Time-lapse provides us with an expanded time-perspective. The general subject area of the thesis is the cognitive advantage of the moving image. The focus will be on Time-lapse (TL), a sub-field of moving images, whose structure enables the function of making visible.

Discussing the diverse applications of TL and the cognitive advantages delivered by this representational artefact, we evaluate the epistemic status of these Altered Pace movies as evidentials. In this regard, we construe TL as a tool for obtaining information about some of the event's visually unavailable features. In analysing the epistemic virtues and the possible epistemic deficiencies of this amplification process, we suggest that TL is a mechanism of producing superstimuli.

This practice-led enquiry is conducted through a practical and theoretical approach to TL. The research project is divided into three main parts: I. The data collection of 1000+ annotated TL sequences elicits the numerous categories of TL and the various fields of use. The theoretical research is backed by an historical review on the early example of moving images, of a review of theories of representational cognitive artefacts and of educational science videos. We address, among others, questions about the epistemic status of TL images. We also structure the field of social observation projects, particularly those that analyse a form of collective human behaviours. The thesis is concluded by a practice part, resulting in a portfolio presenting a number of TL films, rooted in the cognitive approach and experimental animation, made alongside the completion of the theoretical part in collaboration with the supervisor.

List of Figures

Introduction

Moving image can represent time in an alternative way by adjusting temporal configuration in the editing process. The temporal perspective of the event can be changed in the representation, and thus the moving image provides us with a novel experience of the event. Throughout this research and in order to address the cognitive advantages of these images as independent "tools", we shift the approach from the conventional studies investigating the cinematographic techniques and the emotional and perceptual impact on narration to an exploration based on a cognitive-oriented approach. In this context, Time-lapse (TL) and slow-motion moving image are not merely a cinematographic technique for changing the time-perspective on an event.

They are specific kinds of moving image, produced by techniques of manipulation of the cinematographic structure. The difference between considering TL as one of the categories of moving image and TL as an editing technique in producing moving image is analogous to the difference between watching a silent video and watching the same video with the sound off.

To explain further the reason for not considering TL as a cinematographic editing technique, we consider the structure of moving image. Herbert Zettl in his discussion on the basic aesthetic structure of film notes that the possibility of making a little change in the editing process (e.g., cut), add and insert different frames in a film, take us away from the structure of the film, which is based on a series of discontinuous frames where each frame represents "a specific "at" position in the objective time continuum" (Zettl, 2013, p. 273). TL could not be applied to the structure as a technique in the editing process, because it is a distinct structure per se (i.e., a series of discontinuous frames)1 . Although the basic unit of the structure, the frame, is the same in all kinds of moving image, TLs represent the different positions of the referent in the event.

Our research offers a cognitive treatment of these images, which can contribute to improving the process of extracting knowledge from moving image.

The general subject area of the current study is the cognitive advantage of specific representational artifacts. The focus will be on TL as one of these artifacts, which is a kind of moving image, representing an event at an altered pace. The projecting process is the same as in standard frame-rate videos. However, in TL capturing, frame-rate (i.e., interval) is not equal to playback frame-rate. TL, by providing a continuous succession from the motion-free snapshots, enhances our awareness of the represented phenomenon in a continuous spatial change. This manipulation has some cognitive outcomes. This thesis is one of the first investigations into TL images, and specifically inspired by the discipline of cognitive science, to employ TL as a representational artifact. We believe it is crucial to have a critical review of TL images in a cognitive framework. As the part of collecting data and making the TL unfolded, we noticed a lack of epistemological analysis about the altered pace moving images, although these types of moving images are significantly commonplace in scientific and artistic contexts. We found that many of the texts introduce TL as a technique of photography, a subcategory of stop-motion animation or a cinematographic effect and give mostly anecdotal information to discuss how a particular scene was produced in TL and what problems arose in the editing part of the production.

In order to investigate the subject, the practical and theoretical aspects of the research are intertwined. The confluence of these projects was essential to our research approach. Five main sets of research questions have guided these two parallel approaches: I.

If we consider TL as a series of snapshots taken in discontinuous moments with intervals, how do we perceive continuous motions through TL?

II.

To what category of artifacts does TL belong? How can we obtain knowledge from a TL representation that is deliberately distorting some features of the represented object?

III.

For the TL maker, be she an artist, a scientist or an amateur, what are the constructive functions of the time alteration in representing a particular event? For instance, how does the TL maker decide that the TL temporal perspective fits better in the desired description of the event?

IV. Could we claim that TLs display features that provide knowledge about a phenomenon?

Under what conditions?

V. From a cognitive perspective, what advantage does TL have and what change does it generate in the representation of the inherent characteristics of the familiar elements in the scene?

These questions help us circumscribe the characteristics of TL, and they allow us to investigate the advantages and shortcomings of the novel temporal perspective generated by TL and its impact on the knowledge acquired of the represented phenomenon.

This doctoral research is a follow-up of my first educational path in animation film, which provided a theoretical and practical ground; I capitalized on the key studies of animation film while defining the practical approach of research. By collecting a corpus of 1000+ annotated TL sequences, we analysed the numerous categories of TL, the various fields of use, and the representation cues that make an accelerated representation "legible". We address the question of whether the viewer of TL, given the unreal time perspective involved, requires special knowledge of particular technical conventions. We hypothesize that the process of altering the viewer's time perspective could affect the knowledge gained about the represented phenomenon. The epistemological status of TL as a cognitive artifact depends on its basic structure as a type of moving image. Developing a corpus of TL, in parallel to the practical phase, allowed us to explore further research questions about production and to conduct the case study part of the research. The analysis of corpus has been presented in the form of questions and case studies within the body of the thesis.

As a practice-led enquiry into moving image which is conducted through the practical and theoretical approach to TL, the research project is divided into three main parts:

I.

The data collection includes striking TLs (full videos, complementary documentaries or sequences) from the origins of the technique to the present day, made by professionals and the general public (scientists, artists, commercial time-lapsers and amateurs). We attempted to provide a concise explanation of each category of subject and technique. The insights gained from this analysis were of assistance in the process of conducting the theoretical discussions. As an appendix, a detailed explanation is provided in the conclusion part of the thesis.

II.

The theoretical research consists of the historical review on the early example of moving image, theories of representational cognitive artifacts and educational science videos, epistemic values of moving image regarding TL images and also the social observations project, particularly those that analyse a form of collective human behaviours.

III.

Alongside the theoretical phase, the creation part drives us to identify and consider the influence of changing the time-perspective regarding the referent phenomena. This practical phase has helped us to provide the questions and the momentums for the research part.

The creation of a series of TL has been an essential practical method for the thesis. At the outset of the research, the TL projects were mostly collaborative with the supervisor, rooted in the cognitive approach and experimental animation. The cognitive approaches to representational artifacts have influenced the research process significantly. We intended to investigate the subject while creating the TL documents of observation, intended for developing theoretical discussions. Of course, the practices take inspiration from the research's underpinnings and theoretical discussion.

Collecting data led us to find evidence concerning the association between scientific observation and the function of the visual system in motion perception. This historical confluence, and the specific structure of TL in the pioneer cases, motivated a historical review and focus on the primary structure of TL. The first chapter, entitled "The study of motion, Historical development and Applications of time-lapse" seeks to elaborate on the early opticalperceptual mechanisms and TL historical courses.

The dissertation thus opens on a historical research to describe the beginnings, the pioneer's experiences, the problems they addressed, and their results. The data are gathered from the reports of historical evidence (history references, video examples, written descriptions, and biographies) to highlight the elements of change and continuity of TL. The years which preceded the birth of cinema are critical for understanding the technical potentials of TL, the structure of "optical toys" and the concept of the "phi phenomenon" in these cases.

This historical overview determines the paths that took sets of still images to moving images between 1830 to 1950, how the phenomenon first emerged, why and how it turned to its actual structure. By analysing the historical cases and according to the related theories, we attempt to find out what advantageous characteristics did the TL structure have for the pioneers -both scientists and artists.

In the historical part, we aim to outline the distinction between the cinematographic images and TL images depending on the field of use and the structure afforded by scientists during moving image apparatus evolution. This distinction refers to both artistic and scientific uses of TL. We will then discuss the cognitive use of TL, and therefore, the impact of the field of use in the structure of this artifact.

In the second section of this chapter, we provide a detailed illustration of the established mechanism of TL. We propose that TL is a kind of altered pace moving image, and the cognitive advantages provided by these images have re-established the primary structure without the need to be influenced by technical development.

The second line of investigation has given rise to a number of hypotheses about TL as a cognitive artifact. The chapter, entitled "The Philosophy of Time-lapse: Vision Makers" is a paper co-written by the thesis supervisor, Roberto Casati, and the doctoral researcher and defines how TL contributes to cognitive and perceptual dispositions. By determining the TL capacity of representational tools that make certain features of a phenomenon visually accessible, we introduce TL as a subcategory of Altered Pace moving images (AP). In this chapter we discuss analogies and disanalogies of APs with other "vision making" informational and representational artifacts. We introduce the descriptive and explanatory notion of pictures' silence, and we assess the role of background knowledge in interpreting silent pictures. We claim that TL and, more generally, AP moving images, despite their analogies with microscopes and telescopes, are representations with no informational equivalent, thus constitute a valuable addition to our epistemic repertoire. If they had an informational equivalent, this would have to include a time machine. Accordingly, this chapter examines TL's representational characteristics and then returns to how those properties are employed for conducting a cognitive task.

Altered pace moving images have, and are expected to have, various effects on the process of observation. In the third chapter, we study the temporal configuration of the TL mechanism affecting the perception of time. Then through some case studies, we examine the conditions in which the spatial information is distorted in TL. We evaluate the epistemic status of TL by discussing the concept of continuity and interval. The purpose is to determine the condition in which TL could represent the phenomenon in an epistemic way, and we suggest that TL's epistemic state depends on its application in amplifying the particular stimulus in the representation.

Further discussion will be conducted to determine the effectiveness of TL images in monitoring social events to amplify collective behaviour. The fourth chapter outlines the outcomes of manipulating the temporal aspect of an event through TL. The discussion tackles the TL of social events and the observation of collective human behaviour at a relatively rapid speed. The target of social TL is to enhance our apprehension of collective behaviour in urban spaces and the observation of speeding-up living bodies in general.

We evaluate how TL of collective human behaviour helps us notice the dominant continuous movements in social events. The chapter examines the concept of dehumanization in Social TL. Taking a cue from the research on de-anthropomorphism in TL animation by [START_REF] Smith | Experimental Time-Lapse Animation and the Manifestation of Change and Agency in Objects[END_REF], the last section outlines how the change in temporal properties of representation can represent the new characteristics of the event. This research highlights the cognitive insights afforded by acknowledging the "cooperation" between the visual system and certain types of moving image. The cognitive approach in analysing TL set out in this study is the principal tool for studying the various forms of TL representation because of its emphasis on epistemic values and the practical opportunities of this artifact.

The concluding chapter of the thesis outlines the contribution made by this theoretical research and identifies areas for further investigation. Accompanying the conclusion is an appendix on the data analysis part. Considering the principal research questions and the chosen cognitive approach, we analyse the collection gathered in order to establish a database of their common characteristics and of their (relative) cognitive advantages. The appendix is formed of three parts: Watching and Collecting, Categorizing items and Analysing items and Drawing problems.

The dissertation is conducted by studying the cognitive aspect of this type of moving images. As we clarified in the previous pages, the approach situates TL as a kind of moving image rather than a cinematographic technique. Therefore, this research enquiry attempts to investigate the cognitive outcomes provided by the novel temporal perspective in TL representation. Throughout this approach, all the main parts of the research use an interpretive approach associated with the practical TL projects created by the supervisor and the researcher.

The creation part is well situated to this research as it embraces the practical question on the philosophy and cognitive function of TL. Working on diverse subjects allows new questions to emerge within the research part. In parallel with the data collection and case studies, the thematic and methodological diversity we chose to tackle our subject is important to evaluate the impact of the cognitive view understood in creative work.

Our endeavour builds on previous efforts by theoreticians, scientists and experimental filmmakers to investigate the functional structure of moving image that are considered as an outcome of perception of time and motion.

Appending to this written submission is a portfolio presenting the time-lapse films made alongside the completion of this practice-led research. Cognitive designers.time-lapse is a web-page containing the time-lapse projects, demonstrating the experimental outcome of this research. The web-page also includes corresponding information about each of the films.

Portfolio available at https://cognitivedesigners.scicog.fr/tl-project.html 1

The Study of Motion, Historical Development and Applications of Time-lapse TL images are produced from a mechanical shortage; nevertheless, they provide us with an expanded temporal perspective. This chapter reviews the process of perceiving continuous motions through the early moving images. We argue that the evolution of moving images apparatus established TL structure as an independent genre of moving images. Throughout a historical review, we outline the structural distinction between the cinematographic images and TL images. We discuss the diverse applications of TL and the advantages delivered by this artifact. By determining an accurate terminology and explaining the mechanism, we introduce TL as a tool to observe, record and interpret long-span events.

Our visible environment is full of moving objects, locomoting and transforming at different paces. Once we detect a motion, we perceive it, whether it is real or virtual. We see the movement of the clouds when we pay attention to them. Motion perception follows the same principles, both in real-world and in moving images. However, in moving images, image processing is performed through a form of sensory deception. The movement appears normal and fluid because the human visual system adjusts the process to perceive the segmented, still images as smooth motion. "Moving images" perception is a cognitive process that happens through watching a series of instantaneous images (photographs, drawings or illustrations). The still images, i.e. frames, replace one another with dark blanked frames in between. In order to enable the viewer to register the representation of a motion and to perceive a continuous motion picture, frames are projected at a standard rate of 24 frames per seconds. Projection mechanisms govern our perception by two perceptual phenomena to create the illusion of motion. Perceiving continuity in a series of events is related to the predetermined process of production, in which cuts, editing and narration were used to provide us with this sensation. In this chapter, we attempt to focus on the exquisite potential of moving images in creating the illusion of motion through projecting static images.

The study of the perception of moving images has had great scientific importance in many domains, from physics to psychology. Between 1820 and 1870, the attention of scientists was concentrated on perceptual phenomena and optical illusions. Parallel to the results of these studies, experimental machines such as optical toys emerged for creating moving images [START_REF] Tosi | Cinema Before Cinema: The Origins of Scientific Cinematography[END_REF].

The birth of cinema cannot be inferred as a kind of linear projection from what movies are now into the past. The early steps of the art were undecided, and a bifurcation between different formats only became apparent in time. In particular, TL was one of the promising avenues for early motion pictures.

Determining an accurate terminology for TL will help us to understand how TL works and how it could unfold a phenomenon. We shall do this along the way by discussing the historical terminology, and more thoroughly at the end of the chapter.

The following sections detail some of the salient breakthroughs in moving images technologies starting from the 19th century. For sure this is not meant to be a full history of the moving images, but a walk through the optical-perceptual mechanisms that are relevant for understanding TL and its historical courses.

