Camille Akmut

Alan Perlis

John Mccarthy

Peter Naur

Nicklaus E Wirth

John Cocke

C A R Hoare

Robert W Floyd

Douglas C Engelbart

Ken L Thompson

Dennis M Ritchie

Butler Lampson

Marvin Minsky

Robert E Kahn

Edgar Frank Codd

E Allen

Edward Feigenbaum

Barbara Liskov

Social conditions of outstanding contributions to computer science : a prosopography of Turing Award laureates (1966-2016

Keywords: computer science, history, sociology, gender, science, technology, ACM, Turing

The Turing Award, commonly described as computer science's highest award and equivalent of the Nobel prize in that discipline, has now been awarded for half a century. In the following, we describe the social regularities that underlie and the conditions that embed these high achievements in computer science innovation.

We find, contrary to a meritocratic ideal of one's only abilities determining success or recognition within sciences, that several characteristics of scientists, exogenous and non-exogenous alike to their scientific work and identities, are of overbearing or disproportionate importance in defining academic acknowledgement. We find in particular that nationality or birth place, gender and one's network have a big role in making Turing Award laureates. As do social origins, with a significant portion of Turing Award winners coming primarily from middle-and upper-class family backgrounds, especially households with significant cultural capital (i.e. one or both parents hold an advanced degree or are engaged in an academic profession). Reviewing the data before us, we were also unable to ignore the non-participation of visible minorities and non-white computer scientists to the body of Turing Award recipients.

In short, place of birth, nationality, gender, social background, "race" and networks play a role in making Turing Award laureates. This paper also explores the ways in which a social history or sociology of computer science and the wider technology sector may unfold in the future, by discussing theoretical implications, methods and sources.

Introduction : A belated history of computer science

It is a fact that traditionally, and today still, the history of science is mostly devoted to the study of the canonical scientific disciplines : mathematics, physics and astronomy, chemistry and biology.

Here, obscure scribes struggle with various number systems in the Mesopotamia of the 20th century BCE, but no word of Diffie, Merkle or Stroustrup whose contributions are at the heart of much of modern finance, commerce, technology and communication, the very ones that affect us, in the here and now of the 21st century.

Yet it is also a fact that there are very few other sciences that have as direct an impact on our lives and hold the potential of fundamentally transforming them as computer science does. Specifically very few who hold as much potential, both in good and bad, to simultaneously uproot, control and threaten them and likewise extend, preserve, document and transmit them.

Few other scientific enterprises permeate our lives and those of those we hold dear, down to their most intimate aspects, as that emerging discipline 12345678 .

Who we are, how we think, how we communicate, and very likely in the future how we look, how we feel, how we see are just a few of these transformations.

It is long overdue that the history of science abandons its cozy canon.

And, because computer science is a novel discipline, so is necessarily the history of computer science9 ; but, better premature than belated.

There is a huge need for a science that looks at computer science, not from the internal point of view of computer science itself, which is concerned primarily with the technical aspects of the discipline e.g. the mathematical-electrical conditions of computer operations understood momentarily as central processing unit, arithmetic logic unit and control unit, and memory and input-output channels 1011 , but from the external point of view of the history or the sociology of science ; one ideally that would make strange the technology we take for granted, familiar the unbeknown and alternatively exciting and revolting what is anticipated. This is meant as such a contribution.

It assumes that history is a worthwhile enterprise, and the social sciences in general, only in so far as they help us better understand ourselves, who we are, where we come from, the world we live in (currently), our current place inside of it, what is (currently), what was and what could be (including once more).

Brecht famously said that because things were the way they are, things will not stay the way they are. But, speaking on the responsibility of historians, perhaps it is to Marx that we should turn to when historians of science confuse their fascination for numbers, and their intellectual work, for their research objects, thus becoming little more than the lackeys of numbers that the German economist from Trier once described.

In many ways, when looking at the state of the history of computer science and its applications we can say with little fear that we miss even the most basic of information when it comes to who, outside of a simple procedural history of computer science as a succession of big names, decides what is deemed significant enough to be brought to the attention of the wider public, what it is categorized as worthy of being financed or otherwise pursued and supported academically. of Turing awards.

Research directions and methods

The analysis of outstanding performances, in academia and elsewhere, presents a particular challenge to social sciences in so far as these high-achievers, either by own conception or through common sense notions by mainstream entertainment, journalism, popular science or idealistic scholarship, tend to appear as not bound by the same rules as common lives, the same passions, the same appetites, the faults, the malice, even the pettiness 12 .

In what is arguably computer science's most famous book, The Art of Computer Programming, one can find such notions. Indeed its author, Donald Knuth, tells us that he wrote the series for "the one person in 50 who has this strange way of thinking that makes a programmer" 13 . In turn, those who find themselves to be among that number, should be highly supportive of such arguments in the process of being elected amongst the lucky few.

In another of computer science's revered works, Structure and Interpretation of Computer Programs, one learns against expectations from the very beginning that computer science : is not a science, is not about computers and is according to its authors, Sussman and Abelson of MIT, closer to magic.

But, the aim of such a work is not purely for bravado. While demystifying such notable careers may be one of its effects, it can be and it is encouraged to be read as a way to make appear closer and more attainable, at least more reasonable and realistic, the important, useful and far reaching innovations due to Turing Award winners, in the areas of programming languages, databases, electronic circuits and AI to cite just a few.

Starting this research, we had tried to apply classic research questions from the history or sociology of education, of which here are some below.

Is an education at a prestigious college a requirement for great achievements 13 Knuth 1997b. such as the kind recognized the Turing Award? More precisely, does such an affiliation predict the potential for these accomplishments and if so to which degree? Further : is the study of computer science as a degree necessary to make contributions within that field? If not, is a degree in a science subject necessary? Is precocity an indication of future greatness? While these are worthwhile objects of research, they were not what we found to be the most interesting relationships between winners and the Turing award.

We did however answer them : we found most of what could have been expected from a research on international scientific prizes, like the Nobel, namely that recipients were much more likely to have been schooled at institutions located on the coastal areas of the United States, in the prime educational regions and also computing centers of California and New England.

Intimately linked to questions of educational origins are those of social origins in the study of higher education. These we handle as well. They remain, no matter how out of fashion they may have fallen with certain researchers who believe themselves to be living in post-classes societies, which they can only conclude because they do, important. while looking at the data and reviewing and analyzing it, we were drawn to different outlooks : coming rapidly to the conclusion that women, of which only 3 had won the Turing award since its creation, and none up until 2006, which is to say none for the first 40 years of its existence, were grossly underrepresented among Turing award winners in extents we had rarely met before, we moved to review the Turing Award from the perspective of the history of gender in science, largely a history of gender inequality and in large parts also exclusion for much of its time span.

We wanted to firstly establish these facts about the participation of women in computer science at its highest levels, but also to understand the situations of the few women who had made it this far and what had brought them to be recognized in their specific fields of study.

Reviewing the data still, we found that Turing Award laureates were bound by many personal relationships : some had been advised by former winners, some had studied under them, others had written articles with them, before being themselves awarded the prize, some even many of these things at the same time. And, so, a network analysis helped us visualize these links between Turing winners.

The lack of diversity in places of birth, nationality and ethnicity or "race" amongst Turing Award laureates, was impossible to ignore, with the great majority of them white, U.S. American and to some small degree European.

Finally, a comparison with a similar award soon appeared to be essential and proved very helpful. This helped objectify structures and relationships and unveil inherent qualities, and in turn distinguish those from statistical artifacts, by creating a variety of relevant reference points.

This research was structured in the following way : a prosopography paired with statistics and followed by conclusions as well as theories on the social regularities that preside over "genius" i.e. high-achievement in computer science.

Data : or how this study was conducted

Our primary source, for much of the statistical work, were the Turing Award biographies provided by the ACM 14 .

They contain series of information, themselves already partially coded into categories, such as "Birth", "Education", "Experience" and "Honors and Awards".

They provide indications as to date and place of birth, degrees obtained and where these were obtained from, places of employment, etc.

As such, they were perfectly suited for the type of study undertaken here, called prosopography or collective biography, though we did not keep with the categories provided and sometimes had to complete or extend what was found in the notices with other sources when information was lacking or non-existent.

Unfortunately, not all laureates' biographies featured the same level or depth of information.

Of prosopography, Lawrence Stone wrote (has written) that it "is the investigation of the common background characteristics of a group of actors in history by means of a collective study of their lives. The method employed is to establish a universe to be studied, and then ask a set of uniform questions -about birth and death, marriage and family, social origins (...), place of residence, education" 15 .

Historians of science accustomed to working in previous centuries or on more established societies, or, as in this case, disciplines, as well, can think of this collection as they do of the Biographical memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society, which contain biographies for all deceased fellows of the society, with the exception that of the Turing Award biographies we lack sometimes mention of authors 16 , almost always a bibliography and the extent of the information provided does not come close to the on average 20 pages long memoirs.

We have also used other types of information on the ACM, partly produced by itself, as in the case of the Royal Society, partly derived from other scholars, often writing within ACM publications, such as compositions of prize juries and leading committees.

A standout publication that we have relied on in addition to the aforementioned was the biographical dictionary Computer Pioneers by J.A.N. Lee 17 . Of much help were also the oral histories conducted by the Computer History Museum and the British Library with individual Turing laureates. In some cases, we used less conventional sources, such as when we relied on the curriculum Series for the History of Computing", jointly with Tomash Publishers of Los Angeles and San Francisco, such as Babbage's Calculating Engines: A Collection of Papers, as volume 2, The Papers of John Von Neumann, volume 12, and various other writings including by Turing Award laureates such as Maurice Wilkes or Donald Knuth. 15 Stone 1971. 16 No author is mentionned in the case of John Hopcroft for example. 17 Lee 1995. 18 The MIT Press has done perhaps more than any other publisher to promote publications on the history of computer science and its applications, including their various social implications, with series such as "History of Computing" and "Inside Technology" and publications like Abbate's Inventing the Internet and Recoding Gender. In those same collections, see also Hicks 2017 and Lecuyer 2006 on respectively the situation of pioneering female computer scientists in Britain and the early history of Silicon Valley. This is in addition to the collection of primary sources and original writings published in the "Charles Babbage Institute Reprint vitae uploaded by Turing Award laureates to the internet. Many monographs published by the MIT Press have also been of general use to us 18 . This information was then aggregated and integrated into a database. The outcome of that process is a table with 64 entries, one for each Turing Award recipient, each in turn containing 39 columns, or the equivalent of about 2500 individual information.

This study comprises all Turing Award laureates from 1966 to and including 2016, from Alan Perlis to Tim Berners-Lee.

That being said, the data provided by the ACM was not always perfect.

This we discuss separately in the following subsection.

Problems with the data

The problems were multifold. There were errors and inconsistencies or simply absence of information. We provide some examples below.

In what appears to be an indication of nationality, that of Iverson is listed as "United States" instead of Canada. In John Backus' Turing award biography "Université Henre Poincaré" is misspelled, it should read "Henri Poncaré" after the mathematician. Leonard Adleman's file mentions "Berkley" instead of "Berkeley". The information provided on Joseph Sifakis is at odds with that provided by Britannica 19 where education is concerned and incomplete in any case.

In three cases, Rabin, Dahl and Naur, we have no information available on their undergraduate degree ; all three of whom were born outside of America. In these cases, we assume for undergraduate institution the university that granted their masters degree as a proxy (as in all three cases, information becomes available again at that level). Kenneth Thompson's bachelor degree is listed as "EECS", for Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, and as having been obtained in 1965 by his Turing Award biography, though we are not certain this is possible or correct, 19 Hosch 2015. Leiden University is unusually referred to as "University of Leyden" in the biography of Edgar Dijkstra, and although this spelling, of the city and by extension its university, appears in several older English publications 21 , it seems rare.

Sometimes euphemisms are used, such as in the case of the biography of Antony Hoare whose parents, we learn, "were involved in the business of what was then the British Empire" to mean that his father was a colonial civil servant and his mother the daughter of a tea planter.

In the most extreme of cases, we found errors up to and including in the citations of the laureates themselves : facilitate is spelled "facilitiate" in Wilkinson's, while the rather uncommon "subsequentially" is used in Newell's.

For them, we had to supplement information with other sources whenever necessary, which we list.

Sometimes, the data, correct, needed to be normalized. We record for instance the Carnegie Institute of Technology as CMU and the New York State College for Teachers as the State University of New York at Albany. 4. The Turing Award and the ACM (1947-2018) The Turing Award was created in 1966 22 . In the ACM's own words, the Association for Computing Machinery, which oversees the award, the Turing Award is "computing's most prestigious honor" 23 . It "acknowledges individuals who have made lasting and major contributions to the field." Two other journals published by the ACM that are of significance for the discipline as a whole (as opposed to specialized publications that cover subfields) are the Journal of the ACM, its oldest publication, and the quarterly ACM Computing Surveys, founded in 1969, which, as its name suggests, publishes survey articles.

The ACM also publishes various journals called Transactions that are each dedicated to an area of computer science such as the eponymous Computer Systems, Graphics, Networking (jointly with the IEEE), etc.

A history of the ACM would not be complete without mention of the other, big association for computer scientists, although its scope, as its name indicates, is different, and in some ways both broader and narrower48 , the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers. The IEEE was founded in 1963, which 44 Cochran 1987 : 867. 45 Knuth cites five important features of algorithms, besides being merely "a finite set of rules that gives a sequence of operations for solving a specific type of problem" : finiteness, definiteness, input, output and effectiveness. See Knuth 1997 : 4-6. 46 ALGOL was designed by multiple 52 Bullynck et al. had already considered why Turing was chosen instead of someone else, they "speculate that Turing was preferred over von Neumann, because the latter was associated with hardware engineering rather than with theoretical foundations", drawing parallels to the uses of Gauss as a conceptual antithesis to computational approaches in mathematics, see Bullynck et al. 2015 : 38. 53 "IEEE Medal of Honor". https://www.ieee.org/about/awards/medals/medal-of-honor.html computer scientists that had not been previously given the Turing award 54 ; after which point, starting in 1985, it started awarding its prize to a series of with the latter's own, already established legacy ; as opposed to the Turing award which for the most part had only had to deal with the challenges of being a new prize.

It is also noteworthy that in some instances IEEE's recognition preceded the ACM's, such as in the case of Ivan Sutherland, Peter Naur and Robert Kahn.

As the Computer Pioneer award was created 25 years after the Turing award, in some cases comparisons are not possible.

