Guillaume Busset
email: guillaume.busset@ensiacet.fr

Jean-Pierre Belaud
email: jeanpierre.belaud@ensiacet.fr

Integrated approach for agro-process design guided by sustainable evaluation: application to the olive oil production

Scientific and industrial context

Industrial production systems and their consequences on the world constitute an important scientific issue. To consider technical, economical, quality and environmental dimensions, the development of industrial production system is based on models that simplify real system in order to represent it with different objectives.

a. Process approach

In terms of quality, process approach is recommended by ISO 9000 standard. It consists in representing the system at any level (technical, tactical or strategic) as a set of processes with inputs, outputs, control, constraints (ISO 2005). Process approach is also the base for environmental impacts assessment of a system within the life cycle assessment methodology.

b. Enterprise models, levels and views

At a technical level, process design is organized by Process Systems Engineering (PSE) based on the modeling of physical, chemical and biological processes. At tactical level, Business Process Management (BPM) is based on modeling of business process. At a strategic level, Enterprise Engineering (EE) supply models of enterprise. A system -typically an enterprise -can be seen from 4 main views: organizational, functional, resources, information [START_REF] Ulmer | Towards a pivotal-based approach for business process alignment[END_REF]. The different models from the different levels take elements from the different points of view of the system.

c. Sustainability assessment

At a transversal level, life cycle analyst is considered as a specialist of life cycle assessment. The evaluation of environmental, social and economic impacts of a system is usually modeled with Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) method. Up to day, only environmental and economic LCA are well applied, even though social LCA is being undertaken. The integration of the three methods is a critical issue in order to assess any system in terms of sustainable development.

d. System engineering for multilevels sustainability

Whatever the level of enterprise, systems and processes are modeled in order to improve knowledge and agility of systems. Modeling also helps to design a system considering future impacts on environment, social and economy at the early stages of the life cycle. Life cycle thinking is intrinsic to process approach. As a consequence, sustainable life cycle assessment of a system can be undertaken at the different levels of a system study. Life cycle assessment can be coupled to process systems engineering for "process eco-design", to "business process management for "business eco-design" and finally to enterprise engineering for "enterprise eco-design". System engineering is usually and successfully applied to aero-spatial, aeronautic, informatics and mechanic systems. We think that it can be also applied to agro-industry.

e. Integration of LCA to the different levels of enterprise models

At a technical level, integration of chemical and agro-chemical processes design with sustainable life cycle assessment has been yet studied by [START_REF] Azapagic | Life cycle assessment (LCA) applied to the process industry: a review[END_REF], Gilliani (2010) or Jacquemin (2012). However, no generic integrated approach has been yet formalized within a system engineering based framework, neither for chemical process, nor for agro-industrial process.

Furthermore, any work has not been led to integrate LCA, PSE and SE. System engineering and process approach are common to all these domains, using tools from system engineering is proposed in order to integrate them. It seems crucial to know how technical and tactical levels of modeling are linked and how sustainable life cycle assessment can model interactions between a system and its environment.

In this context, a comprehensive approach is proposed for design an agro-process in a sustainable perspective.

Methodology for definition, application, verification and validation of the approach for the design of agro-processes

The proposed approach has the objective to design for sustainability. Sustainability is chosen as the center of the approach. The question is: how LCA methodology is going to integrate data and models from other domains? product, a process or a service (ISO 2006). After, life cycle costing and social life cycle assessment has been developed to take into account economic and social aspects in life cycle assessment of a system. However, any norm does not exist, but only guidelines from UNEP. General LCA is a semi-formalized framework that includes system modeling. It focuses on a functional point of view but with elements taken from other points of view such as resources. The originality of the LCA is to link system and its environment through impact assessment. Does the environment have to be internalized into system boarders or does it have to be studied as a new point of view? Furthermore, LCA needs to describe all the inputs/outputs that pass through every process that constitutes the system. LCA is only a descriptive method between the system and its extern environment. It needs others disciplines and other business competences to analyze and to explain the link between system and impacts on the environment. LCA is defined as a product oriented approach but product is only the result of process. Consequently, LCA must be considered more as a process approach.

LCA uses factors of characterization for inputs/outputs that cross the system. Environmental and economic factors are well known and easy to apply but social factors remain more complicated. However, the principle is to qualify and quantify impacts of inputs consumption and outputs emission of processes of the system. Environmental indicators are for instance global warming, ozone layer depletion, acidification, eutrophication, non-renewable resources depletion; economic indicators are investments, salary, benefits, spend, etc.; social indicators are number of employees, work creation, human rights, etc. The limits of LCA methodology concerns the modeling of the system. No formalism defines the way to represent the system, but in other disciplines with other objectives, there exist some formalism to establish models of process at the levels described before.

b. Enterprise architecture framework

Considering LCA limits, we proposed an approach based on LCA method but using architecture frameworks for modeling agro-processes. Considering ISO 15704 norms that defines enterprise architecture framework, we place LCA, PSE and BPM within three dimensions: different levels of genericity (generic, partial, particular), different point of view (organization, information, resources, function) and at different life cycle stages (ISO 2000). These life cycle phases are: identification, concepts, needs definition, specification/design, implementation, operation and dismantling [START_REF] Vernadat | Techniques de modélisation en entreprise: applications aux processus opérationnels[END_REF]. c. LCA, BPM and PSE in enterprise architecture framework LCA method focuses on elements taken from the different points of view and is usually applied to implementation, operation and dismantling phases. Nevertheless, LCA can be applied during earlier stages in order to consider future impacts cited above as soon as possible. It can also be applied to any level of genericity. BPM supplies a representation of the system at functional, resources and information point of view. It may represent the system at any life cycle phase. It is applied at any level of genericity. PSE represents the system in a functional and operational point of view, at any level of genericity and at any phase of the life cycle.

We propose to map the different results and models given by PSE, LCA and BPM in order to align models and to get an overall consistency.

d. Experimental data collection to approach validation and verification -OiLCA project

The approach relies on OiLCA project results oriented LCA, life cycle costing (LCC) and ecolabel design (OiLCA 2011). An application was also developed and is available on the website (oilca.eu). This project is a partnership with industrial research agents: Centre Technnique de l'Oliver in France, CITOLIVA, Instituto Andaluz de Tecnologia and Fundació Centre Tecnològic de Manresa in Spain and CVR -Centro para a Valorização de Residuos in Portugal. This project led to a database with actual economic and environmental data from 59 companies from the olive oil production and to an application for carbon footprint and cost calculation.

Conclusion & perspectives

System engineering was used for a better understanding of sustainable assessment of an agro-industrial system. It was used to develop a methodology within enterprise architecture framework. Finally, the integrated approach could be completed with optimization tools in order to find best solution in terms of sustainability.


Dominique Patrick Verdejo
email: dominique.verdejo@personalinteractor.eueunika.mercier-laurent@univ-reims.fr

Eunika Mercier-Laurent

Video Intelligence as a component of a Global Security system

Keywords: global security, artificial intelligence, video, surveillance, ontology, intelligence, annotation, natural language processing, predictive analytics, situational awareness, big data, knowledge management, eco-systems, risk management, machine learning

This paper describes the evolution of our research from video analytics to a global security system with focus on the video surveillance component. Indeed video surveillance has evolved from a commodity security tool up to the most efficient way of tracking perpetrators when terrorism hits our modern urban centers. As number of cameras soars, one could expect the system to leverage the huge amount of data carried through the video streams to provide fast access to video evidences, actionable intelligence for monitoring real-time events and enabling predictive capacities to assist operators in their surveillance tasks. This research explores a hybrid platform for video intelligence capture, automated data extraction, supervised Machine Learning for intelligently assisted urban video surveillance; Extension to other components of a global security system are discussed.

Applying Knowledge Management principles in this research helps with deep problem understanding and facilitates the implementation of efficient information and experience sharing decision support systems providing assistance to people on the field as well as in operations centers. The originality of this work is also the creation of "common" human-machine and machine to machine language and a security ontology.

Introduction

Global digitalization has provided an extraordinary progress in communication and services with their downside, the rise of threats in the ever growing cyber domain.

Increased terrorists' attacks and the rise of extremism require better management of all available resources in aim to detect planned actions and prevent disasters [START_REF] Narayanan | Cognitive Techniques for Early Detection of Cybersecurity Events[END_REF].

Surveillance activities using video, social media and cyber defense data have one common point: they all capture and manipulate highly varied, complex and unpredictable events and behaviors, for which risk assessment requires mostly human common sense and contextual knowledge. Connection with the other sources of information and knowledge, such as the law enforcement files in the case of terrorism is necessary for overall understanding.

While related research focuses on media analysis, like video analysis, providing added forensic evidence research capabilities, we have chosen to emphasize on the analysis of metadata generated by such algorithms. These metadata can be efficiently used to establish correlations with other media analysis results like social networks or events generated by cyber security monitoring systems.

The applied bottom-up Knowledge Management approach combined with knowledge modelling allows easy extension to the others system components of global security, i.e. social networks analysis and cybersecurity, especially in the era of ubiquitous IoT and drones equipped with facial recognition capabilities.