Motion Perception Through Moving Images

With the Phenakistoscope, invented by Joseph Antoine Ferdinand Plateau in 1833, the moving images technology made its first steps. Although it was meant for scientific purposes, shortly afterwards its invention was turned into a popular optical toy. It gave the impression of a moving content when the observer looked at a series of still images on a rotating cardboard disc. This first machine for producing moving images provided the template for all the subsequent developments. What changed in the following years were the details of the mechanism, but the principle remains the same; giving a sense of continuous action through rapid succession of still image succession (Figure 1.1). In 1834, a mathematician, William George Horner (1786-1837) designed Daedaleum.

The device consisted of a perforated cylinder positioned horizontally on a spindle. On the inner surface of the cylinder, a paper band with images of a set of sequenced drawings or paintings was located. The viewer looked at the pictures through the slits. As the cylinder was rotating, the appearance of movement could be perceived. It was the improved version of the phenakistoscope which allows for the possibility of substituting an infinite series of images inside the cylinder. Based on the same idea, many kinds of optical toys were designed and marketed during this period.

How does it work perceptually? Although the physiological basis of cinema is well known, it is worth mentioning it here. Visual perception is not temporally continuous: cinema exploits a certain number of perceptual mechanisms to generate an impression of movement out of the quick presentation of slightly different still frames. Therefore, the discussion contributes to research on moving images machines (e.g., optical toys, cinema, TL) by demonstrating their common mechanism of enabling the human visual system to perceive the motion. The apparent motion is one of the two perceptual phenomena that gives rise to the perceptual experience.

Apparent Motion and Visual Persistence

The astronomer Herve Faye in 1849 sought to capture the passage of the stars across the meridian, but this turned out to be impossible through the daguerreotype. Within a few years, in 1874, a revolving mechanism photographed series was eventually taken by a French astronomer, Pierre- Jules-Cesar Janssen (1824-1907). He observed and captured a part of the transit of Venus between the sun and the earth thanks to his Photographic Revolver. Jenssen used the revolver photographer to take 48 consecutive images at 1.5 second intervals and captured the transit of Venus across the sun. He designed his instrument based on Phenakistoscope, with a rotating photosensitive emulsion disc and an electrical mechanism triggering exposures in accurate time intervals [START_REF] Mannoni | The Great Art of Light and Shadow: Archaeology of the Cinema, trans[END_REF]. What helps us in assessing the movement of Venus through Janssen's limited series of snapshots is the apparent motion.

Consider two images that are projected at two different points. If we see each one alternately about ten times a second, we perceive them as a single shape moving from one point to another (Figure 1.2). we perceive motion across space between the two points.

In the case of moving images, the apparent motion phenomenon in visual perception generates perceiving of the movements (Figure 1.3). The revolver photographs allowed Janssen to improve his observation and measurement of the distance between the earth and the sun. In order to capture the "contact moment", he took a series of photographs, at very short and regular intervals of time. The Visual persistence is the complementary phenomenon during the motion picture perception, which is related to the succession of light and darkness during the projection process. The phenomenon fools the human visual system into perceiving the segmented movement on the screen as a continuous one. Two following images in still frames become "fused" in the projection phase. This fusion is possible at the normal frame rate (i.e., 24 fps).

Each frame is subsequent to a blanked dark frame and persistence of vision perceptually fills in the blanked frame (i.e., the gaps between the snapshots). The visual system contributes to see the continuous frames as a unique moving image, and as a result, motion is perceived continuously from one state to another.

Taken together, these explanations suggest that the persistence of vision is the variance parameter between chronophotography and moving images. The structural unit of both is a continuous series of still frames. If we capture a motion instantaneously, the result is a series of chronophotography. If we project them at the standard frame rate, the result is a moving image, wherein the persistence vision creates the illusion of motion.

A significant example was presented by Eadweard James Muybridge (1830Muybridge ( -1904) ) in 1878. Following Janssens earlier idea of using his device to study animal motion once the materials allow brief exposures, Muybridge used a series of 24 high-speed 1/500s camera shutter to make sequential exposures through chronophotography. Using instantaneous photography, he analysed a horse run to allegedly ascertain whether, at some instant, a galloping horse had all four feet off the ground (Figure 1.5). The technique provided him with a series of successive images that was just fit for the motion picture. He then modified his technique to take photographic series at a regular interval. 2 Flicker fusion -related to the stroboscopic effect or "Phi phenomenon"-enables us to perceive the motion by "filling in" the temporal gaps between the static images represented in two successive frames.

Historical Development, Sequential Photography of Movements

In the course of the nineteenth century, there is a nexus between chronophotography and optical instruments. Both the Phenakistoscope and the Zoetrope use still frames that are drawings or painted images. In a parallel trend, after the invention of photography in the 1830s, some of the photographers were experimenting and trying to produce photographs of moving objects. This had tremendous consequences for the realism of the resulting representational systems: the perceived realism of photographs was coupled with the perceived realism of movement.

The French photographer Antoine Claudet (1807-1880), was the first to design sequential photography. In his letters published in the magazine La Lumière in 1851, he claimed that he shot a series of twelve self-portraits in 1844 in London, presenting his own head rotation from left to the right profile. He developed and used his daguerreotype multiplier to create these "multiple portraits" [START_REF] Chik | La photographie sérielle et séquentielle. Origines et ambiguïtés[END_REF]. Retrieved from http://www.artnet.com/artists/alexander-hesler/multiple-portrait-of-james-duncangraham-jr-m4_37dWE5lPXpjqojoL2hg2

Mathew Brady is another famous American photographer of the 19th century who used the four lens camera to produce business cards. Among the photographs of the Civil War Era of Brady and his assistants (a collection of more than 12000 images), there are many glass negative plates containing multiple images organized into rows and columns.

What is interesting about them is the time intervals between some of these photos, which make them look like frames of a moving image or TL. These intervals do not appear to be intentional. The most notable four-photograph sets are the ones of Union soldiers in Virginia during the Civil War in 1864 (Figure 1.8). As we can see, these are very much like frames of a TL photography, and by projecting them in a chronological order and with a proper frame rate, the result will be a short video (as we shall see in Chapter 4, an early example of social TL). Revolver photography is the taking of multiple shots of a single subject. Nadar, sitting on a swivel seat, spinned on himself while shooting the "Revolving" self-portrait to represent a subject in several different positions. This is not the first instance of sequence photography though -the first example is probably a complete series of multiple portraits rather than "semi-rotating" portraits taken by Claudet (1843). There is no evidence that Nadar animated this series using the optical toys of that era. However, based on the research of Dominique Willoughby (2009), a rotating photographic self-portrait by Jan Evangelista Purkinje was specially designed around 1865 to be animated in an optical toy. The rotating self-portrait of Purkinje seems to be one of the first cases of animated photography in which the display process is also important (Figure 1.10). Instantaneous photography encouraged the scientist to capture a few snapshots at discrete time points in order to evaluate the dynamic processes of research. It seems that scientists preserved their traditional system for both generating moving images and taking advantage of the cognitive outcomes. When the subject of research was naturally dynamic, technical advances in instantaneous photography were crucial in two respects: scientists should develop the equipment to be able to observe the phenomenon accurately, and on top of that, they were after a study of the perceptual system to improve the artifact. This concern originated in the maintained efforts for creating chronophotography started by Muybridge for capturing the movement of the galloping horse. As [START_REF] Fellow | American media history[END_REF] notes:

Muybridge used a battery of twelve cameras alongside a prepared track. When the horse ran along the track, it broke a series of threads stretched across its path. Each thread, in turn, broke an electrical contact and triggered the shutter of a camera. (Fellow, 2005, p.

212)

One year later, Muybridge published eleven packages including 780 photographs of the first photographic series of humans and animals in motion. "His work greatly influenced painters and stimulated other investigators in photographic analysis, synthesis of motion, and early cinematography" (Peres, 2013, p. 130). The scientific potentialities of the new devices did not go unattended. Chronophotography helped scientists such as Etienne-Jule Marey, a French physician, detect and explain the details of fast movements, which were not graspable in the normal timescale.

Marey developed a chronophotographic gun (made in 1882) that was capable of taking 12 consecutive frames per second. He studied plants, animals and human movements by this instrument (Braun, 1994;Figure 1.11). The purpose in all cases is recording an action sequence in which pace is difficult to apprehend into a series of still frames that can be played back in sequence at a more convenient pace. The compatibility of these devices in recording the event with the visual system produces a suitable status for recognising the motion. Further, the instantaneous images (whether created Because of the fast pace of the representation, the viewer of TL experiences a highspeed report of the event. Similarly representing an event in slow-motion, provides us with a slow pace experience. These altered pace videos do not deliver the nature of the lapsed time.

The viewer cannot measure the duration of the event (She/he could only be aware of the duration of the representation) unless the duration is provided as complementary information. 3TL representation provides us the "sampled motion" of otherwise imperceptible phenomena.

Nevertheless, even by determining the proper intervals, it turns the constant changes into a segmented motions. Despite the developments of the moving images techniques, the structure remains the same.

Why in the time of visual effects and high-tech recording equipment, the TL structure has not been technically changed?

In fast-motion images, by applying a faster-than-normal playback speed or manipulating the sampling rate on digital applications, we can accelerate the pace of the representation. Why does the technique of replaying the images in a fast replay mode not replace the TL technique?

We think the reason for the preservation of the primary structure of the TL technique, is related to the field of use and the cognitive approach for representing the phenomenon in acceleration.

Applications of Time-lapse

To assess the utility of the preserved structure in the diverse fields of use, we aim to focus on the use of TL, from being mainly a scientific tool for observation into an artistic, crossprofessional and multi-disciplinary cognitive artifact.

Pedagogical Devices and Visual Learning

Janssen notes: "photography is the retina of the scientist" (Tosi, 2005, p. 33) He improved his automated TL camera and developed the printing of the films (Gaycken, 2012). For studying the pathway of a phenomenon in which the change process occurs considerably slowly, the measurement of the time course is also essential (e.g., in botanical or biological research). In addition to providing documents for pedagogical purposes, the cognitive advantages delivered by TL assisted scientists in obtaining the assessment of the referent's temporal properties. In these studies, to generate knowledge about the dynamic nature of the understudied phenomenon (e.g., Janssen's observation), the researcher determines precise time intervals in the capture phase. By making multiple TL under different experimental conditions and through the detailed visual evidence, she/he can compare the determinative information about the research process.

The botanist Henderina (Rina) Victoria Scott, who presented her TL films at the Royal Horticultural Society in 1906, had also pioneered experiments with TL in the early 1900s. She used the Kammatograph, which was a combined camera and projector patented by Leonard Kamm in 1898. To project the plant movement, in this camera-projector, she used glass plates with thumbnail images placed in a spiral to display the snapshots chronological order. She made around a dozen TL films featuring plant and flower movements, and gave exhibitions of her animated photographs. Her machine could take 350 photographs, and the playback result was around thirty seconds of TLs photographed at fifteen-minute intervals (Opitz, Bergwik & Van Tiggelen, 2016).

Scott's method of observing plant movement resulted in several scientific publications.

TL allowed her to observe how plants move. This tool provides her with scientific data to enhance the strength of the evidentiary weight of her researches. She described her method of visualisation of plants growth processes as animated photographs:

The purpose of my pictures is to show at an accelerated speed slow movements that cannot be watched by the eye, such as the growth of the young plant from the seed, the opening of a flower and development of the fruit, the movements of a climbing plant, &c. Thus I have been able, by taking photographs at uniform intervals throughout the day during many weeks, to show these photographs in a cinematograph, so that the growth and movements of the plant made during these weeks can pass before the eyes in a few seconds. After a warm rain we often say that we can almost see our plants growing; by means of this adaptation of the cinematograph we literally can. (Gaycken, 2012, p. 32) As Mach (1888) points out, graphic arts are the tools of "fostering the sense perception", TL helped Scott to access temporal perspective which is unavailable to the human sense. The plant movements were visible for her as a botanist, nevertheless recording them in acceleration allows her to observe the familiar phenomena in a novel temporal perspective and also to detect and record the plants' unknown behaviours.

Frank Percy Smith captured plant growth in a visually convenient frame rate and produced the dynamic sequence without any particular montage. According to Minute Bodies:

The Intimate World of F. Percy Smith, in 1910, the history of motion pictures is influenced by his The Birth of a Flower. British Instructional Films, a film production company, supported H.M. Lomas and Smith to make the Secrets Of Nature's series (1922)(1923)(1924)(1925)(1926)(1927)(1928)(1929)(1930)(1931)(1932)(1933). It was one of the pioneering natural history films in 1922-1933. Seed Time (1926), Abnormal Methods Of Nutrition (1930[START_REF] Blumer | The crowd, the public and the mass" en LEE[END_REF]) and Brewster's Magic (1933) were the most important of Smith's efforts to make TL.

In the field of visual education, the researchers adapted the TL mechanism to the related monitoring process. The advances in technological development in producing moving images have developed many principles, methods and tools, affording considerable improvements in the process of knowledge achievement for students in scientific laboratories.

In the very same years, Arthur C. Pillsbury made the first TL camera (1912). In 1920, he used TL for the educational purpose (e.g., Growing Plants Without Soil -Educational Documentary). TL, as a tool for observation of naturally dynamic phenomena, also had a clinical role in the photomicrographic monitoring. For example, the term Biotachygraphy was used by A. Pizon (1904) to refer to filming the growth of a bacterial colony in TL. These images provided novel methods of recording that initially were used to affording evidence for the experiment. An example of visualizing the slow micro-movements is one of the primary clinical TL of human embryo kinetics made for monitoring and measurement of the time course of fertilization [START_REF] Payne | Preliminary observations on polar body extrusion and pronuclear formation in human oocytes using time-lapse video cinematography[END_REF]. "Time-lapse video cinematography overcomes the limitations of intermittent observation by providing a higher resolution and continuous image in which the various components of the cell can be recognized and followed during the entire course of the recording period" (ibid., p. 532). TL affords them a novel clinical opportunity for continuous monitoring of experimental cases of study. By this method, they could monitor 50 fertilized oocytes over 20 hours. They later reviewed ten times all the sequences of each oocyte to ascertain the precise order of events. TL method of recording and observation allows them to describe that human fertilization contains diverse, dynamic events. "In conclusion, we have shown that time-lapse video cinematography is an exciting, powerful and non-invasive technique for observing cellular activity during fertilization and embryogenesis in a coherent, uninterrupted manner, not otherwise available by analysis in real-time" (ibid., p. 540).

Following these inventions, video cameras were equipped with optical microscopes. In medical photography, by using these devices, F. Neumann in 1929 made a TL film to study the movement of living bacteria (Peres, 2013). Through the emergence of high-speed technologies of representation, some subjects of TL making, like astronomy, weather patterns, sportphotography and biological studies were brought into attention and became paradigmatic.

John Nash Ott in 1950 started to develop the modern TL equipment. In his My Ivory [START_REF] Ott | The Story of Time-Lapse Photography[END_REF] he explains how he concocted his ideal TL maker mechanism. The more he was using TL in his lab, the more he discovered the potentials of the equipment and could contribute to its development. Bordering on the artistic movement of the late 1960s and 1970s, Ott was developing and using TL techniques to find the most appropriate interval for each phenomenon and was trying to enter the montage process into the TL films (Figure 1.13). Here is the description at the beginning of the film: "The news magazine reviews the work of John Ott, who by stop-motion photography, speeds up life so that plants grow, cells divide and flowers bloom before your eyes" (Ott, 1951;Figure 1.14).

