o f o n e ' i d e a ' butter stalls / kramy maślane In many towns the trade of butter took place in specific, designated zones of marketplaces, commercial streets or on allotted separated markets. e.g. French towns like: Romans-sur-Isère (Drôme), Blois (Loir-et-Cher), Cholet (Maine-et-Loire) (Fig. 6), Vimoutiers (Orne), Loches (Indre-et-Loire), Brussels (Belgium) -in the neighbourhood of St. Nicolas church and more recently place des Récollets (Fig. 7), Liège (Belgium)place St-Denis (Fig. 8), the Hague (Netherlands) -Groot Boterhuis, Gdańsk (Poland)targ Maślany.

)le marché au beurre (butter market), Altdorf (Switzerland) -the ground floor of Ankenwaage (butter scales) was used as a butter market.

Different faces of one 'idea'

Section three, presents a selection of analogous examples (European public use and commercial buildings) so as to help the reader weigh to which extent the layout of Krakow's marketplace, as well as its architectures, can be related to other sites. Market Square in Krakow is paradoxically at the same time a typical example of medieval marketplace and a unique site. But the frontline between what is common and what is unique can be seen as "somewhat fuzzy".

Among these examples readers should observe a number of unexpected similarities, as well as sharp contrasts in terms of form, usage and layout of buildings. At the end of the day, one may spot, behind layers of local political, cultural and climatic differences, one 'idea' (a common practical need) with different faces, faces that here and there end up playing a major symbolic role. Noticeably, commercial and trade related buildings were indeed at the heart of every-day life and were intensively used. That is why they were often destroyed and repaired or rebuilt, rearranged and adapted to new functions or tastes. Those that survived -that were not dismantled or simply destroyed by fire, wars or simply time passing by, bear witness to manners of thinking and living that have now (partly) changed. The fact that a certain number of commercial and trade related buildings that will be mentioned in this section are 20 th century reconstructions clearly shows that functionality and usefulness of these buildings is not the only thing that makes them important for people today. Whatever the region these buildings were built in, whatever the culture and ways of living they correspond to, whatever the initial function they may have had, they end up today as different faces of yet another idea: identity and remembrance.

Note: In the following section, readers should note that cities are related to today's political frontiers, which may be misleading in a number of cases.

bakers' stalls / jatki piekarskie

In the Middle Ages in Europe the making of bread and its trading (Fig. 1) were generally two separated activities, in accordance with local regulations. Both activities were strongly monitored (i.e. the type and quality of bread was controlled, as well as its weight and size. The quantity of bread that could be sold, its price, places where the trading was authorized were also under direct control, etc.). In the majority of towns independent street trade, for example by pedlars, or sale directly in bakeries or houses of bakers was forbidden.

Generally bread could be sold in:

• stalls or benches located on designated bread markets, e.g. In German speaking Switzerland, in Germany (e.g. Lübeck -stalls nearby the town hall (Fig. 2), Dresden -on the north side of Neustadt market), in Great Britain (e.g. Norwich -stalls on the marketplace, London -Bread Street), in Austria (e.g. Vienna -Gaben and Hoher Markt in the 14th and 15th centuries), in France (e.g. Dijon-towards rue de la Préfecture, ancient rue de la Corroierie), in Poland (e.g. Elbląg, Ząbkowice Śląskie in the14th century -stalls nearby the town hall or in arcades of the tenements nearby the marketplace, Gdańsk -in many places amongst others on Brotbänkengasse Mittelmarkt and in stalls nearby the town hall, Wrocław -in the northern part of the marketplace).

• bread benches located inside other public buildings like market halls for minor traders or town halls, e.g. inside a market hall for minor traders -Wrocław (Fig. 3), Gniezno, Ząbkowice Śląskie in the 16th century;

• inside a town hall -Grossenhain (Germany), Toruń old town in the 15th century, Kłodzko.

• independent wooden or stone built buildings appointed to bread trade, also called bread benches e.g. Brussels, Nördlingen (Germany), Toruń old and new town (Fig. 4), Lubań, Ząbkowice Śląskie (Fig. 5), Lwówek Śląski, Jawor. In some cities space in a building was shared with other traders (e.g. Świdnica -bread benches on the ground floor while the shoemakers occupied the first floor).

Some bread benches: Belgium: Brussels Great Britain: Norwich, London Germany: Erfurt, Nördlingen, Dresden, München, Leipzig, Lübeck, Grossenhain Italy: Bressanone, Merano France: Dijon Austria: Weitra, Vienna Czech Republic: Chomutov Latvia: Riga Poland: Wrocław, Toruń, Kraków, Gdańsk, Radków, Lubań, Lwówek Śląski, Poznań, Jawor, Elbląg, Ząbkowice Śląskie, Gniezno, Głogów, Kłodzko, Świdnica In Great Britain, "market crosses" -originally used to mark the position of marketplaces in market towns -were often used as trade places for dairy products. In the close vicinity of those market crosses there could be gathering points for certain types of retailers, i.e. more general markets. The names given to the "market crosses" often indicate their specializationbuttercross or butter markets exist in many British towns, but also cheese cross, wool cross, poultry cross, etc. cloth hall / sukiennice

Cloth Halls were the buildings used by cloth merchants (Fig. 12) to store and trade cloth and wool. Cloth halls were erected on marketplaces or in their proximity, in towns situated on European trade routes.

These large trade buildings sometimes also housed the town halls.

In Ypres -Belgium (Fig. 13), Bruges -Belgium, Kłodzko -Poland and Clermont l'Oise-France (Fig. 14), town halls were an integral part of the cloth halls. In Dresden -Germany, Herentals -Belgium town halls were introduced later on inside the cloth hall structure. They could also house other trade related functions (e.g. In Southampton's Westgate Hall, until late 17th century, the cloth hall's open-arcaded ground floor housed the fish market).

It also happened that the function of cloth hall was located inside a town halle.g. Toruń old town -Poland, since the end of 14th c., Grossenhain -Germany (Fig. 15). At this stage it is important to mention that reasons why publications mention that a town hall is localised inside a cloth hall, or vice versa, may strongly vary: they can be related to the order of appearance (in time) of the two functions inside the actual building, to the relative size of both functions, or simply to toponymy.

The cloth merchants also traded in other medieval market facilitiesin London the Stocks Market also housed drapers; in the 16th century in Ząbkowice Śląskie -Poland and in Gniezno -Poland, cloth and wool trade took place mainly in market halls for minor traders; in Norwich -England drapers traded in stalls on the marketplace.

The cloth halls that functioned as independent buildings were sometimes initially made of wood (e.g. Tournai -Belgium) or halftimber structures (e.g. Southampton -England (Fig. 16)). Nevertheless the majority of the known and preserved cloth halls are brick or stone built. Some of them even have belfries (e.g. especially in Belgium:

Ypres, Bruges, Herentals (Fig. 17)). The law of Magdeburg implemented in Poland was combined with a set of civil and criminal laws, and included urban planning regulations. Towns founded with location privilege (known as settlement with German law) or the ones that adopted it at one moment, had their own government: a mayor and a council board (ława miejska), that was composed of several persons acting as municipal magistrates (Fig. 22, [START_REF]Wielkopolskie ratusze /City Halls of Wielkopolska[END_REF].

In Poland, starting from the 13th centuryi.e. after the creation of city councils -the council board exclusively played a judicial role.

The council board chamber was generally located inside town halls (e.g. Wrocław (Fig. 25), Poznań) but before the construction of appropriate seats (a specific building, or a chamber inside town halls) the council board members (Fig. 24) had to meet somewhere elsee.g. they could rent a room in one of the tenements nearby the marketplace. Sometimes a building dedicated to the council board was erected even before the construction of a town hall, seat of the City council, and was later on replaced or annexed by a proper town hall building (e.g. Toruń -13th or 14th century building, located between the northern extremities of the cloth hall and the bread benches).

In Gdańsk in the sixteenth century the council board met inside an urban tenement -the council members' house (Dom Ławników), also called Sień Gdańska, is located at Długi Targ (number 43).

(Fig. 26, 27)

Council boards were widespread during the mediaeval period, with or without the law of Magdeburg. In France council board houses (maison des échevins, hôtel des échevins) housed municipal magistrates in a number of cities, may they be large cities or small, independent or not (e.g. Bourges (Fig. 28), Billom, etc.).

Some council members' houses:

France: Montferrand, Nantes, La Rochelle, Luxeuil-Les-Bains, Billom, Brive La Gaillarde, Bourges Poland: Gdańsk, Toruń (13 th -14 th c.), Kraków Belgium: Namur

dungeon / kabaty

Krakow's dungeon (kabaty) was used as a prison for debtors. Prior to the middle of the 19 th century specific debtors' prisons served as places of detainment and the 'coercion' of debtors (Fig. 29). Generally, people imprisoned for that reason were not detained in individual cells, and their level of liberty could vary. According to estimations by Barty-King [1], in 1641 around 10,000 people in England and Wales were in prison for debts.

