Macarena-Paz Celume
email: pazcelumemacarena-paz.celume@parisdescartes.fr

Franck Zenasni
email: franck.zenasni@parsdescartes.fr

Maud Besançon
email: maud.besancon@univ-rennes2.fr

METHOD FOR ENHANCING WELLBEING AND COLLABORATION

Keywords: Drama Pedagogy Training, Collaboration, Innovation, Children Well-being drama pedagogy, creativity, drama, education, children Child development Creativity Creative drama Dialogic space Drama pedagogy

In summary, DPT can be considered as a specific kind of training within Drama Based Pedagogies (Lee et al., 2015), with the same objectives as creative drama, and based on a particular tendency from the theory of Drama Pedagogy (Garcia-Huidobro, 1996), focused on participants' socio-emotional and creative development instead of searching for academic or artistic enhancement. According to these objectives, several studies have been done in the field, presenting DPT as a viable methodology to develop creativity and socio-emotional competencies. In the next section, we will describe the last part of the rationale that lead us to our research questions, presenting evidence of the relationship between DPT and creativity, DPT and socio-emotional competencies, and between creativity and socio-emotional competencies in DPT.

I hope you might accept the form which I chose to transmit The gratitude I feel towards others In a creative-emotional way Which indeed are the main topics that are discussed in the present thesis

The thing is that I am very grateful to a lot of people Who have been around me during this period Period full of LEARNING, PASSION and LOVE But also, a period full of anger, depression, rejection, desperation, frustration, demotivation, anxiety crisis, confusion, tears, doubt, shame, fear, guilt, envy, smashed relationships, anguish, desolation, exhaustion, sadness, un-sleep, stress, sorrow, eating disorders, sickness, uncertainty, tragedies, unwashed hair, rage, awfulness, agony, and other unknown physical and mental pathologies.

So, thank you…

Dear Jury. Thank you for giving me the honour to have you reading my work. I have kind of my dream jury, which is not evident for everybody. I feel very lucky. Thanks.

Professor Zenasni. So, in the first place, I feel, need, should, must, have to thank Franck. Thank you for the guidance during this process, for the teaching, for the mentoring. Thank you for helping me translate into words the definitions of creativity and emotional competencies I could only express through corporal expression. Thanks for all the words, all the support, all the pieces of advice about anything I could be dealing with, from a non-understanding of a statistical analysis to a non-understanding of certain humans (behaviours, mostly). Thanks for believing in my enthusiasm and my capacities. Thanks for always pushing me to give the best and the most. For having patience with my (sometimes extreme) stubbornness. For not letting me quit research forever after manuscript rejections. For letting me be a drama queen within and out the limits. Todd Lubart. Thank you for your enthusiasm and your kindness, for making creativity a passionate subject of study. For all the opportunities. For always being smiling, willing to help, and open to discuss and solve questions and doubts.

Michael Hanchett-Hanson. Thank you so much for all the discussions and all fresh ideas on creativity. For the dynamic creativity perspective, the manifesto… all that made me question my work, looking for and from different perspectives. For believing in my work and show me other ways of doing further research. Maud Besançon. Thanks for all the learnings and all the help with my articles and presentations, for your great support, and thanks forever for pre-reading this thesis and being always bienveillante and ready to help with more reading, material, bibliography, perspectives, corrections, and more. Thalia Goldstein. Thank you for being such an inspiration. For the opportunity to welcome me at your lab and show me a bit of the great work you do. Your commitment, happiness, and hard work are remarkable and inspired me to continue researching these topics that passion me so much. Sophie Pène. Thank you for being the main connection point between my dream of pursuing this career and the fact of doing it, for providing me the opportunity to meet Franck. Without your intervention this thesis wouldn't be even started.

All my friends (I don't have that much). The ones who decided to quit me because I was acting too weird, too work-focused, too heartless. I understand. I'm sorry. And thank you. To the ones who are still here… how is it that you are still here? Thanks, for believing in me and encouraging me to continue and never give up, your support gave me the strength to continue on this path.

The lab and the university crowd. First, thank you Sephora for always helping me solve the interminable French incredible bureaucracy. The IT team for solving all the foolishness I'm able to do when I'm around a computer. The "doctorants" and "ex-doctorants" who supported me when I repeated constantly "my work is worthless, nobody is interested in it". Thanks for all your reassuring words, smiles, tears, laughs, running and mediation teams. Thanks to the professors from the lab for your advice, smiles, perspectives, coffee, conversations and chocolate.

The teachers and directors of the different schools I have worked with, as well as all educational actors I crossed during these years. Thank you so much for your trust, your lovely encouraging words, the support, the help, the disposition, the interest to make a better world for our children.

To my family. For sending me encouraging greetings and applause emojis when I shared my achievements. My family's creative-emotional (non)communication skills, have been a great source of inspiration for this research.

OH! And of course a MASSIVE thanks to all those particular people I met at different conferences, specifically to those who think that creativity is a spiritual gift given to you at birth from the astrological gods and that social sciences are just a myth trying to silence the gods… voilà. Table 1. Representation of measured variables according to measuring times. Table 2. Distribution of children in the two group conditions according to schools Table 3. Means of divergent and convergent thinking for each group before the sessions. Table 4. Children's responses on personal preferences and learning during the trainings.

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments

Table of Contents

Table 5. Mean Scores on Mood for both experimental and control conditions. Table 6. Means Scores on Creative Thinking for both experimental and control conditions. Table 7. Valence of creativity tasks' drawings for experimental and control conditions.

General Introduction

International educational movements, such as the 21st century school movement, started with the identification of several competencies that must be taught in school in order to better adjust to the needs of the century. The Learning First Alliance in 2001 stated that one important challenge for 21st educational settings was related to answering the need to provide students from different cultures with the sufficient competencies and motivation to learn. These competencies include social, emotional and cognitive competencies, such as collaboration, communication, critical thinking and creativity (P21, s.d.). The Organisation for Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD), the World Economic Forum, and other international organisations identified creativity as one of four key abilities to be fostered in education, and it has been identified as a key competency for employability in the next decades [START_REF] Lubart | Creativity and convergent thinking: reflections, connections and practical considerations[END_REF]. Nevertheless, some authors explain that creative potential can be at risk in our current societies and educational systems if they continue to favour conformity and follow standardisation [START_REF] Robinson | Out of Our Minds: Learning to be Creative[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | Do Schools Kill Creativity?[END_REF][START_REF] Sternberg | La inteligencia creativa[END_REF].

The obsessed-with-being-successful education that we've been teaching children up to now has shown its effects. An education based on academic success, on individualism, on money gathering, on self-worth linked to success, with no or little emotional education certainly permits great learning outcomes and certain competencies, such as the sense of competition, but it doesn't allow a complete development of creative or socio-emotional competencies, such as empathy, collaboration or critical thinking, an issue which has been identified as detrimental for the development of a healthy and integral human being. Some scholars and educational actors have understood the need for such integral education, although there is still a long way to go. We need more people who care about others, who will empathise with other human beings, who will collaborate and create new solutions for today's issues and will put that creativity to use on behalf of everyone. For this, we need new pedagogies, new methodologies that can complement existing ones, by integrating the development of intrapersonal and interpersonal skills and competencies to educate new generations. We need to ask ourselves: How do we want to educate our children? What do we want them to learn? This is one of the objectives of this thesis, to provide evidence of how a pedagogical tool can enhance creative thinking and socio-emotional competencies in children with the aim of developing, in the future, a more empathetic and just society. These changes might start with children, by providing them with a healthy socio-emotional base where they can freely develop their creativity, and where they can experience the flourishing of nurturing relationships, of collaborating with others, of building a better world together. These experiences can be provided by an active pedagogy, with tools such as Drama Pedagogy Training, where children can develop life competencies through play. Drama Pedagogy permits the development of a space of coexistence and teamwork (Holland, 2009), a safe and collaborative space that allows the development of creative thinking (Celume, Besançon & Zenasni, 2019a), permitting children to reflect on their own actions [START_REF] Catterall | Conversation and Silence: Transfer of Learning Through the Arts[END_REF], and eventually develop social, emotional, and cognitive skills. Therefore, the studies provided in this thesis, together with the rationale of the following chapters, will provide evidence of the effectiveness of this pedagogy in order to enhance positive emotions, creative thinking, empathy, and other socio-emotional competencies in children, which are the skills our educational systems have failed to offer for a long time.

As a matter of fact, Vygotsky (1967[START_REF] Vygotsky | Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes[END_REF] established that creativity, together with social environments and interactions within these environments, were the basis for understanding child development and that it should be highly considered in education. These statements, coming from social learning theories, were the basis of a series of studies that were carried on in the history of psychological and educational research, addressing the topic of children's creativity and socioemotional competencies in education. Several studies have shown the importance of such learning at school (e.g. [START_REF] Elias | The Connection Between Academic and Social-Emotional Learning[END_REF]Fernandez-Berrocal & Extremera, 2002) as they are seen as key competencies for 21st-century education (e.g. [START_REF] Anagün | Teachers' Perceptions about the Relationship between 21st Century Skills and Managing Constructivist Learning Environments[END_REF][START_REF] Craft | Creativity in schools: Tensions and dilemmas[END_REF]Trilling & Fadel, 2009). In fact, several organisations, such as the Partnership for the 21st century skills (P21) and the Cooperative for Academic Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL), promote the enhancement of these competencies and develop programs and documents in order to spread knowledge of the importance of such learning at school. Moreover, important international organisations, such as The United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) or the OECD, support these learnings because they believe that they play an important role in the construction of more sustainable, just and peaceful societies (OECD, 2019;UNESCO, 2015).

Nevertheless, the teaching and learning of these competencies have not always been well accepted or promoted, and sometimes they still stay in a domain of controversy (Humphrey, Curran, Morris, Farrell & Woods, 2007). In other words, even though there are studies and organisations engaged in the development of these creative and socio-emotional competencies, they have not always been supported within the educational field and there is still some hesitation in schools when it comes to implementation. Several studies done in the field of children's creativity have shown how creative thinking decreases at the age of nine (see "fourth grade slump" for detailed info), and this is often related to the fact of entering a more formal educational system [START_REF] Torrance | A Longitudinal Examination of the Fourth Grade Slump in Creativity[END_REF]. These results can still be corroborated in more contemporary studies (e.g. [START_REF] Besançon | Differences in the development of creative competencies in children schooled in diverse learning environments[END_REF] which show that, within the French educational system, alternative pedagogies have better performances in creative thinking than classical ones, suggesting a weak training in creativity at classical schools. Moreover, the training of socio-emotional competencies at school is still a new topic, and authors can only present a low number of studies that actually intend to develop these competencies in children [START_REF] Sprung | Children's emotion understanding: A meta-analysis of training studies[END_REF] with no clear evidence of these kinds of studies in francophone countries [START_REF] Theurel | Entraîner les compétences émotionnelles à l'école[END_REF].

Regarding this evidence, Drama Pedagogy Training appears to be a relevant well-adapted tool whereby children can improve both their creative and socio-emotional competencies.

Research in Drama Pedagogy explains how the use of play is fundamental for children's development, as it is through imagination and play that children free their frustrations and express their reasonings, experiences and affects (García-Huidobro, 1996). In other words, the playful environment provided by Drama Pedagogy allows children to generate creative outcomes through the use of their imagination and their emotional world. This relationship between creativity and emotional competencies in play is supported by several studies carried out by Russ and colleagues (1990Russ and colleagues ( , 1993Russ and colleagues ( , 1999) ) where they established links between creativity and affect through fantasy or pretend play. Along the same lines, the studies of Goldstein and colleagues (2009Goldstein and colleagues ( , 2012Goldstein and colleagues ( , 2018) ) present more evidence of the link between drama and the development of socio-emotional competencies in children, particularly empathy, theory of mind and emotional regulation. These competencies, related to social functioning, are related to the development of other competencies, such as perspective taking, which would be fundamental for developing critical thinking.

According to Álvarez and Martín (2016) theatrical practices help raise critical reflections, valuing the expression of thoughts and ideas through emotions and feelings. In this sense, Boal (1989) created a new method, the theatre of the oppressed (derived from Drama Pedagogy) as a detonator for critical thinking and social change. Theatre, through verbal and non-verbal resources, helps recreate situations of real communication, reconstructing experiences, compromising the whole personality of the participant [START_REF] Tejerina | Dramatizacín y teatro infantil : dimensiones psicopedaǵgicas y expresivas[END_REF], thus offering the chance to enhance diverse competencies.

In this sense, it seems fundamental to us to study in depth the psychology behind this pedagogy and to be able to elucidate on and present evidence of the concrete contributions of a Drama Pedagogy Training on elementary school children, in order to propose this tool as a viable method for the development of positive emotions, creativity and socio-emotional competencies.

Consequently, the research that was carried out for this thesis led us to the construction of several studies, with the objective of understanding how creativity and socio-emotional competencies could be developed at elementary school through Drama Pedagogy Training, which are the better tools and activities for achieving this, and finally how a drama-based pedagogy could arise as a qualified option. These studies, along with the theoretical support, are presented in this thesis in four main sections: First, the theoretical introductory part will present the theoretical framework and that will be subdivided into five chapters. The first chapter, focused mainly on creativity, will describe what we understand as creativity and will focus on creative potential and how creative thinking can be measured. The second chapter, focused mainly on socio-emotional competencies, will describe what socio-emotional competencies are, how to measure and develop them and why they are essential for today's education. The third chapter, focused mainly on the school context, will describe the French educational context in relationship with the development of creativity and socio-emotional competencies. The fourth chapter, mainly focused on drama and theatre, will present the origins of drama and drama in education, how it evolved and what we understand today by Drama Pedagogy and Drama Pedagogy Training. And finally, the fifth chapter, will describe the intersections of creativity and socio-emotional competencies in drama-based pedagogies.

Second, the problematic part will summarise the theoretical perspectives into different research questions and will present the studies carried out.

Third, the experimental part will present five different studies that were carried out during this investigation and that were the basis of several manuscripts, published and under revision.

And finally, the general discussion and conclusions part will review the results and analyses of all five studies in order to give them sense, and present future perspectives on how we could continue this investigation considering new ideas and approaches that emerged.

Chapter 1 -Creativity

"It is what a painter feels when the colors on the canvas begin to set up a magnetic tension with each other, and a new "thing", a living form, takes shape in front of the astonished creator… optimal experience depends on the ability to control what happens in consciousness, moment by moment, [and] each person has to achieve it on the basis of his own individual efforts and creativity."

Mihalyi Csikszentmihalyi, 1990 (Flow. The Psychology of Optimal Experience, p.3) Creativity can be understood as the capacity to generate novel, original and valuable work adapted to a context, task or constraint (e.g. Lubart, Mouchiroud, Tordjman & Zenasni, 2015). In the following parts of this chapter, we will discuss the concept of creativity, how it has evolved up to today and the different perspectives for its measurement, focusing mainly on creative thinking and its relationship with creative process and creative potential, to finally describe the types of training that are more adequate to enhance creative thinking.

Defining and Describing Creativity

According to Runco and Jaeger (2012), originality and usefulness were the first basic concepts analysed on the study of creativity at the beginning of the 20th century, establishing a standard definition of creativity. Nevertheless, the study of creativity started a long time ago, and still today we have several perspectives in order to understand or define what we call creativity.

Besançon, Barbot and Lubart (2011) posited that when Binet started his work in the understanding of interindividual differences in 1905 [START_REF] Binet | Écrits populaires de psychologie publiés dans la &quot[END_REF], he was already interested in the creative process. In fact, Binet observed that children learned differently, and thus created "la tâche de la tâche d'encre" or what we may consider as the first divergent thinking task. A couple of years later, in 1950, Guilford presented the basis of the systematic scientific study of creativity in an American Psychological Association convention, pointing out the fact of negligence towards the subject of creativity. These authors inspired the beginning of numerous studies that have been undertaken around the concept of creativity, although the majority without defining it [START_REF] Kaufman | Essentials of creativity assessment[END_REF]. In the fields of education and psychology, a consensual and operational definition allows us to describe creativity as the ability to generate novel, original and valuable work that is adapted to the context, task or constraint (e.g. Lubart et al., 2015;Lubart & Sternberg, 1995;Runco & Jaeger, 2012;[START_REF] Sternberg | Beyond IQ: a triarchic theory of human intelligence[END_REF].

Different Ways of Analysing and Describing Creativity

The description of creativity has different approaches which influence its understanding. [START_REF] Rhodes | An Analysis of Creativity[END_REF] proposed a model to explain creativity from what he called the perspective of the "4Ps". He gathered the work that had been done in the creativity field in order to find a consensus in the definition. All the definitions he gathered, during a long process of five years, led him to the conclusion that creativity was actually a complex construct, but that it could be divided into 4 separate perspectives or prisms. He identified these "4Ps" as P-erson, P-rocess, P-ress, and Product. Person was related to the different traits and characteristics of the person who is creating.

Process, was related to the chain of sequential or non-sequential events that are part of the act of creating. Press was related to the immediate physical or social environment that might have an impact on creativity. And finally, Product was related to the actual creative product or work. This model was largely accepted in the creativity research field although according to some authors [START_REF] Runco | A Hierarchical Framework for the Study of Creativity, New Horizons in Education, 2007-Dec[END_REF] it was not complete enough. Following this lead, in 2013, Glaveanu proposed a new perspective from which to understand creativity. This approach is known as the 5 A's of creativity, for A-ctor, A-ction, A-rtifact, A-udience, and A-ffordance. According to Lubart (2017) these A's are based on Rhodes' work of the 4 P's, linking the first 4 A's of Glaveanu to the first 4 P's of Rhodes, but proposing an update of the "P" concepts by considering more complete socio-cultural and ecological perspectives. In fact, the fourth P element "Press" is related to two concepts in the A's model, considering Audience as the social "Press" and the fifth element "Affordance" as the material "Press" [START_REF] Glaveanu | Rewriting the Language of Creativity: The Five A's Framework[END_REF]. Even though this actualisation of the 4Ps identified by Glaveanu seems to be more complete and presents an ecological perspective on creativity, other approaches have been proposed nowadays, claiming a mismatch with some original creativity models, such as Guilford's one (1967aGuilford's one ( , 1967b)).

In line with this, according to [START_REF] Lubart | The 7 C's of Creativity[END_REF], the work done by Guilford (1967) in the study of creativity and intelligence, does not completely fit with either of the two models (P's nor A's).

He proposed a novel approach considering seven aspects or themas of creativity that he called the 7 Cs of creativity. The first one, C-reators, is related to the characteristics and resources of the creative people. C-reating is directly related to the creative working process. C-ollaboration is related to the interactions that might occur during the creative creation. C-ontext is related to the social and physical environment. C-reations is related to the concrete creative work or product. Consumption, is related to the acquisition of work by an audience or public. And finally, C-urricula, is related to the training in creativity or creative development. According to [START_REF] Lubart | Introduction[END_REF], all the Cs are more less related to the creative process. For Creators, he refers to the resources, abilities and traits of the individuals that participate in the process. For Collaboration he means the process component that exists in the interactions. Later, he explains that the process is developed within a Context, and that the results of a process are the Creations themselves, explaining that Consumption involves a diffusion process of these creations. And finally, he identifies Curricula as a whole process in itself, where the creative process is developed through different techniques.

The creative process involves sequences of thoughts and actions that will finally lead to the creation or production of an original and adapted valuable product or work. According to [START_REF] Lubart | Introduction[END_REF], three concepts within this definition should be considered further: Sequences, Thoughts and Actions, and Production of Work. For him, these sequences are better explained as a chain of events that are not necessarily linear, but more like distinct phases that take place somewhere in this chain of events. This chain of events evolves through thoughts and actions, which are the efforts undertaken by the individual that will permit the emergence of the final result of the process, which we call production of work. This work, that does not necessarily have to be a concrete production, can be expressed by the individual in several different ways (e.g. visually as a painting or sculpture, acoustically as a piece of music, or even kinetically through a dramatic play or a dance movement, among others). Thus, the 7C's model proposes an integrated view of creativity from the perspective of the creative process, which will lead the individual, through sequences of thoughts and actions, to produce creative work that can be expressed, among other ways, through the form of an artistic product. [START_REF] Lubart | The 7 C's of Creativity[END_REF] Consequently, the latter theoretical model appears to be the more adequate for our work, as it presents creativity as an integrative process that can lead to the creation of artistic work, which matches with one of the characteristics of Drama Pedagogy: to focus on the process of creation instead of the final result (further information on this topic will be described in Chapter 4). Besides, as this thesis will focus on this one specific pedagogy, the Curricula thema seems of particular interest. In fact, Drama Pedagogy works with different activities and techniques in order to develop creativity. This is consequent with the objectives of the Curricula thema within the model, in which it is explained as the process whereby different techniques are carried out in order to develop creativity.

The Factors of Creativity: Creative Potential and the Multivariate Model

The resources involved in the creative process, such as individual and contextual factors, can be identified as creative potential. This potential remains latent during the creative process until is revealed through a task [START_REF] Lubart | Creative Potential and Its Measurement[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Besançon | Évolution de l'évaluation de la créativité chez l'enfant de Binet à nos jours[END_REF], to understand creative potential, we need to first look back at the studies on the evaluation of intelligence and intellectual high potential. Imagination, today considered as a basic element of creativity, was and is still considered by some authors as part of intelligence [START_REF] Naglieri | Understanding intelligence, giftedness and creativity using the pass theory[END_REF][START_REF] Treffinger | The Progress and Peril of Identifying Creative Talent among Gifted and Talented Students[END_REF][START_REF] Treffinger | Creative Problem Solving: Educational Implications Overview and[END_REF], suggesting links between creativity and intelligence, although this is still part of a larger debate [START_REF] Besançon | Évolution de l'évaluation de la créativité chez l'enfant de Binet à nos jours[END_REF] as some authors have shown evidence of the non-correlation of high potential (IQ) and creativity [START_REF] Runco | The Threshold Theory Regarding Creativity and Intelligence: An Empirical Test with Gifted and Nongifted Children[END_REF].

Nevertheless, the model of intelligence proposed by [START_REF] Renzulli | The three ring conception of giftedness: a developmental model for creative productivity[END_REF] described three basic aptitudes that were needed in order to talk of high potential of an individual. The first one, is to have intellectual skills above the mean, the second one will be the engagement in the task, and the last one will be creativity, considering some cognitive processes such as fluent, flexible and original thinking and other characteristics and traits such as curiosity, risk taking and openness to new experiences. Consequently, [START_REF] Sternberg | Beyond IQ: a triarchic theory of human intelligence[END_REF] proposed his theory of intelligence and high potential, proposing also three constitutive factors: the componential factor related to cognitiveintellectual components and measured through IQ tests; the experiential factor related to creativity and measured through the adaptation to novelty; and the contextual factor related to practical intelligence and measured through the adaptation to a context and culture. These authors identified creativity as a pillar of high potential, permitting some authors to get interested in the field of creative potential. According to some authors (e.g. [START_REF] Lubart | Creative Potential and Its Measurement[END_REF], the creative production is the result of the interaction of the individual's resources and environmental, cognitive and conative factors, and can be measured in terms of divergent-exploratory actions and convergent-integrative actions [START_REF] Lubart | Models of the Creative Process: Past, Present and Future[END_REF]. [START_REF] Barbot | Creative potential in educational settings: its nature, measure, and nurture[END_REF] explain that in order to understand and measure creativity, we need to differentiate creative potential from creative accomplishment and creative talent. [START_REF] Barbot | Creative potential in educational settings: its nature, measure, and nurture[END_REF] explained that creative achievement would be the production of a creation recognised by an audience and creative talent would be the tendency of someone to produce creative work repeatedly, while creative potential would be the possibility of creating original adapted work resulting from the particular combination of the personal resources of an individual interacting with his/her cognitive, conative and environmental factors (e.g. [START_REF] Besançon | Influence of school environment on adolescents' creative potential, motivation and well-being[END_REF]. In 2015,1 Lubart, Mouchiroud, Tordjman & Zenasni proposed a multivariate approach to creativity that also considered affective or emotional factors in the equation. In other words, regarding the creative potential of an individual within the creative process, this could be influenced by cognitive, conative, emotional and environmental factors. This last model also considered the emotional/affective factors as detrimental for the development of creativity. Along these lines, several authors have documented the fundamental role that emotions and emotional intelligence play in creativity and the creative process (e.g. Ivcevic & Brackett, 2015;[START_REF] Ivcevic | Emotions and creativity: From process to person and product[END_REF].

In summary, the creative process can be considered as a sequence of thoughts and actions that leads to creative work through the interaction of an individual's resources with the affective, cognitive, conative and environmental factors. The combination of these four factors impact the creative potential of an individual and can be measured in terms of creative thinking.

The multivariate model, as an integrative approach that considers the affective, cognitive, conative and environmental factors that influence the creative potential of an individual, seems more pertinent when talking about creativity in education. Other approaches that focus on domaingeneral creativity could be imprecise when trying to assess the interindividual differences of children within a class. In this sense, [START_REF] Barbot | Creative potential in educational settings: its nature, measure, and nurture[END_REF] argue that it would be inaccurate to make assumptions about children's creative potential if it is evaluated from a "gfactor view" (p.375) perspective, in which children's creative potential would be assessed through a limited set of tasks. Consequently, for the purposes of this work, we will define creativity from the perspectives of creative process within the 7C's model and taking into account the Curricula thema, as explained above in 1.1.1, complementing it with the understanding of the creative potential of an individual within the framework of the multivariate approach, assessing creativity in terms of creative thinking.

Mental Processes in Creative Thought

There are different processes that are involved in creative thought, such as divergent thinking and problem solving. Some other processes that have been related to creative thinking are somehow linked to either one of these two, as is the case of associative thinking that has been argued to be related to divergent thinking (e.g. [START_REF] Acar | Assessing Associative Distance Among Ideas Elicited by Tests of Divergent Thinking[END_REF][START_REF] Benedek | Associative abilities underlying creativity[END_REF][START_REF] Milgram | Developmental test of Mednick's associative hierarchies of original thinking[END_REF]. Other mental processes, such as fantasy and imagination have also been related to creative thinking, although fewer studies have been done so far, and most of them are related to (pretend) play and affection (e.g. [START_REF] Tsai | Play, Imagination, and Creativity: A Brief Literature Review[END_REF][START_REF] Russ | Pretend Play: Longitudinal Prediction of Creativity and Affect in Fantasy in Children[END_REF].

The following figure illustrates different processes involved in creative thought that were found pertinent for the purposes of this thesis.

Figure 3. Processes involved in creative thought

In the following part, we will describe these processes, in order to clarify the concept of creative thinking that was used during the studies carried out for this thesis and specifically for later understanding its relationship with Drama Pedagogy Training.

a. Divergent Thinking and Problem Solving

Divergent thinking is a mental process that allows the individual to find different several ideas from a single starting point (Lubart et al., 2015). In other words, divergent thinking is the cognitive ability to produce diverse responses to a proposed task. According to [START_REF] Runco | Divergent Thinking[END_REF], divergent thinking is considered as a valid indicator of creative thinking potential while Scott, Leritz & Mumford (2004) consider divergent thinking as a particular ability that causes a fundamental input to creative thinking. For [START_REF] Guilford | Creativity[END_REF]Guilford ( , 1951) ) using divergent thinking leads us to having much more material to look for a creative answer; the fact of proposing several ideas will directly improve the creative quality of ideas, being able to select one creative idea thanks to the divergence of ideas previously proposed. In this sense, Lubart et al. (2015) suggest that, thanks to divergent thinking, the possibility of finding a creative idea, new and adapted, increases.

Nevertheless, some authors still discuss if "divergent thinking is necessary and sufficient for creative thought" (Scott et al., 2004, p.363) even though, since 1950, Guilford assures us that divergent thinking is essential for creativity. [START_REF] Benedek | Associative abilities underlying creativity[END_REF] posits that divergent thinking currently represents the predominant psychometric approach to creativity. Since [START_REF] Guilford | Creativity[END_REF] and [START_REF] Torrance | The Search for Satori and Creativity[END_REF], divergent thinking has been evaluated through the amount of unusual responses an individual gives from a starting point. Guilford (1967) adds that divergent thinking can be measured through three indicators, namely (a) fluency, or the capacity to produce several answers or responses, (b) flexibility, or the capacity to produce different categories of ideas, and (c) originality, or the capacity to produce ideas that are statistically rare. Thanks to this conception of divergent thinking, many tasks have been created in order to be able to evaluate the divergence of thought of individuals, thus, for example, measuring the number of ideas and the uniqueness of ideas that a child might produce (Wallach & Kogan, 1965).

Divergent thinking is a complex process that literature has related to many other processes, such as problem solving. According to Mumford, Mobley, Uhlman, [START_REF] Mumford | Process analytic models of creative capacities[END_REF] and Mumford, Peterson and Childs (1999), there are eight key processes involved in divergent thinking. Scott et al. (2004) listed these process as: "(a) problem finding, (b) information gathering, (c) concept search and selection, (d) conceptual combination, (e) idea generation, (f) idea evaluation, (g) implementation planning and (h) action monitoring" (p. 364), arguing that relationships between these processes and creative problem solving had already been established.

In 1995, Treffinger analysed the Creative Problem Solving (CPS) approach, identifying three broader operations: (a) problem understanding, (b) idea generation, and (c) action planning, that were fundamental steps for generating ideas (divergent thinking) but also for analysing and selecting ideas (convergent thinking). For him, problem understanding would be related to the moment in which the subject needs to analyse the situation and to focus the problem to determine the structure of the problem; idea generation would be related to the need to produce alternatives that are numerous (fluency), varied (flexibility), unusual (originality) and detailed (elaboration); and finally, action planning would be the last part in which the individual observes the alternatives or solutions given, and analyses them in order to find the one that is more appropriate for the context. In this sense, it is important to understand the concept of problem, not from a negative perspective in which there is something that is not going well, or as something that is imperfect and needs to be corrected, but more as an opportunity or a challenge to address change (Isaken & Treffinger, 1985).

In summary, divergent thinking is the mental ability to think "out of the box" in order to offer more unusual ideas for a specific task, while problem solving is a mental process that works through problem understanding, idea generation and action planning that might help improve divergent thinking.

-Associative Thinking If creative work comes as a result of different ideas and actions [START_REF] Lubart | Models of the Creative Process: Past, Present and Future[END_REF], we could argue that these combinations are due to the capacity to compare different ideas, generating several associations that would lead us to a creative outcome. Similar to what [START_REF] Mednick | The associative basis of the creative process[END_REF] argued when he developed the Remotes Associates Test (RAT), some associative responses (those that present horizontal associations) will result in more creative individuals, as he understood creativity as the combination of association of ideas to form new elements. Similarly, [START_REF] Acar | Assessing Associative Distance Among Ideas Elicited by Tests of Divergent Thinking[END_REF] argued the RAT is related more to convergent thinking rather than to divergent thinking, although they note that associative processes are not necessarily predictors of creative performance.

Nevertheless, as we saw above, convergent thinking for creativity seems to be a necessary process for creative thinking, that would come after the divergent thinking propositions. Thus, [START_REF] Acar | Assessing Associative Distance Among Ideas Elicited by Tests of Divergent Thinking[END_REF] propose that associative processes could be activated in front of an openended problem that would lead to a different association of ideas. In this sense, [START_REF] Benedek | Associative abilities underlying creativity[END_REF] found that associative thinking and divergent thinking were connected, arguing that "high divergent thinking ability was significantly predicted by high ability of dissociation and associative combination" (p. 278). In other words, the ability of the subjects to combine, dissociate and associate elements was a necessary condition to score highly in divergent thinking tasks. This study is consistent with a study of Wallach and Kogan (1965) who established that divergent thinking could be enhanced thanks to associative thinking. For [START_REF] Fisher | The IdeaFisher : how to land that big idea--and other secrets of creativity in business[END_REF], it is thanks to new relationships of ideas and associations that individuals can access the more original ideas that are stored in our brains. In summary, associative thinking is the process of connecting different ideas, which would be related to divergent thinking as many associations are needed in order to generate several ideas, and to convergent thinking as many associations of ideas are needed in order to converge towards an original idea. In both cases, associative thinking is understood as a fundamental part of the creative thinking process.

b. Convergent Thinking

So far, we have seen that creative thinking relies on several mental processes. [START_REF] Lubart | Models of the Creative Process: Past, Present and Future[END_REF] explains that all creative work is made from several different thoughts and events. These thoughts and events that will converge into a creative idea can be understood as the creative process. The creative process has been studied for a long time, and two main creative thinking processes or ways of processing information have been proposed as its basis: divergent thinking and convergent thinking [START_REF] Michael | Guilford's View[END_REF].

Convergent thinking has normally been described as related to IQ, as it responds to the idea of finding the "correct" answer to fit a task constraint [START_REF] Lubart | Creativity and convergent thinking: reflections, connections and practical considerations[END_REF]. This may be due to the tests that were created to measure it. One of the most famous ways to measure convergent thinking is the RAT [START_REF] Mednick | The associative basis of the creative process[END_REF] that we have already mentioned above as part of associative thinking, which measures the remote and unusual connections that the individual can make regarding three given words. According to [START_REF] Lubart | Creativity and convergent thinking: reflections, connections and practical considerations[END_REF], the use of convergent thinking as a means of creativity in these tasks is highly debatable. For him, convergent thinking for creativity is more related to integrative thinking, as is the mental ability to synthesise information in an original way. [START_REF] Spearman | The theory of "two factors" and that of "sampling[END_REF] also understood convergent thinking in these terms, as the integration and synthesis of ideas. Considering the CPS approach, analysed by [START_REF] Isaksen | Creative problem solving: the basic course[END_REF], we could argue that the last "step" he described as part of creative problem solving is related to what we understand as convergent thinking. In this way, convergent thinking is related to the ability to facilitate the evaluation and selection of the best ideas issuing from divergent thinking [START_REF] Cropley | In Praise of Convergent Thinking[END_REF][START_REF] Simonton | On Praising Convergent Thinking: Creativity as Blind Variation and Selective Retention[END_REF].

In summary, convergent thinking for creativity could be understood as the mental process that helps individuals to gather and select different information and ideas, to transform them into an integrated and original idea.

c. Fantasy and Imagination

Fantasy and imagination are argued to be elements related to creativity. [START_REF] Runco | Personal Explicit Theories of Creativity[END_REF] explained that imagery and imagination were important components of creativity. Years before, in 1986, Saracho had already posited that children's imagination was a dimension of creativity, and she did relate the concept to children's imaginative play. This dimension of creativity, she established years later, needed to be addressed by teachers at school, and children needed to be provided with a nurturing environment that could permit them to enhance their imagination through play [START_REF] Saracho | Young Children's Creativity and Pretend Play[END_REF].

Nevertheless, there was no clarity on how imagination was related to creativity, if it was a creative trait or was part of creative thought. From the beginning of the 20th century, Vygotsky was interested in the link between imagination, creativity and play. In a post-mortem publication which appeared in 2004, he described the link between imagination and creativity, and how play was a moderator of them both. He posited how imagination was the basis of all human creativity, arguing that imagination was fundamental, essential to human life. Some years later, [START_REF] Smoulcha | A reconstruction of Vygotsky's theory of creativity[END_REF] gathered Vygostky studies and established that imagination was intrinsically related to children's play, proposing that imagination was a higher mental function, and that it plays an important part in creative thinking.

Following on from this, several years of study were undertaken by Russ and collaborators (e.g. [START_REF] Russ | Pretend Play: Longitudinal Prediction of Creativity and Affect in Fantasy in Children[END_REF]Russ & Schaefer, 2006;[START_REF] Seja | Children's fantasy play and emotional understanding[END_REF] which proposed a strong relationship between play, imagination and creative thinking. Chen [START_REF] Tsai | Play, Imagination, and Creativity: A Brief Literature Review[END_REF] then theorised that the relationship of affect in play and imagination could maximise creative potential.

Moreover, Russ and Schaefer (2006) and [START_REF] Seja | Children's fantasy play and emotional understanding[END_REF] showed, empirically, how fantasy and imagination were related with divergent thinking, permitting us to establish that imagination does indeed have a role to play in creative thinking.

The Measurement of Creativity

The assessment of creativity is one of the hardest problems that creativity researchers face, probably due to the desire to observe, categorise and evaluate unusual uses, originality and novelty in products, ideas and people (Silvia, Wigert, Reiter-Palmon & Kaufman, 2011) and probably because, in scientific research, we need to be sure of what we are actually measuring. [START_REF] Kaufman | Essentials of creativity assessment[END_REF] explained how creativity has been measured in the history of the study of creativity, describing that research has mostly focused on the evaluation of creative products, creative traits, creative behaviours and accomplishments, and creative cognition.

Nevertheless, as we saw above, creativity can be defined from several other perspectives and thus, there are several ways in which it can be developed and measured. As explained above, for the purposes of this work, we are going to focus on the creative potential of the child, and we will describe the measurement approaches related to this construct in terms of creative thinking.

1.2.1: General Perspective

As explained earlier, creativity in this work will be defined according to the multivariate model (Lubart & Sternberg, 1995;Lubart et al. 2015) where the creative outcome emerges from the reciprocity between the personal resources of an individual and the emotional, environmental, cognitive and conative factors that will impact his/her creative potential [START_REF] Lubart | Creative Potential and Its Measurement[END_REF].

In this sense, this creative outcome is understood as the creative potential of an individual to produce original adapted work resulting from personal resources in interaction with cognitive, conative, emotional and motivational factors. This creative potential can be measured in terms of divergent-exploratory actions and convergent-integrative actions [START_REF] Lubart | Models of the Creative Process: Past, Present and Future[END_REF] and the results should be considered as a set of the individual's potentialities [START_REF] Lubart | Creative Potential and Its Measurement[END_REF]. In other words, divergent thinking and integrative thinking tasks will be adequate in order to measure an individual's creative potential presenting the different creative potentialities of an individual.

According to [START_REF] Barbot | Creative potential in educational settings: its nature, measure, and nurture[END_REF], the fact of being considered as creative in a particular outlet relies not only on the creative potential related to that specific outlet, but also on the capacity of the individual to transform that potential into real-world work adapted to the individual's environment and context.

Creative potential can be evaluated from two perspectives: an analytic perspective focused on a person's resources for creative work and a holistic perspective that focuses on a person's outcomes of creative potential [START_REF] Barbot | Creative potential in educational settings: its nature, measure, and nurture[END_REF][START_REF] Lubart | Creative Potential and Its Measurement[END_REF].

1.2.2: Creative Measurement for Children

A large number of assessments and studies carried out have been created for and conducted on the adult population. Regarding the evaluation of creative potential in children, [START_REF] Lubart | Creative Potential and Its Measurement[END_REF] described the most regularly used assessments for each approach (resources and outcomes) in order to measure creative potential.

In the resources approach, in order to measure cognitive aspects, the most common tests are standardised divergent thinking tasks, in which the child is asked to give as many ideas as possible in a limited amount of time. These ideas are evaluated in terms of number of ideas (fluency), difference of idea topics (flexibility), and the rarity of ideas (originality). Within this group of assessments, the most common tasks are The Torrance Test of Creative Thinking (TTCT, 1974(TTCT, , 1988(TTCT, , 1990) ) and The Wallach and Kogan tests (WCT, 1965).

In the outcomes approach, children's creative potential can also be measured through standardised tests, in which the child, instead of giving multiple ideas, needs to consider multiple stimuli and resources to produce one integrative creative outcome, in the domain asked. In other words, the child could be led to produce a creative work in the form of a drawing considering different stimuli. The most common task used for this means is The Test for Creative Thinking Drawing Production (TCT-DP, Urban and Jellen, 1996). In order to score these outcomes, judges are asked to evaluate the productions.

According to [START_REF] Kaufman | The american idol effect: Are students good judges of their creativity across domains?[END_REF], judges have to be domain-relevant in order to have a better evaluation of the level of creativity of the outcome. The final score is evaluated through the Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT, [START_REF] Amabile | Social psychology of creativity: A consensual assessment technique[END_REF] in which the judges need to arrive to a consensus in the evaluation of the product. In order to measure the consensus, statistical analyses are made, where the judges need to present an acceptable inter-rater score. If this score is reached, it means that all the judges measured in a similar way, and thus the product can be considered as creative, respecting the social conventions and ideas about what is creative.

The scores can finally be calculated as simple means. This technique can also be used in order to measure other creativity tasks, as for example, the evaluation of a product or the evaluation of general creative productions. Regarding the measurement of creativity in children, this technique seems quite adapted and practical, as children might be asked to produce several pieces of work during class activities and through this technique, all productions can be collected in class for later analysis by judges.

Regarding this, we think that for this thesis, a combined approach of both resources and outcomes seems the best match in order to identify and measure the creative potential of a child. [START_REF] Barbot | Creative potential in educational settings: its nature, measure, and nurture[END_REF] propose the Evaluation of Potential Creativity (EPoC, Lubart, Besançon & Barbot, 2011) as a standardised battery of tasks that encompasses both pathways of creative potential. The EPoC measures creative thinking through the assessment of divergent/exploratory thinking and convergent/integrative thinking through verbal and graphic domain tasks. For the latter, it considers both concrete and abstract stimuli. The child's creative potential can be identified and measured in separate domains according to his/her integrative or divergent thinking.

As discussed in 1.1, this approach to the evaluation of creative potential seems more adequate in order to measure a child's creative potential from a more holistic perspective considering creativity as a set of resources or potentialities for creativity. According to [START_REF] Barbot | Creative potential in educational settings: its nature, measure, and nurture[END_REF], the use of this approach would help educational actors to guide children towards the development of creativity through the identification of their creative potential, to observe possible modifications to creative potential under different training/program circumstances, and to compare trainings, pedagogies and culture on creativity by identifying a group mean score of creative potential. According to the authors, the perspective of creative potential, allows the idea of creativity as a construct that is multifaceted and, most importantly, that can be trained.

On the other hand, creativity can also be measured from the respondent's perspective in which self-reported measures play the main role. According to Silvia et al. (2011), self-reported creativity assessments are more effective than creativity researchers think, as respondents normally score themselves according to reality and not according to suitability, as is feared. In other words, people are able to answer creativity questions about their self-perceived talent, achievement, or activities, without necessarily lying about it in order to appear more or less creative, as is the common thought in creativity research. [START_REF] Kaufman | Self-assessments of creativity: Not ideal, but better than you think[END_REF] insists that self-reported assessments of creativity are not ideal but are helpful when the objective of the research is focused on respondents' activities, evaluations and beliefs about creativity.

In line with this, Silvia et al. (2011) analysed the results of four self-reported scales finding that they had "consistent, replicated effects with other variables, which provide evidence for the scores ' validity" (p.14). Nevertheless, they emphasised that all assessments were developed for low-stakes evaluation purposes and that they should not be considered as evidence for making important policy decisions, as evidence of their validity in high-stakes contexts is not sufficient.

They also recommend a multiple evaluation of creativity measuring creative actions and thinking styles in order to develop better scales for further research.

Considering the recommendations of the authors, by the end of this work we had considered some perspectives and started working on the creation of a self-reported measure of practical creativity. We adapted some of the self-reported measures evaluated in the study of Silvia et al. (2011) (e.g. Creative Achievement Questionnaire (CAQ), [START_REF] Carson | Reliability, Validity, and Factor Structure of the Creative Achievement Questionnaire[END_REF], adapting it for a population of French children, in order to understand their perception of the time spent in creative activities and their beliefs about their own creative talent. Through this, we intended to cover not only children's creative potential, but also their creative practices.

In summary, this work will focus on the evaluation of creative potential through the measurement of creative thought in children, considering the evaluation of resources and outcomes, in order to have an integrative approach to the evaluation process. For this means, the utilisation of the EPoC battery of tests seems the best option for this thesis. The idea of this is to achieve broader results, to be able to guide educational policies towards the work on programs aiming at the development and enhancement of children's creativity, which is one of the objectives of this thesis. On the other hand, a self-report perspective for creativity measurements was also considered by the end of this work as a perspective for future work.

Creativity Trainings and Techniques to Enhance Creativity

According to several authors (e.g. Scott, Leritz & Mumford, 2004a;Torrance, 1972), creativity can be successfully enhanced through creativity training. Scott et al. (2004a) analysed creativity enhancement through trainings in adults (over 14 years old) and infants & children (under 14 years old), describing four perspectives for understanding creativity: 1) as cognition in idea generation, 2) as associative and affective mechanisms, 3) as motivation to engage in creative work, and 4) as an outcome from environmental opportunities. They argue that the definition chosen to describe creativity will influence the type of training chosen to enhance creativity, emphasising the fact that creativity can effectively be enhanced through training and that this appears to be effective for children of different ages.

Further to this, Scott, Leritz and Mumford (2004b) explained that the objective of creativity trainings was beyond the attempt to enhance all the abilities related to creativity, arguing that the idea of creativity trainings was based on the transmission of a set of experiences that would help enhance creative thinking. According to their meta-analysis, there is a vast variety of creativity trainings differing in form as well as in content. They present four main distinctions between creativity trainings: "1) the cognitive processes of creative problem-solving, 2) the training techniques used to develop these skills, 3) the media used to deliver training, and 4) the kind of practice exercises provided." (Scott et al., 2004b, p. 150). With this distinction they found eleven types of training that they classified into 4 main types of trainings (idea production, imagery, cognitive, and thinking skills). According to them, the most effective ones were idea production trainings and cognitive trainings, which share similarities with the kind of strategies used in Drama Pedagogy Training, particularly in the case of creative process training for which there is a practice of realistic problem-solving exercises followed by a discussion on the process of problem-solving.

In line with this, Drama Pedagogy Training proposes realistic activities that ask children to solve problems related to real-life social situations through enacting methods using their own body. Consequently, the work of Byrge and Tang (2015), although only conducted with adults, presents new perspectives, by dividing the types of creativity training into two main types: reflective creativity trainings, which are related to the cognitive understanding of theoretical background, taught through a more discursive approach; and embodied creativity trainings, which are more focused on action and practical activities. Within the latter group, we find several dramabased trainings, such as Drama Pedagogy Training, which insists on the use of practical activities that focus on the creative use of the body. The study of Byrge and Tang (2015) also provided evidence of how an embodied training can enhance the creative product and creative self-efficacy.

Regarding the latter, a study on group creativity trainings in children and teachers (Shin & Jang, 2015) presented evidence of how this kind of training, based mostly on play, developed a feeling of belonging to a safe space, which would help develop creativity in children. In this sense, [START_REF] Hu | Increasing student's scientific creativity: the "learn to think" intervention Program[END_REF] also confirmed that feeling "safe and free" (p.13) in an environment, would influence the efficacy of creativity trainings.

Following this lead, Drama Pedagogy Training seems like a pertinent training to enhance creativity, considering the similarities of the methodology with the work carried out on some of the types of described above, particularly creative-process trainings, embodied creativity trainings and group creativity training. In order to better understand how this particular training works for creativity enhancement, a chapter on Drama Pedagogy Training will be included later in this thesis.

Summary

Creativity can be defined according to different approaches which will influence the methods used to assess it. For this thesis, we will define creativity in line with the 7C's model of creativity [START_REF] Lubart | The 7 C's of Creativity[END_REF], identifying seven themas related to the creative process through creative actions and thoughts that can be measured in terms of creative thinking. Within this model, we will be focusing particularly on the Curricula thema as our work is focused on the pedagogical action of Drama Pedagogy that can lead to creativity development in children. In order to complement this approach, we will also consider the multivariate model of creativity (Lubart & Sternberg, 1995;Lubart et al., 2015), as they present a holistic model for which there are affective, cognitive, conative and environmental factors that may impact the creative potential of an individual, affecting in one way or another her/his creative actions and thoughts, which can also be measured in terms of creative thinking. Thus, for this thesis, we will understand creativity from the perspective of 1) the creative process (curricula) and 2) the creative potential (affective, cognitive, conative and environmental factors) evaluated in terms of creative thinking. In this sense, we will focus on the identification and measurement of four particular mental processes involved in creative thinking, namely divergent thinking-problem solving (DTPS), associative thinking (within DTPS), convergent thinking, and fantasy-and-imagination. In order to train these creativity-related mental processes we are going to work with a specific pedagogy, which focuses on the process of collective play through the use of the body through dramatic activities, thus corresponding more to what is described in literature as 1) a creative process type of training, 2) an embodied creativity training, and 3) a group creative training.

Chapter 2 -Socio Emotional Skills and Competencies

"The child comes to the world, wisely programmed for harmony... Emotional harmony is a powerful generative strength that enhances cognition, permits learning and provides all indispensable resources to grow as a person (…) Achieving this human growth is only possible when this "other" [the adult] makes visible or grants rank to the child. That's the task of the educator: waking up inner strengths in the child through a sensitive interaction." Amanda Céspedes, 2008 (Educar las Emociones. Educar para la Vida, p.212) Social and emotional competencies have been identified as the main subject to be addressed with school-aged children (e.g. P21 coalition; OECD, 2009;UNESCO, 2015). Some educators and psychologists recognise the importance of the development of children's emotional competencies considering it important to be taught in school (Chemyshenko, Kankaras & Drasgow, 2018;Elias, Zins, Weissberg, Frey, Greenberg, Haynes, Kessler, Schwab-Stone & Shriver, 1997;Extremera & Fernández-Berrocal, 2003;Fernandez-Berrocal, Cabello & Cobo, 2017;Fernandez-Berrocal & Extremera, 2002). Nevertheless, social and emotional intelligence have always been addressed in educational discourses around controversial points of view in which the classic perspectives on education seemed challenged by emotional education promoters (Humphrey, Curran, Morris, Farrell & Woods, 2007), especially in more traditional educational systems.

Despite these constraints, many professionals in the educational area understand the need for children's social and emotional education (Elias et al., 1997) adding an important number of studies that relate emotional intelligence to adaptive outcomes (Viguer, Cantero & Bañuls, 2017) where school appears to be one of the principal environments where socio emotional competencies can be developed (Mayer & Salovey, 1997;[START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF]. Furthermore, a study aiming to discuss the importance of emotional competences at school (Qualter, Davis, Keefer, Parker, Saklofske, Wigelsworth, Simmons & Stough, 2017) concluded that emotional competences are fundamental contributors not only to academic achievement, but also other competencies and skills that contribute to a successful learning experience. But what are these socio emotional skills and competencies?

What are the Socio Emotional Skills and Competencies

There are several approaches when defining socio emotional (SE) skills and competencies, although they all stem from a primary concept: Emotional Intelligence (EI). According to some authors (Extremera & Fernández-Berrocal, 2003) the origins of EI were already present in the works of [START_REF] Thorndike | A constant error in psychological ratings[END_REF]), Weschler (1940), [START_REF] Gardner | Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Basic)[END_REF] or [START_REF] Sternberg | How much gall is too much gall? A review of Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences[END_REF][START_REF] Sternberg | Beyond IQ: a triarchic theory of human intelligence[END_REF] who agreed that besides cognitive processes, there were non-cognitive factors that had an important influence on adaptation and life success. Similarly, [START_REF] Petrides | Trait emotional intelligence: psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies[END_REF] posited that the EI genesis could be found in the work of [START_REF] Gardner | Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Basic)[END_REF] and finally evolved with the work of [START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF] In other words, these approaches derive from the concept of personal intelligence (which was further explained by Mayer in 2008 as a different and broader construct) issuing from the theory of multiple intelligences [START_REF] Gardner | Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Basic)[END_REF].

In 1983, Gardner presented a new proposition regarding the study of intelligence. He explained the need to broaden cognitive studies by adding a biological and a cross-cultural perspective. With this in mind, he studied human cognition, arriving at his theory of multiple intelligences. According to the original theory (1983), there are seven different intelligences, although, from 1995, Gardner "identified" a new one, known as Naturalistic Intelligence, which is related to the capacity to understand the living world for a useful purpose; Existentialist and Spiritual Intelligences which were proposed more recently again (1999). The 7 original intelligences are: 1) Linguistic, which is related to the intelligent use of words; 2) Musical, which is related to an ease in the domain of rhythm and sound; 3) Logical-Mathematical, which implies a higher capacity for reasoning and calculation; 4) Visual-Spatial, which is related to the ability to understand the observed space; 5) Bodily-Kinaesthetic, related to an intelligent use of the body; and 6) Personal Intelligence which was divided into Interpersonal, or the intelligence to understand and interact with others, and Intrapersonal, which is more related to understanding one's own objectives and emotions.

The work of [START_REF] Gardner | Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences (Basic)[END_REF] has been used widely in different fields, specifically in psychology and education; however, since its origins, it has found several detractors from all different areas of study, criticising mostly the fact that it talks about intelligences instead of, for example, talking about factors in general intelligence [START_REF] Morgan | An analysis of gardner's theory of multiple intelligence[END_REF][START_REF] Sternberg | How much gall is too much gall? A review of Frames of Mind: The Theory of Multiple Intelligences[END_REF]. Furthermore, authors like Klein (2014) find the theory of multiple intelligences to be "neither empirically plausible nor pedagogically useful" (p.389). Nevertheless, his work permitted further study on the fields of social and emotional skills and competencies, and thus, established a basis for the development of later theories. These theories were, on the one hand, based on mixed models of emotional intelligence that considered personality traits and other personal facilitators as part of their model (e.g. [START_REF] Bar-On | The Emotional Quotient Inventory: A test of emotional intelligence[END_REF][START_REF] Bar-On | The Emotional Quotient Inventory: A test of emotional intelligence[END_REF]) and, on the other hand, models based mostly on emotional processing (Mayer & Salovey, 1997;[START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF]. EI has two main components: intelligence and emotion, and thus needs to be understood as a combination of both. The initial model of EI proposed by the authors [START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF]) constituted three emotional skills. First, they described a skill focused on the appraisal and expression of emotions, second, a skill related to emotional regulation, and finally, a more complex skill based on the utilisation of emotions in an adaptive way. After years of study, they perfected and actualised their initial model, and came out with a scientific definition of EI, defining it as:

"the ability to perceive accurately, appraise, and express emotion; the ability to access and/or generate feelings when they facilitate thought; the ability to understand emotion and emotional knowledge; and the ability to regulate emotions to promote emotional and intellectual growth" (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p.10,). With this definition, the authors suggest developing the ideas of emotional intelligence together with the ideas of emotional achievement (the learning someone has attained) and emotional competency (a required level of achievement). Mayer and Salovey (1997) described that this conception of emotional intelligence must conceive, in the first place, the idea that emotions help the thought, in order to be more intelligent, and secondly, take into account thinking intelligently about emotions.

According to Mikolajczak, Quoidback, Kotsou, and Nélis (2014), the definition of EI still presents some issues within the scientific community, as there is still no consensus among researchers to identify what being emotional intelligent is. Some authors argue the perspective of trait-emotional intelligence (e.g. [START_REF] Petrides | Trait emotional intelligence: psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies[END_REF] while others defend the idea of an ability-emotional intelligence (e.g. [START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF]. Accordingly, different perspectives have been proposed (as we explained above), with definitions based on mixed models and others identifying EI as a group of cognitive skills, so more in line with the studies on general intelligence.

Consequently, [START_REF] Mikolajczak | Les Compétences Émotionnelles[END_REF] propose to define these SE competencies using the concept of emotional competencies instead of emotional intelligence. In this sense, they present a definition of emotional competencies that involves "the practical capacity of identifying, understanding, expressing, regulating and using personal and other's emotions"2 (p.3) according to a particular context. Thus, emotional competencies would be the skills that people might have in order to identify, understand, express, regulate and use emotions at an intrapersonal level with their own selves, and also at an interpersonal level with others, considering the context in which the emotions are developed. The figure below was inspired on a table proposed by the authors [START_REF] Mikolajczak | Les Compétences Émotionnelles[END_REF], which serves to illustrate better their model based on the five described emotional competencies with its two levels. from an interpersonal perspective. Furthermore, [START_REF] Mikolajczak | Moving beyond the ability-trait debate : A three level model of emotional intelligence[END_REF] and [START_REF] Mikolajczak | Les Compétences Émotionnelles[END_REF] proposed a three-level model of emotional competencies, where each of the competencies explained above can be understood on three levels: knowledge, abilities, and dispositions. Knowledge relates to the existing understandings of the individual about the different competencies; abilities correspond to the capacity of the person to implement this understanding in an emotional situation; and dispositions relate to the tendencies of the individual to behave in a certain way in the face of an emotional situation. In this sense, each competency could be addressed from each of these perspectives in order to better understand the individual emotional functioning of a person.

The model proposed by Mikolajczack et al. (2014), with the understanding of the model on three levels [START_REF] Mikolajczak | Moving beyond the ability-trait debate : A three level model of emotional intelligence[END_REF], seems more pertinent to this thesis, as the definition of the competencies matches the objectives proposed by the training we developed and an integration of trait-EI and ability-EI is more in line with the content of the activities engaged in during Drama Pedagogy Training, particularly Sessions 1, 3 and 4 in which the focus is on the identification, understanding and expression of emotions through the body through different dramatic forms, such as mini-scenes (see Appendix 1).

Empathy and Theory of Mind (ToM)

Within the emotional competencies model of [START_REF] Mikolajczak | Les Compétences Émotionnelles[END_REF], we find intrapersonal and interpersonal variants for each level of emotional competency. In the "understanding" level, the interpersonal is focused on the competency of understanding the causes and consequences of other's emotions. This definition is related to the capacity of understanding and reacting, at a cognitive, social or affective level, the emotion expressed by another. This competency is known in academic and popular literature as empathy. According to [START_REF] Davis | A Multidimensional Approach to Individual Differences in Empathy[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach[END_REF] empathy is a complex construct that may be divided into two main branches: (a) emotional empathy, and (b) cognitive empathy. This dichotomy of empathy is normally explained as a twosided concept, with one side which is more related to affection (emotional empathy) and the other one more related to mental processes (cognitive empathy). The emotional branch or side is related to the emotional process and response of an individual facing another's emotional reaction (e.g. [START_REF] Eisenberg | The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors[END_REF], while the cognitive branch answers to the ability to understand others' mental states (e.g. Baron-Cohen & Weelwright, 2004). The former is considered by some authors as emotional empathy or just empathy [START_REF] De Vignemont | The empathic brain: how, when and why?[END_REF], while the latter, considered as a social ability to ascribe mental states, such as thoughts, beliefs and emotions to another person, is known in literature as Theory of Mind (ToM, [START_REF] Premack | Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?[END_REF].

Nevertheless, the discussion of empathy is still broad, and the mere concept of empathy has been defined from different perspectives. Colloquially, empathy has been identified as "being in the shoes of another" although, this conceptualisation lacks a fundamental part, which is related to the understanding of the self-other distinction [START_REF] De Vignemont | The empathic brain: how, when and why?[END_REF]. Non-scientific definitions tend to explain empathy as being emotionally connected to another, open to feeling the exact same thing that the other human being is feeling or sharing the feeling, all explaining the fact of "empathising".

