Caroline Jouneau-Sion

Eric Sanchez
email: eric.sanchez@usherbrooke.ca

Lycée Germaine

Keywords: Web 2.0, participatory culture, challenges. Teacher's professional identity. future of education

est destinée au dépôt

Web 2.0 is now entering schools. More and more teachers allow their students to use Facebook to carry out collaborative work or to stay connected as "friends", to get information from Wikipedia during school time, to display school projects on weblogs and to communicate with Twitter. As Web 2.0 applications allow users to do more than just retrieve information, they meet the need schools have for a digital participatory culture in the 21th century [START_REF] Jenkins | Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education For the 21st Century[END_REF]. However, letting students use social networks at school or to freely access and display information can be a source of problems for teachers. How can educators deal with the use of a participatory web, interactive contents and virtual communities? What questions should be addressed to face the reality of a digital society?

Schools now have to face new challenges. This paper aims at highlighting four of them and at proposing some orientations for the future of education.

First challenge: Trust!

Web 2.0 offers the opportunity to open classrooms to the world by allowing students to get real-time information and to find instant answers to most of the questions that can be addressed by a teacher. Moreover, Web 2.0 is a way to produce and to display information; for example, by using Twitter to interview a personality, by publishing the interview with Facebook, by writing a post for a weblog or by participating to the writing of a Wikipedia article. However, digital and social media sometimes lead to irrelevant or unacceptable uses such as videotaping teachers or classmates and publishing the video on Youtube, texting with a cellphone during school time, cheating or plagiarism. Educators have to face the challenge of being able to control bad practices without preventing useful learning uses. They need to manage to keep students' attention and to protect them from bad content. Many schools try to solve the problems caused by Web 2.0 technologies with injunctions, filters and blacklists. But these protections are easily by-passed by students with proxies and 3G networks and educators have to run an endless race with newly released technologies.

However, some teachers have started to think differently and to experiment with another way of dealing with these problems. For example, in a primary school from the north of France 1 , the pupils (6-7 years old) of JR Masson's class microblog with Twitter. They write the news of the day in 140 characters, they play chess with another "twitter-class", solve a riddle sent by a Twitter follower and try to answer philosophical questions. This alternative approach is based on trust. The teacher has to trust in his pupils and accept that they are free to decide whether the content of their microblogging is relevant or not, whilst parents must trust the teacher because Twitter links pupils to unknown adults. Dealing with this risk is quite similar to other social spaces. Firstly, educators must discuss with students the rules that they want to apply. These rules have to be clear enough to be understood by all (i.e. both students themselves and their parents). Secondly, these rules have to be flexible enough to fit usual teaching practices, especially concerning Internet access and web publication.

Therefore, it is important to foster the digital media literacy of parents, children and educators. One challenge to face is managing to open a safe-zone where everybody shares common deontic norms.

Second challenge: the teacher's professional identity

As digital and social networks allow one to ask questions and get answers without delay, relationship of students with knowledge is now changing. Web 2.0 technologies allow youths to participate in networks and to share knowledge and "expertise", while new media are altering how youths learn and socialize [START_REF] Ito | Living and Learning with New Media: Summary of Findings from the Digital Youth Project[END_REF][START_REF] Lenhart | Teens, Video Games and Civics Pew Internet and American Life Project[END_REF]. In this context, students are not necessarily ready to continue accepting a school model based on a pyramidal organisation where knowledge comes from experts. Thus, a growing gap separates youth digital culture from the mainly academic school culture [START_REF] Bonfils | Dispositifs socio-techniques et mondes persistants : Quelles médiations pour quelle communication dans un contexte situé[END_REF]. This raise the question of teacher identity in the 21st century.