Another key difference between the two prizes is that the Computer Pioneer award is given in much higher frequency to multiple people : it has been awarded to 99 people so far 55 including 19 awards in 1996 alone. Yet another difference when compared to the Turing Award is that in some years, no awards were given such as in 1983, 2005, 2007, 2010 and 2017. Another prize that could be mentionned, and that may become of interest to future research is the Gödel Prize, who has for particularities when compared to the Turing Award that it is given by a European association, the EACTS 56 , jointly with the ACM, has for limitations theoretical computer science and a reward that is currently significantly lower, 5000$.

Educational origins of Turing winners

As previously indicated, we wanted to know where the Turing laureates had We relied on the Shanghai Ranking, or Academic World Ranking of Universities, the oldest of its kind, having been published since 2003, to objectify these relations57 . But, first, we set out to study the educational origins of Turing award winners. In doing so, we distinguished between undergraduate and graduate institutions and handled the case of doctoral schools separetely.

We also looked at geographical distribution and movements in the next section based on this.

We started by looking at where Turing award winners had obtained their undergraduate degrees. Next, we looked at the subject of their bachelor degrees. A small minority of Turing laureates, three in total, or 4% of the total population, had obtained undergraduate in one of the humanities or social sciences, we discuss this in more detail further below.

In the second step of our research on the educational origins of Turing Award laureates, we look at their post-graduate institutions. This population comprises Master and PhD students. Where Turing award winners went on to seek a PhD, we register this, otherwise their Master's degrees. with cases representing some of the best attainable outcomes possible in the entire population 75 , or disruption through events like war, absent in two, make any sort of generalization hard.

Lastly, we looked at the highest educational attainments of and the overarching type of degrees obtained -STEM or humanities and social sciences -by Turing winners. But, is a PhD degree necessary to do significant contributions to computer science such as the ones recognized by the ACM's Turing Award? No.

Twelve Turing award winners have not obtained a PhD. Among them, some of computer science's most important contributors and revered figures : Kenneth

Thompson, creator of UNIX, Tim Berners-Lee, inventor of the World Wide Web, Whitfield Diffie, who with Hellman, laid out the foundations of public key cryptography, Antony Hoare, who developed major sorting algorithms, and John

Backus, to whom we owe the Backus-Norm-Form, which is helpful in classifying languages in terms of their logical structures / grammars.

Here too we think important to connect the statistics we have established with the lived realities and actual experience of actors. That the issue of the PhD, or the missing PhD in this case, matters we establish with a document from the period. And, although it does not hinder a portion of our population, 75 James Wilkinson was Senior wrangler, and at Cambridge was at Trinity college.

one fifth to be exact, from rising to the top of their field, it shows the great concern attached to the issue. This is not without cause as, in fact, certain academic positions, are, in theory at least, only accessible to holders of appropriate academic titles. And, so, when Donald Knuth wrote a letter of recommendation on behalf of Robert Floyd, he thought good and perhaps even important to note at the end : This seems to be the case overall : the great majority of Turing award winners, or 95%, have done their undergraduate degrees in a STEM subject, and 100% beyond that.

"
But, the history of computer science, mathematics and physics is full of outliers and while all Turing Award winners either have a bachelor's degree or Master or PhD in a STEM subject, some of them come originally from a background in the humanities or the social sciences 77 .

Though, note that of the three Turing award winners who received a bachelor in one of the humanities and social sciences subjects : Herbert Simon majored in political science at Chicago, one of the most quantitatively intensive disciplines outside of STEM, at an institution that played a key role in the mathematization of the social sciences, economics in particular, Antony Hoare, who studied Classics at Oxford, "chose to study modern philosophy, which provided a path to understand logic" 78 , an important part of computer science and computer science education 79 , while Robert Floyd, also at Chicago, did obtain a liberal arts degree but later supplemented it with a second bachelor's degree in physics.

Past the undergraduate level however, all Turing winners have a degree in science, technology, engineering or mathematics. 77 John Guttag, professor of computer science at MIT, has a BA in English. David Malan, professor of computer science at Harvard, had first studied government before switching subjects. Alston Householder, mathematician and president of the ACM, had a BA and MA in philosophy before earning a PhD in mathematics. Lastly, Einstein famously worked as a patent office employee for 7 years, a work he described later to be that of a "cobbler", after having been unable to find work as a teacher for almost two years.

78 This is according to his Turing Award biography. 79 E.g. boolean algebra, set theory, etc.

Geographical origins and movements of Turing winners

Based on our review of educational origins, we turn to the geographical distribution of Turing Award winners and find that they gather at a handful of destinations, heavily skewed toward the USA and within, its coastal regions in particular.

One question we received in reaction to these and other findings, from a researcher who was very concerned about "performance" in science studies, was why this was important and "what the point [was]". This fits into the wider debates happening in fields of research as diverse as those concerned with the role of English in science and the effects of rankings and prizes.

We will answer this question before : our findings indicate that the Turing Award, which in all ways is presented as an international award, awarded by an international organization ("members from more than 100 countries" 80 ), is in fact very limited in its scope and pool of recipients as we show. It is biased towards countries where English is the main language, it is also biased towards computer scientists who have attended universities from English-speaking countries, thus putting into question whether the Turing Award rewards "lasting contributions" independently of their place of origin. From these data alone, one can tell as much : the pool from which Turing laureates are selected from is extremely biased towards America, particularly the USA. Entire regions of the world are absent, Africa for example, while some of the most populous ones, like East Asia, are grossly underrepresented with only one Turing award winner born in China.

68% of Turing Award winners were born in America while almost two thirds, or 64%, were born in the USA alone. Just 18% of Turing award winners were born in the current European Union and about half of them are from England.

Less than 10% of Turing laureates, or 6 in total, come from the rest of the World (outside the USA and Europe), including 3 from Israel, 2 from former colonies of the British Empire, one of which in turn is Antony Hoare whose father was a colonial civil serveant, and 1 from China.

The next biggest country of origin for Turing winners is Israel, with two out of its three Turing winners emigrating to the USA eventually 81 . One Turing winner was born in Venezuela : his parents, Jewish, had emigrated there from Europe 82 .

These But, while this statement is positively correct, it does not accurately represent the disproportionate frequency at which US American scientists receive the prize. Not all countries stand on an equal footing when it comes to their scientists' potential to receive the Turing Award. This is one conclusion that could be drawn from our data. As such statements never fail to raise objections, we must specify that we do not look so much at the intentions or policies of the ACM or the Turing Award, whether claimed or otherwise agreed upon as policy or even passed as law, but at its verifiable practices. This we do by counting how many Turing laureates come from each country based on information established by the ACM itself.

By placing the United Kingdom and the United States at the end of its list of countries, an order which does not reflect the alphabetical order, but is the exact order we have established in the above statistics, except in reverse, the ACM makes clear that is most likely aware of its biases and the issues discussed here.

On the other hand, if such conclusion were wrong, one of few remaining 81 Judea Pearl had emigrated to the US by the time of his Master's degree while Amir Pnueli went there first as a post-doctoral student and later as a professor at NYU, he died in New York.

82 Manuel Blum.

83 "About the ACM A.M. Turing Award Fact Sheet." https://www.acm.org/binaries/ content/assets/awards/about-the-acm-a.m.-turing-award-fact-sheet.pdf outcomes would be that all countries standing an equal chance to see one of their citizens receive the prize, the USA is the producer of much better computer scientists, such that it would only be logical for the great majority of Turing 625 award winners to come from that country as well.

To further study these phenomena, we took at look at distribution of Turing laureates within the United States, the majority producer of this population (64%). We move forward in our analysis of geographical distribution by using places of study as the next reference point. We later do the same for graduate institutions to follow the population's movements and transits.

-Michigan 2 -North Carolina 2 -Colorado 1 (1,5%) -Connecticut 1 -Minnesota 1 -New Jersey 1 2 -Oregon 1 -Texas 1 -Virginia 1 -Washington 1 -Canada 2 Europe 14 (21%) 14 -England 7 (10%) -Denmark 1 -Germany 1 -Greece 1 -Italy 1 -Netherlands 1 -Norway 1 -Switzerland 1 Asia 6 (9%) -(British) India 1 -Israel 4 (6%)
-Taiwan 1 n = 64 t = 64 * New York, New Jersey and Connecticut.

645

The analysis of the geographical distribution of Turing award winners at the undergraduate level unveils further the large dominance of the USA over all other places (as ascertained by proxy of their bachelor-granting institutions) :

no other country comes close to their 2/3 total share of future Turing award laureates.

650

In Europe, we note no difference between the situation observed in the context of birth places and the stage of bachelor's degrees : those born in Europe among the Turing laureates stay there for undergraduate studies. This, as we will find later on, will change over time as Turing laureates move towards postgraduate education.

655

Next, we analyze the movements of Turing Award laureates as they move from their respective undergraduate colleges to their respective graduate schools. Here, we study social origins of which we know that they are -along with other categories of analysis such as education, gender or "race" -important properties of social actors/agents.

At the beginning of last century, Durkheim wrote that few things were more important to the development and understanding of human social behavior than family and education 85 . This has since been verified in countless sociological studies, but amongst many historians of science, these various levels of experiences remain absent. The world that they create, the one that they lay down on paper when writing about famed and anonymous science makers alike seems 85 "Education is the influence exercised by adult generations on those that are not yet ready for social life. Its object is to arouse and to develop in the child a certain number of physical, intellectual and moral states which are demanded of him by both the political society as a whole and the special milieu for which he is specifically destined. (...) Education varies from one caste to another; that of the patricians was not that of the plebeians; that of the Brahman was not that of the Sudra. Similarly, in the Middle Ages, what a difference between the culture that the young page received, instructed in all the arts of chivalry, and that of the villein, who learned in his parish school a smattering of arithmetic, song and grammar! Even today, do we not see education vary with social class, or even with locality?" This is from a posthumous publication entitled Education and Sociology. See Durkheim 1956 : 27 ; 67. eerily disconnected from them, although they themselves must have an immediate or intimate knowledge of their importance for having experienced their impact in their own personal lives. This is an attempt to show how such an analysis could unfold, and what might be gained from it, although we were not able to go as far as we would have liked.

To compile this information, we have used the Turing award biographies.

Where other sources were used, we specify them in the appendix where the reader will also be able to find a much more detailed table containing the individual information on each winner as well as intermediary categories (i.e. categories in various intermediary states of abstraction). And, whereas in the full table, we still made us of a mix of intermediary and final categories, in the following, we present the results of the analysis with broad categories.

Unfortunately, for a number of Turing award winners we were not able to find any relevant biographical information in their Turing award notices nor in other places. And, as can be expected from such enquiries, the more one moves up in time the less information is available. This makes a good case for more oral history to be undertaken.

Hence note that this analysis is based on a sample of our total population (as we make clear by indicating that it relies on a number of 48 individuals instead of the full 64). This means that the statistics presented provide an indication for the tendencies of the overall population but are subject to a margin of error. We have all reasons to believe, considering the steadily upwards trend of the curve that now puts the same demographic sample at 33%, that adults in pos-86 United States Census Bureau 2017.

session of a higher education degree were consistently lower than 5% in previous decades. The Census Bureau however does not publish such information before 1940 to our knowledge.

Based on this, we think safe to say that : academic backgrounds were vastly overrepresented amongst families of Turing Award laureates, whose parents held college degrees in disporpotionately higher frequency than the rest of the population with many of them holding advanced degrees including Master's and PhDs at a time when these were much more seldom.

This must have played a role in making the future Turing award winners :

having one parent with an academic background or involved in academia should have exposed them early on to books and contributed to their education at home or in getting them interested in school or otherwise having them perform well there.

That these statistics are not only of meaning "on paper", but also affected the Turing Award winners intimately, in their lives and during childhood, we can ascertain from a qualitative review of their biographies.

About Martin Hellman, inventor of public key cryptography (together with

Diffie and Merkle, we know from his biography that : "His father was a high school physics teacher, whose influence and collection of books helped to inspire Hellman's early interest in science and mathematics." Of Sutherland we learn that his father was a "practicing engineer with a Ph.D. in civil engineering" and his mother "a teacher who engendered in him and his brother Bert a love of learning."

A particularly striking case of early exposure to culture is Alan Kay. "I had the misfortune or the fortune to learn how to read fluently starting about the age of three. So I had read maybe 150 books by the time I hit first grade." 87 .

From other biographic sources, we learn that in his childhood there were "nearly 6,000 books in the house and many drawings and illustrations." 88 87 The Davis Group 2011. 88 Shasha and Lazere 1995.

"Since my father was a scientist and my mother was an artist, the atmosphere during my early years was full of many kinds of ideas and ways to express them. I did not distinguish between "art" and "science" and still don't. My maternal grandmother was a schoolteacher, suffragette, lecturer, and one of the founders of UMASS, Amherst.

My maternal grandfather was Clifton Johnson, a fairly well-known illustrator, photographer, and writer (100+ books). He was also a musician, and played piano and pipe organ.

One Dummer Academy, which happens to be within the town boundaries. Next, we looked at the relationship between social origins and precocity i.e.

the age at which the laureates obtained the Turing award.

Looking at the 10 youngest Turing award winners, we found that over 50% came from households where at least one of the parents held an advanced degree, Master and beyond, or was otherwise engaged in an intellectual profession. Even amongst Turing winners with formally non-academic backgrounds, their family circumstances are such that they have access to culture early. This is the case of McCarthy for example, who was born "into a politically engaged family in Boston", his father was a labor organizer and Business Manager of the Daily Worker, a Communist newspaper, while his mother "was active in the suffrage movement" and "both parents were members of the Communist Party" 95 .

To trial-control this information, we have also looked at the same data for the oldest Turing Award winners, who ranged from age 77 to 68 at the time their work was recognized by the ACM and the Turing award given to them. Due to the lack of information on certain laureates' background it is hard to make any definitive claims, but from the information we have available we noted that among the demographic of oldest Turing winners, families were more often more distant from academic background and their professions more heterogenous.

Networks of Turing Award winners

Who studied under whom? Who wrote with whom? Who worked with whom? Who teaches with whom? Who employs whom? Who wrote about whom? Lastly, who penned whose necrology? We found all of these questions (and relationships) to apply to our object of study.

In following up with our intention to better understand who the Turing winners are and their sociological characteristics, we lastly looked at their networks.

We started by assembling a number of relationships, such as student-advisor relationships. In parentheses, we identify Turing award winners by the year of their nomination. Robert Tarjan (1986) Manuel Blum (1995) Shafi Goldwasser (2012) Silvio Micali (2012) We found the relations of type advisor to student to be particularly significant : at least 8 future Turing Award laureates studied under previous winners.

