In general, lemmatization is performed on verbs conjugated by means of suffixes, that is, on simple verbs. In English, we have lemmas and paradigms such as: to work: work, works, worked, working to eat: eat, eats, ate, eaten, eating But, there is no reason why forms composed of an auxiliary verb and a non finite verb such as is working or has eaten should not be part of these paradigms and lemmatized accordingly; after all, they are full-fledged conjugated forms. From the point of view of parsing, there is a difficulty in recognizing compound tenses, because inserts may occur between their parts:

Jo is today working on an essay Bob has not much eaten

Hence, inserts have to be recognized in order to bring together the parts of a compound verb.

Inserts

Inserts are of various types, ranging from simple adverbs to complex combinations of adverbial phrases; some of these phrases can be sentential, in which case, their length is unbounded and their analysis requires the full power of a sentence parser. Nonetheless, it is possible to construct detailed grammars for most adverbial phrases and a study of corpora by C. Fairon 1999 has shown that the number of compound verbs which are 'disrupted' by inserts is small and that moreover long inserts occur in texts quite rarely.

The negation not has a special status as an insert: it only occurs between auxiliaries and verbs. Not interferes in various ways with the auxiliary system. Firstly, it is merged into a simple form cannot with the modal can and into many contracted forms (isn't, shouldn't, etc.). Secondly, it is introduced with most verbs by means of the auxiliary do. Do has itself no compound tenses and is thus limited to the forms do, does and did. Thirdly, with some auxiliary verbs (e.g. to be, to have) and with to dare and to need, not is introduced without do, it must then have a special treatment. As a consequence, we lemmatize negative verbs, such as do not V as Vs in the negative form, hence we treat negative verbs as compounds. Never has some of the properties of not, but is more of an adverbial, only requiring the auxiliary do in sentences with subject inversions such as:

Never did Bob accept the situation = Bob never accepted the situation

The negative word neither is tagged Conjunction (CONJ) in the electronic dictionary system DELA, hence, not recognized as an adverbial. But it can interrupt a compound verbal sequence in the same way adverbials do, as a consequence, we introduced neither in the graphs of inserts, and by continuity, we added either.

Resources

To parse adverbials, the following resources are available:

-in the electronic dictionary of simple inflected words DELAF, adverbs (e.g. again, furiously) are marked with the symbol ADV; -frozen adverbs (e.g. here and there, from time to time), have been represented in a lexicon-grammar (M. Gross 1991), they are used by the parsing procedure with the same tag ADV; -various inserts, such as time adverbials and some sentential inserts have been described in terms of local grammars. Again, the parser treats them like the other ADV forms.

In our local grammars, we use three types of inserts, depending on the presence or not of the negations not and never, these inserts are noted Insert, InsNot and Ins (cf. figure 1). When all these occurrences of adverbials are parsed, practically all compound forms of verbs found with inserts in corpora can be recognized.

Auxiliary verbs

On a crude intuitive basis, one can consider auxiliary verbs Vaux as verbs that add some meaning to the meaning of a main verb, or rather, to the meaning of a given subject-verb complex, noted N 0 V. The following examples where the main verb is sleep (with subject Bob) contain such auxiliary verbs:

Bob (is + ought + begins + wants) to sleep Bob (is + went on + thought of) sleeping

More generally, our lemmatization process recognizes patterns of the following form:2 (Vaux 0 ) n V 0 , with n > 0 is the number of auxiliaries of the sequence and where V 0 is the lemmatized verb, the superscript 0 refers to the subscript of N 0 , our notation for subject noun phrases.

The length of an auxiliary sequence, namely the number n of Vauxs is not limited, but all Vauxs and V must share the same subject N 0 , hence, the result of lemmatization for the two following sentences is as marked in bold characters:

People have attempted to go to the beach People have recommended to go to the beach Moreover, there is no reason to limit the analysis to morphologically simple auxiliaries: other forms consisting of adjectives built with to be, of nouns built with to be, to have or other support verbs and of frozen forms are auxiliaries from the same semantic point of view:

Bob (is unable + has a right + found a way) to sleep Bob (is on the verge of + has trouble + came close to) sleeping

As a consequence, defining the notion of auxiliary verb on a formal basis is a complex process. From a syntactic point of view, our examples present sharp differences, hence, we classified them according to elementary grammatical categories, namely, categories generally found in textbooks. Although categories of auxiliary verbs are described in all kinds of grammars, from high school textbooks to ambitious academic studies, constructing a full list for them is not an easy task in the absence of coherent definitions. But even when operational definitions are given, that is, syntactic definitions, constructing a list of lexical items is an exercise that has never been attempted. One can safely predict that due to the variety of interests competing on the market of linguistic theories, no agreement is possible today. We nonetheless propose a concrete classification of these verbs (i.e. lists), largely based on the various descriptions available in current grammars.

By definition, an auxiliary verb governs another verb in either one of the three forms: past participle, infinitive or -ing form. We have subdivided auxiliary verbs Vaux into five categories:

-tense auxiliaries, -passive auxiliaries, -aspectual verbs (noted VAsp, e.g. to begin, figure 2), -modality verbs (noted VMod, e.g. to attempt, figure 3), different from modal verbs which are considered as the tense auxiliaries, -verbs with sentential complements (noted VS, e.g. to hope, figure 4).

We consider the first three categories as reasonably complete, but the limit between VMods and VSs is difficult to assess. We have only listed a limited number of verbs of the last category, VS, they are the most numerous (in the thousands), their lists should thus be substantially extended. The INTEX system can use these categories to tag verbs (M. [START_REF] Silberztein | Dictionnaires électroniques et analyse automatique de textes[END_REF]. The verbs have to and need to have been treated both as modality verbs VMod and as strict auxiliaries when they carry the negation not without do, these last forms are represented in the graph called TenseNot (figure 6). The auxiliary use of to get to has also be placed in the class VMod. Applying these criteria leads to the following list and to the local grammar called Tense (figure 5):3 -past tense auxiliaries: have and have had govern past participles; in the progressive forms, be and have been govern present participles; -modal verbs: can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, should, ought to, used to, be to. These verbs have restricted conjugations :

-some have no infinitive form (can, will, ought to, used to), -some cannot be conjugated or are highly defective:

Bob (is + was) to sell his car * Bob will be to sell his car -to get followed by gerund could be limited to a small set of verbs: get (going + moving), in which case, it would be better described as entering idiomatic forms. Independently, to get is a variant of to be, when followed by adjectives and participles and similar to to have in sentences such as Bob has (E + had) to sell his car.

Simple tenses apply more or less regularly to auxiliary verbs. Tensed auxiliary verbs are all listed in the graphs, including forms contracted with subject pronouns (figures 5 and 6). Some contractions are ambiguous, for example I'd = I had or = I would, but some contexts disambiguate them. Contractions with subject noun phrases are observed: My cousin's left, The best part's left, they are locally ambiguous with possessive case; eliminating the ambiguity requires a deeper analysis of sentences. Roughly the same forms are described with negations in the separate graph TenseNot.4 2.2. Passive auxiliaries. The graphs Tense and TenseNot are for active sentences. Passive sentences, which contain the auxiliary to be combined with past participles of transitive verbs are treated separately, they are described in several graphs stemming from the initial graph BeTVen (figure 7). The auxiliary to be has extensions: become, get, grow, remain, stay, some of these auxiliaries have aspectual meanings, accordingly, they are not accepted by all verbs, thus, many additional constraints will have to be introduced among verb combinations. Notice that lemmatization is not a goal in itself, it is a first step of the general operation of sentence parsing. Hence, lemmatization of a passive construction must be followed by an operation which links the passive fomr to its active form, such an operation is treated in a component of the grammar different from the one we present here. Sentences that have an auxiliary of the form be Adjective, be N or be Prep N are not fundamentally different from passive sentences, they can be treated together, they are called into the local grammar BeTVen by the subgraph BeComp(figure 8). Verbs like to appear, to look, to seem have forms similar to the variants of be, although they will be analyzed as reductions of sentences containing to be (She seemed satisfied = She seemed to be satisfied). Examples of these more general verbs have been included in various graphs.

