D Laffoley

J M Baxter

D J Amon

K M Gjerde

H J Koldewey

L A Levin

11

P C Reid

C M Roberts

13

U R Sumaila

14

M L Taylor

Thiele T 15

16

L C Woodall

Affiliations

Viewpoint for publication in Aquatic Conservation

Of all the interconnected threats facing the planet the top two are the climate and biodiversity crises. Neither will be be solved if we ignore the ocean. To turn the tide in favour of humanity and a habitable planet we need to recognise and better value the fundamental role that the ocean plays in the earth system, and prioritize urgent action needed to heal and protect it at the 'Earthscape' level -the planetary scale at which processes to support life operate. The countries gathering at COP26 have unparalleled political capacity and leadership to make this happen. COP26 could be the turning point, where we not only see commitments to united action for the ocean but also plans to meet those commitments based on science-led solutions that address the interconnectivity between the ocean, climate, and biodiversity. Here we first summarise some of the key ways in which the ocean contributes to and has acted as the major buffer of climate change focussing on temperature although not forgetting its role in storing CO2 . Noting in particular with 'high confidence' that the ocean has stored 91% of the excess heat from global warming with land, melting ice and the atmosphere only taking up approximately 5%, 3% and 1% respectively (IPCC, 2021). We also highlight the impact of the recent large release of heat from the ocean to the atmosphere during the 2015/16 El Niño. We then present six science-based policy actions that form a recovery-stimulus package for people, climate, nature, and the planet. Our proposals highlight what is needed to view, value, and treat the planet, including the ocean, for the benefit and future of all life.

Introduction

In November 2021, the world will gather in Glasgow, Scotland, for the Conference of Parties to the United Nations Convention on Climate Change (COP26), a meeting many believe to be the world's best and last chance to get runaway climate change under control. Hosted by the UK and Italy, this meeting comes after three decades of United Nations' action on climate, bringing together almost every country on Earth in climate summits, and transforming climate change from a fringe issue to an urgent global priority. Despite these summits, the rate of climate change is still accelerating, ("widespread, rapid and intensifying", IPCC, 2021) largely linked to changes in the ocean, causing a continuing decline in nature, and planetary disruption to the environment, people, and all our futures (O'Hara et al., 2021[START_REF] Veng | Consolidating sea level acceleration estimates from satellite altimetry[END_REF][START_REF] Hugonnet | Accelerated global glacier mass loss in the early twenty-first century[END_REF][START_REF] Perkins-Kirkpatrick | Increasing trends in regional heatwaves[END_REF][START_REF] Holbrook | A global assessment of marine heatwaves and their drivers[END_REF][START_REF] Cheng | Upper Ocean Temperatures Hit Record High in 2020[END_REF]. As the world slowly starts to reopen from the COVID pandemic, governments are signalling a determination to build forward better, greener, and more equitably, with an increased recognition of the need to work together, especially on major global issues such as climate change. Building forward better must include urgent ocean actions.

To make a difference, it is imperative that we start to stabilize climate and ocean change, and prevent further loss of nature. Repackaging what happened before the COVID pandemic is not "building forward better". Climate change was a threat to planetary wellbeing prior to the pandemic [START_REF] Steffen | Planetary boundaries: Guiding human development on a changing planet[END_REF], but COVID has since shown the danger of not taking the biodiversity crisis seriously, especially as human expansion and increased exploitation have forced much closer interactions with living organisms (Petrovan et al., 2021), including those living in the ocean. We must take a more thoughtful and far-sighted science-led approach to changing the attitudes that have locked us all into a spiral of decline in the functioning of Earth's systems.

COP26 will be a critical moment in the fight against climate change that needs to recognize the key role that the ocean plays. The summit also provides a golden opportunity to stimulate global ocean protection and recovery that will help tackle climate disruption, reverse biodiversity loss, support human wellbeing, and enable the world to embark on a successful recovery from the COVID 19 pandemic [START_REF] Claudet | The seven domains of action for a sustainable Ocean[END_REF]. It is regrettable that governments across the decades have persistently failed to meet the targets that they have agreed, for example none of the 20 Aichi biodiversity targets set in 2010 were met in 2020 (https://www.cbd.int/gbo5). A significant shift in approaches to implementation will be required, learning from successful examples, for example the recovery of the stratosphere's ozone layer and climate change co-benefits achieved through the Montreal Protocol [START_REF] Young | The Montreal Protocol protects the terrestrial carbon sink[END_REF]. Against this positive outcome we note that some countries have continued to manufacture and emit CFCs and other halogens in contravention of the Montreal Protocol [START_REF] Solomon | Unfinished business after five decades of ozonelayer science and policy[END_REF] and that the first appearance of ozone mini holes occurred in the Arctic in the winter of 2019/20 with the largest hole over the UK and western Europe in December 2019 [START_REF] Kuttippurath | Exceptional loss in ozone in the Arctic winter/spring of 2019/2020[END_REF]. Furthermore, the record ozone hole over Antarctica in the 2020 southern winter is currently (28 September) even bigger, larger than the whole of Antarctica, although with a slightly higher ozone minimum (https://ozonewatch.gsfc.nasa.gov/ accessed 01 Oct 2021).