We commonly hear the misuse of the word when people insist that they are "too empathetic" and thus that this empathy leaves them with the weight of feeling the matched emotion for a long time, even after the source has disappeared. In fact, a couple of days ago, a friend was explaining how she thought she had a higher level of empathy than other people because she was always feeling overwhelmed by other's emotions. Contrary to her thoughts, the sensation she was experiencing was not empathy but what is called emotional contagion. De [START_REF] De Vignemont | The empathic brain: how, when and why?[END_REF] explained that empathy differs from emotional contagion, because in emotional contagion the person matches the emotion of another, copying the emotion the other is feeling, assuming and processing the emotion as his/her own. On the other hand, empathy requires a distinction between the own felt emotions and the understanding of the emotions that were triggered by another. In other words, in empathy, there is an awareness that the emotions I am feeling are triggered by another who is the source of emotions; the emotion doesn't belong to me, but comes from another source. According to [START_REF] Stietz | Dissociating Empathy From Perspective-Taking: Evidence From Intra-and Inter-Individual Differences Research[END_REF], empathy is more related to emotional sharing (always with the awareness of the other as the source of emotions), and thus needs to be distinguished from cognitive understanding of others' emotions, something which they relate more to perspective taking or ToM.

Literature supports this theory, implying that these are two different concepts that need to be dissociated, explaining empathy (or affective empathy) as an affective process and ToM as a cognitive (or socio-cognitive) process among other psychological and neurological differences.

Neurological differences point out dissociations in brain activation when people are measured for affective empathy or ToM. Studies [START_REF] Molenberghs | Understanding the minds of others: A neuroimaging meta-analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Schurz | Fractionating theory of mind: A meta-analysis of functional brain imaging studies[END_REF][START_REF] Stietz | Dissociating Empathy From Perspective-Taking: Evidence From Intra-and Inter-Individual Differences Research[END_REF] factor model. This study was replicated in France by Myszkowski, Brunet-Gouet, Roux, Robieux, Malezieux, Boujut & Zenasni (2017) and it demonstrated that even if there's a consensus among neurological and behavioural data researchers when explaining empathy not just as an emotional resonance, but as a construct that involves cognitive processes, the number of factors involved in empathy responses is still a matter of research. The figure below summarises the mentioned differences according to theoretical and empirical evidence [START_REF] Kanske | Dissecting the social brain: Introducing the EmpaToM to reveal distinct neural networks and brain-behavior relations for empathy and Theory of Mind[END_REF]. Some studies (e.g. [START_REF] Brown | Supporting the development of empathy: The role of theory of mind and fantasy orientation[END_REF]) confirm these differences, presenting evidence on how affective empathy develops independently from ToM, showing, for example, that empathy tends to remain over time while ToM declines with age (e.g. [START_REF] Reiter | The Aging of the Social Mind -Differential Effects on Components of Social Understanding[END_REF]. This means, that both concepts evolve differently in the span of life, showing a decrease in ToM scores and non-significant differences in affective empathy for older people.

On the other hand, socio-emotional research on ToM has added other qualities to the concept, encompassing a series of mental states that include several cognitive and emotional states (e.g. [START_REF] Hughes | From Infancy to Inferences: Current Perspectives on Intentionality[END_REF]. This means, that ToM is not only related to perspective taking, as considering and understanding the point of view of another, but also understanding motivations, feelings and emotions that move the other person to act and behave in a certain way.

In this sense, ToM can be understood from a social perspective, either as an ability which is a determinant for social competency, or as a social competency that needs cognition, but that also implicates affection and emotional understanding. Accordingly, even though the literature considers ToM as a socio-cognitive competency (Goldstein & Winner, 2012;[START_REF] Hughes | What are the links between theory of mind and social relations? Review, reflections and new directions for studies of typical and atypical development[END_REF], we may say that understanding others' emotions is also related to emotional competencies.

In fact, one of the basic aspects of emotional intelligence (EI), as explained by [START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF], is based on the identification and understanding of one's own and others' emotions, and in this sense, we can assume that ToM and EI are somehow interrelated. In fact, considering the model of Bar-On (2000) of emotional intelligence, there are some social factors that help an individual to adjust to social environments and emotional intelligence ability has already been related to successful social functioning (e.g. Montgomery, Stoesz & McCrimmon, 2012). This adjustment to social functioning, or social effectiveness, needs an evaluation and selection of the most adequate responses to social information [START_REF] Landa | Language, Social, and Executive Functions in High Functioning Autism: A Continuum of Performance[END_REF] that could be due to a well-developed ToM.

Along these lines, Lillard and Kavanaugh (2014) posited that ToM is essential for societies as we can understand that others' actions are motivated by those others' thoughts, knowledge, feelings and beliefs. From this perspective, the socio-cognitive ability of ToM can be considered as intrinsically involved with social and emotional intelligence, and thus, also partly related to socio-emotional learning.

How to Evaluate SE Competencies

In the domains of psychology and education, numerous studies have been undertaken in order to understand how SE competencies work, how they can be trained and finally evaluated.

The latter, as in the case of creativity, can only be addressed when deciding about the approach that was used to define these competencies.

According to [START_REF] Petrides | Trait emotional intelligence: psychometric investigation with reference to established trait taxonomies[END_REF], the method used to operationalise EI, and thus, SE competencies, is directly related to the approach used to define them, explaining that these two approaches can be found in literature as either ability or trait. The authors argue fundamental differences in these approaches, although they find "semantic inconsistencies" in the labels ability or trait when talking about an intelligence (as would be the case for EI) proposing "alternative labels" for the distinctions: "emotional self-efficacy" instead of ability-EI, and "cognitiveemotional ability" for trait-EI (p.427). In a recent study undertaken by Qualter, Davis, Keefer, Parker, Saklofske, Wigelsworth, Simmons, and Stough (2017), they kept the terms ability-EI and trait-EI, but added "self-efficacy" to the equation ability v/s trait, arguing that the self-efficacy conceptualisation is necessary when talking about SE competency evaluations within a learning space, as personal perceptions of one's own abilities play an important role in behavioural and academic achievements.

General Perspectives

Accordingly, EI or SE competencies as ability would imply a focus on the concrete ability to understand emotional skills and emotions and thus should be measured through performance tests. [START_REF] Ivcevic | Emotional Intelligence and Emotional Creativity[END_REF] explain that performance tests measuring EI demand reasoning skills that meet a standardised response, such as the measurement of cognitive intelligence. On the other hand, trait would imply a focus on a person's behaviours regarding emotional stimuli and thus should be assessed through self-report questionnaires; and as selfefficacy, would imply personal beliefs in the personal abilities of recognition, evaluation and regulation of emotions. All these conceptualisations, ability, trait and self-efficacy, agree with the fact that what needs to be appraised are the individual's capacities to identify, understand and regulate their own and others' emotions (Qualter et al. 2017).

Since the definition of EI, derived from the work of [START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF] and Mayer and Salovey (1997), several authors have intended to measure the capacities proposed by the construct from different approaches (e.g. [START_REF] Bar-On | The Emotional Quotient Inventory: A test of emotional intelligence[END_REF]Mayer, Caruso & Salovey, 1999). The approaches used for defining EI or SE competencies can differ on several points, thus implying different results depending if the measure used is based on performance (ability) or self-report (trait). Another difference that can be found in these competency assessment tools is the target public. Most of the measurements were initially conceived for the adult population, leaving little leeway for assessing children, particularly elementary school children. It is important to note that as child development is quite different from adult development, tests cannot be generalised and used on children without proper adaptation. In this sense, the literature shows some adaptations of adult scales that have been done in order to answer this issue; we will consider these further in this chapter.

Performance tests for adults, such as the Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Tasks (MSCEIT) test [START_REF] Mayer | The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). User's Manual[END_REF] to measure ability-general-EI or the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test (RMET; Baron-Cohen, Jolliffe, Mortimore & Robertson, 1997) to measure cognitive empathy (ToM), are focused on the abilities of the participants to give a correct emotion-related answer. Specifically, when talking about ability-EI, subjects are asked to recognise emotions or emotional/mental states based on images, videos, audio recordings or reading scenarios for which it is necessary to have a specific knowledge and competence in the emotional domain. The most complete performance battery of tasks known today is the MSCEIT [START_REF] Mayer | The Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test (MSCEIT). User's Manual[END_REF]. The MSCEIT comprises eight different tasks that correspond to the four branches of EI explained in Section 2.1, regarding Mayer and Salovey EI's model (1997). The RMET task (Baron-Cohen et al., 1997), is one of the most used performance-based tests in order to assess cognitive empathy. It comprises a series of 28 pairs of eyes showing an expression that needs to be matched with four emotional/mental states. Another ability-EI test that measures one or two abilities within EI includes the Situational Tests of Emotional Understanding and Emotion Management (STEU & STEM, MacCann & Roberts, 2008).

On the other side, there are self-report measures for adults, as in the case of the scale of [START_REF] Schutte | Development and validation of a measure of emotional intelligence[END_REF], the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i, [START_REF] Bar-On | The Emotional Quotient Inventory: A test of emotional intelligence[END_REF] or the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue) scale [START_REF] Petrides | Psychometric Properties of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire (TEIQue)[END_REF] and all of them measure trait-EI; participants evaluate their abilities or behaviours related to EI or SE competencies. The EQ-i (1997) comprises 133 items presented as short direct affirmations using a 5-point Likert scale ranging from "very seldom or not true of me" (which was scored as 1 point) to "very often true of me or true of me" (which scored 5 points).

Measurement of Children's SE Competencies

The widely used performance tests described above (MSCEIT and RMET) have been adapted for use with children and translated into several languages. The youth version of MSCEIT (MSCEIT-YV) was tested in 2012 by Rivers, Brackett, Reyes, Caruso & Salovey. Initially, it included 4 sections with 180 items, and this later evolved into to the published manual of MSCEIT-Youth Research Version [START_REF] Mayer | Mayer-Salovey-Caruso Emotional Intelligence Test: Youth Research version[END_REF] which included 97 items. This test can be administered to children and young people between 10 and 18 years old, individually or in groups. It follows the same direction as the adult version and measures perceiving, using, understanding and managing emotions. The child version of the RMET (RMET-G) was an adaptation of the original adult version developed by [START_REF] Baron-Cohen | Are intuitive physics and intuitive psychology independent? A test with children with Asperger Syndrome[END_REF] this version also includes 28 pair of eyes with four words (emotional states) and the child needs to find the correct word for each image.

Within the trait-EI measurement tools, the TEIQue scale was adapted for the use of younger children in a much shorter version, consisting of a 36-item scale, presenting several behavioural affirmations face to emotional and social situations, scored using a 5-point Likert scale. The latter has been recently translated into French in order to be used with samples of French children [START_REF] Stassart | The Psychometric properties of the french version of the Trait Emotional Intelligence Questionnaire-Child Short Form[END_REF]. Nevertheless, few scales created or adapted for children have been translated into French. In order to address this, the recent work of [START_REF] Bensalah | The Basic Empathy Scale adapted to French middle childhood: Structure and development of empathy[END_REF] proposes a French adaptation of the Basic Empathy Scale for children (BES-CF), presenting 18 items evaluated with a 5-point Likert scale. All of these measures ask the respondents to assess themselves by rating the level of agreement they feel they have/do regarding the distinct asseverations presented in each item.

In the line of self-efficacy EI, fewer tools are found, the most complete ones being the Emotional Self-Efficacy Scale [START_REF] Kirk | Development and preliminary validation of an emotional self-efficacy scale[END_REF] and its recent youth version validated by Qualter, Dacre Pool, Gardner, Ashley-Kot, Wise & Wols (2015). These scales are intended to measure not only EI differences among respondents but also assess other socio-emotional related aspects such as motivation, attitudes and values.

All three perspectives (ability, trait and self-efficacy) are valid approaches when measuring EI, although the most studied ones are ability-EI and trait-EI. Nevertheless, some authors (e.g. Qualter et al., 2017) suggest a multi-method approach arguing particularly that performance task scores and self-reported task scores don't normally correlate. This can be explained by the fact that some people might be skilled in performance tests which would imply a high level of ability EI, but actually score poorly in self-reported measures, which should imply a lower level of trait-EI, or vice-versa. According to the authors, this suggests a need to determine and validate a common socio-emotional criterion for measuring EI, which seems quite a challenge for current research regarding the subjectivity of emotional experiences and the significant differences in how emotion is expressed in different cultures.

2.3: Training in SE Competencies for Children: Socio Emotional

Learning

The teaching and learning of socio-emotional competencies among children is a matter of great interest for contemporary societies [START_REF] Chernyshenko | Social and emotional skills for student success and well-being : Conceptual framework for the OECD study on social and emotional skills[END_REF]. In the past years, several interventions in social and emotional competencies and emotional intelligence have been carried out with successful outcomes in the socio-emotional field. Emotional intelligence interventions, for example, have presented evidence on how they enhance interpersonal competencies (Gore, 2000) or empathy [START_REF] Castillo | Effects of an emotional intelligence intervention on aggression and empathy among adolescents[END_REF][START_REF] Mayer | Emotional intelligence and the identification of emotion[END_REF]) in terms, for example, of the useful role that liberal arts, such as music or drama, have on emotional teaching and the importance of teaching emotions to children [START_REF] Fernández-Berrocal | La inteligencia emocional como una habilidad esencial en la escuela[END_REF].

Accordingly, several techniques and trainings have been developed in order to enhance SE competencies in the child population. The use of SE competencies in school settings or for educational purposes is known today as Socio Emotional Learning (SEL). More detailed information about the school setting and the context of skills development at school will be described in an upcoming section of the thesis.

One of the first definitions of SEL was proposed by Elias et al. (1997), who argued that SEL is the process involved in the learning of socio-emotional competencies. Consequently, SEL would be the process of learning the main social competencies, identifying and regulating one's own and others' emotions, being able to establish positive objectives and to work for them, active listening to others' opinions and points of view, establishing and maintaining positive relationships, being aware of decisions made and their consequences, and developing sufficient social-skills in order to manage diverse situations.

According to [START_REF] Lantieri | Cultivating Emotional Intelligence through Social and Emotional Learning: Why It Matters[END_REF], in 1993, the Collaborative for Academic, Social and Emotional Learning (CASEL) was created, with the concept of Socio Emotional Learning emerging alongside it. According to this concept, Socio Emotional Learning is focused on the development of social and emotional competencies in school environments, regrouping these competencies in five key groups: (a) self-awareness, (b) self-management, (c) social awareness, (d) relationship skills, and (e) responsible decision making (Casel, 2005). [START_REF] Lantieri | Cultivating Emotional Intelligence through Social and Emotional Learning: Why It Matters[END_REF], following the CASEL (2005) perspectives on SEL, defined these competencies as follows:

"Self-awareness-accurately assessing one's feelings, interests, values, and strengths; maintaining a well-grounded sense of self-confidence.

Self-management-regulating one's emotions to handle stress, control impulses, and persevere in overcoming obstacles; setting and monitoring progress toward personal and academic goals; expressing emotions appropriately.

Social awareness-being able to take the perspective of and empathize with others; recognizing and appreciating individual and group similarities and differences; recognizing and using family, school, and community resources.

Relationship skills-establishing and maintaining healthy and rewarding relationships based on cooperation; resisting inappropriate social pressure; preventing, managing and resolving interpersonal conflict; seeking help when needed.

Responsible decision-making-making decisions based on consideration of ethical standards, safety concerns, appropriate social norms, respect for others and likely consequences of various actions; applying decision-making skills to academic and social situations; contributing to the well-being of one's school and community" (p.5) She continues her explanation of how these competencies can be achieved, proposing that effective learning environments are fundamental, but remarking that the most successful way to develop these competencies is through active skills development through an evidence-based SEL program. In line with this, several authors (for a review: Durlak, Dymnicki, Taylor, Weissberg & Schellinger, 2011) attempted to enhance social and emotional competencies in school settings through evidence-based SEL programs. Durlak et al. (2011) agree that school plays a fundamental role in the development of children's socio-emotional learning, finding that SEL programs showed positive effects on the social and emotional competencies that they were supposed to develop, as well as the attitudes towards oneself, others and the school. Moreover, studies on SEL programs have shown that they enhance different competencies, like empathy (e.g. [START_REF] Garaigordobil Landazabal | Intervencín psicoĺgica con adolescentes : un programa para el desarrollo de la personalidad y la educacín en derechos humanos[END_REF] and social interpersonal skills (Brackett, Rivers, Reyes & Salovey, 2012) among others.

In a similar way, the work of DPT is fairly close to what is proposed by SEL, as the objective of Drama Pedagogy Training is to develop SE competencies through the act of playing together, of creating understanding together and expressing the internal world collectively (Garcia-Huidobro, 1996). In other words, SEL training, such as DPT, encourages play understanding and expressing one's emotions and thoughts and being able to listen to other's emotions and thoughts.

The studies carried out for this thesis, that will be presented below, will consider social and emotional competencies as part of emotional intelligence, understanding it from a multi-model approach, considering Mayer and Salovey's (1997) but also Bar-On's (2000) models of emotional intelligence, thus defining SE competencies as a group of emotional, personal and social factors that impact the way individuals adapt themselves to their environment.

Chapter 3 -Context of Creativity and SEL in Schools

"The emotions, the affective dimension, feelings...? But where are these more or less strange and individual aspects of the human person, of the student, hidden in a school whose legitimacy, whose foundation so often seems to hinder a proper understanding of school knowledge? (...) The school, the public school, the school for all should leave aside the emotional dimensions and devote itself only to the activities of the mind. Certainly, the disciplinary divisions of teaching indicate some places where emotions and their companions are allowed. But in the so-called intellectual disciplines (...) suspicion of emotions remains high". [START_REF] Lafortune | Les émotions à l'école[END_REF] (Les Émotions à l'École, p.75) Creativity and SEL are, in today's discourses, more commonly addressed than ever before.

In spite of this, even if they are considered important for policy makers and international organisations in the public discourse, the specific practice of these concepts, such as creativity, are sometimes disregarded at school (e.g. Beghetto & Plucker, 2006). According to some authors [START_REF] Bracket | A sustainable, skillbased model to building emotionally literate schools[END_REF]), children's success in social, emotional and academic aspects is intrinsically related to the integration and training of emotional intelligence in schools, considering not only themselves, but the whole school environment. School seems then to be a pertinent place to develop these competencies, as children spend a good part of their time at school; additionally, according to some authors [START_REF] Torrente | Teaching Emotional Intelligence in Schools: An Evidence-Based Approach[END_REF], children do not have the opportunity to learn emotional competencies in their homes.

Nevertheless, there are still only a few SEL programs that have been meticulously examined [START_REF] Lopes | Toward a broader education[END_REF]) and educators don't always put faith in these kinds of program.

Accordingly, creativity researchers [START_REF] Beghetto | Fundamentals of Creativity[END_REF][START_REF] Kaufman | Creativity in the schools: renewed interest and promising new directions[END_REF] insist on the need to explain creativity to teachers and how to enhance it, because this is the only way they will become open to the experience of actually developing creativity among children. In the next section, we will review first, the context of creativity and SEL in general school settings, and later, we will focus on the particularity of developing these competencies in French school classrooms.

Creativity and SEL in School Contexts

Several studies have been done to show evidence of the benefits of creativity and socioemotional learning at school (Brackett et al., 2009;[START_REF] Elias | The Connection Between Academic and Social-Emotional Learning[END_REF]; the European Parliament ( 2006) has already highlighted the creative expression of ideas, experiences and emotions as a key competency to be developed at school. [START_REF] Elias | The Connection Between Academic and Social-Emotional Learning[END_REF] describe it as an objective that schools must direct their attention to. They explain that schools around the world should provide children with the tools they can use not only in their classrooms, but all around their environments. "SEL provides many of these tools. It is a way of teaching and organizing classrooms and schools that helps children learn a set of skills needed to successfully manage life tasks such as learning, forming relationships, communicating effectively, being sensitive to others' needs, and getting along with others" (p.5).

The fact of constructing valid SEL training would have a considerable positive impact not only on school-related outcomes but on a series of behaviours that are related to the child's wellbeing and thus to the improvement of school life itself. In this sense, the author (idem) continues "When schools implement high-quality SEL programs and approaches effectively, academic achievement of children increases, incidence of problem behaviours decreases, the relationships that surround each child are improved, and the climate of classrooms and schools changes for the better." (p.5).

During the last decade, several authors have provided evidence of the positive impact of SEL interventions (Durlak et al., 2011;Taylor, Durlak, Oberle & Weissberg, 2017). The lack of these competencies, probably derived from a lack of training in the area, has had a negative impact on different factors, particularly on children's behaviour and health (e.g. [START_REF] Blum | School connectedness -Strengthening health and education outcomes for teenagers[END_REF].

In other words, evidence has shown how the learning of socio-emotional competencies not only improves health, wellbeing and attitudes in children, but also prevents unhealthy behaviours.

In this sense, Durlak et al. (2011) insist on the fundamental role of schools in children's health "by fostering not only their cognitive development but also their social and emotional development" (p. 406). Nevertheless, it is important to note that sometimes, in the way we measure it, social and emotional aspects include cognitive aspects. For this reason, many school-based trainings have been created in order to teach children SEL, based on a vast literature supporting these benefits, which are mostly related to the enhancement of prosocial behaviour, improvements in emotional distress and wellbeing (Greenberg, Weissberg, O'Brien, Zins, Fredericks, Resnick & Elias, 2003;Taylor et al., 2017). The meta-analyses of Durlak et al. (2011) showed that SEL trainings improved the competencies they were willing to improve. They also showed that they presented long-term effects, showing at least 6 months of effects after the trainings were finished. This means that SEL interventions not only help children in the moment, but also have an influence over time. The researchers were also able to show that SEL programs have positive effects not only in primary schools, but also in middle and high schools with no differences in urban or nonurban settings. In other words, of all the different SEL interventions that were analysed, the ones which had positive effects were able to enhance SEL among children from different socio-cultural backgrounds and throughout their time at school. They also found that SEL has to be well structured, as the interventions with the clearest structures were the ones with the most positive outcomes.

According to the structure that SEL must have in order to develop SE competencies, a previous meta-analysis carried out by [START_REF] Durlak | A Meta-Analysis of After-School Programs That Seek to Promote Personal and Social Skills in Children and Adolescents[END_REF] established four basic steps that trainings should follow. These steps are explained under the acronym of SAFE, for Sequenced, Active, Focused and Explicit. Sequenced means skills which need to be learnt through a step-by-step process where the main competence to be developed needs to be subdivided into sequential steps that are interconnected. Active, means an active learning where children actively build their own learning and practice the skills, not only "listen" to the significance of them.

Focused is related to a pedagogical position, whereby the pedagogue is willing to give enough time to the learner in order to process the knowledge. And finally, explicit, is related to the objectives of the training and sessions: they need to be clear and concise and they must be communicated to the children if any learning is expected. In line with this, later reviews (e.g. [START_REF] Dubois | Effectiveness of Mentoring Programs for Youth: A Meta-Analytic Review[END_REF] corroborate these findings, agreeing with the fact that trainings which seem to be more effective are those which use active learning, such as role playing or coaching activities.

Regarding this, some authors agree that these skills can be taught and learnt through liberal arts training (e.g. Goldenberg, 2002;Zeidner, Robert & Matthews, 2002), such as drama, as many drama-based pedagogies include in their methods the principles of the SAFE methodology and are, by definition, active learning experiences based on improvisation and role-playing activities.

In fact, several studies based on drama-based pedagogies have also been presenting evidence on how their training, while being active pedagogies, improve SE competencies, as well as creativity outcomes (Garaigordobil, 2003(Garaigordobil, , 2006;;Goldstein & Lerner, 2018;Goldstein & Winner, 2012;Moore & Russ, 2008). Nevertheless, there is still work to do in the field in order to reach more traditional education systems, where educational policy makers give priority to classical academic knowledge that can be repeated and thus evaluated through standardised tests [START_REF] Sahlberg | Creativity and innovation through lifelong learning[END_REF].

In the next part, we will describe some visions for the French school system, and how these new policies and ideas around creativity and socio emotional learning are being considered.

Creativity and SEL in the French School Context

Free, public and secular education in France was born during the third Republic between 1881 and 1882, as a means to educate the people and to avoid fanaticism and ignorance, responding to the values/moto of the Republic "Liberté, Égalité, Fraternité"3 [START_REF] Clerc | L'école française au xxie siècle : une mutation difficile[END_REF]. Since then, French education has undergone several processes of renewal in order to adjust and respond to changing social processes.

From the beginning of the 21st century, and a few years before that, public school in France started living a disillusionment process [START_REF] Baubérot | Laïcité. 1905-2005, entre passion et raison[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Clerc | L'école française au xxie siècle : une mutation difficile[END_REF], this désenchantement4 is due to several contradictions within the educational system, which continue to be debated through internal disagreements, but which also relate to the external representations of what the French educational institution is and about the social expectations of the educational system and the objectives that the institution should aim for. In other words, the social expectations of what school should be teaching and how it should be taught are detrimental to the process of re-inventing the French educational system, but bureaucracy inside the institution does not permit this renewal so easily.

Nevertheless, new alternative approaches or ways of schooling are not something that arose in our contemporary society. [START_REF] Wagnon | Les pédagogies alternatives en France aujourd'hui : essai de cartographie et de définition[END_REF] clarifies that "the idea of alternative is not new because the new pedagogical courants from pedagogues such as Célestin Freinet, Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner and Ovide Decroly were already present in France since the first half of the XXth century and they had structured themselves as a reaction to the traditional school "5 (p.4). These new pedagogies responded to the societal changes which aimed to adjust the French educational institution [START_REF] Clerc | L'école française au xxie siècle : une mutation difficile[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Przesmycki | La pédagogie différenciée[END_REF], by the end of the 1970s the concept of pedagogical differentiation had appeared, whereby the idea of education was based on establishing a flexible frame where learnings are explicit and diverse enough to permit students to work according to their own timing, inside a collective which teaches and responds to the national curriculum. [START_REF] Clerc | L'école française au xxie siècle : une mutation difficile[END_REF] mentions that this perspective implied that social and psychological differences among students were the motor of beneficial social interactions and learning that might have an impact on diverse, motivating and innovative ways of work. This established a base from which to rethink the educational system, promoting the integration of different perspectives in education. The opening of widespread public education institutions showed the necessity to adjust learning and teaching experiences to the needs of the multi-cultural population [START_REF] Clerc | L'école française au xxie siècle : une mutation difficile[END_REF]. In this sense, the new paradigms in international education, expecting competencies to be part of educational curricula, increased the pressure for a new adjustment of the French educational institution.

In 1996, Bruner explained how the French system did not permit the development of competencies such as self-esteem, which were essential for social integration needed regarding the societal changes of French population (immigration, social mixing, etc.). Nowadays, the national curriculum,6 establishes that mandatory education should grant to each student the necessary means to acquire common knowledge, competencies and culture. Nevertheless, the French educational system promotes a space where students are still trained under a competitive model that aims at disciplined knowledge acquisition [START_REF] Taddei | Former des constructeurs de savoirs collaboratifs et créatifs : Un défi majeur pour l'éducation du 21e siècle[END_REF] without consideration for creativity or socio-emotional learning as central to the learning process. In a more "holistic" approach, the analysis made by Legavre and van Zanten (2018) regarding the so-called "new schools" in France, present a fresh perspective on how the French educational actors perceive the French educational system nowadays. According to them, there are still few but growing alternatives to traditional schools which focus on children's wellbeing and socio-emotional learning, without meaning they dismiss academic achievement, but consider these social and emotional competencies to be fundamental for the integration of children in today's societies that value autonomy and innovation. Most of these "new schools" arose as a reaction to the public system described above.

Regarding this, the authors explained that these schools did not want to reproduce some of the negative aspects of the public system, such as the excessive detention time at school, or the judgements towards students. The authors indicate that these "new directors" insist on the need to let children preserve their desire for learning, without letting the children fall into learning for the sake of making their teachers or parents happy. "That's the dream" exclaimed one of the new directors at the end of an interview. In a further analysis of interviews carried out by the authors, they show how the interest of these "new schools" is focused on developing so-called 21st century skills, understanding them as fundamental skills that will be needed for tomorrow's employability. These alternative "new schools" aim for the development of children's wellbeing and socio-emotional competencies as their educational offer, citing evidence of the need for these skills in future societies. In summary, the authors conclude that even though these schools are still a minority and far away from the French traditional educational system, they seem to have an important influence on the public educational discourse as well as educational policies, suggesting that the transformation of education towards a more integral education should be coming soon for the French educational system. In this sense, the authors do not propose that the only solution is to build new schools, but to focus more on education in these competencies in school, through the inclusion and development of enrichment activities and a change of the state of mind of school principals and teachers.

According to the National Council for the Evaluation of the School System (CNESCO), the French educational system proposes the development of SEL competencies in preschool, elementary and secondary education. This competency development is proposed to be developed inside the classroom but also through extra-curricular activities, with an emphasis on developing wellbeing at school [START_REF] Florin | Qualité de Vie à l'École[END_REF].

Nevertheless, the reality in public education is very different. As we noted in the field during this investigation, the inclusion of these competencies occurs slightly in primary school, and a real inclusion and development, that could be made through dramatic interventions, still depends on the will of the school principal and teachers. According to the reality that we faced when trying to implement our first studies, a good majority of schools refused interventions.

In several of the conversations we had with school principals in the Paris area, they explained that most of the time, they refuse DPT interventions or other artistic or sporting interventions because they are overwhelmed with administration and the curriculum, as the current rules for interventions in schools are vague and complex, without leaving principals the freedom to participate in projects they are interested in, but obliging them to follow a series of bureaucratic paperwork that takes months to get signed and which ends up nowhere. In other words, administrative paperwork seems to block school principals who are sometimes afraid of implementing anything without regional or even national authorisation. In line with this, even though there has been progress to implement drama-based interventions in school, there is still work to be done.

Existing educational programs [START_REF] Dgesco | EDUSCOL. Programmes d'enseignement du théâtre[END_REF] present drama either as one part of a whole artistic and cultural program that only preschool children might learn at school, or they propose it as an optional subject for a specific group of high-school students or as a subject for primary school children who benefit from special reinforced artistic pedagogy in their schools. Accordingly, this thesis also aims to provide evidence of the benefits of DPT in order to be considered more seriously in the national educational discourse. DPT could be, for example, included in schools as an extracurricular activity in order to complement the current offer, or even as a subject within academic time, in order to enhance the development of SE competencies and creativity of all school aged children and not only of those who choose the activity.

Summary

In summary, SEL has helped in the development of SE competencies in children within the school setting. Literature presents evidence that the development of SE competencies is an important support for SE related competencies that are involved in the learning experience of the child, such as motivation and wellbeing. The French educational system has been adapting to a changing society, adjusting what is taught and the ways of teaching in order to respond to the needs of students. Nevertheless, even though international organisations and educational movements agree on the fact that creativity and socio-emotional competencies are fundamental for the 21st century, the development of these competencies in France is still not evident. The development of creativity and socio-emotional competencies was shown to be enhanced via active trainings and pedagogies, such as drama-based pedagogies, but the inclusion of drama in the French curriculum is still somehow shady. Some ideas that emerge are the inclusion of DPT in the French curriculum, as an extracurricular activity, but also in some academic time, in order to develop competencies among all children. In the following section, we will explain how drama started to be part of education, and how these relationships evolved to become Drama Pedagogy, able to develop creativity and socio-emotional competencies in school.

Chapter 4 -Drama

"The marvellous world built by their own creativity, the many characters that, through dressing up, permit the children to identify themselves with, enhance their repertoire, allowing them to access their authentic personality that, through [dramatic] play, finds the possibility to manifest."

Hanna Kende, 2014 (Psychodrame avec les Enfants. Guérir les enfants grâce à leur créativité, p.256) Etymologically, the meaning of "drama" can be found in the meaning of a Greek term: "dran" which means "to do." It is an art based on action, on doing, on acting and transmitting a message, an idea through this action (Barba, 1979[START_REF] Barba | Theatre. Solitude, Craft, Revolt[END_REF]. Brook (1997)7 explained drama in terms of the empty space that is fulfilled by the actor and the actions he or she plays on stage; drama is the present, the happening, the instant when action occurs. In other words, drama is an artistic expression where ideas, feelings and thoughts are revealed by the use of the actor's voice and body through a present action. But how is this expressive art good for enhancing creativity and SE competencies in children? Why is it relevant to implement it in elementary classrooms? In the following part of this chapter, we will describe what drama in education is, later describing what Drama Pedagogy is, focusing finally on DPT.

Drama in Education

Drama has been taught in academic spaces since ancient Greece, although, the first uses of drama activities in formal education appeared in the first half of the 20th century with the work of [START_REF] Cook | The Teacher of Today[END_REF] and [START_REF] Stone | Story of a school[END_REF]. Cook, from a more "textual" approach, emphasised the role of using drama activities for developing empathy for the written text, while Stone experienced drama in order to learn school subjects through the use of body. Nevertheless, these first approaches of drama in education weren't consolidated until the work of Slade (1954Slade ( , 1967Slade ( , 1998) ) who was the first to theorise about drama in education.

7 Original appeared in 1968 Authors agree that the work of Slade (1954Slade ( , 1967Slade ( , 1998) ) is the basis of drama in education (e.g. [START_REF] Baker | Drama and Theatre in Education[END_REF]Baker, , 1996;;García-Huidobro, 1996;Henry, 2000Henry, , 2005;;[START_REF] O'hara | Drama in education: A curriculum dilemma[END_REF] as he defended drama as an independent subject that needed to be taught in school. From his work, and influenced by the works of Piaget (1929[START_REF] Piaget | Toward a Science of Creativity: Considerable Progress but Much Work to be Done[END_REF] and Vygotsky (1967[START_REF] Vygotsky | Mind in society: The development of higher psychological processes[END_REF][START_REF] Vygotsky | Imagination and creativity in childhood[END_REF], during the second part of the 20th century, several authors and pedagogues defended the idea of using drama as part of children's education and development [START_REF] Payne | Musical taste and personality[END_REF]. Slade (1954) explained that in early child development, there are two main types of play: projected play and personal play.

A balance of these two kinds of play contributed to a happy, healthy and developed personality (Slade, 1998). In projected play, the objects that surround the child are personified by the inner world of the child. "The drama-dream gives life to the objects and it is in these that drama now takes place" (Slade, 1998, p.110). In this stage, the child also needs another to play with, expressing the need to communicate with another (García-Huidobro, 1996). On the other hand, personal play occurs when the object that is being personified cannot do the action expected, and thus, it is the child who needs to be responsible for the action, as it happens when self-dancing or acting (Slade, 1998). The child is highly concentrated in the main action, concentrated in his/her own play (García-Huidobro, 1996). In other words, the child plays within the flow of the action.

For Slade (1954), child drama could help children develop competencies as well as being therapeutic. Even when talking of adults, he proposed that drama could be a sort of therapy, dividing the drama-based training in imaginative drama, social drama, and theatre, where imaginative drama would be more related to the fact of play. In 1998, he stated that when children are becoming adolescents, near the age of 13 years old, they are more interested in real-life situations than imaginary ones, thus are prepared to enter what he called social drama. A further step into imaginative drama and play is where the participants deal with real-life issues through role play guided by a caring guide. These ideas correspond with what Moreno (1947) developed as socio-drama and what Boal (1989) called the theatre of the oppressed, which also represent a fundamental basis of drama in education, and that we will review below.

So, even though Slade was a pioneer in theorising about drama in education, the work of Moreno (1943Moreno ( , 1947) ) developing the theatre of spontaneity, was essential to the defence of drama activities in educational environments and their study. Theatre of spontaneity is a drama technique created by Moreno (1947) that uses role-play and improvisational games to prepare participants to engage, explore, understand, analyse and solve quotidian problems in a collective and respectful way. This was the basis of the concepts of psychodrama and sociodrama that were coined by him after years of studies on the theatre of spontaneity.

Psychodrama and sociodrama started along with the theatre of spontaneity as a means to develop inner creativity through spontaneity in theatre, as the self of the actor is spontaneous creativity (Moreno, 1947). He created this theatre as a response to the social movements that were arising, specifically in the field of politics with Marx and psychoanalysis with Freud. He criticised the society of his time as, from his perspective, people were becoming more and more fake, easily using guns and atomic bombs to destroy others but finding it extremely difficult to reinvent themselves and choose the social instruments in order to really free themselves. He was convinced of the need for education, but was not speaking of intellectual enlightenment but of emotional enlightenment. The most important change he made in the theatre scene, which is the basis of his work, was the transformation of the passive audience into an active audience. The spectator becomes spect-actor, transforming the stage into a field of work and production where all spectactors can see the scene and jump into it to modify what they feel needs to be modified according to the collective process of resolution of the accorded plot. "In the spontaneous-creative enactment emotion, thoughts, processes, sentences, pauses gestures, and movements seem first to break formlessly and in anarchistic fashion into an ordered environment and settled consciousness" (p.

43).

Deriving from these ideas, the concepts of psychodrama and sociodrama were created, even though theatre of spontaneity had nothing to do with therapy initially. Briefly, psychodrama is a group of trained therapeutic actors, a director, spect-actors and the subject who will present and act out a conflict that the team will help develop/solve. On the other hand, Moreno described sociodrama as the same as psychodrama, with the difference that in psychodrama, the conflict is lived privately by the subject or a specific group and in sociodrama the collective aspect of the conflict needs to be solved, before dealing with the personal/individual aspects of the problem.

According to Pecaski [START_REF] Pecaski Mclennan | Using Sociodrama to Help Young Children Problem Solve[END_REF], the use of sociodrama with children is ideal to practice problem-solving abilities, as through the drama games proposed, children are engaged in experiencing other people's ideas, backgrounds and life experiences. Several authors agree with the fact that children's sociodrama helps improve peer cooperation, empathy and perspectivetaking among other competencies (e.g. [START_REF] Cooper | Sociodramatic Play as a Vehicle for Curriculum Integration in First Grade[END_REF][START_REF] Kemple | Teachers' Beliefs and Reported Practices Concerning Sociodramatic Play[END_REF]. The fact of establishing an environment that is safe and supportive helps the experience and the exploration of the sociodramatic act in a collective way, permitting children to develop perspective taking, leading them to value others' points of view as much as their own [START_REF] Pecaski Mclennan | Using Sociodrama to Help Young Children Problem Solve[END_REF]. Moreno (1947), who defended this idea himself, described this process in theatre of spontaneity as the theatre of the community where creativity is celebrated through collectively testing solutions in which all participants have as much might as they can express. Some years later, Boal (1979) would adapt several of these ideas and would develop what he called the theatre of the oppressed, emphasising the role of drama as a catalyser of emotions.

Drama could help participants solve problems they were experiencing from their oppressors in a collective way, not only by being aware but also by taking real action in a scene and real life. Boal clarifies that all these representations issued from the theatre of the oppressed, such as invisible theatre or forum theatre among others, which appeared as a political and aesthetic response to all kinds of oppression. This is because drama, he says, is the capacity of humans to self-observe themselves doing something: being immersed in actions like see, think and feel about the thoughts and actions of our emotions. For him, we can observe ourselves in action and reflect upon them.

In the basic concepts of the theatre of the oppressed, he explains that first of all, the theatre of the oppressed is an invitation to the spectators to get involved in the action and to actually do something. And secondly, not only are they invited to reflect about past experiences, but to be active actors in their future. For Boal, theatre of the oppressed was not only the revolution to express and find solutions to our problems, but also a highly educational medium. He insisted in the capacity of theatre to offer an artistic creation that was not the end in itself. As Drama Pedagogy would consider later, the art, explained Boal, is the process of learning and not the creative outcome. What is expected is to be able to stimulate the aesthetic process within the participants, and not necessarily arrive at a finished and complete artistic product. "It is in the aesthetic creative process where participants will discover the words as alive" (p. 303).

Consequently, all these works with drama and the cognitive, social and emotional world of its participants, lead drama-based pedagogies and methodologies to emerge, and to finally appear in the different spheres of educational, social and emotional life, and thus, different approaches and theories arose at the same time, and continue to arise today. In line with this, Freeman, Sullivan and Fulton, in 2003, attempted to categorise some of these concepts, finding literature that explained the same concept under the names of child-drama, play-making, child-play and educational-drama, among others, while other authors explain their understanding of what drama in education is under the concept of Creative Drama (McCaslin, 1968(McCaslin, , 1996;;Rosenberg, 1981), Applied Theatre (Holland, 2009) or Drama Pedagogy (Garcia-Huidobro, 1996).

Nowadays, this proliferation of concepts presents some difficulties when trying to develop a rationale, because even though some of the concepts defend the same ideas, they are either explained from a different perspective or they add or take away some elements which makes them difficult to categorise in simple terms. Nevertheless, contemporary attempts to categorise some of the work in drama in education seems to have reached a consensus with the work of Lee, Patall, Cawthon and Steingut (2015), as they gathered several different studies categorising them under the name of Drama Based Pedagogy (DBP), though they did not consider dramatic play and similar trainings/play in their scope.

According to Lee et al. (2015), DBP are drama-based teaching and learning strategies used in order to engage students in learning via an embodied and process-oriented approach. They describe DBP, explaining its different features: In summary, Moreno's theatre of spontaneity and socio-drama (1943,1947), Boal's theatre of the oppressed (1979), and Slade's child drama (1954) in education were some of the first approaches using representational games in work with people. The use of drama as an educative tool led to the proliferation of several concepts most of which, today, have been recognised under the name of DBP, even though some of them are considered out of the scope (for a review, please consult Lee et al., 2015). Thus, the literature is still vast, and not all of the existing methodologies have been published in academic reviews; thus, it is impossible to analyse them within the metaanalysis of Lee et al. (2015). This is the case with Drama Pedagogy, a pedagogical methodology created in 1996 by Garcia-Huidobro, who based her work on the studies of Slade (1954), Vygotsky (1967) and Piaget (1929). This pedagogy presents theory as well as practical implications, being published as a manual for teachers and "drama pedagogues" establishing the basis for academic professionalisation in the field.8 In the following section, we will look more deeply at this methodology and its specificities.

Drama Pedagogy

Drama Pedagogy considers many of the concepts proposed by Lee et al. (2015), even though it was out of their scope according to their meta-analysis as one of its bases is dramatic play. The field observations and practical work of García-Huidobro led to the development of the concept in South-America, updating and contextualising the proposals of Vygotsky (1967) and Slade (1954Slade ( , 1967) on child drama and child play. So, from now on, we will explain Garcia-Huidobro's Drama Pedagogy as it has been taught and published since 1996.

According to the original definition, Drama Pedagogy was born after the second world war in response to the need to renew methodologies in order to optimise learning. There were several social, political, cultural and economic consequences that affected the lives of people all around the globe, so this new proposal appeared as a concrete methodology to favour the educational transition from a conductive perspective into a more personalised approach to education.9

Drama Pedagogy works based on several principles that define the basis of the concept.

First of all, it is an active methodology that works with the emotional world of people. The second principle is that even though dramatic art can be related to training actors, the focus is on being an inclusive pedagogy, in which everybody is welcomed and not only the most talented individuals. García-Huidobro (1996, 2004) calls this the "human vocation" of Drama Pedagogy. Thirdly, she mentions the importance of understanding dramatic play as the fundamental pedagogical source, being drama not as an end but as a means to help the participants explore their competencies.

Fourthly, Drama Pedagogy postulates that the nature and objective possibilities of the participants must be respected. This is based on the different age stages of play (Slade, 1954) but also on the inner desires, interests and capacities of participants that are stimulated through the different drama activities. In this part, she remarks on the importance of free play in a free expression environment.

Fifthly, Drama Pedagogy is more related to a socio-political and educational attitude than a pedagogical technique. In this sense, it absolutely differentiates itself from DBP described above, in which the methodologies are understood as a group of strategies and techniques. For Drama Pedagogy is the experience of learning what matters over the technique. And lastly, the process of learning takes precedence over the artistic result. Within these principles, Drama Pedagogy (García-Huidobro, 1996) b) The liberal progressivism tendency focuses on the emotional development of its participants. In this sense, participants are expected to use dramatic play in order to create and stimulate their emotional world. The focus, contrary to the previous tendency, is not on the artistic outcome, but more on how emotions find a way to be expressed through drama games via dramatic play. It understands emotional expression as a natural competence of all humans that can be developed through dramatic games. Nowadays, this tendency corresponds to the development of creative, social and emotional competencies, such as identification and expression of ideas, thoughts and beliefs through dramatic play.

c) The radical tendency can be understood as the means of drama for social political decisions. It is the use of the pedagogy of drama in order to change society and to guide the societal changes that are needed in a particular social context.

d) The critical socialism tendency, that is sometimes confused with the radical one, is mostly focused on the participants' interest in developing and expressing emotions while understanding the cultural role of drama in society. It is related to the construction of drama groups and how they are included in society and the role they play in the transmission of culture.

These tendencies can be applied in different contexts, either inside the educational system or outside of it. Inside the educational system, it can be used either as a pedagogical tool, or the subject of dramatic expression. Outside the educational system it can appear as an extracurricular drama workshop or expressive drama workshop. The expressive drama workshop, as having a therapeutic perspective, can be considered as a separate dimension.

In summary, according to Garcia-Huidobro (1996), Drama Pedagogy is a process-oriented pedagogy focused on the learning experience of participants that can be divided into four tendencies: a) neoclassical, b) liberal progressivism, c) radical, and d) critical socialism. These tendencies work within three dimensions: a) inside the educational setting, b) outside the educational setting, and c) as a therapeutic dimension. Some of the results of the combinations of these tendencies and dimensions can be found within the concepts reviewed by Lee et al. (2015) under different names, even if Drama Pedagogy falls outside the framework of the Drama Based Pedagogies review. This definition will help us understand the concept of Drama Pedagogy Training, the specific training which is based on the following studies that constitute this thesis.

Drama Pedagogy Training

As we saw above, Drama Pedagogy can be categorised under Drama Based Pedagogies, and it is based on four "tendencies". Considering the descriptions of these tendencies, Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT) corresponds to any training based on the so-called "liberal progressivism" tendency, which is focused on the development of the creative, social and emotional competencies of its participants. Literature shows that these objectives also correspond to the definition of creative drama (e.g. Rosenberg, 1981), for which we can establish a parallel between both concepts.

In creative drama, as well as in DPT, the process of learning is more important than the possible artistic or academic outcomes (Garcia-Huidobro, 1996;Karakelle, 2009;Libman, 2001;Moreno, 1947;Woodson, 1999). Literature also mentions that creative drama (as well as DPT) is based on (dramatic) play and theatre activities [START_REF] Rosenberg | Imagery in Creative Drama[END_REF] and that these activities occur in a safe and fearless space (Farris & Parke, 1993;Karakelle, 2009;Moreno, 1947).

These descriptions, that are repeated in literature, were considered part of a review that led us to the conception of a first article.

According to Celume, Besançon & Zenasni (2019a), DPT can be divided in two main axes: Drama Technical Phases and the Psycho-Pedagogical Framework, as we can observe in the proposed model (Figure 6). Figure 6. Model of the DPT elements that impact creative thinking (Celume et al., 2019a) The first axis, Drama Technical Phases, describes the drama-based activities that occur during DPT, focusing on the role of narrative and embodiment through a) corporal expression training (e.g. Byrge & Tang, 2015) and b) main drama techniques. Within drama techniques, we find storytelling (Laidlaw, 2000), and improvisation and role-play (e.g. Johnstone, 2012, Moreno, 1943). The second axis, Psycho-Pedagogical Framework, describes the qualities of DPT, focusing on two basic elements: c) playfulness and d) collaborative and safe environment. In between the two axes, we identified e) feedback. In the review conducted by Celume et al. (2019a), the authors propose a model, linking several studies to different creative outcomes, as observed in the following figure: of elements of DPT and the corresponding creative-related processes and creativity outcomes (Celume et al., 2019a) According to the literature reviewed by the authors, the majority of creative outcomes measured correspond to Divergent Thinking or are related to Problem Solving, and these can mostly be found within the DPT elements of Storytelling and Pretend-play, and Playfulness.

Conversely, the DPT element of Improvisation and Role-Play present more creative-related processes, such as risk taking or perspective taking rather than specific creative outcomes. Even though we categorised the elements of DPT in order to link them with creative outcomes, some authors (Goff & Torrance, 1991;Hoffmann & Russ, 2012) relate their results to two or more elements of DPT. In the case of Hoffmann and Russ (2012), they make links between creativity and Pretend-play but also Playfulness, which might imply a connection between the proposed elements. Goff and Torrance (1991) observed that creativity was enhanced as part of Corporal Expression Training, Storytelling and Pretend-play, and Improvisation and Role-play, without always specifying the role of each element. For this reason, even though they categorised different elements of DPT in order to clarify which specific elements impact creative processes, it seems wrong to establish that only one element by itself is responsible for the enhancement of creativity.

Chapter 5 -Drama Pedagogy Training Promotes Socioemotional Competencies and Creativity

"We need the children to be aware of themselves and others. We need them to focus, yet work flexibly and creatively. We need them to trust the process of creating, feel comfortable with ambiguity, and be ready to play without inhibition. We want children to feel confident to share their ideas, respect others, and ultimately, perform" Nick Hammond, 2015 (Forum Theatre for Children. Enhancing social, emotional and creative development, p.29) A large part of the development of socio-emotional competencies and creativity in children has been carried on through experimental studies, with interventions that used drama activities and/or techniques within Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT) (e.g. Garaigordobil, 2003Garaigordobil, , 2006;;Lee et al., 2015;Moore & Russ, 2008). At the same time, several interventions, trainings and pedagogies that haven't been studied experimentally are believed to have an impact on children's social competencies and creative thinking (e.g. Boal, 1989;García-Huidobro, 1996;Moreno, 1943). In the following section, we will describe theoretical and empirical evidence of the impact of DPT interventions, activities and techniques on the development of socio-emotional competencies and creativity in children.

Socio-emotional Competencies and ToM in Drama Pedagogy Training

Arts provide an ideal space to learn social and emotional competencies (Casel, 2005;Goldstein, Lerner & Winner, 2017;Zeidner et al., 2002) as the arts use different tools and techniques such as the observation and representation of both real and symbolic worlds (Goodman, 1976). For example, in dramatic art, when children engage in role-play activities, they are representing others, with these others' thoughts, emotions, motivations and beliefs. According to Lillard and Kavanaugh (2014), in pretend play (that can be considered one of the bases of dramatic art) children are simulating and practicing others' mental states, and these actions involve the "symbolic act of representing mental representations" (p.1538). [START_REF] Perner | Understanding the Representational Mind[END_REF] and Perner and Wimmer (1985) explained that mental constructions symbolise real constructions, and for some authors (e.g. Goldstein, Lerner & Winner, 2017), children learn through observation and modelling of real, symbolic and representational models. Accordingly, pretend play, as a symbolic representation of reality, permits the comprehension that mental representations rely on a greater symbolic capacity (Lillard & Kavanaugh, 2014). This symbolic capacity would be what leads the child to express his/her inner world through the act of pretending to be another, which would facilitate the fact of practicing and learning socio-emotional competencies. One of the key competencies in education is the creative expression of ideas, experiences and emotions and these competencies can be expressed through performing arts, like drama (European Parliament, 2006).

Several studies that have shown an enhancement of socio-emotional competencies such as cooperation, empathy or emotional regulation (e.g. Garaigordobil, 2003Garaigordobil, , 2006;;Moore & Russ, 2008) in children, used interventions that were created by using drama-based techniques and activities that can be found within the concept of Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT) that we explained above. We were able to note this after reviewing the two recent meta-analyses previously described in Chapter 2 (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor & Schellinger, 2011;Lee et al., 2015), where most of the articles included, and moreover, the most successful ones in developing SEL competencies were based on, DPT elements such as role playing and improvisation, pretend play, storytelling and several others. Furthermore, the meta-analysis of Lee et al. (2015) studied the effect of Drama Based Pedagogies (DBP) on children from preschool to adolescence. The results showed that DBP had a significant impact on educational achievement outcomes but that the impact on social skills was not significant, concluding that the belief that DBP might promote prosocial behaviours was unfounded. Nevertheless, it was supported that DBP had a significant positive effect on other social skills among children like attitudes towards achievement and the so-called 21st century skills.

On the other hand, Lillard, Lerner, Hopkins, Dore, Smith, and Palmquist (2013) undertook a review focused specifically on pretend play. The main conclusion of their work established that evidence presented in the 40 years examined does not support the idea of how pretend play might help development, mostly because of the poor methods followed in the studies. For example, regarding social skills and pretend play, they found that correlations were inconsistent, and the same went for Theory of Mind (ToM) outcomes, that also presented "important failures to replicate" (p. 16). This is consistent with the meta-analysis of Lee et al. (2015) who explain that they had to exclude several studies from their analyses due to a lack of reporting information, demanding that researchers must better report their methods, as it is fundamental for replicability.

They found that most of the studies analysed presented important bias as they were mostly quasiexperimental studies that rarely presented matching control groups, making it difficult to be sure that DBP was the cause of social outcomes enhancement, concluding that there is a need for better reporting of trainings and strategies used in order to be able to have consistent material to analyse.

To our knowledge, and based on these meta-analyses, except for the recent work from Goldstein and Lerner (2017), studies that have been done in order to examine the impact of DPT methods on socio-emotional competencies rely on studies a) without an active control group which are a good match with the experimental one, b) those in which children volunteer to participate in the experimental group and so there's no randomised assignment, and c) those in which the researchers are involved in the training. In sum, these are not real randomised control trials with the exception of some randomised studies of fantasy play (e.g. Thibodeau, Gilpin, Brown & Meyer, 2016). So, in order to ensure a well-controlled approach, Goldstein and Lerner (2017) conducted a study on 97 pre-school children, controlling the variables shown before, seeking the impact of a pretend play group (PPG) on ToM, altruism, distress towards others and helping behaviour, emotion matching and social behaviour. The results showed that children in the PPG group had lower levels of neutral social behaviours and higher levels of positive social behaviours than block play or reading groups. They also concluded that as children had lower levels of emotional control than the average, the pretend play training helped them with this, but did not help with ToM and compassion. In conclusion, they suggested that this could be due because emotional control was not fully developed.

The studies analysed, concerning drama trainings and their impact on socio-emotional competencies, didn't include a substantial randomised control study, and the only one that did was focused on preschool children (Goldstein & Lerner, 2017). Besides, few studies presented a follow-up to see the effects of DPT on socio-emotional competencies (e.g. Moore & Russ, 2008), and there was only one recent meta-analysis on socio-emotional competencies training, that reviewed universal SEL interventions' follow-up (Taylor, Oberle, Durlak & Weissberg, 2017) that showed that children demonstrate continued significant and positive effects after the trainings, although none of the revised workshops were Drama Pedagogy based.

Creativity in Drama Pedagogy Training

As we saw in Chapter 1, creative thinking in children can be enhanced through different kinds of training (Scott, Leritz & Mumford, 2004a) and thus evaluated in terms of divergent thinking and problem solving. According to Byrge and Tang (2015), this enhancement can be made through embodied creativity training. Among embodied creativity training we can find drama-based trainings (e.g. Fischer, 1989;Garaigordobil, 2003;Hui & Lau, 2006;Yasar & Aral, 2012). Lee et al. (2015) proposed a meta-analysis for which they gathered different kinds of dramabased training presenting them under the term DBP. Among the outcomes found, they explain that DBP had a significant effect on children's and adolescents' creative thinking.

On the other hand, as we saw above, there is also a vast universe of trainings and pedagogies that are assumed to have an impact on children's creative thinking, as for example the Theatre of the Oppressed (Boal, 1989), the Theatre of Spontaneity (Moreno, 1947) and the Drama Pedagogy (García-Huidobro, 1996), which have not been published as empirical studies in academic journals and thus, for this and other reasons, weren't considered in this meta-analysis.

Among the studies that have been carried out, there are at least 10 presenting evidence of the impact of DPT on creative thinking. In order not to be redundant and not to repeat content, these studies, presented chronologically, will be briefly introduced because further information about statistical data can be found in each of the studies.

As we saw above, a recent meta-analysis conducted by Lee et al. (2015) showed that drama-based trainings (originally presented as DBPs) had significant effects on children's creative thinking. Moreover, throughout the scope of the cited meta-analysis, we found a vast universe of training and pedagogies that are assumed to have an impact on children's creative thinking (e.g., Theatre of the Oppressed, Boal, 1989;Socio-drama, Moreno, 1943, Drama Pedagogy, García-Huidobro, 1996). DPT, thus, will be considered as a particular kind of training issuing from Drama Pedagogy (García-Huidobro, 1996) that presumes to enhance creative thinking.

From now on, the concept DPT will be used to gather all the training procedures that apply to the characteristics described above, as well as the concepts presented by Freeman et al. (2003) (e.g., child-drama, play-making, child-play, or educational-drama), and the more complex processoriented methodologies such as socio-drama (Moreno, 1943(Moreno, , 1947;;[START_REF] Pecaski Mclennan | Using Sociodrama to Help Young Children Problem Solve[END_REF], Creative Drama (McCaslin, 1996;Rosenberg, 1981) or Applied Theatre (Holland, 2009). It is important to note that all drama-based trainings for which the focus is on the final artistic result or any academic result (e.g., Walker, Tabone & Weltsek, 2011) will not qualify as DPT. Moreno (1943), Slade (1967), andBoal (1989) can be considered pioneers in DPT as they started the use of dramatic art through representational games in their work with people without searching for any educational or artistic outcome. Years later, their legacy is still a matter of interest in social sciences, particularly when relating DPT to creativity. In the following section, we will describe the findings of 10 studies relating to creative thinking and DPT in children and adolescents. The analysed studies correspond to the work of drama-based trainings or pedagogies that match the characteristics of DPT as described above. Some studies have been excluded as the objectives of the training were academic or artistic, or because the particular population presented problems that could lead to a bias, as in the case of children with special needs.

Only the study conducted by Amato, Ziegler & Emans (1973) on 298 school-age children could not prove a significant impact of DPT (originally described by the authors under the name Creative Dramatics) on children's creative thinking. The researchers looked for significant differences between DPT and other trainings by measuring children's creative thinking through the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) (Torrance, 1990). According to the authors, storytelling training (which is considered in this paper as an element of DPT) had a higher influence on creative thinking than DPT. Nevertheless, a more detailed methodology from the authors was needed in order to confirm their results. We are not aware of the activities undertaken in the different training techniques, so we cannot establish a clear difference between the two mentioned trainings and between the control group and the DPT. The article did not provide the Mean scores of each group, so no effect size could be calculated.

Ten years later, Clements et al. (1982) conducted a study on 37 adolescents between 13 and 17 years old in order to evaluate the effects of a DPT program on creativity. Adolescents' creative thinking was measured through the TTCT Demonstrator [START_REF] Torrance | The Search for Satori and Creativity[END_REF]) and a sevenpoint rating scale was created by two judges in order to measure talent and experience in drama.

Results showed significant correlations between TTCT scores and drama experience (r = 0.55, p < 0.001) and TTCT scores and drama talent (r = 0.46, p < 0.001) suggesting that children with more experience or talent in drama score better in creative thinking tasks. Results provided suggest medium to large effect sizes.

Similarly, Berretta and Privette (1990) studied 184 school-age children in a fourth-grade class, looking for a difference between flexible art, drama, and playground activities versus structured art, drama and playground activities. Findings showed that even though there were no significant effects in the type of activity, flexible activities produced significant differences in creative thinking scores on the TTCT (Torrance, 1990) tests versus the structured ones (F(1,178) = 4.08, p < 0.05). The effect size of flexible drama and structured drama was analysed by calculating Cohen's d based on the mean scores provided by the original article, showing a small effect size (D = 0.26). Flexible drama activities were more related to the concept of playfulness in DPT, where the child is free to construct play following the basic rules of a drama game (McCaslin, 1968).