When teenagers play online multiplayer games, or when they share and remix web content, they collaborate to reach a common objective. Web 2.0 is fundamentally interactive and collaborative. As a result, Web 2.0 can foster team-work skills. Moreover, collaborative skills are essential to living in the digital world and to dealing with the ever-complexifying problems faced by modern societies. Schools should thus prepare students to collaborative team-work and there are many ways to do so. For example, teachers can organize collaborative writing with Etherpad (a collaborative text editing web app), ask students to prepare a joint project with a wiki or to share documents with Dropbox (a shared online folder), Google Docs or one of the numerous tools available online for free Despite the availability of information, students need to be able to evaluate the reliability of the answers that they get from the Internet. Of course, books, lectures and lessons have always contained errors but, for most people, it was difficult to spot them. Within the digital society, students can easily have access to different historical or scientific interpretations, thus bringing them to question the models conveyed in the classroom. They can identify multiple opinions and contradictions, but they don't necessarily have the key to deciding whether a piece of information is relevant. "By its nature, the Internet rewards critically comparing multiple sources of information, individually incomplete, and collectively inconsistent. This predicament encourages learning based on seeking, sieving, and synthesizing, rather than on assimilating a single validated source of knowledge as from books, television, or a professor's lectures" [START_REF] Dieterle | Neomillennial" learning styles propagated by wireless handheld devices[END_REF]. The effects of these changes on the teacher's professional identity are very important. Teaching thus becomes less about providing relevant information and more about helping students retrieve, shape and assess information by themselves. Starting from this, what does it mean to be a 21st century teacher?

There is a need for the renewal of pedagogy. Chalk and talk do not fit the expectations of the students anymore. The teacher now has to accompany his students in their learning process, to teach them how to handle information, to criticize it, to shape it and to communicate it, without being reduced to being a tutor who executes technical tasks to develop the skills of the students. As an engineer, he/she is responsible for designing complex learning situations that permit the students to choose their own strategy for learning. He/she must therefore master the core concepts of his/her discipline and design motivating projects that lead students to using the concepts that they have to learn and to helping students develop relevant skills. The teacher also has to help his/her students to find answers by themselves and he/she has to be able to assess the different strategies followed by the students and provide feedback. Furthermore, he/she still has to encourage them and he/she is responsible for equity and ethics in the classroom. The teacher is still the expert in his/her field of knowledge and he/she has a crucial role in helping the students become aware of the implicit knowledge that they use to solve a specific problem by making the learning explicit and, therefore, making its transfer to other contexts possible. They have to permit their students to take initiative and thus, they face unexpected situations. In this way, the role of teachers becomes more and more complex and multifaceted. As a result, teacher training is crucial to help them to be prepared for the complexity of the task.

Third challenge: keeping the control of the timetable

Web 2.0 also changes the relationship with time as teachers and students can stay connected after school via emails, weblogs, Twitter or Facebook. As it has been argued that permitting school staff to interact with students increases the risk of sexual misconduct, some school boards are drafting policies that dictate how school staff can interact with students via new networks and technologies. For example, teachers and other employees from the state of Virginia are not allowed "to use personal wireless communications devices to "text" students and are prohibited from interacting one-on-one with students through personal online social-networking sites" 2 . However, more and more teachers accept to stay connected with students via emails or online platforms and the border between private time and professional time, which has always been blurry for teachers, is now disappearing. The increasing time devoted to online students' coaching after school time has to be taken into account. One can wonder if the use of Web 2.0 tools to text messages to parents, to coach students via Skype, MSN or Moodle or to comment students' blog entries should now be considered as a part of the teacher's work. Educational institutions try to encourage the use of ICT by improving infrastructures and enabling access to teaching and learning resources, but much more attention should be paid to take into account the meaning of the use of ICT in terms of professional identity of teachers.

In addition, the school timetable is still based on a model designed for monodisciplinary content and individual learning. As this model is now changing, the timetable has to be changed too. Web 2.0 tools allow students to perform complex activities that encompass both individual (i.e. seeking, sieving, and synthesizing information) and collective (i.e. cooperation, collaboration) tasks. Pedagogies based on a competency approach, such as Project-Based Learning, that bring the student to perform complex tasks (thus developing autonomy and high-level skills) take time. In a previous work related to a pretend game dedicated to land-use management and sustainable development [START_REF] Sanchez | Designing a pretend game with geotechnologies: toward active citizenship[END_REF], we described how students had to mobilize geography and science concepts, communicate with experts and local authorities, carry out fieldwork to get real data, use a Geographical Information System to process this data and prepare a video to communicate their findings. Such projects do not fit the official curriculum and schools timetables need reorganization to encourage this kind of collaborative learning.

