Rosenberg | Inhibition of Cell Division in Escherichia Coli by Electrolysis Products from a Platinum Electrode[END_REF], a program was initiated to probe the behaviour of bioactive systems containing direct sigma-or pi-bonded metal-carbon linkages, i.e. organometallic compounds.

It was immediately recognized that a number of potential problems would have to be overcome: for example, would the molecules be unstable, insoluble in water, or too large to pass through cell membranes? Eventually however, despite the lack of funding initially, these difficulties were successfully surmounted and, as the participants in the latest ISBOMC that was held recently in Paris were able to demonstrate, our increasingly sophisticated understanding of the subtleties of the field has led to major advances towards their further applications in medicine. We note, for example, that the use of ferroquine as an antimalarial drug is currently in late-stage clinical trials [START_REF] Dubar | On the molecular mechanisms of the antimalarial action of ferroquine[END_REF].

A comprehensive review of the founding principles, and subsequent development of bioorganometallic chemistry, which also included the previous studies of Ehrlich et al. on organoarsenicals, and the Cytochrome P450 metabolism studies of organotin compounds by Fish et al. [START_REF] Fish | Bioorganotin chemistry: biological oxidation of tributyltin derivatives[END_REF][START_REF] Fish | Bioorganotin chemistry: situs and stereochemistry in the reaction of cyclohextriphenyltin with a cyctochrome P-450 dependent monooxygenase enzyme system[END_REF], appeared in 2005 [START_REF] Jaouen | A Novel Field of Research:Bioorganometallic Chemistry, Origins, and Founding Principles[END_REF]. However, in this review, we have focused on the first few years of the Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie bioorganometallic chemistry project, when its evident success was less predictable. The initial experiments were apparently somewhat more prosaic, but exemplified the approach that led ultimately to the subsequent breakthroughs.

The genesis of this theme arose in 1983 from the creation at the Ecole Nationale Supérieure de Chimie in Paris of a team of three researchers with complementary skills (Gérard Jaouen, Siden Top and Anne Vessières) who had chosen to work on a multidisciplinary subject linking organometallic chemistry to biology. Gérard Jaouen was a well-recognized researcher in organometallic chemistry for having shown how the temporary complexation of an aromatic ring by a Cr(CO)3 fragment could be used for innovative regio-and stereo-specific functionalizations [START_REF] Jaouen | Arene complexes in Organic Synthesis[END_REF][START_REF] Jaouen | Examples of the use of chromium tricarbonyl-arene complexes in organic synthesis[END_REF]. Siden Top was a young post-doctoral researcher whose exceptional talents as a synthetic chemist would soon prove essential to the development of the project. Anne Vessières had just completed a biology thesis in the field of estrogen receptors after having defended a thesis in organometallic chemistry a few years earlier; this enabled her to make the bridge between the two disciplines. The first research topic addressed was a feasibility study of the use of a chromium carbonyl complex derived from estradiol as a non-isotopic tracer for the detection, by FT-IR spectroscopy, of estradiol receptors in target tissues (uterus). Gratifyingly, four publications relating to this work established the feasibility of this approach [START_REF] Top | Chromium tricarbonyl complexes of estradiol derivatives: differentiation of .alpha.-and .beta.-diastereoisomers using 1-and 2-dimensional NMR spectroscopy at 500 MHz[END_REF][START_REF] Jaouen | Metal carbonyl fragments as a new class of markers in molecular biology[END_REF][START_REF] Top | Synthesis of tritium-labeled(3-O-(3-hydroxypropyl)-17ß-estradiol chromium tricarbonyl: the first radioactive transition metal carbonyl steroid hormone[END_REF][START_REF] Vessières | Organometallic estrogens: synthesis, interaction with lamb uterine estrogen receptor, and detection by infrared spectroscopy[END_REF]. But why did we choose such a subject? Knowing that 1 in 8 women in the western world (or developed countries) are likely to develop breast cancer, a new method of assaying the presence of estrogen receptors in breast tumors prior to the use of tamoxifen for the treatment of hormone-dependent cancers was sought.

The standard approach involved the use of tritiated estradiol and the usual caveats associated with radiation, (storage, disposal, etc.), and the new idea was to use the natural hormone 17β-estradiol (E2), 1, bearing an organometallic fragment detectable by infrared spectroscopy. In the spectra of metal carbonyl complexes, the ν(CO) stretching vibrations are by far the most intense peaks and, moreover, they lie in the region 2100-1850 cm -1 where proteins have a clear window. Such an approach only became viable with the commercial availability of Fourier-transform (FTIR) spectrometers with their manyfold enhancement in sensitivity and enormously lowered detection limits

The idea of using metal carbonyls for the development of non-isotopic tracers had previously been put forward in 1978 by Michael Cais from the Technion in Israel for carrying out immunoassays [START_REF] Cais | Metalloimmunoassay[END_REF], but there were no convenient methods allowing one to detect these tracers at the low (nanomolar) concentrations required in these analyses. We considered that it was possible to assemble a group with all the necessary skills to bring a new approach to this field of non-isotopic tracers applied to an important societal problem, the determination of the hormone-dependent or hormone-independent nature of breast tumors.

Synthetic and NMR spectroscopic aspects

The first approach involved the π-complexation of the aromatic A ring in 17ß-estradiol by a tricarbonylchromium fragment in the hope that these complexes would still be recognized by the estradiol receptors, and could be used as substitutes for radioactive markers in the estradiol receptor assay. This involved overcoming many potential obstacles. Not only are the half-sandwich chromium complexes known to be photosensitive, but also these lipophilic species are not soluble in biological media consisting of aqueous solutions. It therefore required a good dose of optimism or unconsciousness to embark on such an adventure.

Steroid hormones, and estradiol in particular, are small organic molecules whose mechanism of action is linked to their interaction with a specific receptor present in the nuclei of target cells. Many studies, notably those by researchers from the pharmaceutical company Roussel-Uclaf, had been published on estradiol derivatives with the aim of obtaining molecules that best mimic the behaviour of the natural hormone [START_REF] Raynaud | Structure-activity relationships of steroids estrogens, Estrogens in the Environment[END_REF][START_REF] Raynaud | Receptor binding as a tool in the development of new bioactive steroids[END_REF]. The estradiol molecule comprises the four-ring backbone (A-D) common to all steroids, and is characterized by a phenolic A ring and an OH substituent at the 17ß position (Fig. 1). The presence of the saturated 5-and 6-membered rings causes the three-dimensional structure of estradiol to deviate from planarity, whose stereochemistry is defined in terms of alpha and beta faces, whereby the 17-hydroxy and 13-methyl substituents are neighbours on the ß face. It should be borne in mind that the complexation of estrone by Cr(CO)3 and acetylergosterol by Fe(CO)3 was published as early as 1963 [START_REF] Nakamura | pi-complexes with biologically significant materials II Acetylergosterol iron tricarbonyl[END_REF][START_REF] Nakamura | Complexes with Biologically Significant Material .1. Estrone Chromium Tricarbonyl[END_REF] with, on the part of the authors, a stated intention, but no actual use of these complexes for problems of biological interest. Subsequently, in 1980 the complexation of estradiol by Cr(CO)3 was reported by

Pouskouleli and Butler [START_REF] Pouskouleli | Reactions of group VIB metal hexacarbonyls with arene hormonal steroids[END_REF]. They described a complex that was not very light-or thermallystable at room temperature, and therefore not suitable for use in a biological medium; moreover, there was no mention of obtaining diastereomers arising from attachment of the Cr(CO)3 unit on either the  or  face of estradiol. Initially, the estradiol complexes 2 and 3 bearing a tricarbonylchromium tripod on the alpha or beta side of the molecule were prepared and characterized by NMR spectroscopy, but their stability was insufficient to allow their use in biological media. Subsequently, a series of derivatives of estradiol was prepared, each bearing a Cr(CO)3 moiety (or a Cr(CO)2CS unit) π-bonded to the aromatic A ring, which also possessed a protected phenol function (Scheme 1). Gratifyingly, the resulting diastereomers, whereby the organometallic unit was positioned on either the α or β face of the steroid, were separable chromatographically [START_REF] Top | Chromium tricarbonyl complexes of estradiol derivatives: differentiation of .alpha.-and .beta.-diastereoisomers using 1-and 2-dimensional NMR spectroscopy at 500 MHz[END_REF].

Scheme 1.

Structures of an initial series of estradiol derivatives, including molecules complexed by a Cr(CO)3 or Cr(CO)2CS unit.

However, the question arose to their stereochemical identity as the possibility of carrying out an X-ray crystallographic study in every case would not have been practicable, even though the structure was eventually determined for 12 [START_REF] Vessières | Organometallic estrogens: synthesis, interaction with lamb uterine estrogen receptor, and detection by infrared spectroscopy[END_REF]. (We note that with today's more powerful rotating anode X-ray sources, more sensitive charge-coupled or area detectors, exponentially better computational facilities, and modern direct methods programs, one can solve several structures in a single day, but such was not the case in the early 1980s.)