The graph AdjBeToV (figure 9), a subgraph of BeComp, contains adjectival constructions of the type:

(1)

Bob is easy to please whereas the graph AdjBeToVW (figure 10), also subgraph of BeComp, corresponds to constructions such as:

(2) Bob is eager to please (E + Jo)

The names of the two graphs differ by the presence or not of W, the symbol for a complement sequence, they reflect the syntactic structures. Example (1) is close to Passive forms in the sense that the subject of is easy is the object of please. A plausible analysis of ( 1) is by reduction of the form Bob is easy to be pleased obtained by insertion of the modal sequence is easy in the Passive form Bob is pleased, hence, we feel justified to submit these constructions to the lemmatization procedure. In (2), the complement sequence W is unaffected. The lemmatized form of a Passive construction will not be a simple verb V, but a form be Ven (past participle). We chose this convention for two reasons:

-we call subject of a verb (or of a sentence) the noun phrase N 0 that agrees in number with the verb. In the case of Passive forms, the finite verb is the auxiliary to be, it agrees with a noun phrase which is an object of the verb to be lemmatized. Without a full analysis of sentences, which requires recognition of noun phrases, it is not be possible to locate the deep subject, hence, we deal here only with superficial subjects, -the lemmatized form to be is similar to forms to be Adjective and to be Prep N 1 , which, in general, are not to be lemmatized further.

Interrogative and imperative forms make use of specific auxiliaries: do and let, as in:

(Does + Did) Bob sleep well? Let Bob read the book! along with forms without auxiliaries :

Is Bob sleeping? Has Bob already left? Read the book!

Interrogative forms involve an inversion of the subject. In imperative forms, let is followed by the subject of the main verb. The subjects, here Bob, can be noun phrase of any complexity, but no grammar of these constructions is available. However, a list of pronouns is easy to establish and can then be used in local grammars limited to the parsing of auxiliary sequences with subject pronouns for questions and object pronouns for imperative sentences. Since such pronouns are frequent in many texts, these restricted grammars might be useful in some applications.

We have built local grammars for interrogative forms with auxiliary do, but we limited subjects to a few pronominal forms (graphs PronSubject, figure 13), such as they in:

Did (they + the people who arrived before) read the book?

and them in imperative forms with auxiliary let :

Let (them + the people who arrived before) read the book!

We also parse forms with permuted subject pronouns with auxiliaries be, have, will, etc. in interrogative forms and in some other contexts. We did not include old forms such as thou (dost + hast + goest + shalt + shouldest), but they could be easily included in the grammar, if needed. Questions are described in figures 11, 12 and 13, imperative forms appear in figures 5 and 6.

? Bob began to read both books in six hours

Bob began to read both books at 6 p.m.

The compatibility between the verb and the two adverbials of date and duration can be described in a natural way if one considers to begin to read as a verbal unit distinct from to read. Independently, we can argue that aspectual verbs have no autonomous constructions. Consider the sentences:

(1) Bob began a reading of both books (2)

Bob began both books and Harris' nominalization relation of the base sentence:

(3)a Bob read both books = (3)b Bob made a reading of both books

The corresponding sentences with aspectual auxiliary both have the form N 0 V N 1 (i.e. subject-verb-object), they are:

(3)Aa Bob began to read both books = (3)Ab

Bob began (E + to make) a reading of both books

(1) is then a reduction of (3)Ab. Now, (2) also seems to be an autonomous sentence, however, it is interpreted with an underlying verb, such as in :

Bob began to (read + write +sell + etc.) both books that is, ( 2) is a further contraction of (1) or of the equivalent verbal sentence.

2.4. Modality verbs Z.S. Harris 1964 has syntactically defined a set of verbs or operators noted U that cover our set of aspectual and modality verbs. In principle, they do not have autonomous constructions. Sentences containing U verbs are of the form N 0 U 0 (Prep) V 0 W and cannot be derived from more complex sentences, as it is the case for to want for example:

Bob wants him to sell his car = Bob wants to sell his car when Bob = him

Although the last sentence has the form of a sentence with auxiliary verb U, to want is not a U but a more complex operator (cf. VS, § 2.5). As already said, modality verbs, noted Vmod are sometimes difficult to separate from the verbs VS with full sentential complements (compare the lists of figures 3 and 4). 5Examples of Us are:

Bob (attempted + failed +tried) to sell his car

Let us recall that we call auxiliaries the whole set of Us, including complex verbal phrases such as be able to, be in the position of, have the ability to.

The two verbs come and go behave somewhat like auxiliaries in sentences such as:

He came and talked to her, She goes and hit him we included these constructions in our grammars (figure 14).

Figure 14. ComeAndV

Verbs with full sentential complements

The more complex operators have sentential complements not directly relevant to our study:

Bob loved it that Jo solved the problem Bob want us to leave Bob insisted on Jo's leaving

But some of these constructions can be transformed and then become similar to aspectual or modality verbs, such as:

Bob wants to leave Bob insisted on leaving

Notice that to want becomes auxiliary-like, whereas to recommend is not in Bob recommended to leave, since Bob is not the subject of to leave.

Let us sum up the various cases of auxiliary verbs that have been considered: Aspectual and modality verbs and verbs with sentential complements govern verbs in the infinitive or in the gerund form. The different formal types are:

-simple verbs: to help, to need and verbs with a preposition: insist on Ving W, tend to V W:6

Bob (accepted + needed + tried + wanted) to leave Bob (insisted on + thought of) leaving

-adjectives constructed with be: be able to V W, be aware of Ving W, -prepositional phrases constructed with be:

be on the verge of V 0 -ing W, (Bob is on the verge of leaving) be on Poss 0 way to V 0 W, (Jo is on her way to give a lecture)

Poss 0 is a possessive adjective that must refer to N 0 , the subject; -noun phrases whose support verbs is to have (figures 15 and 16):

Bob has the ability to remove scars Bob has a procedure for removing scars identical forms are nominalizations of verbs:

Bob has an urgent need to leave -passive forms. Numerous verbs with sentential complements, when passivized, have forms that behave exactly like adjectival auxiliaries:

N 0 V N 1 to V 1 -ing W =:
The impact sent the car spinning N 0 V N 1 to V 1 W =: Bob ordered Jo to leave early N 1 be Ven to V 1 W =: Joe was ordered to leave early N 1 be Ven V 1 -ing W =: The car was sent spinning Hence, we consider that they have to be lemmatized in the same way as the proper auxiliaries. We have listed a certain number of these forms in the figures 17 and 18. There also exists idiomatic forms which do not enter the auxiliary pattern:

N 0 V N 1 (the green light) 2 to V 1 W =:
but whose passive are relevant:

N 0 be Ven the green light to V 0 W =: Bob was given the green light to sell his car such a form is similar to:

N 0 be Ven to V 0 W =: I was able to sell his car where the form be Adjective is a modality similar to can in:

N 0 Vaux 0 V 0 W =: I could sell his car
Our reason to include verbs with full sentential complements in the lemmatization process is to show how such lexical items can be parsed and interpreted within the local grammars of auxiliaries.

Combinations of verbs

Except for the first level of tense auxiliaries (left-most part) found in Tense (cf. figure 5), TenseNot (cf. figure 6) and BeVen (cf. figure 7), Vauxs combine in many different ways, with no clear pattern of restrictions emerging from the observations. For example, aspectual (VAsp) and modality verbs (VMod) can combine in different orders:

Bob began insisting on leaving early Bob insists on beginning to work early

In principle, the content of a sentential complement (e.g. that S) is largely independent from the governing verb, hence, the verb found after a VS is not restricted. There are indeed restrictions, but no general rule seems to exist, which means that restrictions have to be handled verb by verb (M. [START_REF] Gross | Méthodes en syntaxe[END_REF].

As a first approximation, we let the three categories VAsp, VMod and VS combine freely and recursively, that is, without restricting the length of the lemmatized sequences. The loops that represent these combinations are found in the graphs VREC, VenREC, VingREC, and VTREC. Since recursions are determined by government, there are four basic types of loops:

-a verb in the infinitive form that governs a verb in the infinitive form can loop on itself, -a verb in the gerund form that governs a verb in the gerund form can loop on itself, -a verb in the infinitive form may govern a verb in the gerund form, in turn this gerund verb may govern a verb in the infinitive form, this sequence of two verbs can loop on itself, -a verb in the gerund form may govern a verb in the infinitive form, in turn this infinitive verb may govern a verb in the gerund form, this sequence of two verbs can loop on itself.