Pictured from space the Earth truly is a blue planet, and whilst the challenges before all of us relate to land, freshwater, atmosphere and ocean, up to now we have largely forgotten the ocean in forming solutions for climate change and the future, hence the focus of this paper. Here we first highlight the need for a much greater understanding of the essential role that the ocean has played in buffering climate change, focussing on temperature, including jumps in global surface temperature when the ocean releases heat back into the atmosphere. We then outline six sciencebased policy actions that form a recovery-stimulus package for people, climate, nature, and the planet formulated by scientists of the International Programme on the State of the Ocean (IPSO).

Our proposals highlight what is needed to view, value, and treat the planet, including the ocean, for the benefit and future of all life.

Why it is critical to fully recognize the key role that the ocean has played in mitigating the consequences of climate change

The ocean covers over 71 per cent of the surface of the Earth but many people are unaware that it is also one of the predominant controlling factors in the rate of climate change, absorbing over 90% of the excess heat produced [START_REF] Trenberth | Understanding climate change through Earth's energy flows[END_REF], as well as approximately 38% of the CO 2 generated by human activities (Friedlingstein et al., 2020;[START_REF] Gloege | Quantifying errors in observationally based estimates of ocean carbon sink variability[END_REF]. Whereas land covers some 29% of the planet's surface, but only absorbs about 3% of the heat from global warming, and the atmosphere even less [START_REF] Trenberth | Understanding climate change through Earth's energy flows[END_REF]. The ocean is taking the brunt of the extra burden of regulating the planet's increasing temperature resulting from anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions, alongside its role as a carbon sink, thus ensuring that the Earth continues to be habitable. An accelerating increase in both Ocean Heat Content (OHC) and Sea Surface Temperature (SST) due to global warming is contributing to a range of increasing impacts at the Earthscape level. Ocean heat is supercharging tropical cyclones and hurricanes, intensifying the hydrological cycle leading to greater and more intense precipitation events, stronger wind speeds, an increase in the size of storms, and possibly a reduction in their tracking speed (see Supp. Info. in [START_REF] Laffoley | Evolving the narrative for protecting a rapidly changing ocean, post COVID-19[END_REF]. Consequently, the number of natural disasters, their intensity and financial cost, and stress to people, governments, and insurers has grown (https://ourworldindata.org/natural-disasters).

Ocean stratification is intensifying, primarily due to higher temperatures, but with a contribution from increased rainfall, which reduces salinity of the upper layers. Evidence from many parts of the world indicates a shoaling (shallowing) of the upper wind mixed layer [START_REF] Li | Increasing ocean stratification over the past half-century[END_REF], which is thought to be a precursor and possible trigger of El Niño [START_REF] Hasson | Northward pathway across the tropical North Pacific Ocean revealed by surface salinity: How do El Niño anomalies reach Hawaii[END_REF]. Shallow stratification is a feature of the warmest part of the ocean where SSTs are >29°C, the Western Pacific Warm Pool, an effect that has been enhanced by intense precipitation (Qu, 2013). In the contrasting colder waters of the Southern Ocean, shoaling of Upper Circumpolar Deep Water is increasing at up to three to 10 times faster than previously estimated with major potential consequences for melting of ice shelves and the scale of sea-level rise (Auger et al., 2020). Greater water stability also contributes to the increasing occurrence of marine heat waves [START_REF] Holbrook | A global assessment of marine heatwaves and their drivers[END_REF] that can have particularly pronounced impacts on ecosystems, for example, as now observed at the Great Barrier Reef [START_REF] Dietzel | Long-term shifts in the colony size structure of coral populations along the Great Barrier Reef[END_REF]. More stable waters also mean that less CO 2 can be taken up by the ocean due to increased stratification (Le [START_REF] Quéré | Natural processes regulating the oceanic uptake of CO 2[END_REF] and is a prime cause of increasing areas of low oxygen levels in many parts of the world [START_REF] Laffoley | Ocean deoxygenation: Everyone's problem. Causes, impacts, consequences, and solutions[END_REF]. Warming has also induced an acceleration in ocean circulation with substantial intensified warming in major western boundary currents and an extension towards the poles of ocean gyres reinforcing melting of polar ice [START_REF] Yang | Intensification and poleward shift of subtropical western boundary currents in a warming climate[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | Deep-reaching acceleration of global mean ocean circulation over the past two decades[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Poleward shift of the major ocean gyres detected in a warming climate[END_REF].

Thermal expansion of sea water due to increased heat content is a major contributor to sea-level rise (SLR) with [START_REF] Cheng | Upper Ocean Temperatures Hit Record High in 2020[END_REF] estimating that the total depth warming since 1960 corresponds to an increase of ~47 mm in global SLR (thermosteric sea level). Further thermal and other heatdriven increases in sea level, resulting from melting ice [START_REF] Grinsted | The transient sensitivity of sea level rise[END_REF] and reduced storage of water on land [START_REF] Kuo | Terrestrial water storage anomalies emphasize interannual variations in global mean sea level during 1997-1998 and 2015-2016 El Niño events[END_REF],are clearly on the horizon and require an urgent adaptation response from coastal communities.