After the general introduction and pointing out the challenge, this paper describes our research method, followed by the state of the art in the fields covered. The explanation on the role of Knowledge Management in this research is provided before we focus on the first system component of this research -hybrid decision support system for real-time video analysis. Conclusions and some perspectives of future work and applications are given at the end.

Research method

Considering our experience acquired during the initial work on Vortex project we decided to consider the video analysis as a part of a Global Security system. Currently, the proposed research method applies Knowledge Management and complex problem solving [START_REF]Defense et climat -quels enjeux ? -La Revue stratégique de défense et de sécurité nationale[END_REF] to global security. It consists in understanding the challenge of a global security system and aims at i) proposing a modular architecture for a hybrid system, ii) prototype and test separate modules conceived by combining holistic and system approaches. Each component plays its own role and interacts with the others for more accurate result. Incremental approach allows building the whole system step by step. At each stage, the adequate AI techniques are selected and tested and results discussed.

The role of Knowledge Management consists in  Problem analysis with a given context. What data/information/knowledge do we need to successfully manage security and prevent disasters provoked by illintentioned people? What sources of data/information/knowledge are available?  Initiating and managing a human-machine self-reinforcing synergy  Defining the overall architecture of the decision support (not making) system, considering all involved actors' contributions and needs.

 Building generic and reusable knowledge models (static, dynamic or hybrid, ex. multi-agents systems).  Defining a strategy for future extensions (Building blocs)  Integrating a feedback on all stages.

Related to video analysis, we propose to transpose the general scene analysis problem into a natural language description exercise. This approach allows human operators to share understanding of the scene/situation with the machine. This common language, scene description capability, creates a gate between human and machine providing two major benefits: i) situational awareness knowledge can be immediately shared between operators without visual support and ii) the human operators can enrich the description provided by the machine with additional common sense or contextual knowledge.

This natural language processing approach will use ontologies as a model for text generation and a semantic navigation tool. This provides guidelines to keep consistency, manage ambiguities and act as a communication protocol dedicated to a specific media analysis.

The machine learns text generation through supervised machine learning (labeling) approach and builds risk scenarios using reinforced learning. The scenarios of maximum risk likelihood will be proposed to the operators for facing the most urgent challenge in modern control centers: monitoring exponentially growing numbers of sensors inputs. This module will be considered using modularity, genericity and reusability approach for future extensions.

3

State of the art

Research in video analysis is not new. French programs PRIAM and RIAM initiated by the French Ministry of Industry gave some promising results in applying AI techniques for video analysis on the flow. For example, the architecture of MediaWorks combined neural networks, multi-agent systems and natural language processing for relevant finding on the flow of person or object to illustrate TV news [START_REF] Golbreich | Vers un moteur de recherche évolué de documents multimédia par le contenu[END_REF]. These projects did not address security issues as the subject was not as critical at this time.

Since 2000, many researches have been made in semantic video indexing [START_REF] Golbreich | Vers un moteur de recherche évolué de documents multimédia par le contenu[END_REF] and European Research has been funded to create tools to annotate and retrieve video [START_REF] Vezzani | ViSOR: Video surveillance on-line repository for annotation retrieval[END_REF].

It is commonly agreed today that we need an abstract layer of representation, a language, to describe and retrieve video. Ontologies have been proposed as an adapted tool to capture observations but also to shift domains as surveillance can be operated on media from many different natures depending on the activity [6][7][8] (satellite, urban, cyber, social networks, etc.)

The "Smart City" trend combining technological progress, cameras price drop down and raise of delinquency, has prompted cities to install surveillance systems. However they did not have a resource for systematic analysis of the recorded content. The raise of terrorist's attacks amplified a demand for efficient video surveillance systems.

The effectiveness of such systems depends on intelligence in exploring the available data sources of information and knowledge. The analysis after the disaster pointed out the need for preventive actions.

Opening of public data and Big Data from multiple sources are available but using only analytics on the past data is insufficient for prevention of future disasters. We did not find in available literature the efficient decision support system to face this challenge. Some separate modules, such as video analytics, social networks mining, OSINT (Open Source Intelligence) and IoT data exploring are only described.

evolution of video surveillance

Learning from human generated annotations, the machine has shown a capacity to generalize, identifying objects and generating text sentences describing image and scenes. In 2017, this effort is extended to video with the DAVIS [START_REF] Patel | Detecting Influential Users in Social Network Conversations: A Linguistic Approach[END_REF] challenge on video object segmentation. The downside of this approach, is that human contribution is highly necessary to generate meaningful datasets. Initiatives to deploy crowdannotations platform have been recently undertaken to improve and speed-up the ground truth collection from users on the Web [15], fostering the need for creation of machine learning datasets.

It is notable that image segmentation, object recognition, video labeling creates a leap frog in surveillance applications and human interface. But, as every camera turns into a talkative witness, we lack the ability to correlate the different sources and enable global risk analysis. This is particularly important for behaviour analysis and anomaly detection in scene understanding, including gesture and intentions analysis.

Evolution and revolution of video analytics

Over the past 15 years, numerous tests and benchmarks were undertaken to assess feasibility of using algorithms to perform recognition of specific situations to ease the task of video operators. It is expected that automating video monitoring can lead to a less heavy mental workload for operators as their attention can be focused only on identified problems. In fact, false alarms tend to overcrowd the video monitoring environment and have rendered those technologies quite useless in most operational cases, specifically in large urban surveillance contexts.

Traditional video analytics, based on bitmap analysis can be useful to identify line crossing or counter-flow. They can count individuals and detect crowds and abandoned luggage. But they fail providing insights on more complex situations like fights, tagging, thefts and carjacking where more context and common sense is required [START_REF] Russakovsky | = equal contribution) ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge[END_REF]

Evolution of Cyber Security and Cyber Defense

Information systems security has evolved since 2000 taking into account the global interconnection of machines. System protection has evolved from basic anti-virus and firewalls up to a range of monitoring activities dedicated to detect and identify intrusions and potentially harmful activities on the networks and servers. Recently, companies have marketed AI based systems to achieve specific surveillance analysis, based on the logs produced by applications and systems. Interestingly, those new approaches, gathered around the SIEM components (Security Incident Event Management) tend to procure a behavioral analysis rather than a simple event categorization.

It is worth mentioning the similarities between video and cyber analytics which both converge toward behavioral analysis for detecting the weak signals in the massive data sets.

Cyber Security for instance, uses dedicated event description and exchange named STIX [START_REF] Sadique | Automated structured threat information expression (STIX) document generation with privacy preservation[END_REF] to communicate cyber threat intelligence.

Evolution of Social Network Analysis

In complex situations such as terrorism and cybercrime analysis of video is not sufficient. Social networks and especially ephemeral ones are used to spread information and to recruit new terrorists by systematic brainwashing. [START_REF] Patel | Detecting Influential Users in Social Network Conversations: A Linguistic Approach[END_REF] describes detection of influential users using linguistic approach. [15] uses graphs and networks (Social Networks Analysis -SNA) to detect leaders in the "dark networks". Social Network Analysis is now widely used as a fully operational intelligence source, introducing the SOCMINT [START_REF]Terrorism Informatics: Knowledge Management and Data Mining for Homeland[END_REF] neologism standing for Social Media Intelligence.

Knowledge Management for global security

Security management requires deep understanding of a given problem in its context and follows the rules of KM lifecycle: acquisition, modeling, navigation and use. The adequate AI techniques will support the whole process.

Global Security is composed of a set of domains security systems, each having its own objectives and controls. As threat awareness requires surveillance, each domain uses specific surveillance processes and vocabulary.

Knowledge Management helps organizing and optimizing the available sources of data/information and knowledge and creating progressively a common language for all involved actors to facilitate exchanges between them [START_REF] Mercier-Laurent | Innovation Ecosystems[END_REF]. Three main approaches can be used: top-down, bottom-up and combination of both. In the case of global security a well-defined and dynamic strategy is mandatory to efficiently face the treats. Dynamic strategy allows flexibility for quick adaptation to evolving situation. Conceptual knowledge modelling as for ex ontologies allow reusing knowledge for related applications.

The existing literature provides description of all facets of security, useful for building such a system [START_REF] Rogers | Losing Control: Global Security in the Twenty-first Century[END_REF]. In this work, Rogers analyses the legacy of the Cold War's proliferation of weapons of mass destruction; the impact of human activity on the global ecosystem; the growth of hyper capitalism and resulting poverty and insecurity; the competition for energy resources and strategic minerals; biological warfare. This context leads to delinquency. Similar conclusion was stated at the end of colloquium organized by French Ministry of Defense on the influence of Climate change on the rise of crime [START_REF]Defense et climat -quels enjeux ? -La Revue stratégique de défense et de sécurité nationale[END_REF].