In some cases, such as in Dancing Flower, he adapts the plant's movement to the light's playing and waters the plants. John Ott took the TL by setting his cameras in 5-minute intervals for several months in a row. In fact, he studies the plant growing process by taking TL. This allowed him to work on the difference between plants growing under artificial and natural light. As we said before, the scientists' concern in monitoring a phenomenon through the TL technique, was adjusting the compatibility of the mechanism of TL with the slow movement of the reference. Thus, if the trial connection between the visual system, the mechanism of the tool and the referent's pace remains convincing, TL is a cognitive artifact to represent the phenomenon. As Gaycken notes:

"While time-lapse plant growth images ultimately could not provide proof that plants are evolutionarily related to animals, time-lapse images did remain useful as a means to demonstrate the remarkable vitality of plants to students and lay audiences" (Gaycken, 2012, p. 51). In representing a botanical process in which the speed of the referent is slow, the other kinds of moving images that faithfully represent the referent's motion pace or slow-it down would not provide the purposes of documentation. When scientists have obtained access to the practical structure of moving images, preserve it. TL with a simple instruction to perform was providing them with otherwise inaccessible visual information. The problem of scientists has been enhancing the vision. As Darius states: "Fast and slow are anthropomorphically defined, our retinal integration and cerebral processing rates being taken as the norm" (Darius, 1984, p. 18).

As we mentioned, the scientists' challenge must have been finding an appropriate temporal configuration such as (e.g., interval), contingent on the temporal properties of the understudied phenomenon.

The Artistic Use of Time-lapse

Employing moving images to represent a dynamic event has not only scientific interest. The possibility of manipulating the temporal properties in moving images provides artists with an expressive tool capable of describing novel aspects of events. Still-images can also represent One of the artistic purposes of altered pace capturing was creating special effects for pioneers of cinema. George Méliés, the French illusionist, used TL photography as an optical effect in his fictional films. For instance, in 1897, he used TL in Carrefour De L'Opéra [START_REF] Rossell | Chronophotography in the context of moving pictures[END_REF]. The use of TL for pioneers of cinema was similar to making animation. The structure of both stop-motion and TL videos is based on a series of discrete and concise snapshots captured at the regular static positions. The same temporal configuration applies to both processes; in stop-motion, the animator relocates the objects in the defined positions and takes the photos. Likewise, TL maker applies time intervals between the snapshots (depending on the event's pace).

The movement in both cases does not seem as constant as in standard frame-rate videos. Also, in both, the moving object seems to move by itself. The different time flow and the independence of the objects in their action add a narrative phase to the representation in TL as in stop-motion animation. 4Discussing the aesthetic effects of accelerated motion, Hebert Settle notes that the accelerated motion produced comic as well as dramatic effects. However, it could be hypothesised that this account concerns some particular events represented in TL. Contrary to the use of slow-motion to produce dramatic scenes with the aim of depicting expressive details of the behaviour of humans and animals, TL is not apt to represent the dramatic layer of an individual's emotional state in the scene. Furthermore, it is worth examining the comic effect of TL and its similarity to the humorous side of the early silent films.

In watching silent films, due to the incompatibility of the standard screens' playbackrate (i.e., 24 fps) with the frame rate of pioneer movies (i.e., 16 fps), the actors of these movies seem to act at a fast pace. In these films, especially in the scenes of social events, an irrational rush is recognisable. Similarly, the comic effect in TL is related to the mechanical structure.

This effect is the result of recording the event in the interval, and consequently, the lack of continuity in the project phase generates visual artifacts such as jumpy movements.

A turning point in the history of the moving images is the rise of digital productions.

The larger international effort in analog TL making occurred during the 1970s. Since the early 1990s, digital equipment has been replacing their analog predecessors. TL-like stop-motion animation, slow motion and regular frame rate moving imgaes are kinds of moving images media. The complex industrial changes with the digital revolution and the industrial advancements of the capturing devices represent a turning point in TL history. But in the case of TL, most technical advantages depend upon individual inventions. "Catalog" 1961"Catalog" , by crystalsculpture2, 2007. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/TbV7loKp69s

While this is not a TL photography, the way Whitney envisions the motion design is such that the frame rate planning and the projection setting is the same as in TL. In the 70s, new theories on the philosophy of experimental cinema, dealing with the form of the film more than with its content, and considering different concepts of time and duration, gained traction.

For the first time TL was considered as a particular way of expression of time perception, not just as a technique in photography and cinema [START_REF] Gaal-Holmes | A History of 1970s Experimental Film: Britain's Decade of Diversity[END_REF].

During the structural film movement in the 1960s and 1970s, and with the philosophical theories of Avant-Garde films, TL is introduced as one of the main properties that characterize a film in the structural cinema category. In 1972, Malcolm Le Grice, in his article "Thoughts on Recent Underground Film" in response to Sitney's definition of common features in structural films (fixed camera position, flicker effect, loop printing and rephotography), mentioned taking advantage of the limitations and the extensions coming from camera mechanism to develop a formal interpretation about time in cinema as one of the main ones (especially in english structural films). He considers cognition about duration and TL mechanism as a potentiality derived from the camera, which cannot be reduced to technical features only (ibid.). "The use of time-lapse photography and timed exposures with a hand-held camera present dynamic fast-moving multiple viewpoints, operating to activate the viewer, who is forced to become conscious of the act of looking (of perception) and film content" (ibid., p. 82).

One of the most important aspects of Sharit's theory on the structural film is the cognition of duration; the treatment of duration makes a difference between minimalist art and modernist form. As [START_REF] Elder | THE STRUCTURAL FILM: RUPTURES AND CONTINUITIES IN AVANT-GARDE ART[END_REF] remarks:

Minimalist art and Post-Painterly Abstraction demanded to be seen in what Michael

Fried called "visual time", i.e., across a more or less extended duration, while modernist painting could only be grasped instantaneously, i.e., taken in "all at once". (ibid., p. 124) This point of view on TL use started with Anthony McCall in Baüme Im Herbst (1960).

In this way, a striking example is a work by Stan Brakhage from 1970 [START_REF] Gidal | Avant-Garde: The Anti-Narrative[END_REF]. In his film The machine of Eden we see the TL sequences (Figure 1.18). These are not easily graspable as an accelerated frame rate. A certain amount of ambiguity in the use of TL by modernist filmmakers is employed to express an artistic viewpoint, and not -or not principally -for making something observable (as we shall discuss in more detail in the next chapter). The principal target, for these artists, was playing with time and examining the represented phenomena in an unusual frame rate. To this effect, artists mixed other techniques with TL. For example, Uluru (Mythology of the Dreamtime) is an avant-garde film by Michael Glasheen of 1977, in which he used electronic superimpositions and video mixing on top of TL photography to narrate Aboriginal myths such as Wanambi, the rainbow serpent, or the topography of Ayers Rock. In order to get a different image of landscape sequences across a more or less extended time, the avant-garde filmmaker uses TL so as to convey different narrations of time and space. Using TL to record landscape, without being interested in the illusionistic structure of cinema, was an artistic statement by many avant-garde filmmakers, such as Chris Welsby in his landscape films (Park Film and Windmill II (1973) and Seven Days (1974)) and William Raban in Angles of Incidence (1973). William Raban also in collaboration with Chris Welsby made River Yar, in 1972.By setting up the camera and capturing one frame every minute for two separate three-weeks periods in one year, they made a TL of the passage of the moon around the earth (capturing the cycle of tides) and the passage of the earth around the sun (TL of light). By employing TL to have different explanations of natural environmental change, Raban made several TL films [START_REF] Gaal-Holmes | A History of 1970s Experimental Film: Britain's Decade of Diversity[END_REF].

In Broadwalk (1972) [START_REF] Gidal | Avant-Garde: The Anti-Narrative[END_REF]Figure 1.19).

Figure 1.19. Short Film Series (Sherwin, 1975-2014). From 'Short Film Series' by Guy Sherwin, by J. Jacques, 2015. Retrieved from https://frieze.com/article/short-film-series-guy-sherwin

These films are all about relationships -between light and darkness, light and camera, camera and subject, subject and filmmaker and viewer, all at once and played out not only on the screen but also in the mysterious conjunction between the projected film and the viewer. [START_REF] Ditzler | An interconnected set of 3 minute films, in which the structure of each one becomes apparent through the process of watching[END_REF], SHORT FILM SERIES-Guy Sherwin)

If we consider recording a sequence by a pre-set interval pace and then making a process visible as a common goal, the technique of Analemma photography will fall in the same category as the TL we are discussing in this section. The first analemma photography was taken by Dennis di Cicco in 1978-79. He captured the sun position at the same moment of the day of each week from the same point of view. This process took place over one year, and then converted to a single still frame to present the analemma (Figure 1.20). The capturing process was the same as TL and Chronophotography; the difference is in how we render the process or phenomena, by projecting in a shorter playback time the series of still frames or combining all frames in one frame. The Moon Score series, by Hitoshi Nomura, was made in 1975 (Figure 1.21). The capturing process was like that of TL and his projection process was like that of chronophotography. He produced a photo series of the moon position by shooting a roll of film (36 exposures) each night. In this case, the artist attempts to use revolver shooting to make visible a phenomenon, but not for a scientific purpose as was the case in Cicco's analemma [START_REF] Marien | Photography: A Cultural History[END_REF]. This is one of the first long documentaries using TL, hyperlapse and slow-motion sequences, in which Ron Frick and Reggio narrated a story without actors or dialogue. By fitting out their camera powered by a gel cell battery for filming at a frame rate of 1½ frames per second, they manipulated time to show complex life phenomena. [START_REF] Reggio | Koyaanisqatsi: Life Out of Balance [Film[END_REF]. From Koyaanisqatsi part 6/9, by thesumofparts, 2009.

Retrieved from https://youtu.be/jOIvJTuCrlE

Monitoring Ecological Patterns by Time-lapse

Some events are defined by their temporal features. In order to represent them in another temporal scale, e.g. TL or slow-motion, we have to alter the principal feature that is essential in describing the causes of occurrence. If the event's temporal properties are imperceptible in standard frame-rate film, one has to consider how the manipulation affects temporal features.

Poidevin, in his The image of time (2007), by pointing to Gibson's account on the imperceptibility of time, discusses the relation between perception of time and perception of temporal properties of the event.

'Time perception' may with some justification be thought a misnomer. As the psychologist J. J. Gibson once remarked, 'events are perceivable but time is not' (quoted in Pöppel 1978: 713). We do not, however, register events only, but also their time order and duration. (Poidevin, 2007, p. 11) However, in the case of long-span events, representing the temporal features is complicated. For instance, in order to transfer a piece of information about environmental subjects such as climate change, the main representational problem concerns how to represent the entire duration of the event. Suppose a researcher tries to inform the public how the loss of glaciers melting and retreating in a few years would change climate patterns. In this case, the event to represent is an ongoing continuous process. On the other hand, the glacial ice transformation process is a long-term event, undetectable by a single photograph or sequence in normal time flow. James Balog, American photographer and founder of Extreme Ice Survey, after working on a national geography assignment by making a single frame still photography of the glacier to record the climate change photographically, decided to set the cameras at several glaciers and let them shoot in TL, to watch the progression of the landscapes over time. He designed, built and deployed the cameras, which were powered by solar panels (Figures 1.24

and 1.25).

5 "Climate 365" is an ongoing monitoring project of NASA's earth science news team, Goddard Space Flight

Center and Jet Propulsion Laboratory in which they publish the observation of Earth's climate on the NASA web sites Earth Observatory and Global Climate Change. Of course, to represent an event through TL means being unable to perceive the event's temporal properties, let us say the objective time, which in turn could be advantageous.

Those people who shoot endless time-lapse films of unfurling roses and tulips have the wrong idea. They should train their cameras instead on the melting of pack ice, the green filling of ponds, the tidal swing of the Severn Bore. They should film the glaciers of Greenland, some of which creak along at such a fast clip that even the dogs bark at them. They should film the invasion of the southernmost Canadian tundra by the northernmost spruce-fir-forest, which is happening right now at the rate of a mile every ten years. When the last ice sheet receded from the North American continent, the earth rebounded ten feet. Wouldn't that have been a sight to see? (Dillard, 1974, p. 145)

Time-lapse for Historical Documentation

Each visual technology, whether in the use of science or art, has its own specific value of representation and documentation. In a historical context, TL, as a visual document, could provide valuable information on a cultural heritage. On the other hand, the documentary can also narrate a long-term event (e.g., Re-illustrating a change in a city's architecture). The input, that is the series of still images from a scene capturing it by chunking up movement in still images. The interval between the frames may vary. But if we take the standard time scale moving images as a point of reference, a rate less than 24 fps will give the impression of jumping movement, whereas a rate higher than 24 fps will give us a smoother representation. Persistence of vision is taken advantage of, as the result of this process (i.e., perceiving the succession of still images as a continuous moving image) is the very principle of the moving images. In TL, it should be stressed that the capturing frame rate is important because the purpose is to make the changes visible.

If the capture is too slow the viewer does not recognize the changes as perceptible, and if the number of captured frames is small the movement is jerky and recognition of changes is hard.

II.

The "time machine mechanism", which is not necessarily a physical action on the input, depends on the kind of moving images, a decision making process about frame rate, editing the series frame and the respect of aesthetic or communication constraints (the convenient frame rate to give the impression of continuous motion was at least 16 frame per second.)

III.

The output: the moving images will be displayed in 16-24 fps to create the illusion of movement and then observing the sequence of still images on a fixed support.

The input in one of the original moving images apparatuses, the Phenakistoscope, was the drawing placed between the notches; the display mechanism works by rotating the disk and looking through the notches at a mirror. The display process in TL has a similar structure.

Watching a moving image means watching the individual frames, one after the other at a fast pace. The number of the frames which is shown depends on the film's speed. In standard film, projectors show us 24 frames per second; each different frame flickers three times rapidly, so that in total, we watch seventy-two frames per second. According to Yoshihiko [START_REF] Kuroki | 3.4: Improvement of Motion Image Quality by High Frame Rate[END_REF], the ratio between motion speed and the frame rate of projection, can be raised to 240 frames per second. In this condition, our visual system can see these frames without being distracted. In another study, Waston estimates 120 frames per second for average viewers can be perceived comfortably, although that does not mean that in these kinds of projection (TLs with 120 frames per second) we will find the process of changing too real and more perceptible.

In TL videos, time is intentionally modified, the purpose depending on the subject of the representation [START_REF] Kanai | Time dilation in dynamic visual display[END_REF]. This manipulation is taken to provide a clearer perception of movement and offers a rapid review for informational purposes. The manipulation causes the frames which are captured at spaced time intervals to appear as continuous. As we mentioned before, it is because of visual persistence that we see the fused frames normally and we are unable to find out how much time passed between capturing these frames. We can question the workings of visual persistence also with a simple example. For this purpose, we consider a TL as a gradation from two different colors (A and B), like the gradual blends of grey between black and white. Actually, as we have more greys, the distinction between two greys would be harder to perceive. These greys between black and white are the same as the frames between the first and the last picture in TL and the between frames in the middle of two keyframes in a motion film. But what will make this gradient smooth and also perceptible at the same time?