The ocean moderates heating on land in areas adjacent to the sea through evaporation. Further afield in the centre of continents, low water content in the soil and air means that cooling from evaporation is limited. As a result land temperature is amplified compared to the ocean [START_REF] Tyrrell | The influence of global sea surface temperature variability on the large-scale land surface temperature[END_REF] and the land is warming one and a half times as fast as the ocean [START_REF] Byrne | Trends in continental temperature and humidity directly linked to ocean warming[END_REF] (1.4 to 1.7 times, IPCC 2021). The proximity of anomalously warm SST in the Northeast Pacific (a mini warm blob) coincided with the extreme air temperatures and forest fires in the Pacific Northwest of America in June/July/August 2021 as one consequence of high global temperature. In addition, an extreme heat wave of over 50°C occurred in June in several countries in the Middle East, and in Siberia and eastern Europe (but with lower relative temperatures). Reducing the warming of the ocean is crucial for the future of both marine and terrestrial ecosystems (O'Hara et al., 2021[START_REF] Beaugrand | Prediction of unprecedented biological shifts in the global ocean[END_REF][START_REF] Trisos | The projected timing of abrupt ecological disruption from climate change[END_REF] as well as the survival of humans, animals, and plants in the warmer summer months of continental and tropical regions [START_REF] Mora | Global risk of deadly heat[END_REF].

In El Niño years, the ocean releases large amounts of heat in the tropics high into the troposphere with resulting pronounced effects on weather, which in some extreme events causes a sharp increase in regional/global temperatures (Tyrell et al., 2015, Yin et al., 2017). Pronounced step-like increases in sea surface and atmospheric temperature occurred around 1986/87, 1997/8 and 2015/16 with knock-on effects. In 1987, it affected all earth systems (Reid et al. 2016) and such episodic effects continue to occur with the latest event being particularly pronounced [START_REF] Beaugrand | Prediction of unprecedented biological shifts in the global ocean[END_REF]Jones & Rickets, 2021, Yin et al., 2017[START_REF] Kuo | Terrestrial water storage anomalies emphasize interannual variations in global mean sea level during 1997-1998 and 2015-2016 El Niño events[END_REF]. The mean jump in global surface temperature over the three years 2014 to 2016 was almost a quarter of a degree C (0.24°C, [START_REF] Yin | Big jump of record warm global mean surface temperature in 2014-2016 related to unusually large oceanic heat releases[END_REF] with temperature remaining at a high level since this event and global mean sea level 2.5 times higher than in a previous extreme 1997-1998 El Niño, in part due to drought and low terrestrial water storage [START_REF] Kuo | Terrestrial water storage anomalies emphasize interannual variations in global mean sea level during 1997-1998 and 2015-2016 El Niño events[END_REF]. The temperature increase and associated changes led to extreme weather events, reduced carbon uptake, increased fire area and outbreaks of disease, plus major ecological consequences on land and in the ocean, including the largest and most extensive bleaching of coral reefs ever recorded [START_REF] Anyamba | Global Disease Outbreaks Associated with the 2015-2016 El Niño Event[END_REF][START_REF] Bastos | Impact of the 2015/2016 El Niño on the terrestrial carbon cycle constrained by bottom-up and top-down approaches[END_REF][START_REF] Burton | El Niño Driven Changes in Global Fire 2015/16[END_REF][START_REF] Claar | Global patterns and impacts of El Niño events on coral reefs: A meta-analysis[END_REF]. Given how much heat the ocean has already absorbed, any further increased output from or reduced input to the ocean would have a large impact on the rise of atmospheric temperature. At present, we do not fully know the causative factors behind the scale and frequency of major heat release events by El Niño to the atmosphere, but such events are projected to increase in frequency, magnitude, duration, and impact in the future with global warming (Yin et al. 2017).

The world appears to be warming and sea level rising at a much faster rate than anticipated [START_REF] Loeb | Satellite and ocean data reveal marked increase in Earth's heating rate[END_REF], Grinstead & Christensen, 2021). The only caveat is that it is not clear if this pattern will continue. The increased pace of change is in part a consequence of increased water content in the atmosphere reinforcing the global warming caused by higher levels of greenhouse gases (GHGs) plus marked reductions in sea-ice and cloud cover so that less of the sun's energy is reflected into space. It is unclear at present whether the buffering/mitigation of global surface temperature and the uptake of atmospheric CO2 by the ocean will continue at the same rate into the future, although the indications are that both will decline as cumulative CO2 emissions increase (IPCC 2021). Therefore, a key lesson is that reducing GHGs to stabilize global temperature is not the only factor that has to be considered and that their reduction alone will not reduce global ocean heat content or solve global warming.

Scale up solutions to an 'Earthscape level' -ambition must match the challenge.