Chen [START_REF]Terrorism Informatics: Knowledge Management and Data Mining for Homeland[END_REF] describes Terrorism informatics as methodologies and integrate process of gathering and processing all related information. We also found works applying KM principles to water and food security and to multiple risks management.

In our case Knowledge Management applied to global security system will connect components shown in Figure 1.

On our knowledge, there is no integrated approach of Knowledge Management to global security; this and the need for a systemic approach is leitmotiv for our research.

Fig. 1. Main interrelated components of global security system

Our proposal is then to consider the feedback from previous approach in the light of such global security system.

Feedback form the previous research

The research on video analysis, under the name of VORTEX project, has been initiated in 2010 in France after a large number of interviews with system architects, security managers and police officers. The aim was to spot the flaws of contemporary metropolitan video surveillance systems and propose an optimization of human activities in video surveillance operations. A synthetic article about public-private partnerships in new video surveillance services, for the French National Institute of Security and Justice (INHESJ), was written subsequently. Findings described in this initial stage of the research where the following: As video surveillance moves through its digital transformation from analog cables, monitors and tapes to a complete computer based environment, there is a quantum leap in both numbers of video sensors and geographic scale of systems deployed. Large French urban areas like Paris, Lyon, Marseille and Nice have set up or are in the process of setting up systems with more than one thousand cameras, without mentioning the thousands of cameras already scattered along the public transportation lines and inside the vehicles [START_REF] Codreanu | Modélisation des métadonnées spatio-temporelles associées aux contenus vidéos et interrogation de ces métadonnées à partir des trajectoires hybrides : Application dans le contexte de la vidéosurveillance[END_REF]. While the need for police activity monitoring surges, these numbers are also increased by the new body worn cameras on police officers. Information

Technology provides solutions to record and visualize all these cameras, but it does not meet the day to day exploitation needs made more complex by the multitude of video sensors. In a word, the capacity to have an eye everywhere does not spare the people watching. A global rethinking of the balance between people in front line, people in operations centers as well as citizens must be undertaken. We introduce the need for a rethinking and rationalization of the human role in image interpretation, based on the finding that we can deploy much more than we can actually monitor. It is made necessary to define how a human operator can collect and preserve intelligence [2] from video sources, with the aid of the machine, assuming the large number of video feeds creates a rich potential information source. This in turns requires new training procedures and new tools to be created to cope with system scale and carry out this strategic task. Subsequent research emphasized the importance of a contextual use of video, in complement of other data sources.

Wise decision making require considering all available sources on a given topic as well as the knowledge about the current context. Recent attacks, notably on energy critical infrastructures [29] show that infrastructure security may be endangered by cyber-attacks. This is leading to the creation of a hybrid domain for security called Cyber Physical Security (CPS) [START_REF] Li | Reinforcement Learning for Cyber-Physical Systems: with Cybersecurity Case Studies[END_REF] with social networks as platforms of choice for preparing operational details in such cases.

In this context, Vortex project objectives are to keep the human operator at the heart of the system and decision process. This requires the development of computer aided monitoring automation, providing advices and recommendations as to what should be watched first in the continuous flow of contextual real-time and recorded events.

Research focushybrid system for video analysis

Those breakthroughs in image and video analysis and labeling are the cornerstones of VORTEX concept. But as we witness the need for developing supervised machine learning processes that can lead to development of video intelligence expert modules, we also realize that in the ever changing very complex metropolitan environment, the patterns of normality and abnormality and their relationship to the images captured by the cameras are difficult to express. The role of the human operator in the heart of the semantic system is mandatory to reconcile volumes of data captured by computerized video sensors with contextual situation awareness. Reinforcement learning [START_REF] Li | Reinforcement Learning for Cyber-Physical Systems: with Cybersecurity Case Studies[END_REF] is a machine learning technique sitting at the crossing of supervised and unsupervised learning. It implies defining a decision function that allows the machine to modify its state and also to define rewards and penalty functions that are used to provide the machine with an assessment of the result of its decisions. Using a very large number of try and fail the machine infers an optimized solution by maximizing its reward.

We therefore propose an approach based on two distinct annotation processes. One being conducted through the most modern labeling algorithms running on state of the art, dedicated hardware platforms, or inference platforms, the second being performed by the operators. We introduce a third knowledge based situational awareness module or recommendation module that uses insights produced from the analysis of combined human and machine generated annotations and communicates back its recommendations to the operator. This system is able of maintaining long term memory of what is a "normal" or "abnormal" situation and in addition has the essential capability to take into account human generated alerts and comments to adapt to new situations as they happen.

Replaced in the context of video surveillance, the human operator appears even more important to machine learning as he not only recognizes objects and people but assesses the level of risk of a particular situation and correlates scenes monitored by different cameras.

Fig. 2. Human Centric Design for man-machine interoperability

From the picture in fig. 2. it is made clear that the System is fed with annotations coming primarily from human operators' interactions witnessing events happening on their surveillance screens (traffic incidents, aggressions and thefts, vandalism, tags, terrorist attacks, smuggling…). This human input is key to providing a common sense context to information that is provided automatically by labeling modules either embedded directly in the cameras or located centrally in the cloud System.

The supervised learning is then operated by human rating of situations on a severity scale, enabling the System to learn and anticipate situations contexts leading to potential risky situations.

The RETEX1 describes that anticipation data which is deduced by the system while streams of new data flows continuously from both operators and cameras. These streams can also be completed by auxiliary data streams incoming from contextual communication systems and metadata concerning the sensors. The RETEX provides a predictive capacity based on the supervised learning achieved continuously the interaction of operators and System. An important part of the System analytics is dedicated to transform the RETEX, primarily made of textual content, into actual operational data that can be actioned by operators. In the context of video surveillance, this is achieved by highlighting those cameras that are most important to watch.

Situational awareness increased with video surveillance

The RETEX illustrates how the predictive capabilities of the System can be turned into prescriptive surveillance actions. Still, state of the art video surveillance management system provide poor interfaces to enable operators to capture their annotations on the fly and store them in a workable format.

It is thus one of the key objectives of this research to study the conditions of an efficient real-time annotation to enable the operators to achieve the necessary supervised learning and initialize the RETEX loop. Information captured by operators are essential to a sound indexing of video and participate to the overall indexing required by both forensic investigations and day to day exploitation.

Originality of this work

VORTEX is proposing a genuine approach to the man machine cooperation by leveraging the recent breakthroughs in Machine Learning technologies that allows processing video from traditional stationary cameras as well as mobile or handheld devices [START_REF]Convolutional-Features Analysis and Control for Mobile Visual Scene Perception[END_REF]. Based on the essential finding that the video media needs to be translated to be workable, we propose to organize a data model for streaming information generated by video analytics labeling algorithms. We propose to define the annotation interfaces necessary to capture operators' annotation in real-time in such a way as it can be used as input for a supervised learning input. Eventually, we propose a predictive analytics System capable of issuing recommendations to the human operators and interacting with them in a feedback loop (RETEX) of reinforcement learning.

It is important to note that annotations as well as any other indexing data may be stored and preserved much beyond the limits of video retention periods, as advised for instance by the European Data Protection Supervisor (EDPS). This means that realtime automated labeling data are key to provide large datasets of surveillance contexts without the burden of keeping the video they originated from. VORTEX is an attempt to rationalize the capture of human feedback in surveillance and crisis context. Putting face to face these data with large volume of sensors data enable the System to corre-late and generalize on a rich dataset and leads to the emergence of predictive alerts and prescriptive surveillance actions that increase considerably the situational awareness in operations centers.

We are confronted with several difficulties, notably in scene description and modeling. But we are confident that we can circumvent those difficulties by using machine learning techniques rather than going through a scene data modeling exercise.

Conclusion

The described system is the first "Kblock2 " of Decision support system for global security. The modular architecture will allow integration of other components such as conversations in social networks and data from IoT. Following the trend of predictive policing, we introduce a system that will help gathering intelligence from existing and future video surveillance systems and using it to anticipate terrorism and decrease safety risk in metropolitan areas.

Based on supervised Machine Learning and RETEX interaction loop, human operators will contribute to building System cognitive computing capacities and will be augmented in return by its prescriptive analytics.

Universality of this approach consists in the following: it does not depend on video surveillance technology infrastructure but complements it with new video analytics labeling systems, new annotation and communication tools and new predictive capabilities.

The security ontology definition is the basis of the underlying knowledge management required to provide a consistent framework that will serve as an interoperability guide to extend the approach to different countries and open intelligence cooperation between agencies, both nationally and internationally, representing a potential benefit for global organizations like EUROPOL. Moreover, the genericity of the model for risk management can be extended from video surveillance to cybersecurity to SOCMINT and to all surveillance activities.

Adopting an ontology and developing automated labeling capacities provides the ground for generating a continuous stream of data flowing from the many and highly diversified sources of information available, both video sensors and human inputs. Among human inputs we can cite metropolitan security control centers operators, but also social networks OSINT (Open Source Intelligence) or even SOCMINT (Social Media Intelligence) which play an ever increasing role in situational awareness. A mixt fusion approach based on cognitive computing, could then benefit large scale proven systems like IBM Watson [START_REF]IBM Watson: How Cognitive Computing Can Be Applied to Big Data Challenges in Life Sciences Research[END_REF] to extract early signals and anticipate risks from the very large textual information generated in such context.