Authors such as Garaigordobil (1995) have shown that creative drama games, among other cooperative games, enhanced creative thinking (particularly divergent thinking) in a sample of 154 children aged 9-10 years old. Children were assessed using three tasks in Guilford's battery of tests (1951). Results showed significant differences in the analyses of variance and between the two groups for all three subtests. We calculated Cohen's d effect sizes on fluidity scores for the three subtests applied, finding large effect sizes for unusual tests (D = 1.4) and the circle test (D = 0.98), and a huge effect size for the consequence test (D = 2.8). In 2003, she created different programs (Programa Juego) for children aged from 8 to 12 years old in order to develop creativity and other social competencies such as altruistic behaviour through creative drama games and other cooperative games.

A Chinese team, headed by Hui and Lau (2006) gathered 126 children attending first and fourth grade in order to measure the impact of DPT (originally described under the name of creative drama) on creative thinking. Children participated in DPT for 1hr-a-week, for 16 weeks.

They were tested on creative thinking through the Wallach-Kogan Creativity Test (WKCT, Wallach & Kogan, 1965) and the Test of Creative Thinking Drawing Production (TCT-DP, Urban & Jellen, 1996), while also designing a Story Telling Test (STT) to indirectly measure creativity, finding that participants who attended the training generated more creative responses and drawings than the control group. No standard deviation scores were provided for the WKCT and the TCT-DP tests, so no effect size could be calculated. For the STT, Cohen's d analysis showed a small to medium effect size (D = 0.37) on the creativity item.

In a study conducted by Yeh and Li (2008), 116 children aged 4 to 6 years old, participated in a study to see the impact that drama might have on children's creativity. He created the Preschoolers' Creativity Test in order to measure usefulness and novelty indices, finding that the drama training had significant effects on children's creativity with large effect sizes (F(2,112) = 42.27, p < 0.001, η² = 0.43).

Mullineaux and Dilalla ( 2009) conducted a longitudinal study on 120 children engaged in a 20-min free pretend-play session (one fundamental element of DPT). They used a realistic roleplay rating to measure pretend-play at age 5, and WKCT Uses-Tasks (Wallach and Kogan, 1965) plus TCT-DP (Urban and Jellen, 1996) to measure creative thinking at age 10-15. Results showed that Realistic-Role-play at age 5 was significantly correlated to WKCT (r = 0.18, p < 0.05) and TCT-DP (r = 0.22, p < 0.05) scores at follow-up, suggesting that pretend play is a predictor of later creative thinking. The results of correlations suggest medium effect sizes. Lin (2010) studied 67 children aged 11-12 years old engaged in a 10-week intervention involving two-sessions-a-week of DPT. He tested how a drama intervention could enhance possibility thinking, as a facet of creative thinking, through diaries, response sheets and group interviews. Findings showed that children considered the drama training to be a useful tool for fostering their creativity. Results from this study are qualitative, so no effect sizes could be calculated. Garaigordobil and Berrueco (2011) Finally, Mottweiler and Taylor (2014) studied the effect of elaborated role play on 75 children aged 4 to 5 years old. The results showed that children who participated in elaborated role play had higher creativity scores with small to medium effect sizes on narrative (F(l,68) = 6.31, p < 0.039, η² = 0.06) and drawing (F(l,49) = 3.08, p = 0.09, η² = 0.06) creativity tasks.

A recent study, undertaken by Hainselin, Aubry & Bourdain (2018), showed how improvisational theatre helped enhance divergent thinking in 35 adolescents, measured through the Alternative Uses Task (AUT, based on Guilford, 1967). Nevertheless, even though improvisation is part of DPT, in their study improvisation was considered as a methodology used for adult actors or the adult population, while in our study improvisation is considered to include improvisational games within a particular framework (we will detail the framework below). In this sense, the study of Hainselin et al. (2018) and other similar works using improvisational theatre should be considered with caution, and only as partial evidence for our study.

Effect sizes are varied for our simple. No mean for effect sizes was calculated, as some effect sizes were calculated via Cohen's d and others were provided by ANOVA analyses. Three out of 11 studies, presented problems in terms of finding effect sizes or calculating Cohen's d.

Eight studies presented sufficient data, and thus effect sizes were calculated. Two out of eight studies presented small or small to medium effect sizes, two out of eight presented medium or medium to large effect sizes and four out of eight presented large, large to huge, or huge effect sizes.

PROBLEMATIC, OBJECTIVES AND GENERAL HYPOTHESES

Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT) is a drama games training based on Drama Pedagogy (García-Huidobro, 1996) focused on the development of social and emotional competencies (Celume & Zenasni, 2017) and creative thinking (Celume, Besançon & Zenasni, 2019a). It can be found in the literature under different names, including drama-based pedagogies, pretend play, drama-based games/pedagogy or creative drama, among several others. Studies on drama-based games and pretend play have shown positive effects on a wide range of cognitive, social and emotional competencies in children, such as social relationships and behaviours, empathy, humour, emotional understanding and Theory of Mind (ToM, e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012;Hoffmann & Russ, 2012;Joronen, Konu, Rankin & Astedt-Kurki, 2012;Joronen, Häkämies & Astedt-Kurki, 2012;[START_REF] Seja | Children's fantasy play and emotional understanding[END_REF]Yeh & Li, 2008, etc). On the other hand, drama-based games and creative drama have also shown positive effects on children's creativity (e.g. Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011;Hui & Lau, 2006;Karwowski & Soszynski, 2008;Lin, 2010) helping them to develop imagination, flexibility, and problem-solving abilities among other outcomes.

Unfortunately, we agree with several authors (e.g. Goldstein, Lerner & Winner, 2017;Winner, Goldstein & Vincent-Lancrin, 2013) who establish that there are some drama-based studies that lack scientific rigour, presenting a lack of controlled trials (Joronen, Konu et al., 2012) which results in there being little evidence to support the crucial role of pretend activities in children's development (Lillard, Lerner, Hopkins, Dore, Smith & Palmquist, 2013). Nevertheless, among well designed studies, we found a tendency towards results showing the impact of drama or drama games on the development of emotional regulation or emotional control (e.g. Goldstein & Lerner, 2018;Hoffmann & Russ, 2012;Yeh & Li, 2008), empathy and ToM abilities (e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012) and creativity (e.g. Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011) in children.

Most of the studies that relate creativity to drama-based pedagogies are based on the evaluation of creative thinking (e.g. Hui & Lau, 2006;Karwowski & Soszynski, 2008); thus, in this paper, creativity will be understood from a cognitive perspective. In a similar way, according to the literature reviewed, ToM has also been understood from a cognitive perspective, and a social and cognitive one, when identifying the links between DPT and ToM (e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012;Hoffmann & Russ, 2012). In line with this, the analyses which follow will hereby go in that direction.

Until today, few authors have suggested links between these outcomes (e.g. Ebert, Hoffmann, Ivcevic, Phan & Brackett, 2015), with some studies explaining a relationship between creativity and ToM from the perspective of the executive function (Karmiloff- [START_REF] Karmiloff-Smith | How to develop creative imagination?. Assumptions, aims and effectiveness of Role Play Training in Creativity (RPTC)[END_REF]Suddendorf & Fletcher, 1979). Nevertheless, no recent study (to our knowledge) has deeply studied the relationships between these outcomes, and even though DPT seems to be related to both of them, no study so far has identified this link during DPT sessions. The fourth study of this thesis has the aim of providing evidence of the possible links involved in the relationship between creativity and socio-emotional competencies, mainly the socio-cognitive ability of ToM, presenting descriptive data and observational data gathered during DPT sessions for school-aged children in France.

Thus, considering the literature, we propose an investigation, based on three empirical studies, in order to present evidence of the potential efficacy of Drama Pedagogy Training for the development of children's creativity and socio-emotional competencies. Accordingly, the main objective of this thesis work is to gather evidence to explain how DPT can enhance creative thinking, socio-emotional competencies and positive emotions in 9 to 10 year-old children, predicting that 1) DPT can develop creativity, socio-emotional competencies and positive emotions right after a 6-week intervention; 2) these results will remain in follow-up time; 3) there is a relationship between socio-emotional competencies and creativity probably due to perspective taking that can be appreciated during the DPT sessions; and 4) positive emotions have an impact on children's creative thinking.

To answer these hypotheses, we conducted five studies: the three first were linked together as they involved gathering similar data; thus, they are presented as sub-studies of study 1. The two other studies, 2 and3 for repeated measures for pre-post test showed significant differences between the groups and large effect sizes on ToM and collaborative behaviour. Also, significant differences between the groups which presented higher scores for DPT in ToM and in collaborative behaviour, were found.

As a second sub-study (Study 1B), we evaluated the effect of DPT on creative thinking. In order to show evidence of the effectiveness of DPT on French children's creative thinking, we conducted a study on 4th grade children. Children were randomly assigned to either a DPT, or to an active control group that was identified as a Collective Sports Group (CSG). Children were measured three times: in pre-test, post-test and follow-up on creative thinking. Results showed a significant difference in creative thinking, which was superior for the DPT group on divergent thinking and convergent thinking. Moreover, follow-up showed statistical significance for divergent thinking scores, still higher for the experimental group, even though no significant differences were found for convergent thinking scores.

As a third sub-study (Study 1C), we evaluated the relationships of the outcomes in figurative creative thinking and kinaesthetic creative thinking, in order to see the relationship between figurative creative thinking and kinaesthetic divergent thinking, finding no significant results, thus permitting us to question the need for construction of a new measurement tool that permits the correct evaluation of creative potential through the use of the body.

Second, we conducted a study (Study 2) on children's emotional states to assess the impact of this factor on their creative thinking. This study presents children from elementary school who were randomised to fit either a positive mood induction group, or a neutral mood induction group.

After each mood induction, we conducted figurative creative thinking tests in order to see the impact of a specific mood on children's creative production. Children in a positive mood presented higher scores in creative thinking than those in a neutral mood condition.

Third, we conducted an observational study (Study 3) to identify how DPT could develop creativity and ToM, observing possible underlying processes between these competencies. The study has the aim of providing evidence of the possible links involved in the relationship between creativity and socio-emotional competencies, particularly the socio-cognitive ability of ToM, presenting the data gathered during DPT sessions for school-aged children in France. Results showed evidence of the role of perspective taking as a moderator between creativity and ToM abilities in DPT.

Study on Theory of Mind and Collaborative Behaviour

As we saw in the previous chapters, most social and emotional competencies research has its origins in the study of the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI) established by [START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF] and revisited by [START_REF] Mikolajczak | Les Compétences Émotionnelles[END_REF]. Today, these competencies have been identified as major competencies to be addressed among school-aged children (e.g. P21 coalition; OECD, 2009;UNESCO, 2015), and can easily be taught and learned through arts (Goldstein et al., 2017;Goldstein & Winner, 2012;Zeidner et al., 2002). Arts provide a symbolic space for experimentation and creation that permit the development of competencies. During the last decade, several studies that showed social and emotional competencies outcomes (e.g. cooperation, empathy or emotional regulation) were undertaken using dramatic art trainings, such as DPT.

DPT can be considered an active drama-based pedagogy, that works with the cognitive and affective dimensions of the participants (Garcia-Huidobro, 1996) emphasising the importance of playfulness and positive emotions in the classroom, and promoting positive moods, a safe and caring environment and a positive student-pedagogue relationship (Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011;Garcia-Huidobro, 2004;Hammond, 2015;Rosen, 1974). As we saw above, an important part of successful Socio-Emotional Learning (SEL) programs is based on DPT elements such as role playing and improvisation, pretend play, storytelling and several others.

To our knowledge, and based on the different drama-based meta-analyses explained in the previous chapters, except for the recent work from Goldstein and Lerner (2017) carried out with preschool children, studies that have been done in order to examine the impact of DPT methods on socio-emotional competences rely on research a) without an active control group which is a good match with the experimental one, b) where children volunteer to participate in the experimental group and so there's no randomised assignment, and c) where the researchers are involved in the training. In sum, they are not completely randomised control trials except for some randomised studies on fantasy play (e.g. Thibodeau et al., 2016).

In response to this, the main objective of the present study is to present a well-randomised study in order to present substantial evidence on the fact that DPT promotes SEL-related competencies, specifically in terms of collaborative behaviour and ToM skills among elementary school children. For that purpose, we employed a pre-post-test randomised controlled design for which children were randomly assigned to either an experimental group, or an active control group, the latter created to be an equivalent control group.

Method Design of Study

We conducted a randomised controlled longitudinal study with children including pretests, post-tests and follow-up tests in order to collect socio-cognitive and behavioural data.

Participants

The sample consisted of 126 children: 65 were in the CSG group (M =10.4; SD = .56) and 61 in the DPT group (M =10.3; SD =.56); 55 were in 4th grade (CM1; M = 9.9; SD = .35) and 71 in 5th grade (CM2; M =10.8; SD = .38); 48 attended a private school (PR), 43 a public school (PU) and 35 a priority school (REP). Children were randomly assigned either to an active control group participating in Collective Sports Group (CSG, N = 65) or an experimental group participating in Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT, N = 61). For the final analysis, three children were excluded because they were not available for post-test evaluation.

Material Independent Variables

Trainings DPT was created by selecting and adapting some Drama Pedagogy Training activities proposed in the Spanish program "Programa Juego" (Garaigordobil, 2003[START_REF] Garaigordobil | Programa Juego. Juegos cooperativos y creativos para grupos de niños de 8 a 10 años[END_REF] given that all the activities on the program were already validated. Some other Drama Pedagogy Training activities were taken from the books of García-Huidobro (2004) and Boal (1979). The training consisted on six sessions, adjusted to French school time in order to avoid holidays that could interfere with the sessions. At the beginning of each session, there was a transition/warming up activity where children expressed how they felt, leaving the standard activities of school and getting prepared for the training. Then, there was the main Drama Pedagogy Training activity(ies), and finally feedback time when children expressed their opinions and feelings about the session. Each of the six sessions lasted between 60 and 70 minutes. Sessions 2 and 6 had a collective activity, and this was the same for both groups (DPT and CSG).

CSP was created by selecting popular collective games, taken from Boulo and Olivier (2005) collective games and Orlick's (1986) cooperative games and adapting this last for French children. It consisted of six sessions, adjusted to French school time in order to avoid holidays that could interfere with the sessions. Each of the six sessions lasted 60-70 minutes. Sessions 2 and 6 included a collective activity, and this was the same for both groups (please see appendices for details of each intervention).

Dependent Variables

Theory of Mind

We developed a French version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, Child Version (RMET-G) (Baron-Cohen, Jolliffe, Mortimore & Robertson, 1997). In this task, children were presented a series of 28 pictures of a pair of eyes from different people expressing an emotion or a mental state. We projected these images onto the board. Children were asked to look at the picture in each item and to circle the emotion or mental state that best described the look of the person, choosing from among four words displayed. Three of these words were distractors while only one was the correct word that matched the emotion or mental state of the person in the picture. The task was scored by adding up the number of items correctly answered. For each image they had around 15 seconds, so between 7 to 10 minutes in total. The scale was validated analysing Cronbach's alpha (Cronbach, 1951) presenting a score of α =.64, which is still considered an acceptable value according to some authors (Van Griethuijsen Eijck, Haste, Brok, Skinner, Mansour, Savran & BouJaoude, 2015). Nevertheless, considering that some authors suggest that acceptable scores begin from α =.70 (Cortina, 1993), results involving scores from this scale will be considered carefully.

Collaborative Behaviour

In order to measure collaborative behaviour, two different kinds of measures were used: a performance task called the Prisoner's Dilemma (PD) and collaborative behaviour coding after video-recording of collective activities (VR). PD: We used the Prisoner's Dilemma task from Garaigordobil (1995). For the Prisoner's Dilemma, the children have to be sat in two rows back to back with one another. They are given two different cards, a red one and a blue one to answer the dilemma. Each pair of children are partners in a robbery and have to decide whether to betray their partner to save themselves or not.

The objective of the game is to stay in prison for as little time as possible.

So, first, the teacher, acting as "police officer", gives them the deal: They have one minute to make a decision, whether they betray their partner or not, and they have to indicate it by raising the card that corresponds to their decision. They cannot look at or talk to their classmates or they are out of the game and lose. Decisions are said out loud, and results are marked down. They cannot comment the decisions made by their partners. Then, the "police officer" offers them a new deal: "now you have 30 seconds to decide if you keep the same decision or if you change your decision. You still can't talk to your partner, 30 seconds starts now! … time is over, raise you decision". Their decisions are said out loud and written down.

VR: We used digital video recording in order to observe children's collaborative behaviours in Sessions 2 and 6. Two fixed digital cameras were put on tripods. We recorded collaborative game-tasks: we adapted 4 collaborative game-tasks taken from different DPT books.

For Session 2 the introductory game-task was playing "parachutes"; this involved pretending to be in a plane and running out of fuel so they had to save themselves by grouping themselves together matching the number of people the parachutes were made for, until the whole group was divided into two subgroups to start the next task. The main game-task was telling a child's story in 7 pictures by using their bodies. For this, it was mandatory for everybody participated.

For the 6th session the collaborative game-tasks were the same in content to the ones played in the 2nd session, but with some changes in the presentation of the games. For the introductory game-task, instead of using parachutes, they were lifesavers, and for the main game-task instead of telling a child's story in 7 pictures by using their bodies, they had to create objects and figures together using their bodies.

These main tasks were video recorded, for later coding and analysis through ActoGraph Software©.

Categories for coding were made through a qualitative method by two judges (M = 27.5 a=.89) who watched the videos and wrote down children's behaviours observed during the collaborative game-tasks. This coding was made using an exploratory approach [START_REF] Saldaña | The Coding Manual for Qualitative Researchers[END_REF], searching for sentences that implied certain behaviours that represented patterns and ideas [START_REF] Bernard | Research methods in anthropology: Quanlitative and quantitative approaches[END_REF]. Then we conducted collective thematic analysis [START_REF] Braun | Using thematic analysis in psychology[END_REF], later on, to categorise these behaviors into corresponding categories. Thus, after coding analyses, those behaviours were distributed into 5 subcategories: a) Team work, b) Group management, c) Misbehaviour, d) Disconnection and e) Neutral. For the coding, the following were taken as collaborative behaviours: subcategories a and b, because both promote collaborative work and e, because behaviours shown as neutral didn't prevent collaboration from occurring; and as noncollaborative behaviours: categories c and d, because they were behaviours that prevented collaboration from occurring or influenced the group towards non-collaborative ambiance.

The grid of behaviours by category is explained as follows: a) Team work -the child:

• Listens to other classmates speaking

• Proposes (without imposing) ideas to the group

• Actively listens and shares with others

• Serves the group (execute other's/group's ideas, searches working material for the group) b) Group management -the child:

• Reassures his/her classmates

• Invites others to participate

• Brings back classmates that are elsewhere

• Encourages the group to keep on working c) Misbehaviour -the child:

• Messes around with someone else in the class e) Neutral -the child:

• Doesn't propose ideas, but is present and seems to be listening or participating

• Waits for an instruction from the group

• Listens to the instructions when someone asks

Procedure Preparation for the Intervention and Cover Story

Authorisation letters were sent to parents in order to gain their approval for their child's participation in the study. In this letter parents were informed of the study, but partially informed of the purpose of it. They were told that children would participate in one of two workshops that might enhance academic achievement through the development of soft-skills, without revealing the expected differences in outcomes for each group/workshop. Teachers were informed about the real purpose of the study, as school directors demanded it in order to agree to participate. They were asked not to tell children about the real purposes of the study in order to avoid emotional predisposition. As a cover story, children were told they would all participate in different collective workshops, explaining to them that they would be randomly assigned to one of the two workshops.

Random Assignment

After the parents' agreement, each child was given a code. We randomly assigned the codes into a CSG or a DPT group. The randomisation was done online using free software.

Measuring Times

Children in both groups were asked to participate in the same different tasks before and after the trainings, and four months after the trainings were finished. They were also recorded in two sessions in order to code their collaborative behaviour.

A week before starting the trainings (T0), children answered the French version of RMET-G in order to measure ToM. In this task, they were asked to look at the pair of eyes in each picture and to circle the word that best described the emotional or mental state of the look of the person from four words displayed with each picture. The week after task completion, we started with the training. In the 2nd session, they were tested through the prisoner's collaborative task (T1). In the 6th session, children were re-tested through the prisoner's collaborative task (T2). One week after the trainings were finished, children were re-measured on ToM through the RMET-G (T3). A follow-up test on the ToM measure was applied after four months and this was the last intervention that occurred (T4). In table 1, we can observe the measures taken and the different times of measurement in a more comprehensive framework.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Pre-test analyses showed that there were no significant differences in the randomisation, regarding the age and sex of the participants, implying an equitable distribution in the groups.

Pre-test Correlational Analysis

In order to see any previous relationship between the expected outcomes, we ran a correlational analysis. The results showed no significant correlations.

Pre-test ToM

Analyses also showed no significant differences between the randomised groups in the variable ToM, measured through RMET-G in time T0.

When searching for possible previous ToM differences by class, analyses showed a significant difference on ToM (t = -2.87; p < .005), with 5th graders scoring higher (M = 18.20;

123 SD = 3.69) than 4th graders (M = 16.24; SD = 3.94). These results were expected as ToM is argued to increase with age (Calero, Salles, Semelman & Sigman, 2013).

When comparing the effect of the same variable by type of school, results also showed significant differences. Anova analyses presented a significant effect of the type of school and a medium effect size on ToM (F(2,123) = 4.17; p < .02; η2 = 0.06) with the highest mean for the PU school (M = 18.6; SD = 3.9), then the PR school (M = 17.1; SD = 3.7), and finally the REP school (M = 16.1; SD = 3.9).

Pre-test Collaborative Behaviour

At the beginning of the second session, children were measured on their collaborative behaviour through the Prisoner's Dilemma Game. Results presented a significant difference between the randomised groups (t = 2.79; p < .006); with the CSG group (M = 3.12; SD = .13) presenting significantly higher mean scores than the DPT group (M = 2.62; SD = .13), after one session of the trainings. Nevertheless, median and mode scores showed no differences between the groups (Mdn = 3). When searching for possible previous collaborative behaviour differences by class, the results showed no significant differences.

When analysing the effect of school on the collaborative behaviour variable, measured through the Prisoner's Dilemma, the results showed significant effects (F(2,123) = 7.6; p < .001), presenting a medium to large effect size (η2 = .11), with the PR school scoring higher (M = 3.27; SD = .96) and the REP school scoring lower (M = 2.43; SD = .95), both compared to the PU school (M = 2.81; SD = 1.03).

Hypothesis Testing

Post-test Correlational Analysis

Pearson's correlation analyses showed significant weak correlations between ToM and collaborative behaviour (measured through PD) (r = .35; p < .001).

Post-test ToM

As plotted in Figure 9, below, an Anova 2x2 model was run to see the effect of the type of training (DPT, CSG) on the variable ToM regarding the two measurement times (T0; T3).

The results showed significant large effects (F(1,124) = 28.79; p < .001; η2 = .19), with more important increases for DPT. Exploratory Analysis in terms of Class and Type of School.

Interaction Effects

Type of Training by Class

As shown in Figure 11 below, Anova analysis presented a significant effect for the type of training on class, with a small to medium effect size on the variable ToM (F(1,122) = 6.32; p < .013

; η2=.05) with higher means for DPT in both classes.

Discussion

The present study aimed to gather evidence of the impact of DPT on ToM and collaborative behaviour. To this end we carried out a randomised protocol in which specific measures for ToM and collaborative behaviour were applied.

Results before the intervention showed significant differences among schools for ToM for the general sample, implying that depending on the school the children came from, their competencies in this ability were already different regardless of the group they belonged to. When comparing means, the greatest differences were found between the public school and the priority school, with higher scores for the public school. These results could in part be explained by the socio-cultural background of the children. Even if some specific vocabulary is taught at school, an important amount of language is learnt at home through parent-child interaction (Hart & Risley, 1992), thus, the children of foreign-parent(s) would have more difficulties in "foreign" vocabulary acquisition (Mingat, 1991). A more homogeneous French socio-cultural background was present in the public school, with a more foreign socio-cultural background in the priority school, thus, suggesting that public school children have more direct access to French vocabulary because they speak the same language at home in contrast to priority school children whose parents (mother or/and father) do not speak French as a first language. A significant difference was also found between both grades, with scores being higher for 5th grade than 4th grade. This, can be explained by the fact that as children grow up, they acquire more language skills, meaning 5th grade children have a larger vocabulary than 4th graders.

As correlation analyses showed, there was a weak correlation between ToM and Collaborative Behaviour-PD, meaning that even if there seems to be a relationship between ToM and Collaborative Behaviour, it is not strong enough to ensure a clear correspondence of ToM with Collaborative Behaviour.

When comparing the type of training, in order to see the impact of DPT on socio-emotional competencies, both t-test and Anova analyses showed effects of the type of training on ToM. These significant differences were statistically higher for the DPT group, suggesting that DPT enhances ToM in both 4th and 5th grade children from all three schools. These results are consistent with previous studies that established a relationship between drama-related games and ToM (e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012) even though, contrary to our study, their results were achieved with a high-school sample.

Type of training also showed an effect between pre-test and post-test suggesting than depending of the type of intervention, ToM skills were more or less developed. The DPT group showed higher differences in scores than the CSG, for whom pre-test and post-test scores were almost unvarying. These results are inside the scope of what we predicted, as children who participated in the DPT were trained in emotional and mental state identification through the different DPT methods and activities undertaken. Sessions 1, 3, 4 and 5 were dedicated to emotional identification, expression and communication through mini-pretend-plays in which children had to choose an emotion or emotional state and to represent it in an invented collective scene. In this way, children were obliged to identify the different characteristics of emotions and the mental states they were to represent, and so learning was acquired through the use of play and body, permitting also embodiment, which helped with the understanding of the emotions and mental states. This idea is supported by the work of several authors (e.g. Sofia, 2016) who defend the theory that embodiment is a direct collaborator in the whole cognitive process of empathy, of which ToM is a fundamental part.

Regarding the class level, the highest difference in the ToM post-test occurred for the 5th grade (Fig. 3). While the DPT group in the 4th grade had slightly higher scores than CSG in 4th grade, scores get clearly higher for DPT in 5th grade. These results suggest that DPT would work better for 5th graders. In both cases, these results only reflect our specific sample and results should be used carefully as they do not represent the whole French population. Besides, the fact that DPT worked better in 5th grade for developing ToM can only be due to the fact that understanding mental functioning and ascribing mental states to others is an intellectual ability, thus, it should evolve along with children's cognitive development, meaning that 10-year-old children, who were already turning 11 by the time of the post-tests, have more developed intellectual abilities. In fact, the theory of states (Piaget, 1929) describes a process of evolution of intellectual capacities which establishes the change from a concrete operational state to a formal operational state at the age of 11. Moreover, a study conducted by Perner and Wimmer (1985) on children aged 5 to 10 years old, confirms an evolution in the attribution of second-order beliefs.

Regarding the differences between pre-test and post-test repeated measures, Anova found that DPT on the ToM task resulted in differences based on the type of school. As shown above in Figure 5, the PU school showed almost no increase between pre-and post-ToM tasks in comparison with the REP and PR schools whose post-scores were between 2 and 3 points higher.

Regarding follow-up results, even if there was no significant difference between groups, we observed that results continued to be higher for the DPT group. Thus, we can say that ToM is enhanced after a DPT intervention but cannot ensure an enhancement over time. In other words, children in the DPT groups presented significantly higher scores right after the interventions, but the results were not sustainable over time. At the end of four months, the results were almost the same for both groups, meaning that the CSG group showed a constant increase from pre-test to follow-up test, probably due to their normal intellectual development, as we explained above;

while the DPT group scores showed a significant increase during the intervention but this slightly decreased from post intervention to four months after they were re-tested. After these analyses, we presume that these non-expected follow-up results could be due to a lack of sessions, regarding the fact that 2 of the 6 sessions were dedicated to evaluating collaborative behaviours and did not really explore DPT methods and elements. This may be in line with the meta-analysis of Lee et al. (2015) which showed that successful drama-based trainings, which have shown to develop socioemotional competences among their outcomes in both children and the youth population, are those which engaged participants for between 6 and 20 sessions. Another idea we discussed is the lack of reliability of the French version of the RMET-G. Pre-test reliability was only acceptable (α=.64), thus leading us to think that the RMET-G is not the best test for measuring ToM. For further study, our proposal would be to retest the protocol using as interventions more DPT sessions and testing for ToM using another task, or at least two different tasks in order to compare the results.

On the other hand, collaborative behaviour may benefit children's social relationships (Schellenberg, Corrigall, Dys & Malti, 2015) as it is encompassed in prosocial behaviour which appears to be one of the key elements that benefits social interaction (Eisenberg, Spinrad & Knafo-Noam). Moreover, in 2006, Barry & Wentzel established that collaborative behaviours develop a sense of security among friends and peers. In our study, we analysed collaborative behaviour from two perspectives: an objective one through task performance and a more subjective one, through the observation of children's behaviours.

The state of the art showed that there were already differences among children from different schools, with PR school children always having higher scores in collaborative behaviour.

After questioning teachers and directors from the three schools involved, there is still no clear answer that could explain this higher collaborative behaviour in comparison to the other schools.

No specific program was held before our intervention, and all three schools offered the same kind of extracurricular activities.

Girls were shown to be more collaborative than boys. Observations in both pre-test and post-test showed that they tended to be more encouraging than boys in their groups, but also dynamics observed among the groups constituted mostly of girls involved less anti-collaborative behaviours and showed a more united way of working. This is consistent with Garaigordobil's (2009) findings which established that girls are more collaborative than boys.

Even though group randomisation was completely blind and through an online free software, t-test results showed a significant difference between intervention groups. This means that there were already differences in collaborative behaviour scores between the experimental (DPT) and the active control group (CSG). CSG started the interventions with an advantage over the DPT group. When teachers were asked about differences they could perceive between both groups in their class after they were constituted, some of them agreed that the DPT group was composed of "more difficult students than the other group" and that they felt the difference of working in the class with the other half (CSG) while the DPT session was being carried out as they were able to "work better without that part of the class". Nevertheless, this would not be sufficient to explain these differences, so we rely on the fact that the evaluation of collaborative behaviour was carried out one week after the groups were constituted. With this timing in mind, we might infer that after a week of intervention, children had already formed some particular relationships, group identification or bonding links with their classmates in their groups (DPT and CSG), which would interfere with the second week, when the evaluation of collaborative behaviour was carried out.

Finally, when testing our hypothesis, for PD we found significant differences between the two groups, being higher for DPT. Both t-test analysis and Anova confirmed the hypothesis. This means that children in the DPT group increased their collaborative behaviour during the intervention showing important differences when compared to their CSG classmates. PD measures how the child responds and solves a situation in which she/he has to decide whether to collaborate with the partner or not. Children are offered the chance to escape from prison, even though this means that their partner will stay in prison for some years. At the beginning, the DPT group showed less collaboration with answers that chose not to collaborate and to escape from prison. After the DPT was conducted, children appeared to have developed more consciousness about collaborating with others, and so they decided to collaborate in the PD task, remaining in prison for a few years in order not leave their partner alone in prison for even more years. and the possibility to find solutions to problems, thanks to a space that permits mistakes. Even though the presented literature seems to agree that this kind of learning environment permits enhancing creativity, to our knowledge, there's no clear evidence of the effect of the learning setting of DPT on French children's creativity, nor have exhaustive studies on DPT been done in France so far.

In the present study, we are going to focus on the psycho-pedagogical framework or learning environment of DPT and how it impacts children's creative thinking. In order to prove if these studies relating to a positive learning setting of DPT and the creative development (for a detailed review see Celume et al., 2019a) were replicable in a French school context, we conducted a study creating two trainings, a CSG training and a DPT, contrasting the effectiveness of these methodologies in enhancing creativity and emotional mood among a group of 4th grade primary school children.

As a main hypothesis (H1), we predict that children who will participate in the DPT will present significantly higher scores in divergent and convergent creativity tasks than children participating in the CSG training after the interventions were finished. We also hypothesise (H1b) that four months after finishing the interventions, the DPT group will continue to have significantly higher scores in both of the creativity tasks applied. As a second hypothesis (H2), we predict that after finishing the interventions, scores for DPT participants will be higher and more stable than for the CSG group on the mood valence assessment. Before the beginning of the study, authorisation letters for the participating children were sent to their parents. Groups were formed after all authorisation letters were received. For final analyses, three children were excluded because they were not available for post-test evaluations and one of the participants had special learning needs and participated in the intervention accompanied by an educational assistant, so he was also excluded from the analysis. All other children presented no major cognitive, social, or affective difficulties.

Method

Material

Evaluation of Creative Potential (EPoC)

In order to evaluate creativity in a longitudinal way, we used the A and B forms from the abstract figurative tasks for divergent and convergent thinking from the EPoC battery of tests (Lubart, Barbot & Besançon, 2011).

For the abstract figurative divergent thinking task, children are asked to draw as many drawings as possible, on separate sheets, starting from a given figure. They have 10 minutes to complete the task and all drawings must have a name indicating what they are (each idea).

According to Lubart et al. (2011), the figurative divergent thinking task undertaken in EPoC evaluates fluency and indirectly originality, as the more ideas children give, the more the chances of providing an original one. Thus, the authors explain that EPoC provides a global divergent thinking score.

For the abstract figurative convergent thinking task, children are asked to make a drawing using at least 4 shapes from 8 given figures. They have 15 minutes to complete these tasks and the drawing must have a name indicating what it is (the main idea). Three psychology graduated students, who were trained in this kind of creative assessment, worked as judges (M = 29.3; SD = 2.1) and thus evaluated the productions. Inter-judge agreement was satisfactory with the data showing good inter-judge fidelity (αpost= .89; αfollowup=.69). We decided to use the figurative tasks, instead of the verbal tasks, due to the time the schools agreed for evaluation purposes. The intended protocol included one hour of evaluation per child for pre-test and one hour for post-test, which was considered too long. According to this, we agreed to assess collectively via figurative tasks.

Limitations will be discussed.

Evaluation of Mood

In order to measure children's positive emotions, we used the adapted paper version (Monnier, Syssau, Blanc & Brechet, 2016) of the valence and arousal Self-Assessment Manikin scale (SAM, Bradley & Lang, 1994). Mood valence was measured through a nine-point Likert The answers given by children for these questions were transcribed in order to analyse them through categories. We were looking for answers that could be linked either to socioemotional learning or creativity.

Trainings: DPT and CSG

As in study 1a, the trainings were DPT and CSG.

One example of DPT activity was called "statues", from session nº1 for which children were asked to walk through the room and when the experimenter mentioned an emotion or a mental state, they needed to create a statue showing that emotion. Then, half of the children would walk around these "museum of statues" and take notes of the qualities of the statues in the museum.

One example of an activity is called "the flag" for which half of the children have to try to steal a flag that is put in the middle of the room, while the other half try to prevent the flag from being stolen. "Thieves" have a scarf on their belts; when "defenders" take this scarf, the thieves go back to prison and cannot continue playing until the next round.

Procedure

The protocol was presented to participating school directors and teachers and an agreement participation letter for parents was distributed. After parents' agreement, each child was given a code. We randomly assigned the codes either to CSG or to DPT. Code randomisation was done using a free online software. In order to avoid cognitive or emotional predisposition, teachers were asked not to tell students about the real purpose of the study. As a cover story, children were told they would just participate in two different collective workshops.

A week before starting the training, children answered the EPoC tasks, specifically the abstract figurative tasks for divergent thinking and convergent thinking, Form A. They were asked As described above, creative figurative divergent thinking and creative figurative convergent thinking were measured by abstract figurative stimuli EPoC.

Procedure

Three months after the final interventions, we contacted the three schools that had participated in the study. The public and the private schools replied that they would be happy to participate in a follow-up study while the priority school did not answer. We established dates to conduct our follow-up study, and it was carried out four months after the last session. We asked children to answer the EPoC figurative tasks.

Results

Descriptive Analyses

Analyses were carried out on a final sample gathering all participants that were present for both measurement sessions. Regarding this, 10 children from PU school were dismissed; thus, the final CSG group was comprised of 24 children and the DPT of 31. The mean scores for divergent thinking and convergent thinking of the participants before the sessions are detailed in the table below. Results confirm our first hypothesis (H1), showing that after DPT, children have higher scores on both creativity measures compared to their classmates in the CSG training.

Longer-term Impact on Creativity: Follow-up

In order to determine the interaction effect of the type of training with the three measurement sessions, we conducted a repeated measures analysis. Independent variables were the types of training (DPT and CSG) and the three different times of measurement (pre-test, posttest, and follow-up). Results showed a significant interaction effect as well as a large effect size on divergent thinking means (F(5,66) = 8.35; p < .001; η2 = .20) with DPT scores higher than CSG, but no significant interaction found for convergent thinking scores. Convergent thinking scores presented no statistical differences.

Results partly confirm our hypothesis (H1b), showing that four months after finishing the training, DPT group scores are significantly higher for the divergent thinking creativity measure over the CSG training group, but no significant differences were found in the creative convergent thinking task.

Mood Valence (Positive Emotions)

As explained in the introduction, a positive environment was related to creative enhancement. Thus, assessing mood in children during the intervention would give us an idea of the emotional valence of the DPT environment. We measured children's mood valence in both types of training before and after each session. We decided to run a multivariate test in order to see the interaction effect of the type of training with its two values (DPT and CSG) and the aftersession times of measurement with its six values (one for each session) on children's mood valence throughout the sessions. Results showed a significant interaction effect between the type of training and the after-session times of measurement and a medium to large effect size on mood valence (F(5,225) = 5.77; p < .001; η2 = 0.11).

Figure 16. Repeated measures on mood valence scores for type of training

In the run chart plotted above, repeated measures analyses illustrate the differences in mood valence between both groups right to the end of each session. Both groups show high levels of mood valence, although the behaviour of the lines indicates more positive moods for the DPT group (M = 18.39; SD = 6.1) than for the CSG group (M = 17.61; SD = 5.7). Nevertheless, no significant differences were found. The DPT group increased its scores from the second session to gain stability in the scores for mood valence from the third session until the final session. On the other hand, the CSG group started marginally higher than the DPT group, even though no statistical difference was found, and showed more of a nonlinear development of mood valence, particularly in session three in which we observe a slump in mood valence which is recovered during the fourth session.

Results of repeated measures, evidencing a significant interaction effect and a medium to large effect size of the type of training on mood valence, confirm our second hypothesis (H2)

showing that after the interventions, the DPT group has higher and more stable scores in mood valence than the CSG group.

Correlational Analyses

Pearson's correlation analysis was carried out in order to see the relationship between the mood valence of children in the last session and creative thinking. Results of the whole sample showed a significant weak correlation between mood valence and divergent thinking (r = .31; p <

.05) and a weak but not significant correlation between mood valence and convergent thinking (r = .24). No significant correlations were found by training.

Categories of Topics from Interviews

After the 12 interviews were transcribed into a text document, they were manually analysed checking for topics, using a collective thematic analysis approach [START_REF] Braun | Using thematic analysis in psychology[END_REF]. This means all three judges gathered together, and then "identified" topics and themes that raised from children verbatim. Three judges (M = 34.7; SD = 7.2) participated in the process of coding, a neuropsychologist, a graduate student in psychology, and a psychology professor.

First, we distinguished the reasons given by children for liking or not liking the interventions, followed by the different learnings they reported. Answers were all re-transcribed separately into a sheet file. After these answers were re-transcribed and separated into columns,

we coded each answer by assigning them a topic. Regarding the reasons why they liked/disliked the interventions, children mentioned answers that could be coded into six different categories:

1) Ludic aspect, which grouped answers related to play, playfulness, games;

2) Collective aspect, which grouped answers related to working in groups, but not necessarily collaboratively;

3) Creative aspect, which grouped answers related to creating, creations, idea generation; 4) Collaborative aspect, which grouped answers related to cooperation, working together for a common objective; 5) Emotional aspect, which grouped the answers related to emotional world, like identifying and expressing emotions; 6) Movement aspect, which grouped answers relating to kinaesthetic aspects of the games, or the use of the body.

Regarding the learning reported by children, we could classify their answers into three main outcomes:

1) Team working, or working in a group

2) Communication towards others

3) Emotional intelligence related outcomes (to identify, understand and express emotions)

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The table below (Table 4) shows the percentages of the results for the given answers in the semi-structured interviews. In both groups, children answered that they liked the training in which they participated.

When asked for the reasons, the biggest differences were found in the creative aspect of the training, with 75% of the DPT participants identifying this aspect as the reason they liked the training. Regarding the learning experiences, the main difference was given in emotional intelligence learning, with 100% of the DPT participants evoking this learning versus 0% in the CSG. Another major difference between the groups was found in how they learnt to communicate with others. Overall, 75% of the DPT group judged that they had learned how to communicate with others thanks to the training, while none of the subjects in the CSG mentioned this learning.

These results will be explained further in the discussion part.

Discussion

This study provided evidence that DPT enhanced creativity through the increase of divergent thinking.

We tend to support the idea that the results of this study can be generalised to the work that DPT, as a methodology, can achieve in terms of creative development. We are aware that the use of a set of specific activities during 6 weeks could be considered by some authors as a particular tool instead of DPT and that should be considered carefully. Nevertheless, we would like to insist on the idea of DPT as a methodology, a specific kind of training within Drama Pedagogy (considering the term coined by Garcia-Huidobro in 1996). The activities carried out during the DPT intervention were subject to the model of DPT (Celume et al., 2019a) and thus, can be replaced with any other activities as far as they can be recognised as an equivalent of the constitutive element of DPT that corresponds to the original activity (for more detailed information about the constitutive elements of the model of DPT to enhance creative thinking, see Celume et al. 2019a). The use of this particular methodology, considering all the elements that constitute DPT (technical drama phases and psycho-pedagogical framework) are a fundamental part of the work that can be achieved in terms of creative thinking, and not the isolated activities. In other words, more important than the activities themselves, is the use of narrative and embodiment in the technical drama phases of DPT, along with the psycho-pedagogical framework of DPT, which would have an impact on creative thinking. In this sense, if the set of activities used in this study are isolated and repeated without considering the other constitutive elements of DPT, results are not likely to be replicable.

Creativity scores, measured through divergent and convergent thinking, were significantly higher for the DPT group after the intervention was finished. Positive emotions were also significantly higher for the DPT group than for CSG. Moreover, four months after the training was finished, results for divergent thinking continued to be statistically higher for DPT. These results confirm our main hypothesis which suggested that children participating in the DPT group would score significantly higher than their classmates in the CSG group in both creativity measures and emotional mood right after the trainings.

Nevertheless, our second hypothesis was only partially confirmed, as results showed no statistical differences between the groups for creative convergent thinking scores four months after finishing the intervention. Thus, while divergent thinking tended to continue growing with statistical differences between the groups, convergent thinking started to shrink in terms of this difference. Still, results for the DPT group continued to be higher than for the CSG, suggesting that maybe a more targeted experience that focused on the convergent aspect of creativity could prevent scores from dropping over time. Nevertheless, the fact that creative divergent thinking continued to be high for the DPT group makes us wonder about the links between creativity and DPT.

Thus, regarding our third hypothesis, initial analyses of interviews tend to confirm that the learning environment of DPT promotes creativity, even though the correlation analyses weren't conclusive. Most of the children in the DPT group considered that one of the learning outcomes was the fact of being able to communicate with others. In one of the interviews, a child specified:

"... actually, I thought that... everybody was going to laugh at others but it actually didn't happen… we didn't feel ashamed… we learned… to not feel scared of presenting what we think to others...".

Within the psycho-pedagogical setting proposed by DPT, participants can present, discuss and interact with their ideas. This idea exchange occurs in an active listening space which is free of judgments (García-Huidobro, 1996). According to this perspective, the learning setting that DPT promotes helps children to feel safe to express themselves and thus, to develop the ability to actively communicate their inner thoughts and ideas without feeling judged but rather feeling cared for and safe.

Considering these statements, one could argue that freedom of expression, understood as free creation, can be found in a DPT setting. The active participation allowed them to make independent decisions while the feeling of belonging encouraged them to be open to different experiences and to be tolerant of others. Whatever the perspective, the learning environment proposed by DPT seems to have an impact on creativity. A dynamic environment might enhance children's free expression allowing them to be more creative.

Moreover, DPT permitted an interaction of opinions and ideas that children expressed as an important learning outcome that could not be done if it were not done within the DPT learning environment and that is one of the reasons they enjoyed the training. us of the importance of active listening in which participants share their ideas while listening to each other. Moreover, children take this interaction as part of the creative process and link it with positive emotions, pointing out that "we are with the others and we create something with the others, we invent altogether, and also we can produce in front of others and watch the others… I was rather happy… I like to enjoy with others...". Here, we see how the interaction with the others is described as related to positive affections and creativity consistent with several studies that link both processes (e.g. Abele-Brehm, 1992;Baas, De Dreu & Nijstad, 2008;Celume et Zenasni 2017). Vass, Littleton, Jones & Miell (2014) reflect the ideas of Gelernter & Parker (1994) by explaining the term "affect linking" as an affect-related thinking process that would be the key to generating creative associations.

As discussed above, positive results and large effect sizes were achieved thus suggesting that further research should be done in the field. In order to repeat this experience in an ideal setting, many considerations have to be taken into account. First, the training room has to be as similar as possible for all the groups participating in the study to avoid physical bias. Environment had an impact on participant creativity, so ideally all settings must remain the same. Nevertheless, we are well aware of the limits of this study. We worked with a small sample, with groups sizes that are below the threshold needed for making any statistical assumptions, so results cannot be generalised and they have to be taken with consideration. This small sample could explain, in part, why some of the results regarding creativity in the follow-up were not significant when assessing convergent thinking, as well as the mean differences in mood valence within each group.

Besides, the election of figurative tasks instead of verbal tasks needs to be observed. We understand that verbal tasks are more likely to be related to DPT interventions, as children were asked to create and improvise stories which would have a better impact on a verbal task than on a figurative task. Nevertheless, we are also aware that the fact of training children via dramatic experiences, making them improvise stories, would have been considered as a practice for the tasks, and thus, our results may be biased. In any case, it seems necessary for further studies to measure at least both components of creative potential (verbal and figurative) to see if there are correlations in scores, and if DPT is more involved with verbal creativity development than with figurative.

Another limitation that should be considered is that both interventions were carried out by the main researcher, thus implying possible unconscious bias. In order to avoid this possibility, the researchers were trained through a rigorous protocol that was provided for every activity and instructions that needed to be addressed to the children. Each activity for each of the sessions in both trainings was carried out as expected, no improvised games were allowed, only what was previously agreed for each training. Nevertheless, we understand that unconscious bias could have occurred, influencing some emotional or motivational aspects for children, thus inducing them to be more creative in the DPT group. In any case, as we explained in Chapter 3, DPT has a specific framework that needs to be respected, and these emotional and motivational differences in the training could be due to the psycho-pedagogical framework of DPT (Celume et al., 2019a) as it cares about the environment in which the activities are carried on. Future work will need to consider a way to control for this variable.

Conclusions

DPT is a drama-based method focused on the learning experience of its participants, which has been shown to be related to the experience of sharing ideas through an open learning environment that permits children's judgement-free expression. Significantly, higher scores in creativity that were shown right after the training and after four months for the DPT could be explained in part by this intersubjective pedagogy. Thus, the learning environment proposed by DPT promotes creative thinking. These findings reinforce the idea that creativity can be transferred and how the arts, in this case Drama Pedagogy Training, can be a feasible way for developing cognitive and emotional factors that impact creativity. Moreover, the kinaesthetic outcome can be a future path for understanding how creative thinking is developed in DPT.

Study 1c. Relationships between Children's Figurative

Creativity and Kinaesthetic Creativity in DPT

As we saw above, DPT has a principal kinaesthetic component that is shared by several creativity trainings (Byrge & Tang, 2015), based on the use of body during the drama-based activities. The use of body movements to express ideas and opinions could be related to the development of a domain specific creativity focused on kinaesthetic expression. Kinaesthetic creativity was first defined by Wyrick in 1968. He explained that the combination of movements into new and innovative models, which could be either the solution to a pre-existing problem or the expression of an idea or feeling through the human body, was a manifestation of creativity through kinaesthetic movements. This concept was further analysed by Torrance in 1980. The criteria for measuring and observing kinaesthetic creativity are similar to those we expect when measuring creativity through figurative or verbal testing: fluency, flexibility, and originality.

Fluency, is related to the total number of kinaesthetic responses that the child could give, flexibility is related to the number of kinaesthetic topics that the movements can be categorised into, and originality is related to the level of uniqueness of the kinaesthetic answer. [START_REF] Torrance | Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement: Torrance Test of Creative Thinking[END_REF] points out that children, particularly pre-schoolers, are more likely to express their kinaesthetic creativity because their language and abstract abilities are still in a very early developmental stage. Thus, movement would be the most appropriate way to express their ideas and thoughts. Consequently, in 1981, Torrance created the Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement (TCAM) test in order to evaluate the level of creativity in children based on kinaesthetic actions. Until now, few studies on kinaesthetic creativity have been carried out with children (e.g. [START_REF] Cenizo | Implicaciones de los recursos materiales de Educación Física en el desarrollo de la creatividad motriz[END_REF][START_REF] Cleland | Young children's divergent movement ability[END_REF], and even fewer observe the relationship between cognitive skills and kinaesthetic creativity (e.g. [START_REF] Konstantinidou | The Effect of Verbal Instructions on Preschool Children's Motor Creativity[END_REF][START_REF] Scibinetti | Motor Creativity and Creative Thinking in Children: The Diverging Role of Inhibition[END_REF][START_REF] Zachopoulou | A developmental perspective of divergent movement ability in early young children[END_REF].

The study of [START_REF] Cleland | Young children's divergent movement ability[END_REF] compared divergent movement ability in primary school children and showed how motor creativity increased from age 4 to age 8, even though some children aged between 6 and 8 presented some lower scores, suggesting that kinaesthetic experience is independent from kinaesthetic creativity. In the studies of [START_REF] Cenizo | Implicaciones de los recursos materiales de Educación Física en el desarrollo de la creatividad motriz[END_REF] carried on for his doctoral thesis, he found that a specific training could enhance motor creativity, and that motor creativity increased with age. In a study carried out by [START_REF] Konstantinidou | The Effect of Verbal Instructions on Preschool Children's Motor Creativity[END_REF], they worked with 54 pre-schoolers, measuring kinaesthetic creativity through TCAM [START_REF] Torrance | Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement: Torrance Test of Creative Thinking[END_REF] and contrasting if the cognitive understanding of the task (three different types of instructions) had an effect on kinaesthetic creative responses given by children. Results showed that children's responses depend on the type of instruction given to children; children scored higher when the task was presented as a positive challenge than when they were asked through a direct question.

The study of [START_REF] Zachopoulou | A developmental perspective of divergent movement ability in early young children[END_REF] presented evidence on pre-schoolers and the first cycle of primary education, showing that kinaesthetic creativity increased with age. They of Motor Creativity [START_REF] Bertsch | La créativité motrice. Son évaluation et son optimisation dans la pédagogie des situations motrices a l'école. Manuel de tests[END_REF]. Results showed moderate but significant correlations of fluency scores (r = .451, p = .005) and flexibility scores (r = .489, p = .003), and no significant correlation for originality scores (r = .088, p = .320). These results imply a relationship between figurative and kinaesthetic creativity. Further analysis showed that fluency was a predictor of all three dimensions of creativity, which is something that was already proposed by Lubart et al.

(2011) when developing the EPoC battery of tests.

All the above studies were carried out with early young children. Nevertheless, [START_REF] Torrance | Administration, scoring and norms manual: Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement[END_REF] insists that creative thinking and kinaesthetic creativity present a slump or a standstill in terms of development in children by the age of 9 (known as the fourth-grade slump) probably due to a stricter educational system, which, according to [START_REF] Pagona | The Development of Motor Creativity in Elementary School Children and Its Retention[END_REF] regarding kinaesthetic creativity, could only be prevented if special interventions are undertaken. In line with this, Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT) as an active methodology (Celume et al., 2019a(Celume et al., , 2019b) ) can be considered as a special intervention that might enhance creative thinking in fourth and fifth grade children through the process of playing drama-based games. [START_REF] Hudgins | Chlldren's Self-Directed Critical Thinking[END_REF] argued that children continue to expand their kinaesthetic repertoire and improve their ability to modify and combine kinaesthetic movements, developing divergent thinking and critical thinking when they are encouraged and given opportunities for practice. The literature has shown that the kind of training proposed by DPT provides a safe space for practice, using the body to express ideas, opinions and feelings, and that it enhances creative thinking measured through figurative tasks (e.g. Celume et al., 2019b), including fluency scores. Thus, the active perspective of the training through the use of body might imply a facilitation in the expression of kinaesthetic creativity, particularly fluency scores.

Considering that there is a lack of studies for elementary school children, particularly for fourth and fifth grade, and also because of the implication of body use in DPT, we wanted to see if there was a better impact of DPT on kinaesthetic creativity over figurative creativity in fluency scores, on children aged nine to eleven, and if there were any relationships between the two types of task in the results. To this end, we compared two groups, an experimental group which was engaged in DPT activities, and a control group that was engaged in collective sport games (CSG).

We predicted that (H1) both divergent thinking tasks (fluency scores) would be strongly and significantly correlated. We also predicted that (H2a) children in DPT would score significantly higher in figurative tasks for divergent thinking (fluency) versus the control group; and (H2b)

children in DPT would score significantly higher in kinaesthetic tasks for divergent thinking (fluency) versus the control group.

Method Design of Study

The study used an experimental design with a control group.

Participants

This study included a sample of 110 children from CM1 and CM2 classes (4th and 5th grade), from three different schools, aged between nine and eleven years old (M = 10.4; SD = 0.56). Children were randomised in either DPT (N = 52), or CSG (N = 58).

Material

In order to measure creative thinking, we used two different instruments.

EPoC, Divergent Thinking, Figurative Task.

We used form B from the abstract figurative tasks for divergent thinking from the EPoC battery of tests (Lubart et al., 2011). Children were asked to draw as many drawings as possible, on separate sheets, starting from a given figure. They had 10 minutes to complete the task and all drawings had to have a name indicating what they were (each idea). According to Lubart et al. (2011), the figurative divergent thinking task comprised in EPoC evaluates fluency and indirectly originality, as the more ideas children give, the more the chances of providing an original one.

Thus, EPoC provides a global divergent thinking score.

Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement (TCAM) Task

This task was created by [START_REF] Torrance | Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement: Torrance Test of Creative Thinking[END_REF] Children were asked to respond to four tasks, then they were evaluated only for task 1, as the main objective of the study was to compare results with a divergent thinking figurative task.

Task 1 lasted 2 minutes. We asked the children: "How many different ways can you create in order to move from point A to point B and from point B to point A?" Two lines were marked down on the floor with masking tape separated by 6 metres. Then, the following instruction was given:

"You have one minute and a half to cross from here to there and from there to here as many times as you like, using a different way each time. It doesn't count if you do the same as your classmate;

you have to invent your own ways."

The task was conducted collectively for each group, the task was videotaped and video recordings were analysed, counting, for each child, each different type of movement and scoring it as 1 point.

Procedure

Children were randomly assigned to either a DPT group, or a CSG group.

Results

Descriptive Results

Pre-test scores for EPoC, figurative divergent thinking, presented no significant differences between the groups after running the t-test analysis (DPT = 6.3; CSG = 7.1). Scores for TCAM were only measured at a post-test time.

Correlational Analyses

We conducted correlational analyses in order to see the strength of the relationships between the scores for graphic creativity and kinaesthetic creativity. Results for the general sample presented no significant correlations (r = .08). Further correlations were carried out according to training, sex, and class, finding no significant correlations.

T-Test for Different Groups

We conducted a t-test in order to analyse the mean score differences for post-test scores.

The figure below plots both mean scores for divergent thinking evaluated through figurative (EPoC) and kinaesthetic (TCAM) methods. showed significant differences between the groups (t = 7.14; p = .000). Nevertheless, scores for TCAM (kinaesthetic fluency task) presented no significant differences between the groups.

understand the differences between motor creativity and creative thinking in children. The results of their study presented significant positive correlations between creative thinking and motor creativity in fluency scores (r = 451; p < .005).

Further analyses of our study showed that post-test scores presented significant differences between the groups for the figurative fluency task, but these differences couldn't be corroborated by the kinaesthetic fluency task which presented no significant differences between the two groups. Considering the active use of body in both DPT and CSG, these results were unexpected.

If the use of corporal expression through a particular training (DPT) is capable of developing creative thinking in children (Celume et al., 2019a), and the study presented concrete evidence of this development measured through figurative tasks, the logical expectation is that kinaesthetic fluency could be enhanced as well. The negative findings of the results could be explained in part because of the choice and application of the kinaesthetic test and sub-task. The TCAM [START_REF] Torrance | Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement: Torrance Test of Creative Thinking[END_REF]) is a task that hasn't been adapted yet for the French population. In this line we should consider children's misunderstanding of the task as a possible cause, in order to understand the results. Along the same lines, the lack of studies in the field of motor (kinaesthetic) creativity [START_REF] Scibinetti | Motor Creativity and Creative Thinking in Children: The Diverging Role of Inhibition[END_REF] could have reduced the possibility of finding a well-developed and adapted tool, thus influencing the lack of significant results. Moreover, the recommendations for the application of creative tasks [START_REF] Torrance | Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement: Torrance Test of Creative Thinking[END_REF][START_REF] Torrance | Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking[END_REF] suggest individual testing, which was not possible for us, due to the different agreements for time we had with the participant schools. School principals insisted in minimising the interruption of children's classes as much as possible; thus, testing was carried out collectively, which could also have influenced results.

As a future perspective, we would like to engage in a new better designed study where testing time and conditions are more adequate to give clearer results.

First of all, we would like to address the need to have an experimenter who is blind to the study hypotheses, as this is an important bias that might have influenced the results. Even though the different workshops that corresponded to the experimental and control groups were conducted following a teacher's manual, there is an unexpected subjectivity that might arise if the same teacher/experimenter is the one who is conducting the research. For future studies on this topic, the training of teachers who are not aware of the objectives or the hypotheses of the research should be considered.

Moreover, we insist on the need for the creation of well adapted tools in order to measure kinaesthetic creativity in children, considering the multivariate factors involved in the process of creativity (Lubart & Sternberg, 1995), the qualitative aspects of movement that are usually not considered in the evaluation of motor expression (Lopez, 2002cited in Dominguez, 2011), and a particular observation of the way instructions are given to children. In this sense, this study opens a field of study within the evaluation of kinaesthetic creativity.

Conclusion

Study 2. The Impact of Positive Mood Induction on

Children's Creative Thinking

In study 1b we observed that interviews suggested that a positive environment seemed to be related to creativity, even though correlation analyses between mood valence and creative thinking (divergent and integrative thinking) weren't conclusive. Accordingly, we wanted to conduct a study to present evidence of the impact of positive emotions on creativity, to see if this might be one of the variables that moderates the effects of DPT on creativity. As we could appreciated, DPT has an impact on divergent thinking scores for children, as well as being shown to improve positive emotions. Thus, we considered that positive emotions might be a variable of interest relating to both creativity and DPT.