Consequently, during an informal discussion in Paris (Fig. 2), the possibility of using NMR spectroscopy to distinguish the α or β isomers was therefore considered. At that time, although a number of articles concerning the 13 C NMR spectra of steroids had been published [32], there were very few for the 1 H regime [START_REF] Hall | Complete analysis of proton NMR spectra of complex natural products using a combination of one-and two-dimensional techniques. 1-Dehydrotestosterone[END_REF][START_REF] Hall | Analysis of the proton nuclear magnetic resonance spectrum of 11.beta.-hydroxyprogesterone by one-and two-dimensional methods. Some implications for steroid and terpenoid chemistry[END_REF] because of severe peak overlap. However, the University of Paris had just acquired a 500 MHz spectrometer (at that time an enormously exciting prospect) and together with the newly-developed twodimensional NMR techniques, such an approach was thought to be viable. Knowing that protons above an arene ring, as in [START_REF] Albada | Organometallic-Peptide Bioconjugates: Synthetic Strategies and Medicinal Applications[END_REF]paracyclophane, are markedly shielded [START_REF] Agarwal | Ring Currents, Local Anisotropy, and Problem of Out-of-Plane Protons -Reinvestigation of Nuclear Magnetic-Resonance Spectrum of [10]-Paracyclophane[END_REF], whereas those positioned to the side of the triple bond in cyclooctyne are deshielded [START_REF] Agarwal | Local Anisotropic Contributions to H-1 Nuclear Magnetic-Resonance Shifts in Alkynes[END_REF], one could envisage that the diamagnetic anisotropy of a linear Cr-C≡O fragment would position the 6α and 6β protons of the steroid in very different environments (Fig. 3). To be specific, in the αisomer, the 6α proton should be strongly deshielded relative to its 6β counterpart, but inversely so in the β-isomer, as indicated in Fig. 4. Indeed, the 1 H-1 H COSY and SECSY data, together with the 1 H-13 C shift-correlated spectra, acquired on the new 500 MHz spectrometer allowed the complete assignment of all hydrogens and carbons in these steroidal-organometallic molecules. As shown in Fig. 5, the strikingly large separations of the 6α and 6β protons provided an unequivocal method of readily distinguishing these pairs of diastereomers. The resulting manuscript [START_REF] Top | Chromium tricarbonyl complexes of estradiol derivatives: differentiation of .alpha.-and .beta.-diastereoisomers using 1-and 2-dimensional NMR spectroscopy at 500 MHz[END_REF] was written during a visit by Gérard Jaouen and Anne Vessières to the home of MJM in Canada, during which time the term bioorganometallic chemistry was coined and first used in a journal submission.

This approach made it possible to differentiate readily between alpha and beta complexes. However, these complexes lack an OH group at C3, which is known to be essential for the recognition of estradiol molecules by the receptor site. Since complexes 2 and 3 were not stable, the complexes 18 and 19 were prepared in which the OH function is no longer phenolic, but rather is separated from the aromatic ring by a propyl chain (Scheme 2), thereby yielding systems in which 1 mM solutions are stable when kept at 20°C and protected from light.

Scheme 2. synthesis of (3-O-(3-hydroxypropyl)-17ß-estradiol chromium tricarbonyl (alpha and beta isomers).

Measurement of Relative Binding Affinities

These lipophilic complexes are not soluble in biological media, but the addition, in biological media, of these complexes in alcoholic solution in order to obtain a final concentration of 5% in ethanol allows their solubilization and the study of their biological properties, in particular their affinity for the estradiol receptor. With the need to have biological extracts containing estradiol receptors, and being unable to gain convenient access to rat uteri, we chose to work instead on sheep uteri that we would collect once a year from the slaughterhouse at Mantes la Jolie, not far from Paris. This allowed us to perform experiments with uteri from young animals whose receptors are not already occupied by circulating estradiol, and also to work with a homogeneous batch of animals allowing good reproducibility of the results. Since estrogen receptors degrade rapidly at room temperature, it was essential to freeze them quickly in liquid nitrogen after sampling, thereby allowing their conservation for a year or more).

The studies began with the determination of the relative binding affinity of complexes 10, 11, 17-19 (Table 1) to see whether a molecule is still recognized by the estradiol receptor (Rc-E2). To obtain this value, in the presence of a fixed quantity of receptor, a fixed concentration of tritiated estradiol ([6,7] 3 H-E2; 6 x10 -9 M) and variable concentrations of the complexes were tested (1 x 10 -10 to 1 x 10 -6 M). The quantity of tritiated estradiol bound to Rc-E2 decreases according to the quantity of the complex to be tested and its affinity for the receptor. For each product, the concentration required to displace 50% tritiated estradiol is determined. This value is compared with that obtained for non-radioactive estradiol. The ratio between these two values constitutes the Relative Binding Affinity (RBA) of the complex for Rc-E2. The RBA of the natural hormone estradiol (E2) is, by definition, 100%; the lower this value, the less the complex is recognized by the estradiol receptor. The data revealed that all the complexes tested retain some affinity for Rc-E2.

Unsurprisingly, the silyl complex 9, which has a 17ß OH, but no phenolic OH at C3, has a rather low affinity of 11%. This decreases significantly upon incorporation of the αcomplexed Cr(CO)3 moiety in 10 (1.1%), and even more so for its ß-complexed counterpart 11 (0.4%). In contrast, when the substituent at C3 is the HO(CH2)3O unit, as in 17, the RBA value of 37% indicates that the folding of the propyl chain allows a correct positioning of the OH within Rc-E2. This value drops only slightly in the corresponding -Cr(CO)3 system (RBA = 28% for 18), whereas it falls dramatically for the -complexed diastereomer R for 19 To carry out the necessary biochemical experiments with complex 18, and thereby study its interactions with the receptor site, required the preparation of a radioactive derivative. As shown in Scheme 3, the corresponding estrone complex 22 was stereospecifically reduced with sodium borohydride, then available in its tritiated form (NaB[ 3 H]4), to furnish the desired 17β-OH derivative. Moreover, thanks to the good yield (94%), it was finally possible to obtain 7 mg of the [ 3 H]-18 complex as a yellow solid with a specific activity of 4.1 Ci/mmol that was stable when kept in the cold and protected from light. Although markedly lower than that of commercial tritiated estradiol ([6.7-3 H]-E2, AS = 58 Ci/mmol), it was sufficient to obtain a saturation curve for the complex with the estradiol receptor, demonstrating that this hormone binds specifically to Rc-E2 with a low level of non-specific binding (Fig. 6). The data from this curve made it possible to calculate the affinity constant of this complex for the estradiol receptor. Interestingly, the KD value obtained for [ 3 H]-18 is very comparable to that found for [ 3 H]-E2 (0.85 nM and 0.67 nM respectively) [START_REF] Vessières | Organometallic estrogens: synthesis, interaction with lamb uterine estrogen receptor, and detection by infrared spectroscopy[END_REF]. We note that this type of preparation of a such a tritium-labeled derivative would not currently be possible.

Indeed, the rules concerning the use of radioactive compounds have led to the ban on the routine use of tritiated NaBH4 in synthetic chemistry laboratories. Furthermore, the reduction of a ketone by NaBH4, as shown in Scheme 3 leads to the formation of potentially hazardous tritiated water. Nevertheless, at that stage, we had an estradiol derivative bearing a πcomplexed Cr(CO)3 moiety having a strong affinity for the estradiol receptor. It was therefore a viable proposition to consider taking advantage of the particular infrared properties of metal carbonyl complexes to proceed to the last step of this project, a quantification of the estradiol receptors present in sheep uterus cytosols.

An infrared spectroscopic approach towards bioassays

As indicated above, this work was carried out in the course of a France-Canada collaboration (Fig. 7 These solid samples were pressed into 3-mm pellet for IR-analysis. The spectra shown in Fig. 8 are the result of the collection of 10,000 scans, in sets of 300 scans at a time, and then co-added using the Nicolet software [START_REF] Vessières | Organometallic estrogens: synthesis, interaction with lamb uterine estrogen receptor, and detection by infrared spectroscopy[END_REF]. The spectrum in Fig. 8A highlights the existence of a window in the IR spectrum of proteins in the region 2100-1850 cm -1 . After incubation in the presence of 10 nM of 18, the resonances attributable to the metal complex are visible (spectrum 8B), but given the small amount of Rc-E2 contained in the fractions (in the fmol mg -1 protein range) the peaks are of low intensity. Nevertheless, expansion of the metal carbonyl stretching region (spectrum 8C)

confirmed that these resonances indeed correspond to those of complex 18.

This work demonstrated the feasibility of our approach, a first in the field of the use of metal carbonyl complexes as non-radioactive tracers. However, because of the very small quantities of estrogen receptors to be assayed, it was not possible to develop this technique into a routine assay. Consequently, we then turned to the development of immunological assays with a much higher sensitivity range, and chose to focus on the dosages of three antiepileptic drugs, carbamazepine, phenobarbital and DPH (diphenylhydantoin) whose toxic doses are close to the effective doses. Three organometallic tracers carrying different metal carbonyl fragments [Co2(CO)6, Mn(CO)3, Cr(CO)3] (24-26) were prepared (Fig. 9).