Originally, prisons were located in the cellars of town halls, or in the basements of belfries (e.g. Nuremberg (Fig. 30), Exeter Guildhall -a cellar under the council chamber was called 'pytt of the Guyldhall', Płock, Inowrocław (Fig. 31), Żnin (Fig. 32), Słupsk, Biecz, Bratislava, Braunschweig, Gniezno). In Amsterdam a prison was located on the ground floor of the town hall.

Towers or city fortifications were also used as jails, hence some towers were called debtors prison (Schuldturm) (e.g. Nuremberg -Schuldturm, London-Ludgate or Newgate (Fig. 33), Stargard Szczeciński, Prudnik).

In

fish stalls / jatki rybne

Fish trade took place in designated areas of a town. In large cities there could even be several places dedicated to that purpose. In the course of the urban development, fish markets have changed position -so it was in Vienna, Rome and Brussels. In order to organise fish trade big towns invested in new structures (e.g. London, Paris, Brussels).

Trade of freshwater (Fig. 35) and marine fish could be held in different locations and on other principles.

In the medieval Paris, freshwater fish were sold in stalls called pierres le Roy and les pierres aux poissonniers (Fig. 36) situated on the Quai des Ormes (elm quay) between the Marie bridge and the Hay port.

Fairground merchants had their shops at a port called l'arche Beaufils, under the Marie bridge. Marine fish -were not subjected to these restrictions because they were usually sold salted. Fishmongers called Saurs, who sold salted, dried or smoked fish, traded on the Petit Pont connecting the île de la Cité to the right bank of the river Seine. The sale took place in baskets or in barrels, species were not mixed.

In the 13th century the city's fish market in Vienna was held on Hoher Markt. In the 14th century, marine fish and crustacean market was established at Am Hof. In the 18th century both fish markets were moved to the Danube Canal.

In the centre of Brussels, throughout the ages, there were four successive fish markets. In Bruges fish were sold on a separate square called Vismarkt, in Southampton on St Michael's Square -originally on the ground floor of the Westgate Hall (a cloth hall). In London a traditional fish market was Billingsgate Market, but fish were also sold on the old Stocks' Market. In Norwich (Fig. 37) a fish market functioned close to St. Peter's street, in Amsterdam at Dam (a principal marketplace). One of the established fish markets in Rome was the Portico d'Ottavia (near the Church of Sant'Angelo in Pescheria) (Fig. 38), but fish were sold in many markets, for example on Piazza Della Rotonda.

Separate fish markets or commercial streets where fish vendors gathered existed in Lille, Salisbury, and many other cities. The last section of Castle Street in Vilnius was called the 'Fish End' (Rybny Koniec) -fish were sold there from the fish benches. In Wrocław, the fish market was located near the town hall (Fig. 39). Originally a fish market was furnished with simple market stalls (covered or not) (Fig. 40). They could be organised in rows (e.g. Poznań -stalls in the marketplace), or arranged in a more special way (e.g. Lille). The stalls were generally wooden structures (e.g. Brussels, Anvers, Lille, London), sometimes constructed from wood and clay, here and there stone surfaces were used (e.g. Ypres -old fish market (Fig. 41), Rome -Portico d'Ottavia (Fig. 38), Parisla rue Pierre à Poisson (Fig. 36)).

In general, fish could be sold:

• by pedlars -in this case the quantities put up for sale could not exceed the weight tolerable by a man. They were carried in a basket posed on the seller's abdomen and maintained by a strap passing behind his neck (e.g. Paris) (Fig. 43, 44), • on specific and permanent spots, but without any particular protection in terms of roof (e.g. Rome -Portico d'Ottavia (Fig. 38)), and generally from portable stalls (Fig. 45) (e.g. Bruges -Le Petit Marche aux Poissons, Marseille -marché de la criée aux poissons, Quai de la Fraternité Vieux Port), • in roofed fish markets (e.g. Parishalle aux poissons opened in 1661 in rue de la Cossonnerie, London -Billingsgate Fish Market (Fig. 42) that stood between Lower Thames Street and the riverside, constructed in 1850, Brussels, Marseille -Criée libre aux poissons),

• in covered markets situated on the ground floor of other buildings (e.g. Southampton).

In Paris, at the time of spawning -it means from mid-April to mid-May -sale of fish was prohibited by order of the city's provost.

cookshops / kramy warzeszne

The cookshops were the places in which simple, ready-made dishes were sold -a sort of take-away. Only cities which attracted an important number of traders and travellers could support permanent cookshops. Cookshops needed to be close to the markets and shops so as to attract and capture passing trade. The cookshops could be permanent stalls -independent or arranged in rows (e.g. Braunschweig, Bristol) -or mobile stands like Bratelbratereien in Vienna, in which hot sausages and meat dishes were sold. Cooks that worked in these stalls and sold food were called Garkoch. They were selling meat dishes (chicken, wildfowl, geese and rabbits) -roast, fried and boiled -fish, coarser meats for the poor and more delicate for the rich. Meat could be stewed in a cauldron or roasted on a spit over an open fire. In mobile stands, cauldrons, pots, pans or marmites could be isolated from the fire and the embers by an iron trivet, or alternatively three-legged cooking pots (Fig. 46) could be used that would directly stand over the fire. In permanent installations, the cookshops had to have hearths inside the shops (Fig. 47, 51). Like other medieval shops, the cookshops had a narrow frontage to the street and a long plot behind, the tables on which food was prepared.

Flour also formed the basis of a wide variety of prepared foods, most of which were sold hot (i.e. meant for immediate consumption). Onions, garlic, nutmeg, cloves and cinnamon added savour to bland food. Medieval take-away meals included also meat pies, hot cakes, pancakes, wafers and pasties. Hot food to take away could be purchased either from market stalls (Fig. 48), shops or from pedlars (Fig. 49, 50) meandering in the city's street with for instance poêlons de tripes (tripe casserole), pâtés de viandes (meat pâtés), pâtés en croûte (stuffed with salmon, eel, pork, woodcock, etc.), écrevisses (crayfish), saucisses (sausages), gaufres (wafers) and many others … Cookshops are mentioned in Köln, Venice, Rome, Frankfurt am Main -Garkuechenplatz, London -area on the Thames, Leipzig, Braunschweig -nearby the Cloth Hall, Bristol -Cook's Row in the High Street nearby the church of All Saints, Warszawa, Vienna, Toulouse, Nice and Genoa -specialities of Socca (Fig. 50) or Polenta, etc.

food supplies and general retail stalls / jatki wielorakie

Areas on a marketplace, as well as some commercial streets, were allotted to specific crafts and trades. Food products often occupied one particular zone of a marketplace (e.g. Salisbury -in the middle of the market) (Fig. 52) with some independent markets for particular products (e.g. poultry market, corn market, wheat market, cheese market, flower market, etc.).

In Wrocław flour traders gathered in the proximity of St Elisabeth church, while the wheat market was situated in the south-east corner of the city's marketplace. The place where Norwich's wheat market was situated is still called The Haymarket. In the centre of Colchester nearby the High Street there was a spot specifically dedicated to particular goods (e.g. medieval corn market). The Targ Maślany in Gdańsk, literally butter market, was in fact used as a general food market.

These zones were generally equipped with permanent stalls (Fig. 53) arranged in rows of commodities. Some markets had structures that hosted numerous traders under one roof -so called selds. A seld was usually occupied by traders who offered close or identical products.

In other places smaller individual stalls or simply chests stuffed with goods were used by traders to sell their products.

Alternatively, food supplies could be sold in mobile stands (Fig. 54).

In Norwich Pudding Lane (leading down from the Market Place) is named after 'peds' or baskets used by traders who did not own permanent stalls. In Great Britain more generally food was sold in market crosses situated on the marketplaces. In Salisbury the High Cross was also known as the Poultry Cross, and the Cheese Cross marked the location of the dairy products market. In London the stations at the High Cross in Cheap and the Broken Cross on the north side of St. Paul's were rented to the sellers of small wares.

In big towns large structures, called market halls or general markets were constructed to host general retail stalls. In some cases these constructions could be dedicated to some particular type of product (e.g. halle au blé in Paris, cereal markets in Amsterdam and Bruges). In a number of cases, however, a variety of products could be sold there, including food (e.g. London -medieval timber-covered market called the Stocks, 15th century Leadenhall Market). (cf. market hall for minor traders).

In many towns some areas of a market were kept clear of permanent buildings for the use of smallholders (e.g. Norwich -the Lower Market). Confectioners often were specialised in specific types of products. In France they would be called pâtissiers; if they used eggs and butter to prepare pastries and cakes. Oublayeurs baked light dough called oubliesonce very much in vogue, and employed spices in their manufacturethey also baked wafers for the celebration of masses. There were also fleuriers, who employed only the finest type of flour and nieuliers, who produced small cakes called nieules.