10 Turing winners, which is to say 5 pairs, had the same PhD advisor.

880

In one case, we found this relationship type to be particularly strong : a

Turing winner, Manuel Blum, who had himself been advised by a Turing winner, Marvin Minsky, went on to advise 2 future Turing award winners, Shafi

Goldwasser and Silvio Micali 96 .

We extended this into a graphical network analysis and concentrated on the 885 relations between Turing Award winners of type student and advisor, where we identified a minimum of 20 edges.

Graph : networks of Turing award winners

We present here the first results of what may become a larger research on 96 They themselves may well go on to advised or have already advised future Turing winners networks amongst Turing winners and computer scientists.

These results are in their early stages and as such were not able to present all of the research.

We were interested in knowing how much personal networks affected Turing award winners.

We asked : was it significant when students wrote their dissertation under previous winners? Was it significant when they wrote articles together with them? Did this correlate with them winner the prize later?

Below, we present some pointers. We start by looking at the networks between PhD students and advisors. We find that there are many relationships binding future and past winners at this stage.

We then moved on to study relationships between co-authors and co-workers. Alan Perlis (1966) Allen Newell (1975) [1967] Herbert Simon (1975) [1967] John Cocke (1987) Frances [START_REF] Allen | recipient of the ACM Turing Award[END_REF]Allen ( ) [1971 97 ; 97 ;[START_REF]Relation of ACM to the World Outside ACM[END_REF] Table 17: Networks of Turing Award laureates, co-workers

Colleague(s)

Alan Perlis (1966) Allen Newell (1975) [Carnegie]

Herbert Simon (1975) [Carnegie]

John Cocke (1987) Frances Allen (2006) [IBM]

Kenneth Iverson (1979) Frederick Brooks (1999) [Harvard] Donald Knuth (1974) Robert Floyd (1978) [Stanford]

George Forsythe (ACM President) [Stanford] 97 Allen and Cocke 1972.

As a convention, we list the Turing Award winner with the earliest nomination on the left. In the case of colleagues, and co-authors, the direction of the relationship, and its structure, cannot be identified as readily as between PhD advisor and PhD Student : a PhD advisor advises the student and commonly 905 has many students. Besides the immediate relationships between Turing award laureates, we found significant the relationships they had indirectly through common, prominent computer scientists :

We lastly found significant that many Turing laureates had studied or been advised by very prominent figures of computer science, which certainly must have helped in getting their work exposed to the ACM or the Turing committee.

Sutherland was advised by Shannon, Iverson and Brooks as already mentioned by Howard Aiken.

9. Gender (1) : the ACM council and Turing Award jury (1947-2018) In three successive sections, we study the incidence of gender in the context of computer science and the Turing Award in particular. We answer successively : how are women represented within 1. the jury of the award 2. the ACM as a whole 3. the Turing Award itself.

In large parts, the history that we write, the statistics we drew from the various archives, left little place for other, alternative narratives, is a history of exclusion. In her history of the ACM, Cochran remarks that "Sammet was the first woman to lead ACM and became president after many years of activity in the association"114 . This is to say that for the first 27 years of its existence the ACM had only had male presidents.

A review of the ACM council unveils further that in the first 25 years of its existence, it had only had male presidents and male vice-presidents.

Further, for the first forty years of its existence, the ACM had only been been succesful in finding two qualified and willing female presidents : Adele Goldberg followed in the footsteps of Sammet exactly a decade later.

By the time it had existed for half a century, the ACM had only had three female presidents : Jean Sammet, from 1974 to 1976, Adele Goldberg, from 1984 to 1986, and Gwen Bell, from 1992 to 1994.

The ACM, we do not know when this tradition started, but it existed at least in 1975, publishes letters by acting presidents : in them, they for instance outline their vision for the ACM or discuss current issues within the organization (e.g. lacking finances) amongst other things.

In trying to better understand, gender relations, especially at its highest echelon, of which we know from other domains, that it is there that gender inequalities are the most intense, to the detriment of women who are rarely present at such a level115 , we looked at the "president's letters" of Jean Sammet.

We were all the more surprised when Sammet entitled hers, a series of six letters of roughly two pages each, " By the turn of the 20th century, something happened within the ACM, or perhaps it was the changes in society that made the ACM change, that made it 116 We assume that UUID, a large number that serves to uniquely identify pieces of software or hardware on computers, or the system as a whole, and agent-based modeling, a statisticalcomputational technique used to predict behaviors based on data collected on (about) individuals or groups, for instance potential criminal activity as infered or determined from various personal characteristics, are what Sammet refers to here. It would be hard to pinpoint what pieces of legislation she meant, possibly none in particular as she also hints at the future, but note that two years before she wrote this the Privacy Act of 1974 had been enacted in her country ; whose purpose it was to establish a framework under which personally identifiable information could be gathered about individuals by US federal agencies. 117 Sammet 1996 : 53. 118 Toland 2017. 119 Weber and Gilchrist 1975 : 417-418.

so that its gender politics, as we can tell externally from looking at the statistics, were radically redefined to include women.

But, it took the ACM almost sixty years to start actively looking for female staff at its highest level. This, we conclude from the sudden (abrupt) jump in frequency at which women start to appear as presidents of the ACM starting with the term of Gwen Bell : in short succession, Barbara Simons (1998-2000), Maria Klawe (2002-2004) and Wendy Hall (2008-2010) were elected president.

In the case of the US-based ACM, we believe that of much importance are the events immediately preceding and accompanying the nomination of Bell in the years 1991 and 1992.

The first saw the highly publicized testimony of Anita Hill against then Supreme Court nominee, now member Clarence Thomas, whose assistant she had been at the Department of Education and the EEOC, for sexual harassment 120 . This was followed in 1992, the latter dubbed "Year of the Woman", by a wave of women elected to Senate and House the following year. But, as a retrospective editorial of the New York Times makes clear : "The law changed, too. The month after the hearings, Congress passed a law that allowed sexual harassment victims to seek damage awards as well as back pay and reinstatement." 121

In 1993, the Vienna Declaration and Programme of Action was adopted by the United Nations in June of 1993. It read : "The full and equal participation of women in political, civil, economic, social and cultural life, at the national, regional and international levels, and the eradication of all forms of discrimination on grounds of sex are priority objectives of the international community".

From all the information that we have at our disposal, we can only assume 120 This made the front page of several widely distributed national magazines and newspapers such as Time, whose October 21 1991 issue was entitled "America's watershed debate on sexual harassment". This was followed by the October 28 issue of People, whose title read : "Anita Hill put the issue on the front page." In New York, where the ACM is headquarted, this also made the front page of the New York Post, "Hill Passes Lie Detector", it read in bold print on October 14 of that same year. (Refer to the appendix for this) See appendix 2) 121 New York Times 2011.

that the ACM took note of these wider changes within society, be it in law, in popular opinion, in politics, in the media or in the workplace, at the highest of international levels.

To provide some more context, and to better situate the changes within the ACM in comparison to the wider technology world, we have looked at the practices of big technology companies during that same period.

We picked those companies that were the most relevant to our study of the Turing award in the sense that these are the companies were many of them were employed. Gender-exclusionary practices are common place and have been common

place for decades at big technology companies such as IBM and Intel, if we take the way they look at and treat how they select their leadership as measurement.

As such we should look at the ACM's own practices a little less harshly : it had committed, beginning at the latest in the 1990s, to correct its gender gap.

But, the ACM only appears progressive in comparison to peers who have, in some cases, century old track records of ignoring women for its highest executive position.

We know from other research, that individuals, when expressing opinions on women's rights or

LGBT individuals, answer differently depending on the setting and their interlocutor The jury for the award is consistently skewed towards men. At no point, in the interval that we have had access to, which encompasses seven years of committee changes, though incomplete in some parts, were we able to observe a jury that was in majority women. At best, there was a short equilibrium 136 .

At worst, men outnumbered women 7 to 1 in the jury of the Turing Award 137 .

1115

This means that, on average, for the period from 2012 to 2018, more than double the men sat on the jury of the Turing award than did women (approximately 15 men for every 7 women).

There is much to believe, based on our review of ACM council staff, for which we had access to much older archives, as well as other information presented 1120 elsewhere here, that gender ratios within the jury of the Turing award were for long periods of time during its history, especially in earlier decades, of the kind we observed and possibly much worse.

Because the committee headed by a chair, we also provide information on this : in 2012, Ravi Sethi was chair, in 2013, Adele Goldberg, in 2014, Barbara Liskov, in 2015, Michael Jordan, in 2016, David Salesin, in 2017, Alfred Spector, who still holds that position at the time of this writing.

We have no information on the powers and prerogatives of the chair and as such cannot elaborate on this.

Gender (2) : Winners and losers

We turn now to the laureates. We avoid here explicitly the term winners, as, we find that, there are losers among the winners. And, that demographic is women.

Table 24: In any case, these drastic changes can probably be viewed as fitting inside wider movements, demands and reforms within society, in the U.S. and many parts of the rest of the world.

Note that this also coincides, as we show elsewhere here, with changes within the governance of the ACM itself that make it so that women begin to be elected as presidents of the ACM starting in the mid-1990s ; and we have much reason to believe similar changes to take place in the Turing Award committee, though this cannot be said for certain without access to the relevant archives. As such, we cannot help but ask : was the jury unable to find qualified female applicants in previous decades, in fact for much of its history, because the ACM itself was an institution that did not value, or otherwise encourage, and at least objectively did not practice diversity within its governance? Do women start to appear among the winners of the prize at the beginning of this century, because at the turn of the previous one the ACM started appointing women as presidents and included them in the jury of the prize as well?

That an award dedicated to computer science need not necessarily be this way, we can ascertain by looking at other, similar awards' practices, in this case we have consistently used the IEEE, the other big association relevant to computing and computer science, as reference point and specifically its Computer Pioneer Award.

In the case of the Computer Pioneer Award, the first award made to a woman was in the year 1997, Frances Snyder-Holberton, which puts it almost 10 years before the same was done for Frances Allen by the Turing Award. This means, put otherwise, that it took the IEEE and the Committee of the Computer Pioneer Award about 15 years to reward women with its highest distinction in the discipline since its creation in 1981.

Finally, we asked : how long did it take for women to be recognized for their work, in the context of the Turing award, compared to their male peers or counterparts? On average, it took women 10 years longer than their male counterparts to obtain the Turing award. This, we measured by calculating the difference between the year of birth of Turing winners and the year they won the award.

Frances Allen, the first woman to win the award, was 74 at the time of her nomination, Barbara Liskov 69, and Shafi Goldwasser, who has obtained the award the most recently of all three, 54. This makes Allen the third oldest

Turing award winner ever and Liskov the tenth. On both of these projects, Y and ACS, Allen collaborated with John Cocke, who was seven years her senior and was also key in the development of the RISC architecture.

Together they wrote a series of articles and reports that reflected much of In recognition of her contributions, the ACM wrote in her Turing citation that it had awarded her its highest distinction : "For pioneering contributions to the theory and practice of optimizing compiler techniques that laid the foundation for modern optimizing compilers and automatic parallel execution."

And, yet, it awarded Cocke and Allen the Turing Award in 1987 and 2006 respectively. This is to say that between both nominations lie almost 20 years.

Is is important to mention in this context, that, compared to the IEEE's own 144 The IBM 7090 mainframe computer. 145 The IBM System/360 mainframe.

146 See Allen at al. 1980 for an overview of this project.

147 Unless otherwise stated, the sources for these information are : the practices, the gap between Cocke's and Allen's nomination for the Computer Pioneer Award is similar. The latter prize was awarded to both of them in 1989 and 2004 respectively hence a gap in differentiated recognition of 15 years (versus 19 years).

Margaret Rossiter who has looked at the wider history of women in science in the USA and has written what is to our knowledge the reference text on the subject for that country, the three-volume Women Scientists in America, has sought to generalize her findings by postulating the "Matilda Effect" in science.

In the abstract to her seminal article, she writes : "Recent work has brought to light so many cases, historical and contemporary, of women scientists who have been ignored, denied credit or otherwise dropped from sight that a sexlinked phenomenon seems to exist"152 .

Perhaps the best example for such phenomena is the fate of Lise Meitner, who not only had to overcome the great prejudices of her times against women in both secondary and higher education153 , as the second woman ever to obtain a PhD in physics at the University of Vienna154 , but whose 30 year collaboration with Otto Hahn had for outcome that he only was awarded the Nobel prize.

Much of the same could be written about Marie Curie, the first woman to win the Nobel, whose 1903 Nobel prize in physics was only jointly awarded to her as well as her husband, in addition to Becquerel, on account of the intervention of prominent Swedish mathematician Mittag-Leffler ; and other important female scientists of past periods.

In the preface to her monograph on female Nobel winners, Folsing writes :

"At the yearly Nobel Prize ceremony, in Stockholm, the Swedish king almost only deals with an assortment of men. Women, if at all, appear to the ceremony as wives and as such fulfill a role barely more than decorative. Only in the most exceptional of cases is a female scientist able to join the laureate ranks." 155 She lists four additional women whose contributions were overshadowed by that their male colleagues with regard to the Nobel : Mileva Maric, and Albert Einstein, Chien Shiung Wu, and Tsung Dao Lee and Chen Ning Yang, Rosalind

Franklin, and Francis Crick, James Watson and Maurice Wilkins, and Jocelyn

Bell Burnell, and Anthony Hewish. But, let us go back to computer science, and the Turing Award.

Drawing on the work of Rossiter, computer scientist Lynn Conway, who was a colleague of Allen and Cocke 156 , has spoken of "the erasure of women" in computer science, partly based on her own experiences and her work on VLSI design and at IBM 157 .

A summary search reveals that now their important introductory textbook 158 on the topic can be regularly found attributed to Carver Mead only while their legacy is in the process of crystallizing as "Mead & Conway revolution" 159 .

In her case, her accomplishments were long unknown and her scientific legacy further complicated by the fact that she was a transgender woman and that her previous accomplishments were cut off from her new identity and life. Due to this, her education, at MIT, was interrupted and she was later fired from IBM shortly after she came out 160 .

11. Gender (3) : gendered research : the labor division within computer science. The gendered division of research topics

In following developments, we take a closer look at what we call the "labor division within computer science", which sees men, depending on whichever hierarchy is currently in place, active and overrepresented in the most prestigious 155 Folsing 1991 : 7. Our translation. 156 Conway was staff at IBM and also worked on the ACS project, see areas of computer science, with women computer scientists in employment in others.