On the other hand, Web 2.0 tools permit short school activities. Indeed, students benefit from instant access to information and an easy way to communicate. For example, in 45 minutes, secondary students can compare the same information (about the political changes in Egypt, for example) displayed by Twitter, TV and newspapers' websites. A primary student needs less than 10 minutes to text a short message in a foreign language to the whole class. Due to the diversity of school activities permitted by Web 2.0 tools, schools need a tailored and flexible timetable suited to learning situations based on social network use. Already, some schools have decided to shift to a Web 2.0 timetable. For example, in the School of the Future of Philadelphia, the teachers choose the classroom timetable every three months. Each period is devoted to a theme. The students are encouraged to use a multidisciplinary approach as each theme is studied during science, history, geography, literature or philosophy courses. Moreover, students are involved in various classroom settings. Sometimes a single teacher gives a one-hour course, sometimes students are involved in team-work with two teachers during two or three hours and sometimes each class of students can be divided into two or three groups where students are involved in different activities according to their individual needs. This organisation has an impact on the work of teachers, as they are expected to be available during the whole week, to be flexible and to accept to work together. Moreover, time is also a matter of rhythm and delay in which everybody is concerned. What is the acceptable delay a student can wait when he/she asks a question to his/her teacher? How many times a day is a teacher supposed to check his/her emails? Every business day? Twice a day? Due to the possibility of establishing new relationships with students and families, many teachers are frightened of losing control of their agenda. This stems mostly from the fact that the rules to communicate with Web 2.0 tools are not clear enough; new norms and standards of communication have to be settled.

Fourth challenge: ethics

As Web 2.0 tools are user-centred designed, usually available for free and easy to use, teachers are tempted to register their students without asking their permission. Nevertheless, it is important to take into account the ethical dimension of leaving personal data on the Internet. Firstly, personal data is recorded by private companies that are mostly motivated by business rather than education. This data encompasses at least names and email address, often sex, date of birth and students interests. Secondly, resources produced by students can be stored for a long time on a website and can participate in shaping their digital identity. For example, files are stored on Google Docs services and articles published by students remain on Facebook or weblogs. Few teachers read the General Conditions of Use of websites or consider children's copyrights. Indeed, students are considered the authors of the resources they produce and their work cannot be published without their authorisation. As a result, teachers ought to choose tools that respect the rights of users, by ensuring that data will not be used for commercial purposes and do not expose the children to advertisement. That is why, in some countries and especially in France, educational boards prefer to develop specific tools designed for educational purposes. Environnements Numériques de Travail (Digital Working Platforms) are such tools that permit both to share, communicate and store data within the school community. Those tools are secured by logins and passwords and access is limited to the school community members 3 . However, one can argue that offering students a secured space is not the right way to prepare them to facing the wild Web 2.0 era. Moreover, if a school is considered as an isolated world, students cannot benefit from authentic experiences and cannot develop relationships with experts or peers from other schools.

Conclusion

A recent report from the European commission underlines that "Educational systems should [ ] take into account the fact that new technologies can create an empowerment culture, which puts the learner at the centre of the learning process. Otherwise, there is the risk that education policies and systems become irrelevant for students' real and future needs" (Cachia, Ferrari, Ala-Mutka, & Punie, 2010). Nevertheless, integrating the participative Internet into school is a great challenge as there is a need for radical changes in terms of the professional identity of teachers, school organization, new rules and new relationships in school. These changes cannot result from dogmatic innovation (i.e. a rigid top-down process which aims at encouraging teachers to introduce new technologies into their practices). These changes will result from a participatory process in which educators, students and their parents will engage. Therefore, it will be possible to imagine the future of education for 21st century citizens.

1 http://twitter.com/classe_masson 2 Virginia poised to ban student -teachers texting and Facebooking, January 9, 2011, http://www.readwriteweb.com/archives/virginia_poised_to_ban_teacher-student_texting_fac.php 3 As an example, Lilie is one of what is called ENT in France http://lilie.iledefrance.fr

Biography

Caroline Jouneau-Sion is a secondary history and geography teacher. She is involved in research & development projects into the uses of Information and Communication Technology for secondary education. She is also president of e.l@b a teachers association and network which aims at imagine the future of education for the digital society.

Eric Sanchez is professor at the faculty of education of the University of Sherbrooke, QC (Canada) and assistant professor at École Normale Supérieur de Lyon (France). His research work concerns the uses of Information and Communication Technology for educational purposes (elearning, simulation, serious games).