Like the gradient mechanism, the concept of a frame can depend on its previous and next frame.

When a photographer takes a series of photos of a subject's motion, each of the photos has its individual representation value, but in the TL process, the concept of each frame will be changed when the next frames arrive. The viewers do not follow individual frames but rather the chronology of the frames.

The commonalities such as producing sequential frames of a moving object and modifying the proportionality between recording time and playback time of a phenomenon, define TL as a method between photography and moving images.

To make TL, we start with taking photos. You set the frame features and the interval, then the camera fires to take the shots. But the output is not a static image so it can't be categorized as a photography technique. Conversely, we cannot generalize all the methods which consist of the same type of input (sequential photography) as a kind of TL. For example, there is a big difference even between all the predecessors' techniques of TL like Revolver photography and Chronophotography, themselves. Chronophotography (in its Muybridge version) is shooting an action in one series of images with several cameras while sequential photography is capturing multiple frames with one camera. In both techniques the point is the multiplication in frames and the output was a static picture. But even in the early TL instances like the transit of Venus, the input is the same, so it is not completely apart from Chronophotography. They are similar in the initial capture process, taking movement as their subject and setting a regular interval to take the shots. However,the output in TL is a moving image. The other main difference with its preceding techniques is the purpose. TL permits us to perceive a movement which is slower than a graspable movement. So the purpose is to accelerate a movement and neglecting the details in it. Chronophotography (merged with revolver photography by Marey in 1882), is for recognizing the circumstances of change between frames, as when studying the human movement.

The terminology of TL depends on the viewing process of the still images that seem to move. Even if it is the result of photography, the principle is to perceive the movement by creating persistence of vision in the display procedure. However, we often witness the TL under the "photography" label, which is as common as TL "cinematography". But in this research, relative to considering TL as a representational artifact working by perceivable movement, we categorize TL as a type of moving images production system.

Conclusion

Three major steps mark the history of TL. In the first phase, that we can call the undifferentiated embryonal phase, TL was one of the possibilities or promises of the development of the moving images. When real time moving images took the lead, TL occupied two different niches in temporal sequence. In a first historical phase, the technical potential of TL was more advantageous and useful for the scientific community. Indeed, it was the scientists who invented and improved the technical means of representation to simplify the detection of movement of some phenomena which were not accessible in the real time scale. In a more recent phase, artists used the perceptual advantages of TL for expressive goals in their artworks.

They sought to represent a scene in a different form, and not just "more quickly". There was a large experimental potential that was noticed by them, not merely to get a different visual effect. The representation of visual phenomena under a different temporal perspective helped them express their ideas. Furthermore, for both scientists and artists, this method of knowing and depicting a complex moving phenomenon in detail relates to the possibilities and the advantages derived from photographic capabilities available in each period and the purpose of TL maker.

The goals of TL making are thus defined in four ways:

I.

The TL maker already has an idea about the result and makes TL after experiencing the phenomenon at least once; they know that we don't get to see the phenomena normally, but that it is measurable and photographable over the time. They use TL to represent the long change process in a short time and make it perceptible (e.g., TLs of climate change).

II.

In the scientist's cases, (like Marey's and Ott's) the goal is to study a moving object through TL to detect the detailed change in the movement.

III.

Artistic expression and working on the form of the moving images by altering the frame rate.

IV. After the digital revolution and with the emerging of the new media technology and the democratization of recording techniques, TL is used in most cases just for improving the TL technique and presenting the TL technique potentials as much as possible. In this term the natural representation of the phenomenon is not important, the goal is having a new and surprising report of reality.

The structural shortcoming in the primary moving images tools generated intermediate gaps between frames. The deficit in the capture phase could entail a lack in the representation of the constant movement. As in TL, we capture fewer positions of the phenomenon than in the standard frame-rate video; it seems possible that TL images have emerged before the established form of cinema. In other words, accelerated moving image emerges because of the incomplete devices; however, they generated the perceptual advantages for the scientists who researched slow phenomena.

The expanded or diminutive time has been induced structurally because the concept of TL or slow-motion is defined in the capture phase. Observing a particular motion (movement or locomotion) does not depend on seeing the intermediate position. TL provides the observation method for examining the path of movement.

TL was basically sourced from a deficit, the lack of continuity in the capturing phase.

Why have TL photographers continued using this technique despite the emergence of cinematography and technology advancement?

Suppose we aim to capture 480 minutes and playback it in 8 minutes. In this case, if we capture the images by 2 seconds interval, we will get a total of 14400 images. Filming the same 480 minutes at 30 fps will result in a video equivalent of 864000 images. To playback this video in 8 minutes, we need to increase the playback frame rate up to 1800 fps which is not worth the extra energy, storage and processing required. Considering a subject that took years to capture, it costs even more, and we will also capture heavy amounts of unnecessary frames by filming all the time. On the other hands, even if we have infinite resources and high-speed capturing and playback devices, our eyes and brain are not capable of interpreting the images at this frame rate.

As we have seen, TL produces accelerated moving images by manipulating the temporal properties of the vehicle. The projecting process is the same as in all kinds of moving images, but in TL, in particular, the capturing time intervals are not equal to the playback time intervals. This manipulation has some cognitive consequences, especially on the content of the representation. The interaction between vehicle and content is ubiquitous in representation.

You can take a photograph of a white dress and color the white parts of the photograph yellow; by altering the vehicle, you change the content -the dress (the content) now appears yellow.

Similarly, all the phenomena represented by TL (we consider all types of change processes in place and time as a phenomenon belonging to the content) will be represented differently from what they typically are in their real-time scale. In some cases, the filmed object is represented in a way that can provide cognitive benefits or advantages to the visual perception mechanism.

As a matter of fact, the majority of TL pioneers used it as a scientific aid. In science, employing TL helps discover unknown phenomena and document the scientific processes. The representation opens a pathway to attain valuable but otherwise inaccessible information on the visual world. Commenting on photographs which merely depict scientific subjects, Darius (1984), by mentioning Francis Thompson's view about scientific photographs, notes:

Francis Thompson could have been describing scientific photography when he wrote, "0 world invisible, we view thee . . . 0 world unknowable, we know thee,/Inapprehensible, we clutch thee"

This definition neatly sidesteps the deluge of photographs which merely depict scientific subjects, so that we shall not be compelled to consider pictures of butterflies parading in the guise of entomology, nor rocky outcrops representing geology, not even records of skin diseases dermatology. Scientists may find them handy, technical journals may publish them -but in such photographs the camera does not afford us an understanding that the eye alone could not attain. (Darius, 1984: Preface) TL is advantageous if the subject is invisible and imperceptible in the normal time-flow to observe, document and analyse. Despite the technological development in the cinema industry, this imperfect structure of cinematograph has been preserved. TL images are produced from a mechanical shortage; nevertheless, they provide us with many exquisite cognitive advantages.

In the next chapter, we will examine the cognitive advantages of TL and we aim to

2

The Philosophy of Time-lapse: Vision makers

We investigate TL cinematographic sequences in their capacity of representational tools that make certain features of a phenomenon visually accessible. We introduce TL as a subcategory of Altered Pace moving images (AP) and discuss analogies and disanalogies of APs with other "vision making" informational and representational artifacts. We introduce some descriptive and explanatory notions, among which the notion of epistemic advantage of TLs, or the notion of pictures' silence, and we assess the role of background knowledge in interpreting silent pictures. We claim that TL and, more in general, AP moving images, in spite of their analogies with microscopes and telescopes, are representations with no informational equivalent, thus constitute a valuable addition to our epistemic repertoire. If they had an informational equivalent, this would have to include a time machine.

Time-lapse: Vision makers

TL or accelerated moving images were born with cinema and are now largely democratized;

virtually each newly sold camera allows for TL shots that can be parametrized at will. Until recently, the history of TL was mainly that of its scientific use [START_REF] Sicard | La fabrique du regard: Images de science et appareils de vision[END_REF], with occasional artistic and entertainment manifestations. As with its dual, slow motion moving images (SM), it was generally assumed that TLs could provide insight on the unfolding of some phenomena, literally making visible some features, patterns, elements of the phenomena they represented.

To fix ideas, a classic instance of the use of TL for showing glaciers movements over periods of months and years (e.g., Extreme Ice Survey, Balog, 2007). For SM, a paradigmatic example is the dynamics of impacts, such as droplets falling on water, or bullets piercing armors. It may be useful for taxonomical purposes to introduce a general category that encompasses both TL and SM moving images. We propose the term Altered Pace moving images (AP). AP moving images are here meant as a well circumscribed category of their own. Arguably, many narrative and documentary movies alter -one way or another -the temporal structure of represented events and processes: temporal gaps, flashbacks, sequences run in the reverse are commonplace in moving images. However, the AP category we draw attention to is constituted by items where the time compression or expansion has been performed uniformly over a given interval.

Since the seventies, the new theories on the philosophy of experimental cinema focusing on the syntax of films more than its content became more and more commonplace and made salient the interest of time manipulating operations. In this context, TL manipulations were usually considered as one of the characterizing dimensions of moving images. Le Grice mentioned taking advantage of limitations and extensions tied to camera mechanisms in order to manipulate the time dimension of cinema. He considered cognition about duration and TL mechanism as a form of extended cognition the camera makes possible (Gaal-Holmes, 2015).

The documentary aspect and the analogy of time-lapse with the visual technologies like telescopes and microscopes could be traced back to Dziga Vertov theory in "The Birth of Kinoeye" in which he mentioned the cinema as a set of apparatuses of representation for organizing the visible world [START_REF] Vertov | Kino-Eye: The Writings of Dziga Vertov[END_REF]. As a matter of fact, TL uses interval alteration as the possibility of recording and displaying one's observations, breaking spatial and temporal limits.

To get control over the phenomenon and viewer, the film-artists must master the rules and structures of observation/presentation. Conversely, what viewer will perceive and infer depends on how filmmakers employ the tools. Now, making visible a phenomenon by altering the temporal features is not just a technical instrument of cinema. It is a way to construe the documentary activity, not merely the attempt to produce a different visual effect. This essay thus investigates the interplay between the cognitive process, the technical rules and the representational means of TL sequences, that are summarized in the tenet that TL should be considered as vision makers.

The reason we prima facie accept the characterization of TL and in general AP moving images as vision makers springs from the fact that we accept the claim that in normal, ecological conditions we do not have visual access to (the relevant aspects, features, patterns of) or visually notice the phenomena they represent. When looking at a real glacier, we do not see, or notice, any global pattern of movement (except the occasional, local fall of an ice block.)

Similarly, for SM: when looking at the impact of a drop of water, we do not see, or notice, the crown-shaped rebound of droplets. Glacier movements (and the fine dynamics of the impact of water drops) do not make it to the phenomenology of visual experience, that includes visual noticing and attending. TL (and SM) are here claimed to give experiential access to those phenomena. 6

We think that the making visible thesis is, by and large, correct, for reasons that parallel those given in the literature to defend the claim that we do see with telescopes and microscopes [START_REF] Pacherie | Do We See with Microscopes?[END_REF]see Cutting, 1986;Gibson, 1986;[START_REF] Hacking | Representing and Intervening: Introductory Topics in the Philosophy of Natural Science[END_REF][START_REF] Marr | Freeman[END_REF]. However, we also think that there are reasons to modulate it, given an important asymmetry with telescopes and microscopes. The asymmetry reveals in turn the scope of the making visible thesis.

We start from a framing of the analogy of TL with telescopes. Telescopes give access to objects, properties and facts that are not visible to the naked eye. For instance, all galaxies except a few are simply too far away, hence too faint, to be spotted with the naked eye even in the most advantageous sighting circumstances. Telescopes capture that small amount of light and reorganize it in a way as to generate a virtual image of the galaxy. ('Virtual image' is used in this description in the geometric sense in which the science of optics uses it, with little overlap with the ordinary meaning of the term to describe either pictures or mental items). That virtual image is visible with the unassisted eye. This brings the distant galaxy within the range of visible things, in a relatively innocent but precise sense: we can inspect it visually, compare it visually with other galaxies and with other more ordinary objects of similar shape (e.g., a top or a cloud). Microscopes do the same for small objects, bringing things that are invisible to the naked eye because too little within the realm of things that can be seen (visually inspected, compared with other ordinary objects under their visual profile: "paramecia look like decorated shoe soles"). When Galileo first used his contraption to observe features at the surface of the moon, he claimed that the device allowed him to move the study of celestial bodies from metaphysical (we could rephrase: highly inferential) discussions to "sensible experiences", (i.e., to direct observation). 7

6 A claim can be made about an all-encompassing notion of seeing, according to which we may actually see an event such as a glacier's movement although we would not be able to notice or recognize it (in the same sense in which we can be said to have seen the Queen of England although we did not recognize her). Here we subscribe to a narrower notion of seeing, according to which on top of being in visual contact with an object or an event, we also need to discriminate it spatially or temporally (Dretske, 1969).

7 Galileo indulges in expressing the cognitive pleasures that accompany the conquest of visual access: "Then to have got rid of disputes about the Galaxy or Milky Way, and to have made its nature clear to the very senses, not to say to the understanding, seems by no means a matter which ought to be considered of slight importance. In addition to this, to point out, as with one's

The analogy with optical instruments, however, breaks down on an important point.

Microscopes and telescopes are a particular class of cognitive artifacts: they are information enhancers. They do not generate public representations of the objects they target, and whose visual aspects they make accessible. Indeed, they do not represent anything. Their unique business is to tweak the information flow so as to make it compatible with and accessible to vision under the biological constraints of the naked eye.

TL and SM, on the other hand, are representations. They are constituted by a sequence of still frames, each of which is a picture of an object in a particular moment of time. Pictures are representational cognitive artifacts, not merely information enhancers (even though, of course, they can be and oftentimes are the result of a process that incorporates the use of information enhancers: e.g., a photograph taken with the assistance of a telescope, or plainly a photograph generated by a lens camera).

There is a somewhat unsettled discussion about whether we see the objects that photographs depict, or whether we just see representations of these objects [START_REF] Benovsky | Photographic Representation and Depiction of Temporal Extension[END_REF][START_REF] Maynard | The Engine of Visualization: Thinking Through Photography[END_REF][START_REF] Walton | Transparent Pictures: On the Nature of Photographic Realism[END_REF]). For our purposes, it is important to underline a commonly agreed upon distinction between the vehicle and the content of a representation. When you look at a photograph or a screen, still or moving colored shapes on the surface are representational vehicles; objects and events the image represents are its content. Relations between shapes, change of shape and color and rates of change are properties of the vehicle; these may or may not correspond to relations and changes in the represented content. If, in general, a change in vehicle is necessary to deliver a change in content (in order to represent the fall of a stone, the shapes in the vehicle must change over time), a change in vehicle is not sufficient for representing a change in content (a modification of colors on the vehicle, e.g., at sunset, may not alter the content, e.g., of a white house on a cliff). In particular, when discussing TL, we want to be able to draw a distinction between the representation of an accelerated event (thus focusing on content), and the accelerated representation of an event (thus focusing on vehicle).