Carbamazepine perform quantitative assays of these tracers with detection limits as low as 300 femtomoles for the cobalt carbonyl complex, 24 [START_REF] Salmain | Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic method for the quantitative trace analysis of transition-metal carbonyllabeled bioligands[END_REF]. With the collaboration of Michèle Salmain, at that times a thesis student in the laboratory, and Prof. Pierre Brossier in Dijon who provided us with specific antibodies, we were able to demonstrate the feasibility of this approach christened Carbonyl Metallo-Immuno Assay (CMIA) [START_REF] Salmain | Carbonylmetalloimmunoassay (CMIA) a new type of non-radioisotopic immunoassay. Principles and application to phenobarbital assay[END_REF] for these three epileptic drugs carbamazepine [START_REF] Varenne | Production of specific antibodies and development of a non-isotopic immunoassay for carbamazepine by the carbonyl metallo-immunoassay (CMIA) method[END_REF], phenobarbital [START_REF] Salmain | Carbonylmetalloimmunoassay (CMIA) a new type of non-radioisotopic immunoassay. Principles and application to phenobarbital assay[END_REF] and DPH [START_REF] Varenne | Application of the nonradioisotopic carbonyl metalloimmunoassay (CMIA) to diphenylhydantoin[END_REF]. It was also found possible to carry out simultaneous multidosages of two [START_REF] Varenne | Application of the nonradioisotopic carbonyl metalloimmunoassay (CMIA) to diphenylhydantoin[END_REF] or three molecules [START_REF] Salmain | A new application of Bioorganometallics : the first simultaneous triple assay by the Carbonyl metallo immuno assay (CMIA) method[END_REF]; we note that analytical techniques allowing this kind of approach are rare [START_REF] Salmain | Organometallic complexes as tracers in non-isotopic immunoassay[END_REF].

More recently, in an extension of the original project, the complex 27 (Fig. 11), in which the ferrocenyl substituent in a ferrocifen-type system was replaced by the (cyclopentadienyl)tricarbonylrhenium moiety, has been localized and located inside a breast cancer cell, thanks to the use of AFM-IR (atomic force microscopy-infrared spectroscopy) a cutting-edge technique developed by Prof. Alexandre Dazzi at Université Paris-Sud, [START_REF] Dazzi | AFM-IR: Combining Atomic Force Microscopy and Infrared Spectroscopy for Nanoscale Chemical Characterization[END_REF][START_REF] Dazzi | Local infrared microspectroscopy with subwavelength spatial resolution with an atomic force microscope tip used as a photothermal sensor[END_REF].

This technique is based on the coupling of an atomic force microscope (AFM) with a tunable pulsed infrared laser emitting in the mid-infrared region (1200-3200 cm -1 ), and makes it possible to obtain images with a resolution between 20 and 50 nm, whereas that of a conventional optical infrared microscope is 2.5 µM at 2000 cm -1 . It is therefore possible to carry out mapping of the complex in a cell whose size is of the order of 20 µM. This work was done in collaboration with Prof. Clotilde Policar at the Ecole Normale Supérieure de Paris whereby incubation of MDA-MB-231 breast cancer cells in the presence of complex 27 (10 μM, 1 h) revealed that the complex entered the cells well, and that it was located essentially in the nucleus (Fig. 11) [START_REF] Policar | Subcellular IR Imaging of a Metal-Carbonyl Moiety Using Photothermally Induced Resonance[END_REF].

Concluding remarks

In summary, this review takes stock of the development of metal carbonyl complexes as tracers in biology, based on their particular infrared spectroscopic properties. This project made it possible to validate this approach to Bioorganometallic Chemistry, initially in the field of hormone receptors. It was then extended by the development of the non-isotopic immunoassay CMIA before more recently finding a new application for the tracing of these complexes in cells.

The subsequent emphasis on the syntheses and bioactivity of ferrocifens, in which a phenyl group in Tamoxifen, the current first line treatment for hormone-dependent breast cancer, has been replaced by a ferrocenyl sandwich moiety has been comprehensively reviewed elsewhere [START_REF] Vessières | Multifaceted chemical behaviour of metallocene (M = Fe, Os) quinone methides. Their contribution to biology[END_REF]. All these results demonstrate that multidisciplinary research led by a visionary leader keen on innovation, involving teams at the forefront of innovation in their respective fields, can lead to major scientific advances.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Three-dimensional structure and atom numbering in 17ß-estradiol (E2).

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Informal discussions in Paris: from left to right, Michael McGlinchey, Siden Top, Angela Marinetti, Gérard Jaouen.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. NMR shielding and deshielding zones in aromatic and linear molecular systems.

Fig. 4 .Fig. 5 .

 45 Fig. 4. Predicted shielding and deshielding of the 6α and 6β protons in the β (left) and α (right) estradiol-chromium tricarbonyl isomers.

Scheme 3 .

 3 Scheme 3. Synthesis of 18 in its tritiated form, via the reduction of 22, the corresponding estrone, with NaB[ 3 H]4. The preparation of 18 represented a real challenge that required working on such small quantities (5 x 10 -5 M of 22, or 9.4 mg). However, it was possible to purchase 4 x 10 -6 mol of NaB[ 3 H]4 (i.e. 100 µCi of NaB[ 3 H]4 with a specific activity of 25 Ci/mmol).

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Interaction of [ 3 H]-18 with uterine cytosol used as a source of Rc-E2. Lamb uterine cytosol was incubated with increasing concentrations of [ 3 H]-18, alone or together with a 100-fold excess of unlabeled diethylstilbestrol (DES) (to determine the non-specific binding)

  , photos from 1984) with Prof. Ian Butler and Ashraf Ismail, a doctoral student at McGill University in Montreal, on a Nicolet 6000-FT-IR spectrometer, one of the first to use the Fourier transform infrared technique, which made it possible to markedly increase the sensitivity of the analyses.

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. (Left) Gérard Jaouen and Ian Butler on a bridge near Notre Dame cathedral in Paris; (right) Anne Vessières in her office at ENSCP. In these analyses, fractions of sheep uterus (6-8 mL) containing estradiol receptors were incubated for 2 hours at 4°C in the presence of 10 nM of complex 18. At the end of the incubation, addition of a basic solution of protamine sulphate brought about precipitation of the acidic proteins (including Rc-E2) that were recovered by centrifugation and lyophilized.

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. FT-IR spectra of mini-pellet of lyophilized proteins (from lamb uterine cytosol). A, cytosol incubated with E2, off scale; B, cytosol incubated with 10 nM of 18, off scale; C, as in spectrum B, but expanded in the metal carbonyl stretching region.

Fig. 9 .Fig. 10 .

 910 Fig. 9. Antiepileptic drugs and their organometallic tracers.

Fig. 11 .

 11 Fig.11. Complex 27 was localized in the nucleus of single cell (MDA-MB231 cancer cells). a) FT-IR spectrum of pure 1; b) FT-IR spectrum of control cells; c) FT-IR spectrum of a collection of cells incubated with 27 (50 µM, 1h); d) AFM-IR spectrum at the nucleus of a single cell treated with of 27 (10 µM, 1h).

  Two Canadian researchers quickly proved essential to the successful development of this new theme: Michael McGlinchey, then at McMaster University with a background in organic and organometallic synthesis and NMR, and Ian Butler from McGill University, a specialist in infrared and Raman spectroscopy who encouraged the Paris group to take advantage of the newly developed technique of Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) spectroscopy available in his laboratory, but not in France at that time.

Table 1 .

 1 Relative Binding Affinity (RBA) values of a selection of complexes[START_REF] Vessières | Organometallic estrogens: synthesis, interaction with lamb uterine estrogen receptor, and detection by infrared spectroscopy[END_REF]

	R	H 17ß-estradiol	Si(CH3)2tBu 9	Si(CH3)2tBu -Cr(CO)3 10	Si(CH3)2tBu -Cr(CO)3 11	HO(CH2)3O 17	HO(CH2)3O -Cr(CO)3 18	HO(CH2)3O -Cr(CO)3 19
	RBA	100	11	1.1	0.4	37	28	1.8

Acknowledgements

We thank French-Quebec and France-Canada exchanges and the Natural Sciences and Engineering Research Council of Canada (NSERC) for generous financial support. Fig. 5 is reprinted with permission from ref. 14. Copyright 1985 American Chemical Society. Fig. 8 is reprinted with permission from ref. 24. Copyright 1988 American Chemical Society. Fig. 10 is reprinted with permission from ref. 37, Copyright 1991 American Chemical Society. Fig. 11 is reprinted with permission from ref 46; Copyright 2011 Wiley. The photographs appearing in Fig. 7 (left and right) are shown courtesy of Barbara McGlinchey and Annie Cordaville, respectively.


Steven M Kaplan

Spinster

teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.

The established order of heterosexual marriage, an introduction

Taking for granted that women should all be married by a given age is rooted in the gender binary, heteronormativity, the "marriage ideal," and male hegemony, all of which make spinster such an unfairly vilifying and marginalizing expression. Lahad (2017:52) states:

"it is my contention that single women above a certain age are faced with a triple discrimination, based on their age, gender, and single status."

It follows, then, that if a woman were to be Black (or otherwise "not white") then it would be a quadruple discrimination. It could be a quintuple discrimination if she were also to be a "foreigner," and so on.