Different types of pastries could be sold in stalls located around a marketplace or in some commercial streets that had been allotted to this specific trade, as well as from mobile stands (Fig. 57) or by pedlars (Fig. 56,58).

Separate places where pastries and cakes could be found appeared therefore quite soon. In Gdańsk, they were sold at the Targ Wąchany (Mittelmarkt) as soon as 1342. In Wroclaw, the whole northern part of the marketplace was called Targ Łakoci ('goodies market'). In Vienna cakes and pastries were traded at Am Hof. In Paris sweets were sold both in stalls and by pedlars (crieurs ambulant) (Fig. 58) in the streets.

Stalls of confectioners -seem not to have any particular 'type'. As other merchants, they used benches, individual stalls, or grouped their stalls in rows -attached or not to other trade buildings. (cf. wooden stalls)

Medieval sweets used less sugar and more honey that modern palates are accustomed to, since sugar was expensive and not always available. Some of the earliest confections still surviving are marzipan, jams and sweets. Everybody knows also gingerbread. Confectioners of different towns had their own recipes for gingerbread (Fig. 59).

Until now towns like Zagreb, Toruń, Nuremberg, Ulm, Reims, Bourges, Dijon, Paris, Gertwiller -Alsace, Basel are proud of their gingerbreads. English sweets included many types of cakes, custards, and fritters such as funnel cakes. In France recipes for baked or sweetened fruits seem to have been standard. Germans had many recipes for tarts, puddings, and pastries. Italians had a large number of torta recipes (mashed filling in a thin pastry crust). glass stalls / kramy szklarskie A glazier (or glasier) could be a craftsman who worked glass or a person who sold it. Glassmaking manufactures (Fig. 60) could be found throughout all Europe, in areas where material needed to produce glass was available: wood needed for the glass furnace, soil containing silica, alkaline products. Although Glass from Murano (Fig. 61) was probably the most famous, there were glassmaker workshops in many other areas: glassmaker furnaces are created, for instance, in the forêt royale de Compiègne (a forest north of Paris) in 1179, there is glassmaking craftsmanship in the duchy of Lorraine, in the montagne noire (black mountain -north of Carcassonne), and in Bohemia (e.g. Nový Bor, Kamenický Šenov).

For a long time, however, glass remained uncommon in the Middle Ages. During the fourteenth and fifteenth centuries only rich people could afford objects made of glass (Fig. 62). Gradually, such items became everyday objects: expensive in the Middle Ages, glass starts to spread widely in the 16th century.

At the time of the high Middle Ages there was an increase in the buying and selling of goods, objects ranging from household items (food, clothing...) to specialized goods like glass. Glass merchants (Fig. 63) ranged from pedlars (Fig. 64) who sold goods from door to door, to wealthy traders who travelled across Europe. And naturally, one of the many ways to sell glass-based products were markets held in many towns.

Stalls in which glass traders sold their products could vary from simple ones -benches or equivalent -to more sophisticated onespermanent shops on the marketplace or in the city streets (cf. wooden stalls).

granary / spichlerz

Granaries were used to store loose products (e.g. grain : London (Great Britain), Ulm, Freiburg, Spalt (Germany), Ghent (Belgium) (Fig. 65), Kazimierz Dolny (Poland), Castelnuovo Berardenga (Italy), Angers (France), or salt: Redon (France) (Fig. 66), Venice (Italy), Soleure (Switzerland), České Budějovice (Czech Republic) Zittau, Frankfurt am Main (Germany), or both at the same time: Lucerne (Switzerland) (Fig. 68).

Sometimes granaries were combined with some others functionse.g. with a market hall: Beaumont-du-Gâtinais (France, Seine-et-Marne), Vézelise (France, Meurthe-et-Moselle), London -Leadenhall, a ballroom: Freiburg, etc.

In port towns such as Gdańsk or Elbląg, granaries could be built on islands. Sometimes they were incorporated into the towns' defensive system (e.g. Grudziądz -Poland (Fig. 67), Brugg -Switzerland (Fig.

68)).

They are generally characterized by a compact form, steep roofs, triangular gables and small openings.

Granaries were built from various materials:

• wood: Vézelise -France, Meurthe-et-Moselle, Beaumont-du-Gâtinais -France, Seine-et-Marne (Fig. 69), • half-timber construction: Bydgoszcz -Poland, Schwäbisch Gmünd -Germany (Fig. 70), • half-timber construction on the stone floor: Frankfurt am Main -Germany, Salzhaus (Fig. 71), • masonry and wood: Konstanz -Germany (Fig. 72),

• brick: Meissen -Germany, Bremen -Germany, Brodnica -Poland, Gdańsk -Poland, Spichlerz Królewski, Vauclair -France, Aisne (Fig. 73), • stone: Ghent -Belgique, grenier d'abondance, Redon -France, Castelnuovo Berardenga -Italy, Angers -France, greniers Saint-Jean (Fig. 74).

Many of the old granaries are now dismantled. The function of those that survived has been altered, and the buildings transformed into conference centres, exhibition rooms, libraries, housing, museum, concert hall, etc.

guardhouse / odwach

A guardhouse (in French Corps de Garde) was a building composed of rooms for military or police guards, officers rooms, and, in addition, generally housed an arrest room.

Their construction as separated buildings started in the 18 th century and lasted until the beginning of the 20 th century. Guardhouses were generally freestanding buildings, designed as a part of bigger ensembles, generally situated near key defensive spots.

In Poland guardhouses were often situated on the marketplaces nearby the town hall (e.g. Wrocław, Poznań (Fig. 86) -the first guardhouse in Poznań was a wooden building, Bydgoszcz (Fig. 89), Białystok, Sandomierz).

Guardhouses could also be part of the defensive system of the city, in that case they were supposed to ensure the protection of troops who guarded sensitive points in the city -gates in particular. France: Gravelines (Nord) (Fig. 85), Brest (Finistère)corps de garde de la porte Tourville, Maubeuge (Nord)corps de garde de la demi-lune de la porte de Mons, Dibennou (Guissény) (Fig. 87), Mont-Dauphin (Hautes-Alpes) (Fig. 91), Sedan (Ardennes)corps de garde du pavillon d'Oyré, Great Britain: Berwick-upon-Tweed (Northumberland, England) -guardhouse that used to stand in Marygate (Fig. 88), Leith (Edinburgh, Scotland)fort guardhouse Poland: Wrocław, Poznań, Bydgoszcz, Białystok, Sandomierz, Kraków, Stargard Szczeciński Denmark: Tønderformer guardhouse of the castle (Fig. 90) Germany: Berlin -Neue Wache Ukraine: Lviv (Fig. 92) Fig. 92 hatters' stalls / kramy kapelusznicze A hatter (or milliner) could be either a craftsman that manufactured or repaired hats, or a hat merchant. The former could sell their products directly or by the agency of the latter.

In the Middle Ages the profession of hatter was divided in several branches, quite unsurprisingly when considering that headgears (Fig. 93, 94, 95) were of universal usage. Different types of headgears existed, made from different materials (e.g. flower crowns, hairbands, headdressescoiffes, wimples, hennis, chaperons, hats , … ).

The first authentic accounts of regular hatters appear in the Middle Ages -in Nuremberg (Filzkappenmacher) in 1360, in France in 1380, in Wurzburg -Bavaria in 1401, in Lublin -Poland in 1473 and in London in 1510. In the Medieval Paris the hatters' guild was one of a few privileged guilds -known under the name of The Corps of Merchants -which occupied a predominant position.

Until the 19th century, the centre of the hatmaking trade in Britain was London -and in France, Paris. In Wales, hatters were concentrated in towns (e.g. Denbigh, Carmarthen and Haverfordwest). Hatters and milliners who lived and worked in towns had frequently boutiques nearby their workshops (Fig. 96, 97, 100), on the ground floor of their houses. Hatters in Paris lived in the centre (l'île de la Cité) and its neighbourhood (e.g. Saint-Denis Street or la Saint-Jacques Street).

As many other merchants, hatters' or milliners' also sold on the marketplace -their stalls were situated in specific zones, often clustered in one area. They could vary from movable stands (Fig. [START_REF] Market -Hatter | A furrier, a hat-maker, and a saddler[END_REF][START_REF]Movable market/fair stall -simple wooden structure covered by fabric 100[END_REF] to permanent stalls (cf. wooden stalls). In Norwich -England hatters sold their products on the periphery of the marketplace. In Cheapside -England, the calleres (headdress makers) and wimple makers sold their products in the Soper Lane. In Metz -France hats were traded in impasse Chaplerue, in Aire-Sur-La-Lys -France in passage des Hallettes, in Wrocław -Poland on the eastern part of the marketplace and in Llanwenog -Wales they were concentrated to the north of the parish, adjacent to Gors Goch.