8

Perspective and future work

VORTEX framework has been conceived for aiding urban video surveillance operations, but similar initiatives have been undertaken in the field of aerial image analytics [START_REF] Solbrig | Online annotation of airborne surveillance and reconnaissance videos[END_REF] and the knowledge based information fusion proposed for the System has been under scrutiny in numerous other papers [START_REF] Smart | Knowledgebased information fusion for improved situational awareness[END_REF]. The range of sensors providing field data is not limited to stationary cameras. Ground vehicle cameras, aerial drone cameras, body-worn cameras, microphones and general presence detection sensors output information streams that can be injected in the RETEX interaction loop. The real-time annotation tool may be utilized by operators supervising media different from urban surveillance cameras, i.e. thermal cameras, radars, LIDARs as well as front-line operators located directly in the zone of interest and providing direct field intelligence to the System.

Different application field also requiring human surveillance, like cyber security, may be using VORTEX framework by adapting the vocabulary of annotations. This is made possible by using domain dependent Ontologies, as mentioned in previous projects.

  . Highly focused European FP7 2010-2013 research project, VANAHEIM ][START_REF] Odobez | Unsupervised activity analysis and monitoring algorithms for effective surveillance systems[END_REF] has been developed in the context of two metro stations and revealed the difficulty to use inputs from video analytics modules to automate the displays on video walls. Nevertheless this project has been pivotal in demonstrating the huge potential of unsupervised video analysis and the detection of abnormality into long recordings.Since 2010, a revolution has begun in video analytics. Thanks to Convolutional Neural Networks, Deep Learning techniques, object recognition, image segmentation and labeling has shown impressively efficient, up to the point where the machine, using a software built on top of GoogLeNet has demonstrated in 2015 an ability to identify objects in still images that is almost identical to humans[12]. This was made possible thanks to the availability of a very large image dataset called Imagenet[START_REF] Russakovsky | = equal contribution) ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge[END_REF](over 1,4 million images from over 1000 classes) manually annotated and a challenge that took place annually between 2010 and 2015, the ImageNet Large Scale Visual Recognition Challenge (ILSVRC). In 2015, the Chinese company BAIDU also claimed actual superiority of machine image recognition compared to human on the same image dataset[START_REF] Wu | Deep image: Scaling up image recognition[END_REF].

RETEX is "Retour d'Experience" in French in the text (feedback from experience)

Knowledge block

Acknowledgements

Inception of this research was presented in 2012 to the Aerospace competitiveness cluster PEGASE [22], now part of the larger "Pôle Risques" [23] in France where it got a distinction for its "usefulness in the aerial vehicles data processing allowing drones and stratospheric machines to achieve their mission".

Academic partnerships

VORTEX concept was elaborated in cooperation with two laboratories, the LIRMM from Montpellier University, expert in machine learning and the LUTIN from Paris VIII, specialized in man machine interfaces, detection and semantics of human perceived actions.


Andreas Herzig

Jérôme Lang

Pierre Marquis

come

Revision and update in multiagent belief structures (abstract)

Andreas Herzig, Jérôme Lang, and Pierre Marquis herzig@irit.fr, lang@irit.fr, marquis@cril.univ-artois.fr

Motivation

When we want to model the evolution of the beliefs of a set of agents several difficulties arise that come with the following characteristics of multiagent systems:

(1) Both an agent's perception and beliefs can be incomplete and even erroneous.

(2) There are both ontic actions (with effects on the 'physical' world) and epistemic actions (no effects on the 'physical' world, but on the agents' beliefs only).

(3) An agent must have procedures to update his beliefs in order to predict action effects, including his higher-order beliefs (beliefs about other agents' beliefs).

(4) An agent must have procedures to not only expand, but also revise his beliefs upon observations, including his higher-order beliefs.

None of the logics existing in the literature can currently deal with all these characteristics: Baltag et col.'s approach [START_REF] Baltag | The logic of public announcements, common knowledge, and private suspicions[END_REF][START_REF] Baltag | A logic of epistemic actions[END_REF] offers a satisfactory handling of (1) and ( 3), but lacks (2) (there are only epistemic actions), and (4) (agents cannot revise beliefs). Gerbrandy et col.'s approach [START_REF] Gerbrandy | Dynamic epistemic logic[END_REF][START_REF] Gerbrandy | Reasoning about information change[END_REF][START_REF] Gerbrandy | Bisimulations on Planet Kripke[END_REF] and van der Hoek et col.'s approach [START_REF] Bernd Van Linder | Tests as epistemic updates[END_REF] contain a satisfactory account of ( 2) and (3), while they lack (1) (an agent cannot have erroneous beliefs about inexecutability of actions, else his beliefs may get inconsistent), and (4) (agents cannot revise beliefs). Gärdenfors et col.'s belief revision [START_REF] Alchourrón | On the logic of theory change: Partial meet contraction and revision functions[END_REF][START_REF] Gärdenfors | Knowledge in Flux: Modeling the Dynamics of Epistemic States[END_REF] is the standard approach for (4), but there are neither ontic actions nor updates, and it does not deal with higherorder beliefs. Van der Meyden [START_REF] Van Der Meyden | Mutual belief revision (preliminary report)[END_REF] and Aucher [START_REF] Aucher | A combined system for update logic and belief revision[END_REF] have a more general account of multiagent belief revision, but they do not allow for ontic actions. Katsuno and Mendelzon's belief update [START_REF] Katsuno | On the difference between updating a knowledge base and revising it[END_REF] is the standard approach for (3), but it does not account for revision, and does not deal with higher-order beliefs. Halpern and Lakemeyer [START_REF] Halpern | Multi-agent only knowing[END_REF] do not account for revision, just as van der Meyden [START_REF] Van Der Meyden | Common knowledge and update in finite environments[END_REF][START_REF] Lomuscio | Knowledge in multi-agent systems: Initial configurations and broadcast[END_REF] and van Ditmarsch [START_REF] Hans | Descriptions of game actions[END_REF] who only considers reliable perception. Scherl, Levesque et col. [START_REF] Scherl | The frame problem and knowledge producing actions[END_REF] have an account of ( 2) and (3), and the integration of belief revision has been proposed in [START_REF] Shapiro | Iterated belief change in the situation calculus[END_REF], but the approach still lacks an account of incomplete and erroneous perception. Tallon et al. [START_REF] Tallon | Communication among agents: A way to revise beliefs in KD45 Kripke structures[END_REF] propose an account of multi-agent revision with higher-order beliefs, but under the strong hypothesis that agents communicate all their beliefs, i.e. their belief state as a whole.

In this paper we propose a logic which addresses all the issues in our list. The only shortcoming is that for the time being we have no account of update and revision by beliefs about other agents' beliefs: we only consider perception in terms of objective (boolean) formulas.

The logic combines Baltag's account allowing for different perceptions of the same action, Scherl and Levesque's solution to what they have called the epistemic frame problem, and ordering-based belief revision à la Gärdenfors. It can be viewed as an extension of Baltag et col.'s approach by integrating both ontic actions and belief revision into it. It can also be viewed as an extension of Shapiro et al.'s approach by allowing for partial and erroneous perception.

We use standard possible worlds models for each agents' beliefs. For the sake of the exposition we suppose there are only two agents 1 and 2. Then a belief model M for KD45 2 is a tuple M = W, val, R 1 , R 2 where

• W = {w, v, . . .} is a set of possible worlds;

• val : W → 2 AtProp maps possible worlds to sets of atoms;

• R 1 , R 2 are relations on W that are serial, transitive, and Euclidean.

The modal operators of individual belief B 1 and B 2 , and the modal operator of common belief CB 1,2 are interpreted in such structures in the standard way (the accessibility relation for CB 1,2 being the transitive closure of R 1 ∪ R 2 ). A pointed belief model is a belief model M together with an actual world w * ∈ W .

Let ϕ is a propositional formula built on AtProp, then M od(ϕ) denotes the set of models of ϕ, that is, the set of all valuations of 2 AtProp that make ϕ true. Valuations will be denoted by sets of literals in the following form: [a, ¬b, c] denotes the valuation assigning a and c to true and b to false.

Action structures

We use models for action that differ slightly from that of dynamic logic, and are closer to representations used in the reasoning about actions field. An atomic action β ∈ AtAct is viewed as a 'state transformer', i.e. a transition relation on states, alias valuations: to every α there is associated a function (.) α mapping valuations s ⊆ AtProp to sets of valuations. As often done in reasoning about actions, we suppose that s α = ∅ in order to simplify our account. 1 If α is deterministic then s α is a singleton for every s, else α is nondeterministic.

In order to represent actions in a natural and economic way we have to integrate a solution of the frame problem. This can be done in a modular way, as we have proposed in [START_REF] Herzig | Action representation and partially observable planning using epistemic logic[END_REF], where we have investigated progression and regression reasoning methods that can be 'plugged' into the mapping (.)