Children's emotional states, as well as creative thinking, have been a matter of interest for scholars for a couple of years: According to contemporary educational policy makers (e.g. UNESCO, 2015; P21 movement), creativity is one of the principle 21st-century skills to be developed in education altogether with the development of healthy positive learning environments [START_REF] Hardiman | The artistic creative brain[END_REF]. Nevertheless, to our knowledge, creativity has not been directly related to positive emotional states among primary school children recently. No clear study on the impact of a positive mood on children's creative performance have been done so far, aside from a few studies that focus on the impact of academic acquisition (e.g. [START_REF] Scrimin | School-related stress and cognitive performance: A mood-induction study[END_REF] or the comparison of pedagogical methods [START_REF] Besançon | Differences in the development of creative competencies in children schooled in diverse learning environments[END_REF]. Subsequently, this study aims to observe the impact of a positive mood in primary school children regarding their creativity, compared to a neutral mood induction. According to this, we postulate that (1) after the use of a classical positive mood induction technique [START_REF] Westermann | Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedures: a meta-analysis[END_REF], children in the experimental group will self-rate themselves as in a positive mood; (2) after the positive mood induction, children in the experimental group will have a better performance in general scores on a divergent thinking task than those in the control group; (3) after the positive mood induction, children in the experimental group will perform better in a convergent thinking task than their peers in the control group; and (4) after the positive mood induction, children in the experimental group will produce more positive elements in their drawings.

Mood States on Creativity

There have been many studies conducted among adults in order to establish a relationship between mood state induction and its impact on creativity in adults (Isen, 1984(Isen, , 1986;;[START_REF] Isen | Positive Affect Facilitates Creative Problem Solving[END_REF]Vosburg, 1998). In the meta-analysis conducted by Baas et al. (2008), they focus on creativity as a faculty of a particular emotional state noting that mood is one of the most widely studied and least disputed predictors of creativity, making direct references to the studies conducted by [START_REF] Isen | Positive Affect as a factor in organizational behavior[END_REF] and [START_REF] Mumford | Where Have We Been, Where Are We Going? Taking Stock in Creativity Research[END_REF]. In a similar way, Zenasni and Lubart (2002) also examined mood states on creativity, suggesting that in general, a positive emotional state promotes creative performance.

The majority of studies that have aimed to relate mood and creativity have been conducted

on grown up adults (e.g. [START_REF] Estrada | Positive affect improves creative problem solving and influences reported source of practice satisfaction in physicians[END_REF][START_REF] Isen | Positive Affect Facilitates Creative Problem Solving[END_REF]Isen & Williams, 1988;Zenasni & Lubart, 2002). In contrast, only a few studies have been conducted focused specifically on the relationship between mood and children's creativity (e.g. Katz, 1995;Morrongiello, Stewart, Pope, Pogrebstova, Boulay, 2015) even though some studies already suggest a relationship between a positive environment or positive emotions and creativity (e.g. [START_REF] Besançon | Differences in the development of creative competencies in children schooled in diverse learning environments[END_REF]Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011). In the study conducted by Morrongiello et al. (2015), she worked with 7-to 10-year-old children in order to test risk taking after mood induction.

The objective of her study was to explore if children would be more open to risk taking when they were in a positive mood compared with their peers who were in a neutral mood. She concluded that mood states affect children's risk taking, with a positive mood related to higher risk taking. [START_REF] Besançon | Differences in the development of creative competencies in children schooled in diverse learning environments[END_REF], when comparing different pedagogy methods with means on creativity, showed that for the majority of the experiences, a positive mood is a predictor of creative performances when compared to a neutral state. On the other hand, Katz (1995) shows results that are not consistent with the previous studies conducted on children. In her study, she theorised that children's divergent thinking would be affected by inducing specific mood states, such as happy, sad and angry, proposing that the positive mood states would enhance the emotion. Results, comparing negative and positive mood states, showed that the only significant difference was found in originality and that it was actually a negative emotional state which produced more originality versus a positive mood state that decreased originality scores.

Nevertheless, there's no sufficient evidence to establish that the relationship between mood and creativity follows the same path as in adults, even though it tends to go in the same direction.

Method

This was an experimental pre-test post-test study with randomised assignment and a control group. Positive mood induction was conducted through the induced joy mood method (Tornare, Cuisinier, Czajkouwski & Pons, 2017). This is an adaptation from the life-event recall technique [START_REF] Brewer | Induction of mood and mood shift[END_REF] that is considered to be effective among adults. This kind of induction appeared to be the most used method [START_REF] Brenner | Mood Induction in Children: Methodological Issues and Clinical Implications[END_REF] and the most efficient one according to the meta-analysis by [START_REF] Westermann | Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedures: a meta-analysis[END_REF]. The latter took into account 138 studies for validation of the effectiveness of 11 different types of mood induction procedures on individuals, and it was proved that the most efficient techniques for inducing both joyful and unhappy mood states was through the "film/story" procedure and through the "instruction or imagination" of a moment/situation procedure. The imagination technique can sometimes be inducted through a prescribed story, albeit the most common way is through the recall of a memory. In this procedure, people pretend to induce the required mood states by remembering or imagining emotional situations. So, participants are instructed to remember situations when they have felt in the same way as the desired emotion, trying to remember in detail all the sensations of the event in order to easily recall the emotion required. Examples of this technique can be found in [START_REF] Brewer | Induction of mood and mood shift[END_REF] and [START_REF] Schwarz | Mood, misattribution, and judgments of well-being: Informative and directive functions of affective states[END_REF].

Participants

This method has been used in previous research linking emotion and creativity (Abele-Brehm, 1992;Zenasni & Lubart, 2002). In contrast, Morrongiello et al. (2014) present a concern regarding this kind of induction among children, noting that the literature has indicated that remembering a memory may not be possible for every child and that younger children are incapable of concentrating during the task [START_REF] Brenner | Mood Induction in Children: Methodological Issues and Clinical Implications[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | Affective states, expressive behavior, and learning in children[END_REF][START_REF] Westermann | Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedures: a meta-analysis[END_REF].

Nevertheless, it has been proved to be functional among children of the same age and culture as this study after being used in French primary classroom conditions (Tornare et al., 2016). Further, the concentration time requested for the task is no longer than two minutes. Also, to be sure that the analyses of our relationships are correct between positive or neutral induction and creativity tasks, we analysed data coming from students who reported that the desired state was acquired after the induction.

We told children they would have 2 minutes to remember in detail a joyful autobiographical memory that they had lived in the past at any place, and with anyone. We asked them to really concentrate on the task, so to close their eyes and remember everything in precise detail.

" Neutral mood induction was conducted through an induced neutral instruction. Based on

Monnier's study with mood induction in children ( 2016) we explained to children that they would have 2 minutes to remember in detail the space (e.g. library) they were working in before coming back to the classroom. We asked them to really concentrate on the task, so to close their eyes and remember everything in precise detail. To avoid them concentrating on the emotional state during the activity they were doing before, we were insistent about the mental description of the physical details of the room.

"You have two minutes to remember the classroom/library you were in. Close your eyes so you can see everything in detail. I will ask you a few questions to help you remember best. You don't have to answer them out loud. What was the colour of the floor?

What was the colour of the ceiling? What was the colour of the walls? How many tables were there? Was there any picture or drawing on the walls? OK. Open your eyes."

Evaluation of Mood States

"SAM"

Before and after both mood inductions, we used the same evaluation scale in order to measure the emotional state of students before and after the inductions. This assessment is an adapted paper version (Monnier et al., 2016) of "The valence and arousal SAM scales" (Bradley and Lang, 1994).

Mood valence was measured by a 9-point SAM scale going from a happy figure to a clearly not happy figure. As Monnier et al. (2016) show, because of SAM being a visual and self-reported measure, it can be easily used among students, being already tested for children aged 6-12 (e.g.

McManis, Bradley, Berg, Cuthbert and Lang, 2001;von Leupoldt et al., 2007, in Monnier et al., 2016).

Evaluation of Creative Divergent Thinking

We used the figurative parallel line task from the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (Torrance, 1976). Within this task, students are asked to trace as many drawings as they like during 10 minutes using several sets of two parallel lines. In this task, creativity scores are predicted by three "classical scores": (a) fluency; the number of ideas produced, (b) flexibility; the number of different categories of ideas, (c) originality. The evaluation of the originality score was based on the frequency of occurrence of ideas in the whole sample. We used the additive method proposed by Runco, Okuda, and Thurston (1987). Beyond these scores for creative performances, four indices related to emotional information were also calculated: (a) the mean valence of generated ideas, (b) the numbers of positive, (c) negative, and (d) neutral ideas generated (Zenasni & Lubart, 2008).

For emotional evaluation, three judges (two women, one man; mean age = 42.33; SD = 12.5) measured the emotional content of each drawing, using a Likert scale from -4 for an extremely negative drawing to 4 for an extremely positive drawing. Because the inter-judge agreement was satisfactory (α = 0.874; mean corr. = 0.736), we could calculate a mean score of emotional valence for each child.

Evaluation of Creative Convergent Thinking

We used the figurative creativity test proposed by Urban and Jellen (TCT-DP, 1996) to evaluate the convergent creative abilities of children. For this test, we presented students with a sheet with six drawing elements on it. There is a little element outside a big square, on the right of the sheet and five other elements inside the big square. The little element outside the square is a square missing its right face; the other elements inside the square are a half-circle, a point, an angle, an S shape and three sequenced dashes. These six elements of the instrument were designed according to these guidelines: "(1) different in design, (2) geometric and non-geometric, (3) round and straight, (4) singular and compositional, ( 5) broken and unbroken, ( 6) within and outside a (seemingly) given frame, [START_REF] Mp. Celume | The impact of a drama pedagogy training on children's creativity and emotional intelligence[END_REF] placed irregularly on the space provided, and (8) incomplete" (Urban & Jellen, 1996). The creative performances of the children at this task were evaluated using the Consensual Assessment Technique (CAT, Amabile, 1988). Beyond these scores for creative performances, four indices related to emotional information were also calculated: (a) the mean valence of generated ideas, (b) the numbers of positive, (c) negative, and (d) neutral ideas generated (Zenasni & Lubart, 2008).

The conceptual deliberations led to the following set of 14 key criteria that constitute as a whole the TCT-DP construct, and also serve as evaluation criteria (Jellen and Urban, 1986;[START_REF] Urban | On the development of creativity in children[END_REF]Jellen, 1985, 1986):

1. Continuations (Cn): Any use, continuation or extension of the six given figural fragments.

2. Completion (Cm): Any additions, completions, complements, supplements made to the used, continued or extended figural fragments. 7. Boundary breaking that is fragment independent (Bfi).

For emotional evaluation, to test the valence of the drawings, three judges (two women, one man; mean age = 30.33; SD = 1.528) measured the emotional content of each drawing, using a Likert scale from -4 for an extremely negative drawing to 4 for an extremely positive drawing.

Because the inter-judge agreement was satisfactory (α = 0.892; mean corr. = 0.740) we could calculate a mean score of emotional valence for each child.

Procedure

Participant schools were asked to participate in pre-tests, emotional mood induction and post-tests with their students. Authorisation letters for participation in the studies were sent to pupils' parents. Each intervention was conducted after randomly assigning the groups into the positive or neutral induction condition. Neither students nor teachers knew which group the students belonged to. Teachers were asked not to tell students about the real purposes of the study.

As a cover story, students were only told they were part of a drawing activity.

Classical Induction: Positive and Neutral Groups

For the positive induction, the experiment lasted 30 minutes for the experimental group and 30 minutes for the control group. The first phase was the measurement of the initial emotional state of the participants. Then, we conducted the induction. Finally, we measured their emotional state again. Creativity tasks were taken immediately after the emotional induction (TCT-DP and TTCT parallel lines tasks). SAM scales were completed after the first creativity task.

Immediately after the third SAM scale was completed, the TTCT parallel line drawing task was taken; this last task went on for another 10 minutes. After the time was completed, sheets were taken and the last SAM scale was completed.

Neutral Group

After the experiment was concluded, we asked the control group to come into the classroom and asked the experimental ones to leave with the teacher, as their classmates had done before.

We repeated the exact same process than with the experimental students, differing only in the induction part. With the control group, the instruction was the neutral mood induction described above. The TCT-DP and TTCT parallel lines drawing task and SAM tasks were taken again as with the experimental group.

Results

Preliminary Analyses

Pre-induction mean scores comparison for mood showed no significant differences between both the experimental and control condition.

Hypothesis Testing

In order to determine if the mood induction was efficient, we compared the mean scores of emotional valence for both the experimental and control group. Results showed that after the mood induction, children in the experimental group scored themselves as being significantly happier than those in the control group (t = 4.61; p < .00). Results for each class appeared as follows. In the table above, we can observe the mean scores for valence of mood after the mood induction. For the whole sample, the scores are significantly higher for the group in the experimental condition. When comparing means of each sub-sample, scores present some variation in their means, mostly for the CM1 (4th grade) class, but still presenting significant differences in valence scores between the children in the positive induction condition and those in the neutral induction condition.

In order to establish a relationship between mood states in children and their creativity performance, we compared the means for both creativity tasks after the mood induction intervention. The table above presents the means of divergent and convergent thinking tasks for both groups after the mood intervention. Divergent thinking scores showed different results when evaluating factors. Fluency and flexibility scores showed no significant difference between the groups; nevertheless, the positive condition group mean scores were higher. On the other hand, originality scores showed a significant difference between the groups (t=2.38; p<.02), with higher scores for the positive mood induction condition (M =.90) than for the neutral mood induction condition (M =.87). Moreover, convergent-integrative thinking scores presented a significant difference between both group conditions (t=4.23; p<.00) with mean scores higher for the positive mood condition (M =4.14) than for the neutral mood condition (M =3.40). Nevertheless, we conducted a correlation analysis to see if there was a relationship between the self-informed mood and creativity performances, finding no significant correlations between mood and any of the evaluated creativity factors.

In order to determine the differences between both conditions and the valence of their drawings, we conducted a correlation and a mean comparison analysis. The table above, show the means for valence for both divergent and convergent thinking tasks' drawings for both conditions. For valence of the drawings, results presented no significant differences between the groups; nevertheless, means for both creativity tasks regarding their positive valence in drawings tended to be higher for the positive mood induction condition.

Moreover, the convergent-integrative thinking drawings task presented a difference very close to significance considering the low p-value after analysis.

Exploratory Analysis on Class

In order to see the impact of positive emotions on creativity by class, we conducted a 2 x 3 Anova analysis (Positive, Neutral x CE2, CM1, CM2). Results showed no significant effect of the type of mood induction by class on fluency and flexibility. A significant medium to large effect size (F(2, 206) = 7.99; p < .001; η2 = .07) was found for originality scores.

Discussion

Mood after Intervention Results

After the intervention, children in the positive mood condition presented higher self-rated scores than their peers in the neutral mood condition. This difference of means was significant, meaning that the recall of a memory induction worked as expected. These results are consistent with several studies that proved the efficacy of this method (for a review see [START_REF] Brenner | Mood Induction in Children: Methodological Issues and Clinical Implications[END_REF][START_REF] Westermann | Relative effectiveness and validity of mood induction procedures: a meta-analysis[END_REF]. Thus, our results prove that the fact of remembering a positive personal episode of life for a couple of minutes, allows children to experience positive emotions and thus rate themselves in a positive mood.

Creativity Results

Positive emotions are related to different outcomes such as broadening the scope of attention, cognition, action, or even building physical resources (Frederickson, 1998). In children, studies have shown that positive emotions could be related to the enhancement of social and cognitive skills such as collaboration or problem solving [START_REF] Bowlby | Attachment[END_REF]Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011;Masters, Barden & Ford, 1979). Our results partly confirmed our hypothesis,

showing that integrative creative thinking and originality were enhanced after positive mood induction, comparing the creative performance of children with a control group that participated in a neutral induction condition. Nevertheless, even though our results are satisfactory in both of the measures evaluated, our results show no significant differences between one condition or the other in two components of divergent thinking, so the evidence regarding the mood impact on children's creativity seems insufficient and we cannot generalise nor analyse the real impact that a positive environment at school might have on the development of children's creativity and its factors. Thus, we can say that for our sample, a positive mood state helped children develop integrative creative thinking and originality, but had no effect or positive impact on fluency and flexibility of ideas.

Drawing Valence Results

On the other hand, when children chose their ideas for a drawing, the mood they reported had no relationship with the valence of their ideas, meaning that even if children rated themselves in the most positive mood, their drawings did not reflect the same valence, according to inter-judge scoring. Besides, t-test analyses showed that valence of drawings showed no significant differences between both condition groups, being unable to predict that a positive mood would lead to positive theme drawings. These results were similar for both creativity tasks, meaning that for our sample, there was no relationship between self-reported mood valence and valence of drawings, suggesting that self-reported mood is not necessarily related to the emotional valence of figurative ideas in children. Results in this field should be taken with caution, considering subjectivity of the judges. Even though the inter-judge reliability was good, there is always a subjective component when evaluating what is positive in a child's drawing.

Anova on Originality by Class Results

Anova analyses searching for mood effect by class on the creativity tasks showed a significant effect on originality scores only for CE2 (3rd grade) class, with no effects for CM1 (4th grade) or CM2 (5th grade). Positive mood induction seems to have worked better for CE2 children, which was the only class that presented a significant difference on the originality scores between the positive mood condition and the neutral one (t = 3.8; p < .000). To our knowledge, there's no sufficient evidence to establish that this kind of mood induction, known as self-generated imagery [START_REF] Brenner | Mood Induction in Children: Methodological Issues and Clinical Implications[END_REF], would have a better impact on originality results in younger children, so more research is needed in this field.

Anova on Integrative Thinking by Class Results

On the other hand, the Anova analysis on convergent thinking presented no significant effects of mood by class, but we observed a decrease of creativity in the neutral condition for the CM1 (4th grade) that produces significant differences between the groups in CM1. After positive induction, scores increased when compared to the CE2 (3rd grade) group, and decreased for the neutral condition group. Even if this decrease is not significant, it tends to follow the direction of literature regarding the non-linear model of creative development (Barbot et al., 2016) and the slump in creativity reported in 4th grade [START_REF] Besançon | Differences in the development of creative competencies in children schooled in diverse learning environments[END_REF][START_REF] Torrance | A Longitudinal Examination of the Fourth Grade Slump in Creativity[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Torrance | A Longitudinal Examination of the Fourth Grade Slump in Creativity[END_REF] and later reaffirmed by [START_REF] Besançon | Differences in the development of creative competencies in children schooled in diverse learning environments[END_REF] there is a decrease in creativity that affects children around the 4th grade of their formal primary education. Torrance states that the most possible reason of this "fourth grade slump" is the immersion of children into the educational system. He criticises the whole school system that instructs the child to learn and follow internal rules underestimating the necessity to develop his/her creativity. Also, this 4thgrade slump has been related to the transition from a more individualised stage of moral development to a social, conventional stage of moral development [START_REF] Kohlberg | The philosophy of moral development: moral stages and the idea of justice[END_REF] in which the children need to adapt for social conventions. The need to belong to the group he/she is entering makes him/her readapt behaviours according to the others, peers or superiors, feeling scared of taking part in a creative activity because it may result in rejection (Gralewski, Lebuda, Gajda, Jankowska & Wiskniewska, 2016). Other authors have attributed it to the acquisition of evaluative skills in children's development because they focus more on concrete ideas over creative solutions [START_REF] Runco | Divergent Thinking[END_REF], the emergence of a new type of reasoning transition that is too rigid when it begins to appear [START_REF] Georgsdottir | La flexibilité cognitive et la créativité[END_REF] or the development of logical thinking and reasoning ability [START_REF] Lautrey | Development of Creativity in 9-to 10-year old children[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | The Creativity Crisis: The Decrease in Creative Thinking Scores on the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking[END_REF] although this is observed more by the end of 10 years old. Whatever the reason for this decrease in creativity, our results have to be regarded cautiously as more comparative research is needed to confirm that our study is consistent with the literature.

Our results only reflect in part the literature, as the other aspects of divergent thinking that were evaluated in this study did not confirm this hypothesis.

In sum, the results of this study confirmed our first hypothesis, as children in the positive mood condition self-rated according to the induction they were undertaking. Hypothesis two, on the other hand, is only partly confirmed as the positive mood condition group had better divergent thinking scores only on originality measures. Nevertheless, our third hypothesis was completely confirmed, as in convergent thinking task scores, results showed higher scores for children in the positive mood condition. Finally, hypothesis four was rejected as we found no relationship between the level of positive elements present in children's drawings and their mood.

Conclusion

For our French primary school sample, valence in drawings is not related to children's mood when performing figurative creativity tasks such as the TTCT (Torrance, 1990) and the TCT-DP (Urban & Jellen, 1996). Regarding integrative-convergent thinking and originality as an aspect of divergent thinking, a positive mood in primary school children enhances their creative performance in figurative tasks. Creativity and emotional understanding (considered in this thesis as a part of ToM) have been related to drama-based activities, such as pretend play, for a long time (e.g. Dansky & Silverman, 1973;[START_REF] Leslie | Pretense and Representation: The Origins of "Theory of Mind[END_REF]. Some authors present evidence on how these competencies can be developed through the same drama-based training, such as DPT (Celume, Besançon & Zenasni, 2019b;Celume & Zenasni, 2017) implying a relationship between these outcomes in the context of this collective group pedagogy, considered by some authors as therapeutic (Garcia-Huidobro, 1996).

Unfortunately, we agree with several authors (e.g. Goldstein, Lerner & Winner, 2017;Winner, Goldstein & Vincent-Lancrin, 2013) who establish that there are a number of drama-based studies that lack scientific rigor, presenting a lack of controlled trials (Joronen et al., 2012) which results in there being little evidence to support the crucial role of pretence activities in child development (Lillard, Lerner, Hopkins, Dore, Smith & Palmquist, 2013). Nevertheless, among well-designed studies, we find a tendency for the results to show the impact of drama or drama games on the development of emotional regulation or emotional control (e.g. Goldstein & Lerner, 2018;Hoffmann & Russ, 2012;Yeh & Li, 2008), empathy and ToM abilities (e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012) and creativity (e.g. Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011) in children.

Until today, few authors have suggested links between these outcomes (e.g. Ebert et al., 2015), with some studies explaining a relationship between creativity and ToM from the perspective of executive functions (Karmiloff- [START_REF] Karmiloff-Smith | How to develop creative imagination?. Assumptions, aims and effectiveness of Role Play Training in Creativity (RPTC)[END_REF][START_REF] Suddendorf | Theory of Mind and the Origin of Divergent Thinking[END_REF].

In Along these lines, the definition of ToM as the cognitive part of empathy (e.g. [START_REF] Frith | The role of social cognition in decision making[END_REF][START_REF] Shamay-Tsoory | The neuropsychology of empathy: evidence from lesion studies[END_REF] corresponds in part to the definition of perspective taking given by some authors (e.g. [START_REF] Shaffer | Social and personality development[END_REF] whereby perspective taking is considered as the cognitive ability to understand others' perspectives and emotions. In other words, ToM, defined as a complex socio-cognitive ability that permits understanding of others' perspectives and emotions (Premack & Woodroff, 1978), encompasses the concept of perspective taking. Thus in France, so no description regarding race is included in this study. One of the boys presented some important socio-emotional difficulties related to a low self-esteem issue and he was being followed by the teacher, recommending a transfer to a psychologist. All the other children reported no major cognitive, social or affective difficulties or differences according to the principal teacher and school principal. For the final analyses, the boy who presented socio-emotional difficulties was excluded from the sample because he was not available on the day of the post-test evaluation.

Material Evaluation of Creative Potential (EPoC)

To evaluate creativity, we used the forms A and B, from the abstract figurative tasks for divergent and integrative thinking from the EPoC battery of tests (Lubart, Besançon & Barbot, 2011). This task measures fluency of ideas, giving a main divergent thinking score that includes flexibility and originality (Lubart et al., 2011). For the abstract figurative divergent thinking task, children were asked to look at a given figure and draw as many drawings as possible, on separate sheets, using the given figure. They had 10 minutes to complete the task. All drawings-ideas had to have a name describing what the child drew. For the abstract figurative integrative thinking task, children were asked to do a drawing using at least 4 shapes from 8 given figures. They had 15 minutes to complete this task. The drawing had to have a title indicating the main idea that was a drawn. Three judges evaluated the productions. Inter-judge agreement was satisfactory, data

showing good inter-judge fidelity (α= .89).

Evaluation of Theory of Mind

We used a self-adapted French version from the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, Child Version (RMET-G) (Baron-Cohen et al., 1997). This task was originally created to measure ToM in an autistic population, understanding ToM as the identification of emotional and mental states.

In this task, the identification is made via the observation of looks in pictures. Children were presented with a series of 28 pictures of a pair of eyes from different people expressing an emotional or mental state. We projected these images onto a whiteboard and gave children an answer sheet. Children were asked to look at each picture and to circle on their answer sheet the emotion or mental state that best described the look of the person, choosing from among four words displayed. Of these words, three were distractor words while only one was the word that matched the emotion or mental state of the person in the picture. The task was scored by adding up the number of items correctly answered. For each image the children had around 15 seconds, so between 7 to 10 minutes in total. Reliability was not considered for this sample because of its small size.

Evaluation of Mood State

In order to measure children's emotions, we used the adapted paper version (Monnier, Syssau, Blanc & Brechet, 2016) of the valence and arousal Self-Assessment Manikin scale (SAM, Bradley & Lang, 1994). Mood valence was measured through a 9-point Likert scale ranging from a positive manikin at the right extreme of the paper to a negative manikin at the left extreme of the paper. At the beginning and at the end of each session, children had to circle the manikin that represented best how they felt at that precise moment. Because of being a visual and self-reported measure, this scale can be easily used by children (Monnier et al., 2016) and has already been tested for children aged from 6 to 12 years old (e.g. McManis, Bradley, Berg, Cuthbert & Lang, 2001).

Observation

In order to measure the possible links between creativity and ToM and in order to explore other possible outcomes, we video-recorded each of the 4 sessions of the DPT intervention. All recordings were made with a fixed frontal camera. Each session lasted around 60 minutes, and recording material for analyses were selected after the introductory part (mood assessment and class management) was achieved. All sessions were analysed; they were integrally transcribed and coded later into topic categories. We observed the interactions that occurred between the facilitator and the group, which were the indications, the questions and the topics that arose. We created the categories based on the principal topics proposed by the facilitator during the sessions. We also conducted a semantic analysis measuring the frequency of the words used.

Procedure

Before the beginning of the study, authorisation letters for children's participation were sent to their parents. After parent authorisations were received, we scheduled the sessions. A pretest time was held before starting the training in order to evaluate ToM and creative thinking.

Before each session and at the end of each session, mood was measured. The intervention was an adaptation of a DPT program carried out in a previous study. The DPT was created by selecting and adapting some Drama Pedagogy Training activities proposed in the Spanish program "Programa Juego" (Garaigordobil, 2003). Some other Drama Pedagogy Training activities were taken from the books of García-Huidobro (2004) and Boal (1989).

Results

Our sample consisted initially of nine children, but only eight (M =10.81) were present in all sessions, including the post-test time. Descriptive results on divergent thinking, integrative thinking, mood and ToM showed an increase in post-test scores. Further on, observational analyses revealed seven topic categories. When analysing the time spent on each topic, results showed they were ranging from 4% to 42% of the time for the whole training. "emotional intelligence, theory of mind and emotional honesty" with 42% of the whole time of the training dedicated to it, and "body consciousness: embodiment and body in space" with 22%. The third place is occupied by "feedback, metacognition and emotional understanding" activities for 10% of the time, followed by 8% for "meditation, mindfulness and concentration" activities. For 7% of the time, we found both "explanations, metacognition of session structure and group management" and "theatre rigor and respect of others" categories. The last category only took up 4% of the time spent in the training and was dedicated to "team cohesion" activities. For the semantic analysis, after excluding words directly related to the explanation of activities as well as grammatical prepositions, conjunctions and interjections, results showed that the most spoken words during the training were "emotion" or "emotions" with a frequency of 99 times. Out of 15 highest frequency scores, the last three, with a frequency of 16 times each, were found to be "action", "body", and "team".

Discussion

Due to the small size of our sample (n=8), we decided not to conduct further quantitative analyses beyond mean score comparison and effect sizes, as statistical results would not reflect the behaviour of a general sample. Regarding this, for this small sample, quantitative data results

showed no significance in pre-post tests for the variables of creative thinking and ToM. This could be due to the fact that the sample was too small to replicate results of past findings (Celume, Besançon & Zenasni, 2019b), or because a four-session training may not have been sufficient to develop the desired competencies. Another possibility to be considered regarding this point is the impact of a missing control group. A matching control group is necessary in this kind of study in order to understand better the behaviour of children who are engaged in a particular intervention/training. We are very aware of the need for more controlled trials, as we hinted at in the introduction to this study, otherwise, studies in the field will continue to provide incomplete information issuing from quasi-experimental studies. We consider this as the principal limitation of this study and thus results should be considered carefully, in the framework of a case study, because they cannot be generalised. Nevertheless, in order to provide rigor to this study, the intervention was followed step by step as the manual described for each session, with no 204 improvised activities. Besides, the intervention was recorded under the same conditions for all sessions; they were transcribed with the help of online speech recognition software, and these data were analysed by independent judges who coded the transcribed sessions, arriving at a consensus about the principle topics in order to generate categories.

Regarding the results, descriptive data analyses showed an increase in the mean scores for creativity and ToM after the DPT, supporting the theory that drama games can enhance ToM (e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012;[START_REF] Harris | From Simulation to Folk Psychology: The Case for Development[END_REF][START_REF] Harris | The work of the imagination[END_REF][START_REF] Leslie | Pretense and Representation: The Origins of "Theory of Mind[END_REF][START_REF] Qu | Teachers' Theory-of-mind Coaching and Children's Executive Function Predict the Training Effect of Sociodramatic Play on Children's Theory of Mind[END_REF] and this is also consistent with other studies which present evidence of the enhancement of creativity through trainings that work through drama games (e.g. Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011;Hui & Lau, 2006;Karwowski & Soszynski, 2008;Lin, 2010). Moreover, results presented positive effect sizes, particularly for divergent thinking, suggesting a large impact of the training on the development of creativity. These outcomes support the results of previous studies (Celume & Zenasni, 2017) that used DPT and subjects of the same characteristics, with a larger sample, showing significant results for socio-cognitive and socio-emotional competencies (such as collaborative behaviour and ToM) and creativity. Moreover, regarding the presented literature, descriptive analyses tend to go in the direction of the presented evidence, establishing links of DPT with creativity and with ToM.

When analysing observational data, results showed that the major part of the training was dedicated to cognitive-socio-emotional learning, such as emotional identification, understanding, expression and regulation, followed by body-related cognition (body awareness, body-in-space and embodiment), with unexpectedly no explicit mention of creativity or creative-related elements, even if the training was based on games conceived for creativity. Moreover, semantic analyses corroborated these results, revealing that words like emotion/s, action and body were among the fifteen more used ones. Thus, considering both observational and descriptive data results, it appears to be an implicit relationship between body awareness, cognitive-socio-emotional competencies and creativity, which is consistent with the observations of [START_REF] Wee | A Case Study of Drama Education Curriculum for Young Children in Early Childhood Programs[END_REF] who noted that students' body movements in the regular classroom were merely instrumental, but when in Drama Pedagogy they were exploratory and expressive. We observe an enhancement of ToM and divergent thinking in descriptive analyses, while most of the time, the sessions were dedicated to emotional competencies development and body awareness.

If we consider ToM in its larger definition, this would encompass a broad scope of mental states, ranging from perception to intentions, cognition and emotional states [START_REF] Hughes | What are the links between theory of mind and social relations? Review, reflections and new directions for studies of typical and atypical development[END_REF]. Within this scope, in DPT, the increase of ToM could be related to the ability of identifying and understanding others emotions and emotional expressions, which was one of the most practiced activities during the training. So, if this kind of intervention, based on drama games, was shown to develop creativity, but no creative training is directly observable in the interactions during the sessions, this might indicate that there is a non-evident link between ToM and creativity that happens during a DPT. As the literature suggests, a wider access to the emotional world may generate more associations, and thus improve idea creation [START_REF] Russ | Affect in fantasy play, emotions in memories, and divergent thinking[END_REF]).

As we saw above, [START_REF] Suddendorf | Theory of Mind and the Origin of Divergent Thinking[END_REF] and Hoffmann and Russ (2012) presented some consistent evidence that goes in the direction of establishing links between creativity and socio-emotional competencies. Nevertheless, the direction of the relationship is not entirely clear, and remains a poorly studied field. Ebert et al. (2015) studied this relationship in children working through plastic arts, revealing a relationship between emotional identification and labelling, and creativity. These results, implying a link among these three concepts, could help us explain in part why the children participating in our study, despite working mostly on emotional identification and understanding, with no direct mention of creativity or creativity-related topics, showed an increase in divergent thinking and convergent thinking scores after training was finished. [START_REF] Suddendorf | Theory of Mind and the Origin of Divergent Thinking[END_REF] related the idea of detachment of preconceived knowledge and ideas, as a bridge that goes between a) other's false belief and b) divergent thinking.

Likewise, when children in our study were confronted with having to identify and understand others' emotions, they had to be able to do the mental process of detaching themselves from their personal perspectives and understandings to be able to understand others' minds and beliefs. The same capacity for detachment used in identifying and understanding others' emotions would be a

predictor of an enhancement of our creativity scores, as divergent thinking also requires us to detach from previous personal knowledge in order to generate more ideas. Considering dramabased trainings, ToM had already been considered as an executive function [START_REF] Qu | Teachers' Theory-of-mind Coaching and Children's Executive Function Predict the Training Effect of Sociodramatic Play on Children's Theory of Mind[END_REF]Vygostky, 1978), but the evidence is not sufficient to support the idea of creative thinking enhancement predicted by executive functions (Thibodeau et al., 2016). Thus, the idea of considering ToM as an executive function would not fully support the theory of a causal relationship between our increased scores of creativity after a training based on emotional identification and understanding.

Nevertheless, if ToM is considered as the socio-cognitive ability to understand others' mental states, and thus more related to empathy and socio-emotional learning, the concept of perspective taking arises. As we saw above, studies have already linked perspective taking to ToM in Drama Pedagogy Training (e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012), thus establishing a sort of parallel between the two definitions. While some authors (e.g. [START_REF] Shaffer | Social and personality development[END_REF] use the definition "understanding others' perspectives and emotions" to define perspective taking, other authors (e.g. [START_REF] Flavell | Theory-of-Mind Development: Retrospect and Prospect[END_REF] use the same definition to explain one of the characteristics of ToM. In this sense, perspective taking would be a fundamental component of ToM that might explain the relationship between creative thinking enhancement and ToM development in our DPT sessions. For example, Lubart et al. (2015) explain that creative enhancement through perspective taking could be due to the fact that looking at things from different perspectives might enhance idea production (thus impacting divergent thinking) and problem solving. Consequently, [START_REF] Mages | Does theatre-in-education promote early childhood development?: The effect of drama on language, perspective-taking, and imagination[END_REF] states that drama activities are intrinsically related to problem solving which would require perspective taking abilities. According to this, creativity in Drama Pedagogy Training could be enhanced thanks to perspective taking abilities that would interact with two cognitive processes related to creative thinking: divergent thinking and/or problem-solving abilities. In order to evaluate the validity of this hypothesis, a deeper analysis of the interactions of the DPT sessions was needed. This analysis showed dialogues in which we observe interactions that might be related to perspective thinking development. In the first session, the facilitator tells the children to walk through the "museum of statues". This museum of statues is made by children when expressing different emotional/mental states (such as remembering, cross or surprised, among others) by pretending to be a statue. In a certain moment, half of the children are asked to stop being statues and become visitors, and the other half to remain as statues. Visitors walk through the 'museum' observing the emotional/mental states these statues are displaying. The facilitator insists that children need to be "looking at the statues… to see how it is done… to really observe [the mental state]"; she also asks children how people look when they are in this particular emotional/mental state, implicitly instructing them to access their own knowledge as they observe others' ways of doing, letting children change their perspectives by working, in the first place, from a more personal expression perspective, to end up working from an observer perspective, always through pretence. The same happens by the end of the activity, when she tells children that they "are going to do the statues in a circle, looking at each other". When they are pretending to be statues in a circle, they are switching perspectives, from expressing the emotional/mental state to observing how others express the emotional/mental state, sometimes even adjusting/regulating their own expressions.

The roles are changed with each emotional/mental state proposed which gives the opportunity for every child to experiment with both perspectives. This change of perspective when facing a problem or constraint (like pretending to be and representing one thing and then changing to another during the drama game) was explained by Lubart et al. (2015) as one of the variables implicated in the development of creativity. This transformation of perspectives was described by Guilford throughout his works as "adaptive flexibility". In other words, the change of role expressed in the drama game proposed could lead children to acquire a sort of adaptive flexibility while constantly changing their perspective, which might engage them in a more flexible, thus creative behaviour. These ideas were also considered by Capron-Puozzo (2016), who explained how drama activities enhanced the capacity of students to redefine their points of view, developing a sort of empathy that implied flexibility, and thus impacted creativity. After the activity is finished, there is always time for feedback. For this first session, feedback was mostly focused on understanding the emotional/mental states represented in play. The facilitator asked children what they thought of emotions, of representing the different emotional/mental states, asking if it was difficult, and which ones were easier or more difficult to represent. One child expressed her difficulty in expressing surprise, as in her opinion, it was too similar to fear. At this moment, the facilitator guided the group to collectively express fear with their bodies while changing to express surprise, highlighting the general cues and differences in the expression of both emotions. In this part of the session, we can also say that children were practicing perspective taking, considering the fact that they are all confronting their own perspectives on how an emotion should be represented and which one was easier/more difficult for them to guess. In the same manner , this happens when they redefine their perspectives of emotions when playing in the sessions.

In session two, children had to represent with their bodies three different emotions picked out from a fish bowl. Here, the main activity is based on the use of body for emotional expression, which, according to some authors, might have an influence on creative development (e.g. Aden, 2014;[START_REF] Andolfi | Opening the mind through the body: The effects of posture on creative processes[END_REF][START_REF] Damasio | Some notes on brain, imagination and creativity[END_REF][START_REF] Hao | Enhancing creativity: Proper body posture meets proper emotion[END_REF]. As a first step, children were asked to only use body gestures and postures in order to represent the different emotions, and for a second try, children were asked to repeat and retry other postures of emotional expressions if the rest of the class couldn't guess the emotion expressed.

This implies a re-use of body in order to make it match a particular emotional or mental state, as well as a change of perspective, considering classmates responses to their expression. In line with this, the facilitator asked the spectators to guess the emotional or mental state their classmates were representing, without focusing on the right or wrong answer, but mostly on the thoughts of children regarding the emotional or mental state, as ToM would work. For example, she asked "Why do you think that is 'reflecting' or 'thinking'?"; she then insisted: "But, why do you think that?". By asking this kind of question, children are required to understand another's perspective and give a logical explanation for the selected expression. During the rest of the activity, children became used to answering by guessing the emotional or mental state they believed was being expressed by their classmates, adding their thoughts and beliefs about why this expression represented a particular emotion contrasting their thoughts on the emotion and how their classmates expressed it. For example, by the end of the activity in session 2, a discussion between the facilitator and two children occurred:

-"Why did you think it was sadness?"

-"Because in the first scene, I thought that she was giving him a present and later he was not happy…"

-"And why did you also think it was sadness?"

-"Because, actually, he made this" [the child turns to the facilitator and mimics the facial gesture and posture of his classmate during the scene].

This response of the child made him work his emotional understanding and perspective taking abilities, as he was literally taking the place of another in order to show and explain from his perspective to the facilitator and other classmates how the emotional state was expressed,

showing an understanding of the emotion [START_REF] Harris | Children's understanding of emotions[END_REF] while also explaining why he related it to "sadness" (thus, this was related to ToM ability). This kind of guessing the emotion sub-activity was repeated in the rest of the activities carried on in this study.

For session 3, the main activity was more complex as they were asked to use their body and voice to represent emotional or mental states. They could talk, and they had to perform a short scene expressing an emotional or mental state, without saying what it was. In the feedback part of session 3, children commented that the most difficult part when creating the scenes was to come to an agreement on how to represent it. There was a constraint that obliged them to put the emotional or mental state in a particular context that they "chose" from a fish bowl. A child explained that at the beginning, they couldn't agree on something because " we couldn't really find something good for the birthday (context constraint) and the emotions that were with…"; he continued, "I don't know… because worried and interested in a birthday is not that… (he was interrupted by other kids talking at the same time)".

In this case, we could say that the element of problem solving was implied in the activity as they needed to solve the problem of expressing the emotions they had got from the fish bowl in concordance with the context they had got from the fish bowl. This collective problem-solving activity might have an impact on our participants' creative scores which were shown to have increased after the training. This is consistent with several studies that showed that problem solving tasks are broadly related to creative thinking (e.g. Lubart & Sternberg, 1995;[START_REF] Reiter-Palmon | Creativity and domain specificity: The effect of task type on multiple indexes of creative problem-solving Recommended Citation[END_REF]; among several others). Following the lead, the last session (Session 4)I was also based on creative problem solving, as the main activity asked children to represent a problem and the emotions that are felt by the characters before and after the problem is solved. This activity has a lot more complexity, as children need to find a problem that has to be solved by themselves in order to express "pleasant" emotions after solving the problem. This activity wasn't achieved in the same manner as the others, and due to the time, there was no time for feedback, so the opinions of the children regarding the activity couldn't be recorded, missing an important part of how dramatic problem-solving tasks could have had an influence on their creative thinking, as well as their emotional understanding.

Limitations and Future Perspectives

Besides the main limitation regarding the lack of a control group, we found some other limitations that should be considered. First of all, our sample was too small to generalise any of the results we obtained. Results presented by our eight participants didn't reach significance and so were not consistent with previous results for the same type of studies with larger samples.

Secondly, even if we had quantitative data, an important part of the analyses was made based on observations, where the subjective perspective can bias the results. The last part of the discussion is based on the transcription of the sessions, and even though we used multiple coding with different judges' perspectives, there may still have been a subjective perspective.

On the other hand, we focused on the link of EI and ToM with creativity, mainly from the perspective taking view, even though we suggested some possible links due to an executive function, but without deeper analyses in the field of neuroscience, which may be an important perspective to consider in future work.

Hereby, we understand the need to replicate this study with a larger sample, a matching control group and better tested tools in order to clarify if this relationship between ToM and creative development can be established through perspective taking. Moreover, we didn't accomplish a deep analysis of the implications of body and space consciousness as a link between creativity and ToM/EI, even if it appeared as the second most addressed topic during the training.

Thus, a further analysis to see if the relationship with embodiment and space awareness has more effect than we were able to show, seems necessary.

The fact of finding a link between creativity and socio-emotional competencies could help understand how children behave in groups and in the classroom and how they interact during collective activities and groups. We understand that using and understanding emotions helps children develop divergent thinking and thus, finding new and novel solutions to presented problems. In this sense, the work with children in socio-emotional learning through DPT could help them develop perspective taking and thus, could have a positive impact on creative thinking.

Programs in schools that are focused on developing 21st-century skills may consider the idea of complementing their work with DPT, and focusing on socio-emotional development through creative pedagogies [START_REF] Toivanen | Creative pedagogy -Supporting children's creativity through drama[END_REF] which are active pedagogies like the one presented by DPT, as this may not only enhance children's creative thinking, but also develop positive environments and thus, more healthy educational organisations (Celume & Zenasni, in press. See chapter in appendices).

Accordingly, positive environments could also be related to creativity enhancement, which gave us the idea of conducting a study on the impact on positive emotions on children's creativity.

Conclusion

This study showed evidence that interactions during the training were mainly related to emotional intelligence and ToM. These were the principal topics addressed during the Drama

Pedagogy Training, being consistent with the literature showing an enhancement of ToM and EI through drama. On the other hand, although the literature suggests a direct link between creativity and drama pedagogies, no explicit creativity topics appeared in the observational exploratory research. Nevertheless, further analysis suggests some possible linking concepts between EI, ToM and creativity such as perspective taking and, with less clear evidence, executive function. understanding, with an emphasis on positive emotions, which were consistent with post-test results on mood. Results continued to be significant in the follow-up time of measurement only for divergent thinking, but not for integrative thinking, or for ToM. Mood and collaborative behaviour were not tested in follow-up. These studies lead us to the redaction of our second and third articles, that are presented as studies two and three.

Topic 2: Relationships between Creativity and ToM in DPT

Based on the literature implying that drama games methodologies develop ToM and creativity, we conducted an exploratory study, carrying out a 4-session Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT). We videotaped each session and transcribed teacher and child interactions. We conducted quantitative and qualitative analyses, but as the size of the sample was small (N = 9)

we decided to report only effect sizes and descriptive data, and to focus mainly on qualitative analyses by categorising the most spoken topics and words. Results showed that emotional intelligence related interactions were the principal topic addressed during the sessions, while the most mentioned words were emotion(s). Even though no creativity related topics appeared in the exploratory research, the literature research showed that drama pedagogies are related to creativity as well as to ToM, and that they are both related through linking concepts such as perspective taking.

Topic 3: The Impact of a Positive Mood on Creative Thinking

As results of previous studies were satisfactory on divergent thinking and positive mood, we decided to conduct an experimental study to see if positive emotions could have an impact on creativity, considering that the literature tends to go in that direction in the adult population and only a few studies have been done on children. We also wanted to see if this possible impact could have a relationship on the level of emotional intelligence of children. We conducted a study comparing the induction of a positive mood versus a neutral mood on creative performance. Results showed that a positive mood enhances creativity compared to a neutral condition.

As we saw above in the literature reviewed and as corroborated by the results of our studies, In DPT, storytelling is the moment when participants create their stories and organise them in a way that makes sense to them. Pretend-play, in this case, is the way children pretend to use objects that do not exist, and generate actions or sounds, but do not necessarily represent a character (this would be defined as role-play). For example, some children are asked to tell a story (storytelling) while other children create the sounds or represent the activities told within the story (pretend-play). During pretend-play, creativity is enhanced through the act of performing narrative situations (enactment), enabling the development of perspective, divergent thinking, and problem solving. Storytelling, related to organisation in play, helps the development of divergent thinking and imagination, while transforming reality helps develop perspective and empathy.

Role-play is a specific kind of pretend-play where a person pretends to be someone else in order to portray a character, while improvisation is related to spontaneous acting. In DPT, both activities are used in the form of collective games. DPT can improve problem solving and divergent thinking abilities in children and adolescents, favoured by mental processes that are developed thanks to improvisation and role-play activities, such as boundary breaking, empathy, perspective taking, risk taking and decision making.

The Psycho-Pedagogical Framework Category c) Playfulness

Drama Pedagogy Trainings are always based on play and improvisation (Yeh and Li, 2008). Since [START_REF] Piaget | Toward a Science of Creativity: Considerable Progress but Much Work to be Done[END_REF], authors have had confidence in and proved the importance of play for creativity (e.g., Berretta & Privette, 1990;Christie & Johnsen, 1983;Dansky & Silverman, 1973;Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011;Hoffmann & Russ, 2012;Kneller, 1965;[START_REF] Lieberman | Playfulness: Its Relationship to Imagination and Creativity[END_REF]Mellou, 1994Mellou, , 1995;;Sutton-Smith, 1967, 1979) with only a few studies failing to replicate these effects (e.g., Smith & Whitney, 1987). When playing dramatic games, the child experiments with freedom of expression (Jindal-Snape et al., 2011) and exploration and liberation of the self (Winnicott, 1971) through play, which could help the enhancement of associative thinking (Russ, 2004) and divergent thinking (Russ & Grossman-McKee, 1990).

d) Collaborative and Safe Space

Being creative is a participant's decision [START_REF] Sternberg | Creativity as a decision[END_REF], as creativity is affected by the psychological state of participants and their environment (Hohmann & Weikart, 2002). Even though DPT encourages participants to take risks and be creative (Karakelle, 2009), several factors in the creativity environment and space can impact children's mood allowing them to be more or less creative (Morrongiello et al., 2015;Celume & Zenasni., 2017). A safe space permits interactions to occur and will favour creativity through the development of imagination, fantasy, understanding and problem-solving abilities as well as by enhancing children's positive mood, allowing participants to be more creative.

e) Feedback

Feedback occurs at the end of each session. Tam (2016) claims that creative and multiple meaning in DPT might not occur when children are engaged in play, but when they are back in the real world.

The fact of spotting the structure of DPT helps to understand and clarify past findings on educational drama studies and to design and conduct future research in order to measure the impact of DPT and its particular elements on children's and adolescents' creative thinking.

Reviews of studies show how different elements of DPT can be related to either creative outcomes or the related processes of creative thinking. Some studies clearly explain particular creative outcomes, while others present creativity as a whole.

In order to understand this relationship, and the relationship between DPT and socioemotional competencies, we conducted a series of studies, aiming to present clearer protocols in order to have valuable data to analyse.

The 1a study, focusing on ToM and collaborative behaviour, presented positive results.

This study discussed the idea of SEL as encompassing important competencies that can be learnt and taught in school environments through arts (Durlak et al., 2011;Ebert et al., 2015). Some specific competencies, such as ToM and prosocial behaviour, have been developed through trainings related to drama pedagogies, suggesting that interventions in the field should develop or help develop these competencies. This is why we conducted a randomised controlled trial with an experimental DPT group and a matching control group.

Later, we presented and analysed the different results of our study. On the one hand, the pre-test showed differences among schools, which we discussed in terms of vocabulary and foreign language acquisition (Mingat, 1991), outlining possible social differences between the schools that participated in our study. We established that "a more homogeneous French socio-cultural background was present in the public school, with a more foreign socio-cultural background in the priority school, thus, suggesting that public school children have more direct access to French vocabulary because they speak the same language at home in contrast to priority school children whose parents (mother or/and father) do not speak French as a first language". This would explain in part why there was a significant effect of school on the ToM scores, and a difference in ToM mean scores between the priority school and the central-Parisian public school. Further studies in order to confirm this hypothesis need to be conducted.

Preliminary analyses also showed that there was a significant difference between levels in ToM scores. 5th graders scored significantly higher in the ToM task provided, suggesting that children in the higher grade had better skills in identifying mental states in others than 4th graders.

Nevertheless, we suggest that this difference could be simply due to the fact that one year later, vocabulary learnt at school increases as a normal fact of school curricula, which might have interfered with our results. Again, further studies need to be conducted to confirm or reject this hypothesis.

Analyses that were carried on after the intervention, showed that DPT had a significant impact on ToM, and additionally, pre-post-test differences presented higher variations for DPT, against what happened with CSG. These results are consistent with other studies in the field (Goldstein & Winner, 2012) and remain within our predictions. We predicted an increase in ToM, because four out of six sessions were dedicated to pretend-play emotional and mental states through voice and body, while half of the group, that was not pretending, was guessing the emotional or mental state expressed by their classmates. In an alternative perspective, this could also be related to the model of personal intelligence developed by Mayer in 2008, in which he "organizes psychological abilities that, collectively are relevant to knowledge of the self and others" (p. 14). The use of body (embodiment) is also discussed as a possible contributor to the development of ToM, as some authors suggest that embodiment is a fundamental part of the development of empathy (Sofia, 2016), which is intrinsically related to ToM. Differences by class, continued showing higher scores for fifth grade, which was something that we could expect, as children get better in ascribing mental or emotional states to others while they grow up as a normal part of their cognitive development (Perner & Wimmer, 1985;Piaget, 1929).

Four months later, follow-up results showed no difference between the experimental (DPT)

and the control (CGS) group, meaning that results obtained at post-test, did not remain in time.

One theory that we suggest is that the number of sessions was not sufficient to have a long-term impact. This hypothesis is based on the meta-analyses by Lee et al. (2015) which explains that the most effective trainings were the ones that presented more than 5 sessions and less than 20. Our DPT was constituted of 6 sessions, 2 of which were collaborative behaviour evaluations, so this backs up the theory. Another option we discussed was the reliability scores of the scale which only reached a minimum of acceptance. Still, no conclusions can be drawn, and more study needs to be done to understand why we observe a significant difference between both groups after the training and almost no difference four months later.

Collaborative behaviour results showed significant differences between the experimental and the control condition groups in the pre-test. The most probable explanation for these unexpected results is the fact that the collaborative behaviour task was carried out one week after the groups were constituted. This suggests that after a week of intervention, children might have created some relationships or bonding links within their groups (DPT and CSG) that were reflected in the second week, when the evaluation of collaborative behaviour was carried out.

For post-test evaluation, significant differences between the groups were found, with the experimental group (DPT) scoring higher than the control group (CSG), suggesting that DPT contributes to behavioural changes, towards collaboration. This results are within our expectations, as they are consistent with several pieces of literature presenting evidence on the impact of dramabased training and collaborative behaviour or social skills development (e.g. Garaigordobil, 2003;Joronen, Konu et al., 2011;Wright, John, Ellenbogen, Offord, Duku & Rowe, 2006) even though the above cited meta-analysis (Lee et al., 2015) discusses the lack of pertinence of this "presumption".

In the 1b study, we presented evidence that DPT is a methodology able to enhance creativity measured through the increase of divergent thinking scores both in post-test time and follow-up time. As the activities of the intervention were carried out by me, we understand that unconscious bias could have occurred, impacting on some emotional or motivational aspects for children which might have induced them to be more creative in the DPT group. Nevertheless, as we explained above, DPT has a specific framework that needs to be respected, and thus, the emotional and motivational differences in the training could be due to the use of the psychopedagogical framework of DPT (Celume et al., 2019a) which considers as fundamental the development of a careful environment. After the interventions were finished, children's emotional state and creativity scores, evaluated through divergent and convergent thinking figurative tasks, were significantly higher for the group that was doing DPT than for the group that was doing CSG.

Moreover, scores on divergent thinking continued to be statistically higher for DPT four months after the children finished the trainings. What was not statistically significant four months later were the differences between the groups when evaluated in convergent thinking scores; we explained that while divergent thinking tended to continue growing with statistical difference between the groups, convergent thinking had started to shorten this difference.

Nevertheless, the mean scores for the group who participated in the DPT intervention continued to be higher than for the CSG, and thus we suggested "that maybe a more targeted experience that focused on the convergent aspect of creativity could prevent scores from dropping over time", which could also be due to other reasons and thus, maybe a longer intervention is needed, with more sessions, in order to let the learning transform into significant learning (Vygostky, 1967).

One fundamental part of the evaluation was done via interviews. Children agreed that the environment proposed by DPT helped them to be able to communicate and share their opinions and ideas with other people who they would otherwise never speak to. For them, we explained, "one of the learning outcomes was the fact of being able to communicate with others". During the interventions, children mentioned they were somewhat afraid of speaking out; one child expressed that "... actually, I thought that... everybody was going to laugh at others but it actually didn't happen… we didn't feel ashamed… we learned… to not feel scared of presenting what we think to others...". DPT was shown to be a place where interactions occur, letting children present their ideas, discuss them and exchange ideas with the other participants, which according to Nes and Wikan (2013), corresponds with the idea that these kinds of spaces are those that can be thought as social settings where children interact through interthinking. Everybody has the right to express ideas and to consider others' ideas to rethink new ones within a framework that is free of judgements (García-Huidobro, 1996). "According to this perspective, the learning setting that DPT promotes helps children to feel safe to express themselves and thus, to develop the ability to actively communicate their inner thoughts and ideas without feeling judged but rather feeling cared for and safe."

According to these statements, it seems that the environment provided by DPT gives freedom for creation through an active participation in the space. Learning environments have been evolving over the years, becoming more and more interested in developing 21st-century skills [START_REF] Anagün | Teachers' Perceptions about the Relationship between 21st Century Skills and Managing Constructivist Learning Environments[END_REF], such as creative thinking, which has been enhanced through this training, probably due to being conducted in dynamic space. The dynamic interactions that occurred in DPT let the children express but also listen to others' ideas and opinions, which was one of the principal points that children highlighted in the interviews that were carried out. The environment provided by the training was identified as the reason why they shared with the classmates they normally do not speak to. These ideas are also linked to the concept of active listening, which a "dramatist" understands as being a present character listening to what your co-character is saying, and not waiting as a person-actor to repeat the line that comes after the other line. Thus, DPT appeared to provide a space for speaking together without any intention to pass over others, but more like a collective voice. The positive aspect of creation is also related to the interactions that were carried out in DPT sessions. Children explained that the fact of creating together with their classmates developed positive emotions in them, and they enjoyed the fact of sharing ideas and creating together, and the fact of being in a positive ("happy") mood, motivated them to have more ideas and to co-construct more ideas. The literature has already shown how these processes are interconnected (e.g. Abele-Brehm, 1992;Baas et al., 2008;Celume et al., 2017, Vass et al., 2014).

We also discussed the need to do further work to try to see the replicability of these results.

For this, it is necessary to have a similar (or even the same) room for all experimental and control groups as evidence of the link between the environment and creative thinking enhancement was shown; thus, this is an aspect that should be carefully considered in further research using drama Thus, this study permitted us to conclude that DPT is a drama-based active methodology that is related to interactions through open and active dialogue, allowing for a space to share and listen to other ideas in order to co-construct collaboratively. The DPT space provides an environment free of judgements in which children can interact and thus develop their ideas and their creative thinking. As we suggested "significantly, higher scores in creativity that were shown right after the training and four months after the DPT could be explained in part by this intersubjective pedagogy". This environment, based on active interactions, promotes interthinking leading to co-creation (Vass et al., 2014), helping enhance creative thinking. In our theoretical review, as well as in the beginning of this general discussion, we already proposed these ideas, explaining how the psycho-pedagogical framework offered by DPT impacts socio-cognitive and socio-emotional processes related to creative thinking enhancement (Celume et al., 2019a).

Following this lead, the 1c study presented a perspective based on kinaesthetic creativity.

The idea of DPT as an active methodology that uses the body to express ideas and opinions made us consider the idea that creative thinking development was better expressed in kinaesthetic ways.

The results did not follow our presumptions, although we believe that the lack of adapted measurement tools is behind these negative results. Accordingly, we propose to continue researching the construction of measurement methods based on the use of the body. Some perspectives have already been investigated in other laboratories and departments in and around the Université de Paris.

For study 2 on mood (positive emotions) and its impact on creative thinking, the results

showed that once we finished the induction (either positive or neutral condition), children in the positive mood condition presented significantly higher self-rated scores for emotional valence state than their peers in the neutral mood condition, thus implying that the induction worked as expected.

With these results, we decided to conduct the creative thinking tasks in order to see the effect of a positive versus neutral emotional state. As the literature presents (e.g. Frederickson, 1998), a positive emotional state and positive emotions in general are related to several cognitive and behavioural outcomes. Authors such as [START_REF] Bowlby | Attachment[END_REF] or Garaigordobil and Berrueco (2011) have already presented evidence of the fact that positive emotions might be related to social and cognitive competencies in children. Thus, some of the findings in our study were consistent with the literature on the topic, as integrative thinking and originality was shown to be enhanced after the emotional induction.

Nevertheless, we also had some unexpected results, as no significant differences were found between the groups on fluency or flexibility, suggesting a need to replicate the study, maybe with a third condition, or even, with a more actualised and integral creativity task, as the emotional induction task could have an impact on other areas of creative thinking that are not being expressed through figurative tasks.