In the TL of glacier example, it looks to us as if glaciers are flowing faster than their usual flowing rate. But of course, this is not the case: glaciers are not changing at the rate they would if the representation was not a TL. Still there is an impression as if glaciers are flowing faster, and this visual aspect is important precisely because of the epistemic weight we want finger, the nature of those stars which every one of the astronomers up to this time has called nebulous, and to demonstrate that it is very different from what has hitherto been believed, will be pleasant, and very fine." (Galileo, 1880) TLs to carry; for instance, when we visually compare the flowing patterns in glaciers' movements in a TL with, say, the flow of a stream of molasses out of a jar. What accounts for the visual impression that it is glaciers that are moving faster? Our proposal is that the acceleration concerns the temporal displacement8 of the viewer -his or her temporal perspective.

To take a SM example from fiction, in Spider Man [START_REF] Raimi | Spider-Man[END_REF] there is an attempt at representing the main character's extraordinary perceptual states from his peculiar point of view [START_REF] Ziskin | [END_REF]. We may surmise that Peter Parker's newly acquired super visual system has a faster refresh rate than that of ordinary humans, whereby he sees other people's movements as much slower -and is able to fend off threatening blows from bullying Flash

Thompson. The director simulates a slow motion of the blow, with Parker's head turning at "normal" speed so as to stress the difference between the two characters's perspective on the unfolding of events (this is stressed by the surprised look of Parker).

The discussion of a spatial analogy is in order. When we look at a distant tree through binoculars, we can claim that we see a larger tree than with the unassisted eye; maybe the unassisted eye is unable to resolve the single tree, it only sees the green expanse of a far away forest. We can however also claim that the tree we see is in no sense any larger: trees do not suddenly expand when we look at them through binoculars. However, we need to use the "larger tree" notion in order to account for what happens when we run visual checks of the tree -for instance, when we compare what we see in the binoculars to figures in a botany atlas.) To save both intuitions (impression of "larger than", and tree that however does not change its size just because of our observation), we can say that the binocular "moves" our viewpoint close to the tree. The change is in the viewpoint, not in the observed object or event.9 (The same holds for microscopic observation.)

Likewise, an observation made through a TL is like a kind of linear time travel, performed with eyes wide open. (The same can be said for SL and for other AP moving images, such as video run in reverse. Interestingly, no spatial analogy is easily available for reverse time motions. Upside down pictures? Pictures with inverted colors?)

TL, as we said, are representational artifacts. They do not have an informational analogon, the way a tree seen through a telescope provides an analogon for an enlarged picture of the same tree. However, it is not difficult to imagine what such an analogon would be like, if it existed. It would be like the window frame of a time travel machine, allowing the passenger to look out during the travel. If we could move in time at a rate faster than the normal time flow (faster than "one second per second") we would be able to see glaciers flowing like jam, and if the rate was much slower, we would be able to see drop impacts generate droplet crowns. If microscopes and telescopes give us access to objects that are not visible to the naked eye, SMs and TLs give us access to events that are not visible to the dynamically naked eye.

A couple of caveats are in order. First, the making visible thesis may be interpreted as suggesting other analogies of AP moving images with microscopes or telescopes. For instance, telescopes make visible items that the naked human eye is too weak to see. However, it can be objected that no improvement of the eye could make humans perceive glaciers' slow movements. In our discussion we consider making visible in a less restrictive sense than simply enhancing our peripheral visual capabilities. Visual access is not just a matter of eye improvement.

Second, the sense in which we talk of AP moving images acting like time machines is quite restrictive. If you look at a video recording of an episode of your childhood, you are in a kind of time machine situation (you visually access past events). And some authors (Wilson, 1988) have argued that cinema is like a time machine (Cf. Casati, 2003). But in most cases, the

The silence of pictures

Now consider. A small picture can represent a large object, but that it represents it as large is an extrinsic feature of the picture, and it has to do with further computational aspects (i.e., with rules we implicitly employ when we interpret the picture). One may claim that pictures are silent 10 about the real dimension of the objects they represent: "This could be a picture of Lilliput" (said of a picture of the village of Barbizon). However, this holds only in the abstract.

Indeed, silence is always mitigated by the availability of background knowledge about content (typically houses and people have certain sizes, etc.) The workings of this background 10 Silence is a notion used in literature about the content of perception (see [START_REF] Travis | The Silence of the Senses[END_REF].

knowledge become apparent when there are conflicts: Gulliver enters the scene and sits next to a house that is much smaller than he is, packed with people greeting him from windows. The picture begs us to make choices: is this a giant visiting a normal-sized village, or is he a normally sized person in a miniaturized setting? These choices require more inferences, exploration of the picture, involvement of yet more background knowledge.

But -and this is a crucial pointif we do make a choice, we have to postulate a computation that enabled the choice. The computational mechanism whereby we finally make this choice is an anchoring mechanism. An object is taken as a reference, and each other object's size is determined in an inferential cascade of size assignments. A Lilliputian, say, is seen as having the normal human size; houses around her are normalized, and Gulliver is seen as a giant.

Anchoring is a widespread ingredient of many visual computations. The Moon is a dark object (maria are filled with basalt, Figure 2.1) but as it is the brightest object in the night and (locally) in the day sky, it is seen as bright white. If a crow intercepts your car's light at night, it is seen as white as a dove [START_REF] Gilchrist | An anchoring theory of lightness perception[END_REF]. Anchoring does not only pertain to the chromatic dimension. In the case of TLs or SMs, we avail ourselves of the notion of temporal anchoring. In the sequence A boy in Marseille (Yasaei, 2017) a boy is asked to stand still for two minutes, where a scene filled with people coming and going unfolds in the background (Figure 2.2). The boy's slow movements provide a temporal anchor. The underlying visual computation is likely based on the fact that is chosen as an anchor whichever resembles more the normal time course: everything else is seen as accelerated. If, on the other hand, there is no anchor, we see the acceleration, but we attribute it to the moving image (the vehicle), not to the event (the content). The video was custom produced to highlight a temporal anchoring ambiguity parallel to the one found in the image displaying people of different sizes. The moving image begs us to make choices, and anchoring is the explanation of the choice we end up making.

Framing and anchoring effects play an important role in the perception of moving images that are intended to highlight some key properties of the represented events. The DIAL project (Casati & Puccetti, 2016) realized a TL of the shadow of Burj Khalifa -as of 2016, the tallest building in the world -near the winter solstice of 2016. The constraint of the shooting was to keep the shadow always in the middle of the picture (Figure 2.3). This constraint anchors the picture to the Sun-Earth direction; the only moving elements -at a perceivable pace -are landscape features, which make, when played at an accelerated rate, the Earth's rotation visible.

In this project, two visual computations are tweaked in order to deliver the intended effect. The first is temporal anchoring; the second is spatial framing -keeping the shadow parallel to the image frame "locks" the spatial frame of reference to the shadow, and makes the world appear to move.11 When anchoring is not available, the behaviour of represented objects may be awkward, not experienced as an acceleration. In the Spring Equinox TL Spinning Shadows (Casati, 2014c), trees moved by the wind appear to shake unnaturally. The intriguing observation made possible by this TL is that at the end of the day shadows climb trees and "quit" the Earth, a phenomenon that is not visible with the dynamically naked eye.

The features a TL can contribute to represent can be extremely high level and abstract.

In the Around the Solstice TL, each frame collects a position of the Sun at sunrise. Each day the Sun rises in a different location, reaching a southernmost point on the Winter solstice (in the Northern hemisphere), then rising each day in a more and more northern position (Casati, 2014b). The TL shows a movement of the Sun on the horizon, but of course there is no such unitary movement in nature.

Finally, a pedagogical use of TL can take advantage of situated models (Casati, 2014a).

A globe that is so oriented that the place at the top corresponds to the place where the globe is situated, and such that the globe's axis is parallel to the Earth's axis (Figure 2.4), will display, when put under the sun, a pattern of light and shadow that exactly corresponds to the pattern that at the same time occurs on the planet. The TL of the situated model shows in real time the illumination pattern of the Earth on a given day. Here as in other cases some specific observations are made possible by the TL acceleration. For instance, in a video shot around the boreal Summer solstice, it is possible to observe that the area south of the Antarctic Polar Circle is in the shade during the whole day.

The computational account

When inspecting a TL moving images, the computations we mentioned (as well as some others)

characterize the particular epistemic profile of the representational artifact. The key ingredient of this profile is that part of the computational burden of the observation is displaced to the visual system. Displacement is a key notion here [START_REF] Casati | Sunrise time lapse solstice to equinox[END_REF]. It occurs in a number of other cases (but, be it said, it is not a definitory feature of epistemic artifacts in general; other operations are available.) Consider what happens when you want to communicate about a certain content, say, the number of trains leaving between 9am and 10am. You may send a disorganized, bag-of-words list of times, and your party will have to read out all items one after the other in order to find out the relevant pieces of information. You may, however, highlight the relevant trains in the list. The non-highlights list and the highlights list are informationally equivalent: no train between 9am and 10am is present in one list which is not present in the other. But they are computationally very different: the computational effort to extract the relevant information from the highlights list is considerably lesser (Simon, 1978). Trivial as this may appear, the example points to an important architectural feature of our engagement with cognitive artifacts. The computational burden can be displaced from a complex orchestration of conscious routines (reading, recognizing, storing in working memory as you scrutinize the non-highlighted list) to the visual system, that has a mighty computational army to perform the singling out task.

Two side morals can be drawn here. The first, is that the epistemic artifact is not carrying the computational burden. There is a recent but robust tradition of describing what goes on in cases like this, whose main tenet is that we offload cognitive tasks to the artifact. This is true in some cases (e.g., when we do offload computations to GPS-based navigation systems or to pocket calculators) but not in many other significant cases (such as highlighting as described above, map reading, picture observation). A certain narrative of de-humanization has it that we literally store our knowledge in cognitive artifacts (libraries, hard disks, the cloud) [START_REF] Clark | The Extended Mind[END_REF]. This may be true for certain practices and engagements with artifacts, but not for all of them. The second moral is that displacement is however, at bottom, a kind of de-humanization. By displacing the computational burden to the visual system, we delegate it to a sub-personal part of ourselves: and the visual system is not a person, has no duties or responsibilities.

Obtaining knowledge from TL

When looking at a TL of a glacier, we shift to the visual system some computations that without the temporal displacement of the viewpoint would engage complex inferences -be they or not assisted by static pictures (e.g., the still frames of each phase of the displacement). We would have to mentally mark the position of the glacier front at different times (store those in memory or on paper to realize that there was movement, calculate ground covered in different time intervals to obtain speed and compare speeds over different intervals to detect accelerations or decelerations, etc.). Movements, speeds and accelerations are on the other hand immediately available on visual inspection of the TL. We assume that our viewpoint is displaced in time at constant speed, and we immediately perceive higher order patterns of accelerations in the scene. Thus certain computations are shifted to the visual system, that is well endowed to make sense of dynamic features and comparisons. Now, displacing the computational burden to the visual system is not to say that the visual system does all the epistemic work. The visual system has cognitive resources that are by and large dictated and optimized by its evolutionary history. It is not supposed to directly adjudicate on anything that goes just beyond that very limited brief (tell apart objects and background, locate objects at a distance, keep track of objects, decide whether a certain item is faster than another, etc.). There is no scientist homunculus embedded in vision. Good as the visual system is at perceiving complex patterns, it is not making any scientific use of them.

Higher-order knowledge may make use of the delivery of the visual system, but it requires a lot more than just the deployment of visual routines.

In this respect, it is important to remark that a TL is not just a "cognitive time saver".

It is not that we spare ourselves the tiresome burden of tracking over long months the development of an ice front. For sure, some forms of perceptual time compression are time savers. Warnings about the use of medication are routinely read out at the end of radio and TV ads, at a quick rate that borders on intelligibility. And for sure, this cognitive advantage is trivially exemplified in TL as well. However, the cognitive advantage we are after here belongs more in the realm of cognitive displacement. Making visible is, after all, precisely that. We can access many complex features of the evolution of an ice front -not just the shortening of the glacier, but also its becoming thinner, the evolution of detritus it carries, etc.

As we just mentioned a TL in the auditory modality, auditory patterns in the TL of auditory representation of earthquakes, obtained by first transducing representations of seismic waves into sound patterns and then running them at a faster speed (Winters & Weinberg, 2015), take us closer to the understanding that quakes are in the end oversize collisions of vast and massive objects. By playing back seismographic recordings at a faster speed, we can literally make audible events that are largely in the infrasonic range. But without an understanding of plate tectonics, what we hear are just suggestive auditory patterns; they could be noises made by colliding pieces of tin. (Note that sonified/accelerated earthquakes present the same issues we discussed with time-lapses: the fact that we hear images of sounds and not the sound themselves, and the silence of the representation, that requires some anchoring procedure.)

Similarly, in the case of the TL of glacier front evolution, our understanding of the visibly available accelerations is modulated by our knowledge (that what we see is not molasses but ice, that it has a certain substantial size and is not smaller that an Alpine valley, etc.). The anchoring computation acts within the visual system, but it is fed or even prompted by the activation of background knowledge.

Conclusions

We introduced the general notion of Altered Pace moving images to encompass various modifications of the representational vehicle. We discussed an analogy of TLs with telescopes, and a corresponding analogy of SMs with microscopes. The analogy breaks down on the fact that TLs are not purely informational artifacts, but are inherently representational in a way neither telescopes nor microscopes are. The great epistemic value of TLs is that there is no informational device that could do the work they do. Such a device would need to incorporate a time machine -nothing less. The cognitive advantage of TLs is that they make visible changes that are below the threshold of human temporal perception. Without TLs, these changes can only be explicitly inferred by comparing different still frames of the represented events. TLs shift the computational burden carried by those inferences to some routines of the visual system. We further claimed that our ability to make sense of TLs for getting knowledge about the events they represent requires the notion of change in temporal perspective: TLs do not represent accelerated events, but changes of viewpoints in time. In the glacier case, the TL does not represent fast flowing glaciers, but glaciers that flow at their actual speed, as seen by an observer that moves quickly in time. The interpretation of TLs is not an exclusive property of the visual system: although time anchoring routines are responsible for an attribution of speed of flow to glaciers, the anchoring itself depends on some background knowledge, as in itself pictures are silent about (some) of the properties they depict.