α . We thus do not rely on the specificities of particular solutions. The key feature is that (.)

α does not relate possible worlds as in dynamic logic, but directly the associated valuations.

In the examples, we make use of three actions α, β and γ:

• α is the action whose transition model is as follows:

for all s = [p, q], s α = {s};

-[p, q] α = {[p, ¬q], [¬p, q]}.
α can be viewed as an update by (¬p ∨ ¬q) [START_REF] Katsuno | On the difference between updating a knowledge base and revising it[END_REF], namely, as the action of making (¬p ∨ ¬q) true while minimizing change (where the measure of change between two states is here considered to be the number of propositional variables that are flipped).

• β switches the truth value of p; it defined by

[p, q] β = {[¬p, q]}, [¬p, q] β = {[p, q]}, [p, ¬q] β = {[¬p, ¬q]} and [¬p, ¬q] β = {[p, ¬q]}.
• λ is the void action, defined by s λ = {s} for all s.

Following ideas of among others Moore, Scherl and Levesque, and Gerbrandy, the update of a belief model M by an action α is a belief model

M α = W α , val α , R α 1 , R α 2 where W α = { w, s | w ∈ W, s ∈ val(w) α }, val α ( w, s ) = s, and w, s R α i v, t iff wR i v.
Then the update of a pointed belief model M, w * by an action α is the set of pointed belief models

M, w * α = { M α , w * , s | s ∈ val(w * ) α }
Such an account presupposes that action occurrences are perceived completely and correctly by every agent. In order to relax this constraint we extend Baltag et col.'s ideas and use epistemic action structures A = A, act, S 1 , S 2 where

• A = {a, b, . . .} is a set of possible worlds;

• act : A → AtAct maps possible worlds to actions;

• S 1 , S 2 are relations on A that are serial, transitive, and Euclidean. S i relates an action a to agent i's 'subjective versions' of a: if aS i b and a occurs then in i's view b is one of the actions that might have happened. In this way one can model incomplete and erroneous perception.

A pointed action structure is an action structure M together with an actual action a * ∈ A.

the execution of α then he must revise his beliefs (cf. [START_REF] Herzig | I thought you didn't know! -on belief revision in dynamic doxastic logic[END_REF][START_REF] Herzig | Sensing and revision in a modal logic of belief and action[END_REF] for an integration of revision in that case).

Updating belief models

The update of a belief model M = W, val, R 1 , R 2 by an epistemic action structure A = A, act, S 1 , S 2 is a belief model

M A = W A , val A , R 1 A , R 2
A defined by

• W A = { w, a, s | w ∈ W, a ∈ A, s ∈ val(w) act(a) }; • val A ( w, a, s ) = s; • w, a, s R i A v, b, t iff wR i v
val R 1 R 2 w 0 [p, q] {w 1 , w 2 } {w 0 } w 1 [p, q] {w 1 , w 2 } {w 1 } w 2 [p, ¬q] {w 1 , w 2 } {w 2 }
In this Kripke model, 1 does not know the truth value of q but knows that 2 believes whether q holds or not (and this is common belief ); moreover, it is common belief that p holds.

We consider the epistemic action structure A where it is common knowledge that α is performed: A = A, act, S 1 , S 2 where A = {a}, act(a) = α and S 1 (a) = S 2 (a) = {a}.

The update of M by A is the following epistemic action model

M A = W A , val A , R 1 A , R 2 A defined by • W A = { w 0 , a, [p, ¬q]
, w 0 , a, [¬p, q] , w 1 , a, [p, ¬q] , w 1 , a, [¬p, q] , w 2 , a, [p, ¬q] };

• for every world w, s

∈ W A , R 1 A ( w, s ) = { w 1 , a, [p, ¬q] , w 1 , a, [¬p, q] , w 2 , a, [p, ¬q] }; • R 2 A ( w 0 , a, [p, ¬q] ) = R 2 A ( w 0 , a, [¬p, q] ) = { w 0 , a, [p, ¬q] , w 0 , a, [¬p, q] }; R 2 A ( w 1 , a, [p, ¬q] ) = R 2 A ( w 1 , a, [¬p, q] ) = { w 1 , a, [p, ¬q] , w 1 , a, [¬p, q] }; R 2 A ( w 2 , a, [p, ¬q] ) = { w 2 , a, [p, ¬q] }; • val A ( w 0 , a, [p, ¬q] ) = val A ( w 1 , a, [p, ¬q] ) = [p, ¬q]; val A ( w 0 , a, [¬p, q] ) = val A ( w 1 , a, [¬p, q] ) = [¬p, q]; val A ( w 2 , a, [p, ¬q] ) = [p, ¬q].
The update of the pointed belief model M, w 0 by the pointed action structure A, a contains the two pointed belief models M, w 0 , a, [p, ¬q] and M, w 0 , a, [¬p, b] . for all valuations s and s ′ .

To get a grasp of such structures consider the structure H induced by the Hamming distance: (s 1 , s 2 )

H (s 3 , s 4 ) iff d H (s 1 , s 2 ) ≤ d H (s 3 , s 4 ), where d H (s, s ′ ) = card((s \ s ′ ) ∪ (s ′ \ s))
is the cardinality of the symmetric difference between s and s ′ (i.e., the number of propositional symbols assigned a different value by s and s ′ ).

Let M = W, val, R 1 , R 2 be a belief model and a proximity structure. For every set of worlds U ⊆ W and set of valuations S ⊆ 2 AtProp we define

M in (U×S) = { u, s ∈ U×S | val(u), s val(u ′ ), s ′ for all u ′ , s ′ ∈ U×S}

Common knowledge of observations

To warm up let us assume that agents have common knowledge about what they observe. This corresponds for instance to the case of public announcements of the truth of objective propositions. Each of these common observations corresponds to a consistent propositional formula ϕ.

Let M = W, val, R 1 , R 2 be a belief model, a proximity structure, and ϕ a consistent propositional formula. The revision of M by ϕ is a belief model

M ϕ = W ϕ , val ϕ , R 1 ϕ , R 2 ϕ defined by • W ϕ = w∈W M in ({w}×M od(ϕ)) • val ϕ ( w, s ) = s • R i ϕ ( w, s ) = M in (R i (w)×M od(ϕ))
Example 3 We take the proximity relation induced by the Hamming distance.

Let M be the following pointed belief model: W = {w 0 , w 1 , w 2 , w 3 }; w * = w 0 ; val, R 1 and R 2 are shown on the following table:

val R 1 R 2 w 0 [p, q] {w 1 } {w 0 } w 1 [¬p, q] {w 1 } {w 2 , w 3 } w 2 [¬p, q] {w 2 } {w 2 } w 3 [¬p, ¬q] {w 3 } {w 3 }
Intuitively, in this pointed belief model, 1 wrongly believes that p is false and correctly believes that q is true; moreover 1 wrongly believes that 2 does the same mistake as him concerning p and, wrongly as well, that 2 does not believe whether q is true or not. 2 has correct beliefs about everything.

The revision of M by ϕ = (a ↔ b) is the following pointed model:

W = { w 0 , [p, q] , w 1 , [p, q] , w 1 , [¬p, ¬q] , w 2 , [p, q] , w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] , w 3 , [¬p, ¬q] }; w, s * = w 0 , [p, q] ; val S , R 1
S and R 2 S are shown on the following table:

val ϕ R 1 ϕ R 2 ϕ w 0 , [p, q] [p, q] { w 1 , [p, q] , w 1 , [¬p, ¬q] } { w 0 , [p, q] } w 1 , [p, q] [p, q] { w 1 , [p, q] , w 1 , [¬p, ¬q] } { w 3 , [¬p, ¬q] } w 1 , [¬p, ¬q] [¬p, ¬q] { w 1 , [p, q] , w 1 , [¬p, ¬q] } { w 2 , [p, q] , w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] } w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] [¬p, ¬q] { w 1 , [p, q] , w 1 , [¬p, ¬q] } { w 2 , [p, q] , w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] } w 2 , [p, q] [p, q] { w 2 , [p, q] , w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] } { w 2 , [p, q] , w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] } w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] [¬p, ¬q] { w 2 , [p, q] , w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] } { w 2 , [p, q] , w 2 , [¬p, ¬q] } w 3 , [¬p, ¬q] [¬p, ¬q] { w 3 , [¬p, ¬q] } { w 3 , [¬p, ¬q] }
Being initially wrong in the belief that 2 wrongly believes that p is false, after the observation 1 believes (wrongly) that either 2 does not have any belief about p, or that he believes that p is false.

General case

Such an account presupposes that it is common knowledge that the observation made by a given agent is also made by the other one; moreover, agent 1 may observe ϕ while believing that 2 observes ψ and that 2 has no idea about what he (i.e., 1) observed, and so on.