In figure 20, we give the example of VREC.

Figure 20. VREC

Families of graphs have been defined accordingly:

-for example, the graphs VTXxxVToV, begin with any simple form of verb (i.e. VT) that governs infinitive forms (i.e. to V forms), Xxx stands for one of the types: Asp, Mod or S, -the graphs VTXxxVPrepVing, begin with any simple form of verb that governs gerund forms through a specific preposition, -past participles are noted in the same manner, (i.e. the graphs VenXxxVPrepVing correspond to sequences beginning with a past participle and they governing the gerund), for gerund and infinitive forms, we use the same notation (i.e. VingXxxVPrepVing, VXxxVPrepVing). Since we have three classes and four patterns of tenses, we had to construct the twelve corresponding graphs for the various verbs. In figure 21, we give the example of VingAspVPrepVing.

Figure 21. VingAspVPrepVing

Recursions must end in terminal forms. Simple verb forms <V:K>, <V:W>, <V:G>, are terminals, we added be-Adjective and have-Noun constructions ending in simple verbs to the terminal graphs Vtermin, VenTermin, VingTermin.

The recursive combinations are described by means of the classes of verbs, but in order to make abstraction of the lexical differences (i.e. classes of simple verbs, be-Adjective, have-Noun constructions, frozen expressions, etc.), we use higher level graphs that retain only the government constraints:

-VenVPrepVing (figure 22) corresponds to utterances that begin with a past participle and that govern gerund verbs, -VingVToV corresponds to utterances that begin with a verb in the gerund and that govern infinitive verbs, -since there are five patterns of tenses and two governing types, we built ten other graphs on the same basis and noted on the same principles. plan to leave at night is recognized with the modality verb to plan, auxiliary of to leave, as in I plan to leave. However, plan is also a noun that governs the same infinitive verb phrases, as in:

He presented (a plan) N to eliminate pesticides Another example is:

The states use the Civil Justice Reform (Act to require) V where parentheses indicate the 'wrong' analysis. This ambiguity can only be resolved by exploring the context of the ambiguous sequence. To this aim, we have introduced examples of local grammars which describe noun phrases whose head nouns govern verbs in the same way as verbs do. In the case of verb/noun homographs, taking into account left contexts resolves some ambiguities, for example, when a determiner such as a or the is present. We outlined several graphs for syntactic categories of nouns constructed with the support verbs to be, there be and to have (figures 15, 16 and 23 to 28). If an ambiguous sequence such as need to leave occurs as part of the utterance: had an urgent need to leave, it will be analyzed as a noun phrase whose recognition involves the graph NhaveToV (figure 15). In the same way, we have extended the description of left contexts of nouns phrases to prepositions, that is:

-to prepositional noun phrases with complex prepositions, such as in an attempt to increase its influence (figure 30) and in view of increasing its influence (figure 31). Some ambiguities are also resolved by these two local grammars, -to noun phrases with simple prepositions, but in this case, we have restricted the verbal forms to complex ones, that is with at least two combined verbs. This restriction is achieved by using the graphs VREC and VingREC inside the subgraphs PrepV (figure 32) and PrepVing (figure 33). These four graphs are grouped into the graph of higher level PrepVW (figure 29), which is placed in VAUX (figure 34), the complete grammar of verbs preceded by auxiliary sequences. We could also have represented left contexts of verbs, which, in general, are subject noun phrases, often subject pronouns. Adjoining pronouns to the graphs of conjugated auxiliaries is a natural extension, since we already introduced many of them that are contracted with the verb (e.g. I'm, we're). But in this presentation, our goal is restricted, and we only suggest several generalizations which can be implemented at a further stage.7

2) Some of the aspectual and modality verbs have nominal complements parallel to their verbal ones, that is, they enter both structures:

N 0 V Prep V 0 W (=: Bob began to read the text) N 0 V Prep N 1 (=:

They help low income families

The following examples are of a similar type:

These (are daunting) V goals (model: They are flying planes) (helping) Vaux (even) V young children (is encouraging) news

3) Some ambiguities may result from a particular choice of grammatical codes in the dictionary. For example, verb particles, such as about, up, down, around, off, are coded Adverb. As a consequence, our local grammars will analyze a sequence such as:

All this is about giving Bob a chance with about Adverb, hence is giving with be parsed as the progressive form of to give. By using the code Prt for Particle, be about becomes a verbal unit which does not belong to the set of auxiliary verbs, the difficulty is thus avoided.

Accidental ambiguities 1)

Homographs. In the sentences:

Why do people behave so? (When + Where) do (right + wrong) people behave so? They do go to school the nouns or adjectives people, right, wrong, school are also verbs; when preceded by do, the program recognizes verbal complexes. The same ambiguity occurs with inversions of the subject other than questions, as in:

Only in good times do people want to read Some types of homography involve words which are, on the one hand, participles or adjectives and on the other, verbal forms:

(are dead) ends (Head Start) funding (Head Start is a proper name). It is (cost) V effective (model: is gone) a lot of (work) Vaux (left) ADV to (do) v doesn't (clean) ADV (up) V his room 2)
My friends (at first) ADV (glance) v seemed lost My friends (at first glance) ADV (seemed) v lost

In this example, the longest match principle resolves the ambiguity (i.e. the adverb at first is a prefix of the longer adverb at first glance).

3) The utterances go to bed and come to power can be analyzed either as phrasal verbs where bed and power are nouns or with the auxiliaries go to and come to preceding the verbs to bed and to power.

4) The auxiliary be to in the sentence Our son is to arrive at noon is ambiguous, in the sense that its sentence structure can be confused with sentences of the type:

(1)

Our goal is to arrive at noon

Resolving this ambiguity requires a detailed analysis of the sentence, and in particular, a list of the nouns such as goal which allow construction (1). We can make human nouns a special case, since they cannot be found in the subject position of (1). We could introduce human subject pronouns for the auxiliary verb to be to. Such pronouns are easy to recognize and are numerous in various texts. Then, when a human pronoun is found, the ambiguity (i.e. the wrong analysis) would disappear. The general case requires a grammar of full human noun phrases, which is not available.

The local grammars

Throughout this presentation, 9

we have mentioned the use of graphs or local grammars to describe constrained sequences of words and/or categories. These local grammars have the form of finite-state grammars or transducers, given in the form of graphs, they contain words and grammatical categories (M. [START_REF] Gross | Nouvelles bases statistiques pour les mots du français[END_REF]. We make more precise the notations of these devices.

Notations

<V> corresponds to the simple inflected forms of any verb, hence, <eat> corresponds to the forms eat, eats, ate, eaten, eating. <V:K> is 'verb in the preterit tense', <V:W> is 'verb in the infinitive', <V:G> is 'verb in the gerund'. 10 <A> is adjective, <ADV> is adverb, <N> is noun, <N:s> is a singular noun, <N:p> is a plural noun.

Graphs

The design of our finite-state graphs is not standard, it had to be adapted to the description of linguistic phenomena, where many parallel edges are observed to be equivalent. Such sets of edges are represented by boxes: each line in a box corresponds to one edge of a standard graph. Words and categories appear in boxes. Names of graphs appear in shaded boxes as subgraphs of other graphs. Chains of graphs embedded into each other can be relatively long, their depth can easily be 10 before reaching a final state, moreover, they are allowed to form loops, that is, to describe recursive structures of verbs governing verbs of the same type.

We list the various graphs and recall their function hereafter :

Tense is a basic grammar, in the sense it describes the finite tenses of the 9 J. Senellart 199 has written similar grammars for French (M. Gross and J. Senellart 1998). 10 At some future stage of development of parsers, this notation should cover the compound tenses. auxiliaries of § 2.1. Paths start with the tensed forms and lead to verbs of the three categories of governing verbs: VAsp, VMod, VS and to the other verbs V; TenseNot differs from Tense by the presence of the negation not (and accessorily never); BeTVen describes the finite tenses of the Passive auxiliary to be.

