Jérôme Jourde
email: jjourde@univ-lr.fr.

Sandrine Alizier

Chloé Dancie

Jean-Claude Dauvin

Nicolas Desroy

Séverine Dubut

Franck Gentil

Jacques Grall

Camille Hanin

Julien Lanshere

Eric Thiébaut

First and repeated records of the tropical-temperate crab Asthenognathus atlanticus Monod, 1932 (Decapoda: Brachyura) in the eastern part of the Bay of Seine (eastern English Channel, France)

Keywords: Crustacea Decapoda, Asthenognathus atlanticus, Bay of Seine, geographical extension, eastern English Channel

HAL is

Introduction

Asthenognathus atlanticus

 [START_REF] Th | Brachyura maroccana. I. Pinnotheridae, avec la description d'Asthenognathus atlanticus (nov. sp.)[END_REF], is a small (~10 mm), tropical-temperate brachyuran crab [START_REF] Udekem D'acoz | Inventaire et distribution des crustacés décapodes de l'Atlantique nord-oriental, de la Méditerranée et des eaux continentales adjacentes au nord de 25°N[END_REF] belonging to the family Varunidae [START_REF] Ng | Systema brachyurorum: Part. I. An annoted checklist of extant brachyuran crabs of the world[END_REF]. This species, mainly living in muddy sediment habitats, is often described as being commensal with tubicolous organisms such as the anthozoan, Cerianthus membranaceus Spallanzani, 1784, the synaptid echinoderm, Labidoplax digitata Montagu, 1815, the sipunculid, Sipunculus nudus Linnaeus, 1766 or the terebellid polychaete Neoamphitrite edwardsi Quatrefages, 1865 [START_REF] Glémarec | Nouvelles données sur la répartition de Tritodynamea atlantica Balls[END_REF].

Previously, this inconspicuous species was known to be an eastern Atlantic species, present from northern Brittany in the Bay of Morlaix to the African coast south of Angola [START_REF] Udekem D'acoz | Inventaire et distribution des crustacés décapodes de l'Atlantique nord-oriental, de la Méditerranée et des eaux continentales adjacentes au nord de 25°N[END_REF]. It also lives in the Western Mediterranean Sea off Banyuls sur Mer (France) [START_REF] Noël | Sur la présence d'Asthenognathus atlanticus Monod 1932 (Crustacea, Brachyura) dans la région de Banyuls sur Mer (Méditerranée)[END_REF], as well as along the Algerian coasts [START_REF] Glémarec | Nouvelles données sur la répartition de Tritodynamea atlantica Balls[END_REF]. Although the first description of this species, based on Moroccan individuals, only occurred in 1932 (see [START_REF] Th | Brachyura maroccana. I. Pinnotheridae, avec la description d'Asthenognathus atlanticus (nov. sp.)[END_REF], it was known to be present in the western English Channel, around Roscoff, since 1921[START_REF] Ch | Un crabe nouveau pour la faune de France capturé à Roscoff, Asthenognathus atlanticus[END_REF][START_REF] Bocquet | Remarques morphologiques et systématiques sur le crabe Tritodynamia atlantica (Th. Monod) (Asthenognathus atlanticus -Th Monod) présent dans la région de Roscoff[END_REF][START_REF] Bourdon | Inventaire de la faune marine de Roscoff. Décapodes -Stomatopodes[END_REF] but remained rare in this northern Brittany location. Thus, during the long-term survey of the 'Rivière de Morlaix' station (10 m depth) in the Bay of Morlaix [START_REF] Dauvin | Impact of Amoco Cadiz oil spill on the muddy fine sand Abra alba and Melinna palmata community from the Bay of Morlaix[END_REF][START_REF] Dauvin | The muddy fine sand Abra alba-Melinna palmata community of the Bay of Morlaix twenty years after the Amoco Cadiz oil spill[END_REF], only three specimens of A. atlanticus were collected: one specimen in February 1980, one specimen in April 1981 and the last specimen in December 1995.

The presence of this species has also been reported in Cornwall [START_REF] Costello | European Register of Marine Species[END_REF], but there is no more detailed publication about this observation after. It is consistent with the fact that A. atlanticus larvae had been reported in the United Kingdom waters including Scotland [START_REF] Pan | Decapod crustacean larvae of Scottish coasts. A photographic identification guide (excluding infraorder Brachyura)[END_REF]. However, [START_REF] Pan | Decapod crustacean larvae of Scottish coasts. A photographic identification guide (excluding infraorder Brachyura)[END_REF] also indicated that no adult specimen has been sampled around the British Isles. [START_REF] Hayward | The Marine Fauna of the British Isles and North-West Europe, Volume 1: Introduction and Protozoans to Arthropods[END_REF] reported that the species was probably present around the Channel Islands, but this has never been confirmed. However, the species has been observed in a sea-grass meadow off Saint-Malo in 2008 (48°38.96'N 02°02.04'W;Grall, pers. observ.). In the eastern part of the English Channel and the Bay of Seine, this crab has never been observed before December 2008 despite numerous studies that have been implemented since 1970s (Gentil & Cabioch, 1997;[START_REF] Thiébaut | Spatio-temporal persistence of the Abra alba-Pectinaria koreni muddy-fine sand community of the eastern Bay of Seine[END_REF][START_REF] Ghertsos | Structure spatio-temporelle des peuplements macrobenthiques de la baie de Seine à plusieurs échelles d'observation[END_REF][START_REF] Barnay | Structure des peuplements de sables fins plus ou moins envasés en Manche : échelles spatiales et biodiversité[END_REF][START_REF] Dauvin | Spatial structure of a subtidal macrobenthic community in the Bay of Veys (western Bay of Seine, English Channel)[END_REF][START_REF] Dauvin | The presence of Melinna palmata (Annelida: Polychaeta) and Ensis directus (Mollusca: Bivalvia) related to sedimentary changes in the Bay of Seine (English Channel, France)[END_REF].