Indeed, we see no coincidence in the fact that the most prominent women computer scientists all did work in software-related areas like compilers, as Allen did, like Hopper did, and the "original ladies of the ENIAC". They did so because men were busy doing the real work of machine design, like Cocke himself did, like Neumann did before him, and he whomever he may be who came before them.

Regarding this balance of tasks, Alan Kay has said of his employment of programmer in the US Army in the early 1960s :

"They needed programmers. This was back in the days when programming was a low status profession and most of the programmers were women. My boss was a woman. They also were taking linguists who had served in Europe when they came back to the United States. It was actually a pretty interesting bunch. I had a friend who was a black guy who did what today we would call an operating system." 161 This is in complete reversal with our knowledge of current happenings in the technology sector, where the most prestigious positions are all within software (e.g. AI, ML) while women may be found, if at all, in systems engineering jobs, or subaltern accounting or support positions, often the only women present at these companies 162 .

The labor division within computer science research can be traced back to its very beginnings : Babbage created the analytical engine, while Ada wrote programs for it, wrote a report for it and helped document/promote it. What was unexpected, however, was that it was she, an amateur mathematician with little more than basic knowledge of mathematics as one historian of science 161 Shasha and Lazere 1995. 162 This relies on ethnographic observations.

highlights 163 , would be the one to understand and theorize on the true nature and important role of the new machin. She understood clearly, and wrote accordingly in her notes, that it was its potential to compute more than just numbers that mattered 164 .

This divide between machines (contemporaneously called "systems" 165 , also alternatively referred to as "hardware", "computer architecture", "computer systems", or indeed simply "systems", and in past centuries as "engines") and software is at the heart of many developments within computer science. Historically, women have made contributions in those areas, men in the former ones. This is all the more significant, as the formerly prestigious area of hardware systems originally populated primarily by men has become subordinate to computational software developments (AI) and this balance is now reversed.

In the following we ask the questions : what areas have attracted female

Turing award winners? Ultimately is there a link between gender and research areas?

To answer this, we looked at the various domains of computer science that Turing award winners had made contributions in and correlated them with gender (of which the following table is the outcome).

We listed the areas in descending order according to the number of women that we found in them (as a percentage of total Turing award winners within these areas) together with other key areas 166 . 165 Although, this is also applied to (large) software and although this can also mean virtual machines. 166 The full table is available in the appendix

Operating Systems 1 (25%)

Computational Complexity 1 (14%) Cryptography 1 (14%)

Programming Languages 1 (11%)

Computer Architecture 0%

Computer Hardware 0%

Computer Systems 0%

Of 32 total areas listed by the ACM, 5 only feature women, or 15%. They are : compilers, operating systems, computational complexity, cryptography and programming languages. In turn, this also means that 27 areas are completely void of women : the Turing Award committee seems to come to the conclusion that in all of those 27 areas there were no women that had made "lasting contributions" that were on the same level as those of the men whose work had respectively been recognized as worthy of the distinction.

The areas from which women are absent include much of systems, algorithms (combinatorial algorithms, analysis of algorithms) and various other fields of mathematics (e.g. numerical analysis, numerical methods).

The table reveals on the other hand "feminine" areas of computing, which is to say areas of computing were women are not only active but were judged worthy of the prize, we list them again here with their respective percentages : compilers (33%), operating systems (25%), computational complexity (14%), cryptography (14%) and programming languages (11%).

This fits with our general knowledge of the historic participation of women in computing, which saw them mostly working with programming languages during and after WW2167 .

The percentages that we indicate are mostly useful in the sense that they give indications as to gender ratios and the proportion of men vs. women working within certain areas, with compilers and operating systems, both strongly connected domains, and often taught in combination, being the most "feminine" areas of computer science, at least based on the historical statistics drawn from the Turing Award.

1350

In the following we attempt a broad classification of areas that go beyond the results exhibited previously168 . Note : categories are not listed alphabetically, but by order of number of women, then degree (including of certainty) to which the individual category belongs to the overarching one (e.g. Software, Systems, etc.).

1355

To provide some more context for these developments and to extrapolate on them, we try to integrate these findings into the broader history of women's place in computing.

It is interesting that the history of computers, computer science and com-puting in general, should be so strange. Indeed, it subverts much of our current notions on the role and place of women within technology. There they operate various, for the most part experimental machines, and program their novel systems, while here they are grossly underrepresented, in education, in industry, in academia and various other places.

Early computer pioneers, starting with Ada Lovelace in the previous century, were in fact women. Babbage created the analytical engine, but she was the one who understood its purpose was much bigger than just that of calculator.

"It might act upon other things besides number", she wrote in her notes 169 .

Women in computing are met again during WW2 when men became unavailable and thus many women were thrusted into technological employment, as someone had to operate the emerging wave of computers after all. They became typists, programmers, they punched cards to be processed by these new machines, some made extraordinary contributions, in fact many of the early programming languages and compilers were the works of women.

In the late 1950s, as men had come back from duty, women were courted by big companies such as IBM, presumably because they were the ones who had primarily operated computers during the war and as such had the most experience. In one famous brochure, from the "My Fair Ladies" campaign, a typewritter with flowers overlaid on top catered to women especially 170 .

In the 1960s and 1970s, it had become common for major manufacturers of computers to display women as objects of their advertisements : they were alternatively seen typing while holding manuals, filing various tapes and in one ad a woman wearing high heel boots and not much else is stepping on a computer 171 .

In the late 2010s, male recruits in major Chinese tech companies such as Baidu, the leading search engine in that country among other things, and Alibaba, a leader in e-commerce, are lured with promises of working in the same 169 Lovelace 1843. 170 See appendix.

171 See appendix company as attractive young women : one is dancing on a pole while two other's presumably scripted dialogue include the line "I love tech boys" 172 .

A brief history of women in computing sees them going from amateur mathematicians to programmer typists to ad-pinups, from 1850 to the present, with a very late recognition starting to happen at the end of the last century when the IEEE gave its higest distinction in computing to one of the original ladies of the ENIAC, Frances Snyder-Holberton, in 1997 and when the ACM followed in 2006 by giving Frances Allen its Turing Award.

12. Ethnicity and the Turing Award

We use "race", because of its prevalence in US-centric discussions and use that term, as it is commonly understood there, equivalently with ethnicity.

Looking at the ethnicity or "race" of Turing award winners, we come to the conclusion that here as well entire groups are objectively excluded from its select -both academically and also socially as we have shown -pool of winners.

In a first attempt, we use birth place as proxy and reassess previously presented data to this effect. None of them are American-African or Hispanic.

The table we established based on this knowledge and our findings, may not be perfect but it should be attempted : Over 90% of Turing laureates are white and only 7% are non-white.

To establish this, and to provide more evidence, we have also approached the problem from another perspective. The ACM provides not only biographies from

Turing Award laureates, but also photographies. We have used this ressource as well.

We proceeded to make a collage from them by using simple HTML code to load the images of Turing winners directly from the ACM website. The original provisions of the Nobel prize did not -and sometimes could not -include a number of subjects, such a prominently mathematics or economics.

Another one is computer science, which only became an individual discipline during the 1960s. In the case of mathematics, the Fields Medal serves as the discipline's highest distinction176 . From other perspectives, much has been written, but effectively not enough, about the erasure of various groups from the scientific enterprise, particularly and most obvious women 178 .

In the case of the Turing, there was no such obvious attempt to use the stature of another prize. Instead the creators used the name of arguably the most iconic of all computer scientists ; both due to his foundational contributions in many fields of the discipline, but also for his involvement in decrypting the Nazi codes during WW2 as well as for the more remarkable aspects of his personal life. This is most evident in the ACM promotional video entitled "The origins of hosts a collection of materials relating to the event, redirects to it as "Promotional Video". We hypothesize that this may have been the context for its creation. 177 Lebaron 2002. 178 The most authoritative account of the history of women in science is perhaps Rossiter's three-volume monograph called Women Scientists in America. For Europe, see the work of Annette Vogt amongst others.

179 "A.M. Turing Award Video". https://amturing.acm.org/amtv.cfm. The title or mention "The origins of the ACM A.M. Turing Award" stands above the video as well. This page links to https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=f_8s451zYYE entitled "The ACM A.M. Turing Award". 180 The platform on which the video is hosted, YouTube, gives the following indication "Published on 16 Jan 2013", but we believe the date of its creation to be 2011. This is based on the following URL, delivery.acm.org/10.1145/2330000/2322176/AMTuringACM2011.mp4 (note that this URL has been stripped from parameters, as its delivery is dependent on various individual information such as IP, it is not directly accessible). The URL https: //dl.acm.org/citation.cfm?id=2322176, title "ACM Turing Centenary Celebration", which fight before the 1972 Referendum on whether Norway should become member of the European Common Market, he worked as coordinator for the large majority of youth organizations that worked against membership. He also was the leader (1990-1995) In the biographies of the laureates it publishes, the ACM neither blends out politics, nor family life, nor marrital details, and the various conclusions that can be drawn from those as to sexual orientation or political affiliation or societal attitudes. We can only assume that, if it did not consider them to be irrelevant in the case of Turing, they must have then been inconvenient.

Biographical details are only welcome as long as they fit the mainstream image of heterosexuality where sexuality is concerned, while, well noted, digressions are permitted in all other thinkable domains of politics and personal health (from one winner, we learn of his chain smoking habits through his Turing Award biography) and marriage and divorce.

"John was renowned for the breadth of his intellect, for his energy, for his insightsand for his unconventional working methods. He often wandered the halls of IBM seeking out colleagues to chat with. He was a chain smoker, so an effective method of locating him was to follow the trail of his cigarette butts in the ash trays." 184 This omission has also to be pointed out for another reason, namely that according to mathematician Andrew Hodges, author of the classic (authoritative) 1983 biography of (on) Turing called The Egnima, Alan had "played a central role in world history", not for his politics, or lack thereof, but rather this was because "it was his individual freedom of mind, including his sexuality, that 183 Turing Award biography of Kristen Nygaard. 184 Turing Award biography of John Cocke. mattered" 185 .

One might even be tempted to use the words that professor Hofstadter has used when talking of Sara Turing, the mother of Alan Turing, "whitewash" 186 , and conclude that the ACM found attractive the idea of naming their prize after the most iconic of all computer scientists, but found very advantage in the notion that this man had also lived a life outside of mainstream society and been homosexual.

At a minimum, we must paraphrase him in writing that this was most likely because the organizers of the prize, like his mother, "wore conventional blinders and did not want to see, let alone say" 187 . In fully embracing the name and legacy of Turing, the ACM could have contributed to the progressive civil rights movements of the times that saw the creation of the award in the late 1960s, by stating all that he had been, the resilience he had shown both in science and life 188 . And, that in any case they had used his name, the name of another man, because it was those kinds of characteristics they hoped to see in future winners (in addition to scientific merit).

But, it seems that, even now, this is a part of Alan Turing's life and legacy the ACM would rather not be seen associated with openly. It cherry picked parts from his biography, only those parts it deemed the best, creating a fairy tale of a well-fitted, neither too modest, for he had been a great man and this was to be an equally great prize, nor too abrasive portrait of a complex person 185 Hodges 2014 : xv. 186 Hodges 2014 : xii. 187 Hodges 2014 : xiii. 188 Alan Turing was subject of a lawsuit on 31st of March 1952, Regina v. Turing and Murray. Considering his status and the nature of the lawsuit ("gross indecency" based on the Criminal Law Amendment Act 1885, a Victorian era legal phrase for gay sex), it seems likely that in the following almost 15 years between this event and the creation of the Turing award, knowledge of this must have been public, including in America. Hodges refers to one newspaper article from that period ("University Reader Put on Probation. To have Organo-Therapic Treatment" by the Wilmslow newspaper) and also cites an episode where Turing announced the events to Max Newmann in the refectory, presumably of the University of Manchester, "in a particularly loud voice", for all to hear. See Hodges 2014 : 464, 471, 472. But, he also writes that during the inquest, which had been attended by "a row of journalists", "nothing was mentioned that hinted at sex, the trial, blackmail or anything of the kind" and that following this event "the national press made remarkably little of it, and nothing was said regarding the 1952 trial". For this, see Hodges 2014 : 488.

; an image of a person that is ultimately non-existent for no one lives, not even the greatest of mathematicians, not even and everyone knows not Archimedes, in the abstract, otherworldly confines of mathematical research alone ; the same kind of willful denial and misplaced politeness that had made Turing's existence so hard and ultimately tragic in lifetime, and his place inside the rigid structures left over by Victorian society so unlivable, painful and strange189 . This is all the more incomprehensible and incompatible with a view of a computer science prize that only cared about intrinsically scientific discoveriesif such a view was tenable, to which many philosophers and historians of science would have a very different one to oppose, one grounded in the actual, historical development of sciences -as the Turing Award pages inject many elements from personal life into the biographies they craft for the Turing laureates, highlighting often the most original and colorful aspects of their personalities and livesthis winner worked as a store clerk after emigrating to America and another was a poor student throughout high school -in portraits that ultimately culminate in a synthesis of scientific advancements and personal life, often deeply interwoven, and where biography has a value other than (is not) merely accidental or incidental or otherwise anecdotal.

Alan Turing was born in 1912. He died in 1953 at age 41. Neither Bletchley Park, nor his much quoted paper of 1936 gives us any insight into the anomaly that was his shortened life or helps us understand much of it, but an authentic portrait would. He died prematurely because he had the misfortune of being born into a society whose entire fabric, founded on the latest of scientific, political, psychological, psychiatric, judicial, criminal and societal consensus, seemed to agree, for the most part, that homosexuality was wrong and abnormal and that those who were it thus deserved reprobation, prison and exclusion from normal lives ; a society deeply unkind to and unfit for people like him. For this, he lost his employment and underwent chemical castration to avoid imprisonment.

He killed himself shortly after 190

We must mention that subsequently, there has been disagreement about the nature of Turing's death, much of it originating from his mother, Sara Turing, who argued early on it was an accident 191 . However, we also know from Hodges that she had a strong inclination for shaping her son's legacy according to her own preconceptions and wishes, rather than truth 192 . This thesis was later reactivated by Jack Copeland in his book Turing. Pioneer of the Information Age, in which he goes to great length to discuss all thinkable alternatives, including murder, whilst also simultaneously paying extraordinarily little concern to the social context 193 Further, he employs, by choice or ignorance, none of the critical tools that are common place amongst historians where the use of primary sources are concerned. Of Sara Turing's biography, he comments for instance naively "Turing's mother Sara provides an intimate and often amusing picture of him in her biography" 194 . In this, Hodges' discussion of the role of Sara Turing in shaping her son's legacy immediately after his death, and the ways she has constructed her biography, her narrative choices, and the incomplete source material she has drawn from, is far superior 195 . The influence of her biography cannot be understated as this served as source for many publications during the 1960s and 1970s 196 . Chris Bernhardt follows Copeland in his own book, Turing's Vision, but provides no new information 197 .