From the standpoint of this study, the distinction between various types of time modified moving images is not relevant. A normal frame-rate video of a glacier runs at twentyfold speed, or a sampling of still frames run at an accelerated speed, all present the same epistemic advantages, based on the same computational and architectural mechanisms (displacement of some queries to the visual system.) Open research questions concern then the Another generalization, that we hinted at by discussion the sonification of earthquakes, could include other sensory modalities, such as hearing. Phono-lapses exist but are typically exploited in the artistic sphere. Once more, underlying commonalities would make it possible to single out specific issues, in particular by assessing which relevant computational rules are specific to the visual and auditory system. Further work will have to address the question of veridicality. Scientists use TLs as a tool for discovery. When TLs are offered as evidence, they help scientists observe the otherwise unavailable features of a phenomenon. But how can we obtain knowledge from a representational vehicle that is deliberately distorting some features of the represented object? Vision making is only a step, and not an innocent one, on the path to knowledge. 12 3 Epistemology of Time-lapse TL, as a subcategory of AP moving images, provides us with a functional description of the event. How much is TL description truthful in transmitting information about the event's features? In this chapter, we study the truthfulness of the TL mechanism in carrying temporal and spatial information about the event. Through some case studies, we examine the ultimate epistemic deficiencies in TL representation. The aim is to determine the epistemic state of TL depending on its application of simplifying an event. We suggest that, by amplifying a particular stimulus in the representation, TL enables the viewer to notice the change.

Truthfulness and Evidentiary Weight of TL

A consultant group working on functional design in dairy farms makes a TL based on simulation and recording of cow traffic (Figure 3.1). By setting the camera in the barn room and shooting TL at night, they observe the cows' behaviour in the absence of human intervention. As this TL clearly demonstrates, there is a cow in heat which should stay in a separate pen. Using nightly TLs, they are able to spot the cows who empty the entire feed bunk by chasing other cows away, or the road blockers cows. As all of us know how slowly the cows usually move, the temporal scale of the video makes sense. The barn managers also used to observe cows' behaviour on a real-time scale. TL as an observation tool helps the company monitor and notice the problems due to barn design and management. These images work as evidence for them. This kind of video evidence is known in sports. During matches, the observational recording system is employed to produce SM in order for the referee or other officials to scrutinize a play that is unclear at normal time flow and analyse what had actually taken place.

In both cases, the viewer of AP footage is aware of the event's temporal properties. In the instant replay case, this awareness is more likely to be the decisive factor because viewers are present in the moment of the dubious play. They would like to watch it again in a more extended temporal perspective to detect the details. Accordingly, they need a kind of visual prosthesis.

In the same way, the TL of the barn functions as a visual prosthesis to observe and control the event while absent. The common point between match events and night at the barn is the AP video viewer's knowledge of the spatiotemporal features and relations between the referents in the scene.

In the case of representing recognisable properties of referents, TL enhances the human vision effectively in slow events. However, "Visual access is not just a matter of eye improvement" (see chapter 2). Assuming that the resulting video has a causal dependence on the observed scene, in this view, the evidentiary weight of the AP videos depends on the agent's awareness of the alteration process.

In popular science videos, this visual dependence between representation and referent has a crucial role in recognising the learning phenomenon and the perceived information.

Returning to our discussion on The silence of pictures (see chapter 2), this can be seen in the case of TL footage of an iceberg getting close to a Greenlandic village, in which absent the houses as the scale anchors, a public viewer can hardly guess that the height of the icebergs calving in this TL is 300 feet (Figure 3.2). Depending on the mode of representation, recorded by a normal speed video or in drawing, we would observe different peculiarities in phenomena, and therefore the subsequent insights that we might develop about a particular phenomenon would be different in each case.

Consider the use of TL as an experiment report in processes of scientific observation. In these cases, it is plausible that the untruthful representation of spatiotemporal properties affects the transformed knowledge. The represented phenomenon might be entirely new to the viewer.

Moreover, in some scientific experiments, the spatiotemporal properties of the phenomenon are the principal elements of the observation. In order to turn the basic pieces of information into a scientific fact, it is necessary to be able to preserve them in the representation (e.g., preserving the spatial coordinates in representing geographical phenomena).

Knowledge in the wind (Figure 3.3) is a TL made on a living laboratory researching navigation in an ecological setting during an Atlantic crossing in 2019. The researcher uses TL technique to generate a brief record of crossing the Atlantic over 17 days. TL allows for a novel visualisation of the navigation processes. In order to provide new insight on the spatial relationship in navigation, the revelation of observing sail movement during the whole journey accelerated to the point of condensing it in 12 minutes. Likewise, here, the TL provided evidence for research on disorientation, in which the spatiotemporal features of the event are

the key terms to explain the experience. To what extent can we evaluate the epistemic status of TL? What epistemic parameters limit the evidentiary value of TL representation of scientific experiments in which the investigation proceeds through visualisation?

For some scientists, photographic images (still as moving) function as "recording devices". There is a considerable debate on truthfulness and knowledge transferred by optical tools. We consider the primary argument by Ernst Mach (1888) on "sense perception" and the use of representation by "graphic arts". In his view, graphic arts enhanced and expanded sensory perception and function as the "artificial extensions of the senses".

Mach in his "remarks on scientific applications of photography" describes the use of sense perception through graphic arts for transferring scientific knowledge. Even though he evaluates photographic images in his theory, he establishes the role of graphic arts in advancing scientific knowledge in general. Through an investigation, all the processes of perception, recording and highlighting a particular phenomenon might happen concurrently in a single process, as a method of observation, because they all aim to inform the scientists/viewer. In the present study, we consider any method used in the process of visualisation that makes a piece of information available as a scientific tool. Mach explains the perceived advantages of graphic arts; however, in general, any perception enhancer tool could contribute to the visualisation process. As our focus is on visualising otherwise inaccessible information for the naked eye and since the basic structural unit of TL -as in many visual technologies -is the instantaneous snapshots, we first examine the credibility of TL with regard to various debates on the truthfulness of photographic images.

The power of photography was defined in relation to the power of the various further aids to visualization. Their relation to one another was not that of a hierarchy, with photography and registration apparatuses on the top and the eye at the bottom (or whatever hierarchy one might suggest), but that of functional particularity. One tool is good for this type of problem, the next for another type of problem, etc. (Hoffmann, 2016, p. 415).

Taking into account the purpose of the investigation, the experimental tool (TL here) amplifies a particular feature of the phenomenon.

Truthfulness of Photographs, the "Structural Units" of Time-lapse

Visual technologies come from demands to represent a spatially all-encompassing, temporally unfolding world. Bullet time, TL and panorama do not just represent events -they provide us with an alternative style of observing and experiencing the world. Even in the documentary form, these systems offer us a virtual form of "travelling" that involves the enactment of a different perception of space and time. Thus, representing space and time through moving images is to "re-engineer" them (Clarke & Doel, 2005), while delivering a new and (possibly) different perception of the physical properties of the represented phenomenon. All these visionenhancing instruments relating to observing a phenomenon could have both pragmatic and scientific function. In one view, the less the production method is complex, the more the investigation is direct [START_REF] Hoffmann | Paris vs. Prague: A" Suspicion of Fraud": Ernst Mach Argues over Photographs and Epistemological Prerequisites[END_REF]. We need this direction and simplicity to assert the evidentiary weight of the produced image. It is necessary here to clarify exactly what is meant by simplicity. In sportive replay footages, the referee might be enabled to decide according to a series of chronophotographs. However, these provide less accuracy on visually accessible information about movement, given that slow-motion, by transferring temporal information contributes more visual advantages. Therefore, simplicity is a relative parameter depending on which tool is available for carrying the needed information. Indeed, the ideal case is that of a tool in which simplicity involves all information in an integrated form, both temporal and spatial. In view of Mach's account of the epistemic advantages of graphic art, we can consider TL as a discovery tool for carrying scientific knowledge in a simple and reliable form, and we suppose that its functionality gets established when the necessary information becomes available to human sense perception. Advantages deriving from the sense perception to help the perceptual experience, apply to photographs in Walton's theory: "its remarkable ability to put us in perceptual contact with the world, an ability which can be claimed even by a fuzzy and badly exposed snapshot, depicting few details and offering little information" (Walton, 1984, p. 273).

How can we determine the necessary information to carry? (i.e., the necessity that defines the epistemic status of the device). In the transparency account by Walton, the necessary information provided by photography is similar to that provided by visual experience in an ordinary vision; in his view, even though the visual experience is indirect, we do see the objects represented in the photograph. This similarity points to the "concretion of perception" that Mach finds in scientific representations through graphic arts. In photography, this similarity of properties determines the evidentiary weight of the representation. Walton points out this is because we do not rely on a photographer's belief, whereas in illustration, the draftsman's beliefs can affect the reliability of the representation [START_REF] Walton | Transparent Pictures: On the Nature of Photographic Realism[END_REF]). In the case of assembled moving photographs (i.e., videos), the visually accessible features of content are a part of essential information to be transferred. How much is TL transparent in carrying the information which is already accessible with the naked eye in the normal time flow?

The other point made by Walton and that applies to TL mechanism is the property of production procedure. The technological rules achieve a reliable representation due to "the fact that our photographic equipment and procedures happen to be standardised in certain respects" (ibid., p. 273). This standard does not happen spontaneously and probably what Walton meant by "standardisation of equipment and procedure", follows the same rules of perceptibility in AP moving images as a condition of reliability. For Walton, this standard also depends on the photographer's decision.

Cohen and Meskin, after some disagreement with Walton's transparency thesis, argue for the lack of information about the egocentric spatial location of the represented object in photographs. They state that a representation carries two kinds of information about a phenomenon: the information of the visually accessible properties and the information on the egocentric location of the object. They claim that usually the representation forms that carry information on accessible visual properties transfer also the information on the egocentric location of the object [START_REF] Cohen | On the Epistemic Value of Photographs[END_REF].

They note that mirrors, as a case of carrier of the egocentric spatial information about the object, are also transparent in Walton's account. In contrast, when we look at a photograph, the visual process lacks this egocentric spatial information. "With ordinary seeing, we get information about the spatial and temporal relations between the object seen and ourselves. . .

. Photographs on the other hand do not convey egocentric information; seeing a photograph does not tell me anything much about where the object photographed is in relation to me " (ibid., p. 198). Nevertheless, this account assumes that photographs' epistemic status is special; "they are information carriers whose conditions of employment are easier to satisfy than other information carriers" (ibid., p. 204) Does the lack of egocentric spatial information in TL affect cognition? For instance, do the scientists watching "crossing the Atlantic" in TL recognise the truthfulness of spatial information in the video? According to Cohen and Meskin, TL does not provide the viewer with the egocentric information (about the spatial relation between the objects in the scene and the viewer). What is the advantage of perceiving egocentric information about the sailboat, environment and people in this video?

Walton's thesis includes cinematographic and video depictions. Unlike Walton who defends transparency, Bergson does not trust representations of the real world by the cinematographic image [START_REF] Bergson | Creative evolution, New York (The Modern Library)[END_REF]. In his account, human memory is deeper and more faithful than any external recording (e.g., those provided by Chronophotography). In our approach, the comparison between TL representation and memory is less relevant. The argument is very straightforward: In order to retrieve an event from memory, we should first be capable of observing it. Nevertheless, the event represented in TL is not observable otherwise. Second, there is no need for us to commit ourselves to the strong claim that TL represents reality as it is. That is, a TL can have epistemic value even if it is not a transparent representation as Walton claims for static photographic images. On the other hand, there are analogies and differences between standard frame-rate film and TL when it comes to memory and vision. As a thought experiment, we can imagine a different, gapless video producing process, one that generates an infinity of instantaneous images for any time interval. This would be the moving image analogon of a transparent static image. For each instantaneous phase of the represented event, there would be a corresponding instantaneous frame, and conversely. If TL (or any moving image) works as a piece of knowledge producer, it does not do so by relying on transparency.

The intricacy of the epistemic status of TL rather than photographs comes from the simultaneity in perceiving two kinds of information about the event's temporal and spatial properties. In our discussion, the novel temporal perspective adds crucial factors in evaluating the epistemic status of TL representation.

Is Time-lapse an Agnostic Source of (Spatial and Temporal) Information?

Altered pace moving images have, and are expected to have, various effects on the process of observation. In the context of fiction, they arouse emotions. In documentaries, amateur or scientific, they highlight an aspect of an unfolding process. In order to generate knowledge, scientific and research videos should be produced and belong in an "epistemological construction" [START_REF] Albera | Cine-dispositives: Essays in epistemology across media[END_REF]. Analogies between the various kinds of moving images as the representational artifacts constitute a focal point in theories of cinema and documentary movies. To assess its viability as a cognitive tool for obtaining knowledge about the visually inaccessible phenomenon (meaning not perceptually salient aspects of the represented phenomenon), we examine in this the epistemic features, values and virtues of TL moving images in the context of the cinematographic constraints, as well as some of their shortcomings. The discussion is more general and involves the truthfulness of moving images.

It is a long-range conversation, under the spell, as if it were, of the view expressed by Bergson.

The problem for Bergson was the inconsistency of both perception and film with the reality of the world; phenomena "unfolding through time could never be grasped or captured entirely by either the intellect or a machine" (Canales, 2016, p. 285). We shall assess the grain of truth in this critical statement. The function of the TL mechanism is producing the accelerated representation (i.e., vehicle) of a long transition process (i.e., content). The epistemic value of this product depends on the necessary information for seeing the transition.

In the following parts, we study the temporal configuration of the mechanism affecting the perception of time. Then through some case studies, we examine the conditions in which the spatial information is distorted in TL.

Temporal Information in Time-lapse

Generally, the misrepresentation in temporal and spatial properties could be the consequence of an alteration in the temporal properties of the TL, temporal properties of the observer's experience of the TL or temporal properties of the phenomenon the TL represents. 13 Like all kinds of moving images, temporal properties of the work are strictly relevant to the temporal properties of the event. "Cinema makes the representation of temporal relations possible" (Currie, 1995, p. 96). In TL, the mechanism starts with the alteration of time. We shall address the problems due to the capturing mechanism of TL as a condition on truthfulness. Is a lack of continuity incompatible with recognising the change in the represented event?

First of all, consider truthfulness. To examine the truthfulness of TL, we can start from the critique of Bergson about the cinematographic method at large, especially on the existence of "small gaps" between frames. Transposed to TL, where the gaps are even longer, the critique entails that TL produces a less and less truthful representation, if not a "mere illusion".

Therefore, TL would lack the epistemological virtues necessary to represent a phenomenon.

Commenting on Bergson's critical account on "cinematographic", Jimena [START_REF] Canales | The Physicist and the Philosopher: Einstein, Bergson, and the Debate That Changed Our Understanding of Time[END_REF] states:

By assuming that temporal events in physics succeeded each other in the same way as successive frames in filmstrips, science and film shared an underlying, deceptive notion of time. Although they both seemed like they conveyed events unfolding in time, this effect was a mere illusion. (p. 284)

The key positions of a moving object follow each other, whereas the instantaneous points of the event are not represented. Representing a moving object with a TL system, compared to the other methods of producing animated images, exacerbates this fragmentation and the presence of gaps in the moving image. The problem is particularly sharp for scientists, who make a specific claim to objectivity. How do scientists assess a TL when it comes to its ambition to provide a factual representation? Creating a continuous line in TL to create an animated image is a composition. Here the reconstitution of the image will be done animatedly.

Diminution of the change process by TL doesn't mean that length of time enriches or mitigates the change. In a cognitive view, observing could be viewing a change process in some special perspective and just choosing some parts of events to observe.