As will be seen by the closer examination of the word spinster, the patriarchal heteronormative1 "marriage ideal" is not only increasingly onerous for unattached women as they age, but can even serve to burden unmarried females their entire lives. Ingraham and Saunders (2016:1) share this on the heterosexual imaginary:

"can be defined as the ways of thinking that conceal how heterosexuality structures gender and closes off any critical analysis of heterosexuality as an institution."

This makes being heterosexual "automatic," "normal," a part of "their god's plan" and the established order, none of which should ever be questioned or even given another thought. Most people also believe, uncritically, that females are born to get married and to have and raise children. It's as simple and natural as breathing is for almost everybody: "the air is there, and we take it so that we can live." Even if a woman does conform to the patriarchal "assumption" of getting married in order to avoid being a spinster, an old maid, or a crazy cat lady, she can nevertheless look forward to linguistic subjugation.

To name just one example, a wife is often referred to "humorously" as the old ball and chain, as if it were they who negate freedom. "Jocular" or not, the message is there. Another oppressive aspect of this expression is that if a wife questions anything at all, reasonable as it may be to do so, she runs the risk of being labelled2 as a shrew, vixen, henpecker, fishwife, hellcat, dragon, gorgon, or she-devil, among many others. Not strangely, in a patriarchal society there is a dearth of analogous expressions for males, which is particularly ironic since it is they who usually deny liberty.

At the time of this writing, the first example sentence the Oxford Living Dictionaries online provides for shrew, to cite just one example out of all these vilifying words, packs a wallop: "hold your nagging tongue, you miserable old shrew!"

• So, a wife must be controlled ("hold your"),

• what she says is not only of no interest but even bothersome ("nagging tongue"),

• she is denigrated and insulted ("you miserable" and "old" in the tiresome sense, or just plain "old"),

• and finally, the key insulting epithet, "shrew", is cast her way to drive the point home. Ingraham (2009) refers to a white wedding as one where "everything" is white, including the bride and theme, as the "McBride" model. She goes on to provide several fundamental arguments in her demonstration of how white weddings are one of the most influential rituals employed in the fostering, maintenance, and furtherance of institutionalised heterosexual systems and in the enforcement of normative heterosexuality (with my additional comments in bold and italic, between parentheses).

• White weddings are glorified and sold as the biggest day of a woman's life (So, without such a day a woman is incomplete, especially a "spinster").

• Such weddings are "must haves," and promote the illusion that happiness and well-being will follow (So, without such a wedding there will only be misery and loneliness, especially for "spinsters").

• They are a frequent fodder employed by the film and television industries to attract viewers (And to keep these weddings in mind; in this society we must vicariously experience the weddings of celebrities as a part of our "shared3 " cultural values, ideals to which "those spinsters" are resisting).

• She notes that most television shows, including soap operas, prime-time situation comedies, and "reality TV," had at least one wedding in their episodes over the years, often the "season finale." Plus, innumerable wedding blogs and virtual weddings are amongst the massive wedding content on the internet. (Which those lonely, bored, and unhappy "spinsters" miss out on).

• All this is a part of the wedding-industrial and ideological complexes, which commodify weddings, and create the demand and market for these white weddings. (Thus, being a "spinster" is subversive and bad for the economy. Such spectacles also demonstrate that the "haves" in society have white weddings, while the "have nots" can't have them). • These wedding-ideological complex messages naturalise the social construct of weddings.

Even girls too young to marry already know that their wedding day will be the happiest of her life, and in order to have this, everything must be perfect. (To be sure, this will involve a lot of shopping (attire, jewellery, venue, food, flowers, etc.); no love needed).

The wedding tradition within capitalistic patriarchy thus goes unchallenged, and woe be any woman, above all a spinster, who dares defy the established order.

2.

The subjugation of femalesfrom the liberty, moral, cultural, social, educational, sexual, reproductive, legal, religious, leisure, labour, political, economic, and ownership perspectives patriarchy n An ideology and societal structure in which males have most or all of the power, at the expense of females and nature. Females are subjugated from the liberty, moral, cultural, social, educational, sexual, reproductive, legal, religious, leisure, labour, political, economic, and ownership perspectives. In a patriarchal society females and animals are objectified and commodified, with the concomitant lack of regard for their needs and well-being. The institutionalised system of male dominance over females is embodied in patriarchy. 4 Here is a closer look at how patriarchy subjugates females from each of these standpoints, with an emphasis on culture, linguistics, and many aspects relevant to marriage:

2.1

liberty -There is not much liberty for those subjugated in so many regards. By and large, people who are born as females remain the "property" of their father until the latter "gives her away" in marriage. There is the expectation, therefore the requirement, for "all girls" to look forward to marriage, in what might be called the "marriage ideal 5 ." The behaviour of most females is regulated throughout their lives (contrast this with the anything goes boys will be boys 6 mindset), their bodies may be commodified for prostitution or pornography 7 , and a majority is forced to live a marriage-centred life, irrespective of their marital status. As children they are trained to see marriage and married life as the ultimate fulfilment for all females8 , and in the greater part of marriages their conduct is regulated by male-centred societal and cultural traditions that are patriarchally determined.

2.2

moral -To most men, a woman is moral only if she has her "commodity" intact, or does precisely what her "owner" (husband, father, pimp, etc.) demands. Grose (1785) defined commodity so: "a woman's commodity; the private parts of a modest woman, and the public parts of a prostitute." Although the term commodity is no longer synonymous with the vagina, the outer genitals, and the anus, under the jackboot of patriarchy women's genitals (and the rest if their bodies) are anyway commodified in many ways.

2.3

cultural -In a patriarchal society it is mostly only males that make noteworthy cultural contributions; well, at least the patriarchs make it seem so. Statues and other monuments in big cities, the portraits hanging on "the walls of power" (courthouses, government offices, large corporations, military headquarters, etc.), and the like, are practically all of "great" men.

2.4

social -Women are often disparagingly referred to as "the weaker sex," and not just physical, but also mental feebleness is connoted by this pitiful epithet. Another linguistic example is to refer to women as "lovely ladies," which shifts the focus from the intellectual to the superficial, complete with a dose of belittlement. This latter expression is heard too often9 in social events, such as galas. Many older men feel the need to secure a trophy wife10 , which is as belittling to the "trophy" as it is pathetic for the "winner" who gets (gets as in purchases) said "trophy."

2.5

educational -Many females have reduced opportunities to study, for any number of reasons, including rearing of children (whether married at the time or not), tending to another family member (such as a terminally-ill relative), or because they have been beaten down intellectually so much that they "already know" that they will fail. And, the women who do decide to pursue an education are often faced with needless obstacles such as a "chilly climate." Since a chilly climate incorporates numerous aspects of patriarchal oppression, here is a definition of the term:

chilly climate n

Meaning:

[within the academic world in general, and within specific academic settings in particular] Unfair and/or intimidatory treatment of females that leads them to be less likely to excel at their studies, to pursue their long-term academic aspirations, to secure promotions and grants, and in general to feel welcome in such surroundings.

Insight into the bias:

A chilly climate may entail any number of discriminatory and/or hostile actions, resulting, for instance, in females obtaining lower grades for work of equivalent or better quality than that of males, receiving less encouragement and recognition, getting less favourable peer reviews, feeling inhibited towards making the positive contributions they are capable of, or being sexually harassed or assaulted.

Towards a heightened inclusive awareness:

The analytical framework that intersectionality provides helps to better understand the aggravated toxic effects a chilly climate may have on females that belong to "minority" groups, who are economically poor, not heteronormative, have physical differences, and so on, since multiple mechanisms of oppression intersect. 11 How many of these uncalled-for complications and problems point towards a chilly climate being a metaphor for several aspects of a female's life within a patriarchal society in general?

2.6

sexual -Without the demand created by males, there would be no female prostitution nor sexual trafficking 12 . Besides this, many, if not most, men consider their wives or any woman they are having sex with to be their property, to do with as they wish. Within a patriarchal culture, "it is the man's prerogative to enjoy sex." "Getting his way" is all that matters to most males; women's consent, sexual desires, and their needs in general, are usually held to be inconsequential, if at all considered. In a male-controlled society, men can have as many women as they want and be studs, charmers, smooth operators, skirt chasers, or even lady-killers (and on an on), but a woman who is even suspected of "getting around" is a slut, whore, tramp, hussy, harlot, hooker, tart, floozy, femme-fatale, fallen woman, trollop, or vamp (and this list really goes on and on). Many men want to "marry a virgin," regardless of any premarital sex they themselves may have had, including with "virgins" which they by their own standards have "despoiled."

And where is the bodily integrity and safety of females when sexual harassment and abuse and rape are always in the air? Idiotic and unwanted lewd comments, obscene jokes, unwelcome contact, and the like can and do make each day an ordeal for countless females. How many catcalls 13 carry an implied threat that at any time such a male (or group of men) can "prove" to her what a real man is (or men, depending on the scenario), against her will? In their "defence," catcalls help such males prove to themselves and others that they are "real men 14 ." Every time a female smiles, laughs, giggles, winks, or responds favourably to these comments, whistles, grunts, gestures, or shouts, is just further encouragement for this and other abusive behaviour to be perpetrated against all females. Many women simply don't know better, unfortunately, since they live in patriarchal cultures where such conduct is understood to be "innate 15 " for males, and besides, there is regrettably no shortage of females that may feebly rationalise, "who doesn't like a compliment?"