We were not able to find any references anywhere on the pages of the ACM to any of these events and with certainty not in the video that is meant to introduce the award. In this context, we also reviewed the 2012 "ACM Turing Centenary Celebration" : its event program 198 , a 20-page brochure/pamphlet, also does not mention any of these details. Interestingly enough, however, the first panel is dedicated to "Turing the man", but it relegates history largely to the episodic narration of "amusing incidents" 199 and its role to little more than that of cocktail party entertainment. We also reviewed the content produced on the occasion of the 50th anniversary of the Turing award in 2017 and were neither there able to find any comprehensive biography of the man they had chosen to name their prize after. For this event, they produced a 5 minute video, as well as a shorter 2 minute version, and it both cases as soon as the "Computing and Machinery Intelligence" part of Turing's biography is reached, published in 1950, or 2 years before his death, the narration abruptly comes to a stop 200 . These are the politics of careful attribution by which one is able to claim for themselves the stature, not of an older prize, as the so-called "Nobel in economics" had done, but of a great man who had preceded them, and whose many noteworthy accomplishments presumably made him palatable to the committee when settling on a name for their newly created prize, without having to deal with those deemed less consensual or perhaps marketable parts that make up a person's life. 201 But, from his biographers we know now that Alan Turing "took no particular pains to hide [his sexuality]"202 at a time when homosexuality was a criminal offense (punished by imprisonment and what was in many cases, objectively, the death of one's social life). Alan Turing had lived an authentic personal life, as much as the society he had lived in, and their (dominant) belief system, permitted. And, it was this that was whitewashed.

Essential to giving legitimacy to the criminalization of homosexuality were scientific societies like the ACM : they gave scientific seating to the aforementioned laws and policies. In the case of homosexuality, one association particularly stands out, the APA, the American Psychiatric Association, responsible for the formulation of the DSM203 , a large body of prescriptive text used by psychologists and psychiatrists in the treatment of their patients that has both national and international influence204 . In its first edition, DSM I, published in 1952, the APA classified homosexuality amongst mental disorders under the overarching category of "000-x60 Sociopathic Personality Disturbance" as "000-x63 Sexual deviation", along with "pedophilia, fetishism and sexual sadism (including rape, sexual assault, mutilation)."

Conclusion

We wanted to make sense of complex human behaviors, linked to academic and career choices, and, perhaps more importantly, look at them rationally where otherwise common sense and passion might prevail, and hopefully demystify the rules that govern professional and academic trajectories and successes, particularly those prone to idealism, because particularly notable, distinguished.

This paper sought to offer both an evidence-based overview of computer science grounded in statistical analysis as well as an anti-thesis to idealist conceptions of scientific development.

Our results were that, contrary to ideals of abilities alone determining success or recognition within the sciences that several factors had a disproportionate importance. We found that gender and network, as objectified among)others by a systematic review of PhD advisors, colleagues and co-authors, play a big role in making future Turing Award winners. And further, in particular, that gender not only played a role in making careers, but influenced the choice of research topics following a pattern of historical bias. So far, only 3 women have received the prestigious prize215 .

But beyond this, we also came to the conclusion that diversity was not only absent when reviewing the laureates, but that the award itself had sought to erase diversity in the very act of naming the prize after Alan Turing on the basis on a carefully constructed biography that omitted much of his life and struggles as a homosexual computer scientist in the early 20th century. His sexuality, we often hear, or read, did not play a role, and he himself is portrayed as not having wanted to become a gay icon, but it is not doing so, to recognize that his work as a scientist was made harder because of it, that it was interrupted by it and that his early interests in science may have stemmed from an early love216

The Turing Award represents what it seeks to objectively, at least impartially recognize : a field that for the most part, though through many clever marketing tricks it tries to make appear otherwise, remains closed off to much of the population, women, visible minorities, and much of the world demographic outside of the United States and Europe.

A growing field within the social sciences is preoccupied with the "reflexivity" of measurements, that is to say the effects that rankings, of which awards are one variety, have on the reality they try or claim to capture ; in other words what Marx had long called before them "real effects". The Turing Award is a prime example of such an occurrence. It does not find women, because it does not reward women. It does not find minorities to reward, because it does not reward minorities.

This was, essentially, the history of the Turing award in the 20th century.

Will it operate differently in this one?

We have raised some questions, important questions as we felt, that we do we were not always able to answer. But, we have done our best to present the evidence and where mistakes were made, they were honest.

We anticipate or hope they will be useful to those, in the present, in the here and now of the 21st century CE, who are entangled in the contemporary debates around gender gaps in technology, in politics, in the universities, among presidents of scientific organizations, such as the ACM, or private companies such as IBM and its many new competitors.

To questions such as "what is the point of all this?", we can only say that, and maintain that, there is intrinsic value in uncovering these happenings.

It is significant perhaps that when the ACM ordered, we assume, a book to be made on its history and released it last year, none of the research, and none of the researchers, sought to study these questions 217 .

217 Its index table features a total of five 5 entries relating to the Turing Award. Nikivincze does point out that so far only 3 women have won the Turing Award in the context of her study of female PhDs in computer science. In the same volume, Toland has done remarkable work on the SIGCAS, the Special Interest Group on Computers and Society, of the ACM : see Toland 2017, in particular the appendix.

Communities of Computing is described as "the first book-length history of the Association for Computing Machinery (ACM)". "Featuring insightful profiles of notable ACM leaders (...) and honest assessments of controversial episodes, the volume deals with compelling and complex issues involving ACM and computing."

It warns, it "is not a narrow organizational history of ACM committees and SIGs 218 ", but it does not consider that it is precisely the history of these and other committees and institutions, even from the perspective of the most conservative of organizational histories, as long as it counted and numbered who had done what when and for how long, very much as we have done here essentially, for the Turing Award committee, the ACM leadership, and the rest, that would have given them the information they needed to come to similar conclusions (as we have).

Over the years, the ACM has shown great concern in its history and has made many efforts to preserve and write its own history, starting with the very first issue of its first journal, when its president, Samuel Wilson, wrote about the functioning of the association in its first 6 years 219 . This was followed up in the early 1960s when it asked its fourth president, Franz Alt, to do the same 220 .

But, in many ways, because it limited these efforts to what it disavows now as "mere institutional history", it never quite tackled the issues that might in fact have mattered, on a personal level 221 , and few others matter more, to the people that it employed : to the women it did not promote to top roles in particular, to the many women it did not consider for the Turing Award, and the award itself for which it created a partial biography of a man, mirroring much of what it had done for its own.

218 SIGs are specific interest groups within the ACM, each dedicated to one area of computing or computer science. Actors have a view of history, and their own most of all. But, that is only one thing. And, it is explicitly not enough for historians to give their own of theirs. The other, just as important, are the structures they live in, and those that determine their lives, not completely, but in some ways certainly. History, as we understand it, as one of the social sciences, begins at the meeting of these two levels, between subjectively felt and structural reality.

-In Europe, the major centers of computing are barely a mystery : in England, Cambridge, Oxford and London, in Switzerland, Zurich and Lausanne, in Scotland, Edinburgh. And, so, the question is rather which researchers will do the work and more pragmatically which institutions will support them.

In 1993, mathematician and computer pioneer (scientist) Herman Goldstine, one of the creators of the ENIAC, the first electronic digital computer, wrote in the preface to The Computer from Pascal to von Neumann, a history he had himself shaped : "It is now 20 years (...) ; the world has been totally changed by the impact of the computer on our ways of thinking and acting. We all know, or at least sense, the many ways in which computer technology and its applications have modified our lives and ways of thought. They are so manifold that it would serve no useful purpose for me to detail examples here." 222 The history of computer science and computing cannot be premature. It is belated, but at this point, better late than never.

"Without the right to tinker and explore, we risk becoming enslaved by technology"223 according to computer scientist Andrew Huang. Historians, particularly historians of science, have a crucial role to play in this context. And a responsibility too. They do so at much less risk than the "applied sociologists" of this world and the next.

-

We quoted Brecht at the beginning of this paper, according to whom because things were the way the way they were, they do not need to stay the way they are.

1765

History is one of the primary tools by which we can bring strangeness into our present and turbulence and cracks into a seemingly well structured and homogeneous surface, folly and unreason into a we are assured well-adjusted present ; it helps us step back from our daily lives and gives us the means to reconsider the normal, current order of things as, objectively, one version of 1770 many possible and attainable others.

In this century, data has become the currency with which we pay for a variety of services. We pay for them by exchanging our memories. But, they, who rob us of our dreams, rob us of our lives.

hacking at the PDP-6. "What are you doing?", asked Minsky. "I am training a randomly wired neural net to play Tic-tac-toe", Sussman replied. "Why is the net wired randomly?", asked Minsky.

"I do not want it to have any preconceptions of how to play", Sussman said. Minsky then shut his eyes. "Why do you close your eyes?" Sussman asked his teacher. "So that the room will be empty."

  considering that the Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Sciences at Berkeley was only founded in 1973 while the Department of Computer Science which preceded it had only been or begin to be established in 1968 20 .

  widely celebrated figures such as Perlis, McCarthy and Naur. This gives insight into the strategies of a newly established prize and what happens when a prize seeks to reward the same accomplishments as a previous one, but has to deal 320 54 See appendix.

  studied. Specific questions included : what proportion had attended the 3 or 4 universities that have crystallized as the main centers for computer science education and research at the end of the 20th century and the beginning of this century in the USA? Currently, they are commonly understood as being MIT, Berkeley and Stanford and although they all cover the entire spectrum, their areas of strength have 55 At the time of this writing, which is to say up to and including the 2018 laureates. 56 European Association for Theoretical Computer Science. historically been, hence their reputation as a leading center for computer science founded on, among other things : -MIT : Artificial Intelligence (AI Lab, founded by Minsky* and McCarthy*); -Stanford : (Analysis of) Algorithms (Knuth*, Floyd*) -Berkeley : Theory of Computing (Karp*).

  findings are at odds with what the ACM writes about the Turing Award in its fact sheet. In one passage, it emphasizes : "Turing Laureates have hailed from countries around the world including Canada, China, Denmark, India, Latvia, Netherlands, Norway, Israel, Italy, Switzerland, the United Kingdom and the United States." 83

  It's in the same general league as St. Mark's, Milton Academy and Browne and Nichols, those kinds of places. Both of my brothers and I got to go to Governor Dummer as day students with tuition paid by the town, which would not have been financially possible otherwise. -Interviewer. That was certainly very shrewd on his part. What were the particular subjects you were interested in when you were going to school? -Stonebraker. Well my SATs sort of say it all. I made 800 on the math SAT (...)" 93 Note 800 is the highest score attainable on the Math portion of the SAT, the standardized test used for colledge admission in the United States. Stonebraker himself went to Princeton after high school.

  years of the Turing award, 95% of recipients of the prize have been men. It took the jury of the Turing award 40 years to find its first qualified female (women) prize winner in Frances Allen, in 2006. Only 3 women won the Turing award between 1966 and 2016. They are Frances Allen, Barbara Liskov and Shafi Goldwasser. Their awards were all given in rapid succession, in 2006, 2008 and 2012. From scholarship written on other awards, we know that this is part of a very consistent pattern : of the Nobel Prize, a 1991 study of female laureates opens by saying that "barely 10 times has [it] been awarded to women since its creation in 1901." 138 Did the ACM and the Turing award change or did the world around them? 138 Folsing 1991.

  her practical work done at IBM on optimizing compilers such as the 1971 "A Catalog of Optimizing Transformations" 148 . These joint publications were preceded by Allen's own, including "Program Optimization", published internally in 1966 149 . In 1969 Cocke and Schwartz' Programming languages and their compilers was published at the Courant Institute, "an extremely good summary of the work done in the field" 150 , followed in 1970 by Cocke's own paper (research) on (compiler) optimization "Global common subexpression elimination" 151 .

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: ethnic and gender diversity amongst Turing winners

  of Norway's No to the EU movement, which argued against Norwegian membership of the European Union and led to victory in the 1994 referendum." 183

219

  Wilson 1954. 220 the result of which is the 1962 article listed in the bibliography.221 "Instead of repeating the abstruse technicalities of my trade, I would like to talk informally about myself, my personal experiences, my hopes and fears, my modest successes, and my rather less modest failures." With those words, started the Turing award lecture of Antony Hoare. SeeHoare 1980.

  20 "History -EECS at Berkeley". https://eecs.berkeley.edu/about/history 21 E.g. publications by authors Cole and Jackson in volume 147 of Nature from 1941 and Dunin's "The University ofLeyden, And America" in Paedagogica Historica, vol. 8, from 1968.

22

Lee 1972 : 488. 23 "Turing Award 50". https://www.acm.org/turing-award-50 24 Ibid.

  Turing awards are awarded once a year to one or many people. When an award is given to multiple people, this can be mean that it is either for collective work or for an innovation that has multiple, independent contributors 25 . It is presented each year in June 26 .Each winner has a citation, in which is explained the reasons for the nomination hence the work accomplished by the laureate and for which the award is given. This citation can be collective if the award is. Simon had already won the A. M. Turing Award, the top accolade for computer science, prompting computer scientists to refer to him as "our Nobel Prize winner" 33 . 34 But, to better understand the Turing Award we need to look at the ACM, which organizes and promotes and answer a series of questions : specifically, what is the ACM? Who leads it? What is the composition of the ACM Council? What is the composition of the jury of the Turing Award? What role do they play? This, we do in the following sections. The ACM also publishes multiple major computer science journals that are of much importance to the research and activities of computer scientists. Its oldest publications are the Journal of the ACM, first published in January 1954, Communications, January 1958, Computing Reviews, February 1960 and ACM Computing Surveys in March 1969 44 . Arguably best known is the Communications of the ACM. One type of publication, perhaps one of its outstanding features, found in Communications are algorithms 45 . They generally appear with accompagnying implementations in

The award is bound with a monetary prize. When it was established, the latter was of the amount of 1000 U.S. dollars 27 or the equivalent of about 7,500 current dollars. That prize money is now 1,000,000 dollars and has been since 2014 when Google became the primary, and possibly sole sponsor 28 . It is unclear, beyond what we know of the philanthropy practices of big corporations like it or family dynasties 29 , what Google's interests are in investing into the prize. But, we noted that multiple Turing award winners work or had worked for Google : Ken Thompson, where he was one of the creators of the Go programming language 30 and Vint Cerf, who is currently "vice president and Chief Internet Evangelist" according to his corporate page 31 , for example.