Copyright

This work is licensed under the Creative Commons Attribution-NonCommercial-NoDerivative Works 3.0 unported License. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/.[


Eric Sanchez
email: eric.sanchez@usherbrooke.ca

When games meet learning

Keywords: Serious Games, Information and Communication Technologies, Game-Based Learning, illstructured problems, complexity

. This paper examines the arguments and objections to using games for educational purposes. Firstly, we state that making a connection between gaming and learning is not an innovative idea, as early researchers demonstrated the potential of games in child development. Secondly, we establish arguments to consider serious games as learning environments, (or didactical situations) prior to artifacts, Thirdly, in view of the fact that the content of games can be considered as metaphors of real situations, we stipulate that teachers may address the question of the relevance of this content. Fourthly, we discuss the main arguments usually emphasized by researchers to consider that games have the power to motivate students, Fifthly, we state that games can be considered as a space of reflexivity where the learner/player is autonomous and develops skills. However, we emphasize the crucial role of the teacher in a Game-Based Learning approach.

INTRODUCTION

Digital natives, Net Generation, Y Generation, C Generation... many terms are used to qualify youths who were born in a world where digital technologies -especially the Internet -are of a great importance. These terms issue from a huge body of studies that focus on youth digital culture and that illustrate a wide consensus which considers that new media are altering how youths learn and socialize [START_REF] Cefrio | Les "C" en tant que citoyens[END_REF][START_REF] Ito | Living and Learning with New Media: Summary of Findings from the Digital Youth Project[END_REF][START_REF] Lenhart | Teens, Video Games and Civics Pew Internet and American Life Project[END_REF]. They also demonstrate that teachers face a new audience, one engaged in gaming, multitasking and social networking. Indeed, digital natives use the Internet to create content, share knowledge and expertise, consume cultural goods or remix existing material [START_REF] Jenkins | Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education For the 21st Century[END_REF]. However, schools are focused on training autonomous problem-solvers, whereas there is a growing need for teamwork and collaboration skills in multidisciplinary networks to solve the problems faced by our more and more complex world. Thus, a growing gap separates youth digital culture from the mainly academic school culture. There is also a gap between how youths are educated and the new and complex challenges faced by human beings, which educators ought to take into account.

Within this context it has been advocated that Game-Based Learning should be considered as an alternative pedagogy adapted to new learners and different initiatives have been taken to promote the uses of serious games in schools or universities [START_REF] Wastiau | How are digital games used in schools?[END_REF]. Indeed, games meet learning and a growing body of research addresses questions such as the effectiveness of games as learning tools or how video games can be designed to facilitate learning. Starting with this, this paper examines the arguments and objections to using games for educational purposes.

Gaming & learning

In early works, Piaget and Inhelder underlined the semiotic function of play (i.e. the power to evoke, with signs and symbols, objects or situations that are not actually perceived [START_REF] Piaget | La psychologie de l'enfant[END_REF]. Thus, play becomes symbolic and a game can be considered as a space where activities are not driven by adaptation to reality but by the assimilation of reality by ego without any constraints or penalties (ibid.). According to a psychoanalytic point of view developed by [START_REF] Winnicott | Playing and Reality[END_REF], playing occurs at the interface between the inner world of a child and his/her external reality. By playing, the child enters an intermediate area of experience where reality is not a constraint but is reorganized according to his/her expectations. This area relates to a potential space and playing serves as the basis for creativity. As a psychologist, Vygotski considers games as "imaginary situations" [START_REF] Vygotski | Play and Its Role in the Mental Development of the Child[END_REF] created by children. In a game, a child learns to guide his/her behaviour according both to the immediate perception of the situation and to the meaning of this situation. According to Vygotski, "play is the source of development" (Ibid.).

In addition, the link between gaming and learning has been demonstrated for the youths of mammals. Ethologists [START_REF] Jacob | Petits joueurs. Les jeux spontannés des enfants et des jeunes mammifères[END_REF] argue that by gaming, young animals develop sensory-motor schemes and a better knowledge of their surrounding environment, which helps them to escape from predators (ie. a young antelope jumping and running in the savannah). Gaming is also involved in the construction of social organisation and hierarchy (ie. fighting of young wolfs to determine the alpha male) and in the development of cognitive skills (ie. young bonobos playing to solve problems). As a result, gaming can be considered as a biological function that plays an important role in making young mammals better suited to their habitat.

Following what has been said above, one can argue that making connections between gaming and learning is not an innovative idea. Indeed, educators have a long tradition of using games in their classrooms [START_REF] Brougère | Jeu et éducation: L'Harmattan[END_REF]. Nevertheless, this idea is now coming into the limelight again, as innovative and powerful digital technologies offer new opportunities to design more and more realistic virtual worlds or to implement games into mobile devices.