• W O = w∈W { u, o, s | o ∈ O, u, s ∈ M in ({w}×obs(o))} • val O ( u, o, s ) = s • R i O ( w, o, s ) = M in (R i (u)×( o ′ ∈Ti(o) obs(o ′ )))
Some remarks on the construction of M S .

1. What are pointed observation structures like? First of all, as observations are propositions the actual observation should not be an element of the set of possible observations O, but a subset of it. Second, its seems to us that its nature is a matter of debate: one option is to define the actual observation o * as the set of all valuations. Another option is to constrain it to be a singleton that is equal to the valuation of the actual world in the current belief model. This requires an appropriate definition of the revision of pointed belief models, just as we have discussed for the case of common knowledge of observations.

2. It seems to be against the spirit of revision that the (obvious) definition of revision of pointed models allows for the actual world to change its valuation. This can be avoided by restricting the revision M, w * S to the case where val(w * ) ∈ S. This guarantees that M in ({w * }×S) = {w * }.

3. In M S , a lot of worlds are inaccessible from the actual world, and could obviously be deleted. This is a difference with belief update, where the new accessibility is built separately for each world (just by copying the old accessibility relation on their images by β), while for revision the new accessibility relations R i S are built separately for each set of worlds simultaneously accessible by R i . More generally, M S may be simplified by a minimisation process similar to automata minimisation, by clustering worlds (cf. [START_REF] Gerard | Epistemic actions and minimal models[END_REF]). 4. It is not hard to prove that R ′ i is serial, transitive and Euclidean, therefore the revision of M by ϕ is a KD45 model.

Discussion

A natural question to ask is the relation between our constructions and AGM belief revision. Let us consider only agent 1. We identify revising a set of boolean formulas Γ by a boolean formula ϕ with the revision M, w *

Mods(ϕ)

of some pointed belief model M, w * such that w * |= B 1 ϕ i for every ϕ i ∈ Γ, where M ods(ϕ) is the set of all valuations s satisfying ϕ. Under this hypothesis we can show that the AGM postulates are satisfied. This is mainly due to the fact that the underlying comparative proximity structure complies with the AGM framework.

Another thing we can prove easily is that if S = M ods(ϕ) then for common knowledge of observations we have: M S , w * , s |= CB 1,2 ϕ for every pointed belief model M, w * and s ∈ S.

The only restriction of our modelling is that new information must correspond to boolean formulas. To overcome it is the subject of ongoing work.

In the revision part, our observations structures are objective because observations consist of objective facts, not of agents' beliefs. Next step will consist in revising belief structures by subjective observations such as "agent 1 believes ϕ", "agent 1 believes that agent 2 does not believe ϕ, etc. While this extension from observing objective facts to observing others' beliefs does not pose any particular problem in case of expansion, this is not so for revision.

Another further line of research is the investigation of methods of progression and regression that ultimately will enable planning in multiagent domains.

  and aS i b. It can be checked that each R i A is serial, transitive, and Euclidean. The update of a pointed belief model M, w * by a pointed action structure A, a * is a set of pointed belief models M, w * A,a * { M A , w * , a * , s | s ∈ val(w * ) act(a * ) } Example 1 Let AtProp = {p, q} and M = W, R 1 , R 2 , w * , val where W = {w 0 , w 1 , w 2 } and val, R 1 and R 2 are shown on the following table:

1 O , R 2 O

 12 Similar to action structures, an objective observation structure is a tuple O = O, obs, T 1 , T 2 where • O = {o, . . .} is a set of possible observations; • obs : O → 2 AtProp ; • T 1 , T 2 are relations on O that are serial, transitive, and Euclidean. The revision of M by O is a belief model M O = W O , val O , R defined by

In fact, this hypothesis makes that we need not introduce revision when reasoning about action effects: when an agent believes that α is inexecutable and subsequently learns about

Example 2 Let M as in Example 1 and A the following action model:

• AtAct = {β, λ} (defined earlier);

• A = {a 0 , a 1 };

• act A (a 0 ) = β; act A (a 1 ) = λ;

In this action model, 1 correctly believes that action β is performed; 2 is not aware of this action occurrence and thus believes that the void action is performed, and that this is common belief; 1 is aware of this.

The update of M by A is the following epistemic action model

The update of the pointed belief model M, w 0 by the pointed action structure A, a 0 contains the unique pointed belief model M, w 0 , a 0 , [¬p, q] 4 Revising belief models

Proximity structures

Just as in the case of structures for updating, structures for revision are not based on possible worlds, but on valuations. A comparative proximity structure is a complete preorder ⊆ 2 AtProp ×2 AtProp on valuations. Informally, (s 1 , s 2 ) (s 3 , s 4 ) means that s 1 is at least as close to s 2 as s 3 is to s 4 . We denote by ≺ and ∼ the strict order and the equivalence induced by in the usual way. The proximity structure must satisfy • if (s, s) ∼ (s, s ′ ) then s = s ′ ;

• (s, s) ∼ (s ′ , s ′ );

• (s, s ′ ) ∼ (s ′ , s).


Corentin Jouault
email: jouaultc0@gmail.com

Frédéric Legendre

Fabien L Condamine

Jean-Marc Pouillon

Andre Nel

A new mid-Cretaceous fossil genus of stonefly (Plecoptera: Perlidae) from the Burmese amber

Keywords: Fossil record, gen. et sp. nov., Insecta, paleobiogeography, taxonomy

A new genus and species of stonefly is described and figured from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber as †Burmaperla pouilloni Jouault & Nel gen. et sp. nov. The placement of this new genus and species within the Perlidae is corroborated by an in-depth comparison of apomorphies. This new species differs from all other Acroneuriinae from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber biota, inter alia, owing to its wing venation with ScP reaching RA beyond ra-rp, RP with three branches, MP partially fused with the upper branch of CuA, CuA with four branches, its hammer nearly circular and its genitalia with paraprocts weakly sclerotized, abruptly upcurved, thinning towards the apex and symmetrical. This new species increases the diversity of Acroneuriinae stoneflies in the Burmese amber biota, and combined with the geological history of the Burmese terrane is used to discuss the putative presence of Antarctoperlaria in mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber.

Introduction

The order Plecoptera, also called stoneflies because the adults are often found on rocks near streams or ponds, is the sister group of a clade that would comprise all the other polyneopteran orders except the more inclusive clade Zoraptera + Dermaptera [START_REF] Wipfler | Evolutionary history of Polyneoptera and its implications for our understanding of early winged insects[END_REF] fig. 1). The current diversity of Plecoptera is greater than 3497 species [START_REF] Fochetti | Global diversity of stoneflies (Plecoptera; Insecta) in freshwater[END_REF]. The number of families of Plecoptera varies according to the authors but greatly benefits from the advances related to the study of molecular data [START_REF] South | A New Family of Stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera), Kathroperlidae, fam. n., with a Phylogenomic Analysis of the Paraperlinae (Plecop-J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f tera: Chloroperlidae)[END_REF] despite this the position of some taxa remains doubtful (e.g. Megaleuctra). The fossil record of Plecoptera represents ca. 300 species distributed in ca. 25 families (sensu http://fossilworks.org/, last accessed September 29, 2021). Based on the fossil record, the oldest described stem-groups Plecoptera date back to the Ma) from the Yanghugou Formation of China (Béthoux et al., 2011), and from France (ca. 308-306 Ma; [START_REF] Schubnel | Two new stem-stoneflies discovered in the Pennsylvanian Avion locality, Pas-de-Calais, France (Insecta: 'Exopterygota'). Alcheringa[END_REF]. Using molecular data, [START_REF] Letsch | Combining molecular datasets with stronglyheterogeneous taxon coverage enlightens the peculiar biogeographic history of stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera)[END_REF] inferred one of the most comprehensive time-calibrated trees for extant Plecoptera, which filled an important gap on the divergence time estimates of all the main clades of extant stoneflies. Relying on seven fossil calibrations, this dated tree suggests that the crown-Plecoptera arose during the Guadalupian, Ma, 95% HPD) (Letsch et al., 2021: fig. 2).

Among the Plecoptera, the family Perlidae has its crown-group estimated in the Jurassic, ca.

165 Ma, and is recovered as sister to the clade (Chloroperlidae + Perlodidae) [START_REF] Letsch | Combining molecular datasets with stronglyheterogeneous taxon coverage enlightens the peculiar biogeographic history of stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera)[END_REF] fig. 2). Their oldest representatives are known from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber (ca. 98 Ma) and some are confidently placed in the subfamily Acroneuriinae (e.g., [START_REF] Chen | First tergal structures for the fossil stonefly genus Largusoperla (Plecoptera: Perlidae): a new species and a new tribe of Acroneuriinae[END_REF]Chen, , 2019a,b),b). The other subfamily, the Perlinae, has its oldest representatives known from Baltic amber (37.2-33.9 Ma) [START_REF] Pictet | Die im Bernstein befindlichen Neuropteren der Vorwelt. Die in Bernstein Befindlichen Organischen Reste der Vorwelt Gesammelt in Verbindung mit Mehreren Bearbeitetet und Herausgegeben[END_REF].

