Basilie Chevrier
email: basilie.chevrier@univ-amu.fr

Lyda Lannegrand

Keywords: university entrance, home-leaving, family environment, attachment, personoriented approach university entrance, home-leaving, family environment, attachment, person-oriented approach

come

Leaving the family home to start university: How is home-leaving related to family environment and attachment?

Leaving the family home to start university: How is home-leaving related to family environment and attachment?

Basilie Chevrier, Lyda Lannegrand

To cite this version:

Basilie Chevrier, Lyda Lannegrand. Leaving the family home to start university: How is home-leaving related to family environment and attachment?. Current Psychology, In press, 10.1007/s12144-022-03184-x. hal-03674574

Introduction

For young people living in France, gaining independence from their family and becoming a fully-fledged member of society through qualification and employment are crucial for reaching adulthood [START_REF] Moulin | L'émergence de l'âge adulte: De l'impact des référentiels institutionnels en France et au Québec[END_REF][START_REF] Van De Velde | Devenir adulte: Sociologie comparée de la jeunesse en Europe[END_REF]). Higher education is therefore a societal expectation in France [START_REF] Minni | Emploi et chômage des 15-29 ans en 2015. Un jeune sur dix au chômage[END_REF]. The proportion of young people who are students is higher in France than in other European countries [START_REF] Kovess-Masfety | Mental health of college students and their non-college-attending peers: Results from a large French cross-sectional survey[END_REF]. However, under this diploma tyranny (van de [START_REF] Van De Velde | Devenir adulte: Sociologie comparée de la jeunesse en Europe[END_REF], in 2012, only a small proportion (28%) of emerging adults who enroll in the first year of university are ultimately awarded a degree [START_REF] Lefauconnier | Réussite en licence: Un étudiant sur trois abandonne dès la première année[END_REF]. As going to university is characterized by academic, social, personal, and institutional changes [START_REF] De Clercq | The delicate balance to adjustment: A qualitative approach of student's transition to the first year at university[END_REF], the first year is seen as a crucial period in development [START_REF] Boyer | L'entrée dans la vie étudiante. Socialisation et apprentissages [The entry into student life. Socialization and learning[END_REF][START_REF] Shim | What do students want socially when they arrive at college? Implications of social achievement goals for social behaviors and adjustment during the first semester of college[END_REF]. During this period, emerging adults may experience one of the most important changes in their living conditions [START_REF] Pittman | University belonging, friendship quality, and psychological adjustment during the transition to college[END_REF]. There are several possible living arrangements, as some emerging adults have to leave the family home to study hundreds of kilometers away, while others either continue to live with their parents, leave the family home but go back each weekend to do the laundry or get groceries, or return more rarely and have to manage by themselves (e.g., [START_REF] Goldscheider | Semiautonomy and leaving home in early adulthood[END_REF][START_REF] Kins | Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support[END_REF].

Leaving home is a normative transition [START_REF] Lane | The impact of life transition on emerging adult attachment, social support, and well-being: A multiple-group comparison[END_REF]: a step toward adulthood (van den [START_REF] Van Den Berg | Family structure and early home leaving: A mediation analysis[END_REF] that marks the individuation process [START_REF] Arnett | Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties[END_REF] and redefines the family's role and status [START_REF] Kins | Why should I leave?" Belgian emerging adults' departure from home[END_REF]. Literature findings emphasize the influence of the parents-child relationship, family relationships, and attachment on leaving home (e.g., [START_REF] Akın | Parent-adolescent relationship quality as a predictor of leaving home[END_REF][START_REF] Flanagan | Residential setting and parent-adolescent relationships during the college years[END_REF][START_REF] Kins | Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support[END_REF][START_REF] Mayseless | Home leaving to military service: Attachment concerns, transfer of attachment functions from parents to peers, and adjustment[END_REF][START_REF] Mendonça | Late nest leaving in Portugal: Its effects on individuation and parent-child relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Seiffge-Krenke | Leaving home or still in the nest? Parent-child relationships and psychological health as predictors of different leaving home patterns[END_REF], 2009;[START_REF] Van Den Berg | Family structure and early home leaving: A mediation analysis[END_REF]. However, no authors have yet investigated home-leaving at a given time such as going to university. The latter is likely to generate separation anxiety, calling into question young people's relationships with their parents and family [START_REF] Aquilino | Family relationships and support systems in emerging adulthood[END_REF], as well as their attachment representations [START_REF] Kenny | The extent and function of parental attachment among first-year college students[END_REF]. Leaving home to go to university is a stressful life event that may generate illbeing in the form of homesickness, especially at the beginning of the first year [START_REF] Tognoli | Leaving home: Homesickness, place attachment, and transition among residential college students[END_REF], and may lead to university maladjustment and dropout [START_REF] Thurber | Homesickness and adjustment in university students[END_REF]). An in-depth understanding of home-leaving as a function of family environment, in the form of parentschild and family relationships, and attachment at the beginning of the first year, would allow emerging adult students' independence to be more accurately captured.

Based on [START_REF] Minuchin | Families and family therapy[END_REF] systemic family theory, the aim of the present study was to analyze how home-leaving is related to attachment and the family environment (i.e., parents-child and family relationships), adopting a systemic perspective. The latter allows the individual to be considered as a dynamic system of interwoven components, or whole-system properties, in order to better understand individual functioning [START_REF] Bergman | The person and the variable in developmental psychology[END_REF]. It implies the use of a person-oriented approach to identify individual profiles and to combine these into patterns. In contrast to a variable-oriented approach, which is designed to test how variables are related to each other, a person-oriented approach shows the combined effect of three or more interacting predictors [START_REF] Gillet | Stability, change, and implications of students' motivation profiles: A latent transition analysis[END_REF], and allows distinct patterns to be studied (e.g., [START_REF] Howard | Motivation profiles at work: A self-determination theory approach[END_REF]. Above all, this approach makes it possible to identify specific patterns of home-leaving, family environment, and attachment, and to gain a holistic and interactionist view of home-leaving experiences at the start of university.

Leaving the Family Home for University

Home-leaving is a complex period of life characterized by an ambivalent feeling of needing independence, but wanting to remain connected to one's parents [START_REF] Goldscheider | Semiautonomy and leaving home in early adulthood[END_REF][START_REF] Kins | Why should I leave?" Belgian emerging adults' departure from home[END_REF]. Three different types of living arrangements have been identified [START_REF] Goldscheider | Semiautonomy and leaving home in early adulthood[END_REF]: co-resident with parents, semi-autonomous, and independent. [START_REF] Kins | Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support[END_REF] suggested using the term semi-independent instead of semi-autonomous, as autonomy is a generic term that refers to independence and volition alike, whereas leaving the family household is a manifestation of independence that is not necessarily self-willed. As a consequence, [START_REF] Kins | Failure to launch, failure to achieve criteria for adulthood[END_REF] distinguished between three different profiles: co-resident, referring to emerging adults who still live with their parents; semi-independent, for emerging adults who have left the family household but frequently return and do not assume all responsibilities; and independent, for emerging adults who have left the family house and assume all responsibilities.

For just over half of all students in France (55% of emerging adult students in 2010;

Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur, de la Recherche et de l'Innovation, 2011), going to university involves moving out of and leaving the family home [START_REF] Grignon | Les conditions de vie des étudiants: Enquête OVE[END_REF]. This results in a destructuring of their living environment [START_REF] Boyer | L'entrée dans la vie étudiante. Socialisation et apprentissages [The entry into student life. Socialization and learning[END_REF]. Students who leave the family home have to take on new responsibilities such as managing a budget, cleaning, making meals or going shopping for food, and by so doing become more independent.