Climate-change impacts are not equal across the planet, with the countries contributing less to greenhouse gas emissions often being the most vulnerable [START_REF] Thiault | Escaping the perfect storm of simultaneous climate change impacts on agriculture and marine fisheries[END_REF], thus increasing global economic inequality [START_REF] Diffenbaugh | Global warming has increased global economic inequality[END_REF]. Immediate implementation of agreed ambitious cuts in greenhouse gas emissions are needed but are insufficient alone to resolve the true scale of the problems we face.

The 'Earthscape approach' recognizes that there is a need to simultaneously address climate change impacts and reduce all cumulative direct and indirect stressors on marine ecosystems, achieved through evidence-based, integrated policy making at the supra-national level. This will need enhanced multilateralism, as well as better connected governance, public funding for adaptation, resilience and biodiversity protection, and innovative finance to support the recovery of nature on land, in freshwater, and the ocean, including in marine areas beyond national jurisdiction (ABNJ).

There is a growing global ambition to address the challenges of climate change but nothing that embeds the protection of the ocean within that ambition. That will require implementation of the current asks of leaders for at least 30% effective ocean protection with the remainder sustainably managed, including via an international treaty to protect marine biodiversity in ABNJ (including the high seas and international seabed). We can no longer afford to allow the few organizations and States benefiting from the status quo to delay the necessary actions to safeguard the common good. . This must be addressed through ambitious Earth-scale approaches and solutions that stimulate multi-level action in a measurable, transparent, and accountable fashion.

Accelerate and integrate the efficacy of climate/biodiversity actions to achieve a better return on investment.

Good progress has been achieved in recognizing issues that hinder nature and climate recovery with many associated policies and targets. However, the policies are often poorly implemented as they hit economic or social barriers, with siloed thinking that separates biodiversity and climate policy also hampering action and delivery [START_REF] Pettorelli | Time to integrate global climate change and biodiversity science-policy agendas[END_REF][START_REF] Portner | IPBES-IPCC co-sponsored workshop report on biodiversity and climate change[END_REF]Shin et al., submitted GCB).

As of 2021, less than 3% of the global ocean has sufficient protection within Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) to deliver strong conservation benefits (Grorud-Kolvert et al., 2021), despite an agreed global target of 10% coverage by 2020. This is in sharp contrast to the at least 30% of the ocean in highly or fully protected MPAs called for by the scientific community (World Parks Congress, 2014). Since the target proposal for at least 30% high or full protection was first discussed in 2003 [START_REF] Gell | Benefits beyond boundaries: the fishery effects of marine reserves and fishery closures[END_REF], the scientific case in support has strengthened but ocean damage has continued. Given the continued losses in biodiversity and ecosystem services [START_REF] Ipbes | Summary for policymakers of the global assessment report on biodiversity and ecosystem services of the Intergovernmental Science-Policy Platform on Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services[END_REF], some experts such as E.O. Wilson now argue that at least 50% 'half Earth' protection is needed as a new minimum target ( https://www.half-earthproject.org/, [START_REF] Dinerstein | An ecoregion-based approach to protecting half the terrestrial realm[END_REF]. To avoid creating 'islands of hope in a sea of despair', there is an urgent need for the delivery of effective management of activities across the whole ocean outside of MPAs to achieve true sustainability. There is broad consensus in the scientific community (Grorud-Kolvert et al., 2021) and growing political understanding (The Blue Leaders) that by 2030 at least 30% of the global ocean should be within fully or highly protected areas with the remaining 70% sustainably managed and with an ambition to achieve 50% overall protection in the following decades.

The carbon cycle links biodiversity and climate. Blue carbon coastal wetlands (i.e. saltmarshes, mangroves, and seagrasses) have high carbon storage rates while sustaining diversity. However, huge amounts of carbon are also stored naturally in the open ocean and deep sea, and there is unrealized potential to use MPAs to maintain carbon stocks, support the Paris Agreement, contribute to efforts to reduce maritime nations' emissions, and mitigate the impacts of climate change. A new way of thinking and acting is needed where MPAs are implemented both for biodiversity values but also to retain carbon sequestered in natural systems [START_REF] Roberts | Marine reserves can mitigate and promote adaptation to climate change[END_REF].

Solutions for the future lie in a better linkage between policy and action across the land, freshwater, and ocean divide, and in ensuring we think in terms of an ecologically coherent, interconnected network of sites that are established and managed in ways that promote ecological and climatechange resilience, with corridors between sites established across latitudinal ranges that can accommodate species that will need to shift their ranges due to climate effects such as warming seas. Thus, stationary protected areas must be complemented by wider measures to protect migratory marine life within its current and projected future range (Ortuno Crespo et al., 2020;[START_REF] Maxwell | Mobile protected areas for biodiversity on the high seas[END_REF]. New thinking, governance, and management systems will be needed to protect ecological space in the ocean both within and outside the current MPAs as species' distributions and environmental quality changes in response to climatic disruption.