In an atrocious instance of gang rape and murder, Heise (2018) recounts an incident at a boarding school in Kenya in 1991, where 71 teenage females were raped by their male classmates, along with 19 other who died, as the males attacked the females when the latter refused to participate in a protest strike. A report on the front page of the Kenya Times referred to this as a "common occurrence sanctioned by the principal and his staff," and they quoted the deputy principal as stating: "The boys never meant any harm against the girls. They just wanted to rape 16 ." Heise 11 Kaplan (2020:236) 12 New World Encyclopedia -Prostitution. Permalink: https://web.archive.org/web/20181012185204/http:/www.newworldencyclopedia.org/entry/Prostitution#Human_traf ficking_and_sexual_slavery. It is also worth noting that although there are also women who pay for sex, and men who pay for male prostitutes, most prostitution consists of males exploiting females, and most pornography is directed towards the fantasies and viewing preferences of males. (Dworkin, 1997) 13 A catcall is already a manifestation of sexual violence, even if no physical contact is made. 14 As an integral part in the policing of masculinity. (Kaplan, 2020:152-167) 15 Within the social construction of the male gender. 16 Therefore, as far as he is concerned, "just" raping must not be a bad thing, right? Especially if they "meant no harm." There is much more on this sort of behaviour, and what fosters it, in Kaplan (2020:127-141).

goes on to point out that there are still countries where "the family honour is preserved" and "all is forgiven" so long as the rapist marries his victim 17 . She also states that in many countries, a raped woman is considered to be "ruined," and often shunned by her community and family, including her husband (if married, of course).

Then there are the women who are victims of the "nicer sounding" female circumcision. Euphemisms aside, Utz-Billing and Kentenich (2008) have this to say about female genital mutilation, which they define as "non-therapeutic, partial or complete removal or injury of each of the external female genitals."

• They state that around 130 million women in about 30 countries have to contend with genital mutilation ranging from prickling and piercing all the way through the complete excision of the clitoris, the labial minora, and labia majora.

• The purported "justifications" for this mutilation include the maintenance of the patriarchal family system, a "guarantee" of the faithfulness of these women to their husbands, and the "protection" of these women from disgrace or suspicion.

• They cite numerous attendant health problems, including bleeding, infection, sepsis, shock, higher susceptibility to HIV infections, delivery complications, and perinatal death.

Forced genital mutilation is yet another manifestation of how women are denied freedom from physical harm, or to even have the liberty to make a medical decision for themselves.

Marital rape and other gendered violence continue to victimise and oppress women, despite a greater awareness of these problems (Venkatesh and Randall, 2018).

2.7

reproductive -How often do people mindlessly say "he gave her a child?," as if men did all the work involved in gestation, childbirth, and rearing 18 ? As if males were the only ones that matter when it comes to reproduction? And implying that that is what all women live for, for a man to give her a child, to fulfil her as a wife and female?

In most cultures male children are preferred, to the extent that female foeticide is often committed. Shah, Gyawali, and Aro (2018) point out that this problem has become even worse. Females are not only being killed at birth, but also even before then on account of screening for the sex of the foetus, and preferentially "keeping males." They go on to state that this fosters the continuing oppression of women through gender discrimination, exacerbates female health problems in general, perturb specific families, and harm social networks as a whole. In cases were the parents allow the "less worthy" baby girl to live, she will likely get lesser quality health care (Heise, 2018).

Females are often regarded as little more than vessels for men's offspring (successors). Patriarchs make sure that there are no "bastards," since they want to ensure that their heirs are legitimate. Meyer (2015) points out that during the Neolithic Period 19 , through the observation of breeding animals, humans first became aware of males being needed to produce offspring. She also highlights the following:

• The recognition of paternity lead to patrilineal succession replacing matrilineal succession. 17 Especially when the "dishonoured family's perspective" "factors in" the "anything but a spinster" ideology. 18 Pretty ironic, considering reality, but fully aligned with a male-centred culture.

19 Neolithic period: https://web.archive.org/web/20190203135341/https://www.encyclopedia.com/social-sciencesand-law/anthropology-and-archaeology/human-evolution/neolithic-period

• Later it became imperative for men to pass on their property exclusively to their own children, reducing women to being merely objects of marriage, instead of reciprocating participants.

• As the "husbandry" of land and animals grew, so did the desire for land ownership, which then led ultimately to "homelands" and sovereignty.

• This new order was based on, and enforced through violence, which was absent from our hunter-and-gathering days.

• Violent subjugation became a way of life, as would be manifested by those who have power over others:

• violence the patriarch wields over his family

• violence that men wield over women • adults over children

• slaveowners over slaves • the rancher over animals

• the ruler over his subjects

A woman who has someone else's embryo implanted in her uterus, with the intention to be carried to term, is often called a gestational carrier. Note how that does not even sound like a human being is involved. More like a vessel. Dehumanisation is a fundamental part of commodifying people or parts of them, and this is a fitting example. As commodifying and unflattering as "womb renting" sounds, being a "gestational carrier" is even worse.

2.8

legal -There are still many countries where it is legal for men to force their wives to have sex with them (Venkatesh and Randall, 2018). Even when rape is considered as illegal, when a woman is raped, be it by her husband, a family member, a known person, or a complete stranger, it is extremely hard to prosecute the perpetrator, with many rape myths20 that "justify" the forced sexual contact or intercourse, such as "all women secretly want to get raped" (so the rapist is actually fulfilling his victim's "fantasy"), "we were drunk" (so it's the alcohol's fault), "the filthy bitch is lying" (dehumanising and vilifying), and so on. Not to mention a legal system in place to protect the rapist (Venkatesh and Randall, 2018).

2.9

religious -The menstrual cycle is one of many natural human processes. Only females can undergo these complex physiological changes, which occur on a more or less monthly basis, between menarche and menopause. Menstruation is an indispensable part of keeping the endometrium21 prepared for the implantation of a fertilised egg. During pregnancy (and usually also during lactation) menstrual flow is absent, but in the meantime a nonpregnant uterus is kept healthy and ready for the carrying of a foetus (or foetuses) through the discharge of blood and tissues through the vagina. Escaja (2018) has a lot to say about the relationship between menstruation and the oppression, subjugation, and disparagement of women. This is facilitated mainly through language and religion, both of which are social and cultural constructions. On account of menstruation, women are unfairly regarded by most cultures as inferior and impure. This then leads to females incorporating within themselves feelings of subordination, filth, fear, shame, and a lack of sexual agency.

The frequent references in the Old Testament 22 to the impurity of women on account of their menstruation meant that they were excluded from officiating religious rituals (where power resides), along with having to atone for their impurity to "Yahweh." Escaja (2018) goes on to highlight that the Vedas (Hindu sacred texts), Torah (Hebrew scriptures), and Koran (sacred text of Islam) all have similar "women are impure on account of menstruation" ideologies, which results in barring them from participation in religious rituals during their periodic discharge. This spilled over to females being kept from occupying positions of authority, which therefore belonged to the men. These men also determined that the supreme ruler would be a "masculine god." This is quite a contrast with the ancient polytheistic rituals, where women were allowed to be priests and "otherwise officiate," and where menarche was celebrated.

Nowadays, in our "religiously and scientifically and socially enlightened times," women are still forced to hide their menstruation. They have to hide the blood, they have to hide the "menstrual supplies, 23 " and they must, above all, remain silent about the whole thing, where men and "open society" are concerned 24 . All this repression leads to feelings of guilt, sin, and shame, and to the hindering of their sexual agency.

There are a few slang terms for menstruating, including to be on the rag 25 . These can be offensive, especially when a male uses them to ridicule or trivialise. In former times, one of the more common methods to deal with and hide the blood was to literally use a rag 26 . The rag had to be hidden until needed, used extremely inconspicuously, and it had to be washed when no one was around, etc. Another option was to wear black long skirts and "wipe as needed." Or, when there was nothing else around and "Aunt Flo 27 " made a "surprise visit 28 ," some other black textile, even a scarf, would have to be used in an "improvised" manner. All with no shortage of embarrassment, guilt, and shame. Even in our "modern times," when and where women can not afford disposable sanitary towels, rags may still be used. The concomitant shame and embarrassment can lead to missing school or work, among many other drawbacks.

Anyway, back to religion and power: it was certainly convenient 29 to exclude women from positions of authority on account of a natural process that only females had. The males had the power, and therefore the influence and supremacy. The men made the decisions, and they unilaterally determined that the "natural" order of things would be males on top, and females on the bottom. And, in order to keep them there, women would be demonised as sinners, vilified as impure, and treated like subordinates and criminals.