Defining the term game is not an easy task, the word being used for concepts related to very different contexts such as sports, arts or entertainment. Thus, Brougère [START_REF] Brougère | Jeu et éducation: L'Harmattan[END_REF] proposes a set of criteria to determine if a situation is a game or not. According to this researcher, a game is a meta-activity, a model of an ordinary situation. As a result, the consequences of the play are minimized (frivolity criteria). The player is allowed to take decisions (autonomy criteria) and the results of the play depend on these decisions even if uncertainty always remains in regards to the ending (incertitude criteria). The freedom to take decisions is limited by norms and conventions shared by the players (rules criteria). This set of criteria is valuable to implement Game-Based-Learning situations in the classroom and to distinguish such situations from Problem-Based-Learning and Project-Based-Learning that are different but close educational settings. This paper focuses on "serious games". This term was probably first introduced by Abt [START_REF] Abt | Serious Games[END_REF]. Abt considers that a game is a "context" and defines serious games as games that have an "explicit and carefully thought-out educational purpose and are not intended to be played primarily for amusement". Since then, the term has been widely spread to name computer games designed for applications aiming at "serious" purposes such as advertising, recruiting employees, training staff and learning. This term has multiple meanings but it is mainly used to name computer games designed for utilitarian objectives. But following Dewey [START_REF] Dewey | Art as experience[END_REF] who states that as an artifact, a piece of art is not art, that art is fundamentally interactive and experiential, we consider the sense of play emerging from the interactions between a player and the game as an artifact. Therefore, we can state that it is worthwhile to adopt a point of view that considers games as situations rather than artifacts [START_REF] Sanchez | [END_REF] and then to focus our attention on the interactions that emerge from the situation.

Games as metaphors

As a meta-activity, a game, as artifact or situation, entails a model of a given reality. The model that is implemented in the game results from the transposition of a real situation into the context of the game. Therefore, this embedded model is rather a set of concepts and values selected by the game designer than by reality itself. As a result, games can be considered as metaphors of reality and they are close to simulations and microworlds. In addition, a validity domain limits games and one of the main arguments underlined by teachers who don't use computer games for their teaching is the lack of relevance of the content. Indeed, there is a risk to encourage students "to get used to manipulating a system whose core assumptions they do not see and which may or may not be 'true'" [START_REF] Turkle | Life on the Screen: Identity in the Age of the Internet[END_REF]. For example, the knowledge implemented in Spore -a video game that has had great success -is clearly based on intelligent design theory. Spore does not respect the Darwinian conception of evolution as Spore allows the player to be an intelligent designer by creating new life forms and making them evolve. Spore is mainly used for amusement but some teachers use the game to teach intelligent design [START_REF] Sanchez | Spore, un jeu sérieux pour comprendre l'évolution biologique ?[END_REF]. It is worth noticing that Spore is also used by teachers who teach Darwinian theory (Ibid.), but, in this case, the game experience is followed by a debriefing session to help students deconstruct the model and compare it to modern and scientific theories.

The relevance of the context is an issue that can be addressed for many games. For example, regarding games designed to develop students' awareness about sustainable development, one can say that some of them offer a model too weak to help the students to understand the complexity of the subject. For example, playing with Lachez-prise1 leads children to discover some "good habits" regarding environment protection but the game does not give any information about how these habits impact environment. Other games are more sophisticated but the model embedded in the game stays elementary. For instance, in Ecoville2 it is expected that the player will build a "green city" but the social dimension of the question is mainly neglected. On the contrary, Voyage au bout du charbon3 , which allows the player to be immersed in the life of coal Chinese workers, focuses on these aspects and less on environmental issues. Thus, as a teacher or a student, it is essential to keep in mind that each game depends on the knowledge, values and decisions of the game designer and that the choices made impact both the player strategies and the knowledge that he/she is supposed to develop about the situation modelled by the game. Furthermore, some games mix simulation and reality. By playing Clim@ction, an online multiplayer game designed for learning about land use management and sustainable development, secondary students collaborate to find better ways of producing energy. They have to learn why a specific strategy should be applied in a given "life-like" situation. Moreover, the game allows the player to ask questions to real experts by using the online platform and to carry out fieldwork using augmented reality. Mixing simulation and reality aims at maintaining the complexity of the subject to be learnt and, therefore, to design an authentic and complex learning situation.