In the TL of a caterpillar feeding on different leaves and moving around the plant, at some point, the spines poke through its body and the caterpillar dies (Figure 3.4). To view this, we don't have to see all the leaves eaten by the caterpillars or wait to see when and how exactly the plant fights back with its spikes. Interestingly, a functioning illusion, as long as it provides the continuous notion of movement.

Like an image sequence in an assembly instruction, the problem is finding the relation between each step represented in separate frames. The question is how to do that as instructions and chronophotography decompose the process into a visually discontinuous trajectory?

Continuity

If the temporal properties of a phenomenon (what the work represents) did not unfold steadily over time, the experience of viewing the accelerated representation might be different.

In this TL of glaciers (Figure 3.5, 01:02), the unfolding process and the accompanying changes are not evident from the passage of time. Acceleration in projecting the snapshots disturbs the smooth succession in the movements. Therefore, just some short jerky movements are visible. We need a continuous line in all kinds of representation that is designed to represent temporal events if we can rely on some regularities (e.g., if all the steps take the same amount of time and if they are in order, we can find the trajectory). This is the case in TL and also in Chronophotography.

Interval

Defining an appropriate interval for capturing the key positions of the mobile and also respecting the interval duration all over the capturing process is essential to assess how the motion works.

On the other hand, if we want to cook by watching a time-lapsed recipe, the video does just a review of the cooking steps. Therefore, you watch all the process in a few seconds, and if you decide to act, you should replay the video several times and pause the video every two seconds. Using the minimum of key shots in the long interval works for suchlike actions with lots of gaps between the well-known passages.

Likewise, it is not convenient to watch weightlifting in TL, because aside from the principle of perceived weight being affected (see the discussion in the section that follows), the viewer does not want to miss a crucial moment. This problem of TL mechanism is similar to the cinematograph problem for Bergson's believing that an essential item might be skipped in the small gaps between the frames [START_REF] Albera | Cine-dispositives: Essays in epistemology across media[END_REF].

For periodic events (e.g., pacing, sea waves, spinning wheels), the low-sampling frequency of TL incurs the risk of temporal aliasing. As an example of temporal aliasing, the sampling rate of ordinary moving images interacts with visual features of a spinning wheel to produce the impression of a slow or backward movement. In some conditions, the wheel will be perceived to be stationary. A simplified wheel with 12 spokes is animated clockwise with different paces in a 24 fps video (figure 3.6). One of the spokes is considered blue to understand the movement better. In the B, C and D cases, the wheel appears to rotate differently from its real rotation. In each successive frame of the case C, we see the position of the spokes a little further behind, making the wheel seem to be turning backwards. This artifact is evident in the case of the TL of the Mont Blanc Tunnel, 1:18 [START_REF] Casati | The DIAL project[END_REF]. The lights are placed at a determined distance from each other and appear as a repeated pattern. The camera from the perspective of the driver regularly captures the snapshots in determined intervals. Resulting in temporal aliasing, the TL gives us the impression that the lights move away (Figure 3.7). In general, if n is the frequency of a periodic phenomenon, one needs to sample at 2n frequency in order not to incur in temporal aliasing. Conversely, if one samples at m, all phenomena whose period is higher than 2m will not be distinguishable. A 2 fps TL of a person pacing at one pace per second will not make it possible to know if the person is pacing at any of the periods higher than one pace per second.

To accurately describe the work of TL, we distinguish two kinds of intervals. On the one hand, we refer to "time-interval" (I1) on which the camera's shutter is set to take the shots (for example one frame per second) or computer application to edit and delete the unnecessary snapshots and within which TL is distinguishable from fast-forwarding or speed increased video. On the other hand, we consider the interval (I2) between the key-positions of the moving object in the scene. In an ideal condition, the I2s are replaced with the first kind of interval in the TL capturing process. Hence, we can say each I1 signifies the referent I2. These gaps between frames are similar to time-point intervals in music that refers to the distance from one time-point to the next. A note at a time-point has no duration by itself as well as an I1 in TL.

This is to say a note at a time-point is inaudible. Likewise, an I1 in TL is invisible. Whereas they are important because both function as change points. For example, in music entry notes at which dynamic level changes function as the turning point in TL at which the object's spatial position remarkably changes. Identifying the invisible turning points are crucial in deciding on intervals duration since, by devising regular intervals between captures in an appropriate way, the visually inaccessible space-time characteristics of the phenomenon are revealed as a continuous movement represented in an (arguably) unrealistic but cognitively appropriate duration.

We might think that in TL all goes very fast, and there is no preferred temporal order.

However, as a matter of fact, if the intervals are not selected correctly, and if the viewer is not patient when watching it (they are not expected or asked to be so), they might be tempted to accelerate the video manually to the point in which the speed of change becomes more visible than it is. The temporal relation between the objects, related to the pace of the change or the technical choices (i.e., intervals), affect the device's functions. In the following example, the TL of salt crystals formation has been recorded by taking a shot every minute for four days.

Observing the change takes two minutes, while it would be more visible in a shorter time (i.e., longer intervals in the capturing process; Figure 3.9). The difference between the spatial properties of object 1 in one frame and object 2 in the next is as subtle as the observer knows both as one single object with a tiny change. All the TL snapshots represent various spatial properties with subtle differences. That difference between two spatial properties shows that the shot is taken in x clock-time later. However, the subject is the same. It could conceivably be hypothesised that the continuity depends on the measure of the gaps between position A and B. When we talk about the necessity of fragmentation in the animated-accelerated picture, we mean the recognisable difference between the spatial properties, not the gaps in time. In other words, continuity is not a succession of time.

In this vein, to recognise the event by continuous related frames, having these three conditions is necessary:

I.
Common visual properties between the two following frames

II.

A determined axis in movements (and therefore a sufficient duration to see the axis)

III. A spatial anchor in the scene

The gaps between the key points in TL makes it similar to the mechanism of making animation videos without betweens. If in an animation, we merely project the keyframes, we compress the events in both spatial and temporal aspects. "It is the medium's segmentation that allows for incremental differences and the potential impression of movement that defines the primary cinematic experience, particularly in the case of animation, which is the original moving-image medium" (Payne, 2018, p. 19). As in animation, the action events are represented more by the keyframes to create the illusion of movement with a few in-between frames. In this condition, with a short running time of the video, watching the high energy event demands a high amount of visual activity. There are several transitions in the scene in which many events occur within a relatively short time. In this case, the various transitions increase the intensity of the event, and the viewers are more engaged in the event. Therefore, they are more involved in their subjective time.

The Observer and New Temporal Perspective; The Experience of Temporal Compression

The perception of spatial properties (e.g., a long distance), after the onset of TL techniques, can be compared with the experience of distance after the birth of railways. Similar to the experience of the first users of rail-transports in the 19th century, TL moves us from A to B, in a short and -for newcomers to the technique -unbelievable period of time. After the dramatic "reengineering of space and time" with railway travel, today moving in a long distance at a compressed time scale has become commonplace to us. In fast travel, we do not perceive all features of the represented objects; looking from the window of a train or of an aeroplane is getting a kind of abstracting perception. In some cases, we may not have a prima facie correct temporal vocabulary to apply, we may not be entitled to say that time is going forward or is suspended. The moment the viewer starts watching the sequence (depending on the technical settings of TL) they perceive that the rhythm of the video is different from that of the real-time.

We start off watching the movement at some specific point, but the passage of time that we observe does not comply with the speed of the phenomenon. Even if the pace of the action seems natural, we do not say it is the same stream of time.

Creating a different time perspective through TL lies in the two different approaches towards time. Herbert Zettle (2013) points out that in a video, we deal with two types of time;

objective (clock time) and subjective (psychological) time. The most crucial reason for editing a video is altering the time vector, which is not relevant to the actual time of the event. In TL, this happens more abstractly. "The subjective-time vector yields to equally high manipulation.

Through editing you can take an originally high-energy and involving event and render it lowenergy and neutral. Or you can take a low-energy event and make it highly dramatic and involving" (Zettl, 2013, p. 249). When we design a desired temporal order for a video, we apply a novel temporal pattern in the represented event. TL mechanically compresses the objective time and through controlling it in a predetermined quantitative system, it affects the time duration of the event felt by the viewer. The time the viewer needs to perceive the event could be near to the length of the TL representation of that event. Therefore, TL is a way to control event intensity and highlight a particular part of an event.

In contrast to the techniques of continuity editing in films, the TL editing process does not apply to the event time order. There are epistemic rules relating to preserve the spatiotemporal relations from recorded events. Editing techniques in TL such as manipulating the time vector, reversing or replaying are deployed for obtaining a more epistemic or expressive representation. The post-production editing usually is just a short system of assembling the snapshot is the standard projecting frame-rate. In the case of video editing in films and television programs, Zettl notes that "The screen event now becomes a new construct with its own objective and subjective times" (ibid., p. 249-250). Whereas, in TL, the new time perspective is constructed mechanically, all the technical configurations are to change the objective time of the event and make it perceptible in our subjective time. In this vein, we can say that the purpose of AP moving images is attempting to temporally reconstruct an event and turn the perceived time as the ideal subjective time.

We usually explain subjective and objective time by comparing an event in these two types of temporal perspective. In AP videos, the concept of objective time isn't examinable.

This issue is more explicit in slow motion video. When the visual activity in the play gets intense, the viewers do not pay attention to the details. For example, for watching an accident in a play by an action replay video, the objective time of the event is not important anymore.

The only cue to the objective time is our background information about the event. In other words, the temporal properties of the actual event depend on our memory. This is while the experience of time through the AP video (i.e., action replay), is temporally near to our sensed subjective time of the watching during the match. "It seems that our common temporal perspective may be due to entirely conditional features of the physical world and our neurophysiological constitution rather than some necessary truth about time" (Poidevin, 2007, p. 87). In glacier cases, TL makers attempt to adapt the time of iceberg melting to a perceptible time for the viewers. The AP videos, in general, provide an ideal duration for the viewer to comprehend the event. The time scale of the represented event became different.

In a TL sequence of erosion (figure 3.10), incorporation of the viewer into an accelerated movement and a temporal unfolding phenomenon brings a time-compressed experience to them. TL construct from a series of discrete snapshots, allows the viewer a "continual presence in time" (Benjamin, 1935) and causes a compressed presence. The viewer should pay more attention to all movements in the scene (relative to a number of the objects and transitions in the event captured in TL). This is because, in the real-time world, the observer does not have the experience of viewing the whole of the long transition.

Spatial Information in Time-lapse

How can visual technologies provide new forms and new senses of time and space?

The notable difference between TL and other forms of visual representation lies in the connection between spatial and temporal properties, to the extent that space and time have the same value in this system. With TL, in compressed time duration, we experience the different aspects of spatial relations. As a representational artifact, TL functions satisfactorily when it represents a process of otherwise visually inaccessible change, but the alteration in temporal properties might affect the other observable aspects of the phenomenon. One of these aspects is the set of spatial properties of the phenomenon.

Before discussing how spatial alteration could affect the truthfulness of TL, it should be noted that there are several analogies between optical instruments and AP videos (see chapter 2, the discussion of informational and representative artifacts).

These analogies concern the revealing function of AP moving images and the capacity of "spatial expansion and diminution" of optical instruments. For James Monaco, playing with the speed of the camera in the capturing process is the most salient scientific application of cinematography. In his view, processing used by telescopes and microscopes in revealing spatially invisible phenomena, is comparable to that used by tools altering temporal variables.

These results are similar in perception, they both could help humans to see the reality through enhancing the perception system.

By varying the speed of the camera (assuming the projector speed remains constant),

we can make a tool that can be applied to time in the same way that the telescope and the microscope are applied to space, revealing natural phenomena that are invisible to the naked eye. (Monaco, 1977(Monaco, /1981, p. 76) , p. 76) Oliver [START_REF] Gaycken | Devices of Curiosity: Early Cinema and Popular Science[END_REF], by regarding the term "speed magnification" by Percy Smith and Charle Urban, suggests an analogy of TL with microscope. In his view, the TL in representing the time functions as the microscope function in representing the space. A review has been cited by Gaycken which explain that: "What the microscope accomplished in bringing an object of minute size within the scope of human vision, increased speed in photography does in making visible to the eye movements which occur too slowly to be realized by ordinary means" (Anonymous, 1911, as cited in Gaycken, 2015). However, Mach's explanation appears here to be more convincing on the principle of time-diminution instead of time-expansion in the other analogies (Mach, 1888). Telescopes and maps are more appropriate in explaining TL function. By and large, these analogies are meant to address the two levels of changing spatial properties and making some invisible features visible. In the optical instrument, as a telescope or binocular, we get close to the object with the vision displacement (see chapter 2). In a TL, seeing spatial changes in acceleration makes the transition comprehensible, and a novel temporal perspective provides these all. It is to say that TLs enhance our vision through three separable cognitive levels: I. They alter the temporal perspective intentionally.

II.

They amplify spatial transitions (as a mechanical consequence).

III.

They make the transition visible.

To better understand the mechanisms of moving image and its effects on spatial properties, [START_REF] Currie | Image and Mind: Film, Philosophy and Cognitive Science[END_REF] notes that in all kinds of moving images, representing the objects in three-dimensional space on a two-dimensional screen misleads transforming the spatial information of the content. We should note that the TL manipulates the temporal perspective, not the spatial properties. The making-visible level indirectly depends on the temporal configuration: an intentional level in which the epistemic state can be affected.

Through some case studies, we will try to understand how TL makers produce, often empirically, a re-conception of space and how their work could constitute the basis for experimental paradigms to change our perception and cognition of a phenomenon's spatiotemporal aspects. It is important to bear in mind that TL aim is rather to represent the spatial transition by altering the temporal relations between phenomena and this alteration, deliberately or inadvertently, may affect the perception of the represented contents. The effects of temporal changes on spatial features may not be particularly remarkable.

In TL of Mount St. Helens' dome, the temporal properties of the light (as the content)

are manipulated through TL. Nevertheless, the manipulation does not disturb the representation of the growing volume of erupted material. Simply, in the beginning, it distracts our attention to the growth of lava (Figure 3.11). Perception of the spatial units in a moving image is related to their orientation relative to the point of view defined by the position of the camera and reconstructed by the observer.

Nevertheless, the other spatial relations matter, such as those linked to axes and the intrinsic relationship between objects [START_REF] Laurini | Fundamentals of Spatial Information Systems[END_REF]. In moving images, even in the 1:1 fps videos, the absolute spatial facts are not perceived as real [START_REF] Currie | Image and Mind: Film, Philosophy and Cognitive Science[END_REF]. In Time of Rio (Figure 3.12), we do not know the precise spatial facts involving the position of the airplanes.

We can only estimate the spatial relations between the airplane and the buildings. There are two significant misrepresentations of the spatial-properties in this sequencethe representation questions the perspective of the building and its three-dimensionality. The façade of the house is -by design -kept constant in the image. This turns it into an anchor (see chapter 2), and we recalibrate our perception of the environment which, although static, appears to move towards the house. (The effect is so awkward that even experts have the feeling that the representation is false (Personal communication at SCSMI 2019).