2.10 leisure -How can a female have leisure time if she has to do most or all the work around the dwelling? "A woman's place is the home." 30 In many homes females are always under the threat of violence, be it physical (including rape), and/or psychological (Heise (2018). In such a scenario, how could there be even a single calm moment for females? There is more on domestic violence in Kaplan (2020:142-151). 22 A part of the Christian Bible. 23 Such as sanitary napkins/towels. 24 Except where commercials and other forms of advertising are concerned, that is. 25 The "rag" being a disposable sanitary napkin/towel, etc. 26 A bit further in this chapter, under ownership, Solanas (1965) shares her thoughts on another type of rag, a dishrag. 27 Flo is short for Florence, and in this case for "Flow." This is jocular term that is neither exclusive nor othering. 28 Meaning that a period began unexpectedly. 29 Convenient for the patriarchs, that is. 30 Such an old, tired, hackneyed, pathetic, subjugating, and stereotyping cliché. Is mindlessly repeating and believing this really the best that countless people can do? Sandfield and Percy (2003) describe the "gendered division of emotional labour in marriage," where:

• Females are held accountable for a failed or a successful marriage. For example, if a marriage fails it was because the wife was unable to resolve the problems that led to that.

• Women are responsible for the nurturing of all family relationships: with the husband, children, and extended family.

To this we add working wives and mothers, of course. This all takes a whole lot of time and energy. Leisure? Never mind that! 2.11 labour -The work done at home is generally not paid, and its crucial role in continuing society (and quite ironically patriarchy, for that matter) is constantly downplayed. Women often get less remuneration for the same or better "regular" labour as males, and are still excluded from many fields of work. And even if they "break in," the disdain and othering is still there, and many males make sure the females "pay" for their intrusion. Then there is the "gendered division of emotional labour in marriage" just mentioned under leisure. In a perverse manner, the sexual trafficking mentioned under sexual can also count as labour.

There are also countless women who work under extremely harsh conditions in large factories, such as maquiladoras 31 . At a typical maquiladora women can work ten to twelve hour shifts, getting paid around 39 cents (0.39 US dollars32 ) an hour (Lozano-Reich, 2018). Lozano-Reich (2018) includes a quote from an anonymous former worker at a maquiladora, where even femicide is apparently part of the life (and death) of an unbearable job:

"The maquiladoras view women as expendable and will fire women at any time. Many women are told that they are fired and must leave on the spot. This leaves the woman with no choice but to walk home alone before the buses come. For example, one woman, for no reason, was given a shift change so that she had to leave work without the protection of her family. She disappeared that same afternoon, and her body was discovered twenty-four hours later. Another woman showed up four minutes late to work and she was locked out. She never made it home."

So, women work as little more than indentured servants in maquiladoras, where they are relentlessly exploited by being forced to work excessive hours, have inadequate rest periods, are often sexually harassed or raped, and as a whole live miserably. Their constant exploitation, reduced lifespans, always being in overcrowded and unsafe conditions, and their treatment as mere chattel mirrors the "life" milking cows or egg-laying chickens "enjoy." Commodification, including that of humans, is an indispensable part of capitalism, and capitalism is an integral component of patriarchy.

2.12 political -It's mostly men in power, and the few women with political clout usually anyway say and do what a man would in her position. If a female political leader is just as obsessed with power, conquering, killing, and exploiting, what difference is she making in relation to her male counterparts? None whatsoever! 2.13 economic -In many marriages, it is the man's money that dictates things, with the rest being decided unilaterally (by the husband). As mentioned, a long time ago patrilineal succession replaced matrilineal succession. Please also see labour, just above, and ownership, next. As is clearly seen, there are aspects of each and all of these manifestations of the control men exert over women that overlap, since they are all related.

2.14 ownership -As soon as males discovered that they play a part in species propagation, patrilineal succession and the like came into existence (Meyer, 2015). As mentioned in reproductive, patrilineal succession replaced matrilineal succession. In addition, what can a wife "own" if she herself is regarded as property? To this we can add the domestic labour described above. Such work is not only unpaid, but expected 33 , and usually unappreciated.

Countless wives continue to be victims of gendered violence and marital rape, still legal in many countries, so husbands literally own their wives, period, since even their own bodies don't belong to them. The historical subordination of women in the social, economic, and political domains is intimately tied to this sexual violence (Venkatesh and Randall, 2018).

Those born as females are considered as belonging to their fathers, who then transfer ownership to the woman's husband in marriage, preferably 34 as "virgins." As if this commodification weren't enough, in many countries there are also dowries or bride-prices 35 (Venkatesh and Randall, 2018).

The "label" of this commodity (specifically the woman's last name) usually changes from the father to the husband upon marriage. Many women still go by their husband's full name. Valerie Solanas 36 humorously sums up the name/ownership bit from the radical feminist perspective in the following excerpt from a play she wrote in 1965. This work has various titles, one of which is From the Cradle to the Boat 37 .

There are two characters in the passage, which starts on the next page, following the definition of critical reality awareness:

critical reality awareness (CRA) n Meaning:

A synergistic amalgam of sociolinguistic and sociocultural tools, especially critical discourse analysis and intersectionality, that enables the dissection of pretty much any set of linguistic, social, cultural, and behavioural variables as a part of the deep exploration into how the established order oppresses and others, and into the suffering of the victims.

Insight into fighting bias and exclusion:

Through CRA, the quotidian realities of those that are subjugated and tormented are better understood, as is also the perspective of non-oppressing members of "dominant" groups who are willing to struggle for a more egalitarian society. 33 For that matter, indispensable for the continuation of the species. 34 Or obligatorily, depending on the case. 35 Presumably necessary to "sweeten the deal." 36 Valerie Jean Solanas (1936-1988) was a writer and egalitarian who wrote scathing indictments on patriarchy and what it leads to, including gendering and oppression, and how males have made the world the mess that it is. 37 From the Cradle to the Boat is a metaphor for a female being a man's property from birth (cradle), to then become another man's property in marriage and society.

("Arthur" is not only her husband's property; she can only understand her own existence as that of being owned by him).

Bongi: Arthur!? That's an odd name for a woman.

(Solanas has identified the link between assuming the husband's name and a wife being chattel).

Arthur: That's not my name; it's my husband's. (She reaffirms her own status as property).

Bongi: Well, now I know what to call him; what'll I call you? I think I'll stick to Dishrag; it's as appropriate as Arthur. (Solanas is exposing the link between assuming the husband's name and a wife being chattel).

Arthur: You're not gonna call me anything, because I'm not gonna stick around to be called. I don't want anything to do with you.

(If Arthur were to acknowledge her status as mere property, it would shatter her entire existence. She staunchly holds fast to the collaborative role she plays within the established patriarchal order). "ARTHUR starts to walk away, but BONGI grabs her arm." (Bongi nonetheless wants to help open Arthur's eyes).

Bongi: You're not going anywhere, Dishrag; you're gonna stay right here and fight.

(Bongi wants Arthur to stand up for herself, as a person and as a woman. Bongi wants her to free herself from her shackles). 40

Arthur: Are you crazy? Why? (Patriarchy, heteronormativity, the heterosexual imaginary, and the marriage ideal are too hard to fight against; Arthur is hanging on for dear life!) 38 Kaplan 2020:22 39 A dishrag is same as a dishcloth. 40 As mentioned, per Fairclough (1989), "consciousness is the first step towards emancipation."

Bongi: What's a Dishrag for? To wipe things up with, right? Well, that's what I want to do with youwipe the street up with you. I want to help you fulfill yourself as a dishrag.

(Solanas is illustrating the link between assuming the husband's name and a wife being chattel. She is equipping the wife (in this case "Arthur") with the information needed to make an informed decision, and even possibly taking control of her life, by confronting her with her own reality. If Bongi can help Arthur become aware of the fetters that imprison her, perhaps Arthur can decide whether to break them). 41

A sad state of affairs

The liberty, moral, cultural, social, educational, sexual, reproductive, legal, religious, leisure, labour, political, economic, and ownership perspectives. That's quite a list! This chapter has shown that it is no easy task to be a female in a patriarchal society. The absolutely unfair established order of males over females is maintained in many ways, not the least of which is linguistic oppression. Few words foster, preserve, and further patriarchy more than spinster.

3.

The articles (entries) that twelve popular dictionaries have for the expression spinster, each dissected from the bias and exclusion perspectives A person could reasonably expect a dictionary to define words and phrases without adding bias or exclusion. At the very least they should identify any othering and oppression incorporated into the usage of any expression that is looked up. To what extent are the most widely utilised dictionaries doing this? The following is an exacting analysis of the treatment that a dozen commonly accessed and trusted dictionaries provide for the expression spinster, in which it is evidenced how these lexicons mischaracterise, and therefore legitimise, othering and oppressive usage.

and 3.2

The Oxford Living Dictionaries online as seen on their website on 12 February 2020, 42 has the following definition in their British & World English dictionary: "An unmarried woman, typically an older woman beyond the usual age for marriage" Notes: the lemma (expression) is identified as a noun, and they also provide a detailed usage note. Their US English definition and usage note are identical to their British & World English ones. Here is the usage note: "The development of the word spinster is a good example of the way in which a word acquires strong connotations to the extent that it can no longer be used in a neutral sense. From the 17th century the word was appended to names as the official legal description of an unmarried woman: Elizabeth Harris of London, Spinster. This type of use survives today in some legal and religious contexts. In modern everyday English, however, spinster cannot be used to mean simply 'unmarried woman'; it is now always a derogatory term, referring or alluding to a stereotype of an older woman who is unmarried, childless, prissy, and repressed."