Another unexpected result was related to emotional valence. Drawings were also measured in terms of their emotional valence; either the ideas presented in the drawing were more positive, neutral or negative. Inter-judge scoring showed no difference between the two groups, implying that for our study sample there was no effect of mood valence on valence of drawings.

Nevertheless, we suggest that "even though the inter-judge reliability was good, there is always a subjective component when evaluating what is positive in a child's drawing", so result analyses should be considered carefully.

Further analyses, searching for class effect, showed that for children in 3rd grade, positive mood induction worked better for enhancing originality than for the other class levels. Regarding integrative thinking scores, Anova analyses showed no effect by class, although we observed a decrease in creative integrative thinking scores in 4th grade. This follows the trend for the socalled "fourth grade slump" [START_REF] Torrance | A Longitudinal Examination of the Fourth Grade Slump in Creativity[END_REF] explained by researchers as a non-linear development of creativity that shows an important decrease at the age of 9, when children are attending 4th grade [START_REF] Besançon | Differences in the development of creative competencies in children schooled in diverse learning environments[END_REF]. The study presented many of the suggested reasons for this slump, discussing the positions of several authors who attribute this slump to the educational system and its academic rules [START_REF] Torrance | A Longitudinal Examination of the Fourth Grade Slump in Creativity[END_REF]), transition from individual child development to a more social development [START_REF] Kohlberg | The philosophy of moral development: moral stages and the idea of justice[END_REF], the need to belong and not to be rejected [START_REF] Gralewski | Slumps and Jumps: Another Look at Developmental Changes in Creative Abilities[END_REF], the appearance of more concrete ideas instead of more creative ones [START_REF] Runco | The Evaluative, Valuative, and Divergent Thinking of Children[END_REF], the rigidness characteristic of a new reasoning transition [START_REF] Georgsdottir | La flexibilité cognitive et la créativité[END_REF] or even the development of a reasoning ability related to logical thinking [START_REF] Lautrey | Development of Creativity in 9-to 10-year old children[END_REF].

In summary, this study presented evidence on how positive mood induction has an impact on enhancing the emotional states of children in French elementary schools, thus positively impacting their originality and creative integrative thinking.

For the last study, in which we videotaped a four-session DPT, we decided to focus on qualitative data more than quantitative, as the sample was too small to make any generalisations.

In fact, quantitative analyses showed no significant results for creative thinking or ToM in terms of pre-post-test analyses. Some of the reasons that we discussed as limitations of the study were the small sample size, the number of sessions that was limited to four, and the inability to produce comparative data with a matching control group. This last point seemed fundamental, as we actually criticised the lack of controlled trials and we were not able to provide a controlled trial this time. Nevertheless, we provided a structured framework with which we worked during the sessions in order to avoid the bias of improvising activities and thus impacting the results.

We also discussed the results of the descriptive data which showed increases in the means of the measured outcomes, even though they never reached significance. The results presented large effect sizes which would, in part, confirm previous evidence regarding the positive impact of DPT in ToM and creative thinking development (e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012;Karwowski & Soszynski, 2008). According to the literature presented, DPT seemed to have an impact on both of these competencies, thus helping us construct a clearer path towards our research question.

The qualitative data, gathered through the observation of videotaped sessions, showed that for the major part of the training, the topics discussed were related to SEL-related topics, varying from socio-emotional to socio-cognitive competencies. The second most discussed topic during the sessions was the link to body awareness and embodiment, with almost no allusions to creativity or creative thinking, even though descriptive analyses showed a more important increase and a larger effect size in divergent thinking than for the other outcomes. Similarly, the work of identifying and understanding others' emotions that was conducted through the sessions was directly linked to ToM abilities, as the questions asked by the trainer were focused on letting the children understand others' motivations for reacting in one way or another.

According to these results, we wondered why an emotional-socio-cognitive based Drama

Pedagogy Training would enhance creative thinking. Accordingly, we decided to further explore the connections between these two outcomes in order to establish a common place that would guide practitioners and researchers in the construction of programs to develop these competencies in children, using the help of DPT.

Some of the first linking theories that we have found were related to the studies undertaken by [START_REF] Russ | Affect and creativity: The role of affect and play in the creative process[END_REF][START_REF] Russ | Affect, Creative Experience, and Psychological adjustment[END_REF] when linking affect and creative thinking in children through play. In further studies, she and colleagues (e.g. [START_REF] Russ | Affect in fantasy play, emotions in memories, and divergent thinking[END_REF] presented evidence of how having a better access to the emotional world would predict creative thinking, specifically idea generation.

We further discussed the study of Suddendorf and Fletcher-Finn in 1997, that related the idea of detachment of thoughts and preconceived ideas and knowledge that occurred as executive function (relating ToM to executive function) and the process that occurs in creative thinking whereby in order to generate more ideas, the subject needs to detach from her/his previous ideas and knowledge.

Finally, we took the path of perspective taking to identify some of the ToM processes. We discussed how the literature defines perspective taking in the same way other authors describe ToM, thus establishing a sort of parallel between both terms. Considering the definitions presented by [START_REF] Shaffer | Social and personality development[END_REF] on perspective taking and [START_REF] Flavell | Theory-of-Mind Development: Retrospect and Prospect[END_REF] on aspects of ToM, we arrived at the conclusion that perspective taking would be seen as a fundamental component of ToM. Continuing along these lines, we suggested that if perspective taking was a main part of ToM, and the literature already presented evidence of the link between perspective taking and creative thinking (Lubart et al., 2015), thus perspective thinking could be a linking bridge between creativity and ToM. In this context, Mages (2008) suggested that dramatic activities require perspective taking, as most of the activities are based on problem solving tasks.

Thus, considering perspective taking as a starting point, we discussed the analyses of the textual interactions that were videotaped in order to find passages or phrases that could sustain our hypothesis. Indeed, the activities that were carried out during the sessions and the interactions between the pedagogue and children were, most of the time, "reminding" them of the need to take perspective and to look at and live situations from others' perspectives.

The first session was based on showing different emotional or mental states through the body, that children had to either express or observe, according to the role they were asked to take on in the activity. This switch of perspective was explained by Lubart et al. (2015) as one fundamental factor involved in the development of creativity, and it had already been explained by Guilford as "adaptive flexibility". This flexibility in the change of perspective was practiced throughout the sessions, particularly in the first one when children switched from one position to another.

For other sessions, the practice of perspective taking was involved by clearly defining an observation group and an expression group. Children, divided into groups, were asked to identify emotions and mental states in their classmates, as they were roleplaying. In such an activity, children need to practice perspective taking abilities in order to put themselves in the place of the classmate and identify the emotion or mental state that is being expressed. In this sense, the interactions of the trainer-pedagogue towards the children were mainly based on asking children why they thought the emotion or mental state of the classmate corresponded to one emotion or another, working on their ToM, as they were "understanding the emotion" [START_REF] Harris | Children's understanding of emotions[END_REF].

For the two later sessions, the need for problem solving appeared to be more evident as the constraints for the activities presented more complexity. In this case, problem solving abilities were at the heart of the activities at the same time as ToM, and children needed to develop some perspective taking abilities in order to solve the constraints and understand and express the emotional or mental state presented. In summary, the discussion started trying to identify the possible links between ToM and creative thinking, arriving at the conclusion, based on a literature review and evidence, complementing the analyses of videotaping transcriptions, that the use of perspective taking abilities among children during DPT was underlying the process of both ToM and creative thinking.

All the studies discussed above, together with the literature reviewed, led us to different perspectives that covered transversal topics we would like to discuss further in a comprehensive framework in order to unify the concepts reviewed in each study.

The literature presented an exhaustive review that permitted us to see the links and relationships that exist between DPT, SE competencies and creativity, which are the elements of DPT sessions that will trigger specific behaviours and processes that will help the development of creative thinking processes and show how it is suggested that DPT might enhance SE competencies.

The 1a study showed how DPT is involved in the development of collaborative behaviour and ToM in children, warning about the need to replicate the intervention with more sessions in order to keep having significant results in the long term. The 1b study presented evidence about how DPT improves creative thinking, and which are the mechanisms by which this happens. The 1c study showed that DPT doesn't seem to have an impact on kinaesthetic creativity, at least, not in the way it was measured.

For the second study, focusing on the impact of emotional states on creative thinking, we presented evidence on how positive mood induction can have a positive effect on integrative creative thinking and originality, compared to a neutral condition, showing us a relationship between creativity enhancement and emotional-related outcomes.

The third study presented the possible underlying processes that occur when creativity results as the main outcome of DPT while emotional understanding was the centre of DPT teachings, proposing perspective taking as the ability that links both competencies.

Thus, the main topics that arise from these discussions are related to both socio-emotional competencies and creativity. These skills, recognised as fundamental skills to develop in schools for the 21st century, were shown to be enhanced through a specific kind of training, issuing from drama pedagogies. The main interest of this investigation was to research the impact that DPT might have on creativity and SE competencies, and the specific role that DPT plays in that. All these objectives were the basis of our studies, which intended to provide evidence of the effectiveness of DPT for the development of children's socio-cognitive-emotional competencies, in terms of, for example, ToM and collaborative behaviour, positive emotional states, and creative thinking.

In our studies, as predicted in the theoretical part, the model of emotional competencies proposed by [START_REF] Mikolajczak | Moving beyond the ability-trait debate : A three level model of emotional intelligence[END_REF][START_REF] Mikolajczak | Les Compétences Émotionnelles[END_REF] united with the SAFE framework proposed in SEL [START_REF] Durlak | A Meta-Analysis of After-School Programs That Seek to Promote Personal and Social Skills in Children and Adolescents[END_REF], were the basis for the positive results we found in the socio-emotional area, particularly the understanding and the use of interpersonal levels. For instance, children in study 1a developed higher scores in ToM which was related to the understanding of the consequences and causes of others' emotions, which was taught during the different sessions of DPT. These sessions were constructed on the basis of SAFE, as Drama Pedagogy (Garcia-Huidobro, 1996) responds to the same intervention objectives. Also, in the same study, children enhanced their collaborative behaviour, which might be related to the using level of interpersonal competency, where emotions are used to enhance efficacy, inviting children to use their emotions and interpersonal relationships in order to collaborate with each other. Nevertheless, we understand this is a point that would need further analysis, as we could also imply that all intrapersonal levels are involved in the development of ToM and collaborative behaviours, as the fact of identifying, understanding, expressing, regulating and using emotions is related to prosocial behaviours, such as empathy (e.g. [START_REF] Castillo | Effects of an emotional intelligence intervention on aggression and empathy among adolescents[END_REF].

Regarding creativity, the contribution of multivariate factors (Lubart et al., 2015) during the DPT sessions was implicated in the enhancement of creative thinking. For example, we observed how children reported emotional, cognitive, and motivational/conative insights about the DPT sessions that, together with the environmental factors, might have influenced their creative thinking performance. The facts of feeling contained (emotional), understand what another person was thinking or feeling (cognitive/socio-cognitive), being interested (conative) and in a safe space that permitted mistakes (environment) were topics addressed by children whose creative thinking was enhanced. These factors were involved in a specific pedagogical action that was carried out with the objective of developing creativity, which might be the reason for the positive results of the studies. Accordingly, as we suggested in the theoretical part, we could argue, based on our studies, that DPT is a pedagogical action that develops creativity, which would enrol DPT as part of the curricula thema from the 7C's model [START_REF] Lubart | The 7 C's of Creativity[END_REF]. In this sense, DPT would be involved in the creative process by proposing an educational methodology that aims to develop creativity and indeed impacts creative thinking.

Another perspective that emerged was related to the emotional aspects of creativity, and how the fact of developing emotional competencies could have influenced creativity. In study 3, we propose a link between the two outcomes, from a perspective taking approach, considering it as a possible linking concept for both outcomes. Nevertheless, the study of emotions on creativity can go further than that. As observed in study 2, positive emotions have an impact on divergent thinking in children, and this is a topic that was cut across all the studies. [START_REF] Ivcevic | Emotions and creativity: From process to person and product[END_REF] propose a model for how emotions might influence the creative thought, describing three main ways: 1) personality traits involved in decision making to generate creative work; 2) directing choices of work domains; or 3) impacting creative behaviour. In this sense, we could argue that DPT provided a space for emotional learning and experiences that impacted the creative behaviour of children, facilitating the engagement in creative activities, such as the creation of improvised scenes at the end of each session. Thus, creativity could have been improved not only directly through diverse multivariate factors (including emotional ones), but also because of the emotional intelligence content of the sessions of DPT, for which emotional competencies could be related to creativity through the different DPT activities and techniques. Again, we are aware of the need to do more research in the field in order to see how and which of the different drama-based activities and techniques could have an emotional content that might influence creativity, and which are the specific emotional contents that are triggered by DPT sessions, that might or might not impact creative thought. A current study on the emotional-creative process of actors using DPT as part of their rehearsal method is being carried on by the author of this thesis as a means to better understand this link.

The following figure aims to summarise the interrelations between the theoretical concepts and the results of the studies within this investigation.

Limitations

We are well aware of a number of limitations that this research has. All specific limitations were already discussed in each of the studies and at the beginning of this section.

The main limitation of this research involved the issue of the experimenter being in charge of guiding the workshops. We are aware of the limitation that this issue causes, as we cannot provide enough evidence to prove the objectivity of the research while conducting each of the studies. Even though the researcher ran each of the studies following strict norms to assure objectivity, we cannot be certain that there are no subjective perspectives and actions that might have affected the objectivity of the research and thus, influenced some of the results in order to be in line with the hypotheses expected. Nevertheless, we believe in the seriousness of the researcher, and we trust that the research and workshops were carried out in the best way possible. Moreover, some of the results didn't corroborate some of the hypotheses, which was totally unexpected, so this might be considered as evidence of the objectivity of the research, at least in the way it was conducted. Nevertheless, we cannot be certain that human subjectivity wasn't present throughout these studies.

Moreover, our biggest concern is related to one limitation that cut across all of our studies, and that is related to the measurement tools and methods. For each of the studies, several tools were revised; nevertheless, there is a significant lack of testing tools which could have affected our results. In ToM studies, the possibility of measuring ToM in children between nine and twelve remains quite complicated, and the most commonly used method is the RMET-G that we used.

Unfortunately, as we saw, reliability for this scale was barely acceptable which could have led to mistakes when trying to develop effective tools to improve the desired competencies. Also, it could have impacted children's assessment, as they might have developed less or more skills, but we were not able to show evidence for this. Similarly, the TCAM test to measure kinaesthetic creativity seems not to be sufficient for the expectations we had. French children who participated in our studies reported having trouble understanding the tasks and thus there was a need to explain the items more than once, with some of the children continuously showing mistakes in understanding the activity or being insecure when demonstrating their ideas kinaesthetically. In an older and unpublished study, conducted with French elementary school children, a similar confusion with items was observed when implementing the TTCT (which we can argue is the verbal-figurative "brother" of TCAM) from [START_REF] Torrance | Thinking Creatively in Action and Movement: Torrance Test of Creative Thinking[END_REF]. These problems disappeared when changing the measurement tool for EPoC. Hereby, we would like to suggest an adapted contemporary version of TCAM, maybe based on the EPoC, which is currently part of an ongoing investigation. In fact, the test that better worked in our studies was the EPoC. This is probably due to the fact that the scale was conceived in France and adapted to measure the specific creative thoughts that it was developed for. In any case, we saw that creativity could be expressed in several other ways, like kinaesthetically, and that even though the EPoC battery provided us with valuable scores for one part of our expectations, it was not enough for all of our needs. There is a need to develop new measurement methods as sometimes current tools for children are not sufficient to actually provide enough evidence for the level of creativity or SE competencies in these children.

In a similar way, and related more to the methodology in creativity, researchers (e.g. [START_REF] Glaveanu | Advancing Creativity Theory and Research: A Socio-cultural Manifesto[END_REF][START_REF] Hanchett Hanson | The Ideology of Creativity and Challenges of Participation[END_REF] propose to change the perspectives on how to approach and thus measure creativity taking into account a more collective or co-creative perspective. This is, for example, to challenge our perspective when taking the decision about Our studies showed the necessity to widen how we search for results, as existent measurement tools were not sufficient to gather the large number of outcomes related to both creativity and SE competencies that DPT claims to develop. Hanchett [START_REF] Hanchett Hanson | The Ideology of Creativity and Challenges of Participation[END_REF][START_REF] Hanchett Hanson | Navigating the Ideology of Creativity in Education[END_REF] argues how the concept of creativity needs to be reviewed in order to make it more inclusive and adapted to education; he proposes an ideology of creativity built as a participatory model that evolves with the humans within their society (context). In other words, he proposes observing and studying creativity in the societal context in which is framed, in order to recreate a concept that is valuable and useful for the humans within that environment.

Regarding the data gathered for this thesis, we could observe that our studies did not show all the outcomes that the experimenter, teachers and children observed or reported. Even though the results present evidence of the impact of DPT on creativity and SE competencies, there are several missing points that we could not address because of a lack of "standardised" methods. The studies that presented the richest content were those where the standardised test was complemented with qualitative tools. In some of the studies, interviews gave us a lot more information than the to us to be an interesting idea, which is that of the participatory model that co-constructs creativity, this, considering the different roles that are linked to a creative idea, and not only the role of the creative one who "had" the idea. So, there is a need to observe creativity from a social dynamic perspective where we can evaluate (is this even the word?) all actors involved in the process of creativity. Also, there is a need to define collectively what we understand for creativity, novelty and originality and accept that these ideas will evolve over time and in societies, and thus methodologies must evolve with them.

There is a whole world to recreate in creativity research that demands to be explored, and that can shed light on how to develop more successful tools and pedagogies (active, drama based, mixed) to enhance and also to measure not only creativity but other fundamental socio-emotional competencies in children for the 21st century.

Summary

This thesis was carried out on a total sample of 347 elementary school children and it was conducted through five experimental studies.

We predicted that 1) Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT) can develop creativity, socioemotional competencies and positive emotions right after a 6-week intervention; 2) these results will remain in follow-up time; 3) positive emotions have an impact on children's creative thinking and 4) there is a relationship between socio-emotional competencies and creativity that can be appreciated during the DPT sessions.

For answering these hypotheses: 1) we assessed the impact of DPT on socio-emotional competencies, particularly on theory of mind and collaborative behaviour; 2) we evaluated the work of DPT on creativity; 3) we measured the impact of DPT on kinaesthetic creativity; 4) we conducted a study on the impact of children's emotional states on creative thinking; And 5) we conducted an observational study to identify how DPT develop creativity and socio-emotional competencies, observing possible underlying processes between them.

Results showed that 1) DPT can enhance Theory of Mind and Collaborative behaviour after a six-session intervention, but results don't remain in time; 2) DPT can develop creative thinking after a six-session intervention and that results in divergent thinking remain after a fourmonth follow-up; 3) There are no links between DPT and kinaesthetic creativity; 4) A positive mood has a significant impact on children's creative thinking; and 5) Perspective taking appears to be a predictor of creativity and socio-emotional competencies enhancement in DPT sessions.

Keywords: Creativity, emotional competencies, theory of mind, children, Drama Pedagogy

Résumé

Cette thèse a été réalisée sur un échantillon de 347 élèves scolarisés en élémentaire et a été menée à travers cinq études expérimentales.

Nous avons prédit que 1) la formation en pédagogie du théâtre (DPT) développe la créativité, les compétences socio-émotionnelles et des émotions positives après une intervention de 6 semaines ; 2) ces résultats resteront dans le temps ; 3) les émotions positives ont un impact sur la pensée créative des enfants et 4) il existe une relation entre les compétences socioémotionnelles et la créativité qui peut être appréciée pendant les sessions DPT.

Pour répondre à ces hypothèses nous avons : 1) évalué l'impact du DPT sur les compétences socio-émotionnelles, en particulier sur la théorie de l'esprit (ToM) et le comportement collaboratif; 2) évalué l'impact du DPT sur la créativité; 3) mesuré l'impact du DPT sur la créativité kinesthésique; 4) mené une étude sur l'impact des états affectifs des enfants sur la pensée créative ; et 5) mené une observation pour étudier comment le DPT développe la créativité et les compétences socio-émotionnelles, en s'intéressant aux processus mis en jeu.

Les résultats ont montré que 1) le DPT peut améliorer la ToM et le comportement collaboratif après une intervention en six séances, mais que les résultats ne restent pas dans le temps ; 2) le DPT peut développer une pensée créative après une intervention en six séances et qu'il en résulte une pensée divergente après un suivi de quatre mois ; 3) il n'y a aucun lien entre le DPT et la créativité kinesthésique ; 4) une humeur positive a un impact significatif sur la pensée créative des enfants ; 5) une perspective d'apprentissage semble être un facteur prédicteur du perfectionnement de la créativité et des compétences socio affectives dans des séances de DPT. Mots-clés : Créativité, compétences émotionnelles, théorie de l'esprit, enfants, pédagogie du théâtre 1. Opening (10 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil (You can put them on the floor altogether). Explain that they are starting a game workshop in order to learn how to play together, how to help each other, how to collaborate with others, among other things. Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment.

APPENDICES

Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number. Collect the SAM sheets. Explain that they are doing this opening at every session so, for next time, as they enter the room, they have to sit on the floor in a circle. Briefly describe the objectives of the session. Ask everybody to stand up and start the warm-up articulation activity: Starting from the feet for finishing with the head they have to move in soft circles each body articulation while breathing deeply in silence, trying to wake-up the body. (You can tell another child to do this waking-up activity for the next sessions)

Activities: (40 min)

The walks (20): Children are asked to freely walk through the room, listening to the instructions. First they walk freely without following each other, without talking, just walking as everyday. Then, they are asked to walk fast, very fast, then slow, very slow. After a while of mixing velocities, they are asked to walk high, the highest (they can jump), then low, the lowest (they can crawl). After a while mixing positions, they are asked to walk dense, very dense (like crossing through a bread dough) then light, very light (like in the moon). Then, ask the children to mix, example: fast-dense, slow-high, freeway. Ask them to walk happy, remind them of the aspects of movement: fast-slow, high-low, dense-light, and give the instruction again: walking happy, how would it be happiness to walk, then sadness, then angry, then surprised, etc and back to neutral.

Museum of statues (20):

Tell the children to continue walking normally. Then tell them that at the count of three, they will need to freeze as a statue, representing the emotion or sensation that is given. 1,2,3 happiness, sadness, anger, surprise. After passing through the four emotions you restart by saying the emotions again, in this point, each time you say the emotion they have to freeze in a statue, after a time holding their statue, you ask them to think (JUST think) of a sound that this statue would have. Then when you touch some of them they return a bit to life by making a sound. After four emotions are done in sound, you will ask them to walk again, and re-say each emotion, but now, everybody freeze and sound at the same time, but only the touched ones can back to life by walking as the statue they are representing. Or some of them can walk around the living museum of statues.

Feedback time (10 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Explain the children that this is the feedback time, that each time after the game session they will do the same. At this time they can express their ideas, opinions and feelings of the experimented games. Ask the children if they have any emotions/feeling to express, either they have felt participative, rejected, cooperative, bored, etc. and if they want to comment something that happened, positive or negative, everything is welcome. After a few comments, give each child a second SAM paper. Ask the children how they felt. Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet. Clap three times as a closure gesture.

SESSION 2 Test of collaborative behaviours part I Objective: Measure initial collaboration behaviours

Activity(ies) description:

1. Opening: (10 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil (You can put them on the floor altogether). Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment.

Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number. Collect the SAM sheets. Ask everybody to stand up and start the warm-up articulation activity: Starting from the feet for finishing with the head they have to move in soft circles each body articulation while breathing deeply in silence, trying to wake-up the body.

Activity: (35-40 min)

Prisoner's Dilemma (collaborative task) (10) Ask the children to pick up a red and a blue card from a box you have and to go sit in two rows, back to back with another classmate. Explain that in this moment their a going to play a prison game. Ask them to sit on the floor back to back with any other classmate. Explain them that each of them had committed a robbery with the partner that is in their back. Make clear that the objective of the game is to have the less time in prison altogether and not to have less time in prison than their partner. Explain that from this moment on, they are not allowed to say a single word. Explain the instructions: "So you got caught in a robbery, and you are in prison with this partner. The police give you a special treat: if both of you do not confess, you will stay in prison two years each, SO 4 YEARS ALTOGETHER. If both of you do confess, betraying each other, you will stay 8 years in prison each, SO 16 YEARS ALTOGETHER. But, if one of you helps the other and do not confess, but the other one do confess, the one who confessed goes free and the one who didn't confess, the one who helped, stays 10 years in prison. Remember you have no right to talk to anyone. You have one minute to decide wisely, and at the count of three you will raise your decision high so I can note it. I repeat the sentences: if both of you do not confess, you will stay in prison two years each, SO 4 YEARS ALTOGETHER. If both of you do confess, betraying each other, you will stay 8 years in prison each, SO 16 YEARS ALTOGETHER. But, if one of you helps the other and do not confess, but the other one do confess, the one who confessed goes free and the one who didn't confess, the one who helped stays 10 years in prison. You can't look or talk to your classmates. You have one minute to decide starting now… Time is up, at the count of three, raise your decision and keep it high" Note the decision of each child/pair. Ask the kids to put down the cards. Explain that you will say out loud the results, that they cannot comment, and that they are making their decision again, and they can change their decision if they like. Say out loud the results. Explain again: "now you have 30 second to decide if you keep the same answer or if you change your answer. 30 seconds starts now… time is over raise you answer" Write down their answers and say it out loud. Parachutes ( 5) acting out they were in a plane and run out of gasoline so they have to save themselves by putting themselves together to the number of people the parachutes is made for. This is decision of the adult, until the whole group is divided into two subgroups. Story in 7 pictures (collaborative task) (15) Everybody must participate in each part of the activity. They have to choose a story, choose 7 episodes and make a photo with their bodies with each of it so they can tell the story in only 7 pictures. Classmates vote for the best picture on the other team.

Feedback time: (10 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Explain the children that this is the feedback time, that each time after the game session they will do the same. At this time they can express their ideas, opinions and feelings of the experimented games. Ask the children if they have any emotions/feeling to express, either they have felt participative, rejected, cooperative, bored, etc. and if they want to comment something that happened, positive or negative, everything is welcome. After a few comments, give each child a second SAM paper. Ask the children how they felt Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet. Clap three times as a closure gesture.

SESSION 3 Intrapersonal Skills

Objective: Development of emotional identification and emotional expression. Development of communication.

Affective development: Identification of emotions and emotional expression, pleasure of guessing, pleasure in role dramatization, empathy. Social development: Verbal and nonverbal communication: active listening and collective decision making, playing, group-belonging, empathy (role playing). Intellectual development: originality and expression in socio-dramatic creativity, symbolization, expression and understanding of language, attention. Psychomotor development: psychomotor expression, corporal schema.

Activity(ies) description:

1. Opening: (10 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil (You can put them on the floor altogether). Explain that they are starting a game workshop in order to learn how to play together, how to help each other, how to collaborate with others, among other things. Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment.

Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number. Collect the SAM sheets. Explain that they are doing this opening at every session so, for next time, as they enter the room, they have to sit on the floor in a circle. Briefly describe the objectives of the session. Ask everybody to stand up and start the warm-up articulation activity: Starting from the feet for finishing with the head they have to move in soft circles each body articulation while breathing deeply in silence, trying to wake-up the body. (You can tell another child to do this waking-up activity for the next sessions)

Activity: (40 min)

Discover the emotion (you can use the box of clothes) The group is divided in 2 groups. Give each group 3 different emotions/feelings (happiness, anger, sadness, fear, surprise, envy, love, etc.). Tell the children, that they will have 20 minutes for deciding and practicing how they would mimic each of this 3 feelings, clearly, in order to let the other group guess the feelings they were representing. The guessing group will have around 3 minutes to decide which were the three emotions, and where it was clear for them that the emotion expressed was so. If they don't guess, you can tell the representing group to re-play, guiding them to a more efficient expression.

Feedback time: (10 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Explain the children that this is the feedback time, that each time after the game session they will do the same. At this time they can express their ideas, opinions and feelings of the experimented games. Ask the children if they have any emotions/feeling to express, either they have felt participative, rejected, cooperative, bored, etc. and if they want to comment something that happened, positive or negative, everything is welcome. After a few comments, give each child a second SAM paper. Ask the children how they felt Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet. Clap three times as a closure gesture.

*For this activity, some feedback/debate questions are proposed if needed: Was it difficult to find an agreement in how to represent the emotions? Did everyone gave his/her opinion or idea? Were all the ideas taken in account? Was it fun to represent? Was it fun to guess? What are the causes/situations that provoke this emotions/feelings? How can we deal and solve feelings like sadness or anger?

Activity(ies) description:

1. Opening: (10 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil (You can put them on the floor altogether). Explain that they are starting a game workshop in order to learn how to play together, how to help each other, how to collaborate with others, among other things. Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment.

Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number. Collect the SAM sheets. Explain that they are doing this opening at every session so, for next time, as they enter the room, they have to sit on the floor in a circle. Briefly describe the objectives of the session. Ask everybody to stand up and start the warm-up articulation activity: Starting from the feet for finishing with the head they have to move in soft circles each body articulation while breathing deeply in silence, trying to wake-up the body. (You can tell another child to do this waking-up activity for the next sessions)

Activity: (40 min)

Dramatized themes The group is divided in two or three. They choose an envelope in which a topic/situation appears (e.g. supermarket, football game, birthday party, mountain excursion, etc). *** they also have to pick up two papers from the "emotions" envelope**** The idea is to create a story in group: it is mandatory that each of the participants of the group creates something in order to develop the story. They can dress up or construct objects if they need for the representation. They will have around 15 minutes to prepare something to be shown to the other group. After the scene is finished, the other group has to guess what topic/situation *** and which emotions/mental states*** were represented.

Feedback time: (10 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Explain the children that this is the feedback time, that each time after the game session they will do the same. At this time they can express their ideas, opinions and feelings of the experimented games. Ask the children if they have any emotions/feeling to express, either they have felt participative, rejected, cooperative, bored, etc. and if they want to comment something that happened, positive or negative, everything is welcome. After a few comments, give each child a second SAM paper. Ask the children how they felt Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet. Clap three times as a closure gesture. *For this activity, some feedback/debate questions are proposed if needed: Did everyone contribute to the story? Was it difficult to create it? And to represent it? How did you divide the roles? Did you enjoy dressing-up? Would you prefer another topic? Which ones? Did you like your classmates representation? why?

Activity(ies) description:

1. Opening: (10 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil (You can put them on the floor altogether). Explain that they are starting a game workshop in order to learn how to play together, how to help each other, how to collaborate with others, among other things.

Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment.

Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number. Collect the SAM sheets. Explain that they are doing this opening at every session so, for next time, as they enter the room, they have to sit on the floor in a circle. Briefly describe the objectives of the session. Ask everybody to stand up and start the warm-up articulation activity: Starting from the feet for finishing with the head they have to move in soft circles each body articulation while breathing deeply in silence, trying to wake-up the body. (You can tell another child to do this waking-up activity for the next sessions) 2. Activity: (40 min) Situation problem solving. Divide the group in two or three. Give each group a conflictive imaginary situation that they have to represent in front of others. You can choose an abstract topic: nature destruction, lack of friends; or a concrete topic observed in the class: two different opinions, aggressive behaviour, margination behaviour. Give the children a frame in order to develop their ideas about the topic. A previous situation, and promote them to solve this situation in a healthy way. Children have 10 minutes to decide and practice the scene. Then, five to ten minutes to represent. After both groups had passed a pre-feedback is conducted: Ask the children to sit in circle and ask them: Why did you choose this solution? The idea is that they share why they have chosen that solution and why they think is the more efficient. Solutions might be assertive (express feelings and thoughts without humiliating or hurting others), aggressives (express feelings and thoughts humiliating or harming others) or passives (does not express feelings or thoughts, submitting to the other). If the solution the children gave are aggressive or passive you should guide them to positive assertive ways of solving the issue (e.g. ask the other about his/her behaviour, showing him/her the impact of this behaviour in others, the consequences for relationships, ask him/her damage repair, etc.

Feedback time: (10 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Explain the children that this is the feedback time, that each time after the game session they will do the same. At this time they can express their ideas, opinions and feelings of the experimented games. Ask the children if they have any emotions/feeling to express, either they have felt participative, rejected, cooperative, bored, etc. and if they want to comment something that happened, positive or negative, everything is welcome. After a few comments, give each child a second SAM paper. Ask the children how they felt Ask everybody to close their eyes, breathe deeply and remain in silence. Ask them to check how they feel. To try to identify how they feel in this precise moment. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet. Clap three times as a closure gesture. *For this activity, some feedback/debate questions are proposed if needed: Was it difficult to find an agreement about the solution? Was it fun to represent?

SESSION 6 Test for kinesthetic creativity and collaborative behaviours part II

Objective: Measure of kinesthetic creativity and final collaboration behaviours 1. Opening: (5 min) Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil as they enter and ask them to answer the SAM as they usually and to write they code number on the sheet. Collect the SAM sheets and ask them to sit on a chair. *In order to make this part quicker, you can prepare the classroom with two lines of chairs, back to back, and ask the children to quickly sit on a chair, after they finished their SAM. Each chair has a blue and a red car underneath.

Activity: (50 min)

Prisoner's Dilemma (collaborative task) (10) Explain that in this moment their a going to play a prison game. Explain them that each of them had committed a robbery with the partner that is in their back. Make clear that the objective of the game is to have the less time in prison altogether and not to have less time in prison than their partner. Explain that from this moment on, they are not allowed to say a single word, and ask them to pick up the two card under their seats. Explain the instructions: "So you got caught in a robbery, and you are in prison with this partner. The police gives you a special treat: if both of you do not confess, you will stay in prison two years each, SO 4 YEARS ALTOGETHER. If both of you do confess, betraying each other, you will stay 8 years in prison each, SO 16 YEARS ALTOGETHER. But, if one of you helps the other and do not confess, but the other one do confess, the one who confessed goes free and the one who didn't confess, the one who helped, stays 10 years in prison. Remember you have no right to talk to anyone. You have one minute to decide wisely, and at the count of three you will raise your decision high so I can note it. I repeat the sentences: if both of you do not confess, you will stay in prison two years each, SO 4 YEARS ALTOGETHER. If both of you do confess, betraying each other, you will stay 8 years in prison each, SO 16 YEARS ALTOGETHER. But, if one of you helps the other and do not confess, but the other one do confess, the one who confessed goes free and the one who didn't confess, the one who helped stays 10 years in prison. You can't look or talk to your classmates. You have one minute to decide starting now… Time is up, at the count of three, raise your decision and keep it high" Note the decision of each child/pair. Ask the kids to put down the cards. Explain that you will say out loud the results, that they cannot comment, and that they are making their decision again, and they can change their decision if they like. Say out loud the results. Explain again: "now you have 30 second to decide if you keep the same answer or if you change your answer. 30 seconds starts now… time is over raise you answer" Write down their answers and say it out loud. Quickly, ask the participants to take their chairs and put them aside. Lifesavers (collaborative task) (5) Ask the children to act out as they were swimming and got lost in the middle of the sea. In order to save themselves they have to put themselves together with the number of people the lifesaver is made for. This number is decision of the adult, in order to get the group divided into two subgroups. (10) it is mandatory that everybody in each group participate.Using only their bodies, ask the children to create a fishing boat, a plane, a two floor house, a computer, an ongoing washing machine. They have maximum one minute to finish each figure. After the figure is done, quickly tell them the next figure to create. Do not give them time to discuss, there will be time for this later. At the end, during the feedback they would vote for the most creative figure.

Figures with body (collaborative task)

TCAM (Test of Creativity in Action and Movement) (15)

-Item 1 (2min): Ask the children: How many different ways you can use to move from A to B or from B to A ? (two lines marked down on the floor with a masking tape separated by 6 metres) You have one minute and a half to cross from here to there and from there to here as many times as you like, using a different way every time. It doesn't count if you do the same as your classmate, invent your own way. -Item 2 (5min): Ask the children to walk around the space normally. Ask them to move like a tree in the wind, like a rabbit, like a fish, like a snake, like driving a car, like pushing an elephant. -Item 3 (5min): Ask the children to walk around the space normally. Ask them to express with their bodies being very happy, being very sad, being very cold (I 'da rather say scared), being very hot (I'd rather say very angry) -Item 4 (2 min) Ask the children to pick up a plastic glass and to walk with it around the space. Tell them that they will have one minute and a half to use the plastic glass as whatever they imagine it could be. Remind them it doesn't count if they copy the idea of other classmate. The objective is to give the plastic glass, as many uses as possible.

You can guide them by as them this question: What other stuff can be made with a plastic glass? You have one minute and a have starting now.

3. Feedback time: (5 min) Question in a box. Each child is given four little pieces of paper and a pencil. Then they are asked to write the name of other classmates according to 4 given instructions. After the first instruction is given, they write down the names in the first piece of paper and put it in a common box. When everybody has given their papers, the adult collect all papers from the box and store them in a separate envelope. Procedure is the same for each of the instructions. The adult explains the activity: "For this feedback activity I need you to answer honestly. Do not worry about what you write in your paper because we are not reading them out loud and nobody else but me will read them later. You will have 1 minute to answer each question" 1.

"Write down the name of the three most helpful classmates" 2.

"Write down the name of the three less helpful classmates" 3. "Write down the name of the three classmates that are more likely to defend another when others bully him/her" 4. "Write down the name of the three classmates that are more likely to reassure another when she/he gets hurt" Appendix 2: Collective Sport Games Manual 1. Opening (10 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil (You can put them on the floor altogether). Ask them to identify how they feel in this precise moment. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write their code number. Collect the SAM sheets. Explain that they are doing this opening at every session so, for next time, as they enter the room, they have to sit on the floor in a circle and answer the SAM. Ask everybody to stand up and start the warm-up articulation activity: Starting from the feet for finishing with the head they have to move in soft circles each body articulation while breathing deeply in silence, trying to wake-up the body. (You can tell another child to do this waking-up activity for the next sessions)

Activities: (40 min)

The Flag (20): Divide the classroom in three parts. The castle, the game playground, the prison. Put in the middle of the playground a chair with a "precious flag". Divide the group into robbers and defenders. Give each robber a scarf to put in the trousers or t-shirt (easy to "steal"). Ask them to go to their initial places: castle for defenders, prison for robbers. Once you say "go defend" the defenders get close to the flag, and once you say "go steal", the robbers to try to steal the flag. The defenders have to take the robbers scarf. When this happens, the robber goes directly to the prison, and has to wait until the start ends. After a while, change the defenders and robbers. Ice (20): Choose an "Ice person" Ice person has to run after his/herc classmates in order to freeze them up. Children have the faculty to free their classmates by passing underneath the legs of the other. After a while change the ice person. You can play with two or more ice person if needed.

Closure time (10 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Give each child a second SAM paper. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and write their code.

SESSION 2 Test of collaborative behaviours part I

1. Opening: (5 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number.

Activity: (35-40 min)

Prisoner's Dilemma (collaborative task) (10) Ask the children to pick up a red and a blue card from a box you have and to go sit in two rows, back to back with another classmate. Explain that in this moment their a going to play a prison game. Ask them to sit on the floor back to back with any other classmate. Explain them that each of them had committed a robbery with the partner that is in their back. Make clear that the objective of the game is to have the less time in prison altogether and not to have less time in prison than their partner. Explain that from this moment on, they are not allowed to say a single word. Explain the instructions: "So you got caught in a robbery, and you are in prison with this partner. The police gives you a special treat: if both of you do not confess, you will stay in prison two years each, SO 4 YEARS ALTOGETHER. If both of you do confess, betraying each other, you will stay 8 years in prison each, SO 16 YEARS ALTOGETHER. But, if one of you helps the other and do not confess, but the other one do confess, the one who confessed goes free and the one who didn't confess, the one who helped, stays 10 years in prison. Remember you have no right to talk to anyone. You have one minute to decide wisely, and at the count of three you will raise your decision high so I can note it. I repeat the sentences: if both of you do not confess, you will stay in prison two years each, SO 4 YEARS ALTOGETHER. If both of you do confess, betraying each other, you will stay 8 years in prison each, SO 16 YEARS ALTOGETHER. But, if one of you helps the other and do not confess, but the other one do confess, the one who confessed goes free and the one who didn't confess, the one who helped stays 10 years in prison. You can't look or talk to your classmates. You have one minute to decide starting now… Time is up, at the count of three, raise your decision and keep it high" Note the decision of each child/pair. Ask the kids to put down the cards. Explain that you will say out loud the results, that they cannot comment, and that they are making their decision again, and they can change their decision if they like. Say out loud the results. Explain again: "now you have 30 second to decide if you keep the same answer or if you change your answer. 30 seconds starts now… time is over raise you answer" Write down their answers and say it out loud. Parachutes ( 5) acting out they were in a plane and run out of gasoline so they have to save themselves by putting themselves together to the number of people the parachutes is made for. This is decision of the adult, until the whole group is divided into two subgroups. Story in 7 pictures (collaborative task) [START_REF] Pollard | Child well-being: A systematic review of the literature[END_REF] Everybody must participate in each part of the activity. They have to choose a story, choose 7 episodes and make a photo with their bodies with each of it so they can tell the story in only 7 pictures. Classmates vote for the best picture on the other team.

Closure time (5 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Give each child a second SAM paper. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and write their code.

SESSION 3

1. Opening: (5 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number.

Activity: (40 min)

Messengers and combatant (20) Divide the group in two groups. One are the messengers with a scarf (message) in their trousers/t-shirts, the other ones are the combatants that have to avoid the message to arrive. Messengers start from one side of the room and they have to deliver the message to the other side of the room. Combattants are in the middle trying to avoid this. After a while change the messengers, and put delimited boxed for receiving messages. Police-Robbers (20) Choose a couple of policemen that will prosecute the robbers and put them into a jail. When the police touch the arm of a robber, the robber has to stop running, and the policeman conduct him to jail. The other classmates are all robbers, and in order to free their classmates, they have to go to the jail and high five them. Only one robber can release one robber at a time.

Closure time (5 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Give each child a second SAM paper. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and write their code.

SESSION 4

1. Opening: (5 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number.

Activity: (40 min)

Circle dodgeball (20) Draw large circle. All children are dodgers inside circle except for 1 or 2 children that are throwers. Throwers stay outside the circle and try to hit dodgers inside with a ball. If hit, a scout leaves the circle and becomes a thrower. Last one left wins. Hits above the waist do not count and that thrower sits out the next round as a consequence. Dodgers can not catch the balls. If a ball bounces before hitting a dodger, it does not count. Shark-Fishes(20) Choose a couple of sharks that will go behind the fishes and put them into a cage. When a shark touch the arm of a fish, the fish has to stop running, and the shark conduct him to cage. The other classmates are all fishes, and in order to free their classmates, they have to go to the cage and high five them. Only one fish can release one fish at a time.

Closure time (5 min)

Everybody sit in a circle. Give each child a second SAM paper. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and write their code.

SESSION 5

1. Opening: (5 min) Everybody in a circle. Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and to write they code number.

Activity: (40 min)

Team against team (20): All teams has a scarf behind, and they "fight" with the other team in order to have all the scarfs. One scarf can be taken at a time.

NEXT STEP: everybody against everybody. The one who gots all scarfs win. Au chat (20): Choose a "cat" cat person has to run after his/her classmates in order to turn them into the "cat", and so this new person follows the rest and converts then into the "cat". BUT this person can only convert people by touching them on one hand.

3. Closure time (5 min) Everybody sit in a circle. Give each child a second SAM paper. Ask them to answer the SAM sheet and write their code.

SESSION 6

Test for movement creativity and collaborative behaviours part II 1. Opening: (5 min) Give each child a SAM paper and a pencil as they enter and ask them to answer the SAM as they usually and to write they code number on the sheet. Collect the SAM sheets and ask them to sit on a chair. *In order to make this part quicker, you can prepare the classroom with two lines of chairs, back to back, and ask the children to quickly sit on a chair, after they finished their SAM. Each chair has a blue and a red car underneath.

Activity: (50 min)

Prisoner's Dilemma (collaborative task) (10) Explain that in this moment their a going to play a prison game. Explain them that each of them had committed a robbery with the partner that is in their back. Make clear that the objective of the game is to have the less time in prison altogether and not to have less time in prison than their partner. Explain that from this moment on, they are not allowed to say a single word, and ask them to pick up the two card under their seats. Explain the instructions: "So you got caught in a robbery, and you are in prison with this partner. The police gives you a special treat: if both of you do not confess, you will stay in prison two years each, SO 4 YEARS ALTOGETHER. If both of you do confess, betraying each other, you will stay 8 years in prison each, SO 16 YEARS ALTOGETHER. But, if one of you helps the other and do not confess, but the other one do confess, the one who confessed goes free and the one who didn't confess, the one who helped, stays 10 years in prison. Remember you have no right to talk to anyone. You have one minute to decide wisely, and at the count of three you will raise your decision high so I can note it. I repeat the sentences: if both of you do not confess, you will stay in prison two years each, SO 4 YEARS ALTOGETHER. If both of you do confess, betraying each other, you will stay 8 years in prison each, SO 16 YEARS ALTOGETHER. But, if one of you helps the other and do not confess, but the other one do confess, the one who confessed goes free and the one who didn't confess, the one who helped stays 10 years in prison. You can't look or talk to your classmates. You have one minute to decide starting now… Time is up, at the count of three, raise your decision and keep it high" Note the decision of each child/pair. Ask the kids to put down the cards. Explain that you will say out loud the results, that they cannot comment, and that they are making their decision again, and they can change their decision if they like. Say out loud the results. Explain again: "now you have 30 second to decide if you keep the same answer or if you change your answer. 30 seconds starts now… time is over raise you answer" Write down their answers and say it out loud. Quickly, ask the participants to take their chairs and put them aside. Lifesavers (5) Ask the children to act out as they were swimming and got lost in the middle of the sea. In order to save themselves they have to put themselves together with the number of people the lifesaver is made for. This number is decision of the adult, in order to get the group divided into two subgroups. Figures with body (collaborative task) (10) it is mandatory that everybody in each group participate.Using only their bodies, ask the children to create a fishing boat, a plane, a two floor house, a computer, an ongoing washing machine. They have maximum one minute to finish each figure. After the figure is done, quickly tell them the next figure to create. Do not give them time to discuss, there will be time for this later. At the end, during the feedback they would vote for the most creative figure. TCAM (Test of Creativity in Action and Movement) [START_REF] Pollard | Child well-being: A systematic review of the literature[END_REF] Item 1 (2min): Ask the children: How many different ways you can use to move from A to B or from B to A ? (two lines marked down on the floor with a masking tape separated by 6 metres) You have one minute and a half to cross from here to there and from there to here as many times as you like, using a different way every time. It doesn't count if you do the same as your classmate, invent your own way. Item 2 (5min): Ask the children to walk around the space normally. Ask them to move like a tree in the wind, like a rabbit, like a fish, like a snake, like driving a car, like pushing an elephant. Item 3 (5min): Ask the children to walk around the space normally. Ask them to express with their bodies being very happy, being very sad, being very cold (I 'da rather say scared), being very hot (I'd rather say very angry) Item 4 (2 min) Ask the children to pick up a plastic glass and to walk with it around the space. Tell them that they will have one minute and a half to use the plastic glass as whatever they imagine it could be. Remind them it doesn't count if they copy the idea of other classmate. The objective is to give the plastic glass, as many uses as possible. You can guide them by as them this question: What other stuff can be made with a plastic glass? You have one minute and a have starting now. 3. Feedback time: (5 min) Each child is given four little pieces of paper and a pencil. Then they are asked to write the name of other classmates according to 4 given instructions. After the first instruction is given, they write down the names in the first piece of paper and put it in a common box. When everybody has given their papers, the adult collect all papers from the box and store them in a separate envelope. Procedure is the same for each of the instructions. The adult explains the activity: "For this feedback activity I need you to answer honestly. Do not worry about what you write in your paper because we are not reading them out loud and nobody else but me will read them later. You will have 1 minute to answer each question" 1. "Write down the name of the three most helpful classmates" 2. "Write down the name of the three less helpful classmates" 3. "Write down the name of the three classmates that are more likely to defend another when others bully him/her" 4. "Write down the name of the three classmates that are more likely to reassure another when she/he gets hurt" INTRODUCTION Even if there is no clear consensus on the concept, an immense literature on children's well-being keeps to develop quickly (Amerijckx & Humblet, 2014;Ben-Arieh, Casas, Frønes, & Korbin, 2014;Casas, 2011;Pollard & Lee, 2003). In order to better understand its basis, we will explain below some distinctions surrounding children's well-being.

Children's wellbeing, is constructed from objective and subjective indicators of life satisfaction. Objective indicators emerged in the 60s from a social perspective and there were focused on external conditions. These conditions were classified as material resources, safety, human rights, among others (Axfort, Jodreel, & Hobbs, 2014). Nevertheless, social realities are wide more complex and so objective indicators were not enough to accuratel y describe children's well-being. Regarding this, subjective indicators were developed in order to consider, for example, children's own perspectives about their own life perceptions, appraisals, and aspirations (Casas, 2011).

Subjective indicators can be seen from two different perspectives: subjective well-being (SWB) or psychological well-being (PWB). Both perspectives are based on happiness but with basic differences depending the approach. SWB is constructed from a hedonic approach describing people's affective responses, domain satisfactions, and global judgments of life satisfaction. By the other side, PWB is constructed from an eudemonic approach describing psychological functioning of a person and his/her personal development (Ryff, 1989).

For this paper, we are going to talk about well-being from a hedonic approach. In this line, we will consider, for example, positive emotions, as an indicator of children's well-being.

We can easily see how positive emotions emerge in children when playing, so a good way to enhance positive emotions, and hence well-being, could be done through play based trainings. An important part of successful play-based programs, belong to Drama Pedagogy Trainings (DPTs). DPT is a kind of gamebased methodology, focused on the creative process that works with the cognitive and affective dimensions of the participants by promoting a safe and caring environment in order to develop positive emotions and positive relationships.

As part of an ongoing research (Emoted project research) Celume, Besançon and Zenasni (ICEI, 2017) tried to find a relationship between creativity and positive emotions on children and conducted a creativity training based on a novel pedagogy: DPT.. The first pilot training of Emoted was expected to have an influence on positive emotions, and thus, on well-being. It was tested on 209 school children from 8 to 10 years old, from three different schools. Results showed an increase of positive emotions on a subsample of children aged 9-10.

The Emoted project research was held with primary school children from Ile-de-France region in France. The first part of this ongoing research was conducted at the end of 2016. Unfortunately, it failed to prove that positive emotions had a positive influence over creativity because most of children didn't understand the instructions for the tasks.

Nevertheless, these results led us to look this relationship between creativity and positive emotions from another perspective. This perspective was mainly focused on the positive effects that a creativity training could have over children's collaborative behavior, positive emotions and well-being. We found several studies proposing play as a motor for creativity with other positive emotional outcomes (e.g. Berretta and Privette, 1990;Moore & Russ, 2008) resulting, several of them, based on DPT (e.g. Garcia-Huidobro, 2004;Kende, 2014;Boal,1989;Hammond, 2015). This, lead us to the creation of the first Emoted pilot training, based in three existing trainings. First, we adapted the creative dramatic games of Garaigordobil's program (2003Garaigordobil's program ( , 2016) ) because of her focus on collaborative behaviors on 8 to 10 year old children. Second, we adapted some activities found in Garcia-Huidobro's (2004) and Boal's (1989) books because of the important basis of DPT methodology.

METHODOLOGY

For the study, 209 French primary school children aged between 8 to 10 years old participated in the study. The groups were divided by grade. For the analyses we excluded the 8 year old children, resulting in 76 children participating in the Emoted pilot training and 71 participating as control group in a Sport training.

The training were conducted in 6 sessions of one hour, once a week. Collaborative skills were measured by Prisoner's Dilemma Game and Positive Emotions were measured by SAM scale after each session.

RESULTS

This study showed an increase of collaboration skills towards their classmates helping them find new solutions together. Participants in the DPT Emoted pilot training significantly increased their scores in the collaboration task, comparing them versus the control group (t=6,1 p<.00). This finding is particularly interesting considering that the DPT group was significantly lower in collaboration skills compared to the control group. The Emoted pilot training also increased positive emotions after each session, being also higher in contrast to the control group in sportive games (t=3,7 p<.00). Some comments of children, point out the fact that being involved in a DPT as the Emoted pilot training, made them feel better than those children involved in a more competitive training. This can be explained by the engagement and sense of collective achievement of the Emoted pilot training where there were no winners and losers, sharing the collective process and learnings at the end of each session (Celume, Sovet, Lubart & Zenasni, 2017). This is supported by Seligman (2011) who propose a) positive emotions, b) positive relationships, c) engagement, and d) achievement as the four main aspects for his PERMA wellbeing model. When children were participating in the Emoted pilot training, they were building new positive relationships that lasted after the pilot training was finished. The fact of bulding new positive relationships with others, developed positive emotions in themselves.

During the Emoted pilot training, we also observed how children were absorbed in the activities they were asked to do, they showed enthusiastic, interested and focused on the activity. In most of the activities, when they played to be someone else, children were playing just because of the sake of doing it, even continuing their characters after the training session was finished (Celume et al. 2017) helping develop their motivation, positive emotions, and hence, well-being. This idea is supported by the theory of flow from Csikszentmihalyi (2009). This theory proposes that, this immersion in an activity brings an estate of full enjoyment, which might develop well-being. Flow theory says that being focused and enjoying an activity permits flow to occur. Hence, children achieved a flow state through the fully engagement in the Emoted pilot training.

CONCLUSIONS

The results of this DPT were the enhancement of collaborative behaviour and positive emotions observed during the six sessions of the pilot. After the six sessions, some aleatory interviews were made, emerging topics as interest and engagement in activities. Interest and engagement are basic components of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation in SDT theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000) comes from the inside of the person when an activity or situation is being accomplished just for the sake of doing it. This, turns out in the fulfillment of basic needs that can lead to well-being. Moreover, Csikszentmihalyi's (2009) suggests that when the person is fully engaged to a situation, a sensation of flow conducts to experiencing well-being.

According to Seligman's (2011) PERMA model and the happiness theory, positive emotions are the basis for developing well-being.

These analyses have shown how creative trainings, such as the Emoted program described, can be related to the enhancement and development of children's well-being. Most successful creative trainings that relate to well-being, are based in active-engaging artistic activities, like Drama Pedagogy Trainings. Children's creativity has been proved to be enhanced through this kind of training, although children's well-being can still be a subject of discussion. Nevertheless, the enhancement of motivation, self-confidence and positive emotions in the classroom seem to be like a good starting point to continue in the research of fostering children's well-being in school contexts.

INTRODUCTION

Creativity can be identified in terms of creative thinking through the evaluation of divergent thinking and creative problem solving abilities. These abilities can be enhanced through creativity trainings (Scott et al., 2004), particularly through embodied creativity trainings (Byrge and Tang, 2015) such as drama-based trainings (e.g., Fischer, 1989;Garaigordobil, 2003;Hui and Lau, 2006;Yasar and Aral, 2012; for a review of drama-based trainings: Lee et al., 2015).

A recent meta-analysis conducted by Lee et al. (2015) showed that drama-based trainings (originally presented as Drama-Based Pedagogies) had significant effects on children's creative thinking. Moreover, throughout of the scope of the cited meta-analysis, we found a vast universe of training and pedagogies that are assumed to have an impact on children's creative thinking (e.g., Theater of the oppressed, Boal, 1989;Socio-drama, Moreno, 1943, Drama Pedagogy, García-Huidobro, 1996). Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT), is a particular kind of training issued from Drama Pedagogy García-Huidobro's (1996) that presumes to enhance creative thinking.

The aim of this review is to (a) describe the characteristics of DPT, (b) analyze the specific elements of DPT that should favor creative thinking in children and adolescents, and (c) highlight any specific aspects of creative thinking that are enhanced through these elements of DPT.

For that purpose, we will first describe the conceptual implications of the concept DPT and how it can be found in literature under different names. Secondly, we will briefly review empirical evidence on how DPT or activities issued from DPT enhanced creative thinking. Finally, we will categorize the elements of DPT that might be enhancing creative thinking according to the current literature and organize them in a model for better understanding. This conceptual model will be presented in two main categories (1) Drama Technical Phases which focuses on the practical activities of DPT including (a) corporal expression training and (b) main drama techniques, such as storytelling or improvisation and role-play, and (2) Psycho-Pedagogical Framework which focuses on the characteristics of a DPT session including (c) playfulness, (d) collaborative and safe environment, and (e) feedback.

DRAMA PEDAGOGY TRAINING (DPT)

In order to understand the concept of DPT, we first need to define Drama Pedagogy. Drama Pedagogy is an active pedagogy based on drama games and techniques. According to García-Huidobro (1996, 2004), it can be divided into four tendencies, namely (a) neoclassical, (b) liberal progressivism, (c) radical, and (d) critical socialism. These tendencies can be inserted in three different areas or dimensions of work, namely (a) inside the educational setting, (b) outside the educational setting, and (c) as a therapeutic dimension. Several combinations of these tendencies and dimensions map onto the concepts reviewed by Lee et al. (2015), even if Drama Pedagogy itself was out of the scope of that study. Thus, DPT can be described as the kind of training that follows the liberal progressivism tendency from Drama Pedagogy inside and outside of the educational setting.

The liberal progressivism tendency of Drama Pedagogy is focused on the experiences that participants can develop through playing drama games rather than preparing a show for an audience (Freeman et al., 2003). In other words, the aim is to contribute to the development of different competencies, such as creativity, by focusing on the process of learning over an artistic result (Heathcote et al., 1991;García-Huidobro, 1996;Woodson, 1999;Libman, 2001;Karakelle, 2009). When Drama Pedagogy is inserted inside the educational setting through the perspective of the liberal progressivism tendency, it helps the development of integral and creative children1 (Hui and Lau, 2006;Karakelle, 2009;Cremin and Macdonald, 2013).

In summary, DPT can be considered any training or workshop created through drama activities and techniques (such as pretend play, improvisation, role-play, etc.) that follows the characteristics of the liberal progressivism tendency from Drama Pedagogy. Thus, DPT can be understood as a drama-based training that works with the internal world of the participants (García-Huidobro, 1996) in order to develop creative and socioemotional competencies, and is focused on the process of learning experiences over artistic or academic results.

For this review, the concept DPT will be used to gather all the training procedures that apply to the characteristics described above, as well as the concepts presented by Freeman et al. (2003) (e.g., child-drama, play-making, child-play, or educationaldrama), and the more complex process-oriented methodologies such as socio-drama (Moreno, 1943(Moreno, , 1947;;Pecaski, 2012), Creative Drama (Rosenberg, 1981;McCaslin, 1996) or Applied Theatre (Holland, 2009). Overall, this would include all dramabased trainings or pedagogies in which the focus is on the final artistic result or any academic result (e.g., Walker et al., 2011) will not qualify as DPT.