Integrating MPA designation and management with the objective of carbon storage is a simple step that many nations could take now by improving communication between government ministries and broadening thinking from single (e.g., biodiversity protection) to multi-objective management measures. Coordinating the implementation of MPA management plans as a core element of climate adaptation and mitigation (as Chile has done in their recent NDC) would improve the way environmental policy is applied, increasing 'value for money' and transparency [START_REF] Roberts | Climate change mitigation and nature conservation both require higher protected area targets[END_REF].

Drive ocean recovery and restoration through enhanced global cooperation and momentum

The latest IPCC report (IPCC, 2021) states that it is unequivocal that human influence has warmed the ocean, resulting in widespread and rapid changes, with further increases in global surface temperature until at least the mid-century under all emissions scenarios. Due to past and future greenhouse gas emissions, such changes are irreversible for centuries to millennia, particularly in relation to the ocean, ice sheets, and global sea level (IPCC, 2021). However, there are still limitations in our understanding on how extreme climatic events affect biological processes, ecosystem functioning, and capacity for adaptation [START_REF] Pettorelli | Time to integrate global climate change and biodiversity science-policy agendas[END_REF][START_REF] Ummenhofer | Extreme weather and climate events with ecological relevance: A review[END_REF] and some climate intervention measures, including some nature-based solutions, might even threaten biodiversity [START_REF] Seddon | Understanding the value and limits of nature-based solutions to climate change and other global challenges[END_REF].

Many carbon-sequestering marine habitats have been decimated by human activity, increasingly exacerbated by extreme weather events. Up to 30% of mangroves have been lost through degradation and deforestation over the last 50 years (Polidoro et al., 2010), with land use change to aquaculture and agriculture being the major driver [START_REF] Goldberg | Global declines in human-driven mangrove loss[END_REF]. Losses have slowed to an average of 0.13% per year, but with high regional variation [START_REF] Goldberg | Global declines in human-driven mangrove loss[END_REF]. The disturbance and loss of seagrass habitats is much higher (7% per year) which can result in increased carbon emissions [START_REF] Salinas | Seagrass losses since mid-20th century fuelled CO 2 emissions from soil carbon stocks[END_REF]. Active restoration of marine habitats provides a mechanism to recover marine life that could be achieved over one to three decades [START_REF] Duarte | Rebuilding marine life[END_REF] for the benefit of people and nature and to achieve global goals. Mangrove restoration, including the reversion of aquaculture ponds, can restore ecosystem services [START_REF] Duncan | Multiple ecosystem services delivery in rehabilitated mangroves: a case study on the relative benefits of abandoned pond reversion from Panay Island, Philippines[END_REF] and meet climate change, biodiversity conservation and sustainable development objectives [START_REF] Su | A meta-analysis of the ecological and economic outcomes of mangrove restoration[END_REF]. Seagrass restoration is still relatively new, but with an increasing number of successful case studies this has the potential to be scaled-up in significant ways [START_REF] Tan | Seagrass Restoration Is Possible: Insights and Lessons from Australia and New Zealand[END_REF]. The lack of a global inventory of total restored area is a current knowledge gap [START_REF] Duarte | Rebuilding marine life[END_REF] that could hamper progress in understanding the impact of restoration efforts and setting recovery targets to mitigate climate change.

Initiatives to drive the required ecosystem recovery and restoration need enhanced global cooperation and momentum, a key driver of the UN Decade on Ecosystem Restoration (2021 -2030). The COVID-19 pandemic has highlighted our broken relationship with nature (Petrovan et al., 2021) but brought together governments, scientists, and industry into new and stronger collaborations. There are important lessons that can be applied from the COVID-19 pandemic to the global climate crisis, including the costs of delay, biases of human judgement, value judgements at the science-policy interface, and the multiple forms of international cooperation required [START_REF] Klenert | Five Lessons from COVID-19 for Advancing Climate Change Mitigation[END_REF]. It is increasingly apparent that as global inequality rises due to climate change and consequences are felt disproportionately, tackling this effectively and fairly will require better understanding of social and behavioural drivers such as morals [START_REF] Lau | Morals and climate decision-making: insights from social and behavioural sciences[END_REF], ethics, and justice (Byskov et al., 2019). For example, the 'polluter pays principle' recognizes environmental and social injustices [START_REF] Roberts | A climate of injustice: Global inequality, north-south politics, and climate policy[END_REF]), yet must itself be implemented fairly [START_REF] Zahar | The Polluter Pays Principle and its Ascendancy in Climate Change Law[END_REF].

Recovery, restoration, mitigation, and intervention policies and actions must have clearly identified objectives and a means to assess both their efficacy and effectiveness. Bold decisions need to be taken now so that present and future generations can benefit progressively. It is urgent as year on year the likelihood of a successful outcome, where climate change is halted and ultimately reversed and the balance of nature is restored, is reduced as greater disruption from climate change and the loss of nature and the services it provides intensifies.

Highlight the connection between nature and global economics -value the ocean's natural capital to invest in all our futures.