Hatters and milliners traded also at fairs (e.g. Leipzig, Frankfurt am Main, Nuremberg and Augsburg).

Although hatters' stalls and boutiques largely disappeared, replaced by industrial production, many street names recall the important role of this profession at the time (e.g. Fontenayruelle foraine des cappellerrschapeliers i.e. hatters, Romavia dei Cappellari, (Fig. 101) i.e. 'hatters street').

iron stalls (ironmongers' stalls) / kramy żelazne

The iron stalls in Krakow were used to sell miscellaneous goods made of iron. The term ironmongery, that refers to the manufacture of miscellaneous iron goods, can also have a second meaning -referring then to the place where iron items for domestic use were sold. A hardware merchant was called an ironmonger (Fig. 105).

In Norwich -England, the ironmongers were located in front of Tollhouse, in the northern section of the main marketplace. In Bury St Edmunds -England, their stalls were grouped at the west end of the marketplace. Hardware merchants of Cheapside -England, were clustered in an alignment of shops located in the eastern part of the town and copper alloys were sold in Ironmonger Lane. Ironmongers of Wrocław -Poland, could be found for example in Przejście Żelaźnicze (ironmongers' passage) (Fig. 102).

A guildhall in Thaxted (Fig. 104) -England, is often associated with the cutlers' guild. The open-paved ground floor was used as a market and the first floor as an open gallery (openings could be screened when necessary). Even if it was not a cutlers' guildhall but a mot hall, ironmongers could trade there.

Like many other retail products, iron goods could be sold on temporary stalls, from more permanent structures (cf. wooden stalls), or by pedlars (Fig. 103) (in Paris such traders specialising in iron goods are mentioned in the 1220-1230 Première description des métiers de Paristhe first description of the professions in Paris -by Jean de Garlande). 'Lithuanian' stalls (haberdashers' stalls) / kramy litewskie On Krakow's Market Square's haberdashers traded in the so-called Lithuanian' stalls, formerly called kramy norymberskie. Haberdashers were basically merchants -they bought small articles of daily use from craftsmen, and sold them on the marketplaces, fairs, etc. They were therefore either travelling or led a more a settled way of life, buying goods from those who travelled.

Nuremberg was the central market of small articles of daily use for Polish traders. Products bought there (called 'norymberszczyzna') by ambulant traders (Fig. 106, 107, 108) or wholesalers were sold on various Polish markets (often by Scots).

In France haberdashers traded diverse products: small jewellery, belts, mirrors and combs, needles and pins, but also toys at low prices (e.g. whistles), and from the 15 th century on, playing cards.

In the Middle Ages Parisian haberdashers were clustered on the right bank of the river Seine (the most esteemed of them were in rue Quincampoix).

Others traded on benches (Grand-Pont), on marketplaces (cf. wood stalls), and some were ambulant traders. With time, they slowly moved towards Les Halles, where they established themselves for longer.

In Dijon (France) the haberdashers traded under the porch of Notre-Dame. In Lübeck (Fig. 109) -Germany, they had their stalls in the western part of the marketplace.

The headquarters of the Worshipful Company of Haberdashers in London was located on the corner of Staining Lane and Maiden Lane (Fig. 110). They sold ribbons, beads, purses, gloves, pins, caps and toys and in 1502 were joined by the hatmakers' fraternity. Thereafter there were two types of haberdasher: haberdashers of hats and the original haberdashers of small wares. The stock of the latter could include metallic gods and sewing items, called small haberdashery. market hall for minor traders / smatruz A market hall for minor traders is a single-space, large building constructed in order to provide shelter to traders. Various merchants could trade inside the building -either temporarily or on a regular basis, for instance using wooden benches to display their products.

This type of market halls existed in Germany (Schmetterhaus), on the territory of the Czech Republic (e.g. Brno, Opava), in Poland (e.g. Brzeg, Ząbkowice Śląskie, Wrocław, Lublin, Gniezno). Sometimes they had more than one storey (e.g. Wrocław).

The closer equivalent to a market hall for minor traders in France are les halles. In big cities some of those halls buildings could be reserved to specific types of products (e.g. halles au poisson, halles au cuir, etc.), but in smaller towns citizens could not afford (or did not need) several market halls. Les halles are generally situated in the centre of marketplaces. (Fig. 111)

Depending on the climate of the region, and on local traditions, les halles could be closed buildings (e.g. St Pierre Sur Dives (Fig. 112 Materials from which they were constructed vary as well. Stone structures can be found in Égreville (Fig. 115) -Seine-et Marne, Crémieu -Isère or Vitteaux -Côte-d'Or, wooden structures in Richelieu (Fig. 116) -Indre-et-Loire, Nolay -Côte-d'Or, Questembert (Fig. 117) -Morbihan, Milly-la-Forêt -Essone, Le Faouët -Morbihan, Seignelay -Yonne, Lyons-la-Forêt -Eure, Beaumont-du-Gâtinais -Seine-et-Marne, Lesmont -Aube, Arpajon -Essonne, etc. In some places the structure is supported by stone or brick pillars (e.g.

France: Barran -Gers, Langogne (Fig. 118) -Lozere, Le Peyrat -Ariège Spain: Granollers (Fig. 119) -Catalogne, Italy: Piazza del Mercato in Siena, etc. ).

Open or half-open structures used as market halls also existed in Great Britain (e.g. market hall in Chipping Camden (Fig. 120) -England, as well as market crosses , corresponding to the same function (e.g. Market cross in Wymondham -Norfolk). Closed, single-spaced market structures that could be found on marketplaces or commercial streets of Great Britain were called selds -long and narrow halls occupied by traders. However a seld was usually occupied by traders who offered close or identical products.

In a number of countries market halls were embedded inside a bigger building: the most widespread model of such covered market hall was a multi-storey (quite often only two -storey) building with an open arcade on the street level (e.g. market hall in Ross-on-Wye (Fig. 121) -Herefordshire, market hall in Winster -Derbyshire).

The upper floor of those buildings could then be used for various purposes -most often in connection with the town authorities or with guilds or collective bodies. Guildhalls in Great Britain were typical examples of this model (e.g. Guildhouse in Thaxted -Essex, Much Wenlock -Shropshire).

The second floor of a halle in Vézelise -France, was used as a granary and Freiburg im Breisgau's Kaufhaus (Fig. 122) -Germany, was a meeting place where various festivities could be organised.

In many cities the second floor was used as a chamber for the town council -town halls or moot halls -or for other legal authorities (e.g. England: Titchfield (Fig. 123), Ledbury; Poland: the 13 th century town hall at Wrocław, Toruń, Kłodzko; Italy: Como, Piacenza, Vicenza; Germany: Michelstadt, Lahnstein, Bremen, Grossenhain; Belgium: Ypres, France: Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val -Tarn et Garonne, Clermont -Oise, Perpignan -Pyrénées-Orientales, Villeréal -Lot-et-Garonne, Estonia: Tallinn, etc.) Some market halls for minor traders: France: St Pierre Sur Dives, Vitteaux, Nolay, Égreville, Crémieu, Richelieu Questembert, Milly-la-Forêt, Le Faouët, Seignelay, Lyons-la-Forêt, Beaumont-du-Gâtinais, Lesmont, Arpajon, Barran, Langogne, Domme, Vézelise, Perpignan, Villeréal, Nouvion-en-Ponthieu, Le Peyrat Spain: Granollers Italy: Siena, Como, Piacenza, Vicenza Great Britain: Chipping Camden, Wymondham, Ross-on-Wye, Winster, London, Titchfield, Ledbury, Thaxted, Much Wenlock Poland: Wrocław, Kraków, Brzeg, Ząbkowice Śląskie, Lublin, Gniezno, Toruń, Kłodzko Czech Republic: Brno, Opava Germany: Cologne, Freiburg im Breisgau, Michelstadt, Lahnstein, Bremen, Grossenhain Estonia: Tallinn Belgium: Ypres

notary's house / dom notariusza

In Roman law-based systems -i.e. France, Spain, Italy, Germany and other European nations -the profession of notary was widespread.

Traditionally, notaries recorded matters of judicial importance as well as private transactions or events where an officially authenticated record or a document drawn up with professional skill or knowledge was required.

Notaries accordingly existed in a number of medieval towns -but they could be 'authorized' by a variety of political authorities -royal, municipal, episcopal, papal etc.

pottery stalls / jatki garncarskie

Potters are one of the oldest profession, but in the Middle Ages they were probably some of the lowest-status craftsmen (Fig. 126).

If 'clay craftsmen' were mostly men, their wives and daughters were responsible for selling. In towns potters organised themselves in guilds.

Pottery was sold on open markets, on individual stalls or in selds. (cf. wooden stalls).

In London (England) until the 16th century Billingsgate Market was a general market, among others for pottery.