The Turing Award was able to establish itself as the top prize for computer scientists fairly quickly. Donald Knuth has referred to it as "the ultimate honor in our field" 32 . An early example of this, considering that the prize itself is relatively new when compared to other similar but more established awards, is further given by a necrology of Herbert Simon published in Science in 2001, where the author, Turing award laureate Edward Feigenbaum, writes : "Before his Nobel Prize, The Association for Computing Machinery is according to its own description "the world's largest computing society" 35 as well as the "world's largest educational and scientific society" 36 with over 100,000 members 37 . It was founded in 1947 in New York City as the Eastern Association for Computing Machinery at a meeting at Columbia University 38 . The notice for this meeting stated the purpose of the association to be : "to advance the science, development, construction, and application of the new machinery for computing, reasoning, and other handling of information." 39 In 1948 its name was changed to Association for Computing Machinery 40 . It has had offices in New York City since about 1953 41 and its headquarters are still located there 42 . It is "governed by a Council consisting of 16 members" and with the exception of the chair of the Publications Board they are elected by the members of the ACM for two-year terms 43 .

the ALGOL programming language 46 and are numbered in order of publication : e.g. Algorithm 32, Algorithm 33, etc.. A famous example is Algorithm 64, published in 1961 by Hoare, which defines the quicksort algorithm (a method of sorting arrays of items that is still widely taught and in wide use) 47 .

  Turing Award laureates : Backus, Perlis, Naur and McCarthy amongst others with further contributions by Wirth and Hoare (ALGOL W). 47 Hoare 1961. is to say about 15 years after the ACM. It promotes itself as the "the world's largest technical professional organization for the advancement of technology" 49 . In turn, the IEEE has its own awards. Of them the Computer Pioneer Award, established in 1981, is the closest to the Turing Award. Its list of recipients includes many of the same individuals 50 . Its medal features the effigy of Babbage, who, besides Turing, is arguably the most emblematic figure of the discipline due to his very early contributions, the Analytical Engine ; and would have been the next obvious choice, with a third option being between And, in fact, an Ada Lovelace award (already) exists, established by the Association for Women in Computing. As does a Von Neumann award in the form of the John von Neumann Theory Prize, for contributions to operations research. It was first awarded in 1975(, which is to say within 10 years of the Turing Award creation.

either Ada Lovelace, who has the advantage of priority and the disadvantage of womanhood, and Von Neumann, after which things become less clear, though Aiken would certainly be a candidate 51 . 52

Though, note, that, due to the nature of the IEEE, as an association dedicated to electrical and electronics engineers, this is not its highest distinction.

It is however its highest distinction where computer science is concerned. Its highest honor remains for now the IEEE Medal of Honor, which recognizes "exceptional contribution or an extraordinary career in the IEEE fields of interest", making its pool much broader than just computing. It has been awarded since 1917 53 . Table 1: ACM Turing and IEEE Computer Pioneer awards compared IEEE Computer Pioneer award ACM Turing award 49 https://www.ieee.org/ 50 See table below. 51

Table 2 :

 2 Shanghai Ranking of universities in computer science and

		engineering (2007-2017)
	Institution CS&ENG 2017 CS 2009-15 ENG 2010-16 ENG 2008-09 ENG 2007
	MIT	1	2	1	1	1
	Stanford	3	1	2	2	2
	Berkeley	2	3	3	4	5
	CS & ENG : Computer Science & Engineering.
	CS : Computer Science.
	ENG : Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences.
	Sources : see appendix for a (the full list of sources.
	In trying to establish this for earlier periods, we also relied on Lecuyer's
	history of Silicon Valley between 1930 and 1970, where only two universities
	appear in the index, a fact which is not only attributable to the geographical
	limitation to San Francisco : Stanford (26 times) and MIT (6) 58 .
	To this group, one can add : CMU, which had been preceded by Carnie
	Institute of Technology, featured in fourth place or higher in various rankings,

Table 3

 3

	: universities ranked by the number of Turing award winners
	(bachelor)
	Institution	Bachelor students n (%)
	Berkeley	6 (9%)
	Cambridge	4 (6%)
	Carnegie Mellon University*	4
	Harvard	4
	California Institute of Technology 3 (4%)
	MIT	3
	Oxford	3
	University of Chicago	3
	Duke	2
	Stanford	2
	Technion	2
	-Total Ivy League**	6 (9%)

Table 5 : Universities ranked by the number of Turing award win-

 5 On the West coast, they move towards Stanford and Berkeley. Robert Tarjan and Fernando Corbato both leave the California Institute of Technology for Stanford and MIT respectively. The University of Michigan knows a 200% increase at the postgraduate level.

	ners at the post-graduate level
	Institution	Students Previously 70 %
		in/decrease
	67 Karp 1999 : 148.
	68 Allen 2008.
	69 But, this is not a historical artifact only as recent contributions continue to come from
	mathematicians e.g. Ryan Dahl, creator of Node.js, is a mathematician by training.
	70 At bachelor level.

Meanwhile Michigan State looses its only student.

Another notable statistic is the increase of 133% in Ivy League colleges attended by Turing award winners between undergraduate and graduate studies. Let us again move closer to the lived realities of the(se) individuals and have a look at what this means in detail : Charles Bachman moves from Michigan State to UPenn, John Hopcroft from Seattle University to Harvard, Richard Stearns from Carleton College and John McCarthy from Caltech to Princeton. But, this trend also means a depletion of talent from European institutions.

This affects even the very best of European universities, including Oxford (-66%), Cambridge (-75%) and ETH Zurich. In one case, a student, born in Switzerland, moved from an excellent European university, ETH Zurich, to a relatively minor North American one, the French-language Universite Laval, where he obtained a Master, and then from there upgraded to Berkeley for PhD 74 .

Of the sixty-four Turing award winners, six do not have degrees past a bachelor, they are : Tim Berners-

Lee (1955; Oxford; physics), Whitfield Diffie (1944; MIT; mathematics), Robert Floyd (1936; Chicago; physics), Arthur Mil- ner (1934; Cambridge; mathematics), and James Wilkinson (1919; Cambridge; mathematics)

. Neither birth dates, ranging from one extreme to the other of the wider cohort, nor other indicators such as quality of undergraduate education,

Table 6 :

 6 Proportion of bachelor and PhD degrees

	Degree type	among Turing Award laureates
	Bachelor	100% (64)
	PhD	81% (52)
	Master or PhD 90% (58)

9 out of 10 Turing award winners have education at the post-graduate level.

8 out of 10 have a PhD degree. All Turing award winners possess a bachelor's degree.

Table 7 :

 7 STEM vs. humanities and social sciences degrees amongst

	Turing laureates
	STEM	Humanities and Social Sciences

One further remark is perhaps necessary, considering contemporary 'standards of society'. Floyd has never gone through the formalities of obtaining a Ph.D. degree. I believe this was due primarily to the fact that he entered graduate school at the University of Chicago when he was only 16 or 17 yours [sic] old, as part of an experimental accelerated education program; this was not a mature enough age to do graduate work. [Bob was born 8 June 1936, and he began graduate school after receiving a B.A. degree in 1953 at age 17about five years earlier than usual for American students at the time.] Certainly he has written at least a dozen papers by now each of which is superior to any Ph.D. thesis I have ever seen in computer science, so the mere fact that he has never formally received the degree should be quite irrelevant." 76

Finally, we asked if a degree in mathematics, physics, engineering, biology, chemistry, computer science or one of the neighbooring disciplines -contemporanously called STEM -was necessary to do significant contributions to computer science later in life, the kind recognized by the Turing?

76 Knuth 2003 : 7.

Table 8 :

 8 Place of birth of Turing Award laureates

	Country	Turing laureates
	USA	41 (64%)
	England	5 (7%)
	Israel	3 (4%)
	British Empire*	2
	Canada	2 (3%)
	China	1
	Denmark	1

80 "ACM at a Glance". https://www.acm.org/membership/acm-at-a-glance * Ceylon (now Sri Lanka) and British India. ** Germany (now Wroclaw, Poland).

Table 9 :

 9 State distribution of Turing award winners within the US

		State	Turing Award laureates
		New York	9 (21%)
		California	8 (19%)
		Massachusetts	4 (9%)
		D.C.	2 (4%)
		North Carolina 2
		Pennsylvania	2
		New Jersey	2
		Wisconsin	2
		Alberta	1 (2%)
		CT	1
		Illinois	1
		Kansas	1
		Louisiana	1
		Nebraska	1
		Oregon	1
		TX	1
		Virginia	1
		Washington	1
	630	n = 41 t = 41

Table 10 :

 10 Geographical distribution of Turing award winners by

	(based on) bachelor-granting institutions
	Continent, Country, State	%	Previously (born)
	North America	44 (68%)
	-USA	42 (65%)
	-California	11 (17%) 8
	-Massachusetts	7 (10%)	4
	New York metropolitan area* 6
	-New York	4	9
	-Pennsylvania	4	2
	-Illinois	3

Table 11 :

 11 Geographical destinations of Turing award winners for

	post-graduate education
		State (% of country) Increase state Country	Continent
				(previously
				bachelor)
	North America			49 (44)
	-USA		48 (82%)
	-California	17 (29%)	70%
	-Massachusetts	11 (18%)	72%
	-New Jersey	6 (10%)	72%
	-Michigan	3
	-Pennsylvania	3
	-New York	3
	New York metropolitan area* 9
	-Illinois	2
	-Nebraska	1
	-North Carolina	1
	-Utah	1
	-Canada		1
	Europe			7 (14)
	-England		3

In the same way that we observed a shift towards more prestigious universities as Turing award winners entered postgraduate schools, we register a big geographical shift towards the USA, both being linked of course ; and, within that country, a big shift towards the major centers of education and research that are California, where almost 1/3 of all Turing Award winners attend graduate school, and Massachusetts, 1/5.

The diversity of outcomes dwindles as now most Turing award winners aggregate at common places : they increasingly attend colleges located in the same states. Attendance of a college in California as well as Massachusetts raises by 70%, in New Jersey the number of future Turing Award winner grows from 1 to 6 total.

Looking even closer, at happenings within the USA, we note an influx to-

7. Social origins of Turing laureates

We are interested in knowing "where do Turing award winners come from and who are they?" and further "what social regularities can be unveiled (observed) from the study of their collective biographies, in other words, what do they have in common?" This is yet another attempt at answering this basic question, but from a different different assumptions or perspectives.

Table 12 :

 12 Social origins of Turing Award laureates

	Background	Total	%
	Academic*	21	48%
	Business**	5	11%
	Low***	5
	Engineering	3	6%
	Military	3

* E.g. mathematician, adjunct professor, professor at UCLA, high school physics. ** E.g. stockbroker, aerospace executive, president of a power company. *** E.g. appliance salesman, sea captain, janitor, farmer.

We found that almost 50% of Turing Award winners for whom relevant biographical information was available had at least one parent employed in a teaching or research position or otherwise in possession of an advanced degree like the PhD or Master.

As most Turing award winners come from the United States, we relied on North-American data to compare these findings with those available on the general population over the same period.

For this purpose, we looked at the percentage of the US population with a college degree, i.e. a bachelor's degree or higher, based on information made available by the United States Census Bureau 86 . They indicate that in 1940, barely 4% of the total adult population, aged 25 and older, were in possession of a bachelor or better.

During the 1940s, 1950s

and much of the 1960s this proportion never reached more than 10%.

Note that the median birth year of our population is 1941 with the oldest Turing Award winner born in 1916 and the oldest in 1952, which would put the birth years of their parents roughly between 1890 and 1930.

  book I read was called Rockets, Missiles, and Space Travel by Willi Ley. The thing that struck me was that when you go from one planet to another, you wouldn't go the way you thought you would.There may disagreements with our categorization of elementary, middle school or even high-school teachers as belonging inside an academic category, or at least in the same fashion as college professions. But, leaving these a priori, theoretical debates aside, and actually listening to or reading about the experiences of the Turing award winners does give insight, beyond the objective world we try to capture, of what the actual, felt reality was, for them. Again, we present evidence for this. Richard Karp, for instance, whose father was a -school math teacher, has recounted that : "Education was very much paramount in my parent's worldview.There were four of us, and I'm the oldest of four, and they spaced us out at intervals of a college career, so that they could have one kid in college at a time. I think the greatest admiration I felt for my father was when I visited his class." 90 His interviewer, Christos Papadimitriou, a noted computer scientist himself, whose own father was also a middle school math teacher, asks Karp if they ever talked about math together : "We did, but he really didn't have very advanced mathematical knowledge. He was pretty much limited to what he was teaching. We lived in a town called Newbury, which is right next to Newburyport. And my father chose that town deliberately because at the time they did not have a high school and the town would pay the tuition for anyone who could get accepted at Governor

You don't aim the rocket ship at the planet, you aim the rocket ship at where the planet is going to be.

By the time I got to school, I had already read a couple of hundred books" 89 Meanwhile, at the other end of the social spectrum or scale, Hopcroft, whose father worked as a janitor, "claims that because of the lack of family experience with higher education, it never occurred to him to look at other than the local Seattle University." Interestingly, Hopcroft, having gone through undergraduate education and having presumably been able to gather then the experience he lacked from home, moved to Stanford.

89

Shasha and Lazere 1995. middleBut, his presence and sense of command in the classroom was something that I wanted to emulate. And, I think it's not an accident that I went into teaching eventually." 91 But, this influence is not limited only to the immediate circle of parents, as Richard Karp's case also makes clear : "I had a young aunt (...) who taught me how to read, so I read quite early and for that reason I skipped a grade. And, so I ended up being a year and a half younger than my classmates" 92 .

In the following, we give for appraisal a longer passage that makes visible and unveils the sometimes very extensive educational strategies used by parents of future Turing award laureates. "-Interviewer. You went to public schools in the Boston area? What suburb were you in? -Stonebraker. 90 Simons Foundation 2013. 91 Ibid. 92 Ibid.