Nevertheless, independence does not mean autonomy, as students are still under their parents' authority, especially in their first year at university [START_REF] Cicchelli | Être pris en charge par ses parents. Portraits de la gêne et de l'aisance exprimées par les étudiants[END_REF]. Emerging adult students may therefore feel they are living a double life: a life in their place of study versus a life in the family home [START_REF] Galland | Sociologie de la jeunesse[END_REF]. Their student accommodation can be seen as a nest extension, in that their parents financially contribute to it (van de Velde, 2008). During the first year at university, 60% of the rent is paid by the family, even though students are entitled to housing benefit [START_REF] Belghith | Enquête nationale condition de vie des étudiant-e-s 2016: Le logement étudiant[END_REF]. Students return more frequently to the parental home at the beginning of the university year than at the end [START_REF] Cicchelli | Se construire comme jeune adulte: Autonomie et autonomisation des étudiants par rapport à leurs familles[END_REF]. In France, emerging adult students are therefore still quite dependent on their family when they start university, even if they have left home. The start of university therefore raises questions about emerging adults' dependency upon and independence from the family. This home-leaving experience is different from leaving for employment or military service (e.g., [START_REF] Mayseless | Home leaving to military service: Attachment concerns, transfer of attachment functions from parents to peers, and adjustment[END_REF][START_REF] Van Den Berg | Family structure and early home leaving: A mediation analysis[END_REF]. An exploration of how home-leaving is related to family environment and attachment at the beginning of the first year of university should therefore foster our understanding of this specific independence marker.

Family Environment and Home-Leaving

According to [START_REF] Minuchin | Families and family therapy[END_REF], the family environment is a system composed of different interwoven subsystems. Two of these subsystems, parents-child and family relationships, serve as pillars of family identity throughout individuals' lives (e.g., [START_REF] Mchale | Understanding how family-level dynamics affect children's development: Studies of two-parent families[END_REF]. More specifically, both types of relationship contribute to development during emerging adulthood [START_REF] Arnett | Emerging adulthood: The winding road from the late teens through the twenties[END_REF].

Emerging adulthood brings changes to individuals' role and status within the family.

The parents-child relationship gradually becomes more reciprocal [START_REF] Rice | Cross-sectional and longitudinal examination of attachment, separation-individuation, and college student adjustment[END_REF], less hierarchical and more symmetrical [START_REF] Grotevant | Individuation in family relationships: A perspective on individual differences in the development of identity and role-taking skill in adolescence[END_REF]). Nevertheless, parents may still want to consider their offspring as children and not as adults [START_REF] Nelson | Parenting in emerging adulthood: An examination of parenting clusters and correlates[END_REF]. During this redefinition of the relationship, it may be difficult to strike the right balance between distance and proximity [START_REF] Kins | Why should I leave?" Belgian emerging adults' departure from home[END_REF]. Relationships within the family are also part of the process of transition to adulthood. They contribute to young people's life experience, so that when they are perceived as functional, individuals feel supported and are able to deal with the life events they encounter more serenely [START_REF] Minuchin | Families and family therapy[END_REF]. Family relationships respond to children's needs and scaffold their development, so that they can then live independently in society [START_REF] Senthil | Family and mental illness[END_REF]. These relationships therefore contribute to the personal development of individual family members [START_REF] Scabini | Young adult families: An evolutionary slowdown or a breakdown in the generational transition[END_REF].

As going to university is a major life event that challenges emerging adults, support from parents and other family members is essential [START_REF] Minuchin | Families and family therapy[END_REF]. Regarding the parentschild relationship, the literature shows that autonomy-supportive parenting during adolescence leads to greater self-sufficiency during emerging adulthood [START_REF] Akın | Parent-adolescent relationship quality as a predictor of leaving home[END_REF][START_REF] Seiffge-Krenke | Leaving-home patterns in emerging adults: The impact of earlier parental support and developmental task progression[END_REF]. Moreover, responsive parenting is associated with emerging adults'

wellbeing (Filus et al., 2019). Autonomy support is defined as parents' support of their children's independence, detachment, and self-governance [START_REF] Soenens | Conceptualizing parental autonomy support: Adolescent perceptions of promotion of independence versus promotion of volitional functioning[END_REF], and responsiveness as the attention parents pay to their children's needs (Macoby & Martin, 1983). Conversely, psychological control, which refers to intrusive and manipulative parental behaviors [START_REF] Barber | Parental psychological control: Revisiting a neglected construct[END_REF], leads to emerging adults' maladjustment [START_REF] Inguglia | Parenting dimensions and internalizing difficulties in Italian and US emerging adults: The intervening role of autonomy and relatedness[END_REF].

Regarding family relationships, family cohesion and adaptability facilitate emerging adult students' wellbeing [START_REF] Uruk | Examining the influence of family cohesion and adaptability on trauma symptoms and psychological well-being[END_REF] and adjustment to university life [START_REF] Holmbeck | Individual and relational predictors of adjustment in first-year college students[END_REF]. During adolescence, they both contribute to academic success [START_REF] Oljača | Relationship between the quality of family functioning and academic achievement in adolescents[END_REF]. Family cohesion refers to a feeling of caring and support within the family [START_REF] Moos | Family Environment Scale Manual[END_REF], and family adaptability to a degree of possible change in family roles [START_REF] Olson | FACES III (Family Adaptation and Cohesion Scales)[END_REF]. Moreover, expressiveness, such as being able to express emotions freely within the family [START_REF] Moos | Family Environment Scale Manual[END_REF], is positively correlated with social and emotional adjustment to life at university [START_REF] Johnson | Managing the transition to college: Family functioning, emotion coping, and adjustment in emerging adulthood[END_REF]. By contrast, family conflicts [START_REF] Moos | Family Environment Scale Manual[END_REF] have a negative effect on wellbeing [START_REF] Rutledge | Family dysfunction and the wellbeing of medical students[END_REF], emotional adjustment to university [START_REF] Johnson | Managing the transition to college: Family functioning, emotion coping, and adjustment in emerging adulthood[END_REF], and academic success during the first year of university [START_REF] Bahrassa | Family conflict and academic performance of first-year Asian American undergraduates[END_REF]. Above all, the family environment promotes emerging adults' development and achievement [START_REF] Aquilino | Family relationships and support systems in emerging adulthood[END_REF][START_REF] Scabini | Young adult families: An evolutionary slowdown or a breakdown in the generational transition[END_REF], especially during the transition to university [START_REF] Johnson | Managing the transition to college: Family functioning, emotion coping, and adjustment in emerging adulthood[END_REF].