In York (Fig. 125) -England, potters traded in Fossgate guildhall, in Wrocław (Fig. 128) -Poland, they traded in -Przejście Garncarskie ('pottery passage'). Today's street names often recall that profession (e.g. Villecomtal (Fig. 127) -France, ruelle ou "calade" des Potiers, i.e. 'potters lane'). This type of merchants' galleries, consisting of two rows of commercial chambers opened on an internal, covered gallery, existed in Wrocław -Poland, Świdnica -(Fig. 129, 130) Poland, Głogów -Poland, Vilnius -Lithuania. This architectural composition also appears in some other trade related buildings (e.g. cloth halls).

In some places stalls of this type were housed in other public buildings (e.g. In Toruń -Poland, Rich Stalls were located in the eastern wing of the old town's town hall).

A Salt was stored in warehouses (cf. granary) situated in towns along the old salt routes, and could be traded on markets specifically dedicated to salt (e.g. Wrocław (Fig. 133), Zamość (Fig. 135), Nysa, Gniezno, Munich). It could however also be traded on general markets -e.g. London -England, on Billingsgate Market, Norwich -England, Poznań -Poland -in the arcades of market square's commercial terrace (domki budnicze) (Fig. 134). Salt could be found in more surprising places too -during the Middle Ages, Vienna's St. Rupert church was the seat of the Salt Office (Salzamt) (Fig. 136), which distributed salt to individual buyers.

scales / waga miejska

A weigh house -also called city scales -was a public building within which goods brought to the town by merchants were weighed according to the units established by the city authorities.

Strongly related with trade and municipal authorities, weigh houses were often located on the main marketplace, in the vicinity of the town hall and of major commercial buildings (e.g. Wrocław (Fig. 75), Gniezno, Poznań (Fig. 76) -Poland, Osnabrück -Germany, Amsterdam, Gouda, Nijmegen -Netherlands), close to some other marketplace, or important commercial street (e.g. Deventer -Netherlands, Frankfurt am Main, Bremen, Zittau -Germany, Saint-Gallen (Fig. 77) -Switzerland).

Weigh houses were often freestanding buildings (e.g. Amsterdam (Fig. 78), Gouda, Wrocław -Wielka Waga, Braunschweig, Nijmegen, Toruń -the 13th c. weight house of the old town, Leeuwarden). They could be wooden structures (e.g. Gniezno), half-timber constructions (e.g. Braunschweig -Germany (Fig. 79)), brick built (e.g. Kortrijk, Bremen (Fig. 80)) or stone built (e.g. Gouda, Osnabrück).

In order to facilitate access to the scales themselves, these buildings usually had their main openings on the ground floor. Most of them were built before 1800, prior to the establishment of international standards for weights.

Weigh houses were used to weigh various goods, and in some big towns there were several of them (e.g. Wrocław, Frankfurt am Main, Vilnius). Grain Scales (Mehlwaage) existed in Frankfurt am Main -Garküchenplatz (Fig. 81), Wetzlar and Bad Kreuznach -Germany. Butter Scales (Ankenwaage) in Altdorf -Switzerland, Glarus -Switzerland, Nijmegen (Fig. 82) -Netherlands. In the 19 th century Gouda's weigh house was mainly used to weigh cheese (Fig. 83).

As public edifices, weigh houses housed sometimes other functions (e.g. a granary in Bremen, Kruisribgewelven a meat market and city venture in Nijmegen, trade market stalls in Gniezno, a warehouse in Braunschweig).

It was not rare that a weigh house was not an independent building but occupied a part of another municipal edifice -the weigh houses in Toruń (old town), Tarnów and Vilnius were located inside the town hall, a scale in Cambridge was housed in the Guildhall, in Newcastle inside the market hall (Grainger Market), in Bautzen inside the cloth hall, etc.

Sometimes already existing buildings were adapted to play the role of a weigh house -e.g. the weigh house in Alkmaar (Fig. 84) -Netherlands, was originally a chapel that belonged to a hospital. shoemakers' stalls / jatki szewskie Shoemakers (Fig. 137) specialised in various products: typically cobblers made and repaired ordinary shoes, and cordwainers produced luxury shoes. The latter were likely to be established in cities and to be members of trade guilds.

Shoemakers sold their products in various places :

• on marketplaces e.g. Paris (France), Norwich (England) in stalls on the marketplace, Ludlow -Shoemakers row on the Castle Square, Lübeck (Fig. 138) -Germany -in stalls located in several areas of the marketplace, Gniezno -Poland -in stalls on the marketplace, Ząbkowice Śląskie -Poland, at first in stalls before the town hall, later on in stalls touching the cloth hall, Głogów -Poland, Leicester (England) -close to The Gainsborough,

• in market halls for minor traders e.g. Wrocław -Poland

• in town halls e.g. Grossenhain -Germany, Kłodzko -Poland, Toruń -Poland, new town hall

• in commercial streets e.g. Cheapside -England -in Ironmonger Lane and Bow Lane

• close to churches e.g. Amiens (Fig. 139) -France, in stalls attached to the Eglise Saint-Germain

• in shops localised in tenements e.g. Chester -England, in Shoemaker Row

In Medieval Paris shoes could also be sold by pedlars.

Shoemakers frequently shared a building with other craftsmen -for example with bakers in Jawor, Lwówek Śląski, and Świdnica (Fig. 140) -Poland.

tanners' stalls / jatki garbarskie

Tanners were highly skilled craftsmen (Fig. 141) -they tanned skins and hides. Because of smell of tanning substances, tanners' workshops were generally situated in separated quarters of towns or suburbs, close to rivers.

e.g. France: Strasbourgla Petite France (Fig. 142), Metz, Dijon -in faubourg d'Ouche, Paris -close to Seine river, Colmarla Petite Venise, Châteldon, Germany: Ulm, Poland: Poznań, Toruń, Lithuania: Vilniusthe suburbs between the Trocka gate of and Wilijska gate, but also by branches of the Wilenka river, Great Britain: Aberdeen -Scotland, Gallowgate, York -in Tanners Row, London -for example in Curries Row:

Alternatively, in Nuremberg (Fig. 143) -Germany, tanners workshops were situated in the Weißgerbergasse, where almost each tanner's house had a private individual well.

After the initial steps of the tanning process, curriers had to make the leather strong, flexible and waterproof: they stretched and burnished it in order to produce uniformly thick and supple material. Tanned skins were then sold, and in contrast with other craftsmen like bakers, potters or shoemakers, tanners or curriers mainly sold their production to other craftsmen -shoemakers, saddlers, girdlers, glovers, etc. They also could sell their products to leather sellerseither to merchants selling the product on their behalf (leather factors) or to independent merchants, who were selling it on their own account (leather merchants) (Fig. 144).

Stalls or selds in which tanned skins were sold could be located :

• on a marketplace, (e.g. Lübeck -Germany, Norwich -England)

• on commercial streets, (e.g. Cheapside -England )

• or on separated markets.

(e.g. Bruges -Belgium, marché aux peaux )

• In and around bridges and riversides (e.g. Florence -Italy, Ponte Vecchio, Originally, the bridge housed butchers and tanners but the Medici family, on account of the bad smell, expelled those craftsmen from the bridge and favoured the installation of others crafts and merchants -in particular jewellers.) (Fig. 145) In some towns there were separated buildings dedicated to the leather trade.

(e.g. Parisla halle au cuir (Fig. 146)-the first one was situated in the quarter of the Innocentsrue de la Lingerie; London's Cheapside -Tanners' Seld, maintained communally by tanners, it was situated opposite the church of St Mary le Bow).

Leather trade also took place in buildings that were used for more general local trade. town hall / ratusz Town halls were the most important secular buildings in autonomous cities, and the seat of local governments. However, depending on the local conditions (political systems in particular) they did not play exactly the same role. Depending on those local conditions, the building that played the role of town hall -centre of the civilian life and of the public administration -could serve other roles too, and could include for instance chapels, treasury chambers, ballrooms, guild chambers, municipal scales, jails and prisons, spaces dedicated to various trade, etc.

Guildhalls in Great Britain belonged to guilds and could combine an administrative and a commercial role (e.g. London, Norwich, Boston, Much Wenlock, Windsor). Moot halls played a similarly multifunction role (e.g. Aldeburgh in Suffolk).

In Italy public officers often lived in public administration buildings, hence comes the residential character of palazzi publici (that quite often were fortified buildings). M. Girouard [START_REF] Barron | Medieval London Windows[END_REF] points out that the defensive character of these buildings was not a response to exterior threats, but rather thought as a protection against citizens. (e.g.

Florence -Pallazzo Vecchio, Volterra -Pallazzo dei Priori (Fig. 147)).

The so-called palazzi della Ragione -buildings with commercial arcades on the ground floor (e.g. Monza -Arengario, Milan, Padua, Vicenza) represent another type of building that played a role of public administration centres in Italy.