Table 13 :

 13 Youngest Turing laureates and social background Among the eleven youngest Turing winners, whose ages ranged from 36 to 44 at the time of their nomination, more than half come from academic back-

	Name	Family background
	Donald Knuth	Academic (Teacher)
	Robert Tarjan	Academic (Psychiatrist, APA president)
	Kenneth Thompson n/a 94
	Dennis Ritchie	Academic (Bell Labs)

grounds. This includes the following professions for their parents : one professor, two teachers, one Bell Labs employee, one surgeon and one psychiatrist APA president.

Table 14 :

 14 Oldest Turing winners and social background

	Name	Family background
	Peter Naur	Non-academic (Painter and heiress)
	Judea Pearl	n/a
	95 Markoff 2011.

Table 15 :

 15 Networks of Turing award winners, PhD advisor/student

	PhD advisor	PhD student

Table 16 :

 16 Networks of Turing Award laureates, co-authors

	Co-author(s)

Table 18 :

 18 Networks of Turing award winners, professor/student

	Professor	Student
	Donald Knuth (1974)	Robert Tarjan (1986) [PhD course advisor] 98
	Howard Aiken	Frederick Brooks (1999) 99
	Ivan Sutherland (1988) Alan Kay (2003) 100

Table 19 :

 19 Networks of necrologies (amongst Turing laureates)

		Living scientist	Dead scientist
		Peter J. Denning (ACM President) Alan Perlis (1966) 101
		Donald Knuth (1974)	George Forsythe (ACM President) 102
			Robert Floyd (1978) 103
		Edward Feigenbaum (1994)	Herbert Simon (1975) 104
		As we have done in previous developments, we are not merely concerned
		with (interested in) capturing objective relationships, but also to explore what
		their incidences are in the actual, lived lives of the actors. And, so, what exactly
	910	does it mean to have a network and what advantages might, in this case the
		Turing winners, gain from it?

98

Tarjan 2012.

99

Hosch 2018.

100

Packer and Jordan 2002 : 122.

101

Denning 1990.

102

Knuth 1972.

103

Knuth 2003.

104

Feigenbaum 2001. George Forsythe had been ACM president. In 1965, he co-founded the department of computer science at Stanford with mathematician John Herriot 107 . In 1968, Donald Knuth joined Stanford's newly formed CS department. George Forsythe then asked Knuth to write a letter of recommendation for Floyd to be appointed professor at Stanford that same year 108 . Here is a sample of its content : "I don't know anyone I could recommend more highly. He is the most gifted man in his 'age bracket' that I have ever met. Several of his published papers have been significant mileposts in the development of computer science (...). I have also had the pleasure of carrying on frequent correspondence with him for five years (...) While I was editing the ACM Communications and Journal, I asked him to serve as referee for several papers (...) He is a true Computer Scientist!" That same year of 1968, Floyd joined Stanford. In 1973, he succeeded Forsythe as chair of the department of computer science at Stanford as the dean's choice. He remained in that position for three years. In 1974, Donald And, in the The Art of Computer Programming, the discipline's perhaps most revered book in the field of algorithms, if not in its entirety, no other author is more quoted than Floyd. Its publication spans from 1968 to the present day, although it was undertaken in 1962. In the 1997 third edition of Volume 1, Knuth thanks two people by name : his wife and Robert Floyd. "I have, of course, received assistance from a great many people during the years I have been preparing these books and for this I am extremely thankful. Acknowledgements are due, first to my wife (...) ; secondly, to Robert W. Floyd, who contributed a great deal of his time towards the enhancement of this material during the 1960s." 111 In 2001 Robert Floyd died. In 2002 Donald Knuth gave a one-hour keynote speech to the Stanford Computer Forum. In 2003 he wrote a necrology for

Table 20 :

 20 Gender of ACM presidents (1947-2018)

	Decade	Men Women
	1947-1949 2	0
	1950-1959 5	0
	1960-1969 5	0
	1970-1979 4	1
	1980-1989 4	1
	1990-1999 3	2
	2000-2009 3	2
	2010-2018 3	1
	Table 21: gender of ACM vice-presidents (1947-1975)
	Decade	Men Women
	1947-1949 2	0
	1950-1959 5	0
	1960-1969 5	0
	1970-1975 2	1

Table 22 :

 22 Gender and big technology companies' CEOs and presi-

		dents (1914 -2013)
	CEO / President IBM (1914-2011) Bell Labs (1925-2013) Intel (1968-2013)
	Men	11	8	5
	Women	0	0	0
	IBM appointed its first female CEO in 2012, almost a century after its
	creation. Bell Labs has yet to appoint a woman as president. In 2018, Intel has
	yet to appoint a female CEO as the company celebrates its 50th anniversary.

  122 . IBM does not mind female typists, it does not mind female programmers, it does not mind even female vice-presidents. But, in the same way as certain individuals express support for progressive causes in public, and express opposite ones at home, there is few better instances to ascertain the actual positions of companies, including those and in particular those active in the technology sector who have long claimed otherwise, than when they select what is most precious to them, when making those decisions that could affect them in the equally most beneficial and detrimental fashion. "Women cannot be entirely trusted to perform at the highest of levels" would be an accurate expression of their intimate views. Little more can be concluded from the above statistics. And, if their intentions were different or other than what could be interpreted from numbers, we should quote Virginia Woolf, who wrote

in Orlando that : "A woman knows very well that, though a wit sends her his poems, praises her judgment, solicits her criticism, and drinks her tea, this by no means signifies that he respects her opinions [or] admires her understanding" 123 . 9.1. Gender, the jury and the award

(1966-2018)

Table 23 :

 23 gender balance within the Turing award committee

	Year	Men	Women
	2012 124	50% (4) 50% (4)
	06/2013 125	60% (3) 40% (2)
	08/2013 126	66% (4) 33% (2)
	10/2013 127	62% (5) 37% (3)
	08/2014 128	57% (4) 42% (3)
	10/2014 129	62% (5) 37% (3)
	09/2015 130	62% (6) 37% (2)
	122 Two meta-studies give an overview on the state of research in psychology into (this area)
	these areas : Paluck and Green 2009 and Pettigrew and Tropp 2006.
	123 Woolf 2008.
		55

Table 25

 25

	: gender distribution of Turing award winners split by
	decade (1940s-2010s)
	Decade	Women Men
	1966-1969 0 (% )	4 (100%)
	1970-1979 0 (% )	13 (100%)
	1980-1989 0 (% )	12 (100%)
	1990-1999 0 (% )	12 (100%)
	2000-2009 2 (% )	14 (87.5%)
	2010-2016 1 (% )	9 (90%)

Table 26 :

 26 Number of years needed to obtain the Turing Award,

	split by gender
		Men	Women
	Age (avg)	55	65
	n = 64 t = 64

  discipline from the University of Michigan, where she learned how to program on an IBM 650 fromBernard Galler 140 , and joining IBM Research as a programmer in 1957. Her first assignment there was to teach Fortran to employees, which lead her to study the Fortran compiler developed by John Backus. Much of her work at IBM from then on focused on compilers 141 . This Advanced Computing System. The ACS-1 had in turn for ambition to be many times faster than the reference machine at that point 144 and later evolved into ACS-360 when a decision was made to support another system 145 . It was abandonned in 1969. After this, Frances Allen went on to work on ECS, the Experimental Compiling System 146 . 147

	Floyd. 139
	Let us look closer at these happenings and at two examples in particular
	that we hold for exemplary of the disparities between both sexes when it comes
	to the recognition of their work within computer science.
	After completing a bachelor's degree in mathematics, Frances Allen worked
	as a high school math teacher for two years before obtaining a master's degree
	in that same
	The youngest 10 Turing Award winners ranged from age 36 to 44. In more
	detail yet, this also means that the youngest 25 Turing award winners were
	all men. The youngest Turing award winner ever was Donald Knuth, who
	obtained it when he was 36 years old, followed by Robert Tarjan, 38 and Kenneth
	Thompson, 40. They are followed by four individuals who obtained it at age
	42 respectively : Dennis Ritchie, Marvin Minsky, Edsger Dijkstra and Robert

included developing a compiler for Stretch and Harvest -Stretch, one of the earliest supercomputers, and Harvest, a coprocessor developed by the NSA for codebreaking -with support for three programming languages including Alpha which she had worked on. She then contributed to Project Y 142 , whose goal was to be many times faster than the previous project, Stretch. For the Project Y computer, a compiler was built whose optimizer

143

Allen wrote. Project Y later became ACS, IBM's

  Turing Award biography of Frances Allen ; Smotherman 2017 ; Steele : 2011. 148 IBM Research Report RC 3548 from September 1971. Republished in Allen and Cocke 1972. 149 Allen 1969. "Allen's seminal paper on Program Optimization (published internally in April, 1966 and in an expanded version in the open literature in 1969), resulted from the ACS work." according to the her IEEE Computer Pioneer award biography. https://www. computer.org/web/awards/pioneer-frances-allen 150 Cocke and Schwartz 1969 ; Pollack 1971.

151 Cocke 1970.

  Conway 2011.

157

Conway 2016.

158 Mead and Conway 1980. 159

See appendix.

160 Conway 2000;[START_REF] Hiltzik | Through the Gender Labyrinth[END_REF]

Table 27

 27

	: gender distribution of Turing award winners by research
	areas
	Area	Women (% of total)
	Compilers	1 (33%)

163

Swade 2008.

164

Lovelace 1843.

Table 28 :

 28 big areas of computing and female Turing award winners

	Main areas	Women (% of total)
	Software	8.6%
	-Compilers	33% (1)
	-Operating Systems	25% (1)
	-Programming Languages	11% (1)
	-Objected Oriented Programming	0% (0)
	-Software Engineering	0% (0)
	-Software	0% (0)
	-Programming	0% (0)
	-Databases	0% (0)
	Systems (Hardware)	0%
	-Computer Architecture	0% (0)
	-Computer Hardware	0% (0)
	-Personal Computing	0% (0)
	-Computer Systems	0% (0)
	Artificial Intelligence and Machine Learning	0%
	-Artificial Intelligence	0% (0)
	-Machine Learning	0% (0)

Table 29 :

 29 Turing laureates from outside North America and Europe USA and Canada.But, we are able to go further as we know in detail, from our prosopography, who are behind the countries and what their circumstances are : in the case of Ceylon, Antony Hoare, who is white, in the case of Venezuela, Manuel Blum, whose Jewish parents had left Europe, in the case of British India, Dabbala Reddy who is not white.None of the Turing laureates are black. None of them come from Africa.

	Country	Turing winners
	North America*	43 (64%)
	Europe	14 (21%)
	Outside Europe / North America	7
	-Israel	3 (4%)
	-British India	1
	-Ceylon	1
	-China	1
	-Venezuela	1
	172 See appendix.

*

Table 30 :

 30 Race and Turing laureates

	Demographics	Turing Award laureates
	Whites	59 (92%)
	-North America*	43
	-Europe	14
	-Ceylon**	1
	-Venezuela***	1
	Non-whites	5 (7%)
	-Israel	3
	-British India	1
	-China	1
	n = 64 t = 64
	This analysis is based on places of birth and our knowledge of the population
	based on collective biography (prosopography).
	* There are no African-Americans among the Turing Award laureates.
	** Antony Hoare, whose father was a colonial civil servant and who is white.
	*** Manuel Blum, whose parents emigrated to Venezuela from Europe.

  The result of this is as follows, in the figure entitled "Ethnic (and gender) diversity amongst Turing winners".In our review of Turing award winners between 1966 and 2016, we were only able to distinguish 2 non-white Turing Award laureates. They are Raj Reddy and Andrew Yao, of Indian and Chinese descent respectively. The overwhelming majority of Turing laureates is primarily from European ancestry. A significant portion is of Jewish origin 173 .

	13. Making an award : the politics of careful biographical attribution
	and the erasure of diversity
	When Alfred Nobel established the Nobel Prize at the end of the 19th century,
	he explicitly named physics, chemistry, physiology or medicine, literature and
	peace in his 1895 will 174 . For these disciplines or areas, the first Nobel Prizes
	were awarded in 1901. 175

  More information on this event can be found here : https://www.acm.org/ turing-award-50 201 Bullynck et al. have argued that what specifically made Turing attractive to the ACM was that he represented a theoretical foundation for computing, see Bullynck et al. 2015.

	197 See Bernhardt 2016 : 159-161.
	198 "ACM Turing Centenary Celebration. Official Program." https://portalparts.acm.
	org/2330000/2322176/fm/frontmatter.pdf
	199 Ibid : 4. (Page 4 of the pamphlet.)
	200 For the 5 minute version, see https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=MuTGa_xvCgc&feature=
	youtu.be.	The 2 minute version is found here https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=
	l7qprcl6a-Y.

  These were the times Alan Turing lived in, this was the context in which he produced his work, these were the psychological elites of his day. It is a part of his legacy. Had it not been for it, Turing would have almost certainly lived a longer, he might have lived another 40 years, and the Turing award might have been the Von Neumann award ; and Turing its first winner 208 . The erasure of diversity, far from what may be argued is just a statistical artifact or aberration, few qualified women lead to a small body to recruit Turing Award laureates from, was a foundational act of the prize. Not much is left of that what had made the life of Turing, after whom the prize is named, ultimately the way it was, with all its quirks, his much admired and written about freedom of spirit and independence of mind, once retold by the ACM except for a sterile, convenient, incomplete promotional portrait 209 . In England, homosexuality was decriminalized in 1967 210 . In 2013, Alan Turing received a posthumous royal pardon 211 and in 2017 a law called "Alan Turing Law" was passed to pardon all other 49,000 men affected 212 . As of 2017, The ACM in fact did consider naming the Turing Award the Von Neumann award in 1966, see ACM 1966.209 Historians of the Middle ages, no doubt, would have called this document a hagiography had this material belonged and been relevant to their objects and time period of study. 210 Sexual Offences Act 1967. 211 Davies 2013. 212 Policing and Crime Act 2017.

	homosexuality remains criminalized in 72 countries and punishable by death in
	8 213 .
	"An awards program (...) would be a fitting activity for the Associa-
	tion as it enhances its own image as a professional society. (...) The
	award itself might be named after one of the early great luminaries
	in the field" 214
	With such detachment, could the then chairman of the ACM Awards Com-
	mittee write on the day of 29th of August of 1966, shortly before the creation
	of the Turing Award.

205

In DSM-II, published in 1968, homosexuality remained a mental disorder except that it was now part of the reworked nomenclature of "302 Sexual deviations" ; of sexual deviations, the APA writes "[t]his category is for individuals whose sexual interests are directed primarily toward objets other than people of the opposite sex, toward sexual acts not usually associated with coitus, or toward coitus performed under bizarre circumstances as in necrophilia, pedophilia" 206 . First listed amongst such practices : "302.0 Homosexuality". 207 208 213 Duncan 2017. 214 Association for Computing Machinery 1966.