Game-Based learning is based on a Piagetian point of view of learning and most games are based on a constructivist approach. In this paradigm, learning is considered to be an adaptive process, the learner/player incorporating the game experience into an already existing framework (assimilation), while reframing his/her mental representations to fit new experiences (accomodation). Game-Based Learning is also based on serendipity. Indeed, a game offers the opportunity to make fortunate discoveries while the learner/player is looking for something unrelated by being engaged in an immersive experience where actions are driven by exploration. As a result, learning is situated [START_REF] Lave | Cognition in practice: Mind, mathematics and culture in everyday life[END_REF] and allows for the bringing together of the elements of cognition (conceptual experience and knowledge), perception (perceptual knowledge and interactions) and action (factual knowledge and actions). Furthermore, playing a role leads the player/learner to strongly identify with his character. Thus, he/she benefits from an immersive experience within the game. At the same time the avatar is a "mirror to reflect on his or her own values and choices" [START_REF] Jenkins | Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education For the 21st Century[END_REF] and allows him to see " the virtual character as one's own project in the making " [START_REF] Gee | What Video Games Have to Teach us About Learning and Literacy[END_REF].

However, there is a difference between "trying to master the rules of the game and recognizing the ways those rules structure our perception of reality" [START_REF] Jenkins | Confronting the Challenges of Participatory Culture: Media Education For the 21st Century[END_REF]; in this way, contextualizing learning with games leads to a paradox. The learner/player becomes a puppet master. He/she is responsible about what happens as the results depend on his/her decisions and actions. A different decision could have lead to a different result. Therefore, one can wonder how one "can trust this game to tell us what happened when we are the puppet master? » (Egenfeldt-Nielsen, 2007). The puppet master paradox is probably one of the reasons why students are often reluctant to consider that they can learn by gaming (Ibid.).

In addition, Game-Based learning meets two main challenges. Game designers and teachers have succeed at preserving the entertainment aspects of the game. Some attempts to transform academic exercises into serious games have been named "sugar coating learning" [START_REF] Egenfeldt-Nielsen | Thoughts on learning in games and designing educational computer games[END_REF] or "chocolate-covered broccoli approach" [START_REF] Bruckman | Can educational be fun? Paper presented at the Game Developers Conference '99[END_REF] to underline the failure of edutainment to keep the fun of gaming.

Another challenge faced by Game-Based Learning is to preserve the relevance of the content to be learnt. The balance between the serious side and the game side is difficult to attain. One way to solve this paradox is to consider that a game is a particular moment of a learning session and to fix the borders of the period devoted to play. This moment should be dedicated to experiencing an amusing gaming situation and to freely develop new strategies. Transforming the game experience into a learning experience implies leaving the game. By making the students strategies explicit through debriefing, by pointing out the knowledge embedded into the game, the teacher can help the students to be aware of both the new knowledge that they developed and the limits of the implicit information and values embedded into the game. Thus, learning occurs only after reflection and debriefing [START_REF] Garris | Games, motivation, and learning: A research and practice model[END_REF].

Games & motivation

The main point generally discussed in the Game-Based learning literature is the power of serious games to motivate students. Indeed, there is no doubt that games fit the expectations of most of students as they are widely used for entertainment. The power of games to foster motivation and involvement is described by the concept of "flow" (ie. the highest degree of motivation by "being completely involved in an activity for its own sake" [START_REF] Csikszentmihalyi | Flow: The Psychology of Optimal Experience[END_REF]. However, distinctions should probably be made according gender. Boys and girls do not appreciate the same types of games. Furthermore, it is necessary to take into account that children are often reluctant to consider that gaming can foster learning. Game vs work, fun vs learning, freedom vs control... the paradox remains.

Self determination theory [START_REF] Ryan | Self-determination theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation, social development, and well-being[END_REF] offers a framework to analyse the impact of serious games on motivation. According to Ryan & Deci (Ibid.), motivation results from different universal and innate needs and include the needs for competence, autonomy, and relatedness. The feeling of competence increases when students have to reach clear goals and get positive feedback. By playing a serious game, the learner/player takes decisions that are motivated by his/her consciousness of the situation rather than the teacher's expectations.

The game provides frequent feedback and it is usually possible to know what has been done

and what is left to do. Moreover, usually, the level of difficulty can be adapted to the skill of the learner/player as the level of difficulty increase as he/she meets successes.