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

In this study, we describe a new genus and species of Perlidae based on a well-preserved male specimen from the mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber. This discovery increases the diversity of stoneflies documented from the Burmese amber biota.

Material and methods

The amber piece containing the specimen comes from the deposits of Noije Bum in the Hukawng Valley (26° 29′ N, 96° 35′ E), Kachin State, Northern Myanmar (see detailed map in Grimaldi and Ross, 2017: fig. 2). This amber deposit was located on the West Burma block (WBB) a terrane that migrated from the south-east of Gondwana, across the Tethys Ocean during the Jurassic and Cretaceous and then collided with Asia (e.g. [START_REF] Seton | Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200 Ma[END_REF]. Radiometric data established an early Cenomanian age (98.79 ± 0.62 Ma) for Kachin amber, based on zircons from volcanic clastes found within the amber-bearing sediments [START_REF] Shi | Age constraint on Burmese amber based on U-Pb dating of zircons[END_REF]. Some ammonites found in the amber-bearing bed and within amber corroborate a late Albian-early Cenomanian age [START_REF] Cruickshank | Geology of an amber locality in the Hukawng Valley, northern Myanmar[END_REF][START_REF] Yu | An ammonite trapped in Burmese amber[END_REF].

The holotype of †Burmaperla pouilloni gen. et sp. nov. (Figs. 123) is from the collection of one of us (JMP), and is complete and well preserved. The amber piece was polished to facilitate the observation of the specimen using a grinder polisher (Buehler EcoMet 30), and a thin silicon carbide sanding paper (grit size = 7000). The specimen was examined and photographed with a Leica MZ APO with an attached Canon EOS 5D Mark II camera. All images are digitally stacked photomicrographic composites of several individual focal planes, which were obtained using Helicon Focus 6.7. The figures were composed with Adobe Illustrator CC2019 and Photoshop CC2019 software. Wing venation nomenclature follows [START_REF] Béthoux | At last, a Pennsylvanian stemstonefly (Plecoptera) discovered[END_REF]. The amber piece is housed in the

Systematic Paleontology

Order Plecoptera Burmeister, 1839 Suborder Arctoperlaria [START_REF] Zwick | Insecta Plecoptera. Phylogenetisches System und Katalog[END_REF]Infra-order Systellognatha Enderlein, 1909 Superfamily Perloidea Latreille, 1802 Family Perlidae Latreille, 1802 Subfamily Acroneuriinae Klapálek, 1914 Genus Burmaperla Jouault & Nel gen. nov. Head trapezoidal, ca. 1.05 mm long and 1.75 mm wide (eyes include) not overlapped byanterior part of pronotum, with an elliptical spot covering three ocelli and anterior half of head; two posterior ocelli larger than anterior one; compound eyes rounded. Antenna brown and filiform, with at least 45 antennomeres (hardly discernible basally since covered with bubbles), 0.81× as long as body, each antennomere thinning towards apex. Maxillary palps long, with five visible palpomeres, lengths from basal to apical ones (in mm): at least 0.07; 0.23; 0.43; 0.34; 0.20. Labial palps with three(?) palpomeres, length from basal to apical ones (in mm): > 0.26; 0.40; 0.32.

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Pronotum narrower than head, ca. 0.90 mm long and ca. 1.33 mm wide, slightly trapezoidal with broadly curved corners, mostly brown except for a wide, pale median band. Dorsal part of mesothorax and metathorax, similarly colored as pronotum, sclerotized except for median area, nearly as wide as pronotum. Gill remnant maybe present, hidden inside bubbles. Furcal pit, mesosternal Y-arm present; mesosternal Y-stem apparently present (not fully visible). Legs brown; two tibia spurs present; fore femur ca. 0.42 mm wide and ca. 1.12 mm long, tibia ca. 0.17

Discussion

This specimen displays several characters allowing a confident placement within the Perlidae and Acroneuriinae. More precisely, a hammer on sternite 9 is an apomorphy of the Arctoperlaria [START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF]. The short first tarsomere, setose arolium, and small and weak mandibles are apomorphic J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f characters supporting the subclade Systellognatha [START_REF] Sroka | Rolling' stoneflies (Insecta: Plecoptera) from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber[END_REF][START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF]. The current classification of Plecoptera supports the superfamilies Perloidea and Pteronarcyoidea within the Systellognatha. Although [START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF] proposed a series of apomorphic characters to define these two clades, they are all based either on the internal morphology or on nymph morphology and are therefore not visible on our specimen.

We do not place our specimen within the families included in the superfamily Pteronarcyoidea because it lacks laterally expanded arolium [START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF], has a more reduced forewing venation [START_REF] Béthoux | At last, a Pennsylvanian stemstonefly (Plecoptera) discovered[END_REF], and a hammer/ventral vesicle that is not reduced. Additionally, wing venation character have been proposed to distinguish the Pteronarcyidae [START_REF] Cui | The first fossil salmonfly (Insecta: Plecoptera: Pteronarcyidae), back to the Middle Jurassic[END_REF]: numerous crossveins between M and CuA in distal half of wing, a character not recorded on this specimen.

Similarly, we cannot place this specimen within the Styloperlidae since it lacks a dense setal brush on male sternite nine (replacing the vesicle or hammer) and lacks a X-shaped sclerotization normally recorded on the sternite 10 of male styloperlids [START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF]. The last pteronarcyoid family, the Peltoperlidae, is distinguishable from the other Plecoptera by a short head strongly inserted into the angulate prothorax [START_REF] Chen | First Peltoperlidae (Insecta: Plecoptera) from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber[END_REF], and by labial palps not visible in dorsal view [START_REF] Fenoglio | Chapitre 14. Ordre des Plecoptera (Plécoptères)[END_REF]. These characters are not recorded on our specimen preventing its placement within the Peltoperlidae.

The particular configuration of the tarsus, with a short basal tarsomere, has been considered differently according to the authors. This character is a synapomorphy of the Perloidea for Zwick (1973), a synapomorphy of Perloidea with (Peltoperlidae + Styloperlidae) for [START_REF] Zwick | Ordnung Plecoptera (Steinfliegen)[END_REF], and independently derived in these lineages for [START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF] and [START_REF] Nelson | Surface ultrastructure and evolution of tarsal attachment structures in Plecoptera (Arthropoda: Hexapoda)[END_REF]. Therefore, there is no doubt that this specimen belongs to the Perloidea (the other families being previously excluded).

Among the Perloidea (Perlodidae + Perlidae + Chloroperlidae), we can exclude affinities of our specimen with the Chloroperlidae because it does not possess a slender body or an oval pronotum [START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF]. Similarly, it cannot be placed within the Perlodidae because it does not possess submental gills or lateral stylets of male epiproct, apomorphic characters of the Perlodinae (Zwick, J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f 2000). It differs from the Isoperlinae and Perlodinae in having a more developed wing venation (e.g., RP with three branches). Based on the original diagnosis of the family [START_REF] Klapálek | Hft. 8. Ephemerida, Plecoptera, Lepidoptera[END_REF], our specimen differs from perlodid stoneflies in having a pronotum whose sides are not parallel, a character state found in numerous extant species [START_REF] Huo | A new genus of Isoperlinae (Plecoptera: Perlodidae) from Tibet, China[END_REF].

Therefore we place it within the family Perlidae, already well documented in Burmese amber. We exclude affinities with the Perlinae because the specimen does not possess hemitergites 10 modified into anteriorly curved hooks; also the hammer is fully visible, while no hairbrush on mesal areas of abdominal sternites is visible [START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF]. Additionally, our specimen shows the apormorphic character of the Acroneuriinae, viz. the paraprocts transformed into anteriorly upcurved hooks [START_REF] Zwick | Phylogenetic system and zoogeography of the Plecoptera[END_REF]. This specimen does not correspond to the putative imago of †Electroneuria ronwoodi Sroka et al., 2018 (known by a nymph), since it has short cerci while †Electroneuria ronwoodi has long ones. [START_REF] Zwick | Ordnung Plecoptera (Steinfliegen)[END_REF] noticed a correlation between the length of cerci in nymphs and adults in the Systellognatha.

We cannot place the specimen in the genus †Cretacroneuria Chen, 2020 since it has a different wing venation and genitalia configuration [START_REF] Chen | First Peltoperlidae (Insecta: Plecoptera) from mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber[END_REF]. Our specimen has a RP with three branches (vs. four in †Cretacroneuria), its MP is fused with CuA for a short distance (vs. completely separated) and it has more m-cua crossveins. Additionally, the pronotum is less trapezoidal and the anterior corners are not angulate. The paraproct are not directed laterally but upcurved and hook-shaped (vs. digitiform in †Cretacroneuria).

We do not assign the studied fossil to the genus †Burmesoperla Chen, 2019 since it has a circular hammer (vs. C-shaped) and a forewing with MP and CuA partially fused (vs. completely separated) (Chen, 2019b).