Town halls were generally located along with the market squares in the centre of the town. They could be constructed as freestanding buildings :

Poland: Toruń -in new and old town, Wrocław, Koło, Kościan, Poznań, Kłodzko, Żnin, Dolsk, Osiek Jasielski England: Ledbury, Wootton Bassett (Fig. 148), London Guildhall, Norwich Guildhall Ukraine: Lviv (Fig. 149) As already mentioned, some town halls were combined with trade functions: the ground floor served as a covered extension of the market, and was most often left open, while the first floor housed a council chamber. A tower (often a belfry) was frequently combined with town halls, notably as symbol of the city's autonomy -however towers were not necessarily part of the original design of the town hall, and not systematically added. "Towerless" town halls were quite common in Germany.

e.g. Nuremberg (Fig. 157), Lübeck, Dinkelsbühl, Münster, Michelstadt, Paderborn, Bremen, Osnabrück, Hattingen, Braunschweigold town hall (Fig. 156), Hannover, Lahnstein and Lindau. Town hall in Pirna was originally without a tower, finally added in 1718.

Such town halls can also be found outside Germany: in Italy (e.g. Poznań, Lubań, Gniezno, Żnin, Kłodzko) and in the north of France (e.g.

Milan

Bailleul (Fig. 159), Douai, Armentières, Arras).

They can also be found also in the Czech Republic (e.g. Uničov, Prague, Sušice), in Slovakia (e.g. Bratislava, Kežmarok, Levoča (Fig. 160)), in Belgium (e.g. Brussels), in Italy (e.g. Siena -Palazzo Pubblico, Monza - Arengario tower added as soon as the 14th c., Florence -Pallazzo Vecchio, Volterra -Pallazzo dei Priori, Orta San Giulio -Broletto), in the Netherlands (e.g. old town halls in Amsterdam and the Hague, Delft), in Ukraine (e.g. Lviv), in Germany (e.g. Leipzig (Fig. 161), Cologne, Braunschweig -new town hall) or in England (e.g. Manchester -new Town Hall, Chester, Sheffield).

Functions devoted to a town hall could also be housed in some other municipal building, or be an integral part of it (e.g. in Ypres -Belgium, the town hall was an integral part of the cloth hall. In 1380 the cloth hall of Dresden -Germany, was also used as city hall. In the first mention of a town hall in Clermont l'Oise -France, the building is given the name of cloth hall, in the Netherlands De Rijp's town hall is called Waag (Fig. 162) -weigh house -as it used to house the municipal scales).

belfry (town hall's tower ) / wieża ratuszowa

Belfries (bell towers) were either attached to the structure of another building or freestanding constructions (e.g. Nysa, Poland). They were most often associated with a church (e.g. belfry at St. Stephen church (Fig. 164) -Kostel Sv. Štepána, Prague), a monastery, or a town hall -and could even be part of the city's defensive system. A belfry's original and key function was to act as a watchtower, from where a watchman could observe invaders or detect fires 24 hours a day. A belfry often contained bells thanks to which a watchman could warn the inhabitants of a danger. Different bells had distinct sounds -and distinct meanings. There were bells for imminent danger, bells for important announcements, bells to indicate time, etc.

Naturally, belfries had several floors -in a number of cases one of them is devoted to the clock mechanism, and the basement to a prison. Remaining levels of civil belfries may correspond to a variety of functions, housing for example a council chamber (e.g. Inowrocław, Poland), a chapel (Prague -Czech Republic, town hall tower), a treasury (e.g. Ghent, Belgium), municipal archives (Toruń, Poland -town hall tower), guild charters, armoury (e.g. Ypres, Belgium), torture rooms (Klatovy (Fig. 165) -Czech Republic, Black Tower), etc.

A belfry is covered by a spire, and because of recurrent fires spires often changed form and roofing material.

Belfries of the 13th century were often wooden constructions (e.g. belfry at St. Stephen church -Prague, Czech Republic). Later on they were most often built of stone (e.g. Dunkerque -France, Beffroi Saint Éloi (Fig. 166), freestanding since 1558, Braunschweig -Germany, new town hall, Prague -Czech Republic, Jindřišská věž (Fig. 167), the original freestanding bell tower of the church of St. Henry and St. Kunhuta) or brick-built (e.g. Inowrocław -Poland, Toruń -Poland, town hall of the old town, Kortrijk -Belgium, freestanding belfry of the ancient cloth hall (Fig. 168)).

The role of belfries may vary inside a consistent territory: Klatovy's Black Tower -Czech Republic , is a belfry designed as a part of the city's fortification system, as well as this in another Czech city, Jičín, called Valdice Gate. But another example of belfry in the Czech republic, Hradec Králové's White Tower was used as a watchtower. wooden stalls / drewnane kramy Depending on the type of goods they were selling, craftsmen or/and merchants could use either permanent structures or portable stalls, provisionally set inside buildings or in the free spaces of marketplaces or shopping streets.

Permanent structures used as trade facilities could have various forms -from the simplest benches (Fig. 171), to covered stalls (e.g. Shepton Mallet (Fig. 172) -Great Britain), lockable booths or selds.

Benches are one of the oldest and simplest forms of stalls: they are not much more than tables on which goods for sale can be exposed.

Lockable booths, (échoppes, institae) were relatively small trade spaces -frequently less than two meters wide -that could be closed overnight. The door, accessible from the street or marketplace side, could be less than 50 centimetres wide. The remaining space in the frontage was used for an opening (window) equipped with a counter (mensa). Generally, the closer booths were to places with peaks of commercial activity (central marketplaces, typically), the smaller they were. Most of them were built in wood, often on stone foundations that could shelter a storeroom. In lockable booths merchandise could be stored inside chests, in built-in wardrobes or in cabinets.

This type of stalls could be freestanding structures or be adjacent to other municipal buildings, to private tenements or to churchespositioned between the buttresses (e.g. Amiens (Fig. 173) -France, Graz -Austria). From practical reasons booths were often grouped and arranged in rows (e.g. Wrocław (Fig. 174), Gdańsk, Poznań -Poland; Dresden (Fig. 175)-Germany). On some marketplaces structures were built that could host numerous traders under one roof -so called selds. Selds were long and rather narrow structures (generally several meters wide however), now and then with windows, occasionally with some boutiques embedded close to the entrance. In a number of cases the inside basically consisted of large rooms filled with wooden benches. A seld was usually occupied by one group of craftsmen or merchants with close or identical interests (cf. Jatki Szewskie -shoemakers' stalls -in Krakow).

The interior space could also be subdivided into individual chambers -each chamber belonging to one merchant. (e.g. Saint-Martin's Seld, (Fig. 176) Cheapside -England).

Ground floors of permanent edifices located in commercial zones of town, were also often used for trading -they are often called boutiques (Fig. 177, 178). Sometimes even basements were rented to various traders.

Portable, temporary commercial facilities could have diverse character as well, including simple benches or tables, folding market stalls, mobile stands on wheels, pedlars' baskets, etc. (Fig. 179, 180) Tower in Żnin, Poland, 21 th c. Granary in Gent ,Belgium -Le grenier d'abondance sur le quai aux Herbes (Graslei), 20 th c.

66.

Ancient salt granary (rue du Port) in Redon, France, 20 th c.

67.

Ensemble of granaries in Grudziądz, Poland, 21 th c.

68.

Ancient salthouse in Lucerne, Switzerland, 20 th c.

69.

Market hall and granary in Beaumont-du-Gâtinais, France (Seine-et-Marne), 21 th c.

70.

Ancient granary in Schwäbisch Gmünd, Germany, 20 th c. Ancient granary of Saint-Jean Hospital in Angers, France (Maine-et-Loire), 21 th c.

71.

Salthouse in

75.

Grand Scale in Wrocław, Poland, 19thc. Municipal Scale in Poznań -plan, Poland, 20 th c.

77.

Saint-Gallen, Switzerland, before II World War 78.

Municipal Scale in Amsterdam, Netherlands, 17t c. Municipal Scale in Brunswick, Germany, 19 th c.

148.

The half timbered town hall in Wootton Bassett, Great Britain, 21 th c.

149.

The old town hall in Lviv, Ukraine, 19 th c. redrawn after : GŁOGOWSKI J., Ratusz lwowski, before 1826 150.

The Old town hall in Litoměřice, Czech Republic, 21 th c.

151.

The town hall in Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val, France (Tarn-et-Garonne), 21 th c.

152.

The town hall in Bamberg (Altes Rathaus),Germany, 21thc.

153.

The 18th century wooden town hall in Opalenica (demolished around 1884), Poland redrawn after : XX., Drewniany ratusz w Opalenicy, photograph, before 1884 154.

Town Hall in Michelsradt, Germany 20 th c.

155.

Broletto -the town hall in Orta San Giulio, Italy, 21 th c.

