Pius W Akumbu

Patience P Teneng

Sylvanus W Ngu

technological development and distance learning during disease outbreak in Cameroon: The COVID 19 experience

Technological development and distance learning during

disease outbreak in Cameroon: The COVID 19 experience

Introduction

Efforts by the Cameroon government to achieve SDG 4 by 2030, and most particularly the 2035 vision of an emergent nation through education have suddenly received a setback from the COVID 19 pandemic. As a matter of fact, the outbreak of the pandemic in Cameroon led to the disruption of schools at all levels, in a similar way it did in over 190 countries in all continents. UNESCO estimates as of April 2020 counted about 1.6 billion children and youths who were out of school, whereas approximately 91% of those enrolled in formal education programs were affected (UNESCO 2020). 1 In Cameroon, a Prime Ministerial order of March 18, 2020 ordered the closure of 31,851 schools with over 7 million children and youths of school age affected. Some 4,200 community learning centers have also been closed across the national territory in an attempt to contain the spread of COVID 19 (WHO 2020). 2 As elsewhere in the world, the Cameroonian government and educational authorities have opted for distance learning to continue providing quality, inclusive and continuous education in order to meet SDG 4. For this to happen effectively, the input of teachers, who remain the crucial driving force of education at all times, is required. However, the current context differs significantly from what obtained before the COVID 19 era. The COVID 19 context has imposed a new normal where by traditional learning has almost completely shifted to online learning [START_REF] Dhawan | Online learning: A panacea in the time of COVID 19 crisis[END_REF]. A shift which requires teachers to follow suite. Unfortunately, the low level of appropriation of digitalization by Cameroon teachers pointed out by [START_REF] Josué | ICT in Education in Cameroon[END_REF], Mbangwana (2008), [START_REF] Fonkoua | TIC pour enseignants et de demain[END_REF], Ndongfack (2015), Ndjebakal & Teneng (2017), [START_REF] Béché | Introduction: Utility, usability and acceptability of open and distance learning in the Cameroonian university context[END_REF][START_REF] Béché | Conceptualizing the Implementation of Distance Learning System at the Higher Teacher's Training College of Maroua (Cameroon)[END_REF], and [START_REF] Karsenti | Intégration pédagogique des TIC: Stratégies et pistes de réflexion[END_REF] poses the challenge of their preparedness to facilitate distance learning. The question this study seeks to address is to what extent are Cameroon teachers at all levels of education prepared to cope with COVID 19 classrooms? The study considers the current state of skills in online education resulting from basic training, continuous training and experience at the work place, and how these are useful during the COVID 19 era. It further examines individual efforts by teachers themselves to develop online education skills to cope with COVID 19 classrooms. It also surveys the measures put in place by the Cameroon government and educational authorities to develop skills to allow them cope with distance learning not just during COVID 19 but at all times especially in the event of other disease outbreaks.

This study adopted a qualitative approach, with data collected from two main sources. The first was documents on the COVID 19 situation and measures taken by the state and the second source was interviews. The purposive sampling technique was used to select teachers from randomly picked practicing primary schools, Vice Principals of secondary schools, a Principal of a teacher training college, and Heads of Departments at the University of Maroua all in the Far North Region of Cameroon. Due to the prevailing COVID 19 context, we interviewed only 15 participants, i.e. 03 primary school teachers, 07 secondary school teachers and 05 University lecturers. The interview had three key components which were the state of online education skills by teachers, the degree of state intervention, and individual efforts by teachers. All was aimed at uncovering measures by the state to prepare teachers for emergency situations such as COVID 19, specifically verify the distance learning skill levels as well as measures for self preparedness. Data were analyzed with the help of simple content analysis.

This chapter is organized as follows: In the next section we examine the current state of distance learning in Cameroon, then consider the role of ICTs in education in section 3, the presence of android devices in schools in section 4. In section 5, we present and discuss the results of our survey, make recommendations in section 6 and provide a conclusion in section 7.

The evolution of ICT in education in Cameroon

In the age of unparalleled digital evolution in education, it was only in 2001 that ICT was officially launched into the school curriculum in Cameroon by the president of the republic. This saw the arrival of the cyber education project which targeted the secondary and higher education sectors [START_REF] Josué | ICT in Education in Cameroon[END_REF]. Since then, multimedia resource centers have gradually opened in almost all state universities, while secondary schools and teacher training colleges are progressively receiving funding to open these centers. Despite this, few computer technicians have been trained, while insufficient online learning platforms have been created in schools at all levels. In this light [START_REF] Karsenti | Intégration pédagogique des TIC: Stratégies et pistes de réflexion[END_REF]) asserts that the level at which secondary schools in Cameroon integrate ICT in the learning process is worryingly insufficient. These writers explain that not only do schools own insufficient and obsolete computers, but that school mangers and teachers lack satisfactory practical knowledge on how to manipulate a computer, yet you find them teaching the parts of a computer and how to manipulate a computer in the classrooms simply based on textbook knowledge.

However, this lukewarm culture toward the pedagogic integration of ICTs is long old [START_REF] Karsenti | Pedagogical integration of ICT: Successes and challenges from 100+ African Schools Ottawa[END_REF]. Reasons for this include the absence of a vibrant educational technology policy (Djemeni 2010), non appropriation of educational technologies, [START_REF] Béché | Introduction: Utility, usability and acceptability of open and distance learning in the Cameroonian university context[END_REF][START_REF] Béché | Conceptualizing the Implementation of Distance Learning System at the Higher Teacher's Training College of Maroua (Cameroon)[END_REF]Béché ( , 2020)), lack of up to date computer equipment or adequate multimedia rooms, and a significantly weak telecommunication environment (absence of strong and high speed internet connection). How can Distance learning succeed under such conditions? in this light, the former UN Secretary General, Kofi Annan, at the world summit on information societies in Tunis in 2005 and at the University of Nairobi in 2006, pointed out with dissatisfaction, the low pace at which African countries were embracing technology. He re emphasized the unprecedented benefits of technology in developing African economies. In like terms, the former US President, Barack Obama, pointed out that Kenya and south Korea were on the same economic development index 40 years back, but that the Korean economy became 40 times better off than Kenya as of 2006, thanks to their full engagement in technology. This is true for Cameroon as [START_REF] Fonkoua | TIC pour enseignants et de demain[END_REF] corroborates this line of argument when he notes that a study carried out by Internationale des Telecommunication in 2008 revealed that 93% of countries with a significant technology culture comes from Asian pacific and the Americas, whereas Oceanic and African countries, in which Cameroon falls, still register very low adherence to Technology.

However, it has been over a decade of technological advancement, most particularly in the domain of education. The recommendations made by [START_REF] Fonkoua | Approche conceptuelle de la «ticelogie» ou science des TIC dans la formation des formateurs[END_REF] all focused on the relevant training of secondary and tertiary education teachers in Educational Technologies, and most particularly in blended learning. Although implemented only partially and slowly, his findings have significantly planted the décor for policy reforms, curriculum, and research in online education in Cameroon. He insisted on the urgent need for the education system to engage in the training, firstly of teachers, then, allow for the rest to follow in the required order. [START_REF] Fonkoua | Approche conceptuelle de la «ticelogie» ou science des TIC dans la formation des formateurs[END_REF] anticipated days like today as he predicted an inevitable future of video pedagogy, interactive white board, and total online pedagogy where teachers will have limited face to face contact with learners, and that learners will be very fortunate to follow classes effectively, no matter where and when they find themselves. Thus, the question of human resources in Educational Technology is becoming more acute, like that of digital hardware, software, and internet infrastructures in online education. The present study investigates distance education preparedness by teachers and argues that there is urgent need to prepare teachers with online education skills that will allow them to facilitate learning during COVID 19 in particular and in situations of disease outbreak in general.

Current state of distance learning in Cameroon:

Where do teachers stand?

The framework for measuring skills and engagement in the pedagogic integration of ICT have received considerable research, e.g. [START_REF] Rogers | Diffusion of innovations[END_REF][START_REF] Traoré | Quel avenir pour pédagogique des TIC en Afrique subsaharienne ? Cas de cinq pays membres du ROCARE[END_REF], [START_REF] Tchombe | Perceptions of learning: Principles and practices in ICT integrated classroom[END_REF], Béché (2020). In this light, Rogers identifies five categories of teachers with various levels of techno pedagogic skills: innovators, premature users, advanced majority, late majority and late comers. On its part, UNESCO groups teachers into three categories of skills, namely (1) technology literacy, (2) technology deepening (3) technology creation. Teachers are required to acquire advanced skills so as to be able to use ICT tools for lesson preparation and presentation either online or on site with the help of a video projector [START_REF] Anderson | ICT transforming education: A regional guide[END_REF]. [START_REF] Tchombe | Perceptions of learning: Principles and practices in ICT integrated classroom[END_REF] corroborates this view as she posits that pedagogic integration means choosing and using the right applications, and tools for the preparation, presentation and evaluation of learning.

Adding to the above, several studies worldwide provide a skill profile on digital education by teachers. According to [START_REF] Danvoye | Bilan de l'an V du plan ministériel d'intervention[END_REF]Danvoye ( , 2001Danvoye ( , 2000)), [START_REF] Garnier | Des contenus numériques pour l'éducation. Étude sur le programme de licence mixte 1998 1999 et les besoins en contenus numériques[END_REF], [START_REF] Larose | Enquête sur l'état des pratiques d'appropriation et de mise en oeuvre des ressources informatiques par les enseignantes et les enseignants du Québec[END_REF], [START_REF] Karsenti | Pourquoi une revue scientifique internationale portant sur l'intégration des TIC en pédagogie universitaire[END_REF], [START_REF] Gervais | Recherche sur les besoins du personnel enseignant en regard de l'intégration des TIC dans des écoles ou des classes innovatrices du primaire[END_REF], [START_REF] Bibeau | Les TIC à : Proposition de taxonomie et analyse des obstacles à leur intégration[END_REF], teachers have different levels of ICT integration depending on training and learning needs. These levels include:

-Pioneers: This category has reached the highest level of digital literacy (4 5), they go beyond teaching learners basics to effective usage of these tools, to learn, carry out research, create applications and other innovations. They even help their colleagues in appropriation of digital pedagogy. -Sceptics: They easily get discouraged by pedagogical integration challenges, and may even refuse taking initiatives if the conditions are not favorable. They are subdivided into two groups: (1) The unsecured who constitute the late comers as described by [START_REF] Rogers | Diffusion of innovations[END_REF]. Their level of digital literacy falls between 3 4. They use ICT tools to prepare lessons at home, but are afraid to use them in classes for lesson presentations, as strongly recommended for Cameroon teachers by [START_REF] Tchombe | Perceptions of learning: Principles and practices in ICT integrated classroom[END_REF], Béché & Fonkoua (2016). Not much efforts are required to get this group techno pedagogically ready in emergency situations like the COVID 19 classroom.

(2) The fearful whose level of techno literacy is 2. To them, a computer is a mysterious box, which is very difficult to understand. They shy away from using it both at home and in school. They even lack knowledge on how to connect to the internet. This groups requires much attention and effort to prepare for distance learning during emergencies. -The hesitant: Their level of technology literacy is between 0 1. They are not even convinced that ICT can facilitate teaching learning, and improve performance. The training need by this group is the highest and most urgent.

A careful reading of this framework presented by these studies can help a system identify the level of technology literacy of their teachers, then know the level or dose of training required. To understand the level of digital literacy in Cameroon, it is necessary to review the advent and evolution of technology in the classroom, as seen in the following section.

The inevitable presence of android devices in the classroom

Tchombe (2009) appeals to teachers to be conscious of the knowledge economy or diversity of the 21 st century learning environment which is characterized by continuous scientific and technological innovation, and the effective presence of technological gadgets in the classroom. In this vein, it has been observed, for example, that learners even go to the extent of destroying their books just to smuggle their mobile devices into the school campus. What is against the internal rules and regulations, as hinted by the Disciplinary office in one of the secondary Schools sampled in 2019, and exemplified in figure 1. This figure shows that learners can go as far as destroying their exercise books just to smuggle their mobile phones into the classroom since they are attached to their android devices. It is based on the above unsatisfactory events which are related to the non use of ICT in teaching in general that this paper sets the pace for a paradigm shift from the status quo, to an integrative innovative teaching culture.

According to Béché & Fonkoua (2016), the omnipresence of ICT tools in the classroom is significant, thus, making it absurd to imagine classroom without ICT. In this vein, Tchombe (2009: 22) contends that across the education spectrum need to acquire and internalize effective and usable skills in managing ICT in teaching and She concludes that this is meant to render teachers informed, dynamic, and innovative with the ability to sail through the fourth industrial revolution imposed by technological innovation. The thrust of work was mainly in the use of ICT in pedagogic and evaluation processes. To her, it is a great task for teachers since they will have to carry out online research, prepare lessons using computers and the internet, use projectors to present their lessons, interact with learners in online learning platforms, and evaluate learners through online mechanisms. This is blended learning in practice since face to face meeting still occur, although less frequently. The crucial question is, are teachers equipped with such skills to sail through successfully? This nature of the classroom in the COVID 19 era and in conditions of disease outbreak in general require relevant technological development in online education for teachers at all levels.

Studies on the pedagogic integration of ICT in Africa and Cameroon in particular by [START_REF] Karsenti | Intégration pédagogique des TIC: Stratégies et pistes de réflexion[END_REF], [START_REF] Fonkoua | Approche conceptuelle de la «ticelogie» ou science des TIC dans la formation des formateurs[END_REF][START_REF] Fonkoua | TIC pour enseignants et de demain[END_REF], [START_REF] Tchombe | Perceptions of learning: Principles and practices in ICT integrated classroom[END_REF], Ngamo (2009), [START_REF] Nsolly | Integration of ICTs into the curriculum of Cameroon primary and secondary schools: A review of current status, barriers and proposed strategies for effective Integration[END_REF], Djebakal & Teneng (2017) have made suggestions on training in online education. Their call has mainly focused on the question of continuous professional in the domain of Educational Technology, since teachers with quality online education skills constitute the main actors for learning to escape any disruption as currently observed during the COVID 19 pandemic. This will permit the successful planting of the technology culture in Cameroon, ensure the attainment of SDG 4 and allow for continued teaching during disease outbreaks.

Interestingly, the teacher distance learning skills equation has increased attention in recent years, e.g. Djeumeni (2007), [START_REF] Béché | Conceptualizing the Implementation of Distance Learning System at the Higher Teacher's Training College of Maroua (Cameroon)[END_REF]Béché ( , 2020)), [START_REF] Njebakal | Technological inputs in Higher Education and graduate destinations in Cameroon. The case of the University of Yaoundé I[END_REF]), Ndongfack (2015). As a matter of fact, Djemeni (2007Djemeni ( , 2010) ) investigates how teachers perceive their roles in the age of the omnipresence of ICT in the teaching learning process, how they can obtain the skills needed to fully integrate ICTs in their classroom practices, and the extent to which technological policies in Cameroon can facilitate these aspects. This study concluded that ICT policy orientations in Cameroon are good, but fall short of adequate and consistent implementation. In a similar reflection, [START_REF] Njebakal | Technological inputs in Higher Education and graduate destinations in Cameroon. The case of the University of Yaoundé I[END_REF] illustrate the crucial role technology can play in preparing graduates to cope in the 21 st century environment. Their work challenges policy makers, managers, teachers and students to urgently embrace technology learning and professional practices so as not to be left behind. They recommend increased commitment by policy makers towards the development of ICT skills so as to permit the country to survive the fourth industrial revolution characterized by a dramatically changing knowledge based economy.

In this light, [START_REF] Béché | Conceptualizing the Implementation of Distance Learning System at the Higher Teacher's Training College of Maroua (Cameroon)[END_REF] explains that Article 11 of the 2001 Higher Education law recognizes online distant learning (ODL) as a means of continuous professional development, and an alternative mode of training. This has inspired most state universities to build projects on ODL, which has resulted to more than 20 Cameroonian universities offering distant education (Béché & Fonkoua 2016). It is as a consequence of the latter that an online distance learning project has been initialized at the Higher Training college of the University of Maroua. Despite significant insufficiency of ODL ingredients, efforts by authorities and sensitization from researchers continue to illuminate the need for this shift into technology oriented culture in education. The coordinator of the University of Maroua project pointed out, for example, that funding constitutes a major challenge as Cameroon universities to thrive in distant education. He concluded that an already made ODL system cannot be achieved instantly, as it is a gradual process.

The arguments advanced by the above authors align with the orientation of this study since the central thesis is to equipment teachers with ICT skills to better manage the 21 st century classroom. However, this study goes further to consider level of pedagogical and technological training offered by educational system to teachers to facilitate distance learning not only during the COVID 19 era, but beyond.

Results and discussions

The results of interviews and discussions with participants are presented in this section. First, we sort to find out views on the current state of skills in online education resulting from basic training, continuous training and experience at the work place, and how such skills can be of help during disease outbreaks. Responses suggest that skills in online learning are very low and require reinforcement so as to prepare them for teaching during disease outbreaks. One head of department at the university of Maroua said at the university, I can say teachers have some computer knowledge. For example, in my department, all of them own a laptop, and I always see them working with. You our training schools do not have multimedia centers, reason why most teachers graduate with little or no ICT skills. But, they do not use these tools for teaching because I have never received any of them for a video projector to present his/her lesson A similar opinion came from university lecturer who said I know is that we teachers do not have online education skills; we are already used to face to face learning. This migration to online teaching seems to be very difficult. We have just received instructions to be versed with online education, but no training as of now. From the look of things, the COVID 19 era is going to be blended learning, or shifting learning. We really need these This was also echoed by a Vice Principal who stated that from the Higher Training Colleges in Cameroon, teachers learn ICT only in theory, and just as basic knowledge for their own use. Secondly, very few secondary schools can boast of a multimedia center, and teachers do not use it for practice quite often. We hardly see teachers even with laptops here in school, not to talk of online learning. They do not even care about it, even our superiors have not insisted on things like that. It was only during COVID 19 that we were asked to instruct teachers to type lessons and send to mobile phones via emails or WhatsApp. And very few teachers could do this. My teachers are very weak in online

The twelve remaining respondents had similar responses. These opinions suggest that teachers have not been (sufficiently) exposed to online education, and hence are not prepared to undertake effective teaching in online mode in the context of disease outbreaks such as COVID 19. This confirms (2020) view that COVID 19 has uncovered the hidden weaknesses of the Cameroon educational system. Among these weaknesses is the high degree of digital divide in terms of online education skills or what he terms the appropriation of educational technologies. As suggested by [START_REF] Njebakal | Technological inputs in Higher Education and graduate destinations in Cameroon. The case of the University of Yaoundé I[END_REF] it is imperative for university lecturers (and teachers at all levels) to embrace the new order imposed by the 21 st century world of technology. Worth noting from some of the responses is the readiness of teachers to familiarize themselves with distance learning facilities since they all agree that online education is inevitable not only in times of disease outbreaks but in the 21 st Century in general.

Secondly, we sort to find out if any measures by the State through educational authorities for teachers to develop online education skills and adapt during disease outbreaks. All responses point to the fact that not much has been done by the education authorities in Cameroon to prepare teachers for online learning in emergency situations. A Vice Principal said teachers were trained by the ministry in online education, we do not know if it is going to extend to all the schools. As of now, we still expect the go ahead to be given by the while a head of department said the University level, online education is going to be reinforced in the days ahead. As of now, no concrete measures have been taken by the authorities to prepare us for the COVID 19 era. We do not even know how it is going to look Eleven of the respondents were categorical that nothing had been done while two said they were unable to comment at all on the issue. Responses revealed that only the shifting school attendance strategy (some learners attend classes in the morning till midday, while others attend from noon to 5:00 p.m.) and one the one learner per bench measures have been taken so far. This was mainly to enable the writing of exams at the primary and secondary levels.

The third issue we focused on was whether teachers themselves were making individual efforts to develop skills in online education which could be exploited during disease outbreaks. Responses were mixed with some affirming that teachers were making individual efforts while others disapproved. A primary school teacher said and some of my colleagues have taken to start a computer course in a secretariat, we just hope we will be prepared for the COVID 19 context as soon as while a head of department said teachers, I think have really put efforts to adapt to this new normal, the way some were engaged in preparing and sending notes online really impressed me, given that they have not received any particular The second head of department reluctantly said cannot really tell, but we always have conscious teachers who work hard to cope with new On the other hand, some respondents stated that not much is done at individual level by teachers. A Vice Principal said not really convinced they are doing anything to help themselves. The normal here is waits the government to do while a university lecturer said training is relevant, but we really need intensive training by the authorities in online education. It is difficult to tell if some collogues are undertaking individual

The remaining ten respondents said individual teachers were doing their best to cope with the situation but did not point out any specific activities that were being undertaken. Most university lecturers have engaged in online education skills development specifically because they were obliged to use platforms like Google classroom and WhatsApp to exchange with learners at the peak of the first COVID 19 wave. Teachers at lower levels of education in Cameroon lack motivation towards technological development in general, and online education in particular. [START_REF] Karsenti | Pedagogical integration of ICT: Successes and challenges from 100+ African Schools Ottawa[END_REF] assert that lack of motivation in technological development by teachers is characteristic of Sub Saharan Africa. This highlights the need for education authorities to lay down effective mechanisms for technological development, without which it will be difficult to successfully implement online teaching during disease outbreak.

Recommendations

Considering the findings of this study, the following recommendations have been made:

1.

Training Colleges should take the teaching of ICT with much seriousness, and make it more practical. 2. Well equipped multimedia centers should be put in schools, with sufficient telecommunication dispositions. 3. The state should develop an aggressive digital education sector policy to resolve the problems of possession and appropriation by all the actors of the educational community, and teachers in particular. 4. The state of the digital environment (affordable internet, high speed internet, outreach of the internet to the rural areas, and stable energy for all). 5. Continuous training or in service capacity building for teachers in the form of seminars should be organized with specific targets to develop online education skills at all levels of education.

6. Considering the COVID 19 context, there is an urgent need for educational authorities to organize training sessions for teachers in the acquisition of distance learning skills, and blended learning methods. 7. Given that the Cameroonian context seemingly does not allow to fully switch to exclusive online education, blended learning should be introduced with shifting mechanisms. This allows for few learners per class, thus respecting social distancing, then, a greater part of the lessons should be sent and discussed through online education platforms. However, teachers are required to embrace the novelty and collaborate effectively.

Conclusion

This study set out to verify the measures put in place by educational authorities to prepare teachers to cope the 19 era and subsequent disease outbreaks. In this light, three specific objectives were formulated to verify personal engagement, their initial and continuous training, and whether specific have been taken by the state to accompany them in this journey. Findings revealed that teachers received very weak ICT training with no practical at their initial training, while no continuous training opportunities have been provided. It was observed that the measures taken by educational authorities have been limited to the general THE which is based on wearing facemasks, social distancing and frequent washing of hands. However, digital measures in education have proven to be practically insufficient to enhance learning in times of unprecedented crisis like the COVID 19 pandemic. This study has, therefore, recommended, among other things, that educational authorities should design and concretely implement technological development activities at all levels so as to be adequately prepared for distance learning in the event of other disease outbreaks.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Android phone inserted in an exercise book and smuggled into school Source: By one of the authors in a secondary school in the Far North Region in 2019


Pius W Akumbu

Pierpaolo Di

Multilingualism: The language of health in Cameroon

HAL is

Introduction

Although a linguistically highly diverse country with more than 280 languages spoken within its borders, Cameroon favours and operates an official bilingual policy in exoglossic, formerly colo nial languages, i.e. English and French, as enshrined in its 1996 constitution. The two official lan guages are used to transmit crucial health information to Cameroonians at all times, including during major disease outbreaks such as cholera and measles. While this choice surely allows mes sages to reach a considerable audience as both English and French are the most widely known languages across Cameroon (Eberhard, Simons & Fennig 2020), it leaves out significant portions of its population, especially those who are not or only partially literate in any of the official lan guages. It must also be kept in mind that research on multilingualism, emotions, and cognition has demonstrated that, even if one is a fluent bilingual, messages in native language are generally more likely to trigger emotional responses when compared to messages in sec ond language, thus making the information more memorable if received in the native language [START_REF] Harris | Taboo words and reprimands elicit greater autonomic reactivity in a first than in a second language[END_REF][START_REF] Harris | When is a first language more emotional? Psychophysio logical evidence from bilingual speakers[END_REF][START_REF] Tyng | The influences of emotion on learning and memory[END_REF].

The advent of COVID 19 has revealed the unpreparedness of the Cameroonian Government to provide information to all its citizens in the languages they understand best since a majority of the languages are neither developed for use nor empowered by the language policy of the country. This chapter is based on data from online and secondary sources, including parts that have previously appeared as [START_REF] Akumbu | Legitimizing the development and use of national languages: Lessons from COVID 19[END_REF]. 1 The study highlights and insists on the necessity to harness and use the numerous languages of Cameroon in official communication particularly when transmitting health related information. This is the best way to not only reach out to all Cameroonians but also engage them with vital information in the event of any disease outbreak. Other sectors of the country such as education and agriculture will also benefit from a language policy that incorporates the language of each and every Cameroonian.

The study is organized as follows: section 2 presents the multilingual nature of Cameroon and argues that a majority of Cameroonians including those in remote areas of the country are mul tilingual. Evidence is provided in section 3 that Cameroon favours and operates an official bilin gual policy in foreign colonial languages, i.e. English and French, as evidenced in the official com munication on COVID 19 that has been limited to these official languages. As demonstrated in section 4, the burden of communicating COVID 19 related information has been shifted to indi viduals and Non Governmental Organizations (NGOs) that have taken upon themselves to create and disseminate awareness information and preventive measures in national languages. In sec tion 5, the benefits of multilingualism are outlined and it is recommended that the government of Cameroon should adopt a language policy that favours the use of its numerous languages in the domain of health. This is followed by a conclusion in section 6.

linguistic diversity and societal multilingualism

Societal multilingualism is a dominant cultural feature in many parts of the world where several languages are used within the same community or by different groups within the same country.

In such contexts, most people will use one or more than one language in everyday life, thus ex emplifying individual bi or multilingualism. Cameroon has an incredible cultural, linguistic and geographical diversity and is often referred to as in The country has a rich linguistic history and a complex present day language situation, being home to at least 280 living languages (Eberhard, Simons & Fennig 2020). This makes Cameroon one of the most linguistically complex regions in Africa, lying at the intersection of three of the major language families of the continent, i.e. Afro asiatic, Nilo Saharan, and Niger Congo. French and English are official lan guages of the country, a heritage of Cameroon's colonial past as a colony of both France and Britain from 1916 to 1960.

Eight out of the ten Regions of Cameroon are primarily Francophone, representing 83% of the country's population, and two are Anglophone, representing 17%. Most people in the English speaking North West and South West regions, as well as in parts of French speaking regions, in cluding the major cities of Bafoussam, Douala, and Yaoundé, use Cameroon Pidgin English (CPE) as a lingua franca [START_REF] Ayafor | Cameroon Pidgin English: A comprehensive grammar[END_REF][START_REF] Vakunta | The status of pidgin English in the Cameroonian Tower of Babel: An overview of the linguistic landscape of Cameroon which calls for the recognition of Cameroonian pidgin English as an official language[END_REF]. Fulfulde also serves as a lingua franca in the Far North, North, and Adamawa regions while Ewondo (Populaire) is used in much of the Centre, South, and East Regions, while Duala is used in the Littoral region. After the official languages, Fulfulde and CPE are the major languages in terms of number of speakers (Eberhard, Simons & Fennig 2020). Camfranglais is a relatively new pidgin communication form that has emerged in urban areas and other locations where French speaking and English speaking Came roonians meet and interact. Popular musicians use the hybrid language, thereby significantly in creasing its popularity. American Sign Language, introduced by the deaf American missionary Andrew Foster is used in Cameroon, especially for the education of the deaf.

The two official languages are a superstratum imposed on a very heterogeneous home lan guage substratum giving that Cameroon has a wealth of indigenous languages. As pointed out by Ayafor & Green (2017:15), [START_REF] Schroder | Status, Functions and Prospects of Pidgin English: An Empirical Approach to Language Dynamics in Cameroon[END_REF] estimates that of Cameroonians are native speakers of an indigenous language, but it is likely that this proportion has decreased and may continue to decrease, given that many young Cameroonians now do not speak their languages, especially those living in urban centres (e.g. Nnang A number of studies (e.g. [START_REF] Koenig | A sociolinguistic profile of urban centers in Cameroon[END_REF][START_REF] Anchimbe | Functional seclusion and the future of indigenous languages in Africa: The case of Cameroon[END_REF]) have demonstrated that urban centres are characterized by high levels of multilingualism. Recent studies [START_REF] Connell | Language diversity and language choice: A view from a Cameroon market[END_REF][START_REF] Esene Agwara | Rural multilingualism in the North West Region of Cameroon: The case of Lower Fungom[END_REF][START_REF] Ojong Diba | The sociolinguistic dynamics of rural multilingualism in Africa: The case of Lower Fungom[END_REF][START_REF] Di Carlo | Oxford Research Encyclo paedia of Linguistics[END_REF], Di Carlo & Good 2020) have also shown that rural multilingualism is not only common in Cameroon but it is much older than its urban counterpart. Di Carlo & Good (2020) argue that individual multilingualism was wide spread long before the colonial period and centuries before the continent experienced large scale urbanization. Ojong Diba (2019: 5), differentiates between urban and rural multilingualism in Cameroon, stating that practised in urban areas is indeed different from that practiced in rural areas like Lower Fungom. In urban areas, multilingualism is intense, typically involving at least one lingua franca, a home language and a colonial language. In rural areas the situation is very different, with the exclusion or minimal use of colonial languages, it is remarkably common for people to have a repertoire of over ten languages which they use very frequently While ten languages is quite a high figure and not common for a repertoire, there are many people who speak more than two languages in some rural areas of Cameroon (e.g. [START_REF] Connell | Language diversity and language choice: A view from a Cameroon market[END_REF] for Mambila, Moore 2004 for Mandara).

The point is that the multiplicity of languages in Cameroon is not just in the number of lan guages found in the linguistic ecology but in the actual use of more than two languages (excluding the official languages) by most Cameroonians whether they are found in urban or rural centres. This forms the basis of the argument in this chapter that using the multitude of languages of Cameroon in the health sector will better serve Cameroonians since each and every citizen will have access to health related information supplied in a language they understand best.

official bilingualism in health (COVID 19) communication

Although a multilingual country, as illustrated in section 2 above, Cameroon favours and operates an official bilingual policy in foreign colonial languages, i.e. English and French as enshrined in its 1996 constitution. The government of Cameroon through its Ministry of Public Health always works relentlessly to ensure that information is transmitted to Cameroonians during major dis ease outbreaks such as cholera and measles. Since the outbreak of the coronavirus pandemic in Cameroon on March 6, 2020 the government has shouldered the responsibility of constantly in forming and updating the public on the evolution of the situation. Various communication chan nels have been used to inform and sensitize Cameroonians on ways and means to prevent the spread of COVID 19 in the country. The efforts have been to disseminate information about pre ventive measures and also to counter misinformation about the spread and prevention of the pandemic. One positive aspect of communication on the pandemic has been the use of the two official languages, i.e. English and French, as reflected in some of the communi qués by the Head of State, Prime Minister, Minister of Public Health, Governors of Regions, and Regional Delegates of Health. In the following section, we attempt a comprehensive summary of the main documents that were circulated online, and that constituted the main official sources for communicating risk and preventive measures to all Cameroonians. This list is not meant to represent an exhaustive catalogue of the entire communication that the government has issued during the COVID 19 pandemic as there may have been local

based in hospitals or health some national languages. While the latter is possible, we are not aware of any structured attempt in this direction.

Ministry of Public Health

On March 6, 2020

Minister of Public Health issued a press release in French confirm ing the first case in the country. He (@Manaouda) later tweeted:

The Government reassures that everything is being done to contain this case of im portation of the coronavirus. There is no reason to panic. The situation remains under control. The populations must simply continue to observe the usual rules of hygiene. Le Gouvernement rassure que tout est mis en pour confiner ce cas d'importa tion du coronavirus. Il n'y a aucune raison de céder à la panique. La situation reste sous contrôle. Les populations doivent simplement continuer à observer les règles usuelles d'hygiène.

On March 9, 2020 he issued another press release in French informing the general public that after the second case was confirmed he held a meeting with various stakeholders to discuss ways to fight back the pandemic. As usual, he commented on the meeting in his Twitter account. On March 14 the Minister sent out a third press release in both French and English to announce that the third case of COVID 19 had been confirmed in Cameroon. On March 19, another press release in the two official languages informed the public that the two first cases had been tested negative after 14 days of treatment. The Minister further admonished Cameroonians to continue respect ing hygiene measures to prevent the spread of the pandemic. On March 30, 2020 the Minister also granted a press conference in French during which he encouraged Cameroonians to observe all the preventive measures prescribed by the government. On September 18, the Minister sent a warning to Cameroonians not to gather in large groups in response to the call for protests by a political party in times when there is an increased risk of the spread of COVID 19. As Cameroon entered the second phase of the pandemic in 2021 the Minister issued Press Release N o D13 15/MINSANTE/SG/CC/CEA2 of 26 January 2021 (shown below) to inform the Cameroonian public that COVID 19 testing and treatment are free of charge and insisted that victims should call a toll free number (1506) if asked to pay.

Apart from the press releases, the

Twitter account has been a major outlet of infor mation and updates during this period. There have been tweets on a daily basis and interestingly, they have been in both French and English, as illustrated by the following tweets.

May 25, 2020

It is important to note that we are entering a complicated phase of the pandemic. Therefore, more than ever, we must protect ourselves, protect our families and pro tect others by observing barrier gestures. Wear a mask when going out and wash your hands regularly.

Il est important de noter que nous entrons dans une phase compliquée de la pandémie. While this is a laudable attitude that indicates a clear instance of the respect of the constitution and official language policy of Cameroon it has obviously been to the disadvantage of those Cam eroonians who are not literate enough to benefit from written only materials in any of the two official languages.

Other Ministries

Other Prime Minister, Head of Government has been responsible for informing the public about response strategy to the coronavirus pandemic. On March 17, 2020 he issued a special statement in both English and French outlining the preventive measures to be observed from March 18, 2020. Another statement in the two official languages followed a week later on March 24, 2020 reminding and calling for reinforcement and respect of the measures prescribed on 17 March, 2020. On April 30, 2020 another statement to relax some of the measures of March 17 and to insist on the strict respect of the measures still in force was issued in English and French. On May 15, 2020 a new statement came from the Prime Minister updating and authorizing the reopening of schools from June 1, 2020. The statement was in both official languages. As with the communications from the Minister of Health those from the Prime Minis ter have not reached directly to those Cameroonians who are not literate in the official languages of the country.

Regional Governors

Regional governors have also sent out announcements on the pandemic in the official languages. Those mentioned here were only in English since they were issued by the governors of the North West and South West Regions. For example, on April 20, 2020 the Governor of the North West press release N o 008/L/E/GO/GS announced that the region had recorded its first case of COVID 19 and invited the inhabitants of the region to respect all measures prescribed by the government against the pandemic. This was followed by release N o 009/L/E/GO/GS on April 23, 2020 confirming the second case in the region. Radio communique N o 002/C/E/SGNO/SG of Feb ruary 12, 2021 notified the population of the region of the effects of the second wave of COVID 19 and called on everyone to respect the prevention measures put in place by the state and also to participate in the mass testing exercise from February to April 2021. On March 31, 2020 the governor of the South West Region issued release N o 0283/L/G/GSW/19/GRS prohibiting eating and drinking in public places throughout the region. This was followed by a communique on March 4, 2020 instituting the obligatory wearing of facemasks by all those visiting public services in the Region.

Regional Delegations of Public Health

The Regional Delegate of Public Health for the North West Region has also sent out several press releases on the pandemic in English. For example, press release N o 003/A/NWR/RDPH was issued on March 20, 2020 to counter information that had earlier been circulated to the effect that a case of COVID had been recorded in the region. He, however, called on the population to be vigilant, respect all prevention measures and avoid taking non prescribed medication or buying hand sanitizers from unknown sources. Press release N o 003/PR/NWR/RDPH of April 25, 2020 notified the community that the third, fourth, and fifth cases had been confirmed and called on everyone to strictly respect prescribed preventive measures and to report any suspected cases by calling numbers that were provided. On May 1, 2020 the Regional Delegate again issued press release N o 004/A/NWR/RDPH announcing that the region already had 11 confirmed cases. He further called on the population to be vigilant and to expose any suspected cases. Press release N o 006/A/NWR/RDPH of May 19, 2020 specified that there were already 44 COVID 19 cases and 09 deaths in the region and that everyone should be extremely alert and report any suspected cases immediately by calling the numbers he indicated. On May 25, 2020, press release N o 007/A/NWR/RDPH revealed that systematic testing of corpses for COVID 19 is being done to identify those that might have died of it and advise mourners to take precautionary measures to protect themselves. The Regional Delegate has also publicized, through various social media out lets, a North West Regional Call centre for COVID 19 available 24/7. He has provided both land line and mobile phone numbers that can be called if any person in the community is suspected to have COVID 19 symptoms. He explains that using the call numbers will enable proximity communication around the pandemic and decongest the original number (1510) which is rather highly solicited. It should be noted that all these information and press releases have been in English, directly excluding the uneducated inhabitants of the region from understanding and im plementing the recommendations provided.

Head of State

The most relevant and highly awaited communication regarding COVID 19 was the Head of address to the nation on 19 May, 2020. The unusual address was necessitated by the pandemic which had forced the government to cancel the annual celebration of its national day which always takes place on May 20. The Head of State found it necessary to address the nation and add his personal voice to the fight against COVID 19. As expected, his message was in French followed by a translation in English. Needless to point out that a majority of Cameroonians who do not understand any of the two official languages either received only second hand interpre tations or missed out completely on the input. In concluding this section, we must stress that one of the unfortunate outcomes of the use of written only materials in these two official languages is that the intended sensitization infor mation and call to action directly reach only those who are literate enough in French or English to understand information provided in these languages. Statistics from 2018 show that up to 15 per cent of Cameroonians aged 15 24, 23 per cent aged 25 65, and 60 per cent above 65 years are illiterate.2 Chumbow (2013) has pointed out, at least 60 per cent of the population in most African countries are not literate in the official languages such as English and French and are, therefore, marginalized and excluded from knowledge on health and development. In response to this shortcoming, certain individuals and organizations have embarked on communicating rel evant COVID 19 information in national languages of Cameroon, as illustrated in the next section.

COVID 19 related communication in national languages

Since many individuals and NGOs are aware of the fact that communication in the official languages does not reach many Cameroonians, they have taken upon themselves to cre ate and disseminate awareness information and preventive measures in national languages.

WhatsApp, Facebook and YouTube have been flooded with messages from medical doctors and lay persons to their fellow villagers in their mother tongues in a bid to reach out to them directly with information on the prevention of COVID 19. Various community radios have also graciously communicated information in national languages. Some have been translations of mes sages while others have simply been personal understanding and experiences that have been shared.

Beyond the individual initiatives that have witnessed the production and dissemination of video and audio messages, numerous national and international organizations have embarked on efforts to sensitize Cameroonians.

Cameroon Association for Bible and Literacy

At the national level the Cameroon Association for Bible Translation and Literacy (CABTAL) has a booklet What you need to know about the Coronavirus or COVID 19. The booklet which is based on information from the WHO is meant to highlight preventive measures and attitudes that people need to adopt. The Director of CABTAL has stated in an interview with the Cameroon Radio and Television (CRTV) on April 14, 2020 that the book summarizes basic ideas about COVID 19, defines some key words and answers the following questions: is corona virus?, Which categories of persons are vulnerable?, What are the symptoms?, What are the channels of transmission?, How can someone be protected?, What can someone do if they are By April 14, 2020 the booklet had been translated into 21 languages and work was still going on to complete the translation into 19 other languages and bring the total to 40. Respond ing to the question of how the message gets to the masses, the Director pointed to three chan nels. First, he said printed materials are distributed by mother tongue literacy teachers. Secondly, he explained that CABTAL also uses various social media platforms to share the messages which are also found on website https://www.cabtal.org/en/welcome cabtal. Finally, he added that some community radios participate in sharing the information during dedicated slots.

Director justified the action of the organization by stating that efforts like this from CABTAL, it is clear that those in the suburbs with no mastery of official lan guages will certainly have information on how to combat the deadly COVID According to him, since the official languages are not always understood by people in the grassroots, CABTAL is specialized in working with local communities to translate relevant messages into their lan guages. He concludes that this material in the mother tongue is our contribution to fight the COVID 19

Cameroon Academy of Young Scientists

The Cameroon Academy of Young Scientists (CAYS) also produced a video with sensitization in formation for the fight against COVID 19 in Cameroon Pidgin, Duala, Tupuri, Babanki, Medumba, Akoose, Bazou, Basaa, Yemba, Mubako, and Ngemba. CAYS has noted that their gesture is crucial because most information about COVID 19, including preven tion strategies have been disseminated chiefly in the official languages, to the disadvantage of those who cannot find basic health information in their first language to protect themselves and their communities from the pandemic. This video has been distributed widely and it has certainly reached a greater audience particularly those Cameroonians who understand their community languages more than the official English and French.

virALLanguages

An international project that has invested and dedicated much energy to produce and distribute COVID 19 related messages in national languages is virALLanguages (http://virallan guages.org). This project has been made possible by the joint efforts between the Key Pluridisci plinary Advances on African Multilingualism Cameroon (KPAAM CAM) project (University at Buffalo, SUNY, USA), the School of Oriental and African Studies (SOAS) World Language Institute (UK), the Community for Global Health Equity of the University at Buffalo, and the Department of Linguistics of the University of at Manoa (USA). It is stated on their website that their aim is to as many people as possible sharing reliable and memorable information so peo ple know what to do to stop the spread of coronavirus. We focus on endangered languages start ing from those spoken in Cameroon, thanks to our existing network of collaborators. But we want the project to go global and provide culturally appropriate translations of WHO advice in as many languages as

The principal output of virALLanguages are video and audio record ings in minority, endangered, or otherwise marginalized languages of the world.

It happens that Cameroon is privileged to have been the starting point for virALLanguages. As of February 5, 2021, information from the WHO on COVID 19 has been adapted and translated into Aghem, Ajumbu, Babanki, Bafut, Buu, Giziga, Mafa, Mambila, Masa, Mendanwke, Mofu Gudur, Moloko, Mundabli, Munken, Ngemba, Noni, Obang, Oshie, and Zaah Biyah. More projects to translate into other national languages are in progress. As stated in website, giving out memorable information is vital and information that people can un derstand and trust is only possible through native speakers who are able not only to translate from a major language to a local one, but also to adapt features of the translated text in ways that make it more appropriate to the environment, customs, and speech style that are most rel evant to each language community. Proverbs, metaphors, and diverse rhetorical strategies are key to get the information across in a way that will enable behavioural change necessary to save lives. It is also important for any specific examples to be tailored to local ways of living. For ex ample, recommendations to disinfect doorknobs will be meaningless in places where doorknobs are hardly On top of its general features and output, it is important to look at the virALLanguages project because it is based on a collaborative model between academics and local language communities that aims at a balanced communication where efforts to produce and disseminate culturally ap propriate information will not run counter to its accuracy. In order to do this, the project has adopted a strict protocol to regulate participation that might be easily replicated and adapted to any scale and topic of communication (see figure 1 and https://virallan guages.org/protocol/). Figure 1: the protocol that was adopted by the virALLanguages project in the figure).

Other initiatives

At the international level, various agencies have expressed the need to communicate relevant information to people in their mother tongues which, in many countries, are minority languages.

Translators Without Borders has highlighted the importance of language for effective communi cation in the fight against COVID 19. In its March 2020 policy brief they have answered the ques tion you speak COVID3 Among other things they have pointed out that communicating in international lingua francas or national languages makes marginalized people more vulnerable and that misinformation and mistrust flourish when communication does not clearly answer peo questions. They insist that relevant information should be communicated to everyone in the language they understand i.e. their mother tongue.

SIL International has embarked on the translation and distribution of relevant COVID 19 re lated information into lesser known local languages around the world. As the pandemic contin ues to threaten communities worldwide, various actions are being taken to stop the spread and save lives. Individuals are able to take actions to protect themselves and families based on access to clear and relevant information and preventive measures. Unfortunately, SIL International es timates that 30% of people everywhere cannot find basic health information in their first lan guage to protect themselves and their communities from the pandemic. For this reason, the NGO has launched a COVID 19 Fund soliciting donations to fund the planned translation and distribu tion. 4A report of April 3, 2020 by RFI titled solidarity as Covid 19 information is trans lated into African local5 presents grassroots efforts to translate information on how to prevent coronavirus washing hands, keeping a distance from others, coughing into your el bow into various African languages. Grassroots efforts of this nature have involved languages of Zimbabwe, the Republic of Congo, Nigeria, South Africa, Morocco, Ethiopia, and Eritrea while many others are still underway.

Building on the power of community and the service of volunteer translators from across the continent, Engage Africa Foundation6 has initiated a crowdsourced project to translate evi dence based preventive guidelines primarily from the World Health Organization (WHO) into sev eral African languages to make them accessible, informative and easy to understand.

The Federal Union of European Nationalities (FUEN) has conducted an online survey on the use of minority languages under the COVID outbreak between March and April 2020. 7 The questionnaire focused on the availability of information related to COVID 19 in general, healthcare information related to the outbreak, the existence of an emergency hotline operated in minority languages and the availability of online education in mother tongue. The survey re sults presented on May 11, 2020 show that general information on the coronavirus outbreak is available in the language of minority communities and language groups in slightly more than half of the cases (52%), provided most often by regional government, minority organizations as well as minority press. Similar to the general COVID related information, key health related information in minority languages is available in slightly more than half of the cases (52% again).

In case of health related information, local and regional governments are more With only half of the users of minority speakers across Europe having access to vital infor mation on the pandemic the need to step up efforts and make information available in all minor ity languages of the continent is obvious. Cameroon and the rest of the world should implement similar communication strategies to successfully combat the spread of COVID 19. This is crucial because a lot of information on COVID 19 is circulating some more reliable than others and it can be stressful to sort through differing messages especially when they are not in mother tongue.

Multilingualism and health in Cameroon

Despite rich linguistic diversity, the country has continued to implement a language policy that is based on foreign languages, i.e. English and French, and which falls short of re sponding adequately to the needs and aspirations of its citizens. At this critical moment when COVID 19 is spreading exponentially and claiming lives, the demand of a thorough review of this policy is compelling. The need for an integrative policy, in fact, one that carefully considers the numerous languages is not only real but extremely urgent. place and role of multilingualism in all facets of life has been widely recognized. Multilin gualism is believed to be indispensable in education, health, and nearly all areas of life. multilingualism and cultural diversity is at the same time a challenge and an asset that must, at long last, be put to use. Multilingualism is normality in Africa. In fact, multilingualism is the norm everywhere. It is neither a threat nor a burden. It is not a problem that might isolate the continent from knowledge and the emergence of knowledge based economies, conveyed through interna tional languages of wider communication (Ouane & Glanz 2010: 5). Multilingualism is viewed as the language of sustainable development by the UNESCO Institute for Lifelong Learning (UIL). 8Recognizing both the importance of multilingualism and its UNESCO is promoting Mother Tongue Based Multilingual Education (MTB MLE); it is an education that begins in the language that the speaks most fluently, and then gradually introduces other languages. This approach is key towards achieving equitable quality education and lifelong learning for all, as stipulated in the fourth United Nations Sustainable Development Goal (SDG 4). director has reiterated that recent neuro scientific findings (e.g. Bialystok suggest that speaking several languages develops the brain. Hence, being actively multilingual actually changes a per brain structure in a way that improves memory, helps process information, and develops multitasking skills. In addition, speaking multiple languages could delay the effects of certain brain diseases that usually cause a decrease in the ability to think and remember.

Besides its effects on academic performance and on learning, multilingualism is also often considered as a factor of peace. The experience of the European Union in promoting linguistic diversity and multilingualism, including through sophisticated and well funded European educa tion exchange programmes such as ERASMUS,9 probably provides the most advanced form of such a policy. Regional initiatives to build peace through education and multilingualism are also present in other parts of the world, notably in Africa, where cross border African languages are being promoted. Recognizing this trend, UNESCO chose without as the theme for International Mother Language Day in 2020 to recognize the importance of cultural and linguistic diversity for sustainable development and peace. Multilingualism constitutes a powerful instrument to foster tolerance and respect for others; it creates an opening for dia logue. In this increasingly complex and multicultural world, marked by globalization and interna tional migration, dialogue is essential for finding peaceful and sustainable solutions. Multilingual ism enhances understanding and appreciation of cultural values of the societies that are con tained in the concerned languages. The experiences gained from learning different languages tend to change the attitudes, skills, beliefs of the people, society and create an expansion of world view. By opening the dialogue between languages, multilingualism can establish a dialogue between people and be a promise of peace and a sustainable future. From the economic per spective, multilingualism provides a competitive edge in job market. Besides the aca demic and professional credentials, employers also look for fluency in multiple languages as an added advantage. Therefore, being a multilingual is a plus to any job seeker in this millennium. Regarding nation building, multilingualism helps in developing and maintaining national unity es pecially if people learn national languages besides their indigenous languages and the lingua fran cas. In the process, people automatically embrace the value of togetherness.

If multilingualism is such an important asset in various domains of life, it can only be more useful in the area of health. Studies that have examined the neglect of languages in multilingual contexts have found numerous negative consequences on health. Language barriers are associ ated with lack of awareness about health care benefits [START_REF] Feinberg | Language proficiency and the enrolment of Medicaid eligible children in publicly funded health insurance programs[END_REF], longer duration of consultation and visit times but fewer follow up visits [START_REF] Kravitz | Comparing the use of physician time and health care resources among patients speaking English, Spanish and Russian[END_REF], less frequent clinic visits [START_REF] Derose | Limited English proficiency and use of physician services[END_REF], less understanding the explanations [START_REF] David | The impact of language as a barrier to effective health care in an under served urban Hispanic community[END_REF], Gerrish, 2001), and more la boratory tests and more emergency room visits [START_REF] Hampers | Language barriers and resource utilization in a pediatric emergency department[END_REF].

To overcome these problems, proposals for various ways to resolve the issues have been made. One obvious solution is to make use [START_REF] Poss | Effective use of interpreters in health care: Guidelines for nurse managers and clinicians[END_REF][START_REF] Woloshin | Language barriers in medicine in the United States[END_REF] or to make use of bilingual staff. [START_REF] Akumbu | Legitimizing the development and use of national languages: Lessons from COVID 19[END_REF] has recommended the development and use of national languages in official com munication particularly when transmitting health related information. We would like to further clarify our viewpoint here by saying that we see two main ways to do this effectively. On the one hand, the Cameroonian government could create units specialized in translating all relevant in formation into national languages at the relevant ministries. This would require that each minis try concerned, i.e. Public Health, Territorial Administration, Social Affairs, and Promotion of Women and the Family, etc. should employ at least one translator for each of the 250 or so na tional languages.

On the other hand, a more distributed model would entail that an initial investment is made to create a widespread grassroots network of local language as those that exist already throughout Cameroon and that have led initiatives to develop literacy materials in national that these are put in constant communication with the various Minis tries. By providing training to select members of language committees, or by complementing them with some specialized staff, they could be the actual producers of messages in their native languages based on the directives received by the Ministries.

To achieve the mission of providing healthcare to all its citizens and raising their standards of living, vital information must be made available in the languages the people understand best. As a country that favours the rule of law and protection of human rights, the institutions should seek to provide health related information to its fellow citizens in the language that each citizen understands best. All essential government communication on health and all other domains should, at least, be translated orally into all national languages. This will be the most effective strategy to reach out to every Cameroonian in their mother tongue or home lan guage. Innovations in this domain may become a model for other countries which, like Came roon, are characterized by a high density of national languages (e.g. Nigeria, Indonesia, Papua New Guinea). linguistic diversity should no longer be perceived a principally neg ative complication for national (Simpson 2008). In other words, it should not be viewed as the premise for disunity and an impediment to development but rather as a useful tool for the emergence by 2035. Starting from the celebration of the Year of African Lan guages in 2006 to the International Year of Indigenous Languages in 2019 and the International Decade of Indigenous Languages from 2022 the global community is seeking to project multilingualism by giving indigenous languages the place they deserve. As one of the most lin guistically diverse countries of the world, Cameroon is in an ideal position to be at the forefront of such challenging initiatives. The key here is how much the government is willing to invest.

Conclusion

The intention of this paper was to draw the attention of Government to the weak nesses of its current language policy revealed by the failure to communicate COVID 19 related information to all its citizens in the languages they understand best, i.e. their mother tongues. The pandemic has served as an eye opener to the reality that using English and French as official languages of communication does not allow messages to reach the entire intended audience because many Cameroonians do not fully master any of these languages, or would be more deeply engaged by the messages only if they were translated in their native language. For many years now, Cameroon has recognized the need to adopt an alternative language policy to fill the gaps created by the dominant English French language policy. The current policy has demon strated its limits by virtue of its exclusive and discriminatory nature and should be revised signif icantly. The COVID 19 experience should awaken Cameroon to the reality that communication during disease outbreaks and all health matters would be most effective if done in the numerous languages of the country. This implies that the formulation of an appropriate and operational language policy that integrates national languages is more urgent now than ever before and should not be neglected.

  ministers have also issued COVID 19 related communiqués in the official languages. The Minister of Territorial Administration signed order N o 000012/A/MINAT on March 17, 2020 reg ulating the exercise of freedom of movement of persons and goods and limiting the exercise of sociocultural and profit making activities as part of the plan to fight against the coronavirus pan demic. A joint Press Release in French from the Ministers of Territorial Administration, Public Health, Social Affairs, and Promotion of Women and the Family was issued on April 29, 2020 to reveal a plan for the distribution of materials that could be used to prevent the spread of COVID 19. The Minister of State, Secretary General of the Presidency of the Republic sent out a commu niqué on April 22, 2020 to inform the public of the cancellation of Labour Day and National Day celebrations to ensure respect of the social distancing measures prescribed by the government to fight COVID 19. On May 13, 2020 the Minister of Communication issued a statement on pre ventive measures and support to the economy within the framework of the national efforts to fight against the pandemic. A similar move came from the Minister of Youth Affairs and Civic Education on February 5, 2021 cancelling the 2021 traditional match past activities that al ways take place during the Youth Day celebration on February 11.

1

  The communiques and press releases on which the discussion is based have been collected from WhatsApp and/or Twitter from March 2020 January 2021. They include those issued by Cameroon's Prime Minister, Head of Government; Minister of State, Secretary General of the Presidency of the

Republic; Ministers of Public Health, Territorial Administration, Communication; Governors of the North West and South West Regions, and the North West Regional Delegate of Public Health.

  Nous devons donc, plus que jamais, nous protéger, protéger nos familles et protéger les autres en observant les gestes barrières. Portez un masque en sortant et lavez vous régulièrement les mains.

February 23, 2021 We have just recorded 07 deaths in one week and witnessed a rise in contaminations, especially in the Littoral, Centre and North Regions, representing 1607 new cases in just one week. It is therefore urgent to regain awareness and to respect the barrier measures. Get on your masks! Nous venons d'enregistrer 07 décès en une semaine et une remontée de la contami nation surtout dans les Régions du Littoral, du Centre et du Nord, soit 1607 nouveaux cas en une semaine. Aussi est il urgent de reprendre conscience et de respecter les mesures barrières. A vos masques.

http://uis.unesco.org/country/CM. Accessed on May 6, 2020.

https://translatorswithoutborders.org/wp content/uploads/2020/04/TWB_PolicyBrief COVID19.pdf.on May 12, 2020.

https://www.sil.org/covid fund ?fbclid=IwAR3G6o0_w5S09Bk5cUSRrlcnxPlASdvcKHUwBe67U99d3Lu HtDSuJVJ8c3o. Accessed on May 12, 2020.

http://www.rfi.fr/en/international/20200403 grassroots solidarity as covid 19 information trans lated into african local languages. Accessed on May 12, 2020

http://www.engageafricafoundation.org/covid 19. Accessed on May 12, 2020

https://www.fuen.org/en/article/Do You Speak Corona Many European countries do not offer in formation on the pandemic in minority languages. Accessed on May 12, 2020

https://thelifelonglearningblog.uil.unesco.org/2020/02/21/multilingualism the language of sustaina ble development. Accessed on February 22, 2021.

https://ec.europa.eu/programmes/erasmus plus/node_en. Accessed on February 22, 2021.


Dr Martin ; Faye
email: martin.faye@pasteur.sn.

Oumar Faye

Nicholas Di Paola

Marie Henriette

Moussa Dior Ndione

Moise Diagne

Tidiane Cheikh

Ndeye Diagne

Gamou Sakha Bob

Jean-Michel Fall

Amadou Alpha Heraud

Sall

Oumar Faye

Nicholas Di

Marie Henriette Dior Ndione

Moussa Moise Diagne

Cheikh Tidiane Diagne

Ndeye Sakha Bob

Gamou Fall

Amadou Alpha Sall

Ousmane Faye

Rabies surveillance in Senegal over fourteen years uncovers first infection of a honey-badger

Keywords: Emerging diseases, Virus, Zoonosis/Zoonotics, host-shift, honey-badger, molecular epidemiology, rabies virus, Senegal host-shift, honey-badger, molecular epidemiology, rabies virus, Senegal. 41

niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Rabies is a neglected, acute as well as progressive neurological disease that is invariantly fatal, 44 once symptoms onset, without prompt post-exposure prophylaxis (PEP) (1). Rabies is one of the 45 most important zoonotic diseases and occurs in over 150 countries and territories around the was found in sequences of these three RABV isolates for the N, P and M proteins. However, a 195 total of 3 and 9 substitutions were identified for the dog-related isolate SA267115, in the L 196 protein and the G protein, respectively. The second dog-related RABV isolate SA252888 197 exhibited no mutation in the polymerase L while a total of 8 amino acid substitutions was found 198 in its G protein sequence. The RABV sequence from honey-badger showed 8 and 7 amino acid 199 mutations for the polymerase L and the G protein, respectively. Previously described specific 200 mongoose-related and ferret-badger-related RABV substitutions [START_REF] Troupin | Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analysis 429 Reveals the Complex Evolutionary History of Rabies Virus in Multiple Carnivore Hosts[END_REF] were assessed among the 201 mutations identified in the Glycoprotein and the polymerase of these three Senegalese isolates.

F

202

The dog-related RABV isolate SA252888 have showed a mutation (Pro-386G-Leu) quietly 203 similar to the Pro-386G-Ser mutation previously described as specific to mongoose-related 204 RABV (Africa-3 clade) (Table 2).

205

Amino acid polymorphisms in the G protein 206

The presence of 13 highly conserved amino acid residues of virulence was assessed across the G 207 protein of the new Senegalese RABV sequences using multiple alignments. The identified 208 conservative mutations were highlighted in black while the non-conservative mutations were 209 colored in black and underlined (Table 3). A total of 10 amino acid residues of virulence among 1). G protein percent identity between SA252888 and vaccine strains 225 ranged from 84.5% to 87.6%. On average, percent identity of Senegalese G proteins was ~91.0% 226 when compared to the selected vaccine strains.

227

Recombination and episodic selection 228

There was no evidence for recombination detected in any RABV sequences used in this study.

229

Several sites under strong negative selection were found with the SLAC (P value ≤ 0.1) and 230 FUBAR (posterior probability [PP] ≥ 0.9) models and most of them were located in major 231 proteins such as the L, N and G protein, respectively. However, significant episodic positive 232 selection was obtained for all the proteins, except for the polymerase L (Table 4). All positively (13). In addition, the higher numbers of 284 amino acid mutations from the three most divergent isolates, were found in the Glycoprotein.

285

Interestingly, the identification of a mutation closed to a mongoose-specific RABV's substitution 286 from a dog-related RABV sequence in this study (Pro-386G-Leu), shows that the Pro-386G-Ser 287 could be not only present in mongoose-related Africa-3 RABV (35), but also shared between 288 mongoose and dog-related isolates. Future studies could be conducted to investigate the 289 possibility of RABV circulation in a wide variety of natural and incidental animal host species in 290 Senegal. Additionally, how species or isolate specific changes play a role in PEP efficiency 291 should also be considered. Furthermore, the substitutions observed in the polymerase protein 292 could have participated to the RABV shift to new host species in Senegal such as honey-badger.

293

Despite several isolations of RABV from honey-badger in Southern Africa (36), no associated 294 sequence was available. Our study is then noteworthy not only for generating the first whole 295 genome sequence of a honey-badger-related RABV, but also for identifying the specific amino 296 acid substitutions characterizing RABV isolated from the African honey-badger.

297

The G protein plays a crucial role in the biology and pathogenesis of neurotropic RABV Africa through spillover to honey-badger in Senegal, it showed a mean nucleotide substitution 352 rate (2.8 x 10 -4 (95% HPD: 2.5-3.2 x 10 -4 )) which is in agreement with findings reported in 353 previous studies of RABV evolution [START_REF] Troupin | Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analysis 429 Reveals the Complex Evolutionary History of Rabies Virus in Multiple Carnivore Hosts[END_REF]47). All the RABV sequences generated in this study 354 formed a homogenous cluster in the MCC tree (nucleotide dissimilarity ranging from 0.2% to 355 1.7%), suggesting a close-related population of RABV in Senegal as previously described in a 356 detailed analysis of the phylogeographical structure of the Africa-2 clade between Central to 357 Western African regions (13). Our data suggest two recent RABV introductions into Senegal A motif was considered as non-conserved when it presents more than three non-conservative mutations in more than three RABV isolates.

210 13 was

 13 conserved in the G protein of Senegalese RABV isolates with sometimes non-211 conservatives amino acid changes. However, non-conservative mutations Arg333Ala and 212 Asn194Tyr were identified in all Senegalese RABV sequences. Highly conserved in the 213 Lyssavirus genus, the N-glycosylation site N319 was identified at amino acid position 338 in G 214 protein of the Senegalese RABV isolates and the previously described motif of glycosylation 215 NKT (26) showed polymorphisms in some of the new characterized Senegalese sequences. 216 Indeed, the isolate SA194858 (Dakar, SN 2008) from dog exhibited a mutation Phe340Ala at the 217 glycosylation site (NKA) while the isolate SA252888 from dog presented two non-conservative 218 mutations (Lys339Glu and Phe340Ala) at the same site (NEA). In addition, the isolate 219 SA212203 from honey-badger did not present this N-glycosylation site and exhibited an amino-220 acid mutation Asn338Asp (DKT) (

  233selected sites estimated by the FUBAR model (PP ≥ 0.9) were also identified by the MEME Time to the most recent common ancestor (tMRCA) for our RABV dataset was estimated to be diversity exhibited in the Senegalese sequences could have serve as a factor for 283 virus spillover in a new host such as honey-badger

(

  298infection (6, 7). The amino acid mutation Arg-333-Ala have been shown to abolish virulence 299 while the substitution Asn-194-Tyr is implicated in the ability of RABV to infect neurons (19, 300 37). These two substitutions in the Glycoprotein were highly associated to RABV 301 neuropathogenesis in furious and paralytic forms of Rabies (38). Previously described as one of 302 the two most conserved N-glycosylation sites among sequences of the street RABV strains and 303 the most stable site in the expression of the glycoprotein (21), the glycosylation site at position 304 319 (Asn319) was located at amino acid position 338 in the Senegalese sequences. Although the 305 amino acid substitution at position 338 of the G protein plays no major role in viral 306 pathogenicity, the identification of a glycosylation site at this position could be a new insight in 307 the G-protein specific evolution of RABV in Senegal (39, 40). More noteworthy, our findings 308 highlighted also the absence of this N-glycosylation motive (NKT) in sequence of the RABV 309 isolate from honey-badger. Thus, further studies using the recombinant technology, could be 310 needed to investigate the effect of this motive in the pathogenicity of the Senegalese isolates 311 the polymerase L suggests frequent purging of deleterious polymorphisms in 319 this region during RABV transmission, since neither of the motives identified in the polymerase 320 was found to be subject to positive selection using the methods employed in our study. Beside to 321 the other proteins, there is substantial evidence that episodic selection events in the G protein 322 sequences are a result of the evolution of RABV in West Africa. The amino acid substitution 323 318G (Phe) has been previously associated to furious and paralytic Rabies and involved in p75 324 neurotrophin receptor binding, viral maturation and transport into the cell (36). Although the 325 other sites subjected to positive selection in the G protein were not documented in RABV 326 pathogenicity, almost all functional sites directly related to host tropism and infectivity are 327 located from positions 181 to 431 in the of the G protein derived from the carnivore RABV (42). 328 The presence of specific mutations under positive diversifying selection in the sequence from the 329 honey-badger-related RABV exhibited also the nature of selection pressures associated with host 330 switching which could be considered as a pattern driving RABV evolution in West Africa, 331 particularly in Senegal (43). 332 Phylogenetic analysis shows that the Senegalese RABV sequences are grouped into a 333 monophyletic cluster (Africa-2 clade) and are not region (intra-Senegal) specific. The ML tree 334 topology in this paper is in agreement with previously published data including sequences from 335 Senegal (13). However, the spillover of RABV into a novel ecological niche (host shift to the 336 honey-badger) could lead to the rapid spreading and future diversification of the virus in 337 Senegal. Spillover infections are important public health events that establish new reservoirs for 338 human exposures and can affect conservation of threatened or endangered wildlife species when 339 they occur into those species (44). Although Combinations of positively selected changes have 340 been shown to be associated to genetic polymorphism during each RABV host shift (45). 341 Therefore, it is becoming increasingly clear that the adaptive changes necessary for RABV host 342 shift is determined in part by viral factors that differ between strains, by the interaction between Page 13 of 32 Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submitted manuscript Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submission proof viral factors and the identity of the donor and recipient host species involved (46). Data from 344 the Senegalese RABV have been previously included in genome-wide phylogenetic analyses 345 (12). Nevertheless, our results represented the most comprehensive molecular analysis of RABV 346 from Senegal, as it includes more whole genome sequences than previously documented. The 347 generated complete sequences could be useful not only for large-scale analysis of RABV 348 dynamics in Africa, but also in update of the existing pan-Lyssavirus or RABV-specific 349 diagnostics. 350 Despite the host switching experienced since 2011 by the Africa-2 clade circulating in West 351

358

  during the 1980s (95% HPD: 1981-1986) from Cote d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso. Instead of a 359 transboundary animal transmission of Rabies from these countries(13, 48), the phylogenetic 360 evidence gathered in this study points more in the direction of long-distance transmission of 361 Rabies facilitated by human-mediated animal movements (48, 49). However, further 362 phylogenetic studies including more complete data sequences from these two latest countries 363 could be necessary to provide more consistency to these results as there is only 3 and 2 complete 364 genome RABV sequences available from Cote d'Ivoire and Burkina Faso, respectively[START_REF] Troupin | Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analysis 429 Reveals the Complex Evolutionary History of Rabies Virus in Multiple Carnivore Hosts[END_REF].365In conclusion, regarding the key genetic elements from honey-badger-related RABV, the host 366 shift has resulted in a slightly increased genetic diversity and slow evolution of the Africa-2 367 clade RABV circulating in Senegal. Through selection mechanisms, a dog-related RABV isolate 368 may have acquired the key genetic information to induce host switching, adaptation and viral 369 spillover into honey-badgers as the honey-badger-related RABV clustered with a dog-related 370 isolate collected from the same place during the same year. In addition, through the identification 371 of a quietly similar mongoose-related mutation in a dog-related RABV sequence (Pro-386G-to mongoose-related RABV (Africa-3 clade) could be also present in dog-related RABV 374 isolates. Nevertheless, our phylogenetic data has exhibited the impact of purifying selection in 375 the molecular evolutionary dynamic of the Africa-2 clade RABV circulating in Senegal. As rabid 376 dogs constitute the main source of transmission to humans, Rabies control in dog populations 377 through a strong one health cooperation is essential for successful elimination in Senegal by 378 2030. However, the Rabies spillover in honey-badger exhibits the importance of establishing a 379 surveillance program in wildlife, to improve control measures and avoid possible future re-380 introductions into domestic hosts. not-for-profit sectors and was only supported by the Institut Pasteur de Dakar. We acknowledge 384 colleagues of virology department at Institut Pasteur de Dakar, Senegal for sharing supportive

F

Figure 1 :Figure 2 :Figure 3 :Appendix Figure 1 :

 1231 Figure legends

Table 3 ).

 3

	221	G protein antigenic sites (22) were relatively conserved with a few exceptions. Isolates
	222	SA194858, SA212203, and SA252888 presented with multiple changes in antigenic site III
	223	(residues 330-338). Comparison with 10 vaccine strain G protein sequences also presents with

Table 1 :

 1 List of rabies virus full genome sequences from Senegalese's isolates from 2001 to

	o r
	P e
	e r
	R e
	v
	i e
	w
	O
	n l
	y

Table 2 :

 2 Amino acid substitutions in genome of the three most divergent Senegalese rabies

			Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submission proof	Page 20 of 32
	566	virus sequences.
		Protein and	Honey-bagder-	Dog-related RABV	Dog-related RABV
		codon position	related RABV SA212203_Dahra_SN	SA252888_Dakar_SN _2013	SA267115_Dakar_SN_ 2014
			_2011
		Glycoprotein
		25			Thr => Lys
		118			Asn => Asp
		146			Thr => Ile
		150		Ser => Cys
		197			Thr => Cys
		233			Gly => Ser
		248		Gly => Ala
		317			Phe => Ser
		321	Ser => Asp
			Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submitted manuscript

¶ Substitution of the amino acid mutation Pro-386G-Ser previously identified as specific to mongoose-related RABV (Africa-3 clade) by

Troupin C, et al. 2016 (12)

.

Table 3 :

 3 Conservation of amino acid residues of virulence across the glycoprotein of Senegalese

570

rabies virus isolates.

Amino acid residues Position Motif's conservation Replaced by this consensus sequence on these RABV isolates

					EMQSSLLQQL on the isolate
					SA252888_Dakar_SN_2013
					NHDYTICMPE on the isolate
	NHDYTIWMPE	191-200 YES		SA267115SEN_Dakar_SN_20
					14
					HNSYPDYHWL on the isolate
	HNPYPDYHWL	132-141 YES		SA252913_Diamniadio_SN_20
					13
	AETYTNFVGY F TTFKRKHFRP o r DIHHLSCPNN P 87-96 99-108 37-46 e	YES YES YES		Similar on all the Senegalese isolates TTFRRKHFRP on all the Senegalese isolates Similar on all the Senegalese isolates KWCPPDQLVN on the isolates
		e r		SH155996_Dakar_SN_2001 and SH177846_Dakar_SN_2005;
	KWCSPDQLVN	269-278 YES R e v	RWCPPDQLVN on the isolate SA252888_Dakar_SN_2013;
			i e	KWCPSDQLVN on all the other Senegalese isolates
	WKMAGDPRYE	119-128 YES	w	WKMAGGPRYE on the isolate
	Arginine (R) Asparagine (N) CGFVDERGLY TLMEADAHYK	333 194 226-235 YES NO NO 341-350 YES	Alanine (A) on all the Senegalese isolates Tyrosine (Y) on all the Senegalese isolates SA212203_Dahra_SN_2011 O CGFVDERSLY on the isolate SA267115_Dakar_SN_2014 n ALMEAHAHYK on the l isolates y SA252888_Dakar_SN_2013 located at position 338 NKA on the isolate and SA194858_Dakar_SN_2008; SA194858_Dakar_SN_2008; TLMEADAWYK on the
	Glycosylation site NKF The residues Arg333 and Asn194 were previously described by Dietzschold 319 NO isolate NEA on the isolate SA212203_Dahra_SN_2011 SA252888_Dakar_SN_2013;
					DKT on the isolate
					SA212203_Dahra_SN_2011
	EMQSSLLQQH	394-403 YES		ETQSSLLQQL on the isolate SA267115_Dakar_SN_2014;

B et al, 1983 (20).

  The N-glycosylation motif NKT was previously described by Marston

DA et al, 2007 (21).

  The ten remaining RABV amino acid motifs were analyzed as described by and Tomar

NR et al, 2017 (22).

  Positions with amino acid different on the glycoprotein of Senegalese RABV are highlighted in bold and black for conservative mutations and in bold and red for non-conservative mutations.

Table 4 :

 4 Episodes of positive diversifying selection among the proteins of Senegalese rabies

	573	virus isolates.
		Protein	Number of sites detected by method	Positive selection
			SLAC	FUBAR	MEME	aBSREL
			(P value ≤ 0.1)	(PP ≥ 0.9)	(P value ≤ 0.1)	(P value < 0.05)
			58/540	269/540	0/540	0/102
						YES
		N	0/540	1/540	1/540	0/102
			23/297	43/297	0/297	0/55
						YES
		P	0/297	1/297	1/297	0/55
			12/202	39/202	0/202	0/55
						YES
		M	0/202	1/202	1/202	0/55
			55/524	269/524	0/524	0/75
						YES
		G	0/524	0 /524	6/524	1/75
			110/2127	813/2127	0/2127	0/67
						NO
		L	0/2127	0/2127	8/2127	0/67
		For each protein, the top row represents sites under negative selection (dN/dS < 1), and the
		bottom row represents site that are under positive selection (dN/dS > 1).
		Pervasive diversifying selection at posterior probability (PP) ≥ 0.9 with FUBAR model
		Episodic diversifying selection at 0.1 significance level with SLAC and MEME models (P
		value p ≤ 0.1)
		Episodic diversifying selection at P value p ≤ 0.05 with aBSREL model.

Table 2 :

 2 List of Rabies viruses full genomes from West and Central African countries and available in GenBank. Senegal. CI, Côte d'Ivoire. BF, Burkina Faso. MAU, Mauritania. NE, Niger. NG, Nigeria. BJ, Benin. TD, Chad. CF, Central African Republic. CM, Cameroon. GN, Guinea

	Page 27 of 32	Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submission proof
		F o r
		P e
		e r
		R e
		v
		i e
		w 154x131mm (96 x 96 DPI)
		O
		n l
		y
		Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submitted manuscript

1 Appendix

Table 3 :

 3 Bayes factors >3 and posterior probabilities generated from Spread3. Senegal. CI, Côte d'Ivoire. BF, Burkina Faso. MAU, Mauritania. NE, Niger. NG, Nigeria. BJ, Benin. TD, Chad. CF, Central African Republic. CM, Cameroon. GN, Guinea

				Page 32 of 32
	FROM	TO	BAYES_FACTOR	POSTERIOR PROBABILITY
	TD	CF	158.0	0.94
	CM	NG	123.5	0.93
	CM	TD	26.9	0.74
	NE	BF	22.1	0.70
	CI	MR	11.3	0.55
	CI	BF	10.3	0.53
	BF	NE	4.7	0.34
	CI	SN	4.6	0.33
	BF	CI	4.5	0.33
	BF	MR	4.4	0.32
	BN	CM	3.9	0.29
	MR	CI	3.6	0.28
	BN	NE	3.5	0.27
	BF	SN	3.1	0.25
	Abbreviations: SN, 2
	3
	4

available complete sequences from Senegal[START_REF] Troupin | Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analysis 429 Reveals the Complex Evolutionary History of Rabies Virus in Multiple Carnivore Hosts[END_REF], the new characterized RABV isolates showed a

Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submitted manuscript Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submission proof

Acknowledgments

382

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or

This research received no specific grant from any funding agency in the public, commercial, or 15 not-for-profit sectors and was only supported by the Institut Pasteur de Dakar. We acknowledge 16 colleagues of virology department at Institut Pasteur de Dakar, Senegal for sharing supportive 17 information necessary for establishment and accomplishment of this study.

Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submitted manuscript Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submission proof Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submitted manuscript Transboundary and Emerging Diseases -submission proof

Ethics Statement

The authors confirm that the ethical policies of the journal, as noted on the journal's author 20 guidelines page, have been adhered to. No ethical approval was required.

Conflict of interest statement

Although low levels of recombination have not been reported for RABV (41), natural selection is 313 believed to be one of the drivers of their evolution [START_REF] Troupin | Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analysis 429 Reveals the Complex Evolutionary History of Rabies Virus in Multiple Carnivore Hosts[END_REF]. RABV is subject to strong purifying 314 selection and the lowest nucleotide substitution rates were described in the following order: N, L, 315 G, M and P [START_REF] Troupin | Large-Scale Phylogenomic Analysis 429 Reveals the Complex Evolutionary History of Rabies Virus in Multiple Carnivore Hosts[END_REF]. As expected, our analysis also showed that the L and N proteins often 316 described as more conserved for RABV, exhibited the strongest purifying selection. These two 317 proteins are functionally important in RABV pathogenicity (4). In addition, the absence of information necessary for establishment and accomplishment of this study.

Conflict of interest statement 387

The authors declared no competing interest.