Finally, [START_REF] Chen | First tergal structures for the fossil stonefly genus Largusoperla (Plecoptera: Perlidae): a new species and a new tribe of Acroneuriinae[END_REF] proposed a fossil tribe †Largusoperlini to accommodate the particular genus †Largusoperla Chen, Wang & Du, 2018. He used the following characters to distinguish it from the other Acroneuriinae: 'triocellate; male hammer transverse, elevated, usually elliptical in J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f shape; male paraprocts distinctly enlarged, asymmetrical; cercus with approximately 10 segments; male tergum 9 with patches of long hairs; cleft of male tergum 10 at least in posterior half; male epiproct sclerite present' (Chen, 2018: 297). The proposed list of characters prevents us from placing the new fossil within the †Largusoperlini based on, at least, the hammer shape that is circular to slightly ovoid but not transverse, and the paraproct shape that is neither distinctly enlarged nor asymmetrical in the new fossil [START_REF] Chen | First tergal structures for the fossil stonefly genus Largusoperla (Plecoptera: Perlidae): a new species and a new tribe of Acroneuriinae[END_REF]. Therefore, we proposed a new genus to accommodate this new specimen.

The description of Burmaperla pouilloni gen. et sp. nov. complements the relatively welldiversified plecopteran fauna of the West Burma block (WBB). The current stonefly diversity on the West Burma block is however restricted to the sub-order Arctoperlaria, which is quite surprising considering the distribution of the extant representatives of the sub-order. In fact, the majority of Arctoperlaria are today found in the northern hemisphere, except the Notonemouridae, and are considered to be of Holarctic origin (Letsch et al., 2021: fig. 3). As a result, the colonization of West Burma block by the Arctoperlaria may have been late, when the WWB came closer to Laurasia during the Late Cretaceous (e.g. [START_REF] Westerweel | Burma Terrane part of the Trans-Tethyan arc during collision with India according to palaeomagnetic data[END_REF], the alternative being that the Arctoperlaria were more widely distributed before the Cretaceous [START_REF] Cui | The Pangean journey of 'south forestflies' (Insecta: Plecoptera) revealed by their first fossils[END_REF].

The path of the West Burma block through the Meso-Tethys Ocean-the West Burma block was originally located near the Australian block in east Gondwana during the Early Jurassic (e.g. [START_REF] Seton | Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200 Ma[END_REF]-is used as an argument to strengthen the assumption that West Burma block was isolated (an island) during its migration and that fauna transfers have taken place only before its separation or lately when it approached Laurasia. Therefore, early faunal inputs are supposed to have Gondwana origins (e.g. [START_REF] Poinar | Burmese amber: evidence of Gondwanan origin and Cretaceous dispersion[END_REF] and later inputs to be of Laurasia origins (e.g. [START_REF] Jouault | Mid-Cretaceous Burmese amber pelecinid wasps (Hymenoptera, Pelecinidae) support the hypothesis of an Asian origin of the family[END_REF]. Consequently, some representatives of the Antarctoperlaria inhabiting the Gondwana may have colonized the WBB prior to its separation from Gondwana. This assumption would be corroborated by the presence of several Antarctoperlaria (e.g. Gondwanoperlidium: [START_REF] Pinto | A new genus and two new species of Plecopteran insects from the Triassic of Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Riek | A re-examination of the mecopteroid and orthopteroid fossils (Insecta) from the Triassic beds at Denmark Hill, Queensland, with descriptions of further specimens[END_REF]or Euxenoperla Riek, 1976a,b) in South America, Africa, and Australia. There-J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f fore, it seems possible that an antarctoperlarian fauna was trapped in Burmese amber but not yet described.

Conclusion

Amber from northern Myanmar provides a unique glimpse to the paleodiversity of stoneflies during the Cretaceous and particularly during the migration of the West Burma block (from South Gondwana to Asia during the Cretaceous). The current distribution of Plecoptera, their fossil record, and the particular geological history of West Burma block suggest that the Antarctoperlaria may have been present on WBB during the Cretaceous and trapped in amber but not yet described. The description of Burmaperla pouilloni gen. et sp. nov. also increases the diversity of Acroneuriinae stoneflies and suggests that the subfamily was more diversified that previously thought. If the fossil record of the order continues to grow, an analysis of the fossil record to decipher the evolutionary dynamics of stoneflies over geological time will be needed to clarify the evolutionary history of the order and better understand their diversification.

Figure captions

  Musée d'Histoire Naturelle et d'Ethnographie (Colmar, France) under the collection number MHNE.2021.11.1. J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Published work and nomenclatural acts are registered in ZooBank (http://zoobank.org/, last access: 19 12 2021), with the following LSID (reference): urn:lsid:zoobank.org:pub:D6201846-BF5F-46CB-A893-4F2DD7BAC430.

  urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:A8E2792B-682B-474B-9FDC-B69ACB8FD4F0 Etymology. The genus name is a combination of the prefix 'burma' referring to the originating country of the amber piece (Myanmar) and Perla, type genus of the family Perlidae. Gender feminine. Type species. Burmaperla pouilloni sp. nov. Jouault & Nel (only species included). Diagnosis. Triocellate; pronotum slightly trapezoidal with broadly curved anterior and posterior corners, sutures distinct; first two tarsomeres shortest with euplantulae; forewing with ScP reaching RA beyond ra-rp; two extra crossvein beyond ScP and RA fusion point; at least eight crossveins between ScP and anterior margin; ScP+RA terminating well before wing apex; RP originating in basal third of forewing and with three branches; MP partially fused with upper branch of CuA; CuA with four branches; AA2 with three branches; abdomen near half of body length; with all segments not extended; abdominal terga unmodified; posterior margin of sternum 9 rounded; hammer distinct, J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f nearly circular, length 1.14 × longer than wide; paraproct weakly sclerotized, abruptly upcurved, thinning towards apex and symmetrical; cercomeres with long bristles. Remark: A detailed discussion for the placement and comparison with other Acroneuriinae genera is available in the discussion part. Burmaperla pouilloni Jouault & Nel sp. nov. (Figs. 1-3) urn:lsid:zoobank.org:act:D9546CAA-D08F-49BC-97B0-7FA8411B12A9 Etymology. Named after Jean-Marc Pouillon, who donated the holotype. The species epithet is to be treated as a noun in the genitive case. Material. Holotype MHNE.2021.11.1 (a complete specimen preserved in an ovoid piece of amber measuring 15 × 19 × 4 mm), deposited at the Musée d'Histoire Naturelle et d'Ethnographie (Colmar, France). Locality and horizon: Noije Bum Hill, Hukawng Valley, Kachin State, Myanmar; upper Albian to lower Cenomanian, mid-Cretaceous. Diagnosis. As for the genus (vide supra). Description. Macropterous; body length (excluding antennae and cerci) ca. 8.0 mm, stout, generally brown. Wings folded and overlapped on body so only forewings are visible. Dorsal aspect of terminalia covered by wings but visible under microscope.

  mm wide and ca. 1.5 mm long, tarsus ca. 0.52 mm long; mid femur ca. 0.42 mm wide and ca. 1.45 mm long, tibia ca. 0.25 mm wide and ca. 1.67 mm long, tarsus ca. 0.62 mm long; hind femur ca. 0.45 mm wide and ca. 1.87 mm long, tibia ca. 0.29 mm wide and ca. 2.25 mm long, tarsus ca. 0.63 mm long; first two tarsal segments shortest with conspicuous euplantulae; arolium broad and setose; tarsal claws simple. Wings hyaline, veins brown. Forewing length ca. 7.80 mm; M forked at wing midlength; six crossveins present between M and CuA; CuA forked basal to fork of M, with four branches; CuP and AA1 simple; AA2 with three branches; area between CuA and CuP with five crossveins. Hind wings hidden under forewings.Abdomen length about half-length of body, with dark lateral surfaces and pale ventral surface; posterolateral margins of each segment slightly extended. Lengths of sternites, in ventral view from base to apex (in mm): 0.3; 0.35; 0.35; 0.37; 0.42; 0.40; 0.42; 0.9; 0.01. Posterior margin of sternum 9 rounded, posteromedially with an oval hammer. Paraproct weakly sclerotized, abruptly upcurved, thinning towards apex and symmetrical. Cerci hairy and curved, with at least 10 cercomeres, basal cercomere much longer than other segments.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Burmaperla pouilloniJouault & Nel gen. et sp. nov., holotype MHNE.2021.11.1. Habitus. A,

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Burmaperla pouilloniJouault & Nel gen. et sp. nov., holotype MHNE.2021.11.1. A, detailed

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Burmaperla pouilloni Jouault & Nel gen. et sp. nov., holotype MHNE.2021.11.1. A, detailed

Acknowledgements

We warmly thank Dr. Pavel Sroka and an anonymous reviewer for their constructive and useful comments on the early version of the manuscript. We also thank Dr. Eduardo Koutsoukos for managing the article during the editing process. This work was partly contributed by CJ during his Ph.D. project on the 'Impact des interactions biotiques et paléo-évènements sur la diversification des insectes Neuropterida'.