Analysis of this definition:

This definition takes a whole lot for granted: 41 If you liked this, you would love Solanas's SCUM Manifesto, published in 1968. There is a permalink in the references. 42 https://web.archive.org/web/20200212134836/https://www.lexico.com/en/definition/spinster

• The heterosexual imaginary, within which being heterosexual is "automatic," "normal," and a part of the patriarchal established order. As mentioned earlier in this section, the heterosexual imaginary should never be questioned, apparently even by lexicographers.

• Heteronormativity, including that females are meant to get married to males.

• That a woman should be married, as opposed to making her own lifestyle choices.

• And, that she should be married "before it's too late," by which time she is deemed less desirable, to have reduced possibilities for bearing children, and so on.

Analysis of the usage note, with my comments in bold and italic:

• "The development of the word spinster is a good example of the way in which a word acquires strong connotations to the extent that it can no longer be used in a neutral sense." They start off nicely, with the sort of insight a usage note should provide.

• "From the 17th century the word was appended names as the official legal description of an unmarried woman: Elizabeth Harris of London, Spinster. This type of use survives today in some legal and religious contexts." They go on to provide an appropriate illustration.

• "In modern everyday English, however, spinster cannot be used to mean simply 'unmarried woman'; it is now always a derogatory term, referring or alluding to a stereotype of an older woman who is unmarried, childless, prissy, and repressed ." They correctly state that it is currently an insulting and stereotyping term. However, they listed the typecasting adjectives entirely from the patriarchal perspective: unmarried (in contraposition to what she "ought" to be), childless (she is an "unfulfilled" woman), prissy and repressed (so being a "spinster" is her fault). Beyond this, Oxford makes no reference to how "spinsters" are othered from the patriarchal "females must be heterosexual and marry men by a certain age" viewpoint. So, they are right that it is an offensive term, but they explain it in a manner that makes out the victim to be the culprit. Even in their "broadminded" usage note, Oxford failed to notice that labelling a woman ("was appended to names as the official legal description") as a spinster was analogous to forcing a woman to wear a scarlet letter. Each represented a violation of "established marriage canons:" one for a lack of fidelity, the other for a woman not getting married by the time she was expected to be.

In all, a very patriarchal treatment of the term. There was no mention of the concept of patriarchy, women being objects (as juxtaposed to reciprocating partners) of marriage, "spinsters" being othered for "not doing their part for the economy" nor "providing men their legitimate heirs," etc. Oxford provides definitions for heteronormative, heterosexual, and patriarchal, but they did not, would not, or perhaps could not make the connections necessary to provide an inclusive definition. They even wasted the opportunity to do so in their usage note.

And, since many (if not a preponderance) of users don't read usage notes, especially if they use a dictionary as a quick reference to consult and get back to what they were doing, the derogatory character of the terms is not even made aware to anyone consulting the Oxford Living Dictionaries online.

3.3

Next is the Cambridge Advanced Learner's Dictionary as seen on their website on 12 February 2020 43 : "a woman who is not married, especially a woman who is no longer young and seems unlikely ever to marry" Notes: it is indicated that it is a noun, and old-fashioned.

Analysis of the definition:

This Cambridge definition is very similar to the Oxford one: (There is still a glimmer of hope that some man may anyway take her).

"and seems unlikely ever to marry"

(She may as well give up!)

There is no need to rehash the additional commentary on the definition. They both had essentially the same thing to say, and they both mentioned nothing about the othering, their patriarchal definition for the expression, the marriage "requirement," and so on.

3.4

The online version of the Merriam-Webster Dictionary offers three senses44 :

"an unmarried woman of gentle family" "an unmarried woman and especially one past the common age for marrying" "a woman who seems unlikely to marry"

Notes: the headword is identified as a noun, and the first sense is identified as archaic.

Analysis of the definitions:

• "an unmarried woman of gentle family" And then, of course, there's the rest of us, the "masses," being othered.

• "an unmarried woman and especially one past the common age for marrying" Essentially the same as Oxford.

• "a woman who seems unlikely to marry" Somewhere between the slim Oxford hopes and the "why bother going on living" Cambridge perspective.

Since they labelled the first sense as archaic, they get a pass on that one. For the other two, please see the comments on Oxford and Cambridge.

and 3.6

The online version of the Macmillan Dictionary has this definition 45 :

"an insulting word for a woman who is not married and is past the age when women usually get married"

Notes: the entry is identified as a noun, and old-fashioned. The definition for their American English dictionary is identical.

Analysis of the definition:

This is the first dictionary in this group to give even a hint at the offensiveness of this term in their definition. However, despite noting that the word is insulting, they anyway provide a malecentred definition, and offer no insight into the reason it is offensive.

3.7

The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language provides one applicable sense for this word 46 : "A woman, especially an older one, who has not married."

Notes: the entry is identified as a noun and noted as often offensive.

Analysis of the definition:

The definition parallels the others, and likewise there is no insight into how it is often offensive.

3.8

The Chambers Dictionary offer this 47 :

"a woman, especially one who is middle-aged or older, who has never been married."

Note: identified as a noun.

The only difference in this definition in relation to the others is that Chambers more specifically identifies the age group being othered.

3.9

The Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English has this 48 :

"an unmarried woman, usually one who is no longer young and seems unlikely to marry"

Notes: the entry is identified as a noun, and old-fashioned.

Analysis of the definition:

Almost identical to the Cambridge definition.

3.10

The Random House Unabridged Dictionary chimes in with two senses 49 :

"a woman still unmarried beyond the usual age of marrying. " a woman who has never married"

Notes: the entry is identified as a noun. The first sense is noted to be disparaging and offensive, and they mention that the second is used in "chiefly law" settings.

They add a usage note:

"The meaning "a woman beyond the usual marriageable age" is used with disparaging intent and perceived as insulting. It implies negative qualities such as being fussy or undesirable."

Analysis of the definitions:

Sense one is almost identical to Oxford.

The definition for sense two is biased from the "marriage is a given" perspective, as mentioned earlier.

The usage note correctly identifies the disparaging intent, but the wording of "perceived as insulting" makes it sound like a woman may be "interpreting" it as offensive. No. It is offensive, period. No one is being forced to use this word, so if they employ it they will likely offend. "It implies negative qualities such as being fussy or undesirable" again makes it seem like the woman is at fault, from the man's view. For "fussy" please see the earlier comments on "shrew." "Undesirable" makes is sound like the only factor men use to "choose" a woman is "looks;" but then, it usually is.

3.11

The COBUILD Advanced English Dictionary offers this 50 :

"A spinster is a woman who has never been married; used especially when talking about an old or middle-aged woman"

Notes: the entry is identified as a noun, and old-fashioned.

Analysis of the definition:

Basically identical to that of the Chambers Dictionary.

3.12

The Collins English Dictionary provides two applicable senses for this word 51 :

"an unmarried woman regarded as being beyond the age of marriage" "a woman who has never married" Notes: it is indicated that it is a noun. The second sense has the following note: "Law (in legal documents)"

Analysis of sense one:

Pretty much the same as the others.

Analysis of sense two:

Identical to that provided by Random House, except that Collins provides no usage note pointing out that the term is offensive.

50 https://web.archive.org/web/20200212143120/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/spinster 51 https://web.archive.org/web/20200212143120/https://www.collinsdictionary.com/dictionary/english/spinster

Twelve notably similar articles

In all, there were twelve dictionaries, and twelve analyses of the articles they each provided when spinster was entered into the search box on their respective websites. The similarity of the definitions provided is remarkable. Since the wording is by and large the same for all twelve lexicons, the bias and exclusion is also pretty much equivalent amongst them.

Only four of the twelve dictionaries included words such as insulting or offensive in their definitions, and none of them gave even the remotest clue to the hefty patriarchal othering and bias against women embedded into this expression.

Let's contrast these treatments with this inclusive and bias-free article:

4.

A bias-free and inclusive lexicographical treatment for spinster spinster n

Inclusive alternatives to this biased expression: single woman, single, singleton, unattached woman, woman.

Meaning:

A disparaging and denigrating expression to refer to a female who has never been married, particularly if above an "expected" (and therefore required) age.

Insight into the bias:

The expression connotes that such females are unworthy, undesirable, and unendurable, while evoking images of them as being lonely, unfulfilled, and ashamed of themselves.

Taking for granted that women should all be married to a man by a given age is rooted in the gender binary, the heterosexual imaginary, the "marriage ideal," male hegemony, and in patriarchal heteronormativity.

Towards a heightened inclusive awareness:

Although unmarried woman is preferable to spinster, it still gives the impression that women ought to be married as opposed to making their own lifestyle choices. And, while single and unattached also have a bit of a "why isn't she with someone else" feel to them, there is much less associated stigma. Simply using woman should work in almost any context.

Other deprecated expressions to avoid: old maid, cat lady, crazy cat lady.

Therefore, in the case of spinster, these dictionaries performed the following dubious tasks:

• For learners of the language: indoctrination; women must be married by a given age, or they are unhappy, unfulfilled, undesirable, unbearable, etc.