The recent Dasgupta report for the UK Government [START_REF] Dasgupta | The Economics of Biodiversity: The Dasgupta Review[END_REF] demonstrated the need to put nature front and centre in global economics. The ocean's natural capital is vast and deep and ocean services are often taken for granted, used for free, with their damage unrecognized and uncompensated [START_REF] Baker | Natural Capital and Exploitation of the Deep Ocean[END_REF]. The ocean urgently needs comprehensive natural capital accounting [START_REF] Bertram | The blue carbon wealth of nations[END_REF] and imaginative and effective funding and financing mechanisms to support ocean biodiversity and climate action by all nations [START_REF] Sumaila | Ocean finance: Financing the transition to a sustainable ocean economy[END_REF][START_REF] Thiele | Innovative financing for the high seas[END_REF]. Crucially, in an age of global connectivity [START_REF] Arvis | Global Connectivity and Export Performance[END_REF], everyone must work together to ensure that a sustainable blue economy based on the Sustainable Blue Economy Finance Principles (UNEP-FI, 2020) not only prevents any further damage and destruction of ecosystems and underlying services, but also restores and improves ocean health locally and globally. Nature-based solutions require new integrated, equitable, and just finance and insurance mechanisms that support the biosphere including people [START_REF] Miller | Cutting a lifeline to maritime crime: marine insurance and IUU fishing[END_REF][START_REF] Deutz | Financing Nature: Closing the global biodiversity financing gap[END_REF].

A greater awareness of the importance of a healthy ocean to human welfare is needed to help support the financing of ocean action (Fleming et al., 2020). Since only an estimated 1% of the contribution of economic impact are devoted to protecting the ocean currently [START_REF] Sumaila | Financing a sustainable ocean economy[END_REF], there is an urgent need to increase public funding of adaptation, resilience, and biodiversity targets as well as overall support for the uptake of nature-based solutions in infrastructure finance [START_REF] Thiele | Blue Infrastructure Finance: A new approach, integrating Nature-based Solutions for coastal resilience[END_REF]. The present funding gap is not only a result of a lack of understanding of the ecosystem service values of the ocean [START_REF] Austen | Valuing Marine Ecosystems -Taking into account the value of ecosystem benefits in the Blue Economy[END_REF] or the poor financing of ocean services themselves [START_REF] Sumaila | Financing a sustainable ocean economy[END_REF], we also need to improve understanding and appreciation of values and benefits other than in strictly monetary terms when considering priorities and weighing tradeoffs [START_REF] Allison | The Human Relationship with Our Ocean Planet[END_REF]. The reward for action should not simply be measured in terms of financial benefit but also in less tangible and more important services such as global resilience, human well-being, and sustainability.

The emerging regulatory architecture for financing a more sustainable world includes the net zero investment framework (IIGCC, 2021) and the broader green, climate, and transition finance approach (EU, 2020). This now needs to be urgently supplemented with a nature-based risk assessment process that ensures net biodiversity positive outcomes and fully includes marine ecosystems and effective protection and management of the ocean. The Taskforce for Naturerelated Disclosures (TFND, 2021) provides an important opportunity to deliver a framework for mandatory disclosures and should include marine ecosystem impacts from the start.

Facilitating private-sector engagement, and innovative finance for conservation, ocean risk management, and blue natural capital will be key to addressing the global-scale biodiversity investment challenge. The Finance in Common Declaration (2020) of the leading public development banks rightly commits them to ocean funding and post-2020 CBD alignment. These ambitions need to be translated into quantifiable goals and action to be fully implemented in this decade. COP 26 is a major opportunity to make this happen.

Stop support for activities that damage the ocean -redirect incentives to positive outcomes for the planet.

One of the most obvious things that can be done to 'build forward better' is to stop financially supporting human activities that are clearly highly damaging to the ocean [START_REF] Sumaila | A bottom-up re-estimation of global fisheries subsidies[END_REF][START_REF] Lubchenco | The right incentives enable ocean sustainability successes and provide hope for the future[END_REF]. The burden of cost should be reversed so that payments are made for activities that damage ocean ecosystems. The costs of those payments should be set at levels that help to prohibit damaging actions being introduced in the future. It is ironic that humanity knows the many ways to respond to the climate and biodiversity crises but continues to pursue more extractive pressures and harmful actions year-after-year. At the same time governments and insurers bemoan the costs of recovery measures from damage but procrastinate and provide inadequate support for delivering recovery, whilst still subsidising more damage to occur (e.g., perverse fishery subsidies). Science has, for example, already extensively documented the damage that fishing with bottom trawls and dredges causes to marine ecosystems (e.g. [START_REF] Watling | Disturbance of the Seabed by Mobile Fishing Gear: A Comparison to Forest Clearcutting[END_REF][START_REF] Kaiser | Significance of Bottom-Fishing disturbance[END_REF]. Ocean life is fragile and should not be sacrificed to maximize short-term profits for a small number of companies and countries. As one descends deeper into the ocean, species become increasingly longlived (e.g. some deep-water coral colonies are over 4,200 years old) [START_REF] Roark | Extreme longevity in proteinaceous deep-sea corals[END_REF] and are therefore highly vulnerable to the impacts of activities such as deep-sea fisheries [START_REF] Hall-Spencer | Trawling damage to Northeast Atlantic ancient coral reefs[END_REF]Norse et al., 2012). The first pass of a net causes the most damage, removing the largest and oldest creatures. This removal is often forever, as recovery is rare or non-existent on human timescales. What science has yet to do is assess the full cost of this damage, in terms of carbon release, loss of future carbon sequestration, and loss of medical treatments (e.g. antibiotics) and genetic resources (but see [START_REF] Sala | Protecting the global ocean for biodiversity, food and climate[END_REF].