When a child leaves home, it disrupts the functioning of the family [START_REF] Minuchin | Families and family therapy[END_REF], as it shifts in the balance of power within the parents-child relationship, leading to its swift redefinition of it [START_REF] Goldscheider | The changing transition to adulthood: Leaving and returning home[END_REF][START_REF] Kins | Failure to launch, failure to achieve criteria for adulthood[END_REF]. Living away from the family home is associated with greater independence and greater mutual support and respect between parents and children [START_REF] Flanagan | Residential setting and parent-adolescent relationships during the college years[END_REF]. Leaving home thus facilitates the transformation of the relationship [START_REF] Aquilino | From adolescent to young adult: A prospective study of parent-child relations during the transition to adulthood[END_REF]. Conversely, continuing to co-reside with one's parents may be associated with a more problematic separation-individuation process (Kins, Beyers, et al., 2012). Emerging adults who co-reside feel that their parents underestimate their maturity, and report more conflictual and avoidant relationships. They are more willing to see the negative aspects of this relationship [START_REF] Flanagan | Residential setting and parent-adolescent relationships during the college years[END_REF], as they feel that they are still treated like children [START_REF] Kins | Failure to launch, failure to achieve criteria for adulthood[END_REF]. Family conflict may be a reason for going away to university, especially for girls [START_REF] Bernhardt | Childhood family structure and routes out of the parental home in Sweden[END_REF]. By contrast, when emerging adults have positive relations with their family, they may want to stay at home [START_REF] Lanz | Do I really need someone in order to become an adult? Romantic relationships during emerging adulthood in Italy[END_REF], especially as the parental home appears to be a protective factor against instability in emerging adulthood [START_REF] Cook | Sources of perceived responsiveness in family relationships[END_REF]. A low level of conflict in adolescence is associated with a co-residing pattern during emerging adulthood, as well as a low level of autonomy support. Emerging adults who leave the family home the earliest are those with the optimum family environment, with a balance between normative conflicts and autonomy support [START_REF] Seiffge-Krenke | Leaving home or still in the nest? Parent-child relationships and psychological health as predictors of different leaving home patterns[END_REF], 2009). In short, literature findings indicate that the family environment can be both a reason to leave the family household and a reason to stay.

However, previous studies have explored parents-child or family relationships using a variable-oriented approach. A person-oriented approach can capture the diversity of family environments at the start of university, and would thus improve our knowledge of the link between family and the home-leaving experience.

Attachment Representation and Home-Leaving

According to [START_REF] Bowlby | Loss: Sadness and depression[END_REF] theory, attachment representations developed in early life fulfill a double function of protection and socialization. During the transition to university, they particularly come to the fore (Kins, Beyers, et al., 2012;[START_REF] Scharfe | Function of attachment hierarchies in young adults experiencing the transition from university[END_REF].

Attachment representations have been conceptualized as systematic patterns of expectations, needs, emotion regulation, and social behavior in relationships with others [START_REF] Ainsworth | Patterns of attachment: A psychological study of the strange situation[END_REF]. Three main attachment styles have been identified: secure versus insecure, either avoidant or anxious [START_REF] Collins | Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples[END_REF]. Secure attachment refers to individuals who are comfortable in intimate situations, able to depend on others, and not worried about being rejected. Avoidant attachment defines individuals who feel uncomfortable with closeness or dependence on others. Finally, anxious attachment refers to individuals who are worried about others' availability and being unloved (Kins, Beyers, et al., 2012). Secure attachment is related to a positive adaptation to life events (Seiffge-Krenke, 2006). At the start of university, secure attachment enables students to cope better with academic and social changes [START_REF] Holmbeck | Individual and relational predictors of adjustment in first-year college students[END_REF][START_REF] Larose | Attachment to parents, social support expectations, and socioemotional adjustment during the high school-college transition[END_REF].

Starting university is a stressful event that activates attachment systems, especially among those emerging adults who leave home [START_REF] Larose | Attachment to parents, social support expectations, and socioemotional adjustment during the high school-college transition[END_REF]. Security of attachment induces a better experience of home-leaving [START_REF] Mayseless | Home leaving to military service: Attachment concerns, transfer of attachment functions from parents to peers, and adjustment[END_REF], as it allows individuals to respond appropriately to separation events (Kins, Beyers, et al., 2012). [START_REF] Seiffge-Krenke | Leaving home or still in the nest? Parent-child relationships and psychological health as predictors of different leaving home patterns[END_REF] demonstrated that emerging adults who leave the parental home the earliest are those with the most secure attachment. Secure attachment facilitates the gradual process of separation from parents [START_REF] Mayseless | Adults' attachment patterns: Coping with separations[END_REF]. Conversely, insecure attachment is associated with a less well adjusted response to stressful life events [START_REF] Bernier | Leaving home for college: A potentially stressful event for adolescents with preoccupied attachment patterns[END_REF] and with later leaving [START_REF] Seiffge-Krenke | Leaving home or still in the nest? Parent-child relationships and psychological health as predictors of different leaving home patterns[END_REF]. Furthermore, emerging adults with avoidant attachment may experience a denial of dependence, whereas those with anxious attachment may experience home-leaving as a threat to the closeness of their relationships (Kins, Beyers, et al., 2012). Attachment representations are thus particularly strongly activated when young people leave the family home. In our study, we explored the link between attachment representations and home-leaving in the specific context of university entrance, in order to highlight emerging adults' independence markers.

Present Study

The purpose of the present study conducted among French students was to identify different forms of home-leaving at the start of university, and analyze how these are linked to family environment and attachment, adopting a person-oriented approach. After establishing home-leaving, family environment and attachment profiles, we looked at the patterns formed by these profiles.

Regarding home-leaving, in line with the literature [START_REF] Kins | Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support[END_REF], we expected three profiles to emerge: co-resident, semi-independent, and independent. For family environment, as both parents-child and family relationships foster positive development in the academic context [START_REF] Johnson | Children's classroom behavior: The unique contribution of family organization[END_REF], we expected to find several different profiles, underlining the diversity of family environments. These profiles would be characterized by either high scores on positive aspects of both types of relationship (i.e., autonomy support, responsiveness, adaptability, cohesion, and expressiveness), high scores on negative aspects (i.e., psychological control and conflict), or mixed scores (e.g., low autonomy support and low conflict; Seiffge-Krenke, 2006). Finally, for attachment, in accordance with [START_REF] Collins | Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples[END_REF], we expected three profiles to emerge: secure, avoidant, and anxious.

We also investigated how home-leaving patterns are related to family environment and attachment profiles. Given previous results obtained using a variable-oriented approach, we expected to identify convergent patterns of home-leaving, family environment and attachment profiles. Co-residing has been associated with more conflicts and avoidance in some studies (e.g., [START_REF] Flanagan | Residential setting and parent-adolescent relationships during the college years[END_REF], but with fewer conflicts and autonomy support and more insecure attachment in others (e.g., [START_REF] Seiffge-Krenke | Leaving home or still in the nest? Parent-child relationships and psychological health as predictors of different leaving home patterns[END_REF]. We therefore predicted that the co-resident profile would be associated with a negative or mixed family environment and insecure attachment. Regarding the semi-independent profile, we predicted that it would be related to a positive family environment and secure attachment. Leaving home is a gradual and normative transition [START_REF] Lane | The impact of life transition on emerging adult attachment, social support, and well-being: A multiple-group comparison[END_REF], but constitutes a major life event. A positive family environment with cohesive, supportive, and responsive behaviors helps emerging adults to adjust [START_REF] Holmbeck | Individual and relational predictors of adjustment in first-year college students[END_REF][START_REF] Inguglia | Parenting dimensions and internalizing difficulties in Italian and US emerging adults: The intervening role of autonomy and relatedness[END_REF][START_REF] Pedersen | Parental autonomy support and college student academic outcomes[END_REF], and secure attachment enables them to cope better with social changes [START_REF] Larose | Attachment to parents, social support expectations, and socioemotional adjustment during the high school-college transition[END_REF] and with a gradual process of separation from their parents [START_REF] Mayseless | Adults' attachment patterns: Coping with separations[END_REF]. Finally, we expected the independent profile to be associated with a negative family environment and insecure attachment, as a conflictual family may impel young people to leave the family household [START_REF] Bernhardt | Childhood family structure and routes out of the parental home in Sweden[END_REF], and insecure attachment is associated with a conflictual family environment [START_REF] Liddle | Attachment and family therapy: Clinical utility of adolescent-family attachment research[END_REF].