DPT Improves Creativity: Empirical Evidences Moreno (1943); Slade (1967), andBoal (1989) can be considered pioneers in DPT as they started the use of dramatic art through representational games in their work with people without searching for any educational nor artistic outcome. Years later, their legacy is still a matter of interest in social sciences, particularly when relating DPT to creativity. In the following section, we will describe the findings of 10 studies relating to creative thinking and DPT in children and adolescents. The analyzed studies correspond to the work of drama-based trainings or pedagogies that match the characteristics of DPT as described above. Some studies have been excluded as the objectives of the training were academic or artistic, or because the particular population presented problems that could lead to a bias, as in the case of children with special needs.

Of all the studies analyzed, only one, conducted in Amato et al. (1973) on 298 school-age children could not prove a significant impact of DPT (originally described by the authors under the name of Creative Dramatics) on children's creative thinking. The researchers looked for significant differences between DPT and other trainings by measuring children's creative thinking through the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT) (Torrance, 1990). According to the authors, storytelling training (which is considered in this papers as an element of DPT) had a higher influence on creative thinking than DPT. Nevertheless, a more detailed methodology from the authors was needed in order to confirm their results. We are not aware of the activities carried on in the different training techniques, so we cannot establish a clear difference between the two mentioned trainings and between the control group and the DPT. The article did not provide the means of each group, so no effect size could be calculated.

Ten years later, Clements et al. (1982) conducted a study on 37 adolescents between 13 and 17 years old in order to evaluate the effects of a DPT program on creativity. Adolescents' creative thinking was measured through the TTCT Demonstrator [START_REF] Torrance | The Search for Satori and Creativity[END_REF] and a seven point rating scale was created by two judges in order to measure talent and experience in drama. Results showed significant correlations between TTCT scores and drama experience (r = 0.55, p < 0.001) and TTCT scores and drama talent (r = 0.46, p < 0.001) suggesting that children with more experience or talent in drama score better in creative thinking tasks. Results provided suggest medium to large effect sizes.

Similarly, Berretta and Privette (1990) studied 184 schoolage children in a fourth grade class, looking for a difference between flexible art, drama, and playground activities versus structured art, drama and playground activities. Findings showed that even though there were no significant effects in the type of activity, flexible activities produced significant differences in creative thinking scores on the TTCT (Torrance, 1990) tests versus the structured ones (F (1,178) = 4.08, p < 0.05). The effect size of flexible drama and structured drama was analyzed by calculating Cohen's d based on the mean scores provided by the original article, showing a small effect size (D = 0.26). Flexible drama activities, are more related to the concept of playfulness in DPT, where the child is free to construct play following the basic rules of a drama game (McCaslin, 1968).

Authors such as Garaigordobil (1995) have shown that creative drama games, among other cooperative games, enhanced creative thinking (particularly divergent thinking) in a sample of 154 children aged 9-10 years old. Children were assessed using three tasks of the battery of tests Guilford's (1951). Results showed significant differences in the analyses of variance and between the two groups for all three subtests. We calculated Cohen's d effect sizes on fluidity scores for the three subtests applied, finding large effect sizes for inusual tests (D = 1.4) and circle test (D = 0.98), and a huge effect size for the consequence test (D = 2.8). In 2003 she created different programs (Programa Juego) for children aged from 8 to 12 years old in order to develop creativity and other social competencies such as altruistic behavior through creative drama games and other cooperative games.

A Chinese team, leadered by Hui and Lau (2006) gathered 126 children attending first and fourth grade in order to measure the impact of DPT (originally described under the name of creative drama) on creative thinking. Children participated in an 1-ha-week DPT, during 16 weeks. They were tested on creative thinking through the Wallach-Kogan Creativity Test (WKCT; Wallach and Kogan, 1965) and the Test of Creative Thinking Drawing Production (TCT-DP; Urban and Jellen, 1996), while also designing a Story Telling Test (STT) to indirectly measure creativity, finding that participants who attended the training generated more creative responses and drawings than the control group. No standard deviation scores were provided for the WKCT and the TCT-DP tests, so no effect size could be calculated. For the STT, Cohen's d analysis showed small to medium effect size (D = 0.37) on the creativity item.

In a study conducted by Yeh and Li (2008), 116 children aged 4 to 6 years old, participated into a study to see the impact that drama might have on children's creativity. He created the Preschoolers' Creativity Test in order to measure usefulness and novelty indices, finding that the drama training through the different participants age had significant effects on children's creativity with large effect sizes (F (2,112) = 42.27, p < 0.001, η 2 = 0.43). Mullineaux and Dilalla (2009) conducted a longitudinal study on 120 children engaged in a 20 min free pretend-play (one fundamental element of DPT). They used a realistic role-play rating to measure pretend-play at age 5, and WKCT Uses-Tasks (Wallach and Kogan, 1965) plus TCT-DP (Urban and Jellen, 1996) to measure creative thinking at age 10-15. Results showed that Realistic-Role-play at age 5 was significantly correlated to WKCT (r = 0.18, p < 0.05) and TCT-DP (r = 0.22, p < 0.05) scores at follow-up, suggesting that pretend play is predictor of later creative thinking. Results of correlations suggests medium effect sizes.

Lin (2010) studied 67 children aged 11-12 years old engaged in a 10 week intervention two-sessions-a-week DPT. He tested how a drama intervention could enhance possibility thinking, as a facet of creative thinking, through diaries, response sheets and group interviews. Findings showed that children considered the drama training as a useful tool for fostering their creativity. Results from this study are qualitative, so no effect sizes could be calculated. Garaigordobil and Berrueco (2011) in Spain, tested a play based training including drama activities on 86 participants aged 5 and 6. Participants engaged in a 75 min long training sessions each week throughout the academic year. The researchers measured creativity through TTCT and the Escala de Personalidad Creadora (EPC; Garaigordobil and Pérez, 2005) finding that the training significantly increased creative personality traits, as well as verbal (e.g., fluency scores: F (1,84) = 39.99) and graphic (e.g., fluency scores: F (1,84) = 15.31) creative thinking. They also concluded that was the positive atmosphere what enhanced children's creativity. Cohen's d were calculated for fluency scores in the TTCT test, showing large to huge effect sizes for verbal (D = 1.89) and graphic (D = 0.97) tasks.

One year later, Yasar and Aral studied 80 children aged 6 yearsold who participated engaged in a twice a week in a drama education workshop over the course of 12 weeks. They were tested through TCT-DP forms A and B showing significant differences between the experimental and the control group (t = 16.1, p < 0.000). Besides, we calculated Cohen's d presenting a huge effect size (D = 3.11).

Finally, in, Mottweiler and Taylor (2014) studied the effect of elaborated role play on 75 children aged 4 to 5 years-old. Results showed that children who participated in elaborated role play had higher creativity scores with small to medium effect sizes on narrative (F (l,68) = 6.31, p < 0.039, η 2 = 0.06) and drawing (F (l,49) = 3.08, p = 0.09, η 2 = 0.06) creativity tasks.

A recent study, made by Hainselin et al. (2018), showed how improvisational theater helped enhance divergent thinking on 35 adolescents, measured through Alternative Uses Task (AUT; based on Guilford, 1967). Nevertheless, even though improvisation is part of DPT, in their study improvisation is considered as a the methodology used for adult actors or adult population, while in our study improvisation is considered as improvisational games within a particular framework (we will detail the framework below). In this line, the study of Hainselin et al. (2018) and other similar works using improvisational theater, should be considered with caution, and only as partial evidence for our study.

Effect sizes are varied for our simple. No mean for effect sizes was calculated, as some effect sizes were calculated via Cohen's d and others were provided by ANOVA analyses. Three out of 11 studies, presented problems to find effect sizes or to calculate Cohen's d. Eight studies presented sufficient data, and thus effect sizes were calculated. Two out of eight studies presented small or small to medium effect sizes, two out of eight presented medium or medium to large effect sizes and four out of eight presented large, large to huge, or huge effect sizes.

Although the studies described above make a consensus that DPT have an influence on creative thinking, none of these works explained nor differentiated which are the specific elements or characteristics of DPT that are involved in the enhancement of the different facets of creative thinking. Consequently, below we propose a model that aims to explain and categorize the different elements of DPT that are involved in the development of creative thinking.

DPT MODEL FOR CREATIVE THINKING

According to the literature reviewed above, successful creativity trainings are based on different DPT elements (e.g., Baker, 1996;Freeman et al., 2003). Following this review, we propose to categorize the elements identified into two types of main categories (1) Drama Technical Phases and (2) Psycho-Pedagogical Framework.

The Drama Technical Phases category describes the practical drama-based activities carried out during the DPT training and emphasizes the role of narrative and embodiment through the following elements: (a) corporal expression training (e.g., Byrge and Tang, 2015) and (b) main drama techniques, such as storytelling (Laidlaw, 2000) or improvisation and role-play (e.g., Moreno, 1943;Johnstone, 2012).

The Psycho-Pedagogical Framework category describes the characteristics of a DPT session and emphasizes the role of a dialogic space (including some of the aspects of narrative) through the following elements: (c) playfulness and a (d) collaborative and safe environment.

We also identified (e) feedback as an element of DPT which will be taken as an intersection between drama technical phases and psycho-pedagogical framework categories.

In order to illustrate these findings, please see the proposed model in Figure 1.

In the following section we will present each of the previously identified DPT elements discussing their influence on the creativity outcomes and creativity related processes proposed by the current literature.

The Drama Technical Phases Category

Corporal Expression Training

Corporal expression training can be understood as the physical training that happens at the beginning of a drama pedagogy session. For instance, participants are asked to move around the space and to explore the different movements they can use to move from one point of the room to another, changing speeds and quality of movements at each time.

The use of the body in support of expression is commonly related to dance. Nevertheless, one fundamental part of dramatic art is the ability to express emotions and thoughts through the body [START_REF] Snow | Movement Training for Actors[END_REF]. Corporal expression training enables the whole body for being capable to adapt to any situation that might arise (Barba, 1979). Our bodies are the first mediators between the self and the environment because all of our words and emotions go firstly through our bodies before being coded by our brains (Aden, 2014). Consequently, embodiment as a relationship between feelings, ideas, thoughts, behaviors and kinesthetic experiences [START_REF] Barsalou | Perceptions of perceptual symbols[END_REF], would be the first step to any emotional or cognitive process including creativity, which would develop as a consequence of a particular interaction between the body and its environment. For [START_REF] Martínez | Eficacia de un programa de intervención para la mejora de la creatividad motriz en un grupo de discapacitados psíquicos[END_REF] motor creativity is the ability to produce fluid, different and novel answers in order to solve a motor function or expression. They explain that when motor tasks are more ambiguous, several cognitive resources work together for the resolution of the task. According to some authors, we can talk of creative task resolution when productions are both novel and adapted to a context (Runco and Jaeger, 2012;Lubart et al., 2015). Further to this, corporal-expression in DPT could also be considered creative if the use of body is original and adapted to the context in which it's being performed. Thus, a movement could be considered original if participants express themselves in an uncommon way, while adaptation would be related to the ability of the performer to express him/herself accordingly in the space in an organic/authentic way. In other words, being able to "fill the empty space" with his/her body in order to clearly transmit ideas or emotions (Brook and Gil Novales, 1997). [START_REF] Goodwin | Authentic movement: from embryonic curl to creative thrust[END_REF] suggested that an authentic movement creativity is a response that comes from the consciousness of the unity of body (or experience) with mind (or interpretation). When DPTs involve communication between mind and body participants are able to find solutions to conflicts that they would be unable to if this connection was not established (Goff and Torrance, 1991). Creativity is a flux of movement from the unconscious to the conscious body [START_REF] Halprin | La Force Expressive du Corps[END_REF], achieved as a result of the embodiment process. Thus, through corporal expression, we have access to personal information that enables us to create something original and authentic, based on the interrelation of the unconscious and the conscious body. Embodiment is a powerful tool with which to develop creativity ( Byrge and Tang, 2015) as the act of experiencing being someone else leads participants to take risks and explore the unknown [START_REF] Yaniv | Dynamics of creativity and empathy in role reversal: contributions from neuroscience[END_REF], influencing creativity. Moreover, if we consider creativity from perspective [START_REF] Kharkhurin | Creativity.4in1: four-criterion construct of creativity[END_REF], authenticity is the ability to express the inner self by giving meaning to the creative act, increasing its' aesthetic value. Authentic movement is a creative process in which ideas are transformed into a creative act by showing the performer's inner self.

From another perspective, Sofia (2016) proposed that the motor functions of the brain and the motor system are the basis of human thinking, supporting the theory of mirror neurons [START_REF] Piaget | Premotor cortex and the recognition of motor actions[END_REF]. This demonstrates that creative processes in performers does not result in a creative a piece of art, but explains creativity as an effective relationship with the audience through an adjustment of the body-mind relationship. From this perspective, creativity is achieved through a process of embodiment that results in an empathetic connection between the performer and the audience. Both performer and spectator create a novel and adapted product, transforming reality.

In summary, corporal expression in DPT directly affects creativity through enhancing problem solving abilities, but it also works by developing risk taking and tolerance of the unknown that is achieved through a process of embodiment.

Main drama techniques: Storytelling and Pretend-Play

Storytelling and Pretend-Play are both narrative activities [START_REF] Nicolopoulou | Children and narratives: toward an interpretive and sociocultural approach[END_REF]. Pretend play, also called dramatic play [START_REF] Barbour | Essentials for Learning: Encouraging Dramatic Play and Creative Expression in Early Childhood[END_REF] is the ability to narrate a story (Laidlaw, 2000) through enacting narrative scenarios while storytelling uses a discursive exposition of them [START_REF] Nicolopoulou | Young children's pretend play and storytelling as modes of narrative activity: from complementarity to cross-fertilization?[END_REF]. To clarify, storytelling is a way of organizing and telling a story while pretend-play is the enactment of a story. In DPT storytelling is the moment when participants create their stories and organize them in a way that makes sense to them. Pretend-play in this case, is the way children pretend to use objects that do not exist, and generate actions or sounds, but do not necessarily represent a character (this would be defined as role-play). For example, some children are asked to tell a story (storytelling) while other children create the sounds or represent the activities told within the story (pretend-play).

Several authors associate pretend-play with children's creativity (e.g., Dansky and Silverman, 1973;[START_REF] Dansky | Make-believe: a mediator of the relationship between play and associative fluency[END_REF][START_REF] Fein | Pretend play in childhood: an integrative review[END_REF][START_REF] Singer | Cognitive and emotional growth through play[END_REF][START_REF] Urban | On the development of creativity in children[END_REF]Moore and Russ, 2008;Mullineaux and Dilalla, 2009). Goff and Torrance (1991) have shown that enactment in DPT helped participants to visualize different solutions to a problem fostering their creative, divergent thinking. Similarly, Rosen (1974) and [START_REF] Vandenberg | Play, problem-solving, and creativity[END_REF] concluded that through pretend-play children learn about the world enabling them to engage in problem solving creatively. Moreover, Hoffmann and Russ (2012) demonstrated a relationship between storytelling and play, showing that children with greater imagination during play and better organization in their stories (storytelling) were later superior in divergent thinking. They also explain that some cognitive processes related to creativity in pretend-play are divergent thinking and storytelling, highlighting the importance of symbolism and FI abilities. Russ (2004) states that pretend-play allows participants to think of affects and how to express them, enabling children to enhance their ability to connect memories and associations that might help creative problem solving.

Conversely, for Henry (2000) transformation is aided through the creation of metaphors where feeling and imagination interact in order to transmute reality and change the perspective of a situation. Joronen et al. (2011), found that ideas derived within storytelling increased empathy and perspective, thus impacting creativity. Therefore, in DPT the different points of view and imaginations of participants can change the storytelling of an enacted situation, also enhancing perspective taking and transformation. Mellou (1994) states that transforming the present is a cognitive process related to imagination, and that children's ability to transform objects favors creativity because children are focused beyond the obvious, enabling them to make new associations. Holland (2009) discovered that when children retold their story from different viewpoints to different participants, this helped them to consider different perspectives and create additional, different content. Dramatizing stories directly affects children's motivation and allows them to think in a more sophisticated way (Wright et al., 2008), helping the development of critical thinking and ideation, developing imagination, and divergent thinking.

In summary, during pretend-play creativity is enhanced through the act of performing narrative situations (enactment), enabling the development of perspective, divergent thinking, and problem solving. Storytelling, related to organization in play, helps the development of divergent thinking and imagination, while transforming reality helps develop perspective and empathy.

Main drama techniques: Improvisation and Role-Play

Role-play is a specific kind of pretend-play where a person pretends to be someone else in order to portray a character, while improvisation is related to spontaneous acting. In DPT both activities are used in the form of collective games. On the contrary, in adults' or actors' improvisational theater participants are pushed to showcase. For example, in collective improvisation games, the facilitator may ask participants to create, in a limited amount of time (improvisation), a collective short scene portraying (role-play) someone who is experiencing a particular emotion. Goff and Torrance (1991) explain that role-play has been used to find solutions to a wide variety of problems and dilemmas, as we can see in Moreno (1943) who explained that role-playing favors participants' capacity to analyze everyday issues. [START_REF] Verriour | This is drama[END_REF] describes DPT as a tool based principally on improvisation which develops risk taking, decision making, empathy, and perspective. Role-playing sees participants playing "as-if " they are in the shoes of another. According to McCaslin (1968) playing "as-if " increases mental flexibility, helping individuals to solve challenges or examine issues beyond the obvious, while [START_REF] Dansky | Make-believe: a mediator of the relationship between play and associative fluency[END_REF] claims that when children engage in "as-if " attitudes it enables them to improve their creative performances, particularly associative fluency. Moreover, Mellou (1995) highlights the work of Sutton-Smith (1967) and [START_REF] Bruner | Nature and uses of immaturity[END_REF] showing how "as-if " play is directly related to flexibility, inferring that both authors agree that role-play in DPT is a contributor of creative development. This capacity to analyze daily issues by playing "as-if " could help develop problem solving skills, and relates to work on perspective-thinking and empathy, as is proposed by San (2002), Laidlaw (2000); Pecaski (2012) or cited in Erdogan (2013). The latter established that role-playing and improvisation helps participants to reorganize their cognitive patterns when reviewing experiences, ideas or behaviors within a group. A study by Goldstein and Winner (2012) showed that drama training enhanced empathy through taking in the perspective of different situations that are represented during DPT sessions, by testing a DPT group against music or visual arts. Empathy has been proved to be related to creativity, as creative problem solving depends on the ability to adapt to situations within the environment, and the ability to empathize with situations [START_REF] Carlozzi | Empathy as related to creativity, dogmatism, and expressiveness[END_REF]. Hui and Lau (2006) established that role-playing is fundamental in developing creativity, showing that participants in a role-play based DPT carried out greater boundary breaking and elaboration, but also gave more creative responses in standardized tests (WKCT and TCT-DP) than non-participants. Similarly, [START_REF] Burton | Psychological autopsy in the investigation of serial neonaticides[END_REF] showed that role-playing radically increased motivation and idea generation, while [START_REF] Karwowski | How to develop creative imagination?. Assumptions, aims and effectiveness of role play training in creativity (RPTC)[END_REF] showed that role-play training increased divergent thinking through fluency scores of their participants.

Furthermore, in a recent study, Sowden et al. (2015) analyzed how dance and drama improvisation activities can enhance divergent thinking in a sample of 27 children aged 7 to 11. For the first experiment, they worked with improvised dance, and in the second with improvised drama. For the improvised drama intervention, children were measured through the figural activity 1 of the TTCT (Torrance, 1974) and it was found that children who took part in the improvisation group showed better divergent thinking after the intervention compared to those in the control group.

In summary, DPT can improve problem solving and divergent thinking abilities in children and adolescents, favored by mental processes that are developed thanks to improvisation and roleplay activities, such as boundary breaking, empathy, perspective taking, risk taking and decision making.

The Psycho-Pedagogical Framework Category

Playfulness Drama Pedagogy Trainings are always based on play and improvisation (Yeh and Li, 2008). Since [START_REF] Piaget | Toward a Science of Creativity: Considerable Progress but Much Work to be Done[END_REF], authors have had confidence in and proved the importance of play for creativity (e.g., Kneller, 1965;Dansky and Silverman, 1973;[START_REF] Lieberman | Playfulness: Its Relationship to Imagination and Creativity[END_REF]Sutton-Smith, 1979;Christie and Johnsen, 1983;Berretta and Privette, 1990;Mellou, 1995;Garaigordobil and Berrueco, 2011;Hoffmann and Russ, 2012) with only a few studies failing to replicate these effects (e.g., Smith and Whitney, 1987).

Contemporary studies show an increase in children's divergent thinking and associative thinking due to play: Garaigordobil and Berrueco (2011) conducted training throughout the academic year with children aged 5 to 6, demonstrating that there were significant differences in scores (F (1,84) = 3.69, p < 0.001) on TTCT and Behaviors and Traits of Creative Personality (Garaigordobil, 2006) between play and control groups. Hoffmann and Russ (2012) corroborate these results, concluding that transformation and insight abilities in play are part of creative skills. They worked in a four-session play intervention with children aged 5 to 10, measuring play through the APS and WKCT-Uses-task. The results showed a positive correlation between divergent thinking and organization in play (fluency r = 0.32, p < 0.05; flexibility r = 0.28, p < 0.05), and imagination in play (fluency r = 0.38, p < 0.05; flexibility r = 0.36, p < 0.01).

The results described above are in part explained because when playing dramatic games, the child experiments with freedom of expression (Jindal-Snape et al., 2011) and exploration and liberation of the self (Winnicott, 1971) through play, which could help the enhancement of associative thinking (Russ, 2004) and divergent thinking (Russ and Grossman-McKee, 1990).

Collaborative and Safe Space

Being creative is a participant's decision [START_REF] Sternberg | Creativity as a decision[END_REF], as creativity is affected by the psychological state of participants and their environment (Hohmann and Weikart, 2002). Even though DPT encourages participants to take risks and be creative (Karakelle, 2009), several factors in the creativity environment and space can impact children's mood allowing them to be more or less creative (Morrongiello et al., 2015;Celume et al., 2017). For example, a child's confidence is fundamental in developing a space for free expression (Holland, 2009) which according to Vass et al. (2014) forms part of a co-constructive "interthinking" (Mercer, 2000) in a dialogic and free-of-risks space. This freeof-risk play that DPT space offers enables children to increase their willingness to explore other creative dimensions, due to an enhancement of self-confidence and a lack of fear of being in front of others (Farris and Parke, 1993). Furthermore, the act of observing other participants' performances can impact another participant's awareness of the differing points of view of a situation as well as different solutions to an issue (Karakelle, 2009), thus developing perspective and problem solving abilities.

In a study conducted in Erdogan (2013) showed that children were able to express themselves as a result of the flexible, free learning setting that their teachers had implemented from DPT. A dynamic environment can enhance children's free expression allowing them to be more creative. Jindal-Snape et al. (2011) claim that children's solution finding through a safe environment is not new to DPT as it gives them freedom of expression to find solutions to problems, in a space that permits mistakes. In another study, Garaigordobil and Berrueco (2011) mentioned that one element that fostered children's creativity was the positive climate generated in the classroom. Similarly, as mentioned in the pretend play section, having a space in which to experience and express positive effects is important for creativity, and playing collaborative games (like those played in DPT) enhances positive feelings helping construct a positive ambiance that leads children to develop imagination and fantasy (Hoffmann and Russ, 2012). For Vygotsky (1967) children's imagination is developed within child's play as a response to a collaboration between social interactions, allowing learning to occur. The interactions that accompany this process of learning can be observed in the dialogic space of DPT as intersubjectivities (Rogoff, 1990), by describing the process of learning that occurs when learners work collaboratively in order to solve a problem.

In summary, a safe space that permits dialogic interactions to occur will favor creativity through the development of imagination, fantasy, understanding and problem solving abilities as well as by enhancing children's positive mood allowing participants to be more creative.

Feedback

Feedback occurs at the end of each session. Tam (2016) claims that creative and multiple meaning in DPT might not occur when children are engaged in play, but when they are back into the real world. Capron-Pruozzo (2014) explained that if children receive positive feedback regarding their creative personality, their creative self-efficacy will be enhanced. She also claims that if children feel they have the means to face different situations, to take risks, to find solutions and persevere, they will be more engaged in dramatic activities, and vice versa. If participants are motivated they will be open to trying new methods and experience, thus impacting creativity. Pecaski (2012) claims that all sessions should conclude with an oral discussion to enable children to talk about their personal actions, responses, and feelings on the session. Feedback allows children to think critically about how they acted during the session, and put into perspective how they responded to the presented situation or problem, allowing them to rethink about various appropriate solutions to the original problem. Subsequently, feedback enables children to confront problems presented during the session through dramatic games, motivating them to find novel solutions, thus impacting both perception and problem solving abilities.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION

The spotting of a structure of DPT, helps to understand and clarify past findings on educational drama studies and to design and conduct future research in order to measure the impact of DPT and its particular elements on children's and adolescents' creative thinking.

Reviews of studies show how different elements of DPT can be related to either creative outcomes or the related processes of the creative thinking. Some studies clearly explain particular creative outcomes, while others present creativity as a whole. Table 1 presented below intends to summarize the reviewed works in order to present a clearer idea of the relationship between the elements of DPT and the different creative outcomes and creative-related processes.

According to literature reviewed, the majority of creative outcomes measured correspond to Divergent Thinking or are related to Problem Solving, and these can mostly be found within the DPT elements of Storytelling and Pretend-play, and Playfulness. Conversely, the DPT element of Improvisation and Role-Play present more creative related processes, such as risk taking or perspective taking rather than specific creative outcomes. Even though we categorized the elements of DPT in order to link them with creative outcomes, some authors (Goff and Torrance, 1991;Hoffmann and Russ, 2012) relate their results to two or more elements of DPT. In the case of Hoffmann and Russ (2012) they make links between creativity and Pretend-play but also Playfulness, which might imply a connection between the proposed elements. Goff and Torrance (1991) observed that creativity was enhanced as part of Corporal Expression Training, Storytelling and Pretend-play, and Improvisation and Role-play, without always specifying the role of each element. For this reason, even though we categorized different elements of DPT in order to clarify which specific elements impact creative processes, it seems equivocal to establish that only one element by itself is responsible for the enhancement of creativity.

The proposed synthesis and model are based in diverse literature, meaning that even if the cited literature showed positive effects of DPT on creativity, there are limitations. These limitations should be taken into account before citing any generalizations of the effectiveness of this model.

The biggest limitations are, in one part, a lack of welldesigned protocols in certain studies that made it impossible to include many of them in the review. This is a common issue in drama-based literature, as most studies do not present complete reports, often missing critical analysis of results and deeper statistical analyses. This subsequently makes it difficult to predict the effects of specific elements of training beyond the authors' interpretations, and replication possibilities are therefore limited.

Consequently, we propose to be very specific regarding the description of protocols, citing the duration of the intervention: "how many hours did the intervention last?, " "how many times a week did it occur?, " "for how long?" while also being specific about the activities carried on as part of the training: "how was the training constructed?, " "which type of activity was carried out first?, " "which one was carried out last?, " "did every session have the same structure?, " or "which elements of DPT were present during the intervention?" Furthermore, we propose to describe the variables that were measured and the instruments that were used to measure those variables. Within the literature reviewed, we had to dismiss interesting studies owing to the fact that the variables weren't clear. For example, creativity or empathy development is referred to without defining the terms or the instruments used to measure them. It is also established that DPT had an impact on creativity, but without being specific on how creativity was measured. How Instruments were constructed or their validity is not fully explained, and results are reported vaguely without specifying effect sizes, correlations or even the significance of results. Consequently, more detailed descriptions of variables and results are also required.

In this line, the categorization of the elements of DPT helps us understand what are the specific creative outcomes that have been developed (or could be developed) through a particular element of DPT or through an ensemble DPT. Nevertheless, not all the studies reviewed offer a detailed description of the activities and elements of each session, making it difficult to establish whether one of the elements of DPT was not present in the training where creative outcomes were measured. Future research in the area should consider providing a more complete description of the approach, explicitly stating the final objective of the proposed training. A description of the different types of activities or elements used could also be important information that could be used to corroborate or update the proposed model, with the aim of contributing to the understanding of the process of creative thinking through DPT. With this kind of structure complementing by observations, impressions and theories of researchers and artists, we may develop more holistic, concrete and valid proofs to ensure the positive impact of DPT and its elements on children's development.

Following this lead, even though this review presented evidence based on experimentation, some elements of DPT are related to perspectives that go beyond the scope of statistical findings. In other words, these kind of pedagogies and works based on dramatic art, demonstrate that scientific evidence could benefit from arts and humanities for complementing results, as happened with the case of [START_REF] Kharkhurin | Creativity.4in1: four-criterion construct of creativity[END_REF] concept of creativity described for understanding creative outcomes through the corporal expression element of DPT. A more anthropological perspective of drama would explain creative thinking through symbolization and transformation abilities, by the transformation of social interrelations into symbolic representations of reality. In other words, social drama would impact creativity through a ritualistic metaphorical representation of social communities [START_REF] Turner | Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors: Symbolic Action in Human Society[END_REF][START_REF] Tydeman | Drama and Ritual in Murder[END_REF]. For example, pretense is the metaphor of reality. Some studies have related metaphors to creativity related outcomes, as innovative thinking [START_REF] Holstein | Use of metaphor to induce innovative thinking in fourth grade children[END_REF] as well as metaphor, seen as the capacity of transforming reality by "existing" in both a fantasy and a real world [START_REF] Bolton | Towards and Theory of Drama in Education[END_REF] is given thanks to DPT. In summary, sociological or anthropological perspectives of creativity and drama give us vast possibilities of discussion that could be used to complement quantitative analyses in future work.

On the other hand, The size of our sample seems insufficient for drawing further conclusions, as the majority of dramabased pedagogies' literature corresponds to trainings focused on academic outcomes, like those included in the meta-analysis of Lee et al. (2015), and not DPT or creative drama trainings. Thus, we assume a possible involuntary exclusion of pertinent studies.

In any case, the vast majority of the studies showed that a drama-based pedagogy following the approach of DPT, develops creative thinking and creativity related processes in children. From our perspective, these findings have implications principally for school teachers and drama pedagogies, as well as for different professionals and actors in the educational and psycho-educational fields. We suggest further investigation of the elements of DPT that enhance creative thinking and a more thorough report of the studies carried out. Therefore, we believe that drama-pedagogy studies could benefit from an interdisciplinary approach in order to conduct studies that could gather the experience of artists and educators, but at the same time also report results and analysis of DPT practices in a more scientific way. This could benefit not only scientific research in the creativity field, but will also be beneficial for artists who want to understand the implications of dramatic art for the development of creativity, as well as for educators who are willing to develop the creative skills of children and adolescents in their classrooms.

Introduction

Existing literature present a vast number of conceptualizations regarding drama pedagogy interventions. Several of these conceptualizations were outlined in the meta-analysis of Lee, Patall, Cawthon, and Steingut (2015) and gathered as Drama-Based Pedagogies (DBP). Nevertheless, García-Huidobro's (1996, 2004) approach on what she calls Drama Pedagogy, was not mentioned in Lee et al.'s meta-analysis, probably due to a lack of experimental work based on her theory. In spite of that, the latter seems to be https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tsc.2019.100576 Received 6 July 2018; Received in revised form 17 January 2019; Accepted 14 June 2019 Abbreviations: DBP, drama based pedagogies; DPT, Drama Pedagogy Training; LPT, liberal progressivism tendency quite specific when explaining the theoretical frame and practical implications of drama based pedagogies, as a result we decided to conduct an experimental study based on this pedagogy.

Drama Pedagogy is an active educational methodology based in drama games and techniques. As an active pedagogy, it implies learners doing things for the sake of learning when also reasoning about these actions [START_REF] Dewing | Moments of movement: Active learning and practice development[END_REF] as a kind of a co-construction of the learning process. For dialogic space theories, pedagogies that are co-constructed through dialogue favour creativity creating active learning and teaching practices (Vass & Deszpot, 2017).

According to García-Huidobro (1996, 2004), Drama Pedagogy can be divided into four tendencies that can be inserted in three different areas. These tendencies are: a) neoclassical, b) liberal progressivism, c) radical, and d) critical socialism, and they can work within three areas of work: a) inside the educatinal setting, b) outside the educational setting, and c) as a therapeutic dimension. The different combinations that result correspond to the different concepts around drama pedagogies and so can be found in the metaanalysis of Lee et al. (2015) gathered under the name of DBP. As an example, the concept of creative drama (included in DBP) would be a combination of liberal progressivism tendency (LPT) in a specific area or dimension of work (inside or outside the educational setting).

We decided to focus on the LPT inside the educational setting because the aim of this study is aligned with these tendency objectives. As well as creative drama that gathers experiences created for participants' development rather than for preparing a show for an audience (Freeman, Sullivan, & Fulton, 2003), LPT's objective is to contribute to the development of competencies by focusing on the group process of learning over an artistic result (García-Huidobro, 1996;Heathcote, Johnson, & O'Neill, 1991;Karakelle, 2009;Libman, 2001;Woodson, 1999). For Mercer (2000) this process of learning can be observed in dialogic spaces under what he calls interthinking or intersubjectivities (Rogoff, 1990) by describing the process of learning that occurs when learners work in a collaborative way in order to address a collective issue. On the other hand, when Drama Pedagogy is inserted inside the educational setting as a dramatic art expression subject, it helps the development of integral and creative children (Cremin & Macdonald, 2013;Hui & Lau, 2006;Karakelle, 2009). Garaigordobil (2003) showed that among other things, creative dramatic games helped the development of creative thinking.

Thus, this study does not have academic, artistic or any other achievement aims besides the experience of playing creativecollaborative dramatic games. In our understanding, this tendency of Drama Pedagogy is not a means to improve technical or academic skills, but only a means to let the children play and learn together. In other words, the focus is on the creative and socioemotional competencies that might be learnt collectively through playing drama games.

In order to prove the impact of this methodology on French children's creativity, we decided to create a training based on the LPT issued from Drama Pedagogy (García-Huidobro, 1996) adapting some of the creative dramatic games proposed by Garaigordobil (2003).

Considering that this training corresponds to the description of creative drama concept, but that it was principally based on the Drama Pedagogy theory, we are going to identify it from now on as a Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT; Celume, Besançon, & Zenasni, 2019) with the understanding that there are similarities with some of the trainings studied by Lee et al. (2015) and classed as DBP. We decided not to use the term DBP as the authors also include trainings whose outcomes are not related to competencies development, but rather to artistic or academic achievement which is not the objective of a DPT nor of creative drama.

In the present work, we are going to focus on the psycho-pedagogical framework or learning environment of DPT and how it impacts children's creative thinking by presenting theoretical and practical evidence. We will describe the conceptual background on DPT and how it is directly linked to dialogic space literature followed by presenting new empirical evidence on how DPT enhances creativity.

Creative development in the learning environment of DPT

Creativity can be understood as the ability to give original ideas within a specific context (e.g., Lubart & Sternberg, 1995;Runco & Jaeger, 2012;[START_REF] Stein | Creativity and culture[END_REF]. For some authors, these ideas are produced in spite of a specific knowledge domain and can be understood from a multivariate approach (Barbot, Besançon, & Lubart, 2016), which proposes that creativity needs to consider at the same time personality and intellectual characteristics of the person but also their environment (Hohmann & Weikart, 2002;Lubart, Mouchiroud, Tordjman, & Zenasni, 2015). In other words, the psychological state of participants and their environment can affect creativity.

According to the literature, DPTs propose a free, safe and caring learning environment in which healthy relationships grow, enhancing positive emotions, empathy (ToM) and divergent thinking, among other outcomes [START_REF] Akin | Review of research on drama in Turkish schools and pre-service teacher education[END_REF]Celume, Sovet, Lubart, & Zenasni, 2017;Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011;García-Huidobro, 1996, 2004, Holland, 2009;Jindal-Snape, Vettraino, Lowson, & McDuff, 2011). One fundamental aspect in DPTs is the learning environment in which the sessions take place and the relationships that emerge in order to create this environment. According to [START_REF] Akin | Review of research on drama in Turkish schools and pre-service teacher education[END_REF], drama promotes a learning environment in which individuals actively participate allowing them to have rich learning experiences. He found that DPT was perceived by pre-service teachers as quite important for permanent learning because it offered an environment that motivated critical thinking and empathy among other abilities. In Erdogan's study (2013), results highlight a link between creative writing skills and the DPT learning environment, highlighting that children were able to express themselves thanks to this flexible, free learning setting. This positive learning setting was considered by Garaigordobil and Berrueco (2011) as a main factor that fosters children's creativity in collective play. All these creative expressions that arise in this kind of learning environment correspond to collective interactions among children and pedagogue, which dialogic space theories describe as co-constructive forms of group talk or "interthinking" (Vass, Littleton, Jones, & Miell, 2014). Holland (2009) established that in DPT, confidence between pedagogue and children is fundamental for developing a safe environment in order to let emerge children's free expression, and thus their creativity.

As we proposed above, characteristics described in literature defining DPT environments are also mentioned when conceptualizing dialogic spaces. Dialogic theories insist on the notion of co-constructed pedagogies through dialogue that favour creative and dynamic ways of learning and teaching experiences (Vass & Deszpot, 2017) and thus promoting co-creativity. Self-Determination Theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) proposes that children's expression could lead to a creative development thanks to an environment that promotes the need of autonomy of participants enhancing their intrinsic motivation and thus, leading them to a mood that will promote creativity. Vass et al. (2014) explain it as a sort of connectedness in improvisational contexts, allowing the emergence of creative togetherness. In sum, both DPT and dialogic space literature agree with the fact that a free, safe and/or careful learning setting is better for creative development. In this sense, Jindal-Snape et al. (2011) claim that children's solution finding through a safe environment is not-new to DPT, emphasizing the fact that the DPT learning environment gives them freedom of expression and the possibility of finding solutions to problems, thanks to a space that permit mistakes. Even though the above literature seems to agree that this kind of learning environment permits enhancing creativity, to our knowledge, there's no clear evidence of the effect of the learning setting of DPT on French children's creativity, nor exhaustive studies on DPT have been done in France so far.

In order to prove if these studies relating the learning setting of DPT and the creative development were replicable in a French school contexts, we conducted a study creating two trainings, a Collective Sports Games training and a DPT, contrasting the effectiveness of these methodologies in enhancing creativity and emotional mood among a group of 4th grade, primary school children.

Based on the literature presented above, as a main hypothesis (H1), we predict that children who will participate in the DPT will present significantly higher scores in divergent and convergent creativity tasks than children participating in the CSG training after the interventions finished. We also hypothesize (H1b) that four months after finishing the interventions, the DPT group will continue to have significantly higher scores in both of the creativity tasks applied. As a second hypothesis (H2), we predict that after finishing the interventions, scores for DPT participants will be higher and more stable than the CSG group on the mood valence assessment.

Method

Participants

Participants were 55 school aged children between 9 and 11 years old (m = 9.9; SD = 0.3) recruited in 4 th grade classes from a private (PR; n = 27), a public (PU; n = 10) and a priority (REP; n = 18) school in the Paris area. The private school was in a socially mixed neighborhood where parents who can afford it, pay for their children's education; The public school was in a more privileged neighborhood, and corresponded to classical free public education; And the priority school was in a disadvantaged area with less social mixity, where national educational policies put more efforts. Children were randomly assigned either to an active control group participating in Collective Sportive Games (CSG, n = 24) or an experimental group participating in a Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT, n = 31). Children were assigned equitably by group in each of the schools.

Before the beginning of the study, authorization letters for the participating children were sent to their parents. Groups were composed after all authorization letters were received. For final analyses, three children were excluded because they were not available for posttest evaluations and one of the participants had special learning needs and participated in the intervention accompanied by an educational assistant, so he was also excluded from the analysis. All other children presented no mayor cognitive, social, or affective difficulties.

Material

Evaluation of creative potential (EPoC)

In order to evaluate creativity in a longitudinal way, we used the A and B forms from the abstract figurative tasks for divergent and convergent thinking from the EPoC battery of test (Lubart, Barbot, & Besançon, 2011).

For the abstract figurative divergent thinking task, children are asked to draw as many drawings as possible, on separate sheets, starting from a given figure. They have 10 min to complete the task and all drawings must have a name indicating what they are (each idea). According to Lubart et al. (2011), the figurative divergent thinking task comprised in EPoC evaluated fluency and indirectly originality, as the more ideas children give, the more the chances of providing an original one. Thus, the authors explain that EPoC provides a global divergent thinking score. For the abstract figurative convergent thinking task, children are asked to make a draw using at least 4 shapes from 8 given figures. They had 15 min to complete these tasks and the drawing must have a name indicating what is draw (the main idea). Three judges evaluated the productions. Inter-judge agreement was satisfactory with the data showing good interjudge fidelity (α post = .89; α followup = .69). We decided to use the figurative tasks, instead of the verbal tasks, due to the time the schools agreed for evaluation purposes. The intended protocol included one hour of evaluation per child for pretest and one hour for post-test, which was considered too long. According to this, we agreed to asses collectively via figurative tasks. Limitations will be discussed.

Evaluation of mood

In order to measure children's positive emotions we used the adapted paper version (Monnier, Syssau, Blanc, & Brechet, 2018)of the valence and arousal Self Assessment Manikin scale (SAM) (Bradley & Lang, 1994). Mood valence was measured through a 9 point Likert scale going from a positive figure at the right of the paper to a clearly not positive figure at the left of the paper. Children had to circle the figure in order to represent how they felt. Mood arousal was not measured in this study. This scale can be easily used because it is a visual and self-reported measure (Monnier et al., 2018) and has already been tested for children aged 6-12 (e.g. McManis, Bradley, Keith Berg, Cuthbert, & Lang, 2001). (Garaigordobil, 2003) considering that all the activities in the program were already validated. Some other Drama Pedagogy Training activities were taken from the work of Boal (1989) and García-Huidobro (2004). The training consisted of 6 sessions which were adjusted to French school time in order to avoid holidays that could interfere with the sessions. At the beginning of each session there was a transition/warm up activity where children expressed how they felt as they left the standard school activities and got prepared for the training. Then, there was the main Drama Pedagogy Training activity(ies), and finally a feedback period in which children expressed their opinions and feelings about the session. Each of the six sessions lasted between 60 to 70 min depending on the length of time needed for feedback. For both groups, sessions 2 and 6 had a collective activity. One example of activity was called "statues", from session nº1, where children were asked to walk through the room and when the experimenter mentioned an emotion or mental state, they needed to create a statue showing that emotion. Then, half of the children would walk around the "museum of statues" and take notes of the qualities of statues of this museum.

CSP was created through the selection of popular collective games taken from Boulo and Olivier's (2005) collective games and Orlick's (1986) cooperative games and adapting the latter for the French school context. It also consisted of 6 sessions of 60-70 min, was adjusted to French school year, and sessions 2 and 6 had a collective activity for both groups. One example of an activity is called "the flag", where half of children have to try to steal a flag that is placed in the middle of the room, while the other half of children try to prevent the flag to be stolen. "Thieves" have a scarf on their belts as a sign of freedom, so when "defenders" take this scarf, the thieves go back to prison and cannot continue playing until the next start.

The same trainer, also part of the research team, created and conducted both of the trainings in order to avoid teacher's personality bias between the groups.

Protocol experimentation

The protocol was presented to participating school directors and teachers and an agreement participation letter for parents was distributed.

After parent's agreement, each child was given a code. We randomly assigned the codes either to Collective Sportive Games (CSG) or to Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT). Code randomisation was made by a free online software. In order to avoid cognitive or emotional predisposition, teachers were asked not to tell students about the real purpose of the study. As a cover story, children were told they would just participate in two different collective workshops.

A week before starting the training, children answered the EPoC tasks, specifically the abstract figurative tasks for divergent thinking and convergent thinking, Form A. They were asked to 1) draw as many drawings as possible from a given figure and 2) draw a complete drawing from eight given figures including at least four of the figures. The week after the task completion, we started with the training. From session 1 until session 6, children were asked to answer a SAM scale in order to see their emotional valence before and after each session. After the training was finished, children were asked to answer the abstract figurative tasks for divergent thinking and convergent thinking, Form B. Also, as part of qualitative analyses, 12 semi-directive interviews were prepared right after the interventions were finished. Six for the DPT group and six for the CSG. Two children from each school (one boy and one girl) from each group were randomly selected for an interview group. Due to the absence of four children, interviews could only be carried out with eight children. 3.4.2. Material 3.4.2.1. Evaluation of creative potential (EPoC). As described above in 3.2.1, creative figurative divergent thinking and creative figurative convergent thinking were measured by abstract figurative stimuli EPoC.

Procedure

Three months after the final interventions, we contacted the three schools again that had participated in the study. The public and the private schools replied that they would be happy to participate in a follow-up study while the priority school did not answer. We established dates to conduct our follow-up study, and it was carried out four months after the last session. We asked the children to answer the EPoC figurative tasks.

Results

Descriptive analyses

Analyses were made on a final sample gathering all participants that were present for both measurement sessions. Thus, the CSG group was comprised of 24 children and the DPT of 31. The mean scores for divergent thinking and convergent thinking of the participants before the sessions are detailed in the table below (Table 1).

Hypothesis testing 4.2.1. Creativity

A Two-Way ANOVA for repeated measures was conducted in order to test the interaction effect between the type of training and the time of measurement on creativity. A Two-Way analysis of variance was conducted on the interaction of two independent variables (type of training and time of measurement) on creativity for both divergent thinking and convergent thinking variables. Type of training consisted of two levels (DPT and CSG) and time of measurement included two levels (Pre-Test and Post-Test). Results showed a significant interaction effect between the type of training and the time of measurement (2 × 2 model) and a large effect size of this interaction on divergent thinking (F ( 1,53 ) = 61.18; p < .000; η 2 = .54) as well as on convergent thinking (F ( 1,53 ) = 12.76; p < .001; η 2 = .19) scores (Fig. 1).

According to the chart plotted above, the means on divergent thinking present a significant difference (t = 4.56; p < .000), indicating that children who followed the DPT group (m = 9.97; SD = 3.26) performed significantly higher on the creative divergent thinking test than the CSG group (m = 5.88; SD = 3.35).

For convergent thinking, scores were statistically different in post-test time of measurement (t = 2.96; p < .004) with DPT group scores (m = 4.14; SD = 0.97) higher than CSG group scores (m = 3.36; SD = 0.96).

Results confirm our first hypothesis (H1), showing that after DPT children have higher scores on both creativity measures compared to their classmates in the CSG training.

Follow-up

In order to determine the interaction effect of the type of training with the three measurement sessions, we conducted a repeated measures analysis. Independent variables were the types of training (DPT and CSG) and the three different times of measurement (pre-test, post-test, and follow-up). Results showed a significant interaction effect as well as a large effect size on divergent thinking means (F ( 5,66 ) = 8.35; p < .001; η 2 = .20) with DPT scores higher than CSG, but no significant interaction found for convergent thinking scores. Fig. 2 shows follow-up mean scores on divergent thinking to be statistically different (t = 2.97; p < .005) between the scores of the two types of trainings. DPT group (m = 14.5; SD = 5.49) present higher scores than CSG group (m = 9.53; SD = 3.78) indicating a better performance of the DPT group in the divergent thinking creativity task than the CSG group. Convergent thinking scores presented no statistical differences.

Results partly confirm our hypothesis (H1b), showing that four months after finished the training, DPT group scores are significantly higher on divergent thinking creativity measure over CSG training group, but no significant differences were found on the creative convergent thinking task (DPT: M = 4.14; SD = .97 / CSG: M = 3.36; SD = .96).

Mood valence (positive emotions)

We measured children's mood valence in both types of trainings before and after each session. We decided to run a multivariate test in order to see the interaction effect of the type of training with its two values (DPT and CSG) and the after-session times of measurement with its 6 values (one for each session) on children's mood valence throughout the sessions. Results showed a significant interaction effect between the type of training and the after-session times of measurement and a medium to large effect size on mood valence (F ( 5,225 ) = 5.77; p < .001; η 2 = 0.11).

In the run chart plotted above (Fig. 3), repeated measures analyses illustrates the differences of mood valence between both groups right to the end of each session. Both groups show high levels of mood valence, although the behavior of the lines indicates more positive moods for the DPT group (m = 18.39; SD = 6.1) than for the CSG group (m = 17.61; SD = 5.7). Nevertheless, no significant differences were found. DPT group increases its scores from the second session to gain stability in the scores of mood valence from the third session until the final session. On the other hand, the CSG group started marginally higher than the DPT group, even though no statistical difference was found, and shows more of a nonlinear development of mood valence, particularly in session three in which we observe a slump of mood valence which is recovered during the fourth session.

Results of repeated measures, evidencing a significant interaction effect and a medium to large effect size of the type of training on mood valence, confirm our second hypothesis (H2) showing that after the interventions, the DPT group has higher and more stable scores in mood valence than the CSG group.

Interview analyses

Table 2 below shows the percentages of the results for the given answers to the semi-directive interviews. In both groups, children answered that they liked the training in which they participated. When asked for the reasons, the biggest differences were found in the creative aspect of the training, with 75% of the DPT participants identifying this aspect as the reason they liked the training. Regarding the learning experiences, the main difference was given in emotional intelligence learning, with 100% of the DPT participants evoking this learning versus 0% in the CSG. Another major difference between groups was found in how they learned to communicate with others. 75% of the DPT group judged that they had learned how to communicate with others thanks to the training, while none of the subjects in the CSG mentioned this learning.

Discussion

This study provided evidence that the work of a dialogic space in DPT enhanced creativity through the increase of divergent thinking. Nevertheless, we are well aware of the limits of this study. We worked with a small sample, with groups sizes that are below the threshold needed for making any statistical assumptions, so results cannot be generalized and they have to be taken with consideration. This small sample could explain in part why some of the results regarding creativity in the follow-up were not significant when assessing convergent thinking, as well as the mean differences in mood valence within each group.

Besides, the election of figurative tasks instead of verbal tasks needs to be observed. We understand that verbal tasks are more likely to be related to DPT interventions, as children were asked to create and improvise stories which would have a better impact on a verbal task than on a figurative task. Nevertheless, we are also aware that the fact of training children via dramatic experiences, making them improvise stories would have been considered as a practice for the tasks, and thus, our results may be biased. In any case, it seems necessary for further studies to measure at least both components of creative potential (verbal and figurative) to see if there are correlations in scores, and if DPT is more involved with verbal creativity development than with figurative.

Another limitation that should be considered is that both interventions were carried out by the researchers, thus implying possible unconscious bias. In order to avoid this possibility, the researchers were trained through a rigorous protocol that provided every activity and instructions that needed to be addressed to children. Each activity for each of the sessions in both trainings were carried out as expected, no improvised games were allowed, only what was previously agreed for each training. Nevertheless, we understand that unconscious bias could have occured, influencing some emotional or motivational aspects on children, thus inducing them to be more creative in the DPT group. In any case, DPT has a specific framework that needs to be respected, and these emotional and motivational differences in the training could be due to the psycho-pedagogical framework of DPT (Celume et al., 2019) as it cares about the environment in which the activities are carried on. Future work will need to consider a way to control this variable.

We tend to support the idea that the results of this study can be generalised to the work that DPT, as a methodology, can achieve in terms of creative development. We are aware that the use of a set of specific activities during 6 weeks could be considered by some authors as a particular tool instead of DPT and that should be considered carefully. Nevertheless, we would like to insist in the idea of DPT as a methodology, a specific kind of training within Drama Pedagogy (considering the term coined by García-Huidobro in 1996). The activities carried on during the DPT intervention were subject to the model of DPT (Celume et al., 2019) and thus, can be replaced for any other activities as far as they can be recognised as an equivalent of the constitutive element of DPT that correspond to the original activity (For more detailed information about the constitutive elements of the model of DPT to enhance creative thinking, please see Celume et al., 2019). The use of this particular methodology, considering all the elements that constitute DPT (technical drama phases and psycho-pedagogical framework) is the fundamental part of the work that can be achieved in terms of creative thinking, and not the activities isolated. In other words, more than the activities itself, is the use of narrative and embodiment in the technical drama phases of DPT, along with the use of narrative and a dialogic space in the psycho-pedagogical framework of DPT, which would have an impact on creative thinking. In this sense, if the set of activities used in this study are isolated and repeated without considering the other constitutive elements of DPT, results are not likely to be replicable. Creativity scores, measured through divergent and convergent thinking, were significantly higher for the DPT group after the intervention was finished. Positive emotions were also significantly higher for DPT group than for CSG. Moreover, four months after the training was finished, results for divergent thinking continued to be statistically higher for DPT. These results confirm our main hypothesis which suggested that children participating in DPT group would score significantly higher than their classmates in the CSG group in both creativity measures and emotional mood right after the trainings.

Nevertheless, our second hypothesis is only partially confirmed, as results showed no statistical differences between the groups for creative convergent thinking scores four months after finishing the intervention. Thus, while divergent thinking tended to continuing growing with statistical difference between the groups, convergent thinking started to shrink this difference. Still, results for the DPT group continued to be higher than for the CSG, suggesting that maybe a more targeted experience that focused on the convergent aspect of creativity could prevent scores from dropping over time. Nevertheless, the fact that creative divergent thinking continued to be high for the DPT makes us wonder about the links between creativity and DPT. As explained before, dialogic spaces can be defined as co-creative learning spaces that permit intersubjectivity (Rogoff, 1990) to arise. This creative intersubjectivities shown to be fostered by DPT, as this pedagogy is based on a learning environment in which the dialogical interaction or interthinking (Mercer, 2000) among participants permits the child to express in a free non-judgemental space.

Thus, regarding our third hypothesis, initial analyses of interviews tend to confirm that the learning environment of DPT promotes creativity. Most of children in the DPT considered that one of the learning outcomes was the fact of being able to communicate with others. This points to a fundamental basis of dialogic thinking. In one of the interviews, a child specifies: "… actually, I thought that… everybody was going to laugh at the others but it actually didn't happen… we didn't feel ashamed… we learned… to not feel scared of presenting what we think to others…" . So, considering that dialogic space can be understood as a social setting in where participants think together and interact (Nes & Wikan, 2013), this conception can be related to the talkative setting proposed by DPT in which the participants can present, discuss and interact with their ideas. This idea exchange occurs in an active listening space which is free of judgments (García-Huidobro, 1996). According to this perspective, the learning setting that DPT promotes helps children to feel safe to express themselves and thus, to develop the ability to actively communicate their inner thoughts and ideas without feeling judged but rather feeling cared for and safe.

Considering these statements, one could argue that freedom of expression, understood as free creation, can be found in a DPT setting. The active participation allowed them to make independent decisions while the feeling of belonging encouraged them to be open to different experiences and to be tolerant of others. Whatever the perspective, it is a dialogic space such as the learning environment proposed by DPT that seems to have an impact on creativity. A dynamic environment might enhance children's free expression allowing them to be more creative just as proposed by Vass et al. (2014) which considers that sharing and reflecting different ideas and points of view are detrimental to establish intersubjectivity in any collaborative activity.

Moreover, DPT permitted an interaction of opinions and ideas that children express as an important learning outcome that could not be done if it were not done by the DPT learning environment and that is one the reasons they enjoyed the training. One of the children mentions that "… after the session, you'll be able to talk with everybody, enjoy with everybody… if we hadn't done this [DPT] I would have never talked with them [classmates], I would have left them at their corner." In her statement, she explains that the space she shared with other classmates helped her to interact with others. In the same vein, another child answered that he liked the training because "we had to work in group and each of us could propose ideas and it was good to listen to other's [ideas]". His remark, which is shared by other children in the class, reminds us of the importance of active listening in which participants share their ideas listening to each other. These children's appreciations highlight the importance of language for relationships by outlining one of the principal values of dialogic space which states that several voices can speak simultaneously without the need to silence others [START_REF] Fernández-Cárdenas | Dialogism: Sequentiality, positioning, plurality and historicity in the analysis of educational practice[END_REF][START_REF] Matejka | Translator's introduction[END_REF]. Moreover, children take this interaction as part of the creative process and linking it with positive emotions, pointing out that "we are with the others and we create something with the others, we invent altogether, and also we can produce in front of others and watch the others… I was rather happy… I like to enjoy with others…" . Here, we see how the interaction with the others is described as related to positive affections and creativity consistent with several studies that link both processes (e.g. Abele-Brehm, 1992;Baas, De Dreu, & Nijstad, 2008;Celume et al., 2017). Vass et al. (2014) reflect the ideas of Gelernter and Parker (1994) by explaining the term "affect linking" as an affect related thinking process that would be the key to generate creative associations.

As discussed above, positive results and large effect sizes were achieved thus suggesting that further research should to be done in the field. In order to repeat this experience in an ideal setting, many considerations have to be done. First, the training room has to be as similar as possible for all the groups participating in the study to avoid physical bias. Environment had an impact on participant creativity, so ideally all settings must remain the same. Second, training sessions should occur at the same hour and ideally on the same day of the week. To this end, we recommend running the training each week alternating the hour (e.g. every wednesday at 8 and at 10; week A, DPT starts at 8 and CSG at 10, week B, CSG starts at 8, DPT at 10). We were able to do this only for one part of our sample in order to reduce bias of time. Third, evaluation sessions for pre-test and post-test should occur during the same week of the trainings. All pre-test assessments should occur one day before the trainings and all post-tests assessment should occur one day after the trainings. In this way, sessions 2 and 6 should go first and last respectively. Another perspective to consider in the future is that DPT should be repeated using a much larger sample in order to generalize results to a larger population. Another perspective is to make a comparative study with two different countries. Currently a project is being carried out between a European and a Latin-American country in order to see the similarities and differences that children might encounter by analysing language, culture, educational system, among other variables. Also, DPT for older children, adult, and elderly population are contemplated for further investigation. Moreover an observational study has been already carried out in order to observe the details of the sessions and the specificities of the training that impact creativity and other outcomes, and a study on kinesthetic creativity was carried out in order to see which other aspects of creativity could be impacted by DPT.

Conclusions

DPT is a drama based method focused on the learning experience of its participants, which has shown to be related to the experience of sharing ideas through an open learning environment that permits children's judgement-free expression. Significantly, higher scores in creativity that were shown right after the training and after four months for the DPT could be explained in part by this intersubjective pedagogy. This, as dialogic space theories explain, promote interthinking among children leading to co-creation in a positive space and thus enhance creative thinking. Thus, the learning environment proposed by DPT from a dialogic perspective promotes creative thinking. These findings reinforce the idea that creativity can be transferred and how the arts, in this case drama pedagogy training, can be a feasible way for developing cognitive and emotional factors that impact creativity. These ideas were already developed in a previous work (Celume et al., 2019) in which the different elements in DPT, including the dialogic space, have an impact on several cognitive processes that impact creative thinking.

Drama Pedagogy (García-Huidobro, 1996). This approach focuses on the work of internal world of the participant through drama games instead of searching an academic or artistic achievement. Moreno's sociodrama (1943, 1947), Boal's theatre of the oppressed (1978, 1989) and Slade's drama education (1967,1998) were some of the first approaches using representational games in the work with people focusing on competencies development instead of an artistic training, setting the beginnings of DPT as a methodology.