156.

The old town hall Nuremberg, Germany, 14 th c. The old town hall in Brunsweig, Germany, 21 th c.

158.

A freestanding tower -town hall in Inowrocław (dismantled in 1878), Poland, 19 th c.

159.

The old town hall in Bailleul, France (Nord), 20 th c 160.

The Old town hall in Levoča, Slovakia, 21 th c. The Old town hall in De Rijp, Netherlands, 21 th c.

163.

The old town hall in Buda, Budapest, Hungary,21 th c.

164.

The belfry at St. Stephen church (Kostel Sv. Štepána), Prague, Czech Republic, 21 th c.

165.

The Black Tower in Klatovy, Czech Republic, 21 th c.

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 89 Fig. 89

Fig. 88

 88 Fig.88

Fig. 90 Fig. 91 263

 9091 Fig. 90

Fig. 94

 94 Fig.94

Fig. 93

 93 Fig.93

  Fig.95

  Fig.97

Fig. 98

 98 Fig.98

Fig. 99

 99 Fig.99

Fig. 100

 100 Fig. 100

Fig. 101

 101 Fig. 101

Fig. 102

 102 Fig.102

Fig. 103

 103 Fig.103

  Fig. 104 Fig. 105

Fig. 106

 106 Fig.106

  Fig. 107Fig.108

Fig. 109

 109 Fig.109

Fig. 110

 110 Fig. 110

  ) -Calvados), half-open structures (e.g. Vitteaux (Fig. 114) -Côte-d'Or), or open buildings -basically a roof supported by pillars (e.g. Nolay (Fig. 113) -Côte-d'Or). Naturally, such buildings could be open structures in the beginning, and be enclosed with time (e.g. Dives-sur-mer -Calvados).

Fig. 115

 115 Fig. 115

Fig. 111

 111 Fig.111

Fig. 112

 112 Fig.112

Fig. 114

 114 Fig.114

  Fig.113

Fig. 115

 115 Fig. 115

Fig. 118

 118 Fig. 118

Fig. 119

 119 Fig.119

Fig. 120

 120 Fig.120

Fig. 121

 121 Fig.121

Fig. 122

 122 Fig. 122

Fig. 123 270

 270 Fig.123270

Fig. 124

 124 Fig. 124

  Fig. 125Fig.126

Fig. 127 Fig. 128 rich

 127128 Fig.127

Fig. 129

 129 Fig.129

Fig. 130

 130 Fig.130

Fig. 132

 132 Fig. 132

Fig. 131

 131 Fig.131

Fig. 121 salt stalls / kramy solne

 121 Fig. 121

Fig. 133 Fig. 135

 133135 Fig. 133

Fig. 136

 136 Fig. 136

Fig. 134

 134 Fig.134

Fig. 75

 75 Fig. 75

Fig. 76

 76 Fig. 76

Fig. 77

 77 Fig.77

Fig. 78 Fig. 79

 7879 Fig.78

Fig. 80

 80 Fig.80

Fig. 81

 81 Fig. 81

Fig. 82 Fig. 83

 8283 Fig. 82Fig.83

Fig. 84

 84 Fig. 84

Fig. 137 Fig. 138

 137138 Fig.137

Fig. 139

 139 Fig.139

Fig. 140

 140 Fig. 140

Fig. 141

 141 Fig.141

  Fig. 142Fig.143

Fig. 144 Fig. 145

 144145 Fig.144

  Fig. 146

Fig. 147

 147 Fig.147

Fig. 148 Fig. 149

 148149 Fig.148

Note 2 .Fig

 2 Fig.150

Fig. 151

 151 Fig.151

  e.g. Orta San Giulio (Italy) -Broletto (Fig.155), Como (Italy) -Palazzo Broletto, Piacenza (Italy) -Palazzo Comunale, Vicenza (Italy) -Basilica Palladiana, Padua (Italy) -Palazzo della Ragione, Bergamo (Italy) -Palazzo della Ragione, Antwerp (Belgium), Bremen (Germany), Michelstadt (Germany), Lahnstein (Germany)old town hall, Grossenhain (Germany), Exeter Guildhall (England), Wootton Bassett (England), Ledbury (England), Much Wenlock Guildhall (England), Wrocław (Poland) -the 13th c. town hall, Tallinn (Estonia).

-

  Fig.155

Fig. 157

 157 Fig.157

Fig. 156

 156 Fig.156

Fig. 158

 158 Fig.158

  Fig. 160 Fig. 159

Fig. 161

 161 Fig.161

Fig. 162

 162 Fig.162

Fig. 165

 165 Fig.165

Fig. 164

 164 Fig.164

  Fig. 166Fig.167

Fig. 171

 171 Fig. 171

Fig. 172

 172 Fig.172

Fig. 173

 173 Fig.173

Fig. 174 Fig. 175

 174175 Fig.174

Fig. 176

 176 Fig.176

Fig. 178

 178 Fig.178

  Fig. 179Fig.180

Fig. 177

 177 Fig.177

  redrawn after : TITTEL F.A., Der Parade Platz in Breslau, c 1828, The National Library of Poland 76.

  redrawn after : VAN BERCKENRODE B.F., Map of Amsterdam, c 1625, Rijskmuseum Amsterdam 79.

  redrawn after : XX., L'hôtel de ville du XIVsiècle, [in] BENEVOLO L., Histoire de la Ville, Parenthèse, 1983 p.224, fig. 637 157.

161 .

 161 The old town Hall in Leipzig, Germany, 19 th c. redrawn after : SENCKEISEN J.M., Plan Der Stadt Leipzig, 1893 162.

Southwark there were at least two prisons for debtors: the King's Bench Prison, and the famous Marshalsea prison in which Charles Dickens' father was kept. Debtors in Birmingham were imprisoned on the High Street, in Exeter in St Thomas prison and in London in

  Fleet Prison, Poultry Compter, King's Bench, Horsemonger Lane Gaol, Whitecross Street or in Wood Street Compter prison. In Paris since the medieval period debtors were closed in the geôles du Châtelet (Fig. 34), later on in a prison called Sainte Pelagie (18 th and 19 th centuries), or in the prison de Clichy (19 th c.).

	Debtor's prisons were abolished in the United States in 1833, in
	France in 1867 and in England in 1869.
	Some old prisons:
	France: Paris
	Poland: Kraków, Wrocław, Gniezno, Płock, Inowrocław, Żnin, Prudnik, Słupsk,
	Biecz, Stargard Szczeciński

Great Britain: Exeter, London, Germany: Nuremberg, Braunschweig Netherlands: Amsterdam Slovakia: Bratislava

Italy: Rome Lithuania: Vilnius Czech Republic: Prague

	Some fish markets:
	Belgium: Brussels, Ypres, Bruges, Anvers
	Great Britain: Southampton, Norwich, London, Salisbury, York
	Austria: Vienna
	France: Paris, Marseille, Lille, Nice
	Netherlands: Amsterdam

Poland: Wrocław, Kraków, Gdańsk, Głogów, Toruń, Szczecin, Poznań

  later, and somewhat comparable architectural solution are shopping galleries or shopping arcades -covered markets with permanent stalls and shops -such as London's Leadenhall, Oxford's Covered Market, London's Burlington Arcade (Fig.131), Marché Des Enfants Rouges in Paris, Covered Market in Metz, … Such galleries will be become quite popular during the 19 th century all across Europe, with, however, a shift in scale, in standard, and the frequent use of glass roofs (e.g. galeries royales Saint-Hubert in Brussels, galleria Umberto I in Naples, passage des Panoramas or galerie Vivienne in Paris (Fig.132) etc.)

	Some market rich stalls or comparable solutions:
	France: Paris, Metz, Nantes
	Poland: Głogów, Świdnica, Wrocław, Toruń
	Belgium: Brussels
	Great Britain: London, Oxford
	Lithuania: Vilnius
	Italy: Naples
	Romania: Bucharest

  Salt was during the medieval period an expensive -as well as essential preservative. Salt was produced from evaporation ponds located on the Mediterranean Sea or on the Atlantic Ocean, from natural sources of brine scattered throughout Europe, or from rock salt mines. Salt extracted from the Wieliczka mines, 13 km to the southeast of Krakow, was 'packed' and transported in 165 kg pieces called 'bałwan'. Salt was an important factor in the development of many towns like Venice or Genoa in Italy, Salzburg, Gmunden, Hallstatt or Hallein in Austria, Tuzla in Bosnia-Herzegovina, Lüneburg, Munich or Lübeck in Germany, Aigues-Mortes, Salins les Bains, Dives sur Mer, Dieppe, Saint-Martin-Vésubie in France, Prachatice, České Budějovice or Týn nad Vltavou in Czech Republic, Kotor in Montenegro.

32 .