To prevent further deterioration, restraint is necessary: all fishery subsidies that contribute to overfishing and illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing should be stopped (Sumaila et al., 2019). Commercial trawl and dredge fisheries should be banned in all MPAs and on 'vulnerable marine ecosystems' (VMEs), as described by UNGA (2007) and UNGA (2009) worldwide.

Future sources of massive seabed disruption, such as deep-seabed mining, should be prohibited [START_REF] Niner | Deep-Sea Mining With No Net Loss of Biodiversity-An Impossible Aim[END_REF][START_REF] Levin | Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining[END_REF]. Deep-seabed mining is too great a risk in an already stressed ocean [START_REF] Washburn | Ecological risk assessment for deep-sea mining[END_REF]). As with deep-sea bottom trawl fishing, mining threatens highly vulnerable and ancient forms of marine life. Furthermore, seabed mining could harm human life by introducing toxins into seafood through discharges of mineral laden plumes into the water column, thereby undermining the transition to a Sustainable Blue Economy (REF? [START_REF] Drazen | [END_REF][START_REF] Levin | Challenges to the sustainability of deep-seabed mining[END_REF].

Given that transitioning away from fossil-fuel use is essential to help solve the climate crisis, there should also be an immediate ban on the granting of new offshore oil and gas exploration and production licences, and a rapid phasing out of current offshore oil and gas extraction. Financial regulators can play an important role here by integrating climate-related risk analysis into financial stability monitoring [START_REF] Bolton | The green swan. Central banking and financial stability in the age of climate change[END_REF], through implementation of a compulsory sustainable finance taxonomy such as the one put in place by the European Union Taxonomy Climate Delegated Act (EU, 2021) as well as through their own funding processes.

Deliver the science we need for a healthy, productive, and resilient ocean that considers, benefits and inspires humankind as a whole

Underpinning the previous five imperatives is the need to continually improve the science on which decisions are made and to broaden engagement within the global community to contribute to both knowledge creation and its application to management [START_REF] Claudet | A Roadmap for using the UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development in Support of Science, Policy, and Action[END_REF][START_REF] Bennett | Advancing Social Equity in and Through Marine Conservation[END_REF]. This science needs to proceed in a transdisciplinary way (e.g. Syndall et al., 2021) and target actions that are effective and fair. Most importantly, we must better understand the needs and priorities of ocean-dependent peoples and evaluate potential solutions for them [START_REF] Singh | Opinion: Will understanding the ocean lead to "the ocean we want[END_REF]. This includes recognising the need to integrate climate, fisheries and food policies to those most vulnerable to food and nutrition security (Maire et al., 2021). At the same time, we need to better communicate the diversity of knowledge we already have (e.g. indigenous, scientific, traditional),

show what the problems are and the transformative paths needed to address them today to safeguard our future.

To keep pace with accelerating ocean change and cumulative effects of stressors, we must constantly improve our understanding of ocean processes and rapidly translate these findings and other forms of knowledge into informed decision-making, based both on precautionary and proactive initiatives. We also need to ensure that these efforts are inclusive, open, just, and foster partnerships, capacity, and connections at all scales.

The United Nations Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development, or 'UN Ocean Decade' (UN Ocean Decade https://oceandecade.org) provides a vital opportunity for all the nations of the world to join forces to better understand ocean change, its implications for humanity and ocean life, and to foster informed decision making and action around the globe. Together nations have a great capacity and, with it, the responsibility to champion this global effort.

The UN Ocean Decade provides a broad platform to bolster scientific research and innovative technologies to ensure science responds to the needs of society focused around seven outcomes [START_REF] Ryabinin | The UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development[END_REF]:

• A clean ocean where sources of pollution are identified and removed.

• A healthy and resilient ocean where marine ecosystems are mapped and protected.

• A predictable ocean where society has the capacity to understand current and future ocean conditions. • A safe ocean where people are protected from ocean hazards.

• A sustainably harvested ocean that ensures the provision of food supply.

• A transparent ocean with open access to data, information, and technologies.

• An inspiring and engaging ocean where society understands and values the ocean.

Core natural and social science needed to help inform policy makers on successfully integrating initiatives that address both the consequences of climate change and biodiversity loss can be defined and implemented as part of the UN Ocean Decade. Far greater efforts and support is required to understand ocean ecosystems and climate impacts in poorly understood realms such as the open ocean, midwater column, and deep-sea floor, as well as coastal habitats and communities.