Materials and methods

The observations of A. atlanticus have been reported in several studies and monitoring programs [START_REF] Dancie | Etude biosédimentaire du port d'Antifer. Campagne Automne[END_REF][START_REF] Laurand | Suivi des sédiments et des peuplements benthiques de l'estuaire de la Seine : Zone estuaire et dragages d'accompagnement[END_REF][START_REF] Alizier | -2009) des communautés benthiques subtidales de la partie orientale de la baie de seine[END_REF][START_REF] Dancie | Suivi des sédiments et des peuplements benthiques sur le site d'immersion d'Octeville. Rapport scientifique pluriannuel[END_REF][START_REF] Lanshere | Suivi biologique de l'ancienne souille expérimentale du CNEXO en Baie de Seine -Etude de la faune benthique[END_REF]. The eastern part of the Bay of Seine is actually the location of many facilities and amenities likely to affect coastal and estuarine environments. This is mainly due to the presence of three ports of international importance: Port of Le Havre, the crude oil terminal in Le Havre-Antifer and the Port of Rouen.

Since 1986, the macrofauna distribution in the eastern Bay of Seine has regularly been studied during the winter benthic surveys, especially the PECTOW (PECtinaria OWenia campaign) surveys, organized before the recruitment period of the dominant species, have occurred in 1986[START_REF] Naruse | Establishment of a new genus for Asthenognathus gallardoi Serène & Soh[END_REF][START_REF] Alizier | -2009) des communautés benthiques subtidales de la partie orientale de la baie de seine[END_REF], 1991, 1996[START_REF] Lesourd | Morphosedimentary evolution of the macrotidal Seine estuary subjected to human impact[END_REF], 2006and 2011[START_REF] Thiébaut | Spatio-temporal persistence of the Abra alba-Pectinaria koreni muddy-fine sand community of the eastern Bay of Seine[END_REF][START_REF] Barnay | Structure des peuplements de sables fins plus ou moins envasés en Manche : échelles spatiales et biodiversité[END_REF][START_REF] Dauvin | The presence of Melinna palmata (Annelida: Polychaeta) and Ensis directus (Mollusca: Bivalvia) related to sedimentary changes in the Bay of Seine (English Channel, France)[END_REF]unpublished data). Up today, data from a total of eight campaigns, with a grid of 40 to 77 stations according to the year, are available. These winter samples were collected using a Hamon grab (0.25 m², about 15 cm depth) with two benthic macrofauna replicates at each station.

In addition, over the last ten years, new amenities and projects have increased the need for benthic monitoring: i) Port 2000, or the extension of the Port of Le Havre, ii) the project to implant a Liquid Natural Gas terminal near the crude oil terminal in Le Havre-Antifer, and iii) the necessity for new dump-sites for dredged materials. Consequently, the increasing monitoring efforts have yielded a significant amount of new data concerning the coastal and estuarine benthic communities of the eastern part of the Bay of Seine [START_REF] Dancie | Etude biosédimentaire du port d'Antifer. Campagne Automne[END_REF][START_REF] Laurand | Suivi des sédiments et des peuplements benthiques de l'estuaire de la Seine : Zone estuaire et dragages d'accompagnement[END_REF][START_REF] Dancie | Suivi des sédiments et des peuplements benthiques sur le site d'immersion d'Octeville. Rapport scientifique pluriannuel[END_REF][START_REF] Lanshere | Suivi biologique de l'ancienne souille expérimentale du CNEXO en Baie de Seine -Etude de la faune benthique[END_REF]. Researchers now have annual, or biannual, data for the area between Antifer and the Seine estuary since 2002. Depending on the year, there were between 48 and 97 stations, which were sampled with a Smith-McIntyre grab (0.10 m², about 10 cm depth), with three benthic macrofauna replicates being collected at each station.

For the Seine Estuary, it appears that one of the main consequences of the huge development projects established over the last two decades is the silting-up the shallow waters of the eastern Bay of Seine [START_REF] Dauvin | The presence of Melinna palmata (Annelida: Polychaeta) and Ensis directus (Mollusca: Bivalvia) related to sedimentary changes in the Bay of Seine (English Channel, France)[END_REF]. In order to understand the mechanism of the silting-up phenomenon, the Seine-Aval COLMATAGE program has been running since 2007 for five years (2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011). To define a range of seasonal variations of the benthic macrofauna, two summer surveys were organized in 2008 and 2009 with 58 and 54 stations respectively [START_REF] Alizier | -2009) des communautés benthiques subtidales de la partie orientale de la baie de seine[END_REF]. These summer samples were collected using a Van Veen grab (0.10 m² about 10 cm depth) with five benthic macrofauna grab samples at each station.

For each sampling occasion mentioned above, an additional sample was collected for sediment analysis.

Results

In spite of the regular sampling of the benthic macrofauna in the eastern Bay of Seine since 1970s, we report here the first, and repeated captures of A. atlanticus specimens in the eastern part of the Bay of Seine since 2008, especially in Antifer crude oil terminal, as well as off Le Havre (Fig. 1). All A. atlanticus specimens (30) were collected between 7 and 25 m depth, mainly on mud and muddy-sand (23 out of 27 stations). The remaining four stations were characterized by sandy sediments (Table 1). The sediment's fine particle content (< 63 µm) ranged from 2 % to 99 %. Many of the related macrobenthic assemblages included tubicolous organisms such as the polychaetes Terebellides stroemi Sars, 1835 and Lanice conchilega Pallas, 1766, and the burrowing thalassinid decapod Upogebia deltaura Leach, 1815, which were likely to provide suitable habitat for A. atlanticus [START_REF] Glémarec | Nouvelles données sur la répartition de Tritodynamea atlantica Balls[END_REF].