The tensed auxiliaries of Tense, TenseNot and BeTVen precede three categories of verbal complexes: VedREC, VenREC, VingREC, VREC:

-VenREC contains structures that all begin with a past participle, -VingREC contains structures that all begin with a present participle, -VREC contains structures that all begin with an infinitive form simple: <V:W> or compound: have <V:K> or be <V:K>, -VTREC appears in the graph VAUX, at the same level as Tense, it contains structures that all begin with a governing verb in a simple form, namely, <VAsp>, <VMod>, <VS>.

These five graphs are the only recursive ones. Recursivity results from the phenomenon of government: an auxiliary verb (in the semantic sense, cf. § 2) can govern a verb that governs another, etc. We considered two types of government:

-verbs govern verbs in the gerund form (i.e. Ving or more formally <V:G>), -verbs govern verbs in the infinitive form (i.e. V or more formally <V:W>).

Let us recapitulate the components of the local grammar used to lemmatize compound tenses. The graph VAUX, is the highest level graph. It sums up the various structures involved:

(i) structures considered as compound verbs, they include: -tensed verbs in graphs Tense, TenseNot, BeTVen, VTREC, -passive forms without the auxiliary to be: VPassiveToV, VPassivePrepVing, VpassiveVen;

(ii) questions, with negation or not: graphs Question and QuestionNot;

(iii) structures whose left context contribute to disambiguation: -prepositional phrases, which involve a left context that contributes to disambiguate verbs (4 graphs contained in PrepVW), -noun phrases, whose support verbs are be and have: NBeToV, NBePrepVing,, NHaveToV, NHavePrepVing, -a special form of noun phrase: TheMostNToV, -examples of sentences with the verb to be: NBeToVW and There be: ThereBeToV, ThereBePrepVing.

The number of graphs constructed in view of lemmatizing compound verbs is 66, to which must be added 17 graphs of noun phrases that disambiguate some of the verbal forms.

Experience has shown that even without any semantic restrictions on combinations of verbs, we found practically no error of analysis. We checked our grammars on Henry James' novel The Portrait of a Lady and we found about 13,000 examples of compound verbs, and on a recent sample of the International Herald Tribune (1997) in which we recognized 4,000 examples, we found very few errors (in the order of magnitude of 1 or 2 per 1000), some omissions did occur, but they were due to the state of incompleteness of the lists of generalized auxiliaries, which is something to be expected. In figure 35, we give a sample of text with auxiliaries sequences as they are marked by the INTEX parser using the grammar VAUX and in figure 36 we have a sample of a concordance of these sequences.

Tense auxiliaries only modify verbs, whereas aspectual and modality verbs may have nominal complement equivalent to verbal ones (begin the reading vs begin to read), hence, aspectual and modality verbs may syntactically behave like ordinary verbs and have to be lemmatized accordingly. Ultimately, if we consider their nominal complements as belonging to a nominal voice of the verb, verbal nouns will have to be lemmatized as well.

The United States plans to stick to a go-slow approach on expanding NATO membership to East European countries despite sharp divisions among American officials and protests from East European leaders, administration officials say.

Little more than a week before a NATO summit meeting in Brussels, all sides acknowledge that the decision whether to let Poland, the Czech Republic, Hungary and other nations into the North Atlantic Treaty Organization is one of the most important in the history of the alliance.

The issue has become even more pressing for East European governments in recent weeks as their fears of resurgent Russian nationalism have been heightened by Vladimir V. Zhirinovsky's aggressive statements.

The prevailing view in Washington, reaffirmed since the Russian vote, is that the West should move slowly to avoid aggravating Moscow's traditional fears of encirclement and strengthening Russians opposed to reform.

On the other side are administration officials who believe that democratic gains in Eastern Europe must be consolidated and that those countries must be protected from past predators by inclusion in the alliance.

Providing new details about the debate that embroiled the Clinton administration, officials said that Secretary of State Warren M. Christopher had initially favored expanding NATO's membership to the East.

But he was persuaded to reverse course after the intervention of Strobe Talbott, the journalistturned-policymaker who was named Mr. Christopher's deputy last week.

On the weekend before a critical cabinet-level meeting in October, Mr. Talbott, who has been ambassador-at-large to the former Soviet republics, typed a memo on his home computer arguing against NATO expansion and sent it to Mr. Christopher.

Within days, Mr. Christopher and Defense Secretary Les Aspin were flying to Europe to explain the change of plan.

Under the go-slow approach, which will be formally presented at the summit meeting on Jan. 10 and 11, the United States and its allies will endorse the principle that NATO's membership should eventually be enlarged. But NATO will not ease expansion of the alliance by outlining a clear set of standards for admitting new members. Instead, East European countries and former Soviet republics are being invited to take part in a program of military training and exercises that will allow them to associate themselves with the alliance without offering formal membership or the security guarantees that come with it.

The text has been automatically segmented into sentences. The parts underlined are those recobnized by the grammar we described.

Figure 35. Marked text

sits to the chapel, I periodically felt a strong urge to walk over to one of the wooden benches cellent example of how America can play a vital role in moderating tensions between Ukraine and ko never lost his love for shooting. As a way of sparking conversation, he took potshots at hat ork Times The technicians have found a way to bring back the musical past. Memorable perform Clinton will, therefore, probably find a way to renew China's most-favored-nation trading sta Higuita, 27, was detained on June 4 and accused of receiving a $64,000 payoff for helping negot rawn angry letters from former children accustomed to feeding on demand. A proofreader was guts nbeaten home record. Papin was sent off after appearing to elbow an opponent in the 37th minute "See you later, folks," he said Monday after being asked once if he planned to resign and twic the IRA lays down its arms. Britain agreed not to stand in the way if the people of Norther "if the dominant powers in each region agreed to exercise authority in accordance with an inte the future of the province, if the IRA agreed to put down its arms after 25 years and abandon en the United States and China, Beijing agreed to remove three-quarters of its non-tariff trade een as a secondary target for tourists, aimed at attracting one-day visits. But it has prove rs and abandon its campaign of violence aimed at driving the British from Northern Ireland. ced to hard labor for seven years. I am also advocating the death penalty for those who garb s into contact with a human voice. I am also starting a campaign to stop people from using t reams of stardom in the movie world. "I am beginning to think about my future beyond the world . Continuing with the crime issue, I am calling for the prohibition of hardened criminals ap alked with the Knicks. "And as far as I am concerned," Wilson added, "Isiah Thomas is welcome h to the disk, at least not this week. I am correcting this error lest my works be immortalized ek winter break from the circuit. "I am definitely giving myself the whole year," said the 1 ched the microphone as he confessed, "I am frightened by the way I feel, maybe you are too / I Bettis then talked about improving. "I am going to try to get a little quicker laterally, and g their personal finances better. "I am hearing a lot of people give themselves permission n y the way I feel, maybe you are too / I am losing faith in everything and everyone but you." By (even if it does bounce). I thought: I am not going to play silly defensive cricket shots. I a rison without parole for 10 years. I am not talking about personal voice-mail boxes, but tho to pay tomorrow." She added, "What I am really dreaming of is a small inn, a cozy place with ng with another electronic system. I am recommending a five-day waiting period for the autho e:International Herald Tribune I am tired of hearing of the carnage that afflicts Americ ut her mother, Haller Jones, did. "I am tired of those dang reporters," Mrs. Jones said, sta "I do not really complain because I am used to it," he said as he stamped his feet in the c and was, after all, a grown man. "I am very saddened that this has happened, that he was ev ame, is nursing a sore left foot. "I am worried," said North Carolina coach Dean Smith. "The ublished in Polish, contain accounts of an abortive attempt to poison the Czar, on the occasion d. Mr. Reynolds's comments were seen as an attempt to offer further inducement to the IRA to en eptance through their commodification -another way of describing their Americanization. Jul be "settled fairly," but he warned that any effort to press his country to make broader concess incorporated in Malaysia but ruled out any plans of selling its equity to local shareholders. nfrontation with Moscow would eliminate any Russian temptation to fill the vacuum. Mr. Clint d the Palestine Liberation Organization appear to be frozen amid growing rancor and recriminati s to be accelerating and interest rates appear to favor the dollar. The Federal Reserve Board i sketchy, but most guerrilla fatalities appear to have been inflicted while the rebels were ret ai army officials said. The fighting appeared to be increasing in intensity, and both sides y raids, fled for the hills Tuesday and appeared to be pulling out of their remaining stronghol ning set. Although he won the set, Cash appeared to be uncomfortable during the remainder of th acy. But even though the transaction appears far from going through, analysts saw in Federat e Israeli-Palestinian dispute, however, appears now to be overtaken by the anger toward Mr. Ara closest neighbors. U.S. involvement appears restricted to trying to buy back the Stinger gr s from Egypt to Tajikistan, where Islam appears to be a popular alternative but governments are Concordances present the sequences parsed by the grammar VAUX in alphabetic order. This sample comprises compound verbs as well as noun phrases whose head noun has been disambiguated (i.e. cannot be a verb, urge and plan for example).