Autonomy entails the freedom to make choices, to take decisions and to choose a strategy. Autonomy results from the willingness of the learner/player to accept the challenge embedded into the game and to feel responsible for solving the problem, while remaining free to make decisions. This freedom is framed by the rules of the game, which are a set of norms and conventions that have to be respected. Thus, they both allow and limit freedom. Therefore, according to Vygotski, "in play the child is free. But this is an illusory freedom" [START_REF] Vygotski | Play and Its Role in the Mental Development of the Child[END_REF]. Being autonomous also means that the learner/player gets the opportunity to assess his/her strategy by her/himself and then decide if a taken decision or a given action is relevant or not. Assessing implies getting feedbacks and it is therefore clear that feedback is a crucial element in a game. Moreover, the need for relatedness entails competition. By playing Clim@ction, an online multiplayer serious game, students compete to submit proposals for the best project to implement sustainable energy solutions in their local environment. As they play the roles of energy company managers, they have to face the rivalry of others "companies" and they have to take into account the demands of "local administrators" and citizens. But competition is only one of the facets of the game and the capacity of students to propose a good project mainly results from their ability to collaborate. Students based in two different towns manage each energy company and they use a digital platform to communicate, share documents and information and design common documents. Connecting students in this way fits with their habits for being involved in online networks and can fulfil their need for interactions.

The power of games to motivate students also results from the fact that they allow for the consideration of the emotional dimension of the intersubjective experience of learning : humour, quality of graphical environment, social interactions, self-confidence and success. All these elements can enhance positive feelings and foster arousal. It has been claimed that the emotional dimension has an effect on the cognitive processes of attention, memory and decision-making [START_REF] Damasio | Descartes's Error: Emotion, Reason, and the Human Brain[END_REF] and Game-Based learning offers the opportunity to take this into account. However, some educators are reluctant to introduce amusement into their teaching practice as there is a long tradition that opposes work to play.

Another aspect that supports the idea of serious games increasing motivation is that the learner/player can make mistakes and he is encouraged to continue trying [START_REF] Gee | What Video Games Have to Teach us About Learning and Literacy[END_REF]. As actions or decisions do not impact the real world, play occurs in a safe space where the learner/player feels secure. As a "projective identity" (Ibid.) the avatar allows one to project one's values and desires and endorses mistakes and failures.

On the other hand, the frivolity [START_REF] Brougère | Jeu et éducation: L'Harmattan[END_REF] of a serious game is not always well established and the involvement of students can have unexpected consequences. As described in a previous article concerning a study about a pretend game about land use management [START_REF] Sanchez | Playing in the Classroom with a Virtual Globe for Geography Learning[END_REF], the students published their proposals online for the location of a railway loop designed to test a high speed train. Real citizens concerned by the location chosen by the students posted violent and tragic reactions on the website to protest. This example shows that the borders between the game world and reality are sometimes blurry; it is the responsibility of the teacher to make them clear.

Games as learning space

According to Brousseau [START_REF] Brousseau | Fondements et méthodes de la didactique des mathématiques[END_REF] knowledge is fundamentally linked with problemsolving. Thus, knowledge can be considered as an instrument to deal with situations and knowledge emerges when a learner interacts with a didactical milieu (ie. a learning environment). The concept of didactical milieu is crucial to Brousseau's work. It encompasses all the elements of the situation that the learner has to deal with during his/her activity (both material and human). If the feedback provided by the didactical milieu is regular, the learner can anticipate and take into account the consequences of his/her actions. Brousseau's Didactical Situation Theory (DST) emphasized the crucial role of interactions. Therefore, a game can be considered to be a space of reflexivity where the learner/player can be autonomous. His/her autonomy results from the freedom to take initiatives provided by the game and the possibility to evaluate his/her taken decisions and chosen strategies according to the provided feedback. This feedback depends on the constraints of the model implemented into the game and on the rules of the game. Thus, the learner/player adapts his/her actions and learns how to behave according to the game constraints.