Those ideas were also outlined by Karakelle (2009), Libman (2001) and Woodson (1999) who defended the idea of focusing on the process and experience of learning competencies without any intention of showing off. In current literature, this methodology turned into several different names, such as creative drama (Rosenberg, 1981), process drama, drama pedagogy (Garcia-Huidobro, 2004), applied theatre (Holland, 2009) or even child drama, play making, child play, or educational drama. What they all have in common, is that their focus is non academic, nor artistic, even if some of these concepts describe drama practices used in education for educational objectives (Freeman, Sullivan, & Fulton, 2003). DPT could be also considered as a specific kind of training within Drama Based Pedagogy (for a review see Lee, Patall, Cawthon and Steingut, 2015), based on Drama Pedagogy theory (Garcia-Huidobro; 2004) and which is focused only on participant's socio-emotional and creative development, and thus, not created to enhance any academic field, or to contribute to any subject in school, neither to train participants in any artistic way.

According to Celume et al. (2019a) DPT is a methodology that encompasses drama activities and techniques through the use of embodiment and narratives, under a particular psycho-pedagogical framework that works with the use of narrative and the construction of a dialogic space (Celume, Besançon and Zenasni, 2019b). DPT can be considered as an active methodology, that works with the cognitive and affective dimensions of the participants emphasizing the importance of playfulness and positive emotions, promoting a safe and caring environment and a positive student-pedagogue relationship (Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011;Garcia-Huidobro, 2004;Hammond, 2015;Rosen, 1974) that would develop social and emotional competencies and skills.

Child Theory-of-Mind Collaboration Drama-Pedagogy An important part of successful socio-emotional competencies programs are based on DPT elements such as role playing, improvisation, pretend play, storytelling and others. These conclusions can be consulted in recent meta-analyses (Durlak, Weissberg, Dymnicki, Taylor, & Schellinger, 2011;Lee et al., 2015) that showed strong relationships between the trainings they reviewed and the socio-emotional outcomes measured. Nevertheless, the meta-analysis conducted by Durlak et. al (2011), is identified as a socio-emotional learning programs review, and thus is not focused on drama pedagogy trainings, but on different socio-emotional school-based interventions, even though several of the successful interventions reviewed used drama pedagogy elements within their trainings. Durlark et al. (2011) showed that in general, the programs reviewed had positive effects on the socio-emotional competencies willing to develop, and that these interventions worked better on children than adolescents. They also observed that the use of a specific protocol (ref. SAFE protocol) moderated positive students' outcomes, which corresponds with the description of the psycho-pedagogical framework of DPT (Celume et al. 2019a). In the same line, interventions that were identified as more interactive and that, for example, used several DPT elements, such as role playing, were the most successful among young students. Similarly, Garaigordobil et al. (1996), compared 6 experimental groups versus 2 control groups, in order to see the effect of a game-based intervention (that included drama-based games) on collaborative behavior. Results showed significant differences between the experimental and the control groups (t(34) = 5.65, p< .001), meaning that an intervention of this kind was able to develop competencies in the field of reciprocal help behaviors.

Regarding the development of other socio-emotional competencies such as empathy or Theory of Mind (ToM) through drama-based pedagogies, Goldstein and Winner (2012) conducted two studies in children and adolescents looking for relationships between drama, empathy and ToM, and finding that these skills could be enhanced through drama. Results for the elementary school children sample showed a higher impact of acting training on empathy over controls (F(1, 64) = 4.26, p = .043, d = 0.53), but no significant scores were found for ToM, probably due to a possible issue related to the measurement tool chosen for assessing ToM. In the same line, Celume and Zenasni (in press) conducted an observational study where they observed and analyzed DPT sessions, outlining perspective taking as un underlying mechanism that permitted the development of theory of mind and creativity in elementary school children.

Nevertheless, a review on pretend play and its effects on child development (Lillard, Lerner, Hopkins, Dore, Smith, and Palmquist, 2013), found that correlations between pretend play and social skills, and pretend play and ToM were inconsistent, although most of the studies reviewed showed "important failures to replicate" (p. 16), which could be an explanation to the lack of positive results. In a similar way, the meta-analysis of Lee et al. (2015) studied the effect of Drama Based Pedagogies (DBP) on children from preschool to adolescence, finding that DBP had a significant impact on educational achievement outcomes but that the impact on social skills was not significant, concluding that the belief that DBP might promote prosocial behaviors was unfounded.

On the contrary, it was supported that DBP had a significant positive effect on other children's social skills, like attitudes toward achievement and the so-called 21st century skills (which includes collaborative behavior). Moreover, several drama-based trainings were considered to be out of the scope and thus weren't examined in the meta-analysis, we missed, for example, some well-known drama-based methodologies, such as the Speech Bubbles project or the Drama for Learning and Creativity (D4LC), which we believe could have influenced some of the negative results regarding DBP and its impact on social competencies. In the same line, the meta-analysis of Lee et al. (2015) explains that they had to exclude several studies from their analysis due to a lack of reporting information, demanding that researchers must better report their methods, as it is fundamental for replicability. They found that most of the studies analyzed presented important bias as they were mostly quasi-experimental studies that rarely presented matching control groups, being difficult to assure that DBP was or was not the cause of social outcomes enhancement, concluding that there is a need of better reporting the trainings and strategies used in order to be able to have consistent material to analyze and thus have consistent results.

To our knowledge, and based on these meta-analyses, except for the recent work from Goldstein and Lerner (2017) and a study on fantasy play (e.g. Thibodeau, Gilpin, Brown & Meyer, 2016), studies that have been done in order to examine the impact of DPT methods and elements on socio-emotional Child Theory-of-Mind Collaboration Drama-Pedagogy competencies relies on studies a) without an active control group well matching the experimental one, b)

where children volunteer to participate in the experimental group and so there's no randomised assignment, and c) where the researchers are involved in the training. In this line, several interventions and trainings are excluded from scientific analyses and thus, it remains difficult to provide consistent evidence of the impact of DPT for the development of socio-emotional competencies. The study of Goldstein and Lerner (2017) conducted on 97 pre-school children, aimed to provide evidence on this and thus controlled the variables shown before, seeking the impact of a pretend play group (PPG) on Theory of Mind (ToM), altruism, distress towards others and helping behavior, emotion matching and social behavior. The results showed that children in PPG group had lower levels of neutral social behaviors and higher levels of positive social behaviors than block play or reading groups. They also concluded that as children had lower levels of emotional control than the average, the pretend play training did not help with ToM and compassion, but it did help them with emotional regulation and social behaviors.

The importance of developing socio-emotional competencies through drama can be found in the origins of the emotional intelligence concept and in the fundamental role that socio-emotional competencies play in nowadays' education. Today, there are still several approaches when defining socio-emotional competencies, although they are all coming from the concept of Emotional Intelligence (EI; [START_REF] Salovey | Emotional Intelligence. Imagination[END_REF]. According to Mikolajczak, Quoidback, Kotsou, & Nélis (2014), the definition of EI still presents some issues within the scientific community, as there is still no consensus among the researchers to identify what means to be emotionally intelligent. Consequently, they proposed to gather these capacities under the concept of emotional competencies instead of talking about an intelligence (emotional intelligence). In this line, they defined emotional competencies as "the practical capacity of identifying, understanding, expressing, regulating and using personal and other's emotions"1 (p.3) according to a particular context. schools, there is a special type of schools called priority network schools (REP), which are public schools that belong to neighbourhoods with particular social needs. REP schools belong to neighbourhoods with a higher foreign population.

The sample consisted of 126 children: 55 were in 4th grade (CM1; M = 9.9; SD = .35) and 71 in 5th grade (CM2; M = 10.8; SD = .38); 48 assisted a private school (PR), 43 a public school (PU) and 35 a priority school (REP). Children were randomly assigned either to an experimental group participating in a Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT, n=61; M = 10.3; SD = .56) or an active control group participating in Collective Sportive Games (CSG, n=65; M = 10.4; SD = .56). For final analysis, three children were excluded because they were not available for posttests evaluation.

Material Independent Variables

Trainings

DPT was created by selecting and adapting some drama pedagogy training activities proposed in the spanish program "Programa Juego" (Garaigordobil, 2003) considering that all the activities on the program were already validated. Some other drama pedagogy training activities were taken from the books of García-Huidobro (2004) and Boal (1979). The training consisted of 6 sessions, adjusted to French school time in order to avoid holidays that could interfere with the sessions. At the beginning of each session there was a transition/warming up activity where children expressed how they felt, leaving the standard activities of school and getting prepared for the training. Then, there was the main drama pedagogy training activity(ies), and finally a feedback time in where children expressed their opinions and feelings about the session. Each of the six sessions lasted between 60 to 70 minutes. The differences in the time of each session was due to respect their feedback time. Sessions 2 and 6 had a collective activity, same for both groups. In order to have a clearer idea of the activities within DPT, we will explain a game played in session three:

Here, children were asked to create and play a scene with their faces and bodies while the other half of the class had to guess what was going on in the scene, giving details and explanations of their guessing (why they think this or that was going on in the scene).The idea is for children to be able to express something without using words.

CSG was created by selecting popular collective games, taken from Boulo & Olivier (2005) collective games and Orlick's (1986) cooperative games and adapting this last for French children. It consisted of 6 sessions, adjusted to French school time in order to avoid holidays that could interfere with the sessions. Each of the six sessions lasted 60-70 minutes. Sessions 2 and 6 had a collective activity, same for both groups. As an example of a game played in session three for this group, we will explain the collective game called messengers and combatants: Here, children are divided into two groups, one half has to deliver a message (scarf) and combatants have to avoid the message to be delivered by stealing the message. The idea is for children to work together into a strategy to arrive at the other side of the room and get the message delivered.

Dependent variables

Theory of Mind

We developed a French version of the Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test, Child Version (RMET-G; Baron-Cohen, Jolliffe, Mortimore, & Robertson, 1997, 2001). Accordingly to the original version, in this task, children are presented a series of 28 pictures of a pair of eyes from different people expressing an emotion or a mental state. We projected this images on the board. Children were asked to look at the picture in each item and to circle the emotion or mental state that better described the look of the person, choosing it among four words displayed. Three of these words were distractor words while only one was the correct word that matched the emotion or mental state of the person in the picture. The task was scored by adding up the number of items correctly answered. For each image they had around 15 seconds, so between 7 to 10 minutes in total. Reliability score for our sample was acceptable considering our design (α = .64) although a higher reliability score is preferable. As shown in figure 3, anova analysis presented a significant effect of the type of training on class, with a small to medium effect size on variable ToM (F(1,122)=6.32; p<.013 ; η2=.05) with higher means for DPT in both classes. Considering the significant effects of the type of training on ToM scores by school type, further anova analyses were made. Looking for interaction between the times of measurement and the type of school in variable ToM, results showed a significant interaction effect (F(2,58) = 5.28; p < .008) with large effect size (η2 = .15). Highest differences in pre-post scores were found for public (M = 18.54; SD = 3.9)

and REP (M = 16.11; SD = 3.9) schools.

DPT training on ToM and collaborative behavior by class.

Analysis showed no significant effect of DPT training on ToM by class, reporting a small effect size (n2 = 0.02). No significant effect of DPT training on collaborative behavior by class was found, no effect sizes were reported.

Discussion and Conclusion

Studies have shown that socio-emotional learning competencies can be teached and learnt at school (Durlak et al., 2011;Ebert, Hoffmann, Ivcevic, Phan, Brackett, 2015) and at the same time, some researchers insist on the importance to train children as well as teachers on socio-emotional learning competencies, so the benefits can be positive in a personal way but also in a collective way (Fernández-Berrocal, Cabello & Gutiérrez-Cobo, 2017). More specifically, some authors sustain that ToM and prosocial behavior are two main domains in the field of socio-emotional learning that are important to be developed among children and youngsters [START_REF] Beauchamp | SOCIAL: An integrative framework for the development of social skills[END_REF][START_REF] Rose-Krasnor | The Nature of Social Competence: A Theoretical Review[END_REF]. As a recent meta-analysis showed, dramatic play seems to have a positive impact on both of these competencies, even though no rigorous studies have been conducted yet in order to corroborate these effects (Lillard et al., 2013). In the present study, we carried out a randomised protocol in which specific measures for both ToM and collaborative behavior were applied.

ToM can be defined as the ability to read and understand another's mental states through body, face and vocal expression as well as previous knowledge of the other (Goldstein, 2009). In our study, this ability was measured through the RMET-G in which children had to infer mental states through the observation of eyes zones pictures.

Results before the intervention, showed significant differences among schools for ToM for the general sample, implying that depending on the school the children come from, their competencies in this ability were already different regardless the experimental group they belonged to (DPT or CSG). When comparing means, the greater differences were found between the public school and the priority school, with higher scores for the public school. This results could be in part explained by the socio-cultural background of children. In this line, the public school, located in the center of Paris, receives mostly French children with parents that were born in France, and from middle and upper-middle class families, while the priority school, located outside downtown, receives children from different nationalities and/or with parents that were born outside France, some of them from a lower socioeconomic level. Consequently, even if some specific vocabulary is taught at school, an important number of language is learnt at home through parentchild interaction (Hart & Risley, 1992), thus, foreign-parent(s) children would have more difficulties in "foreign" vocabulary acquisition (Mingat, 1991). A more homogeneous French socio-cultural background was present in the public school, with a more foreign socio-cultural background one in the priority school, thus, suggesting that public school children have a more direct access to French vocabulary because they speak the same language at home in contrast to priority school children whose parents (mother or/and father) do not speak French as a first language. We also support this idea based on the fact that private school, where children's socio-cultural background was very heterogeneous, did not exhibit significant differences with neither of the two other schools.

It was also found a significant difference between both grades' scores being higher for 5th grade than 4th grade. Nevertheless, this was kind of expected, and can be simply explained by the fact that as children grow up, they acquire more language skills, thus having 5th grade children a larger vocabulary than 4th graders.

Post-test analyses presented encouraging results regarding our hypotheses.

First, correlation analyses showed that there was a significant but weak correlation between ToM and collaborative behavior. This results suggest that it seems to be an important relationship between ToM and collaborative behavior competencies in children that occurs inside a DPT setting. Nevertheless, this relationship is not strong enough to ensure a clair correspondence of ToM with collaborative behavior, thus suggesting more investigation and precisions in this area that should be considered for further research addressing the links between the social competencies that might be enhanced in DPT.

Further on, when comparing the type of training, in order to see the impact of DPT on ToM, both anova analyses and t-tests showed effects and significant differences of the type of training on ToM. These significant differences, were statistically higher for DPT group, suggesting that DPT enhanced ToM in both 4th and 5th grade children from all three schools. These results are consistent with previous studies that established a relationship between drama-related games and the development of ToM skills (e.g. Goldstein & Winner, 2012) even though, their results were achieved on a high-school sample. Type of training also showed an effect between pre-test and post-test, confirming post-test analyses. DPT group showed higher differences in scores than CSG, the latter presented a difference of pre-test and post-test scores that was almost invariable. These results are inside the scope of what we predicted, as children who participated in the DPT were trained in emotion and mental states identification through the different DPT methods and activities played. Sessions 1, 3, 4 and 5 were dedicated to emotional identification, expression and communication through play and mini-pretend-plays in where children had to choose an emotion or emotional state and to represent it in an invented collective scene. In this way, children were "obliged" to identify the different characteristics of emotions and the mental states they were to represent, and so learning was acquired through playing, using their minds and bodies to recreate, permitting embodiment, which helped with the understanding of the emotions and mental states. This idea, which defends the theory that embodiment is a direct contributor of the development of the cognitive process of empathy, in which ToM is a fundamental part, is supported by the work of several authors (e.g. [START_REF] Gieser | Embodiment, emotion and empathy[END_REF]Sofia, 2016).

Moreover, for some authors, mind cannot be separated from body, as the body is evidence of the mind (Bateson, 1972[START_REF] Bateson | Steps to an ecology of mind[END_REF]Butterworth, 1994). In this means, body and mind cannot be divided because the body is the support of mind expressions.

Regarding the class level, the highest difference in ToM post-test is presented in 5th grade. While DPT group in 4th grade is slightly higher than CSG in 4th grade, scores get clearly higher for DPT in 5th grade. These results suggest that DPT would work better for 5th graders. In both cases, these results only reflect our specific sample and results should be taken carefully as they do not represent the whole French population. Besides, the fact that DPT worked better in 5th grade for developing ToM can be only due to the fact that understanding mental functioning and ascribing mental states to others is in part, a cognitive ability, thus, it should naturally evolve along with children's cognitive development. In this means, 10 year old children, that were already turning 11 by the time of the post-tests, have these cognitive abilities more developed. In fact, the theory of stages (Piaget, 1929) describes an evolutionary process of the intellectual capacities which establishes a transformation from concrete operational stage to formal operational stage at the age of 11. Moreover, regarding ToM, Perner and Wimmer (1985), confirm a natural evolution in the attribution of second-order beliefs in their work with children aged 5 to 10 years olds.

Regarding the difference between pre-test and post-test repeated measures anova found that DPT on ToM task had differences considering the type of school. As shown in results, in figure 5, PU school showed almost no increase between pre and post ToM tasks in comparison with REP and PR schools which post scores were between 2 and 3 points of difference .

On the other hand, collaborative behavior may benefit children's social relationships (Schellenberg, Corrigall, Dys, & Malti, 2015) as is encompassed in prosocial behavior which appears to be one of the key elements that benefits social interaction (Eisenberg, Spinrad, & Knafo-Noam). Moreover, in 2006, Barry & Wentzel established that collaborative behaviors develop a sense of security among friends and peers.

In our study, we analysed collaborative behavior from two perspectives; an objective one through task performance and a more subjective one, through the observation of children's behaviors.

The state of the art showed that there were already differences among children from different schools, being always PR school children who had the more higher scores in collaborative behavior. After questioning teachers and directors from the three schools involved, there's still no clear answer that could explain this higher collaborative behavior in comparison to the other schools. No specific program was held before our intervention, and all three schools offered the same kind of extracurricular activities.

Girls showed to be more collaborative than boys. Observations in both pre-test and post-test showed that they tended to be more encouraging than boys in their groups, but also dynamics observed among groups constituted mostly of girls presented less anti-collaborative behaviors and showed a more federated way of work. This is consistent with Garaigordobil (2009) findings who established that girls are more collaborative than boys.

Even though group randomisation was made completely blinded and through an online free software, t-test results showed a significant difference between intervention groups. This means that there were already differences in collaborative behavior scores between the experimental (DPT) and the active control group (CSG). CSG started the interventions presenting an advantage over the DPT group. When teachers were asked about differences they could perceive between both groups of their class after they were constituted, some of them agreed that DPT group was composed by "more difficult students than the other group" and that they felt the difference of working in the class with the other half (CSG) while the DPT session was being carried out. They reported they were able to "work better without that part of the class". Nevertheless, this wouldn't be sufficient to explain these differences, so we rely on the fact that the evaluation of collaborative behavior was carried on one week after the groups were constituted. With this timing in mind, we might infer that after a week of intervention, children already had created some particular relationships, group identification or bonding links with their classmates in their corresponding groups (DPT and CSG), which would had interfered on the second week, when the evaluation of collaborative behavior was carried on.

Finally, when testing our hypothesis, for collaborative behavior we found significant differences between the two groups, being higher for DPT. Both t-test analysis and anova confirmed the hypothesis. This means that children in the DPT group increased their collaborative behavior during the intervention showing important differences when compared to their CSG classmates. PD task measure how the children respond and solve a situation in which they have to decide whether to collaborate to their partner or no.

Children are offered the possibility to escape from prison, even though this means that their partner will stay in prison for some years. At the beginning, DPT group presented less collaboration, showing answers that in great majority chose not to collaborate and so escape from prison. After DPT was conducted, children appeared to develop more consciousness on the need to collaborate with others, and they decided to collaborate in the PD task, staying a few years in prison in order to not let their partner alone in prison for even more years. This behavioral change confirms that a DPT enhances collaborative behavior, and that a training based on expressive art such as drama can facilitate some socio-emotional learning competencies.

Regarding this, the International School for Interdisciplinary Studies, in Canada establishes that expressive arts might improve social learning by giving children the opportunity to work in group, collaborate, and create a social support network (ISIS, 2004). Our results are consistent with several studies that confirm the positive effect of drama and drama based trainings over collaborative behavior and social skills development (e.g. Joronen, Konu, Rankin & Astedt-Kurki, 2011;Wright, John, Ellenbogen, Offord, Duku, & Rowe, 2006;Garaigordobil, 2003). Nevertheless, they are not consistent with Lee, et al. (2015) who explained that even though drama-based pedagogies have been supported as being an effective way to foster prosocial behaviors studies analysed in their meta-analyses were not consistent.

Limitations and future perspectives. One of the main concerns we find in this study is related to the way instruments were used. The fact that the pre-and post-tests were identical could imply that there were learning effects on children for the post-tests and that increased scores were in part due to this fact.

Nevertheless, we consider that if this was the case, this learning effect would have affected both groups equally as both groups answered the exact same tasks at the same time, so it shouldn't have a direct impact on the significant differences between the groups. Another limitation we appreciate is that the RMET-G task only measures one dimension of ToM, and moreover, its reliability can be discussed. Unfortunately there are not many tasks for measuring ToM in the range of age we worked with, as most reliable tasks are constructed for younger children and only few are translated and validated in France. It could also be argued that as DPT is a methodology focused on the work with the internal world of participants it might have a direct impact in socio-cognitive tasks such as the RMET-G. We propose, for future studies, an intervention considering different forms of the same task in order to discard the issue of learning effect, and the construction of a different scale that can measure better what was intended in the beginning of the study, or even the use of additional tests for measuring ToM in order to address the issue of reliability and measured dimensions of ToM. This also opens a possibility for further research considering the different approaches to emotional vocabulary and content that might be involved depending on the different socio-cultural backgrounds. On the other hand, the significant differences found in the pre-test scores for collaborative behavior should also be considered carefully. We propose a future intervention that considers carrying on all variable testing tasks before any session had already started in order to avoid the bias of bonding in the different groups.

Another limitation we observed is related to the analyses chosen. Considering that differences among children were significant among the type of schools, it could have been interesting to run further analyses in order to control results regarding this issue. A future study should consider a multi-level analysis.

Finally, no follow-up study was conducted in order to measure both of the developed competencies. In this line, we propose to conduct a new study, probably using a longer intervention of DPT in order to see the possible follow-up impact on ToM and collaborative behavior scores, and why not, on other SEL competencies, as previous studies suggest.

CHAPTER THIRTEEN THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN CHILDREN'S CREATIVITY AND WELL-BEING AT SCHOOL

MACARENA-PAZ CELUME, LAURENT SOVET, TODD LUBART & FRANCK ZENASNI

Links between creativity and well-being have been examined in multiple studies (e.g. [START_REF] Cropley | Creativity and mental health in everyday life[END_REF][START_REF] Maslow | Motivation and personality[END_REF][START_REF] Richards | Everyday creativity[END_REF][START_REF] Rogers | Toward a theory of creativity[END_REF]. If, most of these researches were focused on adults, some of them also examine the cases of children and tend to show that creativity and well-being are positively related [START_REF] Barnes | Drama to promote social and personal well-being in sixand seven-year-olds with communication difficulties: the Speech Bubbles project[END_REF]. If the occurrence of this positive relationship seems to be systematic, there is no clear explanation nor description of the reasons and/or the nature of this inherent relationship. Thus, this chapter aims to explain how and why promoting creativity in children may be good for their well-being and vice versa. For that purpose, we will examine how specific trainings can enhance creative outcomes that may be related to wellbeing.

We will start by explaining what is known today as children's well-being through the different conceptualizations of child's well-being. Afterwards, more specifically, in order to clarify the possible link between creativity and well-being in children, this chapter will review embodied creativity trainings and creative school initiatives that might impact well-being and synthesize the initial studies in a comprehensive framework for future work.

Conceptualizations of child well-being

There is a vast literature on child well-being and it continues to expand rapidly (Amerijckx & Humblet, 2014;Ben-Arieh, Casas, Frønes, & Korbin, 2014;Casas, 2011;Pollard & Lee, 2003). A broad definition was recently proposed by Ben-Arieh and Frønes (2007, p. 1): "Child well-being encompasses quality of life in a broad sense. It refers to a child's economic conditions, peer relations, political rights, and opportunities for development. Most studies focus on certain aspects of children's well-being, often emphasizing social and cultural variations. Thus, any attempts to grasp well-being in its entirety must use indicators on a variety of aspects of well-being."

While the multidimensional nature of the concept is widely recognized by researchers and policymakers, the elaboration of consensual, unified, and inclusive comprehensive framework for child well-being remains largely unresolved despite several attempts during the last decades [START_REF] Ben-Arieh | Multifaceted concept of child well-being[END_REF][START_REF] Ben-Arieh | Taxonomy for child well-being indicators: A framework for the analysis of the well-being of children[END_REF][START_REF] Minkkinen | The structural model of child well-being[END_REF]Raghavan & Alexan-drova, 2015). Drawing a complete review of child well-being indicators and their multiple conceptualizations could be particularly ambitious in the present chapter (for a comprehensive review, see [START_REF] Ben-Arieh | Multifaceted concept of child well-being[END_REF]. In contrary, several critical components are briefly introduced in order to offer a better understanding of their relationships with creativity.

Objective or subjective indicators. A distinction is often made between objective and subjective indicators of child well-being. The first social indicators emerged in the 1960s were exclusively focused on objective external conditions such as material resources, safety, mental and physical mental, human rights, and so forth (Axfort, Jodreel, & Hobbs, 2014). However, it appeared that the objective indicators were not enough to capture the complexity of social realities. Subjective indicators were progressively developed and integrated in order to take into account the children's own perspective about the perceptions, evaluations, and aspirations regarding their lives (Casas, 2011). Currently, objective and subjective indicators are articulating together for providing a more holistic understanding of child well-being. Based on a systematic review of literature, [START_REF] Pollard | Child well-being: A systematic review of the literature[END_REF] found that subjective indicators of child well-being were more diverse and heterogeneous compared to objective indicators. Such heterogeneity may be explained by the fact that subjective indicators are also driven by various epistemologies (for a review, see Casas, 2011).

Subjective well-being or psychological well-being. Drawn from the science of positive psychology, subjective indicators are divided into two different conceptual terms: subjective well-being (SWB) and psychological well-being (PWB). SWB is based on a hedonic approach of happiness and can be defined as "a broad category of phenomena that includes people's emotional responses, domain satisfactions, and global judgments of life satisfaction" (Diener, Suh, Lucas, & Smith, 1999, p. 277). Accordingly, it includes both cognitive (i.e., life satisfaction) and affective components (i.e., positive and negative emotions). In contrary, PWB refers to a eudemonic approach of happiness and relates to psychological functioning and personal growth (Ryff, 1989). Although these definitions were primarily adult-centered, several authors highlighted their relevance for examining the children's perception of their own well-being (Amerijckx & Humblet, 2014;[START_REF] Ben-Arieh | Multifaceted concept of child well-being[END_REF][START_REF] Huebner | Research on assessment of life satisfaction of children and adolescents[END_REF]).

Creativity and well-being in children: what are the relationships?

Some specific theories tend to explain how creativity and well-being in children are related. For instance, Carson, Bittner, Cameron, Brown and Meyer (1994) explained the relationship of children's stress responses and coping abilities, two well-being indicators, with creative thinking. In their study, they found a strong correlations between coping abilities and flexibility, fluency and originality. They discussed that the ability to have flexible thinking and have a fluent and original generation of ideas contribute in a significant way to successful coping abilities. The capacity to think creatively might influence the finding of novel solutions to problems and situations; thus, favouring coping stress abilities and so influencing positive emotions and well-being.

Considering empirical researches, there are different kind of studies showing that creativity and some indicators of well-being are positively related.

The first kind showed that positive emotional states favor creative performances. In that way, Morrongiello, Stewart, Pope, Pogrebtsova and Boulay (2015), conducted a study in which they inducted 68 children with a positive and a neutral mood, revealing that children showed greater risktaking attempts when they were in a positive mood state compared with a neutral one. They concluded that a positive mood state could be associated with greater risk-taking in elementary-school children. In this way, positive mood state was related with risk taking, which is a cognitive mediator of creativity.

In other investigations, researchers showed that self-report well-being is positively correlated to creativity. For example, in 1990, Cropley studied the relationship between mental health and creativity, taking in account several authors that proposed creativity elements as part of feeling well. He established a relationship between psychological aspects of personality and creativity, establishing that most of the characteristics of a creative person, such as flexibility, openness, humor or playfulness among others, are similar properties of those of a healthy personality. For him, the enhancement of mental health, a concept related to well-being, should be achieved through the encouragement of people to perceive and live their quotidian lives in a creative manner. Some decades before, in 1971, and republished in 1976, Maslow proposed a more holistic point of view, establishing that there wasn't just a single thing that helped develop creativeness. For him, there were several determinants for creativity, and these determinants were intimately related with the enhancing of the psychological health of the human being. He said that the way to the growth of psychological health will change the person in all ways, driving him or her to be a fuller person. "This more fully human, healthier person would then, epiphenomenally, generate and spark off dozens, hundreds, and millions of differences in behaving, experiencing, perceiving, communicating, teaching, working, etc., which would all be more "creative"." (p.74). Carl Rogers, also a humanistic psychologist, shared Maslow's perception of a human natural tendency to self-actualization considering that well-being was directly related to the fulfillment of one's growth potential. For him, creativity was one of the five basic characteristics to achieve what he understood as well-being, establishing that risk taking, as a part of creative thinking was a fundamental part in the life of a "fully functioning person" [START_REF] Rogers | Toward a theory of creativity[END_REF]. These examples, that are only a few among several others, show how in both perspectives -from positive emotional states to creativity and from creativity to positive emotional states-authors have been interested and studied this relationship in adults. Nevertheless, this relationship in children's population remains less studied, and so, less clear.

In a study measuring the impact of some well-being initiatives in schools (Galton & Page, 2015) it was shown that schools that were engaged in a Creative Partnership developed some children's personal competences that might be linked to well-being. The Creative Partnership is an english initiative to promote creativity all along the scholar curriculum. Different artists engaged with schools in order to develop projects together. Galton and Page (2015) highlight the report of Ofted (2010 in Galton & Page, 2015) in which he suggests that this Creative Partnership (CP) could transform children's life because of the impact on their self-confidence and self-esteem. For Galton and Page (2015) this enhancement would play a direct role in the enhancement of well-being through an hedonic and eudaimonic point of view (see [START_REF] Peterson | Character strenghts and Virtues[END_REF]. From another well-being perspective, Galton and Page (2015) analyzed the way of doing pedagogy of the schools engaged in CP, and found that primary schools preferred exploratory childrencentered pedagogies, establishing learning objectives according to children's experiences. According to Galton and Page (2015) the motivation theory supports this kind of pedagogy as "these shifts away from default pedagogy should promote a greater sense of well-being" (p.2, [START_REF] Deci | Self-Determination Theory: A Macrotheory of Human Motivation, Development, and Health[END_REF]Ryan, 2008 in Galton andPage, 2015). Some of the outcomes found by the study of Galton and Page were related to children's feeling of autonomy, and of being capable or good at doing something in addition to a sense of belonging to their schools. These outcomes made them think in a direct relationship with Ryan and Deci's (2000) Self-Determination Theory (SDT) that proposes that the achievement of well-being is given through the fulfillment of three basic needs: Competence, Autonomy and Relatedness. Hence, the implications of Creative Partnerships in schools promoted well-being through the enhancement of heudonic and eudaimonic (Seligman, 2000) happiness and through the fullfillment of the basic needs of competence, autonomy and fulfillness (Ryan & Deci, 2000).

Most recently, as part of an ongoing investigation, Celume, Besançon and Zenasni (ICEI, 2017) showed how positive emotions were inducted on 385 children, seeking to find a relationship with creative thinking and emotional intelligence. These results weren't entirely satisfactory so as a second approach they decided to come from the other way round, studying the possibility of conducting a creativity training based in novel pedagogies that would have an influence on children's well-being. The first pilot was tested on 209 school children from 8 to 10 years old, from three different schools. Results showed an increase of positive emotions of the 150 children aged 9-10 that participated in the experimental training over those children participating in the control training. Details will be explained below.

Embodied creativity trainings and their impact on children's well-being:

According to Byrge and Tang (2015) there are two approaches of creativity trainings: embodied creativity training and reflective creativity training. The first one is focused on the development of the participant's creative abilities, while the other, focuses more on the development of creativity metacognition (theories, techniques, processes). For our analyses we will consider the first group of creativity trainings, more related to active exercises like game based trainings, arts based trainings and creative drama trainings. As seen above, creativity has been proved to be related to creativity (Carson et al., 1994;Galton and Page, 2015;Morrongiello et al. 2015) but how a creativity training may affect children's well-being is still an object of study.

Most of creative training workshops for children use play as a center of their programs. This decision, is probably made, because play is an activity that children chose in a free and happy way [START_REF] Huizinga | Homo ludens: a study of the play element in culture[END_REF]. When working with children, we can observe how they are immersed in the game when playing, and so they are able to find several solutions while being entirely committed to the act of playing. Csikszentmihalyi (2009) explains this as the flow experience, when the action is made just for the sake of doing it, permitting him/her self to be creative and to feel intrinsically motivated. Thus, play will be increasing children's well-being. [START_REF] Piaget | Play, dreams and imitation in childhood[END_REF] points out a relationship between play and creativity, noting that there is something innate in playfulness that permits creative imagination to develop. Moreover, in a study made in 2012, by Hoffman and Russ, showed how pretend play contributed to creative learning, and several other studies show how play is related to creativity in several manners (e.g. Berretta and Privette, 1990;Christie and Johnsen, 1983;[START_REF] Kogan | Stylistic variation in childhood and adolescence: creativity metaphor, and cognitive styles[END_REF][START_REF] Krasnor | The study of children's play: some suggested further directions[END_REF]Sutton-Smith, 1979). In order to clearly see the relationship between creativity and well-being in children, we are going to present some studies made in different countries that analyzed and tested different creative approaches and how their outcomes are related to well-being.

In a study made with primary school children in Korea by Shin & Jang (2015), they found that the most effective way to build children's team work and social well-being, is to use play in group creativity trainings. They suggest that these activities in creative trainings permit children to enjoy altogether, and mentions that it allows them to laugh, feel better, and have fun at the same time (p.7). They also show motivational outcomes of group creativity trainings, showing that although the differences in children's personality, after a creativity training, students felt more motivated. This, related to group commitment and a subjective sensation of effectiveness. As we saw, the need of feeling valuable for doing something is an important factor for increasing intrinsic motivation (Ryan & Deci, 2000), and according to Shin & Jang (2015) these can be achieved through creativity trainings. Group creativity trainings provide a safe environment in which children can freely play, developing positive emotions, group cohesion and group creativity. In this line, play enhance positive emotions which suggest that creativity training based on play may enhance children's well-being through the development of positive emotions. Ebert and Hoffmann (2015) made a study that started the validation of an emotion and creativity skills development training through the observation of arts and art making activities. The workshop was tested on spanish children aged 6 to 12 years old. They suggested that according to some authors, like [START_REF] Winner | Does arts education foster creativity? The evidence so far[END_REF] arts in general, may enhance quotidien creativity through the encouragement of creative thinking abilities. They trained two facilitators that conducted the six-session training, targeting a specific emotion in each of the 5 first sessions. The results of this training corresponded to their hypothesis, developing emotional and creative skills, but what's interesting for our analyses is that children reported to feel more motivated for this kind of creative workshop, or that they would seek for other workshops of this kind. Also, there was a child that expressed that he learned how to voice his own opinion, thus can be related to the cognitive mediator aspect of creativity known as risk-taking. Risk taking can be related to Ryan and Deci's SDT (2000), in which autonomy, another fundamental for intrinsic motivation is described as the perception that there are choices to be made, and that the person can "self-determine" what to think or to do. The ability of taking risks and sharing one's ideas or opinions, develops this perception of self-determination which would positively affect children's intrinsic motivation and this well-being. Children in the workshop also commented to be more motivated after the training, highlighting their interest in art appreciation and art making domains. In any case, the researchers point out that there was an initial interest in art based activities, so they expressed that taking in account the relationship established by other authors between intrinsic motivation and creativity [START_REF] Amabile | Creativity in context: Update to the social psychology of creativity[END_REF], this initial motivation might have helped the enhancement of creativity.

Also in 2015, in China, Hui, Chow, Chan, Chui and Sam made a two

-study-research of Hong Kong classrooms and creativity. The topic of wellbeing is directly addressed in the study, as the authors state that academic success in an Asian school doesn't allow a place for happiness; rather learning is a "serious work" (p. 3) They also consider the results of some studies that suggest a link between creativity and the development of personal and intellectual skills in children (e.g. [START_REF] Sylva | A hard headed look at the fruits of play[END_REF][START_REF] Veraska | Development of cognitive capacities in preschool age[END_REF]. Personal skills development is one key need in [START_REF] Maslow | A Theory of Human Motivation[END_REF] hierarchy model of of well-being. For him, in fact, the final step in the pyramid of needs is selfactualization, which can be seen as personal development, growth and fulfillment. So, in order to see the outcomes of creative education in children, they conducted a first study, implementing a creative-arts training in line with the curriculum for chinese kindergartens. This creative training lasted 8 weeks, and integrated linguistic, dance, music and visual arts in order to stimulate curiosity. This first study had positive outcomes in creativity, enhancing also personal skills. These skills developments suggest an increase in children's well-being considering [START_REF] Maslow | A Theory of Human Motivation[END_REF] pyramide and the fact that creative thinking has already been related to positive emotions, which is one key component of Seligman's PERMA model (2011).

Creative drama trainings and children's well-being

In the example above, we have seen how Hui et al (2015) were able to prove that an arts-based training could improve children's well-being in Hong Kong students. In their second study from the same research, they used a dramabased creative training. The drama-based creative training showed an increase of creativity and other personal skills. It was also noted that children in the second study were favoured to practice reflective thinking, understanding of abstract concepts, play, exploration and imagination. As we have previously seen, play is directly related to well-being through the enhancement of positive emotions and the experience of flow in children. In the same line, the encouragement of imagination development could also be linked to children's well-being. Children's development of imagination might help them to consider new solutions and ideas through imagining new possibilities helping the development of flexible thinking and perspective taking. Thus, taking Ryan & Deci's (2000) model of well-being, perspective taking would help fulfilling their need of competence by showing the child other options and solutions and by other hand, from Seligman's (2011) 'PERMA' model, in where positive relationships are basic elements of well-being, enhancing imagination and thus perspective taking, would also develop positive relationships by letting the child imagine being another and seeing other possibilities by taking another's perspective. This, would help the child to understand other's ideas and opinions, helping him/her develop empathy, and thus positive relationships towards others.

In another study, leaded at Taiwan by Yeh and Li in 2008, they also conducted a creativity training based in creative drama. They tested this creativity training in order to see its impact on creativity, as well as the effect of age, emotion regulation and temperament on creativity. The study well confirmed that creative drama training was positively related to creativity enhancement. Creativity was also related to emotion regulation strategies, showing that emotional regulation has a positive influence over children's creativity. Emotional regulation is the capacity of using strategies for observing, appraising and modifying emotional responses (Mayer & Salovey, 1997;[START_REF] Gullone | The Emotion Regulation Questionnaire for Children and Adolescents (ERQ-CA): A Psychometric Evaluation[END_REF] to emotional experiences. Identified by Mayer and Salovey (1997) as a core element of Emotional Intelligence, emotional regulation has been related to the capacity of responding to unpleasant events in a healthy way or the capacity of successfully coping with stress. Individuals with higher emotional regulation will search for response strategies that would enhance positive emotions instead of strategies that will lead negative emotions, like frustration. In sum, Yeh and Li (2008) found that emotion regulation strategies had a positive influence over children's creativity. The fact that a higher emotional regulation had a positive effect on children's creativity, lead us to suggest that positive emotions, are enhanced through emotion regulation strategies, influencing creative thinking. Zenasni and Lubart (2002) already showed how positive emotions could increase creativity. Moreover, as Yeh and Li (2008) highlights, [START_REF] Lubart | Emotion, Metaphor, and the Creative Process[END_REF] proposed that positive emotions might promote creative thinking because of their relationship with finding problems and insightful solutions. So as Seligman (2011) proposes, positive emotions are a core element of well-being, in this line children's well-being will be directly related to creativity, being wellbeing a booster of children's creative thinking. [START_REF] Barnes | Drama to promote social and personal well-being in sixand seven-year-olds with communication difficulties: the Speech Bubbles project[END_REF] between 2011 and 2012 gathered an important number of outcomes related to the basis of a drama based training and well-being development. In his work, he presents the outcomes of the Speech Bubbles project, a drama based program that aimed to develop several skills in children with communication difficulties. It is important to remark, that this program was not only a drama-based program, but was mostly based in creative drama characteristics that are related with directed play and games focusing on the process of learning over an artistic end. This programme was conducted in England for six and seven-year-old children and devised by theatre practitioners. The program had already a theoretical framework based in positive emotions and play. Frederickson's theory on positive emotions ( 2004) was a key model for the development of the program, as well as [START_REF] Paley | A child's work: The importance of fantasy play[END_REF] approach to education through play. [START_REF] Frederickson | Positivity[END_REF] suggests that the development of positive emotions permit us build up mental, social and physical resources, fundamental for developing the capacity to effectively overcome tragic events or difficulties in life. By her side, [START_REF] Paley | A child's work: The importance of fantasy play[END_REF] claims that a powerful tool for securing children's psychological and social development is through fantasy play. The results of this creative drama training were quite positive, enhancing communication skills, collaborative behaviour and several positive emotions observed during the nine months of duration of the program. Positive emotions expressed by the researchers were, for example joy and love that were observed in children's body language, expression and interactions with the practitioners. Other positive emotions that were outlined were interest and engagement. As we have seen, interest is the basic component of intrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation in the SDT theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000) is the kind of motivation that comes from the inside of the person when the activity or situation the person is in, is being performed just for the sake of doing it. This, fulfills basic needs that lead to well-being. In a similar way of Csikszentmihalyi's (2009) theory of flow suggests that when the person is fully engaged to a situation, the flow sensation appears and this sensation conducts to experiencing well-being. Both positive emotions, interest and engagement have been proved to be related to the well-being experience. The other positive emotions that were named, can also be related to a well-being's theory. According to Seligman's (2011) PERMA model and the happiness theory, positive emotions are the basis for developing well-being. Also, the subjective perception of positive emotions is a key indicator of subjective well-being. [START_REF] Barnes | Drama to promote social and personal well-being in sixand seven-year-olds with communication difficulties: the Speech Bubbles project[END_REF] claims that these positive emotions, that have been observed in children through body expression, were well-being indicators that were improved and sustained in 75% of the participants. Moreover he proposes that respect and the active listening presence of practitioners may give "the sense of environmental and self-control identified by Ryff (1989) as essential components of well-being."(p.108). In sum, although this example is more related to a drama games training and its relationship with well-being, it is important to note that creative drama training is based in a drama pedagogy games that have shown to enhance creative thinking as a primary outcome (e.g. Karakelle, 2009;Hui et al., 2015).

The last example that we will analyze is currently being held with primary school children in France. An ongoing research, presented at the International Conference of Emotional Intelligence, in Porto, 2017, still on data analyses phase, has been made (Celume et al., ICEI, 2017) carrying out two studies and it was held in order to develop creativity and emotional intelligence in primary school children. The first part of this ongoing research was conducted at the end of 2016, and failed to prove that positive emotions had a positive influence over creative thinking using creative drawing tasks. It was concluded that these unexpected results could be explained by a lack of understanding of the given instructions by children that forced to take off almost the half of the participants' drawings. However, these results led us to look at this relationship between creativity and positive emotions from another perspective. This perspective focused on the effects of creativity on children's well-being and positive emotions, finding several studies that proposed games as a motor for creativity and positive emotional outcomes (e.g. Berretta and Privette, 1990;Moore & Russ, 2008). What motivated the attention, was that several of these studies, proposed dramatic games as part of their trainings, so it was decided to focus on these kinds of games in order to create a training. As part of the research, we found the validated program of Maite [START_REF] Garaigordobil | Juegos cooperativos y creativos para grupos de niños de 8 a 10 años[END_REF], 2016) that specialized in the creation of creativity and collaborative games programs for school aged children in Spain.

We also looked at other non-scientific publications made by different authors (Garcia-Huidobro, 2004;Kende, 2014;Boal,1989;Hammond, 2015) creating a pilot training made by the adaptation of Garaigordobil program (2003Garaigordobil program ( , 2016) ) because of her focus on 8 to 10 year-old children. In addition, we used some activities found in Garcia-Huidobro's (2004) and Boal's (1989) books. For this second study, 209 children between 8 to 10 years old participated, resulting in positive outcomes for 150 children aged 9 to 10 years old, in both creative thinking and positive emotions. Children who attended the drama games pedagogy training scored higher in the divergent thinking drawing task over those children attending the sportive games training. This study also showed an increase of positive emotions after each session, being also higher in contrast to their sportive games attending classmates (t=3,7 p<.00). One of the conclusions of this study, that were presented at the conference, was that the fact of being involved in creative dramatic games and activities, made the children feel better than those children involved in a more competitive training. This could be explained by the engagement and sense of collective achievement given in the creative dramatic games and activities in which there were no winners and losers, but only a sharing of the collective process and the achieved result, which was a process itself. For Seligman (2011) four important aspects of his well-being model the "PERMA", are positive emotions and relationships, engagement and achievement. When children were participating in some of the drama pedagogy games, they were building new positive relationships with people they have not met before, even if they were in the same classroom. As some of the children said, they were happy because they have realized that they could be able to play with some people they thought they did not like, with whom they have not even talked before, and now they are closer. Children build new positive relationships with others bringing them positive emotions. This, could be also taken as an achievement itself. Nevertheless, what Seligman (2011) explains as Achievement (or Accomplishement in his words) is the achievement of doing something for its own sake, just because. During the drama pedagogy games, it was also observed how children were immersed in the activity they were doing, they were interested and concentrated in the game. In most of the activities, they played to be someone or something else, just playing because of the sake of doing it, at the point of having some of the children continuing their characters after the training session was finished. Similar as to what Csikszentmihalyi (2009) says, this immersion in the game, brings an estate of full enjoyment, of flow. Csikszentmihalyi (2009) Flow theory, says that being interested, concentrated and enjoying an activity at the same time permits flow to occur. He stated that flow is achieved through creative and artistic activities, when they represent a challenge that is achievable for the people pursuing the challenge, but that still challenges them [START_REF] Admiraal | The concept of flow in collaborative game-based learning[END_REF]. Hence, this pilot program achieved getting the children in a flow state through fully engagement in creative drama games that challenged them to solve different problems and situations. This iswhat might have helped enhance divergent thinking. This work, also let them develop positive emotions for both the games and their classmates and helped them find new solutions in a collaborative way. Solutions were encouraged to be developed by listening to others' opinions and ideas and by presenting their own perspectives, so they could practice seeing ways from a different approach and enhancing their ability of finding and defending their own ideas or solutions. As some of the children said, they did learn to be able to speak out their own ideas or solutions in front of the group. Hence, the drama pedagogy games training pilot, established a link between some creative aspects such as perspective taking, solution finding and risk taking, through the engagement in playful and creative games, teaching them to experiment with flow and feel positive emotions, which was measured through a self-response scale, taken as an expression of the increase of their subjective well-being.

Concluding thoughts

In the table shown below we describe the trainings analyzed, their outcomes and how they are related to different well-being theories.

Creative Training or Creative Initiative

Country

Outcomes related with well-being Reference

Creative Partnership workshops England Desde 2016, el foco de las investigaciones que estamos realizando en nuestro equipo de trabajo en Paris V, tiene que ver, en gran parte, con las implicancias educativas del desarrollo de competencias del siglo XXI (Trilling & Fadel, 2009) en la escuela primaria, tales como la creatividad y el aprendizaje socio-emocional, a través de pedagogías alternativas como la pedagogía teatral. Por lo tanto, nuestros estudios, se han basado particularmente en la observación y práctica de la pedagogía teatral, una pedagogía activa, centrada en el desarrollo psicosocial del niño y construida a través de actividades dramáticas (Celume, Besançon & Zenasni, 2019) adaptadas al contexto pedagógico.

La principal perspectiva de este capítulo está en el impacto que tiene la pedagogía teatral en el desarrollo de la creatividad y del bienestar en niños de escuela primaria, y en cómo el desarrollo de la creatividad y del bienestar infantil, pueden llegar a tener un impacto importante sobre las organizaciones educativas, como un paso fundamental para poder transformarlas en organizaciones saludables. Para ello, dividiremos este capítulo en 4 partes. La primera parte va a describir la pedagogía teatral desde la perspectiva de una pedagogía activa, la segunda parte va a describir los retos que conlleva el estudio científico de la pedagogía teatral, la tercera parte va a describir a grandes rasgos un estudio controlado de pedagogía teatral que realizamos en 2017, relacionándola con el desarrollo de la creatividad y el bienestar infantil, para finalmente concluir con las perspectivas que nos hacen comprender la pedagogía teatral como una pedagogía que puede tener un impacto positivo significativo en el desarrollo del bienestar de los actores de la organización escolar, para poder transformarla en una organización saludable.

Pedagogía Teatral, una pedagogía activa.

Una pedagogía activa, es una metodología de aprendizaje en la que los estudiantes se involucran activamente en el trabajo realizado en el aula [START_REF] Bonwell | Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom[END_REF][START_REF] Prince | Does Active Learning Work? A Review of the Research[END_REF], en el que ellos pueden desarrollar de manera activa y experiencial todos sus procesos de aprendizaje. En otras palabras, ésta se enfoca en el proceso de comprensión e integración de aprendizajes y no necesariamente en el objetivo final de algún aprendizaje esperado. El foco del niño está más bien en cómo trabaja y cómo va comprendiendo las cosas, y en cómo está implicado o implicada con su propio aprendizaje. Esta perspectiva centrada en el niño y su proceso, es también una de las perspectivas pilares de la pedagogía teatral.

La pedagogía teatral, por su parte, fue creada gracias a la convergencia de diferentes trabajos sobre el juego y el teatro, que se fueron unificando en términos de desarrollo socioemocional y creativo a través de la espontaneidad del juego y el teatro. Según los consensos históricos, fue iniciada con Slade (1954) y el juego dramático, y luego ha sido complementada con los trabajos del teatro espontáneo de Moreno (1947) y del teatro del oprimido de Boal (1978), entre otros. Por ejemplo, en el teatro espontáneo de Moreno (que evolucionaría posteriormente a psicodrama y sociodrama) y en el teatro del oprimido de Boal, podemos encontrar relaciones directas con el concepto de pedagogía activa, en tanto que el participante de estas pedagogías teatrales está 100% activo dentro de su aprendizaje y el foco està en el proceso de desarrollo espontàneo de competencias sociales y afectivas.

El participante de la pedagogía teatral no está escuchando a alguien decirle lo que tiene que aprender o cómo lo tiene que aprender, no tiene a un adulto o maestro que le dice lo que tiene que hacer, sino que es el mismo participante, el mismo estudiante el que está implicado en su propio aprendizaje, comprendiendo, sintiendo y construyendo su propio aprendizaje, a través de las actividades dramáticas que se van proponiendo. Dentro del sistema educativo, la pedagogía teatral está enfocada en el proceso de desarrollo del niño y su aprendizaje en todos sus ámbitos, incluyendo el cognitivo, el afectivo y el social.

En las pedagogías activas, el niño es central para el aprendizaje, y el foco está en el proceso de aprendizaje, no en el resultado final [START_REF] Bonwell | Active Learning: Creating Excitement in the Classroom[END_REF]1991). En la pedagogía teatral, por su parte, no se está preocupado de la obra teatral a presentar al final del período, no es lo que interesa, sino que lo que nos interesa es saber cómo el niño o el participante va adquiriendo diferentes competencias de toda índole: creativas, sociales, emocionales, artísticas, e incluso académicas. Moreno (1947) fue enfático en este sentido, defendiendo en su trabajo la importancia de la espontaneidad y el proceso por sobre un texto teatral aprendido. En otras palabras, el foco está puesto en cómo las actividades dramáticas van a impactar las relaciones que el participante va construyendo consigo mismo, con los otros y con el aprendizaje, en lugar de enfocarse en tener una obra teatral terminada al final del proceso. De todas maneras, no podemos negar la gran labor de ciertos colegas pedagogos teatrales, que además de desarrollar las competencias descritas anteriormente, logran mostrar el proceso de aprendizaje a través de una pieza teatral, que a su vez, está enfocada en las opiniones, ideas y perspectivas de los mismos participantes.

Pedagogía Teatral y Rigor Científico.

El interés de trabajar con esta pedagogía, se funda en la gran cantidad de estudios que se han realizado en relación a la pedagogía teatral y sus beneficios socio-emocionales, pero muchas veces ignorando que se trata de pedagogía teatral y definiendo la metodología utilizada como "actividades psico-educativas activas". Por otra parte, hay una muy limitada cantidad de estudios que se han realizado en rigurosidad científica que definen estas actividades como parte de la metodología de "teatro creativo" (creative drama en inglés). Este último, es un tema que concierne a muchos de los profesionales que realizamos actividades artísticas relacionadas con la educación. La pedagogía teatral, por ejemplo, ha mostrado desarrollar variadas competencias ya desde sus inicios, y hay varias publicaciones no científicas como libros y reportes, así como artículos científicos, que muestran la efectividad que ha tenido la pedagogía teatral (muchas veces publicada bajo el nombre de teatro creativo) en el desarrollo de la creatividad, de las emociones positivas o de la inteligencia emocional. El problema que se presenta muy a menudo, es que la forma que tenemos los artistas-pedagogos para explicar nuestros procedimientos y nuestras metodologías, no se corresponden con las bases de lo que exige la publicación científica. Varios autores se han manifestado al respecto, lamentando la falta de rigurosidad en la descripción de metodologías, pues no permiten comprobar científicamente los efectos de la pedagogía teatral en los niños (Goldstein, Lerner & Winner, 2017;Joronen, Konu, Rankin, Astedt-Kurki, 2012;Lillard, Lerner, Hopkins, Dore, Smith & Palmquist, 2013;Winner, Goldstein & Vincent-Lancrin, 2013). Ésto, presenta un problema que está latente en los investigadores que buscamos hacer el link entre arte (teatro, música, artes visuales, etc.) y ciencias duras o sociales (tales como biología, química o como educación, psicología). Hay una diferencia en la manera en la expresamos nuestras metodologías de investigación, por lo tanto dentro del sistema científico establecido para poder divulgar los resultados de un estudio, muchas veces, los artistas-pedagogos no tenemos cabida, y nuestra manera de comunicar resultados, no es vista como una manera diferente de expresar, sino como un problema de expresión, como un error. El sistema científico actual no está muy abierto a nuestra forma de expresar resultados. En otras palabras, no es bien vista en el mundo académico, por lo tanto, nuestras expresiones de metodologías y de resultados obtenidos, vistas a través de la mirada del rigor científico, no son consideradas como metodologías científicas, sino, más bien como opiniones. Son habitualmente catalogadas de no rigurosas y por lo tanto, ello nos supone un problema en el momento de querer demostrar científicamente la eficacia de nuestros programas artísticos para el desarrollo cognitivo, social o emocional del niño.

Un estudio controlado de Pedagogía Teatral, Creatividad y Bienestar Infantil.

Considerando el tema desarrollado anteriormente, con nuestro equipo de trabajo, decidimos buscar el equilibrio entre artista-pedagogo e investigador, creando un estudio controlado, basado en una intervención de pedagogía teatral adaptada de programas que ya han sido validados científicamente (e.g. Garaigordobil, 2003), para poder poner a prueba la pedagogía teatral para el desarrollo de competencias en niños de escuela primaria. La idea general del estudio que será publicado prontamente en una revista internacional, fue crear un programa piloto de pedagogía teatral de 6 sesiones para ver cuáles iban a ser los resultados obtenidos en relación a nuestros objetivos esperados. El objetivo principal de nuestra intervención fue mejorar el estado de ánimo y la creatividad de los niños, luego ver cuáles podrían ser los efectos que estas mejoras pudieran tener sobre el entorno directo. En este caso, la organización educativa. Trabajamos con un diseño experimental mixto de pre post test con un grupo control. Hicimos dos tipos de evaluaciones, una evaluación cuantitativa y otra cualitativa.

Participaron más de 150 niños en edad escolar (m=9.7 d.e.=0.7), provenientes de tres tipos de escuela: privada, pública y prioritaria. Para poder evaluar el estado de ánimo de los niños se utilizó la escala de valencia emocional de The Self Assessment Mannekin (Bradley & Lang, 1993), que es una escala de Likert de 9 puntos que muestra pequeños hombrecitos fluctuando desde una cara muy poco positiva hasta una cara muy positiva. Para la evaluación del potencial creativo, se utilizaron los subtests figurativos abstractos de la batería de creatividad EPOC (Lubart, Barbot, & Besançon, 2011). Para complementar las evaluaciones cuantitativas, al término de nuestra intervención hicimos entrevistas semi directivas con un grupo de niños elegidos al azar, y con dos profesoras, para tener mayor claridad sobre cuáles habían sido sus puntos de vista con respecto al programa piloto y ver si guardaban alguna relación con la creatividad o con el bienestar. Los niños participantes fueron divididos al azar entre (1) grupo experimental, con el cual creamos el programa piloto de juegos dramáticos Emoted basados en manuales de pedagogía teatral (García-Huidobro, 2004;Garaigordobil, 2003), y (2) grupo control, que hizo un entrenamiento en juego colectivos, que preparamos a partir de manuales de juegos colaborativos deportivos que existen ya en Francia (Boulo & Olivier, 2005). Los dos grupos respondieron el mismo día a los mismos test antes de comenzar las intervenciones que se realizaron en las mismas semanas por el mismo período de tiempo: seis semanas de participación para cada grupo. Luego de las intervenciones, los niños respondieron a los diferentes tests y entrevistas. Los resultados parciales de esta investigación están siendo evaluados por un comité científico para su publicación, por lo que podrán ser consultados prontamente. De manera general, considerando el grueso de los participantes, nuestros resultados fueron importantes en creatividad y en estado de ánimo. El grupo experimental, que siguió un entrenamiento en Pedagogía Teatral fue significativamente superior en pensamiento divergente. De la misma manera, los niños que realizaron Pedagogía Teatral, mostraron un estado de ánimo más positivo en comparación al grupo control.

Por otra parte, además de las diferencias significativas entre el grupo control y el grupo experimental, nuestros resultados mostraron cómo los estados emocionales de los niños fueron evolucionando a lo largo de los entrenamientos. Pudimos observar cómo la sensación de estado de ánimo, a través de cada una de las sesiones, fue variando en los dos grupos. Para el grupo experimental, la variación emocional fue mucho más estable y positiva, manteniéndose siempre en un rango superior con respecto al grupo control. Por el contrario, el grupo control, que trabajó con juegos colectivos deportivos, presentó un descenso importante de su estado de ánimo en la tercera sesión. En la tercera sesión se observa la mayor diferencia entre los dos grupos, lo que tiene posible relación con el hecho de que en el grupo control, la mitad del grupo perdía en los juegos cuando la otra mitad ganaba, como en cualquier deporte de equipo, mientras que en el grupo de pedagogía teatral, no hay perdedores ni ganadores en los juegos propuestos.