Figure 36. Concordance

Figure

  Figure 5. Tense

Figure

  Figure 10. AdjBeToVW

Figure

  Figure 11. Question Figure 12. QuestionNot Figure 13. PronSubject

Figure

  Figure 15. NHaveToV Figure 16. NHavePrepVing

Figure

  Figure 17. VPassiveBePrepVing Figure 18. VPassiveBeToV

Figure

  Figure 22. VenVPrepVing

Figure

  Figure 23. NBeToV Figure 24. NBeToVW Figure 25. NBePrepVing Figure 26. ThereBeToV Figure 27. ThereBePrepVing Figure 28. TheMostNToV

Figure

  Figure 29. PrepVW Figure 30. InOrderToV Figure 31. InViewOfVing Figure 32. PrepV Figure 33. PrepVing Figure 34. VAUX

UMR N°7546 du CNRS.

This notation ignores governing prepositions and governed moods, these constraints are fully taken into account in the various graphs of the grammar (e.g. figures 2,

3, 4).

The names of the local grammars involved in the lemmatization process will appear in bold characters (cf. §

4).

In this graph, we must separate inserts that may contain a negation (Insert), inserts that must contain a negation (InsNot) and those that may not contain a negation (Ins).

Formal criteria of classification of these verbs are found in P.S.[START_REF] Rosenbaum | The Grammar of English Predicate Constructions[END_REF] M. Gross 1968. A resulting classification of about 2500 verbs has been published in M.[START_REF] Gross | Méthodes en syntaxe[END_REF]

The symbol W corresponds to a variable ranging over the sequence of complements of the sentence.

For a more systematic approach to the resolution of ambiguities by means of local grammars, see E.[START_REF] Laporte | Levée d'ambiguïtés par grammaires locales[END_REF]

The 'tag' is a solution provided by the dictionary.

SUMMARY

We generalize the process of lemmatization of verbs to their compound tenses.Usually, lemmatization is limited on verbs conjugated by means of suffixes ; tense auxiliaries and modal verbs (e.g. I have left, I am leaving, I could leave) are ignored. We have constructed a set of 83 finite-state grammars which parse auxiliary verbs and thus recognizes the 'head verb', that is, the lemma.

We generalize the notion of auxiliary verb to verbs with sentential complements which have transformed constructions (e.g. I want to go) that can be parsed in exactly the same way as tense auxiliaries or modal verbs. Ambiguities arise, in particular because adverbial inserts occurr inside the compound verbs,. We show how local grammars describing nominal contexts can be used to reduce the degree of ambiguity.

Address of the author : LADL Université Paris 7 2, place Jussieu F-75251 Paris CEDEX 05 mgross@ladl.jussieu.fr


The point of departure was the contruction of a transformational grammar of French (M. [START_REF] Gross | Grammaire transformationnelle du français. 1-Syntaxe du verbe[END_REF][START_REF] Gross | Méthodes en syntaxe[END_REF], based on Z.S. Harris' theoretical framework. Adding the requirement of providing a significant coverage of the language led to the development of:

-an extensive list of transformations, and -a lexicon of verbs (or elementary sentences) to which these transformations applied.

The intended programme consisted in marking each verb (or sentence) with the transformations it underwent. This approach is necessary for obvious reasons, even though there has been little theoretical or practical discussions of the basic phenomena. Consider for example, the traditional notion of transitive verb, or equivalently, the notion of a sentence with a direct object. Attempts to formalize it lead first to the basic structure: N0 V N1 of which examples are:

(1)

Bob enjoyed all his vacation (2)

Bob rested all his vacation

The main notations are the following: in a sentence, the noun phrases (NPs) are numbered from left to right starting with the subscript zero: N0 is the subject, N1 is the first complement, N2 is the second complement, etc.

Both sentences (1) and ( 2) have a direct complement, but only (1) has a direct object.

Transformational properties show (define) the difference:

Interrogative pronoun formation:

(3) --What did Bob enjoy? --All his vacation (4) *--What did Bob rest?--All his vacation

Relative pronoun formation:

(5)

The vacation which Bob enjoyed (was lost time) (6) *The vacation which Bob rested (was lost time)

Passive formation:

(7) All his vacation was enjoyed by Bob (8) *All his vacation was rested by Bob Just one of these three properties is enough to discriminate (1) from ( 2) and hence could provide a basis for a syntactic definition of direct objet. But the original intention of the notion of object seems to be also semantic, hence it usually associates meaning and form. Then a question arises: do these three syntactic properties coincide as in the case of to enjoy? Moreover do they coincide with some semantic notion? In fact, if we consider the sentence:

(9) Bob spent all his vacation sleeping we observe only two possibilities out of three a priori relevant:

[Relativization]:

All the vacation which Bob spent sleeping (was lost time) [Passive]: All Bob's vacation was spent sleeping and one impossibility:

[Wh Question]: *What did Bob spend sleeping?

Since there is no theoretical reason why the three properties should coincide, they ought to be described independently of each other. Notice that relativization and WH-Question could be correlated; for example, if a common basic pronoun (e.g. something) could be shown to be the source of both pronouns what and which. Such a hypothesis needs to be strengthened, which can only be done through a thorough examination of the verbs. There is no hint whatsoever that Passive forms have a grammatical link to the two other properties.

Consider another example. In our notations, the non-oriented Passive relation can be written:

(10) N0 V N1 = N1 be V-ed by N0

Now, it is largely assumed that the agent complement by N0 can be omitted, that is, the resulting structure N1 be V-ed always corresponds to an acceptable sentence:

Bob briefed Max = Max was briefed by Bob = Max was briefed However, there are paradigms, such as:

This assumption underlies Bob's whole discourse = Bob's whole discourse is underlied by this assumption *Bob's whole discourse is underlied where omission of the by-agent is not possible and examples where the same omission has aspectual implications, as can be seen in the pair:

Max is enjoyed

Max is rejoiced

There is no way to detect and describe these patterns of relation, except by looking individually at each verb and marking them.

This situation is fairly general, given a structure N0 V W, where W is a sequence of complements: the transformations that apply to this structure are found to be dependent on the choice of the verb V (hence on the complements W).

We can now be more explicit about the form of a lexicon-grammar. First, we describe the syntax of ordinary verbs, which means that we describe verbs in their minimal environment: subjects and essential complements. Separating essential from circumstantial complements is a classical question, for which the traditional answer is largely based on the shape of interrogative pronouns. Considering again examples (1) and (2), we observe the difference:

--*When did Bob enjoy All his vacation --When did Bob rest

All his vacation

Upon examination of more than 10.000 verbs, delineating a border between essential and circumstancial complements has proved to be a varied enterprise, more dependent on individual verbs than initially thought: tests for characterizing essential complements are highly lexical and tend to apply more to individual verbs or small groups than to broad semantic classes.

The choice of verbs (over 10.000) and of transformational properties (over 500) is an interdependent process performed by a team of linguists who have to carry out acceptability judgments on sentences, which included:

-deciding whether several sentences had the same meaning or transformationally related meanings, (e.g. for example (1), ( 3) and ( 7) or for ( 2) and ( 9)); -deciding whether two sentences had unrelated meanings (e.g. ( 1) and ( 2)); -deciding whether a sentence form was acceptable or not (e.g. for ( 4), ( 6), ( 8)).