Method

Participants and Procedure

Our sample consisted of 1,142 emerging adults in their first year at university (70.67% females; Mage = 18.43 years, SDage = 0.57) enrolled on different programs (60.16% law and economics, 22.15% social sciences, and 16.02% life sciences) at universities across France.

Participants were included in the study if they had obtained their high-school diploma (i.e., baccalaureate) the semester before the data collection. The data were collected at the start of the first year of university, in September and October. Almost all the participants were French (90%). Concerning the family situation, the parents of 60.82% of our sample were married or cohabiting. Informed consent was obtained from each participant.

Measures

Home-leaving. Home-leaving indicators were based on [START_REF] Kins | Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support[END_REF] and [START_REF] Mendonça | Late nest leaving in Portugal: Its effects on individuation and parent-child relationships[END_REF]. First, we asked participants about their living arrangements.

Respondents had to indicate where they currently lived, by choosing one of the following categories: with one or both of my parents, with my partner, in shared accommodation, alone, other. Next, respondents who did not live with their parents had to specify how often they went home: once a week, once every 2 weeks, once a month, once every 2 months, occasionally or never. Finally, respondents were asked to indicate whether or not they thought of themselves as still living in the parental home.

Family environment. This variable comprised parents-child and family relationships.

The parents-child relationship was measured with the French version [START_REF] Delhaye | The Leuven Adolescent Perceived Parenting Scale (LAPPS): Reliability and validity with Frenchspeaking adolescents in Belgium[END_REF] of the Leuven Adolescent Perceived Parenting Scale (LAPPS; [START_REF] Soenens | The "gross anatomy" of parenting styles in adolescence: Three or four dimensions? International Society for the Study of Behavioral Development (ISSBD)[END_REF]. This 28item questionnaire assesses the relationship with both parents on four dimensions: responsiveness, autonomy support, psychological control, and behavioral control. Given the subject of our study, we did not consider the behavioral control dimension, as it refers to active control by parents, such as setting rules and guidelines in the family household [START_REF] Beyers | Dynamics of perceived parenting and identity formation in late adolescence[END_REF]. In addition, as the independence process implies independence from both parents [START_REF] Kins | Failure to launch, failure to achieve criteria for adulthood[END_REF], we indicated that the statements concerned both parents. Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (Completely disagree) to 5 (Completely agree). The structure of the LAPPS was investigated with an explanatory factor analysis. This indicated that within the autonomy support dimension, one item ("…often say that I have to think about life on my own") should be removed, and one item ("…want everything done in their way") should be reverse scored. A confirmatory factor analysis with a diagonally weighted least squares estimation confirmed this solution, based on the usual criteria (e.g., Hooper et al., The FRI is a 12-item questionnaire probing three dimensions: cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict. For both the FACES dimension and the FRI, items are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (Completely disagree) to 5 (Completely agree). In our study, Cronbach's alphas were .67, .78, .50, and .78 for adaptability, cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict respectively. The 3factor structure of the FRI was confirmed using a confirmatory factor analysis with a diagonally weighted least squares estimation, χ²(51) = 114.09, CFI = .99, RMSEA = .05[.036-

.059], TLI = .99, and WRMR = 1.00.

Attachment. Attachment was assessed using the French version [START_REF] Brisset | L'adaptation des étudiants en période de transition: Une étude comparative franco-canadienne des étudiants primo-entrants et des étudiants internationaux vietnamiens[END_REF] of the Adult Attachment Scale [START_REF] Collins | Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples[END_REF]. This 18-item questionnaire measures attachment representation on three dimensions: dependence, closeness, and anxiety. Items are rated on a scale ranging from 1 (Completely disagree) to 5 (Completely agree). Using a confirmatory factor analysis with a diagonally weighted least squares estimation, we confirmed the 3-factor structure, χ²(136) = 692.26, CFI = .97, RMSEA = .09[.078-.091], TLI = .97, and WRMR = 1.76. In our study, Cronbach's alphas were .84, .84, and .84.

Statistical Analysis

Preliminary analyses were conducted using a correlation matrix to examine whether age or gender was related to family environment and attachment and should be controlled for in the main analysis. If this were the case for age, we would conduct an analysis of variance, and if it were the case for gender, we would conduct a chi-square test with an examination of the standardized residuals (i.e., an absolute value greater than 2 would indicate which cell differed significantly from the hypothesis of independence).

We used two different methodologies to investigate home-leaving, family environment, and attachment profiles, based on the literature and the nature of our data. ). Second, we ran two cluster analyses using a two-step procedure, one for family environment and one for attachment. Cluster analyses are recommended in family psychology research [START_REF] Henry | Cluster analysis in family psychology Research[END_REF], as they allow for more fine-grained analysis of naturally occurring patterns [START_REF] Soenens | How are parental psychological control and autonomy-support related? A cluster-analytic approach[END_REF]. Furthermore, in a person-oriented approach, cluster analyses can be used for continuous data, as they are based on variable means [START_REF] Weller | Latent class analysis: A guide to best practice[END_REF]. In the first step, we performed a hierarchical cluster analysis using Ward's method and squared Euclidean distances. In the second step, the cluster centers obtained in the first step were used as nonrandom starting points in an iterative k-means analysis. The selection of the final number of clusters was made with respect to three criteria (e.g., [START_REF] Luyckx | Capturing ruminative exploration: Extending the fourdimensional model of identity formation in late adolescence[END_REF]:

substantive theorizing, parsimony, and explanatory power (i.e., the most explained variance in each dimension). To interpret the cluster patterns, we used [START_REF] Cohen | Statistical power analysis for the behavioral sciences[END_REF] conventional criteria: an absolute value of 0.2 SD defined a small effect, 0.5 SD a moderate effect, and 0.8 Finally, to analyze the patterns combining home-leaving, family environment and attachment profiles, we ran a configural frequency analysis (CFA; [START_REF] Schrepp | The use of configural frequency analysis for explorative data analysis[END_REF]. Each pattern was a combination of three profiles. For example, the "1,2,1" pattern referred to participants with the first home-leaving profile, the second family environment profile, and the first attachment profile. CFA allows local relationships to be analyzed in the space of the crossed variables and patterns to be identified, in which the observed frequency is significantly higher (type) or lower (antitype) than that expected in the base model [START_REF] Von Eye | Variable-oriented and person-oriented perspectives of analysis: The example of alcohol consumption in adolescence[END_REF]. We used the first-order CFA as the base model regarding the likelihood ratio test chi-squared (LR-χ²). According to von Eye et al. ( 2013), as CFA involves multiple significance tests on the same data, the significance threshold (α) must be protected. The conservative Bonferroni procedure was employed: α* = 0.05/r, where r was the total number of configurations. The sample to be analyzed varied from 1,092 to 1,123, depending on the statistics considered.

Results

Descriptive Statistics

Descriptive statistics (i.e., means, standard deviations, and Cronbach's alpha) and bivariate correlations between gender, age and all the family environment and attachment variables are reported in Table 1. Regarding family environment, as expected, psychological weeks, p = .28; once a month, p = .28; once every 2 months, p = .20; occasionally to never, p = .17), and who did not consider themselves still to be living in the parental home (p = 1.00).

They were labeled independent. Results are reported in Table 2. In our sample, 59.37% of emerging adults were classified as co-resident, 22.59% as semi-independent, and 18.04% as independent.

< Insert Table 2 about here >

Cluster Analysis of Family Environment

Combining the seven family environment dimensions, the cluster analysis yielded a 3.

< Insert Figure 1 and Table 3 about here >

Cluster Analysis of Attachment

A final three-cluster solution emerged when we combined the three dimensions of attachment (see Figure 2). The distribution of attachment profiles differed significantly according to gender, χ²(2) = 41.14, p < .001. A detailed examination of the standardized residuals indicated that, compared with their males, females were overrepresented in the avoidant cluster and underrepresented in the secure one. Results are reported in Table 3. Results are reported in Table 4. The LR-χ² for the first-order base model was significant: LR-χ² = 117.52, df = 28, p < .001. We could thus continue to identify patterns with a frequency that differed significantly from what was expected. The Bonferroni-corrected α* = 0.001 (0.05/36), led to the identification of three significant typical patterns ("2,1,1"; "1,4,3"; "3,4,3") and one significant antitypical pattern ("1,1,3"). The "semi-independent × supportive and positive parental and family relationships × secure" pattern ("2,1,1") was therefore observed more frequently than expected (fo = 53, fe = 32.45, z = 3.66, p < α*), as was the "coresident × unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships × anxious" pattern ("1,4,3"; fo = 26, fe = 13.87, z = 3.27, p < α*). As for the "independent × unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships × anxious" pattern ("3,4,3"), this was observed three times more frequently than expected (fo = 12, fe = 4.02, z = 3.98, p < α*). Finally, the "co-resident × supportive and positive parental and family relationships × anxious" pattern ("1,1,3") was observed less frequently than expected (fo = 25, fe = 45.59, z = -3.11, p < α*).

< Insert Table 4 about here >

Discussion

the unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships profile. For home-leaving and attachment profiles, there were no significant associations, χ²(4) = 7.91, p = .09. Finally, for family environment and attachment profiles, χ²(6) = 74.19, p < .001, the supportive and positive parental and family relationships profile was overrepresented in the secure profile, and underrepresented in the avoidant and anxious profiles. Moreover, the unsupportive parental and family relationships profile was overrepresented in the anxious profile, and underrepresented in secure profile, while the unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships profile was overrepresented in the anxious profile and underrepresented in the secure profile.

The purpose of the present study was to analyze the different forms of home-leaving at the start of university and to understand how they are related to family environment and attachment. Using a person-oriented approach, we first identified the various profiles of home-leaving, family environment (parents-child and family relationships), and attachment.

Results revealed a meaningful cluster solution for each profile: the independent home-leaving respondents stayed over at the family household more frequently than expected; there were no family environment profiles with mixed scores; and participants with insecure attachment profiles exhibited more anxiety than reported in previous studies. Next, when we explored the patterns of home-leaving, family environment and attachment profiles, results showed that the semi-independent profile was typically characterized by a positive and supportive family environment and secure attachment, unlike the co-resident and independent profiles. Overall, by revealing the profiles and patterns underlying the specificity of home-leaving with regard to family environment and attachment, our findings shed new light on emerging adult students' individuation processes when they start university.

Home-Leaving Patterns

Starting university involves many changes in living conditions. In line with Kins et al.'s study (2009), our results highlighted three distinct profiles of home-leaving: co-resident, semi-independent, and independent. The co-resident and semi-independent profiles were identical to those found in the Belgian population [START_REF] Kins | Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support[END_REF], but our emerging adults with the independent pattern returned to the family home more frequently. [START_REF] Kins | Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support[END_REF] conducted their study among Belgian emerging adults with a mean age of 22 years who were no longer students, whereas our study took place at the start of university, when emerging adult students were probably living away from their family for the very first time. This reinforces the assumption that first-year undergraduates live a double life and frequently return to the family home in order to regain their childhood comfort [START_REF] Galland | Sociologie de la jeunesse[END_REF]. The fact that our study took place in France, where parents contribute financially to their offspring's student accommodation [START_REF] Belghith | Enquête nationale condition de vie des étudiant-e-s 2016: Le logement étudiant[END_REF][START_REF] Van De Velde | Devenir adulte: Sociologie comparée de la jeunesse en Europe[END_REF], may also explain why emerging adult students go home more frequently, insofar as we can assume that this financial dependence constrains their independence. In this sense, even if they have left the family home and taken on new responsibilities, they have not yet completed the transition from adolescent high-school student to adult university student [START_REF] Dubet | Dimensions et figures de l'expérience étudiante dans l'université de masse[END_REF]. In future research, it may be relevant to explore how independence increases over time and whether the in between situation found within the independent home-leaving profile constitutes a transition toward independence.

In 2010, a national survey revealed that 55% of emerging adults in France had to leave the family household in order to continue their studies in higher education (Ministère de l'Enseignement Supérieur, de la Recherche et de l'Innovation, 2011). Only 40.63% of our participants lived away from the parental home. This percentage, lower than that found 10 years ago, tallies with the fact that French university cities are increasingly facing a crisis of student accommodation, forcing future students to continue living with their parents because of a lack of affordable housing [START_REF] Denis | Crise du logement étudiant[END_REF]. This economic and social reality raises the question of the reasons why students want (or are forced) to leave the family household.

Family Environment Profiles

Parents-child and family relationships change when a child goes to university [START_REF] Scabini | Young adult families: An evolutionary slowdown or a breakdown in the generational transition[END_REF]. By considering the dimensions of both parents-child (i.e., responsiveness, autonomy support and psychological control) and family (i.e., adaptability, cohesion, expressiveness, conflict) relationships, we were able to highlight four distinct profiles:

supportive and positive parental and family relationships; quite supportive parental relationships and sense of family cohesion; unsupportive parental and family relationships;

and unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships. These profiles were characterized by high scores on either the positive dimensions of these relationships (i.e., responsiveness, autonomy support, adaptability, cohesion, expressiveness) or the negative ones (i.e., psychological control and conflict). There were no profiles with mixed scores. Thus, the two components of the family namely parents-child and family relationships, seem to go together, such that when one is experienced as positive and supportive, so is the other, and vice versa. As suggested by [START_REF] Minuchin | Families and family therapy[END_REF], parents-child and family relationships are interdependent subsystems that influence each other [START_REF] Bavelas | Family systems theory: Background and implications[END_REF]. Moreover, as the family environment is a predictor of university adjustment [START_REF] Holmbeck | Individual and relational predictors of adjustment in first-year college students[END_REF], our finding points to the usefulness of considering parentschild and family relationships as joint resources allowing for individuals' positive development [START_REF] Cook | Sources of perceived responsiveness in family relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Johnson | Children's classroom behavior: The unique contribution of family organization[END_REF]. By adopting a global approach that considered both parents-child and family relationships, we were better able to capture emerging adult students' family environment. Furthermore, after controlling for gender, results showed that male emerging adult students were overrepresented in the profile characterized by quite positive aspects of the family environment, and female emerging adult students in the profile characterized by the most positive ones. In adolescence, females report higher cohesion and adaptability within the family than males [START_REF] Oljača | Relationship between the quality of family functioning and academic achievement in adolescents[END_REF], and in emerging adulthood, undergraduate females perceive more parental autonomy support than males. As for males, they perceive a high level of autonomy support when they go to university [START_REF] Pedersen | Parental autonomy support and college student academic outcomes[END_REF]. Taken together, these findings underscore the importance of a positive family environment for both male and female emerging adults during a transitional period.

Attachment Profiles

In line with the literature [START_REF] Collins | Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples[END_REF], we identified three distinct profiles:

secure, avoidant, and anxious. However, the avoidant profile was characterized by moderate instead of low scores on each of the attachment dimensions, and the anxious profile by low instead of moderate scores on the dependence and closeness dimensions. Compared with those reported by [START_REF] Collins | Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples[END_REF], our results showed that the emerging adults in our sample characterized by avoidant attachment sought more dependence, contact and intimacy with others, while those characterized by anxious attachment had more difficulty trusting and were more afraid of being close to others. These differences may be due to the fact that our sample was composed of emerging adults just starting university, whereas Collins and Read's study (1990) included students in either their first, second or third year of university. As starting university has been linked to strong separation-individuation anxiety (e.g., Kins, Soenens, et al., 2012), we can assume that individuals with insecure profiles exhibit greater anxiety during this period than at other periods of their lives. This assumption is reinforced by the fact that, during a transitional period, emerging adult students' attachment representations are weakened, independently of the cultural context [START_REF] Brisset | L'adaptation des étudiants en période de transition: Une étude comparative franco-canadienne des étudiants primo-entrants et des étudiants internationaux vietnamiens[END_REF]. Moreover, our results

showed that male emerging adult students were overrepresented in the secure profile, and female emerging adult students in the avoidant profile, as in adolescence [START_REF] Cooper | Attachment styles, emotion regulation, and adjustment in adolescence[END_REF]. Above all, our findings underline the importance of considering university entrance as a specific period with respect to attachment representations.

The majority of our sample exhibited insecure attachment (59.3% vs. 40.7% secure).

These results are consistent with those of [START_REF] Lopez | Stability and change in adult attachment style over the first-year college transition: Relations to self-confidence, coping, and distress patterns[END_REF], who demonstrated that there were more insecure than secure emerging adults in the first year of university. [START_REF] Konrath | Changes in adult attachment styles in American college students over time: A meta-analysis[END_REF] found that the percentage of students with secure attachment had been declining

for some years, in favor of those with insecure attachment. This decline could be primarily related to the cultural and societal changes that have occurred since the development of attachment theory. [START_REF] Konrath | Changes in adult attachment styles in American college students over time: A meta-analysis[END_REF] noted that since the 1980s, parents-child and family relationships have changed, as have the media and its uses, as well as the economy and the labor market. Furthermore, as personal achievement is more important than the development of intimate relationships during the first year of university [START_REF] Bishop | Does role balance influence the effect of personality on college success? A mediation model[END_REF], avoidant attachment may be more adaptive, and anxious attachment related more to the difficult balance between autonomy and intimacy than to maladjustment (i.e., depressive symptoms; [START_REF] Bishop | Adult attachment, role balance, and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood[END_REF]. These considerations should lead to a rethinking of the concept of secure attachment during a transitional period.

Home-Leaving, Family Environment, and Attachment Configurations

When we investigated the distribution of emerging adult students across the patterns of home-leaving, family environment, and attachment profiles, we found three typical patterns and one antitypical pattern. All these patterns were in line with our expectations, as they reflected the positive and negative facets of each construct in the university context.

Moreover, these patterns were not gender-biased as they did not combine profiles characterized by an overrepresentation of either females or males. This finding indicates that the beginning of the independence process is the same regardless of emerging adult students' gender.

The first typical pattern combined semi-independent home-leaving, supportive and positive family environment, and secure attachment. According to the literature, the semiindependent status is an intermediate one within the transition to adulthood [START_REF] Goldscheider | Semiautonomy and leaving home in early adulthood[END_REF]): a supportive and positive family environment characterizes more autonomous and independent emerging adults [START_REF] Flanagan | Residential setting and parent-adolescent relationships during the college years[END_REF][START_REF] Kins | Patterns of home leaving and subjective well-being in emerging adulthood: The role of motivational processes and parental autonomy support[END_REF], and secure attachment allows for an adaptive response to separation events (Kins, Beyers, et al., 2012). Thus, emerging adult students with this pattern may be more self-sufficient and, presumably, better able to cope with going to university. The second typical pattern combined co-residing home-leaving, unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual family environment, and anxious attachment. The literature shows that co-residing with one's family may bring the negative aspects of family relationships to the fore [START_REF] Flanagan | Residential setting and parent-adolescent relationships during the college years[END_REF], and emerging adults with anxious attachment may be overwhelmed by their new responsibilities as university students [START_REF] Mikulincer | Attachment in adulthood: Structure, dynamics, and change[END_REF]. Thus, at the beginning of the first year, when emerging adult students encounter their new academic environment, they may be submerged by events and unable to find effective support in the family home. The third typical pattern was characterized by independent home-leaving, unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual family environment, and anxious attachment. Although similar to the previous pattern, in this one, the emerging adults had left the family household. Leaving home to start university involves new responsibilities (e.g., managing a budget, doing the housework), and may heighten the feeling of being overwhelmed. It is worth noting that this pattern only concerned 12 students in our sample. This low number can be explained by the young age of our participants: at 18 years, when emerging adults have just finished high school and are starting university, living in rented accommodation by themselves can entail financial difficulties [START_REF] Belghith | Enquête nationale condition de vie des étudiant-e-s 2016: Le logement étudiant[END_REF]. Finally, the antitypical pattern combined co-residing homeleaving, supportive and positive family environment, and anxious attachment. The fact that this pattern was less frequent than expected confirms that the supportive and positive family environment profile is underrepresented in the anxious attachment profile. Literature findings show that a positively perceived family environment gives its members a sense of belonging and differentiation [START_REF] Minuchin | Families and family therapy[END_REF], and leads to the construction of more secure attachment [START_REF] Byng-Hall | The crucial roles of attachment in family therapy[END_REF].

Our results also revealed some surprises. Only the most positive and most negative family environments gave rise to patterns combining home-leaving and attachment patterns.

The two profiles with moderate scores on positive and negative dimensions (i.e., quite supportive parental relationships and sense of family cohesion, and unsupportive parental and family relationships) did not characterize specific patterns. [START_REF] Lavee | The effect of stressful life events and transitions on family functioning and well-being[END_REF] suggested that a family environment perceived as too positive or too negative is more strongly affected by life transitions. Regarding the start of university, previous studies have only investigated the influence of the family environment from a dichotomic perspective (i.e., positive vs. negative; [START_REF] Johnson | Managing the transition to college: Family functioning, emotion coping, and adjustment in emerging adulthood[END_REF]. However, our findings highlight the diversity of the family environment, allowing us to consider it as a key factor in understanding emerging adult students' independence when the go to university. One other unexpected result is that the frequency of patterns involving avoidant attachment did not differ from chance level.

According to the literature, the dependence-independence question is a core issue for emerging adults with avoidant attachment. Avoidant individuals strive for distance from others [START_REF] Bishop | Adult attachment, role balance, and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood[END_REF] and, during the process of separation, may be in denial of dependence (Kins, Beyers, et al., 2012). Nevertheless, during the first year of university, avoidant attachment is not related to the balance between autonomy and intimacy [START_REF] Bishop | Adult attachment, role balance, and depressive symptoms in emerging adulthood[END_REF], suggesting that the redefinition of emerging adults' role and status does not affect them. This assumption is reinforced by the fact that avoidant attachment in our sample was characterized by more anxiety than expected, reflecting the desire of emerging adult students for more dependence, contact, and intimacy with others.

Practical Implications

As our results revealed more insecure than secure profiles and two typical patterns characterized by an unsupportive family environment and anxious attachment, we can assume that efficiently helping emerging adult students to take on new responsibilities and university life should be a priority for student affairs officers and educators, in terms of their practice and the information they provide. In France, some universities give first-year students the opportunity to be mentored by a graduate student. This mentoring program is devoted entirely to students' learning and performance on end-of-semester exams. Although it has positive effects on students' academic achievement [START_REF] Danner | A qui profite le tutorat mis en place dans le premier cycle universitaire? Les Sciences de l[END_REF], its implementation has been called into question [START_REF] Borras | Le tutorat à l'université: Peut-on forcer les étudiants à la réussite?[END_REF]. Our findings show that, in addition to enhancing students' learning, mentoring programs should serve to support emerging adults in their transition to becoming students [START_REF] Coulon | Le métier d'étudiant: L'entrée dans la vie universitaire[END_REF][START_REF] Danner | Le tutorat dans les universités françaises[END_REF]. Second-or third-year students could inform, help, and advise first-year students in order to facilitate their integration into university life from both an academic and a social perspective [START_REF] Knoerr | Le parrainage francophone/francophile comme outil d'intégration académique, sociale et linguistique[END_REF]. Furthermore, our findings revealed that going to university is associated with strong separation-individuation anxiety (e.g., Kins, Soenens, et al., 2012). [START_REF] Schwartz | Leaving home: A semistructured group experience[END_REF] ran psychoeducational workshops to improve the home-leaving experience of emerging adult students. This type of workshop could be organized by student affairs officers and educators and implemented within university health centers. It might encourage exchanges between peers and address the difficulty of finding a balance between daily problems and investment in studies [START_REF] Boujut | La santé mentale chez les étudiants: Suivi d'une cohorte en première année d'université[END_REF]. In the light of the pandemic time, literature findings show that students were less affected by the pandemic when they were enrolled in a university wellbeing program [START_REF] Copeland | Impact of COVID-19 pandemic on college student mental health and wellness[END_REF], highlighting the importance of universities' information policies and practices in emerging adult students' development.

Limitations and Suggestions for Future Research

This study had several limitations, starting with the cross-sectional design. As starting university may be considered as a life transition that begins in high school and finishes at the end of the first year [START_REF] De Clercq | The delicate balance to adjustment: A qualitative approach of student's transition to the first year at university[END_REF], a longitudinal design would provide more indepth information about the home-leaving experience when emerging adults go to university.

Future research should examine the way home-leaving, family environment, and attachment change over time from the end of high school to the end of university studies. Moreover, our study revealed that more emerging adult students are currently co-residing with their parents than before. In the context of the French student housing crisis, [START_REF] Solard | La décohabitation, privilège des jeunes qui réussissent?[END_REF] pointed out that parents' socio-economic status plays a role in home-leaving, as not all emerging adult students are able to live away from home. This perspective would allow firstyear students' home-leaving experience to be characterized in greater detail. Furthermore, the present study investigated attachment through three different styles: secure, avoidant, and anxious [START_REF] Collins | Adult attachment, working models, and relationship quality in dating couples[END_REF]. However, disorganized/controlling attachment could also be considered (Main & Salomon, 1986). During a separation event, emerging adults with disorganized/controlling attachment are unable to rely on and express their need for others [START_REF] Mayseless | Adults' attachment patterns: Coping with separations[END_REF]. Future research should focus on all four attachment styles to further explore emerging adults' attachment. In addition, emerging adult students' lives have recently been turned upside down by the pandemic and the ensuing lockdowns and distance learning.

Recent studies have highlighted the impact of the pandemic on university students' mental health and psychological vulnerability in France [START_REF] Essadek | Mental health of French students during the Covid-19 pandemic[END_REF][START_REF] Vigouroux | The psychological vulnerability of French university students to the COVID-19 confinement[END_REF]. Regarding living conditions, during the first lockdown, nearly half of students left their student housing, and three quarters of these returned to the family home [START_REF] Belghith | Enquête nationale condition de vie des étudiant-e-s 2016: Le logement étudiant[END_REF]. Although the family home may have been seen as a refuge [START_REF] Belghith | Enquête nationale condition de vie des étudiant-e-s 2016: Le logement étudiant[END_REF], emerging adult students' emotional state did not differ according to their lockdown condition (i.e., lockdown with vs. without parents; Le [START_REF] Vigouroux | The psychological vulnerability of French university students to the COVID-19 confinement[END_REF]. As the pandemic may continue to affect students' lives [START_REF] Belghith | Enquête nationale condition de vie des étudiant-e-s 2016: Le logement étudiant[END_REF][START_REF] Vigouroux | The psychological vulnerability of French university students to the COVID-19 confinement[END_REF], it opens Home-leaving profiles: 1 = co-resident, 2 = semi-independent, 3 = independent. Family environment profiles: 1 = supportive and positive parental and family relationships, 2 = quite supportive parental relationships and sense of family cohesion, 3 = unsupportive parental and family relationships, 4 = unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships. Attachment profiles: 1 = secure, 2 = avoidant, 3 = anxious.

  2008): χ²(167) = 710.39, comparative fit index (CFI) = .98, root mean square error approximation (RMSEA) = .08 [.071-.083], Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI) = .98, weighted root mean square residual (WRMR) = 1.62. Cronbach's alphas were .91, .83, and .79 for responsiveness, autonomy support and psychological control respectively.In accordance with the specific context of our study and the literature review by[START_REF] Hamilton | Systematic review of self-report family assessment measures[END_REF], family relationships were measured by considering the family system with the adaptability dimension of the French version[START_REF] Vandeleur | Construct validity and internal reliability of a French version of FACES III in adolescents and adults[END_REF] of the Family Adaptability and Cohesion Scales III (FACES III;[START_REF] Olson | FACES III (Family Adaptation and Cohesion Scales)[END_REF] and internal functioning with the French version[START_REF] Untas | Qualités psychométriques de l'adaptation française du Family Relationship Index (FRI)[END_REF] of the Family Relationship Index (FRI;[START_REF] Moos | Family Environment Scale Manual[END_REF]. The adaptability dimension of the FACES comprised six items.

  First, we performed a latent class analysis for home-leaving profiles. A latent class analysis classifies observed categorical indicator variables (Weller et al., 2020) and was used in Kins et al.'s study (2009). The number of classes was determined according to Nylund et al.'s (2007) criteria: Bayesian information criterion (BIC), bootstrapped likelihood ratio test (BLRT), and average posterior probabilities. Weller et al. (2020) recommended considering model fit as well as theoretical interpretability. Consistent with the literature, we therefore retained the model with a best fit, the lowest BIC, a significant BLRT compared with a model with fewer classes, and high average posterior probabilities. The percentage of missing values was 1.66% and the analysis was conducted without participants presenting missing patterns (n = 1,123

  SD a large effect. The percentages of participants with missing values were 4.38% for family environment and 1.66% for attachment. Participants with missing values were excluded from the analyses, resulting in samples of n = 1,092 for family environment and n = 1,123 for attachment.

  control and conflict were positively related, and were negatively associated with responsiveness, autonomy support, adaptability, cohesion, and expressiveness. Conversely, all the latter dimensions were all positively intercorrelated. Regarding attachment, in accordance with the literature, dependence and closeness were positively related, but were negatively associated with anxiety. Gender was positively associated with the responsiveness and autonomy support dimensions of family environment and the anxiety dimension of attachment, and negatively associated with the psychological control dimension of family environment and the dependence and closeness dimensions of attachment. There was no significant correlation with age. Finally, concerning the correlations between family environment and attachment dimensions, all dimensions were intercorrelated except for the adaptability dimension of family environment, which was not related to either anxiety or closeness.< Insert Table1 abouthere > Latent Class Analysis of Home-Leaving We tested three latent class models. The 3-class solution had a better fit (L 2 = 30.42, df = 27, p = .29; BIC = 6389.42; entropy = .86; average posterior probabilities >.78) than either the 2-class (L 2 = 104.27, df = 38, p < .001; BIC = 6385.82; entropy = .91; average posterior probabilities > .97), or 4-class (L 2 = 10.10, df = 16, p = .22; BIC = 6456.54; entropy = .87; average posterior probabilities > .61) solutions. Moreover, the 3-class solution was significantly supported by the BLRT test, in comparison with the 2-class (p < .001) and 4class (p = 1.00) solutions. Although the average posterior probabilities indicated that the 2class solution was the best one (> .97 across two classes), in line with the literature, the model fit and the BLRT test, we decided to retain the 3-class solution. The first category comprised emerging adults who lived with their parents (p = .91) and considered themselves to still be living at the parental home (p = .72). They were labeled co-resident. The second category consisted of emerging adults who lived alone (p = .51) or in shared accommodation (p = .35), who went home once a week (p = .63), and who still considered themselves to be living at home (p = .54). They were labeled semi-independent. Finally, the third category comprised emerging adults who lived alone (p = .59), went home at varying frequencies (once every 2

  four-cluster solution shown in Figure 1. This cluster solution accounted for 63.4% of the variance in responsiveness, 37.2% in autonomy support, 54.5% in psychological control, 36.4% in adaptability, 60.1% in cohesion, 52.0% in expressiveness, and 44.0% in conflict. A discriminant function analysis supported this final cluster solution (Wilks' lambda = .09, χ²(21) = 2562.2, p < .001, 95.69% of cross-validated grouped cases correctly classified). The four clusters corresponded to different family environment profiles. The supportive and positive parental and family relationships cluster scored very high on responsiveness, autonomy support, adaptability, cohesion, and expressiveness, and very low on psychological control and conflict. The quite supportive parental relationships and sense of family cohesion cluster achieved intermediate scores on all dimensions. The majority of our sample belonged to one of these two clusters (65.2%). The unsupportive parental and family relationships cluster containing 24.9% of our sample scored high on psychological control and conflict, and moderately low on the other dimensions. Finally, the unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships cluster containing 9.9% of our sample scored very high on psychological control and conflict, and very low on responsiveness, autonomy support, adaptability, cohesion, and expressiveness. The distribution of family environment profiles differed significantly between males and females, χ²(3) = 9.78, p < .05. A detailed examination of the standardized residuals indicated that, compared with males, females were overrepresented in supportive and positive parental and family relationships and underrepresented in quite supportive parental relationships and sense of family cohesion. Results are reported in Table

<1

  Insert Figure 2 about here > Configural Frequency Analyses Crossing Home-Leaving, Family Environment, andAttachmentUsing CFA 1 , we analyzed the distribution of participants across a total of 36 (i.e., 3 × 4 × 3) patterns of the three variables: home-leaving (1 = semi-independent, 2 = independent, 3 Before running the CFA, we examined the distribution of home-leaving, family environment and attachment profiles in a series of chi-square tests. For home-leaving and family environment profiles, χ²(6) = 31.26, p < .001, the semi-independent profile was overrepresented in the supportive and positive parental and family relationships and quite supportive parental relationships and sense of family cohesion profiles, and underrepresented in the unsupportive parental and family relationships and unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships profiles. Moreover, the independent profile was overrepresented in = co-resident), family environment (1 = supportive and positive parental and family relationships, 2 = quite supportive parental relationships and sense of family cohesion, 3 = unsupportive parental and family relationships, 4 = unsupportive, controlling, and conflictual parental and family relationships), and attachment (1 = secure, 2 = avoidant, 3 = anxious).

  up a new avenue of research on emerging adults' independence process at the start of university.ConclusionUsing a person-oriented approach, this study yielded a deeper understanding of the relation between emerging adult students' home-leaving, family environment, and attachment when they start university. Results revealed specific profiles of home-leaving and attachment at the start of university, and highlighted the importance of considering both parents-child and family relationships during this stressful life event. We also found meaningful patterns of home-leaving, family environment and attachment profiles. These patterns shed additional light on the beginning of the independence process and suggest that semi-independent emerging adult students are characterized by a more supportive and positive family environment and more secure attachment than co-resident and independent emerging adult students. Future research should analyze how home-leaving takes place over the university years, in terms of family environment and attachment, whilst taking the motivations behind the home-leaving experience into account.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Cluster solution for family environment (n = 1,092). Z-scores for responsiveness, autonomy support, psychological control, adaptability, cohesion, expressiveness, and conflict.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Cluster solution for attachment (n = 1,123). Z-scores for dependence, anxiety, and closeness.

  This solution accounted for 56.2% of the variance in dependence,

	57.0% in anxiety, and 60.0% in closeness. A discriminant function analysis supported the
	final cluster solution: Wilks' lambda = .15, χ²(6) = 1081.6, p < .001, 96.08% of cross-

validated grouped cases correctly classified. As expected, participants in the secure cluster scored high on dependence and closeness, and low on anxiety. Those in the avoidant cluster achieved intermediate scores on all dimensions. Finally, those in the anxious cluster scored very high on anxiety, and very low on dependence and closeness. The majority of our sample (59.30%) belonged to insecure clusters (avoidant: 38.4%; anxious: 20.9%).

Table 2

 2 Response probabilities according to home-leaving profileCo-resident Semi-independent Independent

	Living arrangements
	One or both parents	.91	.00	.11
	Partner	.01	.09	.10
	Shared accommodation	.02	.35	.16
	Alone	.06	.51	.59
	Other	.01	.05	.04
	Returning home
	Still living parental household	.93	.00	.04
	Once a week	.04	.63	.03
	Once every 2 weeks	.00	.21	.28
	Once a month	.01	.11	.28
	Once every 2 months	.01	.03	.20
	Occasionally or never	.01	.02	.17
	Considers him/herself to still be living in
	the parental home
	Yes	.72	.54	1.00
	No	.28	.46	.00

Table 3

 3 Distribution of male and female emerging adult students across family environment and attachment clusters Males % (ASR) Females % (ASR) χ 2 (df) Note. ASR = adjusted standardized residuals; ASR values shown in bold reflect over-or underrepresentation. * p < .05. *** p < .001. Note. Expected frequencies in parentheses. Configurations with an observed frequency that differed from the expected one are shown in bold.

	Family environment clusters
	(n = 1,092)

Acknowledgements

The authors would like to thanks the students who kindly volunteered to participate in the study.

Funding

This study was no funded.

data and material

The dataset generated or analyzed during the current study are not publicly available but are available from the corresponding author on reasonable request.

Conflict of interest

The authors declare that they have no conflict of interest.

Ethical approval

All data were treated in accordance with the French data protection law and this research received the approbation of the CNIL (i.e., French National Commission on Computer Technology and Freedom).

Consent to participate

Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants in the study.

Table 1 Descriptive statistics and correlations between family environment and attachment dimensions

Note. N = 1142. For gender: 1 = male; 2 = female; α = Cronbach's alpha. * p < .05. ** p < .01. *** p < .001.