Game-Based learning is based on the implicit assertion that the skills developed during the game experience are transferable to real contexts. Indeed, the game world is designed to simulate a real context; by being immersed in an authentic situation and having to solve realistic problems, the players learns the "ways of acting, interacting, and interpreting that are necessary for participating" in the real situation [START_REF] Shaffer | Epistemic frames for epistemic games[END_REF]. In addition, some games offer the opportunity for the learner/player to deal with complex situations and ill-structured problems [START_REF] King | Developping Reflective Judgement: understanding and Promoting Intellectual growth and Critical Thinking in Adolescents and Adults[END_REF]. A complex situation is non-determinist. There is not a unique solution to an ill-structured problem but different solutions that have to be negotiated by taking into account both the available information and the identified lack of knowledge. To succeed, the learner needs to perform high level tasks according to Bloom taxonomy [START_REF] Mayo | Video Games: A Route to Large-Scale STEM Education[END_REF]. Moreover, the solution depends on a multidisciplinary approach and implies that the learner/player achieves complex tasks [START_REF] Lasnier | Réussir la formation par compétences[END_REF] activating both procedural, declarative and conditional knowledge to perform a set of actions adapted to the situation. Thus, it is expected that the learner will not only get new knowledge but also become able to identify his/her lack of knowledge. It is also expected that he/she will become able to "grasp subjects within their context, their complexity, their totality" [START_REF] Morin | Les sept savoirs nécessaires à l'éducation du futur[END_REF]. The ambition underlined by Morin is to educate XXIst century citizens for a more and more complex world and it has been advocated that serious games can provide the necessary innovative learning setting to reach such a goal.

Moving to the question of the type of knowledge developed by Game-Based learning and following Perry [START_REF] Perry | Forms of intellectual and ethical development in the college years: a scheme[END_REF] an [START_REF] Belenky | Women's ways of knowing. The development of self, voice and mind[END_REF], who describes different stages (or positions) for cognitive development, we can formulate the hypothesis that serious games permit one to develop high intellectual positions. Indeed, according to Perry, a journey across the five different intellectual positions means two main transitions. The first transition is related to the acknowledgement of legitimate uncertainty in the world. The learner recognizes "not yet known" aspects of a problem and accepts uncertainty. The second transition consists in developing a vision of the world as essentially relativistic and context-bounded. The learner identifies himself as an active maker of meaning. However, a majority of traditional academic tasks focus mainly on finding the right answer to a closed question. Consequently, they develop a dualistic vision of knowledge such as "I know" or "I don't know". In opposition to this, solving open-ended and ill-structured problems by playing a game means exploring, accepting uncertainty, coping with diversity of solutions and making judgements.

As games offer the opportunity to design complex and situated learning situations, Game-Based learning fits with curricula based on a Competency-Based Approach to teaching. A competence is defined by three aspects : (1) it can be performed within a specific context, (2) it involves different types of knowledge and (3) it requires reflexivity about mobilization, integration and reorganization of these resources (Le [START_REF] Boterf | De la compétence, essai sur un attracteur étrange[END_REF][START_REF] Tardif | Documenter le parcours de développement[END_REF]. As it has been stated above, serious games offer both a context to activate various types of knowledge to face a challenge and a space for reflexivity. Nevertheless, the opponents to this approach of learning formulate criticism that emphasizes the decline of disciplines and core knowledge, to be replaced by non-formal and mainly utilitarian competences. Indeed, an empirical research about Chronocoupe, a serious game designed for geology learning, shows that the students who use the game mainly develop procedural knowledge (Sanchez, à paraître).

Developing declarative knowledge implies reflection and debriefing. This result emphasizes the importance of the teacher for helping the students to be aware of the implicit knowledge that they use in a specific situation in order to solve a specific problem. Game-Based learning emphasizes the crucial role played by the teacher in making the learning explicit and in helping students to decontextualize knowledge and make possible its transfer to other contexts. Similar results have been found by Habgood [START_REF] Habgood | The effective integration of digital games and learning content[END_REF] during his doctoral work related to a computer game used to teach mathematics to primary students.

CONCLUSION

These days, technologies allow us to design more and more realistic games, artifacts or situations, that offer the opportunity to implement authentic learning context in schools. It has been claimed that games fit the needs of XXIst century students in terms of methods of teaching and skills to develop. Besides, games are said to enhance motivation, to foster autonomy and to allow students to develop high-level competencies by being immersed in complex learning situations. However, establishing general conclusions and comparing studies becomes difficult as the term "serious game" is used to name different types of artifacts and different types of situations.

In addition, few empirical studies have been carried out to explore the power of serious games for the future of learning and the evidence for saying anything more than "games facilitate learning" is weak [START_REF] Egenfeldt-Nielsen | Overview of research on the educational use of video games[END_REF]. The main arguments in favour of developing a Game-Based learning approach are still hypothesises that have yet to be demonstrated by empirical works.

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