The linguistic activity aims:

(i) at separating the meaning or uses of the morphological verbs, (ii) at marking syntactic verbs (i.e. elementary sentences) for the properties they do or do not have.

A crucial requirement in such descriptive work is REPRODUCIBILITY of judgments. Only when a consensus was reached by the team of linguists, was a verb retained for study in the lexicon, and only when the evaluation of a syntactic shape could be reproduced by the team, was this syntactic shape retained as a property (a rule) of the grammar. Judgments are binary: a verb has or does not have a given property. This ideal representation cannot be reached directly. For example, it has been observed in written corpus that intuitions of acceptability underestimate the actual production of forms. The effect has been corrected by a rule of thumb: when acceptability is dubious, the form is considered acceptable.

More precisely, we consider verbs, that is, elementary sentences of the form subject-verbessential complements, as elementary units for syntactic as well as for semantic composition.

The set of elementary sentences is structured by (Z.S. Harris 1968) transformation rules, construed as equivalence relations between sentences.

CLASSIFICATION OF VERBS

The principle of all classifications is formal, namely, it is based on reproducible categories such as the traditional parts of speech. Let us first consider a rather simple example: the classification of English frozen adverbial phrases. We are going to use the categories Prep (preposition), Det (determiner), N (noun), Adj (adjective). We distinguish the following types:

- Other such tables have to be defined, in order to reach a complete coverage of this family of adverbial complements. For example, the table PAC would contain the structure:

Prep Det Adj N =: by the same token + in the long run + etc.

Let us now describe the classification of verbs, or rather of elementary sentences. The general approach to the construction of classes will be the same as in the preceding example.

All verbs have a subject N0, but their sequence W of essential complements is quite variable. Thus, the examples of verbs discussed above have the following basic declarative structures: N0 V =: Bob rested N0 V N1 =: Bob enjoyed his vacation N0 V N1 (V1-ing W)2 =: Bob spent his vacation sleeping

The notation of the last structure is with a second complement subscripted 2 and made of a verbal structure whose subject is indicated by the superscript 1, that is N1.

The classification is based on several parameters, the main ones being the number of complements and their shape. For French, we had to consider first three basic shapes: direct (i.

N0 V À N1 À N2 Le lit sert À Luc À cela 5 N0 V À N1 de N2 Le lit sert À Luc de bureau 10 N0 V À N1 PrÉp N2 Ce texte Équivaut À une insulte pour Jo 30 N0 V PrÉp N1 PrÉp N2 Max s'

allie avec Luc contre Guy 200

There are practically no examples with three objects; one candidate is the verb parier (to bet) in the sentence:

Jo a pariÉ cent francs avec Luc que Max partirait (Jo bet one hundred francs with Luc that Max would leave) Table 1 A second parameter of the classification is the content of the noun phrases Ni; two types have been distinguished:

-sentential, that is accepting one of the forms queS or V-infW (infinitive clause), then, predicative nouns are also possible in general, -non sentential, that is only nouns. This classification results in the distribution shown in table 2, where the main structures are displayed with the corresponding number of verbs.

________________________________________________________

The structures are more specific than in table 1. They each define a syntactic class whose description is given in the form of a binary matrix (cf. figure 1).

Table 2 ________________________________________________________ Such a classification has to be completed by the properties that depend on individual verbs. This is done in a uniform way. Each row of the matrix is an entry of the lexicon-grammar, that is, an elementary sentence in the declarative form defining a class (e.g. table 2). Each column is a particular sentence shape, into which the verb may or may not enter. A "+" or a "-" sign is placed accordingly at the intersection of the corresponding row and column. The main properties are:

-distributional properties of Ns, such as human or non human. They are defined by means of interrogative pronouns. Consider the entry N0 influence N1. Both subject and complement are marked +Nhum, +N-hum, as the result of accepting the following sentences:

(What + Who) influences Bob? (What + Who) does Max influence?

Columns containing the specifications Ni =: Nhum, Ni =: N-hum correspond to sentence forms such as: Who V N1?, What do N0 V? Hence, distributional properties are defined as sentence shapes; -transformational properties can be seen as sentence shapes associated with the declarative form that defines the class. Hence, the passive transformation is noted as accepted by a verb of the class N0 V N1, when the matrix has a "+" sign in the column that contains the simple form:

N1 be influenced by N0

The general description of verbs can then be visualized as a single matrix of 10, 000 rows by 500 columns. There is considerable redundancy in this matrix: for example, when a verb is intransitive, marking "-" the properties of its objects carries no information. Hence, the classes allow a more tractable representation, by means of submatrices of a smaller size: they have an average of 250 rows (verbs) and 25 columns. A sample of a class is given in figure 1.

________________________________________________________ Figure 1 ________________________________________________________ 3. FROZEN SENTENCES
Frozen sentences (we could use alternatively the terminology "compound verbs") include elementary sentences described from a variety of stylistic points of view, but all sharing one feature. They include verb-noun combinations which are not distributional, that is, not semantically predictable:

-idioms:

Max took the bull by the horns, -metaphors: Max burned his bridges, -clichÉ:

The house burst into flames, -technical:

Max integrated the function by parts.

We replace this non-reproducible classification by using distributional criteria. Consider for example the common sentence type:

N0 V N1 Prep N2
In the same way as we subclassified verbs by separating them according to their acceptance of a sentential Ni, we describe the sentences according to the position of the nouns frozen with respect to the verbs; we note Ci the frozen nominal positions. We can then write: The last example should be noted more precisely as follows:

C0 V C1 Prep (N's C)2
since a variable human noun N must be attached to the frozen head noun pocket. Table 3 gives the present state of the description of frozen sentences.

___________________________________________________________

In general, the tables named Cx contain verbs different from the "auxiliary" verbs être (to be), avoir (to have), faire (to make). These verbs are described in other tables named respectively Ex (L. Danlos 1979;J. Labelle 1974;[START_REF] Meunier | Sur les bases syntaxiques de la morphologie dérivationnelle[END_REF][START_REF] Meunier | Sur les bases syntaxiques de la morphologie dérivationnelle[END_REF]D. de NÉgroni 1978;R. VivÈs 1983), Fx (J. [START_REF] Giry-Schneider | Les nominalisations en français[END_REF], 1987). Also cf. 4. We further justify our fundamental principle according to which it is elementary sentences and not words that carry units of meaning. The frozen sentences are clearly a case of meaning not being located in individual words, but in whole sentences. That meaning is not compositional is obviously true for other categories of frozen or compound terms:

-adverbs, such as time and again, by and large, -compound nouns, from the idiomatic red herring to technical terms such as cathode ray tube or transgenic mouse.

The category of frozen adjectives can also be defined for examples such as:

Bob is well-to-do The decision is clear-cut it does not differ essentially from verbs.

Both of the major categories noun and adverb raise a question about the localization of meaning: these expressions do appear to contain their meaning, hence our basic assumption would not hold for them. There are however reasons to describe them as elementary sentences.

Consider the relation of nominalization as defined by Z.S. [START_REF] Harris | Elementary Transformations, Philadelphie: University of Pennsylvania[END_REF], it is a relation between sentences, not between a sentence and a noun phrase. We have for example:

(11) This proposal contradicts your ideas = (12) This proposal is in contradiction with your ideas

We consider this pair similar to the pair active-passive: the verb has become a noun (in the passive it becomes adjective-like), the preposition with has been introduced (by in the passive form), and an auxiliary verb to be in has been inserted (to be in the passive). Hence Passive and this rule of Nominalization differ formally only by the fact that word order in not affected in this Nominalization. In other nominalizations, the word order can change:

That Jo left satisfied Bob = Bob had the satisfaction that Jo left Another example is adjective nominalization:

(13) This office is convenient = ( 14) This office has a certain convenience Since it is not oriented, the relation (13) = ( 14) could also be called Adjectivization of a noun, and we can look at Passive forms as adjectivized verbs. We call the auxiliary verbs to be (in, into), to have support verbs. Support verbs may have variants such as in:

(11) = ( 15 16), in some sense. In the same way applying the causative operator N0 put to the sentence:

(21) The child is at Bob's mercy where various relations holds between mercy, child and Bob, we obtain:

The accident put the child at Bob's mercy that contains all the relations of ( 21). Other operators introduce new relations. For example, the binding operators N0 (have + keep), also applied to (21), lead to:

Bob (has + keeps) the child at his mercy where the subject of have, keep, must be bound to his:

*Bob (has + keeps) the child at your mercy

The study of relations between the various parts of elementary sentences has not been much developed, so far in syntax. Lexical decompositions such as those of generative semantics are such attempts. But one is dealing here with a quite general problem that may go beyond the study of operator verbs as exemplified above.