The UN Ocean Decade is a tremendous opportunity to advance the knowledge and management needed for a healthy, productive, and resilient ocean, yet far greater governmental and private investment and support are crucial if it is to achieve its outcomes for the benefit of all. Now is the time to engage in and support the Ocean Decade if we are to meet the constantly evolving needs of ocean and coastal zone communities, decision-makers, and managers in the face of a rapid change and accelerating pressures now and into the future.

Conclusion

As the world builds forward better with a greater interest than ever before in nature's recovery, better mechanisms are needed to track and understand progress [START_REF] Adams | Indicators keep progress honest: A call to track both the quantity and quality of protected areas[END_REF]. Educationally we need to support and boost public understanding of the value of the natural world and its links to human wellbeing [START_REF] Kelly | Connecting to the oceans: supporting ocean literacy and public engagement[END_REF]. A more inclusive, equitable and transparent narrative is required to explain why and how the ocean is important to life on earth [START_REF] Bennett | Navigating a just and inclusive path towards sustainable oceans[END_REF] and this should be grounded in the needs and perspectives of local communities and Indigenous Peoples who depend on the ocean [START_REF] Bennett | Advancing Social Equity in and Through Marine Conservation[END_REF]. Indigenous Peoples and local communities act as managers in many diversity hotspots (IPBES, 2019) and possess knowledge that recognizes the value of the ocean [START_REF] Eckert | Linking marine conservation and Indigenous cultural revitalization: First Nations free themselves from externally imposed social-ecological traps[END_REF]. As many are reliant on the same ocean that has traditionally been designated for protection a 'shared ocean approach' could provide a legitimate framework for locally relative but globally applicable action [START_REF] Obura | Integrate biodiversity targets from local to global levels[END_REF].

Vast changes are needed to improve how success is measured and reported, and who participates in this assessment (Woodcock et al., 2016) and at which spatial scale. This will make it easier to see and celebrate successes, to identify where more action or support is needed, and to effectively develop the initiatives that are most appropriate for a specific context. Sadly, in 2021 there is still much to be done to implement a single transparent system to track conservation (protective and management practices) and stress-inducing activities (resources extraction) on the global ocean. If we are serious about navigating toward a sustainable ocean, then more expansive education opportunities, inclusive narrative and equitable decision-making, and improved reporting systems on how we are acting to protect our natural world are desperately needed.

By committing to targets of protection and restoration, and the resources to meet these globally, nations at COP26 can start to develop the immediate action that is required to reverse the decline in ocean services that have resulted from the consequences of climate change and actions that have caused biodiversity loss. COP26 is well placed to support this as the UNFCCC has 197 parties, more than the UN Convention on Law of the Sea with 168 parties, or most other international instruments. The challenge of climate change is a whole world challenge, affecting all services provided by the ocean -from temperature regulation and food provisioning to the provision of water and carbon cycles, and national security. Everyone, including those from landlocked countries, has a vested interest in the health of the ocean and its ability to continue to provide the services that make this planet habitable.

Under the auspices of the Paris Agreement, states can build holistic climate-and biodiversity-friendly ocean protections into their Nationally Determined Contributions, National Adaptation Plans, into the Article 6 rulebook, and into accelerated climate ambition. The Global Stocktake can include metrics that link the health of the ocean to the health of the planet. The UNFCCC Ocean and Climate Change Dialogue, endorsed at COP25 and initiated in 2020, identified the need for transdisciplinary international dialogue on the ocean and climate change in the realms of collaborative science, finance, and policy (SBSTA, 2020;Dobush et al., in review). The BBNJ treaty, with sufficient leadership and ambition during these final stages of its negotiation, can provide the framework for ensuring complimentary action in ABNJ to build ocean and institutional resilience [START_REF] Yadav | The ocean, climate change and resilience: Making ocean areas beyond national jurisdiction more resilient to climate change and other anthropogenic activities[END_REF]. To maintain momentum, the COP26 negotiators should endorse and sustain an ongoing Ocean Dialogue and adopt an Ocean Agenda item to prioritize ocean action. Underpinning all of this must be the stepping up of inclusive, collaborative and equitable research and monitoring in ocean science for the future that addresses the climate and biodiversity challenges together.

There is already sufficient evidence to know that we must act now, and experience shows initiatives will need to take the form of a suite of actions with long-term obligations. By addressing these issues in a moral, equitable and multidisciplinary manner, the people in regions disproportionately enduring the greatest impacts from climate change and biodiversity loss (e.g. tropical countries (Sumaila et al., 2019) can be supported by those who are yet to experience the same, who all have 'common but different responsibilities' (The United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change). The UN Decade of Ocean Science for Sustainable Development provides a framework for actions, targets, and metrics to measure success and while potential threats (e.g. deep-Sea mining) are yet to be realised, there is a good opportunity to engage with action to support the ocean and the benefits derived by humans from it. As the ocean is vital to all life on earth, COP26 is the opportunity to commit to actions, which will provide a promise of a healthy planet for both current and future generations.