Table 31 :

 31 Turing Award laureates (1966-2016)

	Year	Winner
		Perlis, Alan J
		Wilkes, Maurice V.
		Hamming, Richard W
		Minsky, Marvin
		Wilkinson, James Hardy ("Jim")
		McCarthy, John
		Dijkstra, Edsger Wybe
		Bachman, Charles William
		Knuth, Donald ("Don") Ervin
		Newell, Allen
		Nabin, Michael O.
		Simon, Herbert ("Herb") Alexander
		Rabin, Michael O.
		Scott, Dana Stewart
		Backus, John
		Floyd, Robert (Bob) W
		Iverson, Kenneth E. ("Ken")
		Hoare, C. Antony ("Tony") R.
		Codd, Edgar F. ("Ted")
		Cook, Stephen Arthur
		Ritchie, Dennis M.*
		Thompson, Kenneth Lane
		Wirth, Niklaus E
		Karp, Richard ("Dick") Manning
		Hopcroft, John E
		Tarjan, Robert (Bob) Endre
		Cocke, John

Table 32 :

 32 Shanghai Ranking of universities in computer science

		and engineering (2007-2017)
	Institution CS & ENG* 2017 CS* 2009-2015 ENG* 2010-2016 ENG 2008-2009 ENG 2007
	MIT	1	2	1	1	1
	Stanford	3	1	2	2	2
	Berkeley	2	3	3	4	5
	* Computer Science & Engineering
	** Computer Science
	*** Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences

A draft entitled "Social conditions of outstanding contributions in computer science : a statistical analysis of 50 years ofTuring award recipients (1966Turing award recipients ( -2016))" was presented in December

at the German Center for Higher Education and Science Research in Berlin.

Brin, Sergey and Page, Larry. 1998. "The anatomy of a large-scale hypertextual Web search engine" Computer Networks and ISDN Systems 30(1-7) : 107-117.

Greenwald, Glenn and MacAskill, Ewen. 2013. "NSA Prism program taps in to user data of Apple, Google and others" The Guardian 07/06/2013.

Sankar, Pooja. "Pooja Sankar: Building the Piazza Collaboration System" Computer

46(3) : 6-7. 4 Hill, Phil. 2016. "Popular Discussion Platform Piazza Getting Pushback For Selling Student Data" e-Literate 10/11/2016. 5 Li, Yanhong. 2002. "Toward a qualitative search engine" Internet Computing 2(4) : 24-29. 6 Wildau, Gabriel. 2016. "Baidu probed after student death sparks outrage over online ads" Financial Times 03/05/2018. 7 Hern, Alex. 2018. "Facebook logged SMS texts and phone calls without explicitly notifying users" The Guardian 29/03/2018. 8 Ahmed, Maha. 2018. "Aided by Palantir, the LAPD Uses Predictive Policing to Monitor Specific People and Neighborhoods" The Intercept 11/05/2018.

We write specifically the history of computer science and not computing, the former we understand to mean in the strictest sense the academic discipline, the latter the much broader history of the attempts to create machines for purposes of automatic computation

This description is based on a simplified Von Neumann architecture.

"The term "computer" is not well defined, and its meaning will change with new developments"(Newell, Perlis and Simon 1967).

Michel Foucault and what he did with the personal correspondence of his roommates and the questions on positivism he could not answer (so he made up something else instead), the college essays that Derrida submitted multiple times, the disdain held by Wittgenstein for academics, whom he must have considered barely more than sheeps, the narrowmindedness of Semmelweis' colleagues, Rousseau whose pedagogy stood in stark contrast with his own neglect of his children, the young woman that Rembrandt had locked up in a crazy house because he did care to uphold his promise anymore, Max Planck's opinions on women and women scientists in particular, the historian of science at Uppsala who rejected Foucault's doctoral thesis, but whose name is now only remembered in connection with that event, the colleague of Dover at Oxford he hated so much he could have killed by his own dmission, the Lacour and Green study that never was but still made it in Science, the University of Chicago's department of economics' apparent lack of any common sense or moral compass in admitting a former Goldman Sachs trader who had boasted of swindling "widows and orphans" during the subprime morgage crisis to its PhD program, etc..12 To break with the myth of the intellectual once and for all, one would be well advised to read the biographies and autobiographies of any number of scientists or academics or artists.

https://amturing.acm.org

See the nominations in the year 2002 and 2007 respectively.

"Call for Nominations, ACM A.M. Turing Award". https://amturing.acm.org/call_ for_nominations.cfm

Revens 1972 : 488.

Communications of the ACM 2014.

In recent months, the Guardian and other newspapers such as The New Yorker reported extensively on these practices in the case of the Sackler family, Purdue Pharma and the drug OxyContin. See Dubb and Costello 2018. Many books have been written about Rockefeller philanthropy : Ettling 1981 or Siegmund-Schultze 2001 for example.

Donovan and Kernighan 2015 : xi.

"Vinton G. Cerf -Google AI". https://ai.google/research/people/author32412

Knuth 2003 : 9.

This puts it into a similar space as the AIEE, American Institute of Electrical Engineers, or the IRE, Institute of Radio Engineers.

The Shanghai Ranking has been criticized for a variety of reasons, both theoretical and methodoligal. Two conflicting reviews that address it from the point of view of reproducability are present in[START_REF] Florian | Irreproducibility of the results of the Shanghai academic ranking of world universities[END_REF][START_REF] Docampo | Reproducibility of the Shanghai academic ranking of world universities results[END_REF]

[START_REF] Lecuyer | Making Silicon Valley. Innovation and the Growth of High Tech, 1930-1970[END_REF]

In a previous attempt at categorization, we had subsumed these under "Applied mathematics (various)" separately.

 62 See our previous discussion of this at the beginning of this paper.

Niklaus Wirth. This was in the late 1950s, early 1960s. As such, we assume that these international educational moves cannot be attributed to the immediate events of WW2, which did affect the trajectory of numerous Turing laureates and their parents.

The time range of births of our population is 1916 to 1952. Alaska and Hawaii became states in 1959.

Computer History Museum 2007.

The only available information on Kenneth Thompson's father is "US Navy", which we have coded as military in the table in appendix, but we do not know what position he held there or what his educational attainments were.

The source for all following developments, unless otherwise stated, is Knuth himself, seeKnuth 2003.

Floyd 1961.

[START_REF] Knuth | George Forsythe and the Development of Computer Science[END_REF]

We do not know what prompted this, or how and when the Forsythe-Floyd relations started.

Unfortunately, we do not possess information on who was on the Turing Award committee during that period.

This is due to the increasing importance of various rankings.

Knuth 1997 : x.

Bernhardt 2016 : 147.

Piumarta and Rose 2010 : 30.

Cochran 1987 : 869.

Only 5% of the largest listed companies in Europe have a woman for (as) CEO. See European Commission 2016.

Note Dennis Ritchie was a close collaborator of Kenneth Thompson and their Turing was awarded jointly, while Robert Floyd was Donald Knuth's most important scientific influence according to himself.

President of the ACM between 1968 and 1970, Vice-president from 1966 to 1968. See appendix.

A compiler is a piece of software "that reads a program written in one language (...) and translates it into an equivalent program in another language". This definition is based on Aho, Sethi and Ullman 1986 : 1.

In her interview with Guy Steele, who also wrote her Turing biography, Allen refers to the project as "System Y". See Steele 2011. Brian Randell, who worked on the project from 1964 to 1966, and Lynn Conway, from 1965 onwards, (both colleague of Allen and Cocke at IBM,) keep with the nomenclature "Project Y". See Randell 2015 and Conway 2011.

In the classic compiler design book Compilers: Principles, Techniques, and Tools, which descends from a previous book by Aho and Ullman published in 1977, Aho, Sethi and Ullman write of code optimization : "Ideally, compilers should produce target code that his as good as can be written by hand. The reality is that this goal is achieved only in limited cases (...). However, the code produced by straightforward compiling algorithms can often be made to run faster or take less space, or both. This process is achieved by program transformations that are traditionally called optimizations. Compilers that apply code-improving transformations are called optimizing compilers.

Rossiter 1993.

Women in Austria were not allowed to study at university up until 1899. They were also banned from attending high school, at least this was the case in 1892 in Vienna, where Meitner was born.See Folsing 1991 : 148.

[START_REF] Sime | Lise Meitner: A Life in Physics[END_REF]

We refer to the quote by Alan Kay provided elsewhere here and especially to the monograph by Abbate, Recoding Gender, which contains many interviews with female computer scientists and programmers from that period.

The full table is available in the appendix. As with all such attempts, trying to subsume complexity into simpler forms necessarily means loosing some of their distinctive qualities. We feel there is room for improvement here.

Goldwasser, Feigenbaum, Blum, etc.

A copy of the relevant parts of Nobel's will can be found in Nobel Foundation 1972 : x.

Ibid : 638-639.

For a discussion of the absence of a Nobel in mathematics, see Morrill 1995. He concludes, citing various previous commentaries, that Nobel may not have felt that mathematics had "sufficient relevance to human development" and rejects in the process competing explanations regarding a supposed rivalry between Nobel and mathematician Mittag-Leffler.

For the sake of exhaustivity, we should mention that many poor biographies have been written about Turing, starting with his own mother's, who, as Hodges states, was writing about a stranger whose work she had not the intellectual capabilities to understand and whose personal life she arranged to her own satisfaction. Jack Copeland, a philosophy professor, has managed the incredible feat of discussing Turing's death over ten pages from the perspective of plausible modes, reviewing in great detail the many possibilities he had conjured up in his mind, without considering in his expose the cummulative sum of social climate, the law, the lawsuit, the chemical castration, the general reprobation against homosexuality, the absence of a normal future, the absence of a normal past, that can never be made good, or anything that would have occurred to anyone discussing the suicide, since it has been ruled so, of a homosexual man in early 20th century Britain, having gone through the legal and medical and criminal apparatus reserved to gay men of that time. We are aware of other biographies that attempt to assess the lawsuit against Turing from the point of view of Logic.

Hodges 2014 : xiii.

Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders.

The power held by their profession prompted Canguilhem to note, with the University of Paris in mind, that from the Faculty of psychology to the nearest police station, one had only to walk the street down.

American Psychiatric Association 1952 : 39.

American Psychiatric Association 1968 : 44.

In recent history, the APA, has done much of what it had done for the pathologization of homosexuality, for transgenderism, from DSM-III onwards, thus shifting it into a psychiatricpsychological matter instead of a civil and general medical one.

For a speech by Frances Allen on this important issue, see[START_REF] Allen | recipient of the ACM Turing Award[END_REF]

"I regarded my interest in my work, and in such things as astronomy (to which he introduced me) as something to be shared with him and I think he felt a little the same about me." he wrote to the mother of Christopher Morcom. See Hodges 2014 : 61.

Goldstine 1993 : ix.

Huang 2013 : ii.

This article is wrongly printed as"The First 25 Years: ACM 1947-1962", which does not make sense mathematically. It does handle the period up to 1972. This article was reprinted in Communications in 1987, with no modifications as far as we could tell, other than cosmetic, with the same mistake, together with Cochran's which extends it by covering the (period) ACM's history from 1972 to 1987, as well as Franz Alt's original 1962 article on the first 15 years of the ACM.

Acknowledgements

S. : thank you for getting me interested in computer science, and everything.

Sources :

-Academic Subjects -Computer Science & Engineering (2017) http://www.shanghairanking.com/shanghairanking-subject-rankings/computer-science-engineering html -ARWU-SUBJECT / ARWU-Computer Science http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2009.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2010.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2011.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2012.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2013.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2014.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/SubjectCS2015.html -ARWU-FIELD / ARWU-ENG / Engineering/Technology and Computer Sciences http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2007.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2008.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2009.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2010.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2011.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2012.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2013.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2014.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2015.html http://www.shanghairanking.com/FieldENG2016.html

In short : women are underrepresented at all levels of the prize and its various parent institutions. They are underrepresented on the level of the jury 990 (2 men for every woman), the ACM (it took the association 40 years to agree on a female president) and among laureates, most of all there.

In the following table series, we explore the overarching theme of gender and the ACM. In the first of these tables, we look at the composition of the ACM council, the body that governs the ACM. the award" 179180 . It is more than two-thirds a biography of Alan Turing -this includes the first minute -while less than twenty seconds of its almost 2 minute running time is on the award itself proper.

In this brief passage that concerns the award, as opposed to selected passages from Turing's life, the narrator explains : "In 1966, the Association for Computer Machinery instituted the Turing award to honor the memory of Alan Turing. Over the years, it has become universally recognized as computing's most prestigious award, given each year to individuals selected for making lasting major technical importance to the computing community." In this both presentational and representational video the words "lasting major technical words" are highlighted. But, it is also useful to note what is not.

No biography is neutral, neither in form nor in content, and in this case, it takes on the format of a list or succession of Turing's various accomplishments : his 1936 paper "On computable numbers", Bletchley Park, his later work on artificial intelligence 181 ("Can machines think?") are referenced. 182 But, both what is mentioned and left out is of importance : no word on his personal life. This is noteworthy in the sense that the Prize does not shy away from politics in other instances, for instance when it mentions the political activities of one winner who had been been an opponent to Norway's joining of the European Union. As such, it would be surprising that where Alan Turing was concerned, any bits of private biography, of which we now know just how important they are to understanding his life, would suddenly be considered irrelevant.

"But Kristen was not just a pioneer and researcher in informatics.

He was an engaged social and political citizen, involved in several aspects of society, including politics. During the intense political 181 Turing 1950. 182 It should be mentioned here that where common or popular presentations of Turing's contributions to computer science go, recent scholarship has sought to reevaluate the exact role played by Turing and the nature of his legacy. See Haigh 2014, Daylight 2014 and 2015 and Bullynck et al. 2015.

Appendix

Listing of supplementary documents -Table : Turing Award laureates (1966-2016) -Table : Let us preface this by saying that we have a very good knowledge of the period going from the creation of the ACM in 1947 up to 1975, for which we possess information on all presidents, vice-presidents and secretaries, so far as we know. In this first table, empty cells imply that the personnel (listed) remains unchanged from one year to the other.

For the period from 1976 to 2016, we are missing many information, including (on) nearly all of the vice-presidents and some of the secretaries. In this second table, where appointments are presented in two-year spans, which correspond to the length of their term, empty cells take on the meaning of lack of information.