• For native speakers: reinforcement of these myths.

• For all dictionary users: the propagation of bias and exclusion against women through the continued norm of this patriarchal "condition." In this manner, even those who care enough about all people to express themselves inclusively, would look up this expression and get an insidious dose of patriarchal propaganda, to then be further propagated unaware of the harmful consequences.

The treatment offered by the bias-free and inclusive usage dictionary for spinster goes beyond an accurate and unbiased definition. As a part of its socially-responsible and culturally-relevant lexicographical content, it also provides insight into the othering and oppression, by offering an accurate picture of its real-life use, along with the attendant consequences.

Final thoughts

Exclusive or biased expression promotes stereotyping, bullying, abuse, inequality, othering, exclusion, dehumanisation, and victimisation. Language plays a key part in the fostering, preservation, and furtherance of power, privilege, subjugation, and exploitation, and in this paper one of many biased expressions has been explored. Liberating females from the patriarchal yoke of spinster mentality is a part of freeing us all from the social and cultural mindsets that block the efforts of those working towards promoting a more egalitarian society.

Linguistic othering and oppression can only be change from the inside. Getting unbiased and inclusive definitions helps enhance understanding and awareness, which then fosters not speaking or writing in a biased and exclusive manner. Not using this othering and oppressive language promotes not thinking in such terms, which in turn translates into not acting this way.

As more and more people express themselves in an unbiased and inclusive manner, others are inspired to do so as well. In doing so, we all, especially females, non-whites, "non-gender conforming," non-heterosexuals, "foreigners," and so on, all benefit through living in a safer, more inviting, hopefully even nurturing environment, where respect, tolerance, and consideration are the foundation of all interactions.

Males, as a socially constructed group, should finally start acting towards others with respect, consideration, responsibility, and fairness. Especially those who choose to get married.

Females, as a socially constructed group, ought to demand being agents in their lives, as opposed to passive objects. This goes especially for those who choose to get married.

•

  These images and fantasies help maintain the capitalist patriarchal social order, by telling us what our values are. The established power structure is maintained by informing us (its passive recipients) what is "normal," "good," and "moral." (Thus, if

we don't buy into this whole heteronormative/white wedding ideology, the same way "spinsters" apparently don't, we are "abnormal," "bad," and "amoral." The media knows what messages to send in order to maintain and enforce the established order).

2.14.1 An except from From the Cradle to the Boat, featuring Bongi (an active agent in her life) and "Arthur" (merely a passive object in her marriage)

  Within a CRA framework, for instance, it is clear to see how countless Indigenous Peoples (Native Americans and First Nations, among others, in the USA and Canada) might have painful additional secretions of gastric acid paired with agonising thoughts when hearing "good Americans" cheerfully wishing each other a "happy Thanksgiving." To them, and to informed and fair-minded people, the national glorification paired with a silence about the genocidal conquest is a bit much. When the continuing oppression of Indigenous Peoples is factored in, it is way too much. That such an "innocuous and wellmeaning" expression can evoke such images and physiological reactions is a fitting example of how language, society, culture, thinking, and even physiology are inextricably intertwined.38 The players are Bongi, who is a street hustler dishing out what might be called critical reality awareness (CRA) commentary, and "Arthur", who is "just a wife." (

Females are "in the boat," and if they know what's good for them, they better not "rock the boat." The author, Valerie Solanas, gave this play four titles, enabling those presenting it to have four choices, depending on the audience. The other three titles are: Up Your Ass, The Big Suck, and Up from the Slime. Solanas has a whole lot more to say about patriarchy and society in this play, and the following permalink has it in its entirety. Please note that this is not for all audiences: https://web.archive.org/web/20190131150958/https://solanasupyourass.wordpress.com/ Towards a heightened inclusive awareness:

With my further CRA observations in parentheses). Bongi:

  Hey, Dishrag 39 . (

Bongi already "has her number.") Arthur:

  If you're calling me, my name happens to be Mrs. Arthur Hazlatt.

Table 3 .3: Comparison of spinster, for:

 3

	Oxford	Cambridge
	"An unmarried woman"	"a woman is not married"
	"typically an older woman"	"especially a woman who is no longer young"
	"beyond the usual age for marriage"

The Oxford Living Dictionaries online provides this definition for heteronormative: "Denoting or relating to a world view that promotes heterosexuality as the normal or preferred sexual orientation." Permalink: https://web.archive.org/web/20200212145436/https://www.lexico.com/definition/heteronormative

A case of stereotype threat, which according toSteele and Aronson (1995:797): "is being at risk of confirming, as selfcharacteristic, a negative stereotype about one's group."

3 In many cases the word imposed might be more suitable.

Kaplan (2020:12)

"Marriage fairy tale" might be a more accurate term.

Kaplan (2020:93-104)

There are other manners in which the bodies of females are commodified, including "womb renting."

Their raison d'être even, as censured by[START_REF] Bokek-Cohen | Marry a camel, a mouse or a parakeet! The first guy who passes you on the street!': genderizing marital status by othering Jewish Israeli never-married women[END_REF] in "Marry a camel, a mouse or a parakeet! The first guy who passes you on the street!"

Even once is too often, but many "masters" of ceremonies get to feel a bit more "manly" when trivialising women so. And, they get a cheap laugh at the expense of all females.

Trophy wife is indeed a demeaning term, but, trophy husband has been gaining use, helping to replace the less specific toy boy, so it's depreciating for both sexes, which is "kind of fair," considering how abusive the language of patriarchy tends to be.

Rape lies is a more accurate term.(Kaplan, 2020: 127-141)

The endometrium is the mucous membrane lining the uterus.

According to Wiktionary: "An assembly plant in Mexico owned by a company from the United States or another foreign country, using cheap local labour and imported components, and which then exports its products to the company's country of origin; also (by extension) similar factories in other countries." Permalink: https://web.archive.org/web/20190202184641/https://en.wiktionary.org/wiki/maquiladora

This is a 2016 estimate (Lozano-Reich, 2018).

https://web.archive.org/web/20200212135218/https://dictionary.cambridge.org/us/dictionary/english/spinster

https://web.archive.org/web/20200212140752/https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/spinster

5.

Spinsterconclusions

Most girls watch television programming, films, and internet videos from an early age, so fantasised and glorified white weddings are already shaping their thoughts and behaviour practically from infancy 52 . They are being indoctrinated by these heteronormative and "wedding wishing" messages well before they understand what's going on 53 , as mothers may be feeding them while watching TV (including wedding "programming"), the "family watches the boob tube 54 together 55 ", or there is a "fun day out" for all the young girls, and a "marriage movie" is "spontaneously" on the agenda, etc.

The messages are clear: a wedding means glamour, being the centre of attention, extravagant clothing and food, diamond ring, and a storybook start to a fairy-tale married life. These can be contrasted with the conjured images of loneliness, unhappiness, and a life unfulfilled that being a spinster entails. All this is instilled into our thoughts through language, culture, and society. How, for instance could a female be born wanting a marriage ritual, a wedding gown, and a diamond ring?

Patriarchal cultures and societies keep women subjugated, oppressed, exploited, and victimised from the liberty, moral, cultural, social, educational, sexual, reproductive, legal, religious, leisure, labour, political, economic, and ownership perspectives, as detailed in this paper, with many illustrations of how this pertains directly to marriage. As was plainly seen, characteristics of each and all of these manifestations were interrelated, since everything is connected.

Heteronormativity, the heterosexual imaginary, and the "marriage ideal" leading to a "McBride" white wedding 56 epitomise the urging of females along the beaten patriarchal path.

The McBride "archetype" also evokes images of the utterly soulless institutions of mass production, mass exploitation, mass sales, mass consumption, and mass waste many associate with the McDonalds "fast-food" entity that has sold well over one hundred billion beef-based burgers 57 among other fast-food staples, such as fried potatoes and soft drinks.

A "McWedding" serves as a fitting metaphor not just for the "fantasies of patriarchy," but also for a society and culture where everything is disposable. For many McBrides, the only thing that matters is to be a "queen" (or maybe "princess;" perhaps a "superstar" or "celeb") for a day, with no regard as to what happens before or after. This, plus the often harsh realities of matrimony can and does drive many females into not marrying. For these and other reasons, getting married or not should anyway be each female's choice, so why label and other them as spinsters if they prefer not to?

As shown through an exacting analysis of a dozen popular and trusted general English dictionaries, there was not a single instance in which even the remotest clue to the hefty patriarchal vilification and oppression of women embedded into the expression spinster was provided to anyone looking up this word. In this manner, users are kept in the dark. 52 From before birth even, in cases where the mother is already counting on a white wedding. 53 Indoctrination works best when started as early in life as possible. (Brucker, 2015) 54 boob tube is slang for television, since boobs (people without discernment nor imagination) often gape at it. That, or TV deprives people of discernment and imagination. Or it is a vicious circle of both. In any case, TV serves as an excellent medium for indoctrination and propaganda of all types.

55 Which these days counts as "family quality time." 56 How about at "Disneyland," with "Mickey Mouse" officiating? 57 https://web.archive.org/web/20190131204217/https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/McDonald's 7.