One of the essential parameters in making hyper-lapse is keeping the object always lined up the same way in the frames. In editing, we then make the images perfectly aligned, to make sure that the alignment coordinates are the same; they are then assembled and projected in the standard frame rate. The essential point is how cleanly the lines match. It appears that in this TL technique, the cameraman tries to preserve the egocentric information about all the objects in the scene. For every snapshot, she changes the position of the camera depending on the position of the person (or imaginary point). "Perception takes place from an oriented position, which connects and anchors the subject in the world" (Smith & Hamlyn, 2018, p. 271).

The still objects may appear to move (e.g., the building gets away from the point of view; Figure 3.14). The manipulation in temporal properties changes how the spatial features of the content actually look to the observer. Accordingly, there is an anchor in the scene which, by changing its egocentric location, makes it so that the scene and all represented objects might appear with different visual properties. The distortion can result in some pictorial illusion, as the impression that the scene's components come closer to the viewer. Hereupon, does carrying information about the egocentric location cause the perspective distortion in the video?

A possible explanation for this might be that if TL allows us to see the object in the way mirrors do, they may fail to carry the essential spatial information of the object. For example, in dolly zoom, all these efforts in readjusting the allocentric information to egocentric location information are expected to transfer the impression of seeing the three-dimensionality of the object. The scale and the position of the building remain the same, but the perspective does not seem standard. The anchor is the building, which is a still object, and if we get close to the building -in a standard frame rate video -these spatial relations of the building with the frame change and the perspective looks normal; as a consequence, we do not feel as if the building is getting away.

Manipulation in Size

In some moving images, it seems that manipulating the time does not change the space features.

However temporal and spatial properties are always interdependent, even in the case of static images; for instance, Panorama views present space in a wide-angle image; telephotos expand the angle of view while going in the depth of the scene; with Bullet-time in a suspended time we have multiple points of views. All of these technologies of visual representation help us to unfold the spatial/temporal properties of an event. In TL, acceleration makes spatial change salient. For instance, affecting size perception does not only influence our perception of the spatial properties of the object; acceleration mitigates the severity of change for the viewer.

When the duration of change is short, the extent of change in the phenomenon seems limited to us as well. When the representation of the spatial change occurs in a short duration, consequently, the perception becomes less intelligible. Here the temporal properties of the vehicle affect our perception of spatial properties of the content. In the case of TL from large objects that their movements are slow and not familiar (e.g., glaciers, airplanes, balloons, boats), the objects look smaller than their real size.

Due to distance and perspective [START_REF] Brenner | Different frames of reference for position and motion[END_REF], the big objects seem to move slower, even if they move quickly. Since our brain automatically estimates movement speed in body lengths over time, thus when we see a phenomenon in an AP video (here TL)

the size as one of the primary spatial properties of objects looks different to us. This effect of temporal properties on spatial one of TL systems proceeds silence of images. In Time of Rio,

TL is silent about the real dimension of the boats (Figure 3.15). They seem smaller than their real size. When there is no object in the scene (imagine Glacier landscape), our background knowledge does not help to estimate the real dimension of the large object: "Indeed, silence is always mitigated by the availability of background knowledge about the content" (Casati, Yasaei, 2019).

Change in the Spatial Relations; The Experience of Time Annihilation

In the hyperlapse of Nike Women's Half Marathon (Figure 3.16), we change the point of view in less than one second. Zooming, in the case of a standard video frame rate will take more time. The proportion of the distance and the time of changing the point of view seems natural. Zoom is a spatial change to provide easy access to the event. It is useful to highlight a particular phenomenon in a collection of accelerated motions.

In this case the spatial changes affect the temporal aspects. As a result, the sudden change in focal length compresses the time. We are looking at a region of space through a timecompressed observation. While in normal frame rate video, this spatial displacement gives more accurate view without giving the impression of compacting time or space. Nevertheless "an abrupt change of viewpoint has perceptual and cognitive costs for the viewers" (Schwan, 2013, p. 222).

Does the simultaneity of two visual prostheses affect visual information processing? If

we make the transition in the scene as allocentric motion (e.g., zoom or change the position of the camera), and at the same time change the visual point (i.e., egocentric movement), ultimately, we process two kinds of visual information to observe the scene. The human visual system can integrate these two kinds of movement, eventually getting a "seamless visual input" (Cutting et al., 2011).

Brunick, Cutting and DeLong, in research on viewer's attention and engagement in a narrative film, conclude that "While the amount of visual activity is fairly low across entire films, the variance of activity in scenes is fairly high. That is, activity in particular scenes fluctuates, and research is showing that fluctuation helps guide the viewer in parsing the moving images events" (Brunick et al., 2013, p. 140). In TL, action duration systematically becomes very short. The temporal alteration and spatial expansion results in a very compressed visualisation of the motion. Does this high amount of visual activity affect visual information processing and, consequently, the recognition of the phenomenon? In narrative cinema, there is a relation between shot length and visual activity. Each action must be depicted in a particular duration and number of frames. The length of the shot could affect the "natural-looking" feeling of the motion. In the same way, Brunick et al. further claim that a short duration of the sequence is more appropriate for a high amount of visual activity and vice versa:

Large amounts of visual activity are best tolerated in sequences of short-duration shots, especially when this sequence is followed by some relatively low-motion shots for a reprieve. Long-duration shots generally must contain less motion to be well tolerated by the visual system. (ibid., 2013, p. 140)

In the same vein, in the condition that the transition preserves its natural properties, the compressed duration of the action does not affect visual information processing. Still, there is a correlation between accuracy rate and simplicity. In parallel with the motion acceleration, the sudden zoom in practice does help the mechanism to transfer the necessary information about the transition. In cinema, in order to explain the narrative shifts during a film, the filmmaker uses cuts and provides new sights of the event: "Editing with cuts gives filmmakers a way of introducing lapses in time and changes in spatial setting that flow smoothly" (Shimamura, 2013, p. 8). This manner of simplifying and portraying a series of different spatial settings is embedded in the TL mechanism. In a systematic way, TL captures the various spatial configurations of the phenomenon. The role of the cut in forming a new spatial view is similar to the use of TL in providing a different perspective of time.

In 1995, before the term hyperlapse was coined, the technique was already being developed. Guy Roland shot the film Pacer, from the streets of Montreal painstakingly shooting the hyperlapse frame by frame. We are surprisingly moving from a spatial point to another in a short period of time. In some plans, the object doesn't appear to change, although it is replaced by an object matching it in shape. For instance, looking at the stairs in 01: 20, provides us with a complete observation of a process, concurrent with a sense of annihilation of time (Figure 3.17). The frame moves, but the viewer's attention focuses on the object and allocentric spatial information. It seems the viewer moves back and forth, and the viewer point of view is stable without any motion in the frame. As a consequence, the viewer has a sense of suspension in time. This view also includes the mentioned experience of engineering the time in railtransports. The definition of the distance is changed. The shift in point of view is supposed to be the egocentric movement in cinema (Gibson, 1984). The only difference of TL with a standard frame rate video is in the speed of change in the spatial position of objects and viewpoint (i.e., acceleration in allocentric movements and egocentric). The item stays in the centre of the frame. Besides, the other objects in the scene move quickly. In Pacer, the viewer gets close to the spatial point of a particular object and maintains attention to its position in the frame (see chapter 2, discussion on Temporal anchoring and spatial framing). This process creates a large transition from a considerable distance to an up-close walk-through.

Simultaneous changes in the temporal properties of the content affect our perception of spatial properties of the still objects in the centre of the frame.

Consider the TLs of glaciers. The icebergs do not seem to be their real size because of the effect of time compression on spatial information and our background assumptions about the motion pace of small things. We have the same effect in Tilt-shift lenses. Through creating a diorama effect, they change the scales of the objects in the scene. In a picture taken by a standard lens, blurring is the effect of adjusting the depth of field, and it is a piece of visual information useful to perceive the distance. Tilt-shift lenses blur the selected sections.

Dismissing the information on spatial properties produces an image in which the objects appear miniature. The advantage of tilt-shift lenses is adjusting line convergence and decreasing the perspective distortion. The epistemic deficiency in these cases concerns a piece of spatial information and affects the outcome of the temporal alteration level. TL, like all moving images, does not carry the information on the egocentric location of the represented phenomenon. We agree that in some cases, the alteration in temporal properties may transfer distorted spatial information. However, this is not an epistemic deficiency. The spatial information is carried during the second level of the acceleration process and makes the transition level happen. In other words, the temporal alteration occurs in the first level of the process; the viewer realises the change through recognising the altered spatial information.

Ultimately, these two levels of alteration affect the accuracy of the transition appearing level.

The aim of the present section was to investigate the effects of spatial and temporal parameters engaged in viewing a phenomenon through TL. Meanwhile, we introduced the spatial relationships of the content, as a dominant part of representing the change through time.

In a realistic view, the filmmaker sets the scene, and according to the spatial and temporal properties of the content, she estimates the time interval required to represent the change. By observing the result, we realised that changing the time perspective creates spatial changes (e.g., change in the perception of size, perspective and the omission of light and shadows).

Moreover, in the same way, when representing the spatial change by TL, the perception of events' temporal properties might be altered (e.g., a sudden shift in viewpoint in a hyperlapse).

In the section that follows, it will be argued that TL, despite the eventual distortion of spatiotemporal information, is a valuable epistemic informant about the processes of transition in the scene.

Time-lapse Is an Epistemic Informant

Static images also can represent temporal unfolding, as the superimposed photographs depicting lapse of time (Figure 3.18). TL mechanism's input is a series of static images, and the motion appears in the projection process. This system of representing a temporal change through a series of static images functions insofar as they could be associated with transferring essential information about the change process. We investigated the conditions in which TL epistemic status could get affected in carrying spatial or temporal information.

If we consider the availability of information as an epistemic variable in visionenhancing tools, one of the epistemic variables is the outcome of the manipulation in spatial and temporal properties. This manipulation might entail the change in information about the transition process. How can we ensure that a vision enhancing tool is faithful to the process of transition of a phenomenon in a certain period of time? Through illustration, we can represent various states of a developing root in different temporal points, but identifying a growth control mechanism in a plant (that enables the roots to find their path) is plain visible by watching it in intervals. The key idea here is that in order to study a transition, we need to be able to perceive the outcome of both spatial and temporal information. The multiplicity and simultaneity of this information help us to get clear on knowing the condition of the root development. Indeed, the epistemic states of TL entail the concomitance of this necessary information. In other words, transferring knowledge about a transition occurs in the condition of carrying essential temporal and spatial information concurrently, resulting in perceiving the change. Taken together, these results suggest that we cannot categorise TL mechanism as an agnostic informant.

Time-lapse Maker and the Viewer; Background Knowledge, Intention and Mediation

The emotional infections coming from acceleration (excitement, comic, stress) could also deceptively distort the cognition process. The question arose when we discussed the other representational artifacts like binoculars and microscopes. When watching a microscopic image, we don't have the feeling of deception.

The spatial properties of the object are completely changed. We trust our eyes when we watch the event made visible by the microscope even if the spatial information has been radically changed. Probably this justification comes from our intention to view an unknown phenomenon via the microscope. We expect to view the object in a larger dimension because the mechanism employed to represent the microscopic images is already known, and this is a sufficient justification for us. Furthermore, we know the inability of the naked eye to see the microscopic particles. So we accept that microscopic information is a form of discovery.

Viewer's Background Knowledge

In the case of TL, in addition to the absence of knowledge concerning the mechanism, the main difference is the level of our cognition of events. If we know the phenomenon beforehand, we are less surprised. Watching the moving crowd in TL of Hong Kong protests is more fun than surprising. It does not feel to us as if we are making a discovery (Figure 3.19). The reason for less surprise is our knowledge of the objects' features. Consequently, the cognitive distortion is replaced by emotional infection. Probably in the case of the familiar phenomenon, like human movement, we don't think that the representation is untrue, and we have sufficient knowledge in order to compare it with reality (We may not access the whole process without watching it in acceleration, but the segments of the event are seen.).

According to Sheena Rogers (2013), slow motions reduce the degree of perception of the force, the weight and the size of the involved objects and actors. On the basis of this review, one could conclude that in accelerated cases, some feelings like those induced by the perception of someone else's pain could be mitigated. In other words, depending on the subject and the pace change, the perceived feeling is different. The comparison of the altered pace representation of an event with its real world pace depends on the normal pace of the event.

The question of the difference between moving images and the other representational artifacts as to truthfulness remains. Why are there debates on the transparency and realistic level of moving images, but we believe by default the images magnified by microscopes and take them as scientific evidence? If we consider contributing to scientific evidence (possibly in a convincing way) as one of the main functions of making TL, we have to at least explain how this particular artifact is taken as truthful and transparent when it is so taken.

Although TL is a widespread technique these days, its mechanism is not popularly known. For many people, it is not different from fast motion moving images. The function of deployment of the variable speed settings in making moving images is to "direct our attention and feed meaningful information about objects and events, to our perceptual system" (Rogers, 2013, p. 151).

In general, observing methods are chosen by the observer. For instance, one can decide to watch a distant star through an infrared telescope. Similarly, TL is more a recorder-producer than a transparent machine. The production is related to the mechanism. To make a phenomenon recognisable, TL:

I. TL Decomposes the movement down to specific individual frames taken at regular intervals. It could be one frame per day. As a storyteller or filmmaker, you generate some evidence once a while; in story-telling, one chooses just the key point. In both cases, the viewer interpolates the missing moments -for instance, based on familiarity with the phenomenon. In the visual case, since the viewer does not know the trajectory of the mobile phenomenon represented in the moving image, it will follow the frames and mentally fill in the missing moment to find the trajectory. The underlying mechanism could be here some Gestalt law of amodal completion.

II.

Synthesises the individual frames in a cinematographic way (relying on the speed of the playback). The movement is reproduced in the cinematographic system. The regularity in interval provides the appropriate temporal component that provides a (reasonable, or perceptually effective) scale of simulated movement. If intervals were not regular, we would awkwardly perceive the resulting movement. This artificial continuity made by the apparatus cancels the effect of the fragmentation of snap-shots.

The three levels of experiencing meaning in moving images suggested by Rogers are the keys to understanding why TL functions in a useful cognitive way.

I.

Understanding what is there and what event is unfolding.

II.

Psychological process "involving thought, ideas, and inferences, sometimes using knowledge drawn from outside the film itself, concerning the narrative, style and form, socio-historical context" (ibid.: 151)

III.

The two previous levels of appreciation and understanding can end up in an aesthetic experience.

The first level could be the main objective of TL making. Especially in the educational and scientific TL, lesser engagement with the two other levels does not matter. As in TL of the glaciers, if we cannot diagnose the changes in glaciers, we will not be impressed by climate change.

Believing that what TL represents is true depends on our knowledge of the nature of space and time. TL drives a new view of these physical concepts, and it can alter our spatiotemporal perception in the real world.

Intention and Mediation; Cognitive Purposes

An event representation by any visual media is the outcome of an image-producing system controlled by the video maker's intention. The TL system provides a novel vision that is not only controlled concerning the temporal properties but also pertaining to the object's location and its relations with the other objects in the represented event. Intentional mