Seyed Hossein Hodjat

TRAIT IN INSECTS AND TRENDS FOR THEIR CONTROL

Keywords: IPM, stress, trait, adaptation, selection Trait, Trend, Genetic, Stress, IPM, Biotechnology

Changing characters in part of a population in an insect community can make new trait to adapt living in new environment. Environmental stress and insufficient food are main factors for changing traits in insects. In new ecosystems Insects require adaption to face different stressors. By adaptation they may succeed to form a new genotype for survival despite the presence of stressors. Adapted populations are morphogen or genotypes of an insect species with different physiology or behavior. The appearance of new forms in the population of species are called incipient or sibling species by taxonomists. The two genotypes generally continue interbreed and may produce hybrids. Selection of adapted forms and survival of the fittest populations will finally establish a new resistant type to survive stressors. Traits produced by mutation, symbiosis, phenotypic plasticity and environmental causes can produce new species. The resultant traits in part of insect population provide new challenge for insect pest identification and control. In this review traits and recent biotechnological tools for integrated pest management (IPM) are discussed.

INTRODUCTION

Traits are produced by many factors such as mutation, adaptation, selection and so on as shown in Fig 1 . Insect traits for immune system, metabolic detoxification, and direction for parasite host relationships or plant defense against herbivore are assessed in next generation sequencing. Genome and geographic distribution information system can predict pest outbreaks which are important information in IPM projects [START_REF] Tamburini | Species traits elucidate crop pest response to landscape composition: a global analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Peterson | Integrated plant defense traits with biological control of Arthropod pest; challenges and opportunities[END_REF]. The knowledge of crop production in various habitats of the world proved that in semi-natural landscapes crop pests were less abundant. By visiting 5242 cultivated fields and identifying 48 agricultural pests on 26 crop species variability in pest outbreaks and trait responses for exotic and endemic pests is determined [START_REF] Tamburini | Species traits elucidate crop pest response to landscape composition: a global analysis[END_REF]. In general reports of the decline in insect species in various localities are due to human constructions and pollutants [START_REF] Dar | Causes and Reasons of insect decline. First chapter of a book[END_REF].

Crop reaction to climate change and the integration of host plant resistance or parasites for biological control has changed the agro-ecosystem of fields and crop or pest physiology. Cowpea crops production can improve after pest genomic and other IPM-omics studies were considered (Agunbiadw et al, 2012) Movement of insect to new localities can be the result of local stressors such as heat, shortage of hosts or finding the opposite sex [START_REF] Kirk | Molecular genomics and genomics generate new insights into invertebrate pest invasions[END_REF]. Insect trait change can produce various genotypes with different characters that some of the adaptive characters will be fixed in the population and new trait.

Functional traits determine species trait in reaction to environmental stressors.

It produces various forms of the same species called incipient or sibling species by taxonomists. Taxonomic or phylogenetic diversity measurements predict results on genetic distance between two closely related insect populations with measurable diverged characters. The new traits are produced to avoid competition by character divergence and escape from stress. Taxonomy determine species richness at various localities and phylogenetic emphasize the evolutionary affinities between species. In other words functional traits study focus on biotic and abiotic environments affecting insect population increasing fitness by diverging trait (Wong et al, 2019;[START_REF] Nock | Functional traits[END_REF]. Relationships between insect agricultural pest, weeds and host plant races can produce various races of a pest species after several generations. Weeds are harboring many insect pests of agricultural crops and their association can change parts of population characters [START_REF] Capinera | Relationship between insect pests and weeds[END_REF]. Speciation of agricultural pests by feeding on crops has produced sympatric species. It starts with polymorphism and reduction in gene flow between pest populations. After many generations new traits can increase the character divergence and new sympatric species will appear [START_REF] Dres | Host races in plant feeding insects and their importance in sympatric speciation[END_REF].

New traits with diverged morphology, physiology or genetic in response to stressors usually increase insect fitness to continue living in unsuitable environments. The movement of insects to new habitat can affect agriculture and human health. Trait is essentially the relation of body size to suitability of the environment. Biologists use trait to explain variation in scaling relationships between insect characters to their environment. Oxidative stress is a fundamental component of life history trait which may cause adaptation to new environment.

Changes in precipitation or temperature affect life cycle history and may cause diapause or migration to other localities. The purpose of this review is to describe the relation of insect traits to its variation and the new techniques used for its control [START_REF] Leftwich | Genetic pest management and the and background genetic of release strains[END_REF].

The evolutionary changes in the relative sizes of specific adult structures of Drosophyla often have very different hormone thresholds. It can cause them to differ in the relative durations of their life and functional wing discs [START_REF] Emlen | Genotype to phenotype: Physiological control of trait size scaling in insects[END_REF]. Stressful conditions can change fitness and shift the mean character of organism and may cause directional selection. Insect traits are affected by ecological, symbiosis, development, phenotypic plasticity and other environmental factors that eventually they evolve to a new species. Rapid shift in insect morphological trait by mutation, selection or hybridization caused changes in their characters and enabled them to produce new sibling species [START_REF] Hofmann | Functional genomics of neural and behavioral plasticity[END_REF]. After agricultural crops were selected many insects changed their traits to feed on crops and became plasnt pests that require new IPM strategies for their control [START_REF] Karley | Crop traits from defense against pests and diseases; durability, break down and future prospects[END_REF]. The trait of insect pests to overcome plant defense and feed on crops is explained previously discussed [START_REF] Howard | Endless forms, species and speciation[END_REF] . Traits may fix in part of species population by epigenetic and selection (Burggre, 2017). Diversification of characters of aphids is thoroughly described by its biotype formation (Downie, 2010). The evolutionary bifurcation of character segregation in aphids for selecting a new host and continue living at new environment can be regarded as the first step in their speciation (Ruiz-Montoya & Nunez-Farfan, 2020). Ecological stress and symbiosis effect enhancing aphid success to continue living on crops has forced man to search new technology for IPM [START_REF] Hodjat | Bacerial symbiosis in soil and plants, together with insect bacteriocyts can influence IPM[END_REF]. The aim of this article is to explain various factors causing change in insect traits (Section A). Insect trait change affected by environmental stress produce various biotypes, races or incipient species damaging crops. New technologies are required to choose appropriate strategies for controlling their economic damage (Section B).

A-VARIOUS FACTORS AFFECTING TRAITS

1-Selection and adaptation: An arm race exist between trait of plants that produce enzymes or toxic chemicals for preventing insect to feed on them and insect metabolites deterring plant chemical poisons not suitable as their food [START_REF] War | Using non model system to explore plant pollinator and plant herbivore interactions[END_REF]. Trait values cannot measure when pest by environmental stress may reach outbreak level to affect crops. Selection and adaptation of Brevicoryne brassicae on two hosts show different rate of success on Brassica oleracea and B. campestris. There were two life history traits on these two plant species.

Directional selection was on B. oleracea. The trait differences show ecological incipient specialization [START_REF] Lora | Natural slection and maternal effects in life history traits of Brevicoryne brassicae (Homoptera:Aphididae) on two sympatric closely related hosts[END_REF][START_REF] Lorena | Natural selection and maternal effects in life history traits of Brevicoryne brassicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) on Two. sympatric closely related hosts[END_REF].

2-Rapid evolution : Pine beetle Dendroctonus panderosae outbreak can shift the direction of selection in rapid evolution of Pinus ponderosae. Fast growth of the tree is at juvenile stage and slow growth when trees are about 40 years old. This evolutionary trait choice is selected in response to maintain genetic diversity [START_REF] Mata | Insect outbreak shifts the direction of selection from slow growth rates in the long-lived conifer ponderosa[END_REF]. Speciation and habitat choice in agro-ecosystem can increase rapid evolution in agro-ecosystems. Quantitative trait loci investigations and process of natural selection show how ancestral allele can vary by evolution [START_REF] Via | Natural selection in action during speciation[END_REF]Eberlein et al, 2017). Rapid evolution in insect pests and genetic variation also increase their fast adaptive response to environmental stressors. They rapidly become resistant to pesticide by P450 overproduction, or in aphids they migrate to new hosts and adapt to feed on them (Simon & Peccaoud, 2018;Pellisi et al, 2018).

Genomic signals received by an organism during life and competition for body parts development can induce functional development responses [START_REF] Li | Insect genomes; progress and Challenges (Invited Review)[END_REF]; [START_REF] Nijhout | Competition of body parts in development and evolution of insect morphology[END_REF] The genetic patterning network for regulating traits during the development of body parts in genome from imaginal discs on legs of Drosophyla indicate genomic signals on the proximal/distal axis of body by genetic network [START_REF] Emlen | Genotype to phenotype: Physiological control of trait size scaling in insects[END_REF]. Variation in allele positions on chromosomes are the different versions of a trait, such as differing in colors, morphological or physiological characters. Dominant traits always present in the organism's physical appearance, while recessive traits are hidden or masked by the dominant traits. Trait can change population characters of species or communities. It is used to characterize phenotypic variation in size within populations. Trait is also used to compare advances in developmental biology, genetics, and physiology with regards to control of growth, or in insects, with the adult body parts relationships [START_REF] Emlen | Genotype to phenotype: Physiological control of trait size scaling in insects[END_REF].

The evolutionary pathways of insect that have chosen appropriate trait to survive the natural enemies are not clear. Adaptation to environmental hazards and selection of the fittest are general terms to explain the incident. There are many examples of Lepidoptera larvae and adult that seems to know how to escape the danger of predators. The morphological variation in between sexually reproduction insects with wide range of distribution and selecting traits with highest survival of the population is an acceptable reasoning. Therefore trait may also mean learning to escape from dangerous environment by mimicry and camouflage. Larvae of Geometridae mimic twigs by standing in angles on the tree.

The larvae of Papilio demoleus (Paillionidae) feeding on citrus leaves after hatching and early in their development period look like bird dropping. In this way they escape being seen by their predators. Some caterpillars produce repellant or toxins to make them distasteful or dangerous to avoid the predators. Some caterpillars have long body hairs with secretion to repel the predators. Some butterflies (Lycaenidae) larvae benefit ants by feeding them from their sugary substance and ants protect them from predators. Some butterflies protect themselves through camouflage-by folding up their wings, they reveal the undersides and blend in with their surroundings. Through this strategy, known as crypsis, they become nearly invisible to predators. Bright colors and distinctive wing patterns can, however, be advantageous. The pathway of genetic marker influencing butterfly wing patterns are linked to developmental and genetic processes that generate morphological variation. Wing pattern diversities in butterflies are traits extensively studied in the genus Heliconius (Heliconiidae).

Mechanistic for understanding of how wing scales in butterfly changes is in patterning gene (optix, aristaless1, WntA and cortex) with recent functional genetic manipulation using CRISPR/Cas9 targeted mutagenesisl (McMillan et al.

2020)

3-Ecological Traits: Dispersal and adaptation of insects to stressful conditions might change their ecological traits to invasive species. An overview of ecological effects of habitat change on movement migration, dispersal, polymorphism in new habitats is to search for food and escape from stress [START_REF]A review of phenotypic traits associated with insect dispersal polymorphism, and experimental designs for sorting out resident and dispersal phenotypes[END_REF]. A few species of grasshoppers and armyworms march away from their habitats in groups. The changes in morphology and physiology for becoming migratory or gregarious forms are related to trait change. In Schistocercs gregaria hoppers march together and by touch they cause crowding stress that increase dark pigments after moulting [START_REF] Ellis | Changes in the social aggregation of locust hoppers with changes In rearing conditions[END_REF]. In Mythimna separate the darker crowded larvae produce growth blocking peptids (GBP) with 25 amino acids that decrease their weight as they become darker (Zhang et al, 2020). Crowding stress in some insect pests such as locust, armyworm, and Dysdercus fasciatus increases their activity and changes their trait to gregarious phase for leaving their habitat [START_REF] Hodjat | Phase changes in desert locust Schistocerca gregaria (Forskal, 1775) (Orthoptera Cyrtacanthacridinae): An update research[END_REF][START_REF] Hodjat | Effects of sublethal doses of insecticides and of diet and crowding on Dysdercus fasciatus Sign (Hem. Pyrrhocoridae)[END_REF][START_REF] Hodjat | Effects of crowding on color,size and larval activity of Spodoptera littoralis (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)[END_REF]. Selecting a particular life history in Brevicoryne brassicae and host shifts in aphids are specialized phenotypic ecological specialization for adaptation by changing traits in life history [START_REF] Lorena | Natural selection and maternal effects in life history traits of Brevicoryne brassicae (Homoptera: Aphididae) on Two. sympatric closely related hosts[END_REF]. Environmental changes produce new traits on all organisms including man. The pathway of adaptation to man is by learning process and organizations in the societies. The need for adaptation in man is decision making and planning to work for welfare of the society. Collaboration between organizations and scientists engaged in sustainable crop development [START_REF] Werners | Adaptation pathways: A review of approaches and a learning framework[END_REF].

4-Measuring traits:

Trait is increasing the organism fitness and is difficult to measure without precisely describing its effects on division of population characters. In other words measuring trait needs scaling the differences between new appearing characters in a population of species compared to its original characters [START_REF] Rabosky | Model inadequacy and mistaken inferences of trait-dependent speciation[END_REF]. Describing a scaling relationship for measurements between trait and body sizes for large samples of individuals is possible with reference to the used methodology. In dung beetles Onthophagus taurus larger males use the horn in fight with other males in dung tunnels and attract female for copulation. Smaller males do not have horns and various explanations are given for the trait existence against its competitive origin to increase their survival chance. Juvenile hormones during the development of late larval period increase the chance of horn development in males 48 hours after before prepupal development [START_REF] Moczek | The evolution and development of novel traits, or how beetles got their horns[END_REF]. Usually the resulting statistic for trait measurement is without understanding the mechanisms of trait appearance such as mutation, climate or diet change. Scaling results is not from mechanisms that climate change has forced many insects to occupy higher elevations or cooler districts or changing their range of distribution Efforts modeling traits can focus attention on relationships among character states and consequences for sympatric speciation [START_REF] Tahir | Modwling a trait dependent diversification process coupled with molecularevolution on a random species tree[END_REF][START_REF] Rabosky | Model inadequacy and mistaken inferences of trait-dependent speciation[END_REF][START_REF] Moczek | The evolution and development of novel traits, or how beetles got their horns[END_REF].

Trait can be measured by studying the molecular data sets in insect genome or phylogenetic heterogeneity radiated by environmental selection in population. Rapid evolution sites in DNA can cause branching in characters and distribution in gene tree. Trends in the application of coalescent tree can measure trait affect allele recombination [START_REF] Liu | Estimating phylogenetic trees From genome-scale data. 32 Pages from Internet[END_REF]. Type of phylogenetic tree modeling for trait measurement is giving detail mathematical calculation by Markove model of trait measurement is difficult to measure traits in nature [START_REF] Tahir | Modwling a trait dependent diversification process coupled with molecularevolution on a random species tree[END_REF] 5-Insect stress: Oxidative stress has the potential to produce new trait in part of insect population when they move to new locality or adapt by regulating their physiological processes [START_REF] Isaksson | The challenge of integrating oxidative stress into life-history biology[END_REF]. Environmental stressors are inflicting complex quantitative genetic traits that can influence insect's populations. For adaptation to environmental stress some insects in their populations are able to respond at by relatively slow physiological reactions. Some others have the ability to cope stressors such as heat and desiccation [START_REF] Kristensen | Adaptation to environmental stress at different timescales[END_REF]. Nonotechnology is also used to measure trait and adaptation of insect populations to resist environmental stress (Raju et Kemal, 2019). [START_REF] Burggren | Phenotypic switching resulting from developmental plasticity: Fixed or reversible?[END_REF]. The cells with en expressions are secreting hedgehog (Hh) protein as a signal to the anterior embryo disc. Phenotype can also change by female choice to select males with particular morphological characteristics for copulation. Gomphocerinae male song characters and female choice for selecting males with particular song characters is a principal way to distinguish Chorthippus species (Hodjat and Saboori, 2021). Special morphological trait appearance in male of Gomphocerus sibericus is the result of female selection of males with wider terminal parts of front legs that is used by males to tap the side of female abdomen [START_REF] Monge | Phenotypic plasticity and condition-dependent trait expression in sexual 705 ornaments and body colour in alpine grasshopper Gomphocerus sibiricus[END_REF].

7-Insect Development:

Variation in environment can affect the genome by gene expression and DNA methylation by epigenetic (Gowri and Monterio, 2021).

Transciptome signals producing various proteins and biogenic amines after a period of time can leave their effects on insect neurotransmission and neurohormones such as Octopamine and Dopamine that may change insect morphology [START_REF] Van Der | Metabolic neurohormones: Release, signal transduction and 762 physiological responses of Adipokinetic hormones in insects[END_REF]. Brain and nervous systems can produce important hormonal and metabolic changes in insects such as Juvenile Hormones and ecdysteroids. The changes in development of internal body system regulate life cycles and causes plasticity in response to variable environments. References to the plasticity in grasshoppers are given by Hodjat and Saboori (2021). Gene expression effects in pest biology and fixed by transcriptom and epigenetic [START_REF] Hofmann | Functional genomics of neural and behavioral plasticity[END_REF]. Adaptation or resistance to (M) can rescue the species to survive critical period with physiologically new trait for development. These changes are framed as gene expression influenced by environmental stressors (Burggren, 2017[START_REF] Burggren | Phenotypic switching resulting from developmental plasticity: Fixed or reversible?[END_REF].

8-Mimicry and crypsis or camouflage:

The evolutionary pathways of insect that have chosen appropriate morphological traits to survive from the natural enemies or to protect their colony as soldiers are caused by selection. Adaptation to environmental hazards and selection of the fittest are general terms to explain the incident. Exaggerated traits such as large mandible appearance in grasshoppers or giant heads in solder ants and termites are also related to protective traits. Large size of mandible in stag beetles and head in solder ants or termites is thought to reflect the natural selection by mutation. Exaggerated morphological development of body structures in some insects is also an evolutionary incidence caused by trait [START_REF] Lavine | Exaggerated trait growth in insects[END_REF]. There are many examples of Lepidoptera larvae and adult that seems to know how to escape the danger of predators. Therefore trait may also mean learning to escape from dangerous environment by mimicry and camuflage. Larvae of Geometridae mimic twigs by standing in angles on the tree. The larvae of Papilio demoleus (Papilionidae) feeding on citrus leaves after hatching and early in their development period look like bird dropping. In this way they escape being seen by their predators. Some caterpillars produce repellant or toxins to make them distasteful or dangerous to avoid the predators. Some caterpillars have long body hairs with secretion to repel the predators. Some butterflies (Lycaenidae) larvaae benefit ants by feeding them from their sugary substance and ants protect them from predators. Some butterflies protect themselves through camouflage-by folding up their wings, they reveal the undersides and blend in with their surroundings. Through this strategy, known as crypsis, they become nearly invisible to predators. Bright colors and distinctive wing patterns can, however, be advantageous. Insects developing embryo is elongated with spatially explicit signals that function in response to cell to cell local morphogenesis. The embryo is surrounded by chorion and serosa and amniotic cavity. Genetic signals diffuse through the tissue within disc epithelium with size specific coordination homeotic genes affecting organism developing parts [START_REF] Lavine | Exaggerated trait growth in insects[END_REF].

The pathway of genetic marker influencing butterfly wing patterns are linked to developmental and genetic processes that generate morphological variation.

Wing pattern diversities in butterflies are traits extensively studied in the genus Heliconius (Heliconiidae). Mechanistic for understanding how wing scales in butterfly changes in color is suggested that patterning gene (optix, aristaless1)

WntA and cortex) and CRISPR/Cas9 targeted mutagene are activated [START_REF] Mcmillan | From patterning Genes to processes: Unrevealing the gene regulatory networks that Pattern Heliconius wings[END_REF]).

B-TRENDS IN IPM

Plastic responses of insects exposed to extreme environments are important factors acquiring trait that may change usual insect to a destructive form [START_REF] Butlin | Levels of genetic polymorphism: Marker loci versus quantitative traits[END_REF]. Various character deviations are affecting insect species on crops which make it necessary to use modeling approach in character deviation measurements (Wood et al, 2015;[START_REF] Chevin | Evolution of phenotypic plasticity in extreme environments[END_REF] [START_REF] Dara | The new integrated pest management paradigm for the modern age[END_REF]Dar S., A., et al, 2021). IPM paradigm also includes strategies used to understand pest biology and making public to acknowledge the importance of various traits. Semi-natural habitats are ideal for sustainable crop production. Observations on 5242 fields cultivated by 26 crop species show that 48 pest species were either endemic or with exotic native traits. Landscapes with more semi-natural habitats had fewer native species or crop specialists. Polyphagous species of pests and their natural enemies were abundant in semi-natural habitats [START_REF] Tamburini | Species traits elucidate crop pest response to landscape composition: a global analysis[END_REF].

IPM strategies should use every known pest control methods such as cultural, physical, or other nonchemical methods to decrease pest population and damage.

It is important to know about distribution and economic damage of the pests [START_REF] Dara | The new integrated pest management paradigm for the modern age[END_REF]. Measuring traits and environmental stress effects and understanding trait relation to IPM strategies may cause after insect host shifts, and other stressors causing pest outbreaks [START_REF]A review of phenotypic traits associated with insect dispersal polymorphism, and experimental designs for sorting out resident and dispersal phenotypes[END_REF][START_REF] Hodjat | Effects of crowding and stress on locusts, aphids, armyworms and 635 specifically the hemipteran Dysdercus fasciatus Sign. (Hemiptera: Pyrrhocoridae)[END_REF]. General books on new tools for IPM strategies in pest control mention biological control, cultural control and host plant resistance plus new biotechnological tools to eradicate economical pest damage [START_REF] Dara | The new integrated pest management paradigm for the modern age[END_REF][START_REF] Raju | Recent trends in insect pest management[END_REF]. Some of these strategies are:

1-Global data base: Tamburini et al (2020) used a global dataset of recording 48 insect pest species collected in 50 to more than 150 samples in 4550 agricultural landscapes. They tested whether the pests on 26 crop species respond to landscape composition. The hypothesis in their research was whether the pest specie traits will respond to landscape. They wanted to know (i) trait exotic statue or the pest critical host, (ii) trait breadth or host plant species consumed, (iii) trait habitat breath or host plants species from one to 45 host plant families. They found out that species traits are important in understanding crop pest responses to landscape composition. Landscapes with more seminatural habitat tended to house fewer native crop specialists. Polyphagous insect pests had small positive effects on native pests and produced less damage because of not feeding on crops than native species with narrower host breadth.

The abundance of exotic species increased in the semi-natural habitats.

Pest abundance generally increased in herbaceous crops but decreased in woody cropping systems. The abundance of native pests, whose life cycles are strictly dependant to crop, decreased in landscapes with rich semi-natural habitats. Specialist pests declined due to a decrease in crop host availability in surrounding fields. Landscapes with lower concentrations of a host crop will also be less likely to be plagued by severe pest outbreaks because of difficulties for specialized pests in locating their host plants. Plyphagous pest species usually inhabiting complex landscapes and are more likely to visit semi-natural habitat patches and to encounter natural enemies. Therefore they are more effectively controlled by natural enemies [START_REF] Tamburini | Species traits elucidate crop pest response to landscape composition: a global analysis[END_REF].

2-Agricultural biotechnology:

Biotechnology has considerable ability to provide natural or ecological insect pest control that increases yields by integrated pest management (IPM). In modern biotechnology genetics can add genes to plant or insect to change their traits for reducing damage to crops. Genetic modified crops are produced to increase yield by modern biotechnology. Transgenic plant insecticidal gene of tobacco, expressed in cowpea, produces trypsin inhibitory gene (cpti) against Heliothis virescens. Insecticidal gene family (cry) from Bcillus thurengiensis express proteins that make some crops resistant to insect pest attacks [START_REF] Joshi | Role of biotechnology in insect pest managemen[END_REF].

Traits of insect species can increase by responding to soil bacteria and plants secondary metabolites for producing resistance to insect pests.

Environment variables and periodicity affect life traits of symbiont species, insects or plants (Wood et al, 2015). The hypothetical model of three functional trait responses to four cultural practices and land use for crop production in waste agricultural land, low intensity agricultural use, monoculture and polyculture system of crop production are:

(1) Showing the least trait that increase insect pest activity.

(2) Partial trait change similar to natural systems.

(3) Human-constructed assemblages exceed trait space.

(4) Msaximum trait and variability in population can increase plasticity.

3-Symbiosis: Some other factors that affect the traits in agro-ecosystems are the fauna of soils, the cultural practice and various chemicals used to increase yield and decrease pest populations. While Buchnera aphidicola increase the aphid resistance to drought stress, high temperatures increase the winged forms in aphid colony for migration and escape from environmental stress. Soil symbionts and cultural rotation or fallow are important factors that affect IPM strategies and need further studies [START_REF] Leybourne | Stressful times in a climate crisis: How will aphids respond to more frequent drought? BioRXiv preprint[END_REF][START_REF] Sudakaran | Evolutionary transition in symbiotic syndromes enables diversification of phytophagous insects on an imbalanced diet[END_REF].

Endosymbionts are defending insects from plant defense chemicals and mycorrhizae fungi are increasing crop yields. On the other hand suitable climate conditions and crop genotype also increase their development. These are important factors in measuring traits for increasing crop yields. The effects of drought on soils bacterial communities and plant physiology can lead to selection of various traits in soil microbiome and symbionts affecting insect pests ( Naylor and Coleman, 2017).

4-Crop genetic modification:

Research for producing and cultivating pest free product is by genetic manipulation of insect pests or crops. At present the most common biotechnological insect pest control is by genetic manipulation of plants or insects. Increasing the efficiency of natural enemies or deterring the crop pests to feed on the weeds. Genetically modified crops with increased yield is produced or cultivated in many countries. The genetic change in genome of plant or insect herbivore is new technology which is related to change plant or herbivore trait.

Reasons for traits changes in organisms and measuring traits is studied carefully but there are many unknown questions that need further work for its practical use in IPM.

Genetic engineering knowledge can manipulate genes in insect or plant genomes to change some of their characters i.e. attract or reject insect or their natural enemies (Kirk et al,2013). Crops produce defensive volatiles that by their recognition it may be possible to increase them on cultivated crops. Leaf miners are becoming an important crop pests controlled by cultural, mechanical biological and chemical control methods. One of the major ways to control them is by producing crops showing resistance to insect pests. It is important to know how insect pest react to morphological or physiological trait in crop before changing their trait [START_REF] War | Using non model system to explore plant pollinator and plant herbivore interactions[END_REF]. By using nanotechnology desired characters can be transferred into the plant or its insect pest in form of nanoparticle, nanocapsule, anogel or nano-emulsion. Changing special devastating character of a pest insect or weeds needs painstaking research to achieve finding new nanomaterial for gaining effective results in IPM [START_REF] Raju | Recent trends in insect pest management[END_REF][START_REF] Talakayala | Genetic engineering for crops for insect resistance: An overview[END_REF]. (Hodjat & Soleiman-Nejadian,2022).

5-Gene

Green peach aphids reduce their feeding activity by sensing sounds of 100-10000Hz. At lower frequencies they reduce feeding or increase their xylem feeding instead of phloem. At this stage or G-phase in the electrical penetration graph acoustic stimuli are stressful to aphids [START_REF] Lee | Stress response to acoustic stimuli in an aphid: A behavioral bioassay model[END_REF].

DISCUSSION

Trait is described with evolutionary concepts and is produced by genetic characteristic, environmental stress, ecological community relations, or epigenetic mechanisms [START_REF] Bijilsma | Environmental stress, adaptation and Evolution; an overview[END_REF]. The values of phenotypic traits changes by environmental stress. Phenotypic variation affects insect distribution and taxonomy that for arthropods relations and distribution are described by their phylogenetic relationship (Wang et al, 2019). Oxidative stress is regulating physiological processes in plant and insect. Many field or laboratory research has revealed the importance of environmental stress in changing traits.

A stressor signal received by extrareceptor transmitters via sensory nerves and is carried to brain along insect cardiac nerves signaling for release of corpora cardiac (CC) hormones. It mobilizes the fat body adipokinetik hormone (ADPKH) and activates biogenic amines. In case of continuous or severe stress it stimulates ecdysteroids and can regulate secretion of neurohormones (Lubaway et a l, 2020).

Most insect activities such as photoperiodic circadian rhythms are regulated by endocrine biogenic amines and neurosecretory hormones such as octopamine (Peric-Matruga et al, 2006;[START_REF] Farooqui | A review of octopamine in insect nervous system[END_REF]. Stress can cause many reactions in the physiology of insects such as metabolism, hormones and sensory or the morphological response to unsuitable conditions. Its reactions on honeybee response is intensively studied and reviewed by [START_REF] Even | General stress responses in the honey bee[END_REF]. Stress effects on insect pests also has been extensively studied in desert locust (Hodjat and Soleyman Nejad, 2021) and medical pests such as locust, armyworm (Hodjat,2016[START_REF] Hodjat | Ecological stress and locust outbreak, an outlook at locust phase research[END_REF]. Food shortage is one of the main stressors in insect ecosystem. Changing trait and feeding on various crops are the basic IPM problems. Selected crops ca increase insect fitness and change their traits. Diet restriction of insects can increase movements of locust hoppers or armyworm larvae and affect their fecundity or mating behavior. Functional ecology and IPM research in future can give directions about the economic relevance of the knowledge to prevent pest outbreaks [START_REF] Boggs | Nutritional Ecology: Understanding insect life historie and senescence through a rsourse allocation lens[END_REF].

CONCLUSION

Evolutionary incidents, about 150 mya, by the help of symbionts (bacteriocyts) adapted insects to feed on plants. After plant cultivation insects became crop pests by rapid evolution. Functional traits diversified insects to feed on different parts of crops by directional selection and become "specialist pests".

Trends in IPM strategies are human efforts to control insect pests [START_REF] Singh | The genetic architecture of aHost shift: An adaptive walk protected an aphid and its Endosymbiont from plant chemical defenses[END_REF].

  Fig. 1: A hypothetical sources of factors affecting insect trait. Trait is changing insect genotypes to adapt to environmental conditions. Some of the main factors related to trait change are: Evolution, ecological conditions, plasticity, symbiosis, development and insect-natural enemies in relation to their host plants.

  Stress causes difficulties for insects to live in normal range of their environmental conditions while trait is related to binary division of characters in part of a population to escape stressful conditions. Division of characters in a population of species is functional traits and is mainly caused by environmental stress. Limitation in the supply of food, the struggle for finding new resources, or forceful change of diet can change trait. Metabolic changes affecting organism by morphogen that changes characters across multiple trophic levels. Ecological stress acting on plants and animals to produce morphogen can change the biology of insect pests(Isakson et al, 2011; Klingeberg, 2019).If we assume that stressful environment force organism to choose traits that increase their survival chance forces directing genotypes are acting in three directions. Stressful environment increase the death chance. Traits are various ways that organism can escape the difficult conditions. By increasing fitness the chances of survival of fittest genotypes are increased. The character-state model of quantitative genetics is assumption for the mean trait value calculation caused by extreme environment effects in response to inflicted stress[START_REF] Chevin | Evolution of phenotypic plasticity in extreme environments[END_REF].Rise in temperature is an important factor in starting insect activity in the spring after winter hibernation. High summer temperature can reduce many insect activities and their metabolic rate. It can also change insect activity, reproduction, or flight period. The normal activity and optimal temperatures for insect activity is 20-30 centigrade. Traits can increase the ability of insects to recover from higher or lower temperature by resilience. Most insect species can adjust their physiology and fitness over short time scales (i.e. phenotypic plasticity) and longer time scales (i.e.evolutionary responses)(Kellermann and Heerwaarden, 2019).6-Phenotypic plasticity:Plasticity is more liable to fix characters after insects acquire a new trait. Variations are temporary morphological character dissociation that may fix on a part of a population after several up to 182 generations. Plasticity and variation may cause speciation or contemporary evolution i.e. the evolution of traits over a short period of time (Whitman and Agrawel, 2004). The definitions of phenotypic plasticity and its relation to selection, coevolution, ecological speciation, genetic drift, phylogenetic inference, pleiotropy, reinforcement, sexual dimorphism and size constraints have been explicitly described with examples of Gomphocerini species (Hodjat and Saboori, 2021). Physiological mechanisms acting in cells are the basic phenomena for producing new traits in organisms. Mutation can affect the relative size of body parts. Growth of imaginal discs will form the body parts as embryos are developing. Genetic regulation of growth rate is directed by genetic code and transcription of codes to discs. The development of insect structure is sequenced through explicit signals and defuse from cell to cell. Early in embryo development engrailed genes (en) are expressed. The development of embryo can change by epigenetic effects and to produce fixed traits or reversible forms in body parts of insects

  Critical development (D) is a window for measuring trait. At certain periods of development insect needs to change trait for survival. Mal-adaptation to environmental stressors may increase the mortality and risk of extinction. Critical sensitive periods of development (M) or the critical period is described in [Gx9E+Epi) x D] formula. Excepted genetic (G) and the environment (E) or epigenetic (Epi) effects many inflict stress and reduce insect species populations.

ACKNOWLWDGEMENTI

  thank Dr. Babak Hodjat, Cognizant Technology Solution computer specialist, ..............for his help and correspondence with HAL publishing group.

  . The insect pest trait changes at various times or by different ways such as change in the number of generations or escape from natural enemies. These parameters can change the development in model for temperature and developmental response. The presence of different genotypes in a population can indicate the sensitivity and strength of response[START_REF] Klingenberg | Phenotypic plasticity, developmental instability, and robustness: The Concepts and how they are connected[END_REF]. IPM strategies should use every known pest control methods such as cultural, physical, or other nonchemical methods to decrease pest population and damage. Numerous factors such as weather warming, habitat loss, use of pesticides, destruction of

forests, road and other human constructions has reduced insect biodiversity. It is important to know about distribution and economic damage of the pests and methods to conserve beneficial insects

  Another example of this is the use of gene technology (Cry) of bacteria(Bt) in control of the main pests of Lepidoptera[START_REF] Joshi | Role of biotechnology in insect pest managemen[END_REF].Stress of ultra sonic sounds to repel or kill insect pests and rodents. They are applied as repellent against household pests. Recent experiments indicate that in

	Sesamia cretica (Noctuidae) it affect their longevity, reproduction and survival
	rate (Agha-Manesh et al, 2021). Sound acts as a stressor causing feeding
	suppression, nervous crowding effects in locust by extra hopper movement and
	escaping stressful surroundings
	Long dsRNA (double strand RNA) are processed by siRNA and short dsRNA
	assembling into transcriptional silencing RNAP complex. Dicer is one of the
	enzymes in RNAi genes that transmit silencing into insect organ by amplification.
	According to the insect pest control requirement the target genes can be
	identified and induced to produce desired signals for silencing the genes. By RNAi
	techniques new pest management is developed to control Helicoverpa armigera,
	Myzus persicae, Bemisia and a few other pests (Rodringer and Figuieira, 2016).
	6-Crop loss estimation: The insects have been one of the biggest causes of
	damage in food production. Their losses of reduction in human food were about
	20% to 30% of world production. It is estimated that approximately 67,000
	species of insects cause damage to plantations in tropical regions. Usually the
	poorest countries in the world are those that suffer most from insects-pests. The
	insecticides used in pest control are often of low selectivity, therefore can affect
	the population of natural enemies. The new tactics or alternatives to control pest

silencing mechanism: RNAi or RNA interference is a gene silencing mechanism triggered by providing double-stranded RNA (dsRNA). SiRNA (small interfering RNAs) in insect cells is with limited signals for silencing genes. They leave nucleus in form of miRNA (microRNA) with 20 -24 nucleotides. The precursor miRNA export them to cell cytoplasm by exportin enzyme (Drosha). In cytoplasm miRNA are unwounded to miRNAP with effectors complex of proteins.

They trigger silencing response by translating of genes for target degradation. insects are to produce resistant traits in plants. Selective insecticides, parasitoids and the well known microorganisms (Bacillus thuringiensis-Bt) are used to control pests.