 32 Town Hall in Inowrocław, Poland, 19 th c. redrawn after : ODRA N., Town Hall in Inowrocław, Poland, 19 th c. Grand-Chaelet, [in] XX., Le territoire boucher -Le Grand Châtelet et la Porte [on-line] grandeboucherie.chez.tiscali.fr, <http://grande-boucherie.chez-alice.fr/Grand-Chaelet-Grande-Boucherie.htm> Le tripier, [in] Historique du métier de Tripier [on-line] Site professionnel des tripiers de France, <http://itripes.fr/laTriperie/historique.php?PHPSESSID=d721bd5ead1a058e4e5c9f66542a45a7> 50. Socca seller in Nice, France, 20 th c. drawing after the postcard : XX., Nice -Une marchande de Socca, beginning of the 20 th c. XX., Place du marché à Salisbury [in] GIROUARD M., Des Villes des Hommes, Architecture et Société, Flammarion, Paris 1987, p.18 53. Trade from mobile stands, 15 th c. redrawn after : PFRAGNER M., Merchant, 1425, Amb. 317.2° Folio 19 verso (Mendel I), and PERCHTOLT B., Merchant, 1453, Amb. 317.2° Folio 75 recto (Mendel I), Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg, Die Hausbücher der Nürnberger Zwölfbrüderstiftungen 55. Panorama of Prague, Czech Republic, 16 th c. redrawn after : BRAUN G. and HOGENBERG F., Praga, Bohemiae Metropolis Accuratissime Expressa. [in] Civitates Orbis terrarium, Cologne 1572 56. Woman selling biscuits, 17 th c. redrawn after : LAROON M., Buy my Dutch biskets., 17th c. [in] The cryes of the city of London, Pierce Tempest, London 1688 57. Pedlar selling cakes, 16 th c. redrawn after : XX., Marchand de gâteaux ambulant, engraving on wood, c 1500, Les cris de Paris, BnF 59. Gingerbread maker, 16 th c. redrawn after : BUEL H., 1520, Gingerbread maker, Amb. 279.2° Folio 11 verso (Landauer I), Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg, Die Hausbücher der Nürnberger Zwölfbrüderstiftungen 60. Glassmaking manufactures, 15 th c. redrawn after : XX, Glassmaking at the Pit of Memnon, [in] Picture Book of Sir John Mandeville's Travels', c. 1410, British Library, London, UK 61. The Island of Murano 15 th c. redrawn after : DANCKERTS, Detail from map of Venice, c. 1600 62. Glazier, 1554, Amb. 279.2° Folio 40 recto (Landauer I), Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg, Die Hausbücher der Nürnberger Zwölfbrüderstiftungen 64.

	33.	Old Newgate Prison, London, Great Britain, 18 th c.
		redrawn after : XX., Newgate, 18 th c.
	34.	Geôles du Châtelet, Paris, France, 18 th c.
		redrawn after : DUMOUY A.H., Grand Châtelet de Paris France, 1785, Collection BN France
	35.	Trade of freshwater fish
		redrawn after : XX, Poissons d'eau douce, [in] BOILEAU E., Le Livre Des Métiers, Paris, 1879
	36. redrawn after : XX, 37. Pierres aux poissonniers, Paris, France, 17 th c. A fish market in Norwich, Great Britain, 19 th c. redrawn after : HODGSON Ch., Norwich old fishmarket, 1821 38. Fishmongers in Portico d'Ottavia, Rome, Italy, 19 th c. redrawn after : ROESLER FRANZ E., Fishmongers in Portico d'Ottavia 39. Fish market in Wrocław, Poland, 19 th c. redrawn after : STEIN R., Der Ring zu Breslau um 1800 Innerer Block, 1934 [on-line] Fotopolska, Wrocław -Stare Miasto, Rynek 40. 45. A fishmonger, 15 th c. redrawn after : PFRAGNER A., Fishmonger 1425, Amb. 317.2° Folio 30 recto (Mendel I), Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg, Die Hausbücher der Nürnberger Zwölfbrüderstiftungen 46. 48. Cookshop, Italy redrawn after : PINELLI B., Lazzari napoletani che mangiano maccheroni, 49. Pedlar -butcher redrawn after : XX., 51. Cook, 15 th c. redrawn after : XX Wilhelm, Cook, 1475, Amb. 317.2° Folio 95 recto (Mendel I), Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg, Die Hausbücher der Nürnberger Zwölfbrüderstiftungen 52. Marketplace in Salisbury, Great Britain redrawn after : XX., Wirksworth Marketplace, 1886 ?, photograph 58. Glasses from 14 th c. redrawn after : Mobile confectionary stalls, Wirksworth marketplace, Great Britain, 19 th c. 63.

A fish market, 18 th c. redrawn after : BESCHEY J.F., Marché au poisson au bord de la mer, 18 th c., Toulouse, Musée des Augustins, France 41.

Old fish market -a stone stall -in Ypres, Belgium, 21 th c.

42.

Billingsgate Fish Market, London, Great Britain, 19 th c. redrawn after : XX, Billingsgate new market, [in] Illustrated London News, 1852 43. Fish-sellers, English market, 16 th c. redrawn after : XX., English market, [in] BRAUN G. and HOGENBERG F., Civitates Orbis terrarium, Cologne 1572 44. A pedlar selling herrings, 16 th c. redrawn after : XX., Manne de Harengs, [in] Les Cris de Paris, BnF, Arsenal, Est. 264 Rés. Fol. 15, pl 13, (c 1500) Mediaeval three-legged cooking pots, 14 th c.

47. Medieval cooks, woodcut, 16 th c. redrawn after : FISCHAUER J., Medieval cooks, woodcut [in] Kuchenmaistrey, Augsburg 1505 Merchant -permanent stall, 16 th c. redrawn after : WEINBRENNER J., Merchant, 1533, Amb. 317.2° Folio 150 recto (Mendel I), Stadtbibliothek Nürnberg, Die Hausbücher der Nürnberger Zwölfbrüderstiftungen 54. Galzier, 16 th c. redrawn after : KLUCEL N., Pedlar -glass merchant, 16 th c. redrawn after : XX., Voirze jolis : le marchand de verres, engraving on wood, c 1500, Les cris de Paris, BnF 65.

  Frankfurt am Main, Germany, 19 th c. redrawn after : ZEIT S., Aufmaß der zum Römerberg gewandten Fassade des Salzhauses in Frankfurt am Main, c 1890 72. Ancient granary and warehouse in Konstanz, Germany, 19 th c. Granary in Vauclair, France (Aisne), 19 th c. redrawn after : VERDIER A., CATTOIS F., Grenier d'abondance de l'abbaye de Vauclair [in] Architecture civile et domestique au Moyen-Age et à la Renaissance, Didron Editeur, 1855-1857 74.

	73.

D i f f e r e n t f a c e s o f o n e ' i d e a '

A number of the gothic spires that covered belfries across central Europe -including the one in Krakow -can be associated with Czech examples like Sv. Štěpán kostel -Prague, Church of Our Lady -Prague, Jindřišská věž -Prague, Emauzský klášter -Prague, the freestanding town hall tower (Fig. 169) -Znojmo, Green Tower (Zelená brána) (Fig. 170) -Pardubice, Black Tower -Klatovy.

Some belfries:

Great Britain: Manchester -new town hall, Cambridge -city hall, York, Leicester, Chester, Sheffield Italy: Florence -Pallazzo Vecchio, Volterra -Pallazzo dei Priori, Monza, Pienza, Siena -Palazzo Pubblico, Como -Palazzo Broletto, Vicenza, Viterbo, Venice Germany: Pirna, Grossenhain, Brunsweig -new town hall, Leipzig, Cologne, Munich -old town hall Belgium: Ghent, Bruges -cloth hall, Brussels, Ypres, Nieuport -town hall, Aalsttown hall Poland: Nysa, Toruń, Wrocław, Kościan, Poznań, Kłodzko, Żnin, Kraków, Lubań, Gdańsk, Inowrocław, Gniezno, Świdnica, Jawor, Brzeg, Oleśnica, Środa Śląska, Źywiec Ukraine: Lviv Czech Republic: Prague -town hall, Kostel Sv. Štepána, Emauzský klášter, Jindřišská věž, Church of Our Lady, Uničov, Sušice, Klatovy -Black Tower, Jičín, Hradec Králové -White Tower, Znojmo, Pardubice -Zelená brána, Olomouc, České Budějovice -Černá věž, France: Dunkerque -Beffroi Saint Éloi, Arras, Bailleul, Armentières, Douai, Saint-Antonin-Noble-Val, Armentières, Bergues, Gravelines, Calais Estonia: Tallinn Netherlands: Delft, Amsterdam, the Hague, Kortrijk -cloth hall tower, Middelburg Lithuania: Vilnius Slovakia: Kežmarok, Bratislava, Levoča Hungary: Kercaszomor, Pankasz, Gödörháza, Tata, Sopron, Veszprem