The size of our specimens ranged from a carapace width of 2.2 mm to 10.0 mm. Most of them (24 individuals, 80%), including the non-measured specimens (Dancie, pers. com.) were relatively small sized, ranging between a carapace width of 2.2 mm and 4.8 mm (Table 1), and were sexually undeterminable . The remaining six individuals, ranging between 5.6 and 10.0 mm, were one male and five females. According to [START_REF] Bocquet | Stades larvaires et juvéniles de Tritodynamia atlantica (Th. Monod) (Asthenognathus atlanticus -Th. Monod) et position systématique de ce crabe[END_REF], the male and two females were young specimens in their fourth crab stage of development, while three females were adult specimens. None of these adult females was gravid.

Discussion

Recently, a collection of Asthenognathus gallardoi Serène & Soh, 1976, from Thailand and the Philippines has been examined by [START_REF] Naruse | Establishment of a new genus for Asthenognathus gallardoi Serène & Soh[END_REF]. These authors proposed to create a new genus for this species: Gopkittisak. They also highlighted the need to provide a revision for the Atlantic Asthenognathus-like species, and underlined the difficulties for classifying this small group of crustacean decapods. Given the taxonomic status of this complicated family, we propose to follow the European Register of Marine Species status of A. atlanticus [START_REF] Costello | European Register of Marine Species[END_REF] for the specimens collected in the eastern Bay of Seine. This species is highly distinctive, and thus is unlikely to be overlooked or misidentified. As such, we can confirmed that no individual of A. atlanticus was ever collected in the eastern French part of the English Channel before the year 2008.

The records of A. atlanticus in the eastern part of the English Channel show a large distance between the known population which occurred in northern Brittany, and the new location of this species in the Bay of Seine. There is additional evidence that warm water species such as A. atlanticus are now able to extend their ranges into areas where the climate conditions, especially in winter, are milder than in the past [START_REF] Mieszkowska | Changes in the range of some common rocky shore species in Britain -a response to climate change?[END_REF]. Some species have extended their limits more than 160 km towards northern and eastern regions in the Channel (Williams, 2007). At least one other brachyuran species, Pachygrapsus marmoratus Fabricius, 1787, was known to move eastwards along the English Channel [START_REF] Ingle | First reported occurrences of the marbled crab, Pachygrapsus marmoratus (Crustacea: Brachiura: Grapsoidea) in southern coastal waters of the British Isles[END_REF][START_REF] Dauvin | New record of the marbled crab Pachygrapsus marmoratus (Crustacea: Brachyura: Grapsoidea) on the coast of northern Cotentin, Normandy, western English channel[END_REF]. [START_REF] Ingle | First reported occurrences of the marbled crab, Pachygrapsus marmoratus (Crustacea: Brachiura: Grapsoidea) in southern coastal waters of the British Isles[END_REF] argued that the occurrence of P. marmoratus in the southern coastal waters of the British Isles is due to climate change which has induced favorable conditions for temporarily and sporadic introductions of more southern species from time to time. Thus, in the context of global warming, occasional fluctuations of the environmental factors or short-term climate cycles might have also played a preponderant role in the considerable fluctuations of the extreme northern and eastern limits of species [START_REF] Southward | Distribution and ecology of the hermit crab Clibanarius erythropus in the western Channel[END_REF].

In addition, A. atlanticus is known to live in various types of sediment, from muddy fine sand to mud and from the intertidal zone up to a depth of 210 m [START_REF] Glémarec | Nouvelles données sur la répartition de Tritodynamea atlantica Balls[END_REF][START_REF] Udekem D'acoz | Inventaire et distribution des crustacés décapodes de l'Atlantique nord-oriental, de la Méditerranée et des eaux continentales adjacentes au nord de 25°N[END_REF]. The sediment with fine particles content (< 50 µm) greater than 25% corresponds to the optimal habitat for this species around the Brittany [START_REF] Bocquet | Remarques morphologiques et systématiques sur le crabe Tritodynamia atlantica (Th. Monod) (Asthenognathus atlanticus -Th Monod) présent dans la région de Roscoff[END_REF][START_REF] Glémarec | Nouvelles données sur la répartition de Tritodynamea atlantica Balls[END_REF]. In 2002, the tubicolous ampharetid, Melinna palmata Grube, 1870, was recorded for the first time in the muddy fine sand with Abra alba -Pectinaria koreni community of the eastern part of the Bay of Seine [START_REF] Dauvin | The presence of Melinna palmata (Annelida: Polychaeta) and Ensis directus (Mollusca: Bivalvia) related to sedimentary changes in the Bay of Seine (English Channel, France)[END_REF]. This species' occurrence, and the consecutive growth of its population reflect the increase in fine particles in this part of the eastern Bay of Seine reported between 2001 and 2011 [START_REF] Lesourd | Morphosedimentary evolution of the macrotidal Seine estuary subjected to human impact[END_REF][START_REF] Lesourd | Seasonal variations in the characteristics of superficial sediments in a macrotidal estuary (the Seine inlet, France)[END_REF]Dauvin et al., 2007, unpublished data). The new records of A. atlanticus may then reflect the increase in subtidal mud habitats in the eastern Bay of Seine, due as much to human disturbances, as to climatic changes. Since favorable environmental conditions, which allow this species to survive, seem to be established, the species' presence still raises the question on the possible causes of its introduction. Either natural or anthropogenic introductions vectors may be involved [START_REF] Southward | Distribution and ecology of the hermit crab Clibanarius erythropus in the western Channel[END_REF][START_REF] Gollasch | The importance of ship hull fouling as a vector of species introductions into the North Sea[END_REF]. Since crustacean larvae can move over large distances, natural migrations could occur via larval dispersal by residual currents. For example, [START_REF] Southward | Distribution and ecology of the hermit crab Clibanarius erythropus in the western Channel[END_REF] have already observed the arrival in Cornwall of the hermit crab Clibanarius erythropus Latreille, 1818, from 1955 to 1962 from South Brittany. Experiments conducted in controlled conditions at Roscoff (Brittany, France) by [START_REF] Bocquet | Stades larvaires et juvéniles de Tritodynamia atlantica (Th. Monod) (Asthenognathus atlanticus -Th. Monod) et position systématique de ce crabe[END_REF] showed that the A. atlanticus larval stage lasted about 45 days (6 weeks).

Thus, covering the distance between Roscoff and the eastern Bay of Seine (≈ 325 km) over 45 days requires residual currents of ≈ 8 cm s -1 , which are well above the tidal residual currents of ≈ 3 cm s -1 reported in most parts of the English Channel [START_REF] Salomon | An atlas of long-term currents in the Channel[END_REF]. Only an unusually favorable sequence of moderate and strong western winds over 6 weeks could have significantly increased residual currents to encourage such a transport. Although the distance between Saint Malo and the eastern Bay of Seine is shorter (≈ 250 km), the presence of mesoscale eddies in the Saint Malo gulf may increase residence times and limit larval export [START_REF] Salomon | An atlas of long-term currents in the Channel[END_REF][START_REF] Lefebvre | Pelagic dispersal of the brittle-star Ophiothrix fragilis larvae in a megatidal area (English Channel, France) examined using an advection-diffusion model[END_REF].

Furthermore, the colonization of the eastern Bay of Seine following larval transport of A. atlanticus by residual currents, from the western to the eastern English Channel, implied that enough quantities of larvae were released, and survived in the planktonic stages for 6 weeks. However, as noted earlier, this species remains rare in the Western Channel.

Conversely, such colonization seems likely if we assume that transitional populations of A. atlanticus are present in the Channel Islands, along the western and northern Cotentin coasts, as well as in the western Bay of Seine, as in the case of Melinna palmata. Thus, Melinna palmata was observed in the Cherbourg harbor where the favorable muddy sediment exists, which is likely to host A. atlanticus population [START_REF] Dauvin | The presence of Melinna palmata (Annelida: Polychaeta) and Ensis directus (Mollusca: Bivalvia) related to sedimentary changes in the Bay of Seine (English Channel, France)[END_REF]. However, we have yet to find any other report of the species from these areas, despite the many surveys carried out over the last thirty years (e.g. scientific monitoring programs, benthic environmental surveys, Water Framework Directory controls).

On the other hand, human intervention has frequently been involved in the introduction of non-native species, especially due to aquaculture practices and transportation by ship [START_REF] Gollasch | The importance of ship hull fouling as a vector of species introductions into the North Sea[END_REF]. The role of shellfish farming for A. atlanticus can be rejected because there is no activity occuring around Antifer. In contrast, Le Havre-Antifer harbor is an important crude oil terminal, designed to accommodate 550,000dwt super-tankers (http://www.havre-port.fr; 04/23/2010). [START_REF] Gollasch | The importance of ship hull fouling as a vector of species introductions into the North Sea[END_REF] has shown that several brachyuran decapods species are found to travel by ship in tank sediments, hull fouling and ballast waters.

Actually, many cases of ship-mediated introduction of non-native crab species such as Eriocheir sinensis Milne Edwards, 1853, Hemigrapsus sanguineus de Haan, 1835, Hemigrapsus takanoi Asakura and Watanabe, 2005, Pachygrapsus. marmoratus Fabricius, 1787 and Rhitropanopeus harissii Gould, 1841 have already been described in the English Channel and the North Sea [START_REF] Vincent | Présence du crabe Hemigrapsus penicillatus de Haan, 1835 dans les bassins du port du Havre (Normandie, France) en[END_REF][START_REF] Breton | A new alien crab in Europe: Hemigrapsus sanguineus (Decapoda: Brachiura: Grapsidae)[END_REF][START_REF] Breton | A new alien crab in Europe: Hemigrapsus sanguineus (Decapoda: Brachiura: Grapsidae)[END_REF][START_REF] Breton | Le Port du Havre (Manche Orientale, France) et ses peuplements : un exemple de domaine paralique en climat tempéré[END_REF][START_REF] Ingle | First reported occurrences of the marbled crab, Pachygrapsus marmoratus (Crustacea: Brachiura: Grapsoidea) in southern coastal waters of the British Isles[END_REF][START_REF] Dauvin | Recent expansion of two invasive crabs species Hemigrapsus sanguineus De Haan, 1853 and H. takanoi Asakura and Watanabe, 2005 in the Dover Strait (English Channel, north-eastern Atlantic)[END_REF]. In addition, the fact that the reports of A. atlanticus in the eastern part of the Bay of Seine came in the vicinity of large harbors (Antifer and Le Havre) leads us to consider that ship-mediated introduction as the most likely hypothesis.

We are unable to assert that individuals of A. atlanticus collected in the eastern part of the Bay of Seine since December 2008 belong to a self-sustaining population. Until now, there is no evidence of reproduction in the wild. The adults observed are very few in numbers and even then their presence does not necessarily mean that a self-sustaining population is established [START_REF] Southward | Disappearance of the warm-water hermit crab Clibanarius erythropus from south-west Britain[END_REF].

Conclusion

The presence of Asthenognathus atlanticus in the eastern part of the Bay of Seine has been reported for four consecutive years, from 2008 to 2011. There is no evidence that the specimens collected are part of a self-sustaining population, even if the recent changes in local environment lead to favorable conditions for this species. Since i) there has been no report of this species' presence between Saint Malo and Antifer, and ii) the several observations have come in the vicinity of important harbors, and thus, at this point in time, the most likely hypothesis of these recent observations would be ship-mediated introductions. Further explorations or existing monitoring programs will need to pay particular attention to this species in order to define its spatial distribution precisely, and to determine if it will develop into a self-sustaining population. Population genetic analyses, processed on alcohol-preserved specimens that could be sampled directly in the field, would thus be useful to i) understand the introduction history of this species in the eastern Bay of Seine and ii) to re-examine the taxonomic status of this species which seems to be unclear.

Acknowledgements

The Seine-Aval COLMATAGE program is coordinated by the GIP Seine-Aval, a partnership of eleven institutions, and organizations, including Haute Normandie and Basse Normandy Regions; Calvados, Eure and Seine-Maritime Departments, two industrial associations (UIC and ASICEN), the French national government (Direction Régionale de l'Environnement), Seine Normandy Water Agency, the Grand Port Maritime du Havre and the Grand Port Maritime de Rouen. We are grateful to the Cellule de Suivi du Littoral Normand staff, especially Delphie Le Thoer and Thomas Lefrançois; to the crews of the N.O. Côtes de la Manche, the Marais and the Flipper; and to the numerous students for their help in field interventions. We are also grateful to the Grand Port Maritime du Havre and to the company Gaz de Normandie which allowed us to use of proprietary data. Thanks to L. E. Spencer for her help in correcting the English text.


Camille Paloque

When institutions meet the Web: advocating for a 'critical Internet user' figure in the 1990s

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

What is an "Internet user" in the late 1990s? How is this important in the 1990s transition between the confidential and the mainstream Internet? 1 The Web as a "missing link" between information systems technologies and market is a common answer to explain the success of the Internet in the end of the twentieth century [START_REF] Ceruzzi | Aux origines américaines de l'Internet : projets militaires, intérêts commerciaux, désirs de communauté[END_REF]. However, we lack insight on how the Internet entered the public sphere, from a genealogical and historical point of view. With Philip Agre (1998), we argue that studying Internet as "public discourse" means understanding how institutions appropriate technologies, their language, their modus operandi, their apparatus -and evolve doing so. Our hypothesis is that in the context of an Internet crisis in the mid to late-1990's, institutional appropriation of the topic on the Web 1.0 helped define a general Internet user; and thus, allowed the emergence of a "Internet critical user" as an alternative to the "commercial user" beging fashioned in the new digital economy. One of the first institutional appropriations of network technologies can be analyzed through the creation of non-profit organizations dedicated to the defense and promotion of the Internet, and more specifically dedicated to the "Internet user". We studied how they appropriate Internet and Web technologies to showcase their mission.

Our corpus comprises websites of two of these groups in France: AFUU, the French Unix User Organization that pioneered open system networks in France since 1982 and became in 2002 the AFNET (Net Users French Organization), falling within the tradition of professional computer users; and AUI (Internet Users Organization), created in 1996 in reaction to the first governmental attempts in France to regulate Web usage, merging in 2002 with the French chapter of ISOC (ISOC-France), and fitting into the model of the citizen defense group. Adopting Niels Brugger's methodology for Web history analysis (2009), we postulate that website as artifacts reflect the organizations' conception of what the ideal Internet user should be as well as the practical means defining this user as well in the broader social context2 . 1. A changing "Internet-sphere" for a changing engagement with the Internet It is important, in order to both introduce these organizations and recall the late 1990s context, to describe how the fast evolution of digital networks shaped the organizations' missions as well as their means of communication. We thus investigate the evolution of the "Internet amateur" (one who likes and is engaged, professionally or not, in its societal development, whether the emphasis is put on technical, cultural, economic or political aspects). These engaged users have vested interest in the Internet: they are early adopters, "natives of the Internet Islands", opposite to the "ordinary user" [START_REF] Bakardjieva | Internet Society. The Internet in Everyday Life[END_REF] but often speaking or acting in their name. Several studies tackled the different roles defining commitment towards the Internet in 1990's France:

-didactic: "resourceful operators" [START_REF] Carmagnat | Une société électronique technicienne face à l'élargissement du réseau. Les usages d'Internet dans un centre de recherche[END_REF] mediating Internet knowledge and use in the workplace, or "information processors" [START_REF] Boullier | A chacun son Internet. Enquête sur des usages ordinaires[END_REF], -economic: stakeholders from open to proprietary Internet providers (Rebillard, 2012), -social and political: militants for the defense of a "non profit Internet" [START_REF] Granjon | R@S : la naissance d'un acteur majeur de l'« Internet militant » français[END_REF]Auray, 2002;[START_REF] Paloque-Berges | Une pédagogie documentaire par le folklore : analyse des modes d'emploi de l'Internet au temps de la frontière électronique[END_REF].

While our two organizations do take on some aspects of these three typical roles, their respective general mission belongs roughly in the last two categories. We will analyze how their websites take a reflexive position in the genealogy and the current environment of Internet technologies.

A reflective evolution of the Internet-sphere Our source for access was the Wayback Machine at the Internet archive3 , with the wellknown problems caused by the disappearance of some images, and software modules now obsolete. Both of the websites' content is now offline; while the domain afuu.fr redirects to afnet.fr since 2002, aui.fr is on sale since the merge with ISOC-France the same year. We are not sure of their birthdate, but studied the archived versions from the first capture (1997) to 2002 (when they both were redefined in their identity).

The AFUU organization emerged in the early 1980s out of a professional academic community of researchers and engineers using and promoting the open system Unix on compatible mini-computers. They became familiar and involved with heterogeneous networks for communication and data transmission in the late 1970s by developing and implementing the Unix User Control Protocol (UUCP) between distant machines in order to access email and newsgroups, and building bridges to the Arpanet (NTCP) and then to the Internet (TCP-IP) (Kelty, 2012). Thus, AFUU belongs to a tradition of professional organizations from a hybrid academic-industrial sector working on compatible and open systems, a tradition going back to the early 20 th century (Russell, 2014). In France, Unixians were pioneers in connecting to the international UUCP network as soon as 1982, the same year the AFUU was born as the French equivalent of other European Unix User Groups (EUUG) (Paloque-Berges, …). One of AFUU's missions was to support the technical and (informal) administrative management of Fnet, the French branch of the European backbone for UUCP networks, Eunet. Fnet was decisive in connecting French networks to TCP-IP in 1988, was de facto the first French Internet Service Provider and became a rightful non-profit organization in 1992. Among the Internet services Fnet offered, access to Usenet groups was prominent, with a newsgroup dedicated to Fnet and many others to Unix groups. With mailing lists, Usenet played a crucial role for the gathering of early-adopter Internet users, for information, communication or organization purposes before the Web, and continued to do so until the early 2000s.

Usenet is also a crucial element in the genealogy of AUI, and was actually its birthplace as recalled on the website history's section. Among AUI most active members, we find French Usenet personalities such as Christophe Wolfhugel, the initiator of the French branch of Usenet, Laurent Chemla, or Stéphane Bortzmeyer, close relations to the Unixians4 . Their website, like AFUU's, still relies on newsgroups and mailing lists for interactive communication and coordination, like debating and voting.

Both organizations take part in the genealogy of Unixian communities and actually do show sympathy towards their inheritors, free software and open source communities, by taking a stand against software licensing along the EuroLinux Alliance. But there is no mention of Fnet or other Unix-related communities on AUI's website, probably because their website is sponsored by the independent ISP provider Oléane (domain name registration, webspace and mail hosting), which began in 1990 as UUCP network service provider5 (thus a "rival" to Fnet). In AFUU's case, the absence of is a little more intriguing -even more when knowing that Fnet's 1999 website adopts the acronym "AFNET" (Association Française des utilisateurs du Net), the same endorsed by AFUU in 20026 .

A websphere revealing stakeholders at play Textual and link references to stakeholders and partners within the websites show a web of operators involved in the defense and promotion of Internet use. They help us pinpoint the specificity in the organizations' missions.

There is a clear dichotomy in how AFUU and AUI display the socio-professional identities of their stakeholders. While AUI's members can be described as low-profile users, meaning they don't display obviously any information about their "dayjob", AFUU's case is quite the opposite, displaying with emphasis their industrial and political affiliations: the president is assistant director for information systems at Dassault Aviation7 , and several board of directors members are senators, members of parliament, affiliates at UNESCO or work in major telecommunications or computertechnologies companies (La Poste, Bouygues Télécom…). On the history page, a staggering "non exhaustive" list shows 265 organizations (from the industrial and academic sector) that are members of AFUU. AFUU's websphere, besides linking to their partners and homologue counterparts at the European level (the EurOpen coalition for instance), shows a series of links to online commercial magazines for network or computer users such as 01informatique.fr, or promotional events that AFUU helped organize, such as "Intr@net 99" (a convention as well as an online informational portal) "net2000 & 2001" and "Fête de l'Internet", tightly linked to the industrial sector with support from public authorities (with then-French President Jack Chirac opening the net2001 convention).

Contrastively, AUI's website mostly links to other non-profit groups, whether they are militant partners (like the Global Internet Liberty Campaign (GILC) along with ISOC, the Human Rights Watch or the Electronic Privacy Information Center), or have a similar interest in the defense of the « Internet user », in France, in other countries or at a transnational level. This contextual history is important to recall in order to analyzing the stakeholders' background experience and involvement with the Internet. Without having gone into a complete prosopography analysis, we think most members of these organizations are active witnesses of the technical and social transformations that the computer and communication network industries were subjected to in the 1990s. The ambiguous relationship to Unix culture, first, signals a shift of power relationships in the economy of software collaboration for developing and using networks. The sudden and wide success of the Web, secondly, is both a victory and a trauma for these earlyadopters, symbolized in the legendary 1993 "Eternal September" which marked the end of an era for Internet use "at the risk" of new political, economic and social values emerging with the massive adoption of the Web [START_REF] Schafer | La culture Internet au risque du Web[END_REF].

2. From the website as artifact to public discourse and action Following Niels Brugger methodology for analyzing websites as artifacts, we focused on three levels: semantic, to reveal topics showcasing the main causes and missions; formal, to understand visual and textual categories framing their discourse; performative, to pinpoint means offered to the Internet user. We will demonstrate how the organizations inscribe8 their respective ideal figures of Internet users within their website, and by doing so institutionalize them within the public sphere.

The advisor vs. the advocate

The lexicon fields of AFUU's website is encompassed by a semantic inclination for economics. Consultant trade language is dominant along with various "resources" (brochures, benchmark indicators, barometers and data, services and expertise) for users mostly set to be "decision-makers" in businesses and the public sector. This clear commercial targeting of users agrees with the shift in Unixians identity mentioned earlier, and is underlined in AFUU's use of the term "open systems" on its first page: a logo captioned by the sentence "open systems is a registered trademark". Indeed, openness is a symbol of Unixians' relationship to technology as a socio-technical complex: born and circulated as an open operating system from 1969 on, it fostered user cooperation, sharing and appropriation thanks to its early (almost) free distribution in the academic sphere (Kelty, 2012); however, Unix was privatized in the mid-1980s 9 , which may explain the AFUU's website explicitly commercial rhetoric. AUI website's semantic inclination leans towards the language of ethics and law. In accordance with the reasons why it came to be (to bring a civilian voice and a judiciary entity to the emerging political debate about Internet use's regulation in 1995's France), the first page displays throughout the years the current cases being discussed in the media (pedophilia in 1996, webhosts' legal responsibility towards content in 1999, privacy issues in 2001). A social commentary accompanies the technical and informational services offered, for instance with the explicit mention of an open source licensing for their search engine (GNU), or with a charter for choosing the best ISP including legal and ethical advices against "risk of abuse". Focus is less in delivering services than in transmitting knowledge and mediating best practices for Internet use, as showed by the project "Internet open school" or the different workgroups' missions (user rights, networks in society, services and public relations, users as "client" and "servers"…).

The lexicon of cooperation is topical in both websites; but interpreted in its semantic context, reveals a dichotomy. Cooperation helps standing for common causes regarding deregulation purposes in the eye of the law (cryptography, software licensing); but translated in economic terms, the call for cooperation promotes a liberal digital market at AFUU, and defends digital workers' rights at AUI. One can read this opposition in the insistent argument AFUU makes against the "French backwardness"10 by emphasizing that the organization is "PRO-technologies"11 and by advising "concrete action" vigorously (for instance via the "@CTION" program, the "Assembly for New and Open Communications and Technologies"). Although not explicit, it is a possible scratch against the type of advocacy undertaken by organizations like AUI, for instance their promotion of the "Onenet Campaign ("One Planet. One Network"), a universal declaration of Internet user rights and deeds ("we are the guardians of the Internet, not its owners"). If AFUU's promise to animate a workgroup about the relationship between Internet and rights falls short, staying "under construction" throughout the years, one could consider that AUI's global charter for Internet user is an idealistic standpoint.

A visual and performative grammar framing a program for action

The visual identities of the websites are contrastive12 . AUI's appearance is austere, its first version similar to the first page on the Web created by Tim Berners-Lee's team at CERN13 : white background, linear laid out black text with blue hyperlinks. AFUU's relies on the folkloric design developed by first generation web users, with colorful animated gifs (most of them being partners' logos) and a flashy background. This has a consequence on how information is organized on the page, and thus how it is hierarchized, as well as on what actions users are allowed to perform. AFUU's website shows a profusion of links for capturing users' attention through animation and colors. Categorization relies on familiar keywords for a professional user in search of information services (administrations, education, commercial uses, tourism, culture, media). AFUU takes on the role of equipping the whole of France with Internet technologies, a reminder of the governmental promotional politics for telecom and computer technologies of the previous decades. Indeed, the reader is encouraged to read a series of governmental reports and participate in the multiple events managed or backed up by AFUU (conventions, conferences, exhibitions, competitions…) that call for real-life encounters in the fashion of industrial shows. Besides commercial information services (from advising to performing a user needs-oriented search on the Web 14 ), a free vigil is provided through an open access mailing list. Overall, calls and advices for action are generally tailored to the professional user needs, whether they are a business owner or a public service decision-maker (private individuals being alluded to but never addressed in length). AUI makes up for its minimal design by playing with text size in order to direct attention on the current topics being tackled (mostly of judiciary nature). A 1998 redesign re-organizes the content in three columns layout, with the current affairs still at the forefront. The redesign is integrated as such in the "new projects" category, along a reflexive and performative commentary from AUI: it emphasizes the new user-friendly appearance as well as its didactic qualities, and offers html templates for appropriation in case users would like to add content to the website. A stock of documents originally crafted by AUI (regarding computers and networks use and governance) is available to all users, with an explicit call to circulate: "Because the stakes are so high, don't hesitate to copy and share. / Internet is not only for professionals 15 ". Another feature of performative transmission is the guide "Internet for beginners" by Laurent Chemla, a commonplace of computer networks since their early years, mixing the technical and the cultural, the didactic and the folkloric, open, sharable and modifiable by Internet experienced users (Paloque-Berges, 2013).

Finally, analyzing how the websites handle their "members only" sections 16 reveal the contrast between the two organizations, but also their ambivalence regarding the governance of their own organization. As we saw earlier, both websites emphasize the need for open cooperation, whether for efficiency (AFUU) or ethics (AUI); both offer a members-only area with restricted resources.