The following examples show that the overall syntactic structure does not reflect the basic relations observed between parts of elementary sentences:

Bob attributed the crime to Max Bob confessed the crime to Max Bob described the crime to Max Max is the subject of crime with to attribute, Bob is the subject with to confess, Max and Bob have no relation to the crime with to describe. Notice that other lexical items and syntactic structures may be used to express the same relations, such as:

Bob accused Max of the crime Bob informed Max of the crime Support and operator verbs are quite different from ordinary verbs:

-they do not select their subjects and objects in the way ordinary verbs do; thus, it is clear that in ( 12) and (15), proposal is not selected by to come or to enter, but by the noun contradiction, the same is true for to have, to keep, to lose in ( 14), ( 17), ( 18), where it is convenience that selects the subject office; -their complement structure is different.

Consider for example the sentences:

(22) Bob opposed John's scheme = (23) Bob took opposition to John's scheme (24) Bob discussed opposition to John's scheme ( 23) is a nominalized form of (12) with support verb to take; (24) contains an ordinary verb, (24) has a very different nature, although its structure is identical to the structure of (23):

-semantically ( 22) and ( 23) are synonymous, while in (24) Bob is not the subject of opposition. In fact, although the sequences opposition to John's scheme appear to be identical in ( 23) and ( 24), we observe differences with respect to extractions:

It is to John's scheme that Bob took opposition *It is to John's scheme that Bob discussed opposition Opposition was taken to John's schema *Opposition was discussed to John's schema 4.2 Stand-alone nouns Support and operator verbs also apply to stand-alone nouns, that is, they are not only auxiliaries in nominalization relations. The following pairs involves a nominalization relation:

Bob (murdered + assassinated) someone =
Bob committed (a murder + an assassination)

where the support verb is to commit. The following sentence:

(25) Bob committed a crime has exactly the same properties as the nominalized forms, but crime has no corresponding verb. We call crime a stand-alone noun, with respect to nominalization of verbs. Notice that ( 25) is to be related to another nominal sentence with support verb to be:

Bob is a criminal

In sentences such as:

Bob's proposal is at variance with John's scheme Bob (is + goes) at war against John's scheme Bob is under pressure = Jo's arrival put Bob under pressure we observe the same properties of the verbs, that is, they are support verbs, and the nouns variance, war and pressure are not (no longer) related to verbs similar in form (to vary, to press, to pressurize). This observation is crucial from a theoretical point of view, since it provides a sentential framework for the description of nouns. We have argued that it is a necessary form of description for various reasons:

-noun complementation which includes shape of prepositions and distribution of their noun arguments is defined at the level of support verbs. When a complex noun phrase is combined with an ordinary verb, as in ( 24), its properties are derived by systematic rules from the elementary structure with support verb, not from the verbal structure; -nominalizations, as we extended them, increase the syntactic coverage of equivalence classes of elementary sentences, hence extends the syntactic variety that hides the meaning of sentences. Such equivalence classes provide a new approach to derivational morphology: words will enter a morphological family only if they occur in sentences related by relations of nominalizations and adjectivizations; -various frozen (idiomatic) forms can only be related by support or operator verbs: -determiner in: (of + on) the order of one thousand, -adverbial in: till further orders, -subordinating conjunction in: in order (that he + to) succeed, -and in many compound terms:

-frozen sentences: Bob called Max to order Bob makes shirts to order Pay to the order of BMC... -compound nouns: alphabetical order, lexicographic order, order of magnitude, law and order, etc. some of which combine with support verbs.

All the meanings of order are different, but placing order in an elementary sentence with a support verb or in other characteristic contexts eliminates ambiguities.

Remark

A seemingly simple rule such as plural formation can be shown to have been overlooked in numerous cases. Consider the plural of order: in sentences ( 26), ( 27), ( 29), ( 31), order has no plural, in ( 28) it has obligatory plural, in ( 30), ( 32), ( 33) it may have the plural orders. Such cases of syntactic plurals of nouns are quite numerous, they are described in a natural way at the syntactic level where they co-occur with support verbs.

From an empirical point of view, selecting or discovering the (main) support verb of a given noun has proven to be possible and reproducible for most abstract nouns (i.e. predicative, relational, etc.). The question does not seem to be relevant to concrete nouns, at least in the same sense.

Other nouns

We have mentioned the problem of the integration of concrete nouns in a lexicon-grammar. The difficulty is in the choice of a support verb. Whereas with abstract nouns, a basic support verb imposes itself most of the time, with concrete nouns there are too many candidates. Given the noun chair, the question is whether we should introduce it through classificatory sentences such as:

A chair is a seat A seat is a piece of furniture A chair is a piece of furniture or whether we should consider a physical description of a chair made in terms of elementary sentences:

A chair has a back A chair has four legs, etc. or a functional description:

A person sits on a chair, etc.

or whether one should enter all this encyclopedic knowledge in the lexicon-grammar at all. These difficulties do not differ essentially from traditional semantic questions about synonymy, hypernonymy, etc., except that they take on a different form when they are stated in terms of elementary sentences rather than in terms of words. For example, the synonymy of words has to be relativized as soon as the words are presented in sentences: we do not discuss semantic relations (e.g. synonymy between two nouns) outside of elementary sentences where they occur, hence we only talk of relations between words embedded into a given set of elementary sentences, hence we compare sentences such as the following, in order to make explicit the situations in which both nouns chair and seat are synonymous: Take a chair! Take a seat! One sits on a chair One sits on a seat One sits on a piece of furniture There are five hundred seats in this concert hall There are five hundred chairs in this concert hall Bob put the chairs around the table Bob put the seats around the table A lexicon of compound nouns has been built (G. [START_REF] Gross | Syntaxe des connecteurs[END_REF], M. Silberztein 1989). This lexicon has been classified according to the internal constitution of the nouns, as shown in table 4.

The intended coverage of this lexicon is of the order of magnitude of 300, 000 entries, which would give it the same level of coverage as the one reached for the electronic lexicon DELA of simple words that has already been built (B. Courtois 1989[START_REF] Courtois | Un système de dictionnaires électroniques pour les mots simples du français[END_REF]). Among compound nouns, there are abstract nouns such as first degree murder, economic future which will have to be described with their support verbs in the lexicon-grammar: N0 commits a first degree murder N0 has a certain economic future There are also numerous concrete nouns including technical terms: boat basin, electron microscope, resolving power, light-collecting mirror, short range nuclear missile. Compound nouns have been classified according to their internal structure, examples are shown in table 4.

________________________________________________________ Table 4 ________________________________________________________

The dictionary DELA of simple words contains 80, 000 word forms as entries. Information about inflections is associated to each of them, which allows for automatic generation of over 700, 000 inflected forms together with the corresponding grammatical properties (B.Courtois1990) and a phonemic representation (E. Laporte 1988). This dictionary is intended to serve as an access key to the lexicon-grammar and to the dictionary of compound nouns: given a word found in a text, a look-up programme extracts the different entries corresponding to this word and the lexical and syntactic properties attached to each of the entries. Then, an analyzer can determine the (single) solution present in the text by exploring the context of the word. This system has various applications to automatic processing of texts (from error-spelling correction to the more ambitious mechanical translation).