De las entrevistas con los niños y profesores, seleccionamos breves pasajes en donde los niños mencionan principalmente el cómo se sentían más tranquilos y más relajados luego de las sesiones de pedagogía teatral, algunos haciendo referencia a una sensación en donde la presión del trabajo parece disminuir, sintiéndose "mejor" al final cada sesión. Esto, puede tener directa relación con el hecho de que hubo un trabajo importante de la inteligencia emocional en las sesiones de pedagogía teatral, por lo tanto, debido a eso, también las emociones pudieron haber sido más positivas, mostrando un estado de ánimo elevado para dicho grupo.

En nuestras entrevistas con las profesoras, que siguieron todas las sesiones desde dentro de la sala de clases en una de las escuelas, una de ella nos comentaba cómo el grupo se había "federado", cómo el grupo estaba mucho más unido. Una de ellas dice haberse dado cuenta que cuando fueron a la "clase de mar", los chicos estaban mucho más conectados entre ellos y que colaboraban entre sí, se ayudaban entre ellos. Según la profesora, hubo un aumento importante de la colaboración, de la cohesión grupal, lo que ella califica de "genial". Por otro lado, la profesora de la clase paralela, comentaba sobre cómo los niños se comportaban de maneras diferentes, positivas y que respondían positivamente a todas las problemáticas que se le daban dentro de las sesiones. Ella remarca que nunca se hubiera imaginado que ciertos niños iban a reaccionar de esta forma, tan abiertamente, que los niños se iban a comportar y trabajar de manera colaborativa, de manera más creativa. Este detalle en el comportamiento de sus alumnos, comenta, le aportaba una sensación personal positiva y de satisfacción.

Según nuestro estudio, el trabajo con una pedagogía activa, como la pedagogía teatral, tiene un impacto importante en el desarrollo de la creatividad, y así mismo ayuda a mantener un estado de ánimo positivo en niños de edad escolar, lo que influenciaría indirectamente el estado de ánimo de sus profesores.

El estado de ánimo, está ligado directamente al desarrollo de emociones más constantes en el tiempo, lo que significaría que el desarrollo de un estado de ánimo positivo estaría relacionado con el desarrollo de emociones positivas. El desarrollo de emociones positivas, está directamente relacionado al bienestar (Seligman, 2011). En otras palabras, una de las partes fundamentales del bienestar son las emociones positivas, y estas emociones positivas están directamente relacionadas con la sensación de bienestar.

Considerando lo anterior, un niño inserto en un tipo de pedagogía que le permite sentirse "mejor", más contento, que siente bienestar, podría desarrollar otro tipo de competencias, como por ejemplo la creatividad. Asimismo, una pedagogía que permite el desarrollo de la creatividad, podría aumentar la sensación de bienestar del niño.

En este sentido, Csikszentmihalyi (1990), explica la relación entre creatividad y estado de flow. El estado de flow, explica, es aquel estado en el que sentimos que estamos completamente inmersos en una actividad, en que sentimos bienestar haciendo una actividad, estamos realmente compenetrados con esta actividad y por lo tanto nos acerca a un desarrollo de la creatividad a través de la motivación intrínseca (Ryan & Deci, 2000). Hay otros tipo de estudios en que unen el estado de ánimo positivo y el desarrollo de la creatividad, explicando, por ejemplo, cómo un estado de ánimo más positivo va a tener un impacto positivo en el desarrollo de la creatividad (Zenasni & Lubart, 2002). Así como también hay también varios estudios que se han realizado sobre cómo la creatividad en la escuela va a afectar el desarrollo del bienestar de los niños (e.g. Galton & Page, 2015). En un review realizado hace dos años, Celume, Sovet, Lubart, & Zenasni (2017), describen la literatura existente en que se observan variadas iniciativas creativas realizadas en escuelas y cómo éstas tuvieron un impacto en la creatividad de los niños y en su bienestar. La relación entre la creatividad y el bienestar infantil.

En conclusión, la pedagogía teatral, en tanto que pedagogía activa centrada en el niño, en donde se trabaja con el proceso de aprendizaje, va a tener un impacto particular en la creatividad, sobre todo en el pensamiento divergente del niño, así como va a aumentar el estado de ánimo y por lo tanto crear una consecuencia directa sobre las emociones positivas del niño y entonces sobre su bienestar. Pero, ¿cómo ésto viene a afectar el entorno educacional?, ¿Cómo el desarrollo de la creatividad y del estado de ánimo de los niños impacta la organización educacional, y cómo podría ésta devenir saludable?

Pedagogía Teatral y Organizaciones Educativas Saludables

Personalmente, creo que el hecho de desarrollar competencias creativas, y más aún de establecer un marco de trabajo pedagógico artístico-teatral que aumenta el bienestar subjetivo de los niños, tiene una directa relación con una organización educacional saludable. De hecho, de acuerdo con [START_REF] Caplan | Principles of preventive psychiatry[END_REF] y con el acercamiento positivo de prevención primaria [START_REF] Di Fabio | Promoting Well-Being: The Contribution of Emotional Intelligence[END_REF], para que una organización sea saludable, la importancia debe estar en prevenir el problema antes de que se presente, promoviendo el bienestar en la organización. Es decir, favorecer el desarrollo de competencias y valores que van a desarrollar bienestar en la organización antes de buscar resolver un problema que ya se encuentra instalado.

Es más, de acuerdo con la organización mundial de la salud (OMS), las organizaciones saludables son el reflejo del funcionamiento óptimo de una organización en todos sus factores (Tetrick, 2000). De acuerdo con Henry (2005), hay cuatro factores que necesitan ser considerados al momento de evaluar la salud de las organizaciones. Primero, está el individuo, que debe ver satisfecha su necesidad de salud psicológica. Segundo, está el grupo, es decir, el desarrollo del trabajo en equipo, del pensamiento creativo, y de un espacio de relaciones respetuosas. En tercer lugar, encontramos la organización en sí misma, que debe estar abierta al desafío y al cambio, apoyándose en la innovación y en la creatividad para construir relaciones positivas y un espacio de trabajo positivo. Finalmente, las relaciones inter-organizacionales, que tienen relación con las redes que la organización establece con otras organizaciones y con la comunidad. Desde esta perspectiva, uno de los factores fundamentales para un buen funcionamiento organizacional, es el desarrollo óptimo de los seres humanos que están presentes en esa organización. Si consideramos la escuela como una organización educacional, tenemos a niños y profesores como parte fundamental de la mayoría de las interacciones sociales de esta organización. Y estas interacciones, van a influenciar directa o indirectamente el desarrollo de los seres humanos que componen esta organización. Visto de este modo, si los niños no consiguen desarrollar las competencias socio-emocionales básicas para su bienestar, si los niños no están contentos ni motivados, su estado de ánimo va a afectar las relaciones que él tenga con sus pares y sus profesores, alterando el equilibrio socio-emocional del ecosistema escolar. El estado de ánimo del niño, influencia el estado de ànimo de sus pares y de sus profesores y vice versa.

De acuerdo con Di Fabio (2017), uno de los desafíos más importantes de nuestra época es la construcción de una sociedad más saludable a través de la construcción de organizaciones saludables que se enfoquen en el bienestar de sus participantes. Este bienestar puede ser a su vez hedónico (bienestar subjetivo, emociones positivas) y eudaimónico (bienestar psicológico, motivación intrínseca) y el interés estará en buscar un equilibrio organizacional en que puedan desarrollarse los dos. Haciendo el paralelo con la escuela, en tanto que organización educativa, nuestro objetivo a futuro es poder desarrollar emociones positivas en los niños a través del juego dramático de la pedagogía teatral para aumentar el bienestar subjetivo de los niños y su bienestar psicológico, su motivación intrínseca, su creatividad. De este modo, buscamos que puedan aportar con su gran granito de arena a la construcción de una organización educacional saludable desde la prevención del conflicto, desde el desarrollo de competencias, desde el aumento del bienestar. Luego vendrá el trabajo más adelante con los profesores, con los directores de las escuelas, con los mismos padres, para poder ver cómo este sistema podría organizarse de una manera más saludable. En este capítulo quisimos hablar sobre los niños y cómo su bienestar va a aportar al bienestar general de los participantes de una organización educativa para convertirla en una organización educativa saludable. A nuestro parecer, queda mucho trabajo todavía por hacer, pero al menos sabemos, gracias a este y otros estudios, que el desarrollo del bienestar y la creatividad de los niños tiene un impacto directo en sus profesores, sus profesores se sienten más tranquilos y más contentos y por lo tanto, empezamos a mejorar poco a poco el sistema educacional para transformarlo en una organización cada vez más saludable.

  Figures and Tables Index

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Interaction of factors involved in Lubart's 7C's model of Creativity.

Figure 2 .Figure 3 .

 23 Figure 2. Lubart et al. (2015) Multivariate Model of Creativity Figure 3. Processes involved in the Creative Thought

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Mikolajczak, Quoidbach, Kotsu, and Nélis' Emotional Competencies Model

Figure 5 .Figure 6 .

 56 Figure 5. Conceptual and empirical dissociation of empathy and perspective-taking Figure 6. Model of the Drama Pedagogy Training elements that impact creative thinking.

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. Elements of DPT and corresponding creative-related processes and outcomes.

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. Studies of the Thesis and Respective Research Questions

Figure 9 .Figure 10 .Figure 11 .Figure 12 .

 9101112 Figure 9. Differences on ToM pre-post-test mean scores by group Figure 10. Differences on collaborative behaviour pre-post-test mean scores by group Figure 11. Effects of Type of Training by Class on ToM Figure 12. Effect of Type of Training by Type of School on ToM post-test scores.

Figure 13 .Figure 14 .

 1314 Figure 13. Effect of DPT on ToM pre-post test scores by school Figure 14. Repeated measures on divergent thinking means for type of training.

Figure 15 .

 15 Figure 15. Repeated measures on divergent thinking means for type of training.

Figure 16 .

 16 Figure 16. Repeated measures on mood valence scores for type of training.

Figure 17 .Figure 18 .

 1718 Figure 17. Mean Scores for Multiple Divergent Thinking Measures by Training Figure 18. Correlation graph on Mood and Divergent Thinking drawings.

Figure 19 . 10 Figure 21 .

 191021 Figure 19. Mood induction effect on originality mean scores, by class Figure 20. Mood induction effect on convergent thinking mean scores, by class

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Interaction of factors involved in Lubart's 7C's model of Creativity (original figure in[START_REF] Lubart | The 7 C's of Creativity[END_REF]

  Thus, in 1995, Lubart and Sternberg developed a multivariate approach to creativity based on the study of creative potential. This model describes three factors, cognitive, conative and environmental, that are involved in the creative potential of an individual. Cognitive factors are related to knowledge and intellectual capacities that favour creative thinking; conative factors are related to personality traits and the motivation of an individual to develop creative thinking; environmental factors are related to the influence of the environment on creative production.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Lubart et al.'s (2015) Multivariate Model of Creativity

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Mikolajczak, Quoidbach, Kotsu, and Nélis' Emotional Competencies Model

  present a dependence of emotional valence for brain region activation in affective empathy, and more general brain activation due to information processing in ToM. In 2011, based on the dual model of empathy, Reniers, Corcoran, Drake, Shryane & Völlm created a measurement tool (Questionnaire of Cognitive and Affective Empathy) proposing a five-factor model to explain empathy, rather than the previously used two-

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Summary of the conceptual and empirical dissociation of empathy and perspective-taking (for a detailed description and original figure, please see Stietz et al., 2019).

  In 2017, the National Educational report on research and development into education across life span (Becchetti-Bizot, Houzel & Taddei, 2017) proposed ten principal propositions for tomorrow's education in France, towards a "learning society", without clearly considering the development of creative or socio-emotional competencies. The propositions are necessary for a change in French education, certainly, although they are more focused on research methods in education, and on how children should adapt for tomorrow's jobs and a digital society, than on specifically developing creative or socio-emotional competencies. In summary, they propose to 1) encourage research methods in children, 2) encourage educational teams in research methods, 3) intensify research about education, 4) favour cooperation between practitioners and researchers, 5) deploy digital collaborations, 6) promote open portfolios of learning, 7) promote rules for safe data, 8) promote ethical rules for research, 9) build learning spaces within the communities, and 10) create research alliances.

"

  (a) it is facilitated and directed by a classroom teacher, teaching artist, or other facilitator trained in DBP; (b) it works toward academic and/or psychosocial outcomes for the students involved; (c) it focuses on a process-oriented and reflective experience; and (d) it draws from a broad range of applied theatre strategies" (p.4) They also establish that drama-based facilitators focus on the learner's understanding of what is social and cultural for them, co-constructing learning with participants through an open dialogue with them and their context. This permits the cohesion of groups and the construction of a community within the group facilitated by the guide through the different theatre games.

  posits four Tendencies that are still valid today and that define the different kinds of training in Drama Pedagogy that can be created. These tendencies are a) neoclassical, b) liberal progressivism, c) radical, and d) critical socialism. a) The neoclassical tendency is represented by the traditional use of theatre and teaching theatre techniques. It is mostly used among drama and theatre students in academies and universities. It represents the highest level of dramatic art, and the participants are expected to develop theories and practices involved with the art of representation. It consists of an exhaustive technique teaching in order to improve technical voice, movements, and emotions of the preservice actors. The talent and work of participants is fundamental in this tendency. Even though the process of learning dramatic competencies is important, the artistic outcome and the professionalisation of the actor are more important.

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. Table of elements of DPT and the corresponding creative-related processes and creativity

  in Spain, tested a play-based training including drama activities on 86 participants aged 5 and 6. Participants engaged in 75-min-long training sessions each week throughout the academic year. The researchers measured creativity through TTCT and the Escala de Personalidad Creadora (EPC, Garaigordobil and Pérez, 2005) finding that the training significantly increased creative personality traits, as well as verbal (e.g., fluency scores: F(1,84) = 39.99) and graphic (e.g., fluency scores: F(1,84) = 15.31) creative thinking. They also concluded that there was a positive atmosphere that enhanced the children's creativity. Cohen's d was calculated for fluency scores in the TTCT test, showing large to huge effect sizes for verbal (D = 1.89) and graphic (D = 0.97) tasks. One year later, Yasar and Aral studied 80 children aged 6 years old who participated twice a week in a drama education workshop over the course of 12 weeks. They were tested through TCT-DP forms A and B showing significant differences between the experimental and the control group (t = 16.1, p < 0.000). We calculated Cohen's d which showed a huge effect size (D = 3.11).

  , involved gathering different data. The following paragraph explains each of the studies with their corresponding samples. As the first sub-study (Study 1A), we assessed the impact of Drama Pedagogy Training on socio-emotional competencies, particularly on ToM and collaborative behaviour. The study was conducted on children attending 4th and 5th grade. Children were randomly assigned to participate either in a DPT intervention, or a collective sports group (CSG) intervention. The interventions lasted 6 weeks, and children were measured on mood, ToM and collaborative behaviour. Results

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. Studies of the thesis and respective research questions

Figure 9 .

 9 Figure 9. Differences in ToM pre-post-test mean scores by group

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. Differences in collaborative behaviour pre-post-test mean scores by group

Figure 11 .

 11 Figure 11. Effects of Type of Training by Class on ToM

Figure 12 .

 12 Figure 12. Effects of type of training by type of school on ToM post-test scores

Figure 13 .

 13 Figure 13. Effect of DPT on ToM pre-post test scores by school

Participants

  Participants were initially 65 school-aged children between 9 and 11 years old (M = 9.9; SD = 0.3) recruited from 4th grade classes from a private (PR; N = 27), a public (PU; N = 20) and a priority (REP; N = 18) school in the Paris area. For final analyses, we considered only 55 children (please see results section for further details). The private school was in a socially mixed neighbourhood where parents who can afford to pay for their children's education; the public school was in a more privileged neighbourhood, and corresponded to classical free public education; and the priority school was in a disadvantaged area with less social mixing, where national educational policies focus more efforts.Children were randomly assigned either to an active control group participating in Collective Sports Group (CSG, N = 34) or an experimental group participating in Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT, N = 31). Children from different schools were assigned equally to each group.

1 . 3 .

 13 scale going from a positive figure at the right of the paper to a clearly negative figure at the left of the paper. Children had to circle the figure in order to represent how they felt. Mood arousal was not measured in this study. This scale can be easily used because it is a visual and self-reported measure(Monnier et al., 2016) and has already been tested for children aged6-12 (e.g. McManis, Bradley, Berg, Cuthbert & Lang, 2001). Qualitative Evaluation In order to measure the different outcomes perceived by children after the interventions, we conducted semi-structured interviews. Children were asked five principal questions with prompts: Did you enjoy the workshop you participated in? Why? (Name some reasons) 2. Do you think you learnt something during the workshop you participated in? What? (Name learnings) Can you recall the best situation you experienced during the workshop? The one you liked the most? 4. Can you recall the worst situation you experienced during the workshop? The one you disliked the most? 5. Can you provide three words to summarise the workshop?

to 1 )

 1 draw as many drawings as possible from a given figure and 2) draw a complete drawing from eight given figures including at least four of the figures. The week after task completion, we started with the training. From session one until session six, children were asked to answer a SAM scale in order to see their emotional valence before and after each session. After the training was finished, children were asked to answer the abstract figurative tasks for divergent thinking and convergent thinking, Form B. Also, as part of qualitative analyses, 12 semi-directive interviews were prepared right after the interventions were finished, six for the DPT group and six for the CSG.Follow-upParticipantsFor this part of the study, 35 children aged 9 to 10 years old (M = 9.8; SD = 0.3) who had previously participated were included. This sample was composed of children from the public (N = 8) and the private (N = 27) schools. The priority school included in the first part of the study didn't participate in the follow-up for the study.MaterialEvaluation of Creative Potential (EPoC)

A

  Figure14. Repeated measures on divergent thinking means for type of training

Figure15.

  Figure15. Repeated measures on divergent thinking means for type of training

  with the workshop LUA = liked ludic aspect of the workshop CLA = liked collective aspect of the workshop CRA = liked creative aspect of the workshop CLB = liked collaborative aspect of the workshop EMA = liked emotional aspect of the workshop MOV = liked movement aspect of the workshop GRP = learnt to be in a group COM = learnt communication towards others EI = learnt emotional intelligence and EI related outcomes

  explained these results due to the time children spent at school and in physical education lessons, as well as their cognitive development which is more developed when getting older. The study of Scibinetti, Tocci & Pesce (2011) carried out on 31 children aged seven and eight years old, presented more clear evidence of the links between creative thinking and kinaesthetic creativity. They measured creative thinking through the Italian version of the battery of Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking (TTCT, Torrance, 1989), and kinaesthetic creativity through the Bertsch Test

Figure 17 .

 17 Figure 17. Mean scores for multiple divergent thinking measures by training

Drama

  Pedagogy Training can effectively develop figurative fluency in children attending 4th and 5th (CM1 and CM2) class. Nevertheless, it appears to be non-effective for developing kinaesthetic fluency. Figurative and kinaesthetic scores for fluency are not related. Further investigation into the evaluation methods for kinaesthetic creative thinking is needed.

  attending three different types of schools in the Paris region (PU, PR, REP). Each group was subclassified according to the class they belonged to, constituting three different groups for study with their respective control groups (CE2/CM1/CM2 experimental and control condition). Children were randomly assigned either to the experimental group, for positive mood induction or to the control group, for neutral mood induction.MaterialInduction of Mood"Classical positive mood induction"

3 . 6 .

 36 New elements (Ne): Any new figure, symbol or element. 4. Connections made with a line (Cl) between one figural fragment or figure or another.5. Connections made to produce a theme (Cth): Any figure contributing to a compositional theme or "gestalt". Boundary breaking that is fragment dependent (Bfd): Any use, continuation or extension of the "small open square" located outside the square frame.

Figure 19 .

 19 Figure 19. Mood induction effect on originality mean scores, by class

Figure 20 .

 20 Figure 20. Mood induction effect on convergent thinking mean scores, by class

  the previous chapters, studies on drama-based games and pretend play have shown positive effects on a wide range of cognitive, social and emotional competencies in children, such as social relationships and behaviours, empathy, humour, emotional understanding and theory of mind (ToM) (e.g.Goldstein & Winner, 2012; Hoffmann & Russ, 2012; Joronen, Konu, Rankin & Astedt-Kurki, 2012; Joronen, Häkämies & Astedt-Kurki, 2012;[START_REF] Seja | Children's fantasy play and emotional understanding[END_REF] Yeh & Li, 2008, etc). On the other hand, drama-based games and creative drama have also shown positive effects on children's creativity (e.g.Hui & Lau, 2006; Karwowski & Soszynski, 2008; Lin, 2010; Garaigordobil & Berrueco, 2011) developing imagination, flexibility, and problem-solving abilities among other outcomes.

  the study made in 1997 bySuddendorf and Fletcher-Flinn, they established a relationship between executive function-ToM and divergent thinking, measuring ToM through a false belief task and divergent thinking throughWallach and Kogan's creativity test (1965), showing significant correlations of ToM scores with uniqueness (r=.48; p<.01) and fluency(r=.62; p<.01) scores. They explain this results, suggesting that there is a relationship between ToM and creativity that implies that being able to understand others' false beliefs is a mental process related to the ability to detach from known perceptions and knowledge in the same way divergent thinking works when finding solutions that are outside "the box". In this sense, the fact of detaching from known perceptions and knowledge will correspond to a mental process that occurs similarly in ToM and divergent thinking. Nevertheless, the question of how the fact of working executive functions in a drama-based training would predict creativity, remains unsolved.Accordingly,Thibodeau et al., (2016) conducted a study on preschool-aged children to determine the sense of this relationship through a fantasy-oriented pretend-play training (Drama Pedagogy Training), finding that this kind of fantastic pretend-play favours executive functions (differently from more realistic pretend play) and suggesting that children do not necessarily need the development of executive functions to be able to exhibit fantasy-oriented behaviours. In other words, executive functions were not necessarily predictors of creativity in Drama Pedagogy Training.On the other hand, in a study conducted byHoffmann and Russ (2012), they showed evidence to support the idea that during pretence-play activities, emotional regulation (considered by some authors as executive function) is related to creativity. They showed that emotional regulation was significantly correlated to children's divergent thinking in all three factors (fluency (r = .30; p < .01), flexibility (r = .29; p < .01) and originality (r = .31; p < .01)), concluding that creative children would use creative skills such as solution finding to cope with unpleasant emotions. Nevertheless, one could argue that the study of Hofmann andRuss (2012) does not consider emotional regulation as an executive function, but more as a socio-emotional competence, within the context of Drama Pedagogy Training.

  , a clearer relationship between ToM and creativity in drama-based interventions appears. In fact, in Drama Pedagogy Training, perspective taking abilities have already been considered to be linked to ToM in children (e.g.Goldstein & Winner, 2012;[START_REF] Qu | Teachers' Theory-of-mind Coaching and Children's Executive Function Predict the Training Effect of Sociodramatic Play on Children's Theory of Mind[END_REF], while perspective taking has also being related to creative enhancement in pre-schoolers (e.g.[START_REF] Mages | Does theatre-in-education promote early childhood development?: The effect of drama on language, perspective-taking, and imagination[END_REF]. This relationship linking perspective taking with creativity in drama games settings might suggest a new linking bridge between ToM and creativity. Thus, this study proposes an analysis of a training session carried out in France with a group of eight 4th grade children attending a public school who participated in a DPT intervention. Understanding the relationship between creativity and ToM might help us understand better how these competencies are learnt by children and thus it might help us to improve existing pedagogical resources and to build more specific tools, in order to enhance this competence development. Unfortunately, no recent study (to our knowledge) has deeply studied the relationships among these outcomes, and even though pedagogical tools, such as Drama Pedagogy Training, have been shown to improve both of these competencies, no study has identified the linking component that might help us understand why these competencies are learned by children through this methodology. Accordingly, the present study aims to understand how creativity and ToM are related in Drama Pedagogy Training, and how perspective taking might be involved in this relationship, by presenting a review of literature and the descriptive and observational data gathered during DPT sessions with primary school children in France. Method Participants Our sample was composed of 9 children (M =9.78; SD=0.23) attending a double-level class from a public elementary school in Paris. In certain elementary schools, there are double level classes, in which children from different levels share the same classroom. Our sample was part of one of these classes. The majority of children belonged to fifth grade, and only 9 children were from fourth grade, and agreed to participate in this study. Among these 9 4th grade children, there were 4 boys (M =9.81; SD=0.27) and 5 girls (M =9.76; SD=0.23). The school is located in central Paris, in a middle-upper class neighbourhood. Data collection on racial background is forbidden

  The original training consisted of 6 sessions, 4 for training and 2 for evaluation of collaborative behaviour. For this case study only 4 sessions were considered, excluding the collaborative behaviour evaluation sessions. At the beginning of each session there was a warming up that included a mindfulness activity. Children 200 later expressed how they felt, leaving the standard activities of school and getting prepared for the training. Then, there was the main Drama Pedagogy Training activity(ies). "Collective body expression" is an example of a main DPT activity. In this activity, children are put together in groups through an earlier collective activity. Once the groups are completed, they choose a leader.The leader of each group comes to the facilitator and picks up a paper that has an emotion or mental state written on it. The leaders go back to their groups and present the group with this word. Each group has to create a short collective presentation, using only their bodies (no use of the voice for this activity), representing the word they were given. The idea is to make it very clear so that the other group (or groups) can guess the word. If the group or groups guess the word, each group earns one point. After the main activity is accomplished, there is feedback time when children express their opinions and feelings about the session. The facilitator asks questions about the main activity, guiding the reflections about why the groups decided to represent the word in that way, and how/why the other groups guessed the word. Each of the sessions lasted between 60 and 70 minutes, depending on the feedback time. A post-test time for the evaluation of creative thinking and ToM was carried out after the last session of the training was finished.

Figure 21 .

 21 Figure 21. Categories during DPT sessions

Topic 1 .

 1 Creative thinking and socio-emotional competencies development in DPT. Comparing Drama Pedagogy Training vs Collective Sports Group. We wanted to prove the efficacy of Drama Pedagogy Training for developing soft skills, such as emotional intelligence and creativity when compared to another training. We were interested in measuring children's mood, creativity, collaborative behaviour and ToM as the clearest studies tend to go in that direction. For this aim, we created a 6 session Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT) based on a validated program and other manuals, and a Collective Sport Group (CSG) training based on sport games manuals. We conducted a longitudinal study with a control group, comparing the DPT to the CSG in post-test and follow-up times of measurement. We also conducted interviews at the end of the post-test time to see the results for the topics we wanted to cover. The results of the tests were satisfactory in all the measures applied for the post-test time of measurement. The results of the interviews showed that what children learned and liked the most during the sessions was working together, with several mentions of emotional

  we can present evidence on how successful creativity trainings are based on different DPT elements: (a) corporal expression training, (b) main drama techniques, such as storytelling or improvisation and role-play, (c) playfulness, (d) collaborative and safe environment, and (e) feedback. All the above elements will be briefly discussed for general comprehension of the results. (For a detailed explanation of each element and their link with creative development, see Celume et al., 2019a.) The Drama Technical Phases Category a) Corporal Expression Training Corporal expression training can be understood as the physical training that happens at the beginning of a Drama Pedagogy session. For instance, participants are asked to move around the space and to explore the different movements they can use to move from one point of the room to another, changing speeds and the quality of movements at each time. In summary, corporal expression in DPT directly affects creativity through enhancing problem-solving abilities, but it also works by developing risk taking and tolerance of the unknown that is achieved through a process of embodiment. b) Main Drama Techniques: Storytelling & Pretend-Play and Improvisation & Role-Play

Figure 23 .

 23 Figure 23. Model of interrelation of concepts and outcomes of DPT intervention

  which quantitative or qualitative methods to assess through, but also to consider the environment and other roles in the construction of creativity. Other researchers (e.g. Plucker, 2017) propose a full review of the study of creativity, considering improvements in different fields of creativity research, proposing more collaborations outside the academic world, the support of non-Western research on creativity, a review of the cultural-demographic differences of creativity, and also, emphasis on the need for enhancement of creativity interventions and measurement methods to identify precisely what and how are we measuring. In other words, this would allow us to converge on a method that can actually develop children's creativity transversally and that can allow us to correctly measure it.

  Development of emotional identification and emotional expression. Affective development: emotional expression Social development: nonverbal communication Intellectual development: symbolization, expressivity Psychomotor development: corporal schema, space Activity(ies) description:

SESSION 4

 4 Interpersonal Skills Objective: Development of emotional expression and development of cooperation and communication skills. Affective development: emotional expression, pleasure in role playing, empathy. Social development: active listening, cooperation, empathy, group-belonging. Intellectual development: creativity (fluidity, flexibility, originality, expressivity, fantasy, transformation), symbolization, memory, expression and understanding of language. Psychomotor development: construction of objects for the representation.

  Development of communication and cooperation skills. Development of emotional expression and regulation. Affective development: emotional expression, pleasure in role playing, empathy. Social development: active listening, collective decision making, social problem solving, cooperation, group-belonging, empathy. Intellectual development: expression and understanding of language, symbolization. Psychomotor development: dynamic global coordination.

FIGURE 1 |

 1 FIGURE 1 | Model of the drama pedagogy training elements that impact creative thinking.

1 .

 1 Creation of trainings: DPT and CSG The independent variable was the Emoted pilot program, a Drama Pedagogy Training created through the selection and adaptation of some Drama Pedagogy Training activities proposed in the Spanish program "Programa Juego"

  For this part of the study, 35 children aged 9 to 10 years old (m = 9.8; SD = 0.3) who had previously participated were included. This sample was composed of children from the public (n = 8) and the private (n = 27) schools. The priority school included in the first part of the study didn't participate in the follow-up of the study.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Repeated measures on divergent thinking means for type of training.

Fig. 2 .Fig. 3 .

 23 Fig. 2. Repeated measures on divergent thinking means for type of training.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Differences on ToM pre-post test mean scores by group

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Differences on collaborative behavior pre-post test mean scores by group

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Effects of Type of Training by Class on ToM

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Effect of Type of Training by Type of School on ToM post-test scores.

Table 8 .

 8 Mean Scores of ToM, Mood and Creativity in Pre-Test and Post-Test times.

	Appendices Index p. 277
	Appendix 1. Drama Pedagogy Training Manual.

Table 1 .

 1 Representation of measured variables according to measuring times

	T0	T1	T2	T3	T4
	Week 0	Week 2	Week 6	Week 7	4 months
	ToM pre-test	Collaborative	Collaborative	ToM post-test	ToM follow-up
		pre-test	post-test

Developing Children's Creative Thinking and Mood Valence in Drama Pedagogy Training: Study with a French 4th Grade Sample As

  As ToM enhancement was not sustained over time, we propose to carry out a new study conducting DPT with more intervention sessions in order to see if the amount of sessions might have an impact on follow-up results in this and other socio-emotional competencies, as previous studies suggest. observed in the previous chapters, DPT posits that a free, safe and/or careful learning setting is better for children's creative development. In this sense, Jindal-Snape, Vettraino, Lowson

	Conclusion Study 1b.
	Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT) is an effective way to develop Theory of Mind (ToM)
	and collaborative behaviour (CB) in 9-to 10-year-old children engaged in French school contexts,
	although further work is needed to measure CB through the observation of behaviours. DPT also
	enhances positive emotions which would have a direct impact on fostering children's well-being.
	Garaigordobil, 2003; Joronen, Konu et al., 2011; Wright, John, Ellenbogen, Offord, Duku &
	Rowe, 2006). Nevertheless, they are not consistent with Lee et al. (2015) who explained that even
	though drama-based pedagogies have been supported as being an effective way to foster prosocial
	behaviours studies analysed in their meta-analyses were not consistent.

This behavioural change confirms that DPT enhances collaborative behaviour, and that a training based on expressive art such as drama facilitates socio-emotional learning. Regarding this, the International School for Interdisciplinary Studies, in Canada, has stated that expressive arts might improve social learning by giving children the opportunity to work in groups, collaborate, and create a social support network (ISIS, 2004). Our results are consistent with several studies that confirm the positive effect of drama and drama-based trainings for collaborative behaviour and social skills development (e.g. & McDuff (2011) claim that children's solution finding through a safe environment is not new to DPT, emphasising the fact that the DPT learning environment gives them freedom of expression

Table 2 .

 2 Distribution of children in the two group conditions according to schools

		PR	PU	REP
	N	27	20	18
	N CSG	15	10	9
	N DPT	12	10	9

Table 3 .

 3 Means of divergent thinking and convergent thinking for each group before the sessions.

		Type of Training	N	Mean SD
	Divergent Thinking	CSG	24	7.08	3.51
		DPT	31	5.68	2.88
	Convergent Thinking	CSG	24	3.51	1.20
		DPT	31	3.73	1.29
	Hypothesis Testing
	Short-term Impact on Creativity

Table 4 .

 4 Percentages of children's given responses regarding personal preferences and learning outcomes during the trainings.

		SAT	LUA	CLA	CRA	CLB	EMA	MOV	GRP	COM	EI
	DPT	100% 100%	75%	75%	25%	25%	0%	50%	75%	100%
	CSG	100% 75%	50%	0%	0%	0%	0%	25%	0%	0%

  One of the children mentioned that "... after the session, you'll be able to talk with everybody, enjoy with everybody… if we hadn't done this [DPT] I would have never talked with them [classmates], I would have left them in their corner." In her statement, she explained that the space she shared with other classmates helped her to interact with others. In the same vein, another child answered that he liked the

training because "we had to work in a group and each of us could propose ideas and it was good to listen to other's [ideas]". His remark, which was shared by other children in the class, reminds

  Second, training sessions should occur at the same hour and ideally on the same day of the week. To this end, we recommend running the training each week alternating the hour (e.g. every Wednesday at 8 and at 10; week A, DPT starts at 8 and CSG at 10, week B, CSG starts at 8, DPT at 10). We were able to do this only for one part of our sample in order to reduce time bias. Third, evaluation sessions for pre-test and post-test should occur during the same week as the trainings. All pre-test

assessments should occur one day before the trainings and all post-test assessment should occur one day after the trainings. In this way, sessions 2 and 6 should go first and last respectively. For further research, a study on kinaesthetic creativity is proposed in order to see which other aspects of creativity could be impacted by DPT and how the use of body in this environment could impact divergent thinking, expressed through body movements.

  Each group was engaged in each training for 6 weeks. After the training, children were measured in both of the tasks explained above (EPoC and TCAM). Data gathered were analysed through Dell Statistica software, version 13.

  I would like you to remember for two minutes a joyful memory you have lived in your life. Pick the most joyful one. Now please close your eyes so you can see in detail everything that happened in that moment. I will ask you a few questions to help you remember best. You don't

have to answer out loud. OK. Was it a sunny day? Who was with you? How much did you like the people who were with you? What happened that was so joyful? And finally, how did this make you feel? Thank you for remembering; you can now open your eyes." "Classical neutral mood induction"

Table 5 .

 5 Mean scores for mood for both experimental and control conditions

		M Positive M Neutral	T value P value N Positive N Neutral SD Positive	SD Neutral
	ALL	2.92	1.74	4.61	0.00**	109	103	1.53	2.16
	CE2 (3rd)	3.08	2.03	2.61	0.01*	38	40	1.48	2.03
	CM1 (4th) 2.50	1.33	2.53	0.01*	32	33	1.65	2.04
	CM2 (5th) 3.10	1,.0	2.76	0.01*	39	30	1.45	2.44

Table 6 .

 6 Means scores for creative thinking for both experimental and control conditions

		M Positive	M Neutral	T value P value N Positive N Neutral SD Positive	SD Neutral
	Fluency	8.05	7.51	.67	.50	109	103	5.65	5.83
	Originality .90	.87	2.38	.02*	109	103	0.06	0.09
	Flexibility 6.05	5.46	1.09	.28	109	103	4	3.88
	Integrative 4.14	3.40	4.23	.00**	109	103	1.36	1.18

Table 7 .

 7 Mean scores for valence of creativity tasks' drawings for experimental and control

	conditions
	M Positive M Neutral T value P value N Positive N Neutral SD Positive	SD Neutral
	DT. Draw. 0.63	0.53	1.08	0.28	109	103	0.67	0.68
	CT. Draw. 0.92	0.56	1.95	0.052	109	103	1.43	1.30
	DT = Divergent Thinking
	CT = Convergent Thinking

Table 8 .

 8 Mean scores for ToM, mood and creativity in pre-test and post-test times.

	Test	N	Mean	Min	Max		SD
	RMET-G Pre	8	18.25	15	23		2.49
	RMET-G Post	8	19.38	15	24		3.11
	SAM Pre	8	1.69	0.25	3		1.09
	SAM Post	8	2.56	0.75	3.75		1.0
	EPOC-D Pre	8	9.38	6	13		2.62
	EPOC-D Post	8	11.38	7	16		2.92
	EPOC-I Pre	8	3.46	1.67	5.33		1.42
	EPOC-I Post	8	4.25	3	5.67		0.87
	RMET-G	assessing	theory	of	mind;	SAM	assessing	mood;
	EPOC-D assessing divergent thinking; EPOC-I assessing integrative thinking.

Table 8

 8 above presents the mean scores on ToM (RMET-G), mood (SAM) and creativity (EPoC). Although there was no significant difference between pre-test and post-test scores in creativity and ToM, means show an increasing trend in the post-test time. A significant difference was only found in mood, increasing the mean scores of the group in the post-test time (t = -2.93; Results showed a small to medium effect size on ToM (d=.45), a medium effect size on integrative thinking (d=.56) and a large effect size on divergent thinking (d=.76).

p.<.022). Further on, in order to find effect sizes for the different measures, we ran Cohen d 202 analyses.

  pedagogies or DPT. Regarding evaluation, we agreed that pre-test should occur one day before the interventions, and post-test should occur one day after. It may be worth seeing if it is possible to do the pre-test just an hour before and the post-test just an hour later. If this were possible, our training sessions 2 and 6 for evaluation of collaboration, should be placed in sessions 1 and after 6.

Table 1 .

 1 Pre and Post Tests of DPT Emoted pilot training and Control Sports group.

		m DPT	m Control	t	dl	p
	PR*	2,69	3,1	-2,21	143	0,029
	SAM	13,09	14,81	-1,4	149	0,176
		m DPT	m Control	t	dl	p
	PR*	4,51	3,47	6,15	143	0,00
	SAM*	18,25	14,14	3,77	149	0,00

Table 1

 1 Means of divergent thinking and convergent thinking for each group before the sessions.

		Type of Training	N	Mean	SD
	Divergent Thinking	CSG	24	7.08	3.51
		DPT	31	5.68	2.88
	Convergent Thinking	CSG	24	3.51	1.20
		DPT	31	3.73	1.29

Table 2

 2 Percentages of children's given responses regarding personal preferences and learnings during the trainings.

	satisfaction liked ludic	liked collec	liked creat	liked collab	liked emot	liked mouv	learnt to be in	learnt comm	learnt EI
		aspect	aspect	aspect	aspect	aspect	aspect	group	others
	DPT 100%	100%	75%	75%	25%	25%	0%	50%	75%	100%
	CSG 100%	75%	50%	0%	0%	0%	0%	25%	0%	0%

First edition appeared in

Translated from the original: "la capacité -mise en pratique -à identifier, à comprendre, à exprimer, à gérer et à utiliser ses émotions et celles d'autrui."

Liberty, Equality, Brotherhood

Desillusion

Translated from original in French: "L'idée d'alternative n'est pas nouvelle puisque les courants d'éducation nouvelle issus des pédagogues Célestin Freinet, Maria Montessori, Rudolf Steiner et Ovide Decroly sont présents en France depuis la première moitié du XXe siècle et se sont structurés en réaction à l'école traditionnelle."

Le socle commun de connaissances, de compétences et de culture. Ministère de l'Éducation Nationale et de la Jeunesse.

Universities in Chile deliver different diplomas in the field. For example: National Diploma in Drama Pedagogy and National Diploma in Applied Theater, Universidad Católica de Chile; Master in Drama Pedagogy, Universidad del Desarrollo.

For a review of educational transformation that drama made in this sense, please consultSlade (1954) and his complete work at the University of Manchester, London College and the Victoria and Albert Museum, in the UK.

An integral and creative child should be understood as a child that has developed his/her socio-emotional competencies and creative thinking abilities.Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org

January 2019 | Volume 9 | Article 2611

Frontiers in Psychology | www.frontiersin.org

Translated from original: "la capacité -mise en pratique -à identifier, à comprendre, à exprimer, à gérer et à utiliser ses émotions et celles d'autrui."

Acknowledgments

So many people, I will need to make a whole chapter out of this part.

Acknowledgments

This work was partially funded through the French PIA IDEFI (ANR11 IDEFI 023, Institut Innovant de Formation par la Recherche) and through the Arts et Sciences (Appel à Projets, GDR Esthétique, Art et Science, Université de Paris).

FUNDING

This work was partially funded through the French PIA IDEFI grant (ANR11 IDEFI 023, Institut Innovant de Formation par la Recherche) and through the Art et Sciences grant (Appel á projects: La création des nouveaux paradigmes, GDR Esthétique, Art et Science, Université Paris Descartes).

"Much has been said about methods and methodologies and little about what is written

about the receiving elements of our projects. The truth is that they, the students, our students, are part of a reality that for us, adults, is at times, distant and inaccessible. (…) It cannot be enough to pretend to listen to them: we must listen to them, and for that, we could use one of the best tricks of white magic that exists: to be, a little or a lot, children like them. But, how are these children we do not know? How can we, to the best of our ability, become playmates? Is communication with them really possible?... The reality that surrounds me, the kids that play and make drama with me, invite me to reflect on this" José Cãas Torregrosa, 1992 (Didáctica de la Expresión Dramática, p.13)

Summary

In summary, several theories emerged from the concept of Emotional Intelligence (e.g. Mayer and Salovey, 1997;Bar-On, 2000). For this thesis we will focus on a) Mikolajczak et al.'s (2014) emotional competencies model; and b) the CASEL Socio-Emotional Learning approach.

The former model appeared to be a pertinent approach for the present thesis, as it explains a progressive level of emotional competencies and it differentiates the intrapersonal level from the interpersonal. In the same way, DPT is also thought to be a progressive training whereby dramatic activities enhance their level of complexity regarding creative outcomes and socioemotional competencies. Furthermore, within the model, the "understanding" level of competency at the interpersonal versant is related to empathy; this is one of the fields we want to focus on this thesis, specifically the cognitive versant, which is found in the literature as Theory of Mind (ToM) describing it as the understanding of others' emotional and mental states.

On the other hand, the latter approach identifies SEL as a group of core competencies, emerging from the emotional intelligence theory, that are recognised as key elements to be developed in school-age children (Durlak et al., 2011). Accordingly, the SAFE approach that is proposed by successful SEL trainings corresponds in great part to the objectives and framework of DPT interventions, for which it seemed pertinent to consider this approach in terms of guiding the different dramatic activities within DPT.

In the following chapter, we will explore the context of creativity and socio-emotional competencies (mostly through the concept of SEL) within the French educational system, identifying some experiences that have already been examined in the field.

Summary

The studies presented above are a summary of evidence that exists from several years suggesting an important role of drama-based training for the development of creative thinking and socio-emotional competencies in children and adolescents. The meta-analyses and other studies that have been carried out present supportive evidence of the role of DPT on the development of SE competencies and creativity in children, even though some difficulties in the report of the studies calls into question the drama-based methodologies.

The following section will explain further this and other problems linked to DPT studies, presenting the objectives of this research and predicting some possible outcomes.

Discussion

First data analyses showed no differences between the groups for kinaesthetic creativity and no correlation between results for figurative creative divergent thinking and kinaesthetic creative divergent thinking. These results are consistent with the results obtained by [START_REF] Holman | Mesuring creative ability in the young child: Correlates between two tests of creative thinking[END_REF], [START_REF] Perez | Evaluación de los Efectos de un Programa de Educación Artística en la Creatividad y en otras variables del Desarrollo Infantil[END_REF][START_REF] Philipp | Comparison of motor creativity with figural and verbal creativity, and selected motor skills[END_REF] where studies presented no significant correlations between both scores. It is important to note that the study of [START_REF] Holman | Mesuring creative ability in the young child: Correlates between two tests of creative thinking[END_REF] used our same instrument but was conducted among a special population (gifted children) and the study of [START_REF] Perez | Evaluación de los Efectos de un Programa de Educación Artística en la Creatividad y en otras variables del Desarrollo Infantil[END_REF] who also used the TCAM, was carried out with younger children, thus results could differ from our results as the population is not the same. Nevertheless, the study carried out in 1968 by Philipp, even though it used a different motor creativity test, was conducted on primary school children who matched the age characteristics of our sample, and also presented no significant correlations between motor (kinaesthetic) creativity and graphic creativity. In the work carried out by [START_REF] Dominguez | Evolución de la Creatividad en Educación Primaria. Relación entre Indicadores Motrices y Gráficos[END_REF] with primary school children from 6 to 13 years old (M = 9.3), she correlated different indicators of graphic and motor creativity, finding positive significant correlations between motor (kinaesthetic) indicators and graphic (figurative) indicators, except for graphic fluency, which presented non-significant negative correlations with motor indicators that increased with age. In line with this, our study, which was carried out with older elementary children, confirms these results as the test we used to measure figurative creativity (EPoC) for them was mostly focused on fluency, and presented no correlation with the fluency kinaesthetic task we carried out. Nevertheless, there is still little evidence for the relationship between kinaesthetic creativity and figurative creativity, especially when involving measures based on creative thinking. Accordingly, in a study carried out by [START_REF] Scibinetti | Motor Creativity and Creative Thinking in Children: The Diverging Role of Inhibition[END_REF] on motor creativity and creative thinking among children, they outline the idea of the need for more research trying to

Positive Experimental Group

The neutral group was asked to leave the classroom for 30 minutes while we conducted the experiment. Students and teacher were told to do an academic activity in the library while they waited for their turn for the experience.

Students in the classroom were invited to complete the SAM scale described before, in private, without looking at their classmates' sheets in order to assess their initial emotional state.

We explained to students that they had to rate how they felt in that moment from happy to unhappy by indicating it on the drawings of the 9-point SAM scale rate sheet (pre-test).

Afterwards, we conducted the positive mood induction through the induced joy mood method. We instructed the children that they had 2 minutes to remember in detail a joyful autobiographical memory that they had lived in the past at any place, and with anyone. We asked them to really concentrate on the task, so to close their eyes and remember everything in precise detail.

Once the induction process was finished, they were asked to answer the SAM scale for the second time (post-test).

After the SAM scale was completed, they were given the TCT-DP creativity task to complete and, after 15 minutes, sheets were taken. Another SAM scale was completed after this task.

There were no significant correlations between positive valence of drawings and selfreported mood on divergent thinking and convergent thinking tasks.

Figure 18. Correlation graph on mood and divergent thinking drawings For the divergent thinking task, children who rated themselves in an extremely positive mood (score of 4 points) drew ideas that were rated by the judges as neutral (0 points) or slightly positive (1 point) using the same SAM valence scale, leading to a very weak positive correlation (r = .12; p < .08). For the convergent thinking task, scores were even lower with almost no correlation score between the measures (r = .08; p = .23).

Further on, no significant differences were found between the groups in the t-test analyses.

There is still no clear evidence of the underlying elements that link ToM with creativity or of the real cause that helps creativity to be enhanced through Drama Pedagogy Training that was mostly focused on emotional identification and understanding. Nevertheless, the literature suggests that this relationship should be due to perspective taking abilities as multiple perspectives would lead to multiple solutions to the constraints for the different activities proposed during the sessions. In any case, deeper analyses and a better design protocol are needed in the field in order to fully prove these hypotheses.

GENERAL DISCUSSION

The objective of this investigation was to evaluate the impact of Drama Pedagogy Training on the development of creativity and socio-emotional competencies, particularly ToM and collaborative behaviour. To achieve this, we conducted a series of studies that can be categorised into three main topics and other parallel and ongoing studies. These studies can be summarised as follows.

CONCLUSIONS

The studies carried out within this investigation have provided enough evidence to support the idea that Drama Pedagogy Training is a good pedagogical methodology to enhance creative thinking, ToM and collaborative behaviour in 9-to 10-year-old children. We hope that this evidence will be considered in the future by our educational policy makers in order to offer a more integral education that will not only be focused on how to develop academic skills to improve Pisa results, but also will be more focused on developing the necessary 21st-century creative and socioemotional skills in children so we can help transform them into adults who will build a more inventive, just and caring society for us all. Drama Pedagogy Training (DPT), as other drama-based pedagogies, has been related to several outcomes, including creativity enhancement. This enhancement is commonly proven through the measurement of different creative processes. In our review we systematize characteristics, activities and techniques of DPT that are assumed to be related to creativity in order to have a more comprehensive framework to identify the specific DPT elements that are involved in the enhancement of some of the creative processes of children and adolescents. To this end, we identified five creative processes in experimental studies using DPT: divergent thinking, fantasy and imagination, associative thinking, symbolization, and problem solving. These processes were cross referenced with DPT characteristics, activities, and techniques that were argued to be related to creativity enhancement. Our review will propose a model with two main categories and six elements as follows: (1) technical drama phases which emphasizes the role of narrative and embodiment through (a) corporal and vocal training and (b) main drama techniques (e.g., storytelling and improvisation and role-play), and (2) psycho-pedagogical framework which emphasizes the role of a dialogic space through (c) playfulness and a (d) collaborative, safe space. We also identified (e) feedback as an important element of DPT which belongs to both drama technical phases and psychopedagogical framework categories. Along with the model, we explain the creative outcomes associated to each of these elements as a means to attire the attention to drama-based pedagogies for the development of creativity in the educational setting.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS

M-PC wrote the manuscript and with support of MB and FZ. FZ coordinated and supervised the research review. All authors provided critical feedback and helped to shape the analyses and manuscript.

Conflict of Interest Statement:

The authors declare that the research was conducted in the absence of any commercial or financial relationships that could be construed as a potential conflict of interest. (2014), the interpersonal variant of the "understanding" level of emotional competencies, can be described as the practical capacity of understanding the causes and consequences of others' perceived emotions. In this line, this capacity would be directly related to the ability of understanding and reacting, in a cognitive, social or affective level, the emotion expressed by another, which is known in academic and popular literature as empathy. According to [START_REF] Davis | A Multidimensional Approach to Individual Differences in Empathy[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Measuring individual differences in empathy: Evidence for a multidimensional approach[END_REF] empathy is a complex construct that may be divided into (a) emotional empathy, and (b) cognitive empathy. The emotional branch or side, is related to the emotional process and response of an individual facing another's emotional reaction (e.g. [START_REF] Eisenberg | The relation of empathy to prosocial and related behaviors[END_REF], while the cognitive branch answers to the ability of understanding others' mental states (e.g -Cohen & Weelwright, 2004). The former, is considered by some authors as emotional empathy or just empathy [START_REF] De Vignemont | The empathic brain: how, when and why?[END_REF], while the latter, considered as a social cognitive ability to adscribe mental states, such as thoughts, beliefs and emotions to another person is known in literature as Theory of Mind (ToM; [START_REF] Premack | Does the chimpanzee have a theory of mind?[END_REF].

Appendix 5: Article in Thinking Skills and Creativity

Baron

In this line, the development of socio-cognitive skills, such as ToM, and socio-emotional competencies, is intrinsically related to social functioning behaviors and competencies, such as teamwork/collaboration. The latter is considered to be part of the main 21st century skills to develop in education (e.g. Trilling and Fadel, 2009) altogether with creativity and other socio-emotional competencies.

In fact, already in 1996, Garaigordobil, Maganto, & Etxeberría presented evidence on how the experiences lived by children at school had an important impact on children's prosocial behavior. Social competencies, are detrimental for children development and school is an important modulator of them. According to [START_REF] Burrus | Psychosocial Skills: Essential Components of Development and Achievement in K-12[END_REF], most teachers agree that teamwork/collaboration is a fundamental skill to be learned in the classroom; nevertheless, they are not always sure how to define it, and thus, it gets difficult to find useful tools in order to develop it.

Child Theory-of-Mind Collaboration Drama-Pedagogy

In summary, DPT in schools is an active pedagogy focused on the social and emotional world of children. Studies have presented evidence of the efficacy of DPT related tools and elements in the development of socio-emotional competencies such as ToM and collaborative behavior in elementary school children, although the presented literature regarding the different studies analyzed, concerning drama-based trainings and their impact on socio-cognitive and socio-emotional competencies, do not always present complete reporting, didn't provide a substantial randomised control, and the only one that did, was focused on preschool children (Goldstein & Lerner, 2017). Teachers agree with the fact of the importance to develop socio-emotional competencies and a collaborative behavior in children, although they are not wide aware of the kind of training that could help them reach this objective. Thus, the main objective of the current study is to conduct a randomised pre-post test study with matching control group in order to present evidence of the efficacy of DPT in promoting socio-emotional competencies, such as ToM skills and a collaborative behavior in elementary school children.

Method Design of study

We conducted a randomised study including pretest -intervention -posttest design with a matching active control group.

Participants

French educational system provides mandatory education for all children (foreign and French) from age 3 to age 16. Elementary school comprises 5 levels going from 1st grade (CP) to 5th grade (CM2).

Within the French educational system exists two main types of schools: private and public. Within public

Collaborative Behaviour

In order to measure collaborative behavior, we used The Prisoner's Dilemma (PD) task from of Garaigordobil (1995). For PD, each child have to be sit in two rows back to back with another. They are given two different cards, a red one and a blue one to answer the dilemma. Each couple of children are partners in a robbery and have to decide if betray his/her partner to save him/herself or not. The objective of the game is to stay in prison the less time that is possible. The police gives them a treat. They have one minute to decide, and then pick the decision by raising the corresponding card. They can't look or talk to their classmates or they are out of the game and lose. Decisions are marked down. The results are said out loud. They cannot comment, and that they are making their decision again, and they can change their decision if they like. Say out loud the results. Explain again: "now you have 30 second to decide if you

keep the same answer or if you change your answer. 30 seconds starts now… time is over raise you answer"

Write down their answers and say it out loud.

Procedure Preparation of the intervention and cover story

Authorization letters were sent to parents in order to have their approval for their child participation in the study. In this letter parents were informed of the study, but partially informed of the purpose of it.

They were told that children would participate in one of two workshops that might enhance academic achievement through the development of soft-skills, without revealing the expected differences in outcomes for each group/workshop. Teachers were informed about the real purposes of the study, as school directors demanded it in order to agree to participate. They were asked not to tell children about the real purposes of the study in order to avoid emotional predisposition. As a cover story, children were told they would all participate in different collective workshops, explaining them that they will be randomly assigned to one of the two workshops.

Random assignment

After parent's agreement, each child was given a code. We randomly assigned the codes into a collective sportive games group (CSG) or a drama pedagogy training group (DPT). The randomisation was made by an online free software.

Measuring times and characteristics

Children in both groups were asked to answer the same different tasks before and after the trainings.

There were two pre-tests: one for each variable (ToM and collaborative behavior); and two post-tests: one for each variable aswell.

A week before starting the trainings (T0), children answered the French version of RMET-G in order to measure ToM. In this task they were asked to look at the pair of eyes in each picture and to circle the word that better matched the emotion or mental state of the look of the person among four words displayed with each picture. The week after the task completion, we started with the trainings. In the 2nd session, they were tested by the prisoner's collaborative task (T1). In the 6th session children were re-tested by the prisoner's collaborative task (T2). One week after the trainings were finished, children were remeasured on ToM through the RMET-G (T3).

All classes, whether they participated in experimental or control groups, were conducted in the exact same manner: Each class was randomized in order to divide them by group, but times of measurement for ToM were carried on, each time with the whole class. For collaborative behavior, a booklet was followed in order to avoid biais, and thus instructions were given in the exact same way for all classes, groups, and schools.

One researcher of the team conducted both the workshops and assessments following a rigorous booklet in order to avoid bias as much as possible. Other researchers of the team who didn't have direct contact with children were implicated in data analysis.

Results

Preliminary analyses

Pre-test analyses showed that there were no significant differences in the randomisation, regarding age and sex of the participants, implying an equitative distribution of the groups.

Pre-test correlational analysis

In order to see any previous relationship between the expected outcomes, we run a correlational analyses. Results showed no significant correlations.

Pre-test ToM

Analyses also showed no significant differences between the randomised groups in the variable ToM, measured through RMET-G in time T0.

When searching for possible previous ToM differences by class, analyses showed a significant difference on ToM (t=-2.87; p<.005), with 5th graders scoring higher (M = 18.20; SD = 3.69) than fourth graders (M = 16.24; SD = 3.94). These results, are something we expected as ToM is argued to be increased with age (Calero, Salles, Semelman, & Sigman, 2013).

When comparing the effect of the same variable by type of school, results also showed significant differences. Anova analyses presented a significant effect of the type of school and a medium effect size on ToM (F(2,123)=4.17; p<.02; η2=0.06) with the highest mean for the PU school (M = 18.6; SD = 3.9), then the PR school (M = 17.1; SD = 3.7), and finally the REP school (M = 16.1; SD = 3.9).

Pre-test Collaborative Behavior

After the trainings were started, in week 2 (T1), children were measured in collaborative behavior through the Prisoner's Dilemma Game. Results presented a significant difference between the randomised groups (t = 2.79; p < .006); with the CSG group (M = 3.12; SD = .13) presenting significant higher mean scores than the DPT group (M = 2.62; SD = .13), after one week of started the trainings. Nevertheless, median and mode scores present no differences between the groups (Mdn = 3).

When searching for possible previous Collaborative Behavior differences by class, results showed no significant differences.

When analysing the effect of school on the collaborative behavior variable, measured through Prisoner's Dilemma, results showed significant effects (F(2,123) = 7.6; p < .001), presenting a medium to large effect size (η2 = .11), with PR school scoring higher (M = 3.27; SD = .96) and REP school scoring lower (M = 2.43; SD = .95), both compared to the PU school (M = 2.81; SD = 1.03).

Hypothesis testing

Post-test correlational analysis

Pearson's correlation analyses showed significant weak correlations between ToM and

Collaborative Behavior (measured through PD) (r=.35; p<.001).

Post-test ToM

As plotted in figure 1, an anova 2x2 model was run to see the effect of the type of training (DPT; CSG) on the variable ToM regarding the two times of measurement (T0; T3). Results showed significant large effects (F(1,124)=28.79; p<.001; η2=.19), with more important increases on DPT.

In summary, Drama Pedagogy Training showed to be an effective method to develop Theory of Mind and collaborative behavior in 9 to 10 year old children engaged in three different French school contexts, although further work is needed in order to see the long term impact of this pedagogy.

Appendix 7: Chapter in Creativity, innovation and wellbeing Celume, M.-P., Sovet, L., Lubart, T., & Zenasni, F. (2017). The relationship between children's creativity and well-being at school. In F.K. Reisman (Ed.), Creativity, . London: KIE Conference Publications.

These analyses have shown how creative trainings and initiatives can be related to the enhancement and development of children's well-being. Most of the presented trainings were created through a play perspective, considering that children feel free and happier to engage in play. Another observation that arises, is that most successful creative trainings that relate to wellbeing, are based in active-engaging artistic activities, like visual arts or drama. A final observation that can be made is that most of the analysed trainings claim positive emotions as a core outcome of their programs.

Children's creativity has been proved to be enhanced through training, although children's well-being is still a subject of discussion. Nevertheless, the enhancement of motivation, self-confidence and positive emotions in the classroom seem to be like a good starting point to continue in the research of fostering children's and adolescent's well-being in school contexts.