The paradox within Unix culture and history (the shift from a open and free cooperation model to a privatized model retaining the symbolic value of openness) is inscribed in webdesign: AFUU encourages cooperation ("businesses counseling each other", crowdsourcing the animation of workgroups), but encloses the major part of their resources in the members area, for instance the "Tribunix magazine" and most technical information. One trivial, but symbolic feature of this ambivalence towards Unix early hacker culture resides in the error message displayed when one wants to access the membership area without password: "Trying to hack, eh? Just joking…". On AUI's part, it is probable that the member area only gives access to a series of general and topical mailing lists (school, cryptography, web…), if we believe the dialog box's instructions when clicking on the access link. Along with cherishing information items of pre-Web Internet culture (like the guide for Internet beginners mentioned previously), and issuing a call for preserving rather than altering the nature of the Internet 17 , AUI assumes its Usenet inheritance for self-regulated online life organization (relying on the netiquette custom law, for instance). This prompts us to wonder about how their sociotechnical governance program is to be mediated and traduced (in the latourian sense; Latour, 2004) to the general public in a new context of massive Internet use. Indeed, the offered tools for organizing group governance and action remain the privilege of users familiar with mailing lists and newsgroups 18 , with little room for face-to-face interaction in physical places. As such, it 15 Emphasis original. 16 Websites' sections enclosed behind a password protected, such as member's areas, are by default not archived, so we have to guess from the information accessible on the websites and the dialogue boxes what they hold. 17 AUI uses the word « dénaturer », meaning « altering a natural state », whether metaphorically or literally. 18 Another of our case studies on the same topic, but focusing on computers professionals' discussions on Usenet about the growing public success of the Web between 1992 and 1997, shows that the use of newsgroups and mailing lists is far from being consensual. Indeed, they hold a general tendency towards closeknit and niche communities with a strong reliance on shared references, values and modes for action difficult to translate for public debates about political action (study entitled « L'horizon du grand public pour les experts des technologies d'Internet au tournant du Web », presented at the International symposium « Formes et feeds the ambivalence maintained by new the Internet-committed militant groups between relying on custom law (native to online life sociability before the Web) and leaning towards modes of action that fall under constitutional law, as analyzed by Nicolas Auray (2002). It is no coincidence that in 1996 John Perry Barlow releases its Declaration of Independence of Cyberspace 19 , an ode to Internet custom law, which success might be have been more of a swansong than a model for the social and institutional future of the Internet.

Conclusion

We are drawn to conclude, thanks to our analysis put in perspective with our social, political and economic context knowledge of the French Web in the 1990, that these inscriptions reveal an Internet in crisis. The appropriation of this crisis by institutions does produce elements of social questioning of the legal, political and economic stakes for the societal use of the Internet. It is important to recall, as it has been stressed by Agre (1998), and has been since the first critical turn in Internet studies in the early 2000's, that these moments of critical appropriation do not imply a revolution is taking place but help to shift the interest from "Internet societies" to "Internet in society" (Wellman, 2009;[START_REF] Wellman | The Immanent Internet[END_REF]. Web inscriptions of this crisis show the maturation of two Internet user figures that will map the deployment of the Internet in the public sphere in the following decade:

-a service user surrounded by injunctions to cooperate with the new digital economy for the sake of innovation and participation, in order to make up for "France's backwardness";

-a critical user facing the difficulties to update traditional political activism while balancing online and offline action, new values and tools and old institutions, in order to make up for a growing digital gap between ordinary citizens and experienced netizens.

These figures took shape and reality as the Internet was grounded, partly by these organizations' discourse and action, as a complex socio-technical technology in the public sphere, opening a dialogue within existing institutions. But looking back from the 2010's, facing today's growing control by governments and the market on user-oriented technologies, we know the revolution did not happen. It is important to understand this, as this critical user is today a growing opposition force in the many controversies about Internet governance and digital data use today, but remains a complex figure.

BibliographyAbbate,

  Abbate, Janet. Inventing the Internet. Cambridge (Mass.), MIT Press. 2002. Agre, Philip. "The Internet and Public Discourse." First Monday, Vol. 3, n°3, 1998. Agre, Philip. "Internet research: For and against." In Mia Consalvo et al. (eds.), Internet Research Annual, Vol. 1, Peter Lang Publishing. 2004. Auray, Nicolas. "L'Olympe de l'Internet français et sa conception de la loi civile." Les Cahiers du numérique, Vol. 3, 2002/2: 79.

This research is funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR) within the « Web90 » project (piloted at ISCC/CNRS by Valérie Schafer).

Our case study can probably have some degree of generality for western countries that profited from the first wave of Internet global deployment (the US, Western Europe).

For visualization purposes, we confronted these web archives to the Bibliothèque Nationale de France (BNF)'s collection: their 1996-2008 stock is a duplicate of the Internet Archive capture of .fr websites, and thus there with no major differences apart from the disappearance of a few background images.

This proximity mostly stems from Bortzmeyer's work, in the first half of the 1990s, at Conservatoire national des arts et métiers' IT department (Cnam), where the pioneer experiment with UUCP networks happened a decade before (Paloque-Berges, …).

France Télécom bought Oléane in 1998.

We are currently conducting a research on the history of Fnet that we hope will provide answer to the disappearance of Fnet from the interests of Internet engaged user communities of the late 1990s, after having played such an important role in connecting France to Usenet and Internet in the 1980s (Paloque-Berges, …); we already know from reading newsgroups that Fnet, as the only ISP until 1990 was subject to much criticism from the France computer science and engineer community for its high prices and complicated administration, as well as personal conflicts.

A major player in military, business and civilian aircraft manufacturer part of the powerful industrial French Dassault group specialized in transport, computer, and media technologies.

We use the term « inscription » as theorized by Philip Agre (2004).

The reverse of fortune gave way to the emergence of the free software movement and later, to the open source economy, as evoked earlier.

A recurring critique, along with technophobia, since President « Plan Calcul » in 1966, within the technology sector towards the French industrial policy considered as too protective, and thus seen as missing the innovation dynamics of the American techno-industrial complex.

Capitals original.

Although, as previously said, iconographic elements are or may be missing from their archived versions.

See the restored version of the WWW's first webpage: http://first-website.web.cern.ch/.