The coverage of the DELA dictionary system is comparable to that of current dictionaries, which are incomplete in various respects:

proper names are missing, and also their derived forms (verbs, nouns, adjectives: to russify, russification, etc.), -many forms derived from common dictionary entries are absent from all dictionaries, because they are easy to interpret when the canonical entry is known: this is the case for the word unrecommercializability, well formed and easy to interprete by means of the entry to commercialize, the prefixes re-, un-and the suffixes -able, -ability. These gaps are to be filled at the level of the lexicon-grammar, by adding new properties according to derivations such as:

[Passive sentence with modal]:

This product can be commercialized by our firm [Adjectivization]:

This product is commercializable by our firm [Prefixation from negation]: This product is uncommercializable by our firm [Nominalization]:

This product has a certain commercializability by our firm where each of these sentence forms constitutes a column of the lexicon-grammar. This is another example (cf. 4.2.) of the syntactic treatment of derivational morphology. The sentential subject contains an elementary sentence, that is, with no adverb of time or place, and the verb is a support verb for adverbs, belonging to a small class (to take place, to happen, etc.). Hence, certain families of adverbs (date, place) are going to be described as elementary sentences of the form:

That S Vsup Adverb that can be naturally entered into the lexicon-grammar of the language. For other adverbs, the derivation can take a different form, but the principle is the same:

That Bob entered the smoky room was courageous (of him + on his part) = Bob entered the smoky room courageously where the pronoun or the possessive adjective his must refer to Bob and is the subject of courageous. This constraint does not hold in the following otherwise similar relation:

That Bob entered the smoky room was unfortunate = Unfortunately Bob entered the smoky room Adverbs or more generally non-object complements have been little studied, and their relations to elementary sentences are far from being understood (for French, cf. M. [START_REF] Gross | Grammaire transformationnelle du français. 3-Syntaxe de l'adverbe[END_REF]. As is often the case, frozen forms can be quite revealing about the nature of relations which can be hidden under apparently regular structures. We undertook a description of frozen and compound adverbs, that resulted in the classification given in table 5. [START_REF] Piot | Etudes transformationnelles de quelques classes de conjonctions de subordination[END_REF], but many more are needed in order to get a comprehensive picture of the phrases that have been called circumstancial complements, they are much more varied than the classification based on the half dozen WH interrogative pronouns might lead one to believe.

________________________________________________________

RESULTS AND CONCLUSION

The lexicon-grammar is stored in a computer data base and maintained on a regular basis: new properties are being added, and new entries are still being introduced, mainly so-called metaphors or figurative meanings of already existing sentences. Given an entry, the "+" signs that appear in the corresponding row (cf. figure 1) provide a syntactic paradigm of the entry. We can ask the following question . How many of these paradigms do we have in the lexicongrammar? For the 10, 000 verbs, the answer is 8, 000. Hence, there are few verbs which have the same set of constructions. Even more, when we add derivational properties, then no two verbs have the same syntactic paradigm. This observation can be seen as an a posteriori justification of the lexicon-grammar: every verb has to described on an individual basis.

We have proposed a number of criteria to separate objects from other complements (mainly adverbial). As a consequence, we observed that ordinary verbs had pratically never three objects. Verbs with two objects often have a relation between both objects or between the subject and one of the objects (cf. 4.1). With frozen sentences, where often one complement (possibly an adverb) is frozen with the verb, we observe more entries with three complements, but still, they are exceptional, or at any rate much less numerous. For example, in the sentences:

Bob used (the cold)1 as (a pretext)2 (for leaving early)3

The cold provides (Bob)1 with (a pretext + an excuse)2 (for leaving early)3 the three complements are obligatory. We have no explanation for this numerical limitation, nor for another fact we observed, that verbs with two prepositional complements are rare (cf. table 1). We consider such data important, since they have direct structural implications for sentences.

We would like to insist on the fact that in the lexicon, there are many more sentences containing a verbal expressions, that is, which are frozen (i.e. non-compositional), than sentences containing an ordinary verb (i.e. compositional). This should come as a surprise, unless the sentences thought to be compositional turned out to be less so, as further studies tend to show; then truly compositional constructions would be quite rare.

The lexicon-grammar framework together with the requirement of substantial coverage lead to a uniform and consistent description of elementary sentences. Many features have been shown to be lexical, for example the choice of the determiners and modifiers of the subject or object of a verb can be lexical, whether with ordinary or support verbs, compare:

Bob is building a palace = Bob is building a future palace Bob is selling a palace Bob is selling a future palace *Bob has (a + the) courage Bob has (a + the) courage we are all missing Also, the distribution of adverbials appears to obey rules of cooccurrence with sentences. As a consequence, the grammar of complex sentences may be quite different from what has been proposed so far. For example, S.Y. Kuroda 1968 has shown the existence of complex dependencies between determiners and relative clauses, such phenomena could be more general and more complex, that is, more lexical. Thus, lexicon-grammar may have to be extended to non-elementary sentences, as is already the case for frozen complex sentences (M. [START_REF] Gross | Syntaxe des connecteurs[END_REF].

Some of the phenomena mentioned may be language dependent. For example, in English, verb-particle combinations seem to correspond to verb-adverb combinations in French, but too little is yet known about such phenomena to draw any conclusion. One of the main advantages of lexicon-grammar is that it allows comparisons between languages both at the lexical and the syntactic levels. In fact, large segments of lexicon-grammars have already been built, for Italian [START_REF] Elia | Le verbe italien, Les complétives dans les phrases à un complément[END_REF]A. Elia, E. d'Agostino, M. Martinelli 1981), for Portuguese [START_REF] Ranchhod | On the Support Verbs ser and estar in Portuguese, Lingvisticae Investigationes[END_REF]E. Maceido 1984, J. Malaca-Casteleiro, 1981), for Spanish (B. Lamiroy 1983, L. Masso-Pellat 1990, C.Subirats1987), which already allows for comparisons of Romance languages.

Many classes of constructions have also been described for English (P. [START_REF] Freckleton | Une comparaison des expressions de l'anglais et du français[END_REF]P. Machonis 1988;M. Salkoff 1983), for German (F. [START_REF] Caroli | Les verbes transitifs À complÉment de lieu en allemand, Lingvisticae Investigationes[END_REF]T. Treigg 1977), for Arabic (M. [START_REF] Chad | SystÈme verbal arabe. RÉgime des constructions transitives[END_REF]M. El Hannach 1988), for Korean (Hong Chai-Sîng 1984). All this work confirms the possibility of constructing lexicon-grammars of varied languages in a comparable way.

As mentioned above, the evolution of lexicon-grammar is towards increased structure, because derivational properties are being added. As a consequence, there is a tendency to use roots of words as entries. In fact, this is a tendency to render descriptions more abstract: parts of speech become equivalent and thus lose significance inside a dictionary article. It is one the features that make feasible comparisons between languages. _

  N0 V C1 Prep C2 =: Max took the bull by the horns N0 V N1 Prep C2 =: The news took Bob by surprise N0 V C1 Prep N2 =: Bob took part in the inquiry C0 V C1 Prep C2 =: Money burns a hole in Bob's pocket

4. 4

 4 Adverbs Z.S. Harris 1986 has proposed the following scheme of derivation for various adverbs, circumstancial complements and most subordinate clauses: That Bob left occurred yesterday = Bob left yesterday

  e. "zero" preposition), indirect with prepositions À and de. It turns out that other prepositions (Prep) introduce few essential complements. We give in table 1 the typology on which the classification of French verbs has been made (J.

	Structures	Examples	Numbers
			of entries
	N0 V	Guy fl_ne	450
	N0 V N1	Max boit du vin	3700
	N0 V À N1	Luc pense À Jo	350
	N0 V de N1	Guy rÊve de trains	400
	N0 V PrÉp N1	La mer compte pour Max	1000
	N0 V N1 N2	On nomme Luc chef	60
	N0 V N1 À N2	Guy donne un lit À Max
	900
	N0 V N1 de N2	Max reçoit un lit de Guy	1300
	N0 V N1 PrÉp N2	Max pose le lit sur le sol	1700

-P.

Boons, A. Guillet, C. LeclÈre 1976a, 1976b; M. Gross 1975; A. Guillet, C. LeclÈre 1990; C. LeclÈre 1990)

.

Table 3 ___________________________________________________________

 3 The description of frozen sentences does not differ from the description of the free sentences discussed in 2. Figure2contains an example of a syntactic table which is to be read in the same way as figure1. Frozen sequences appear explicitly.

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	Figure 2
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	4. SUPPORT VERBS
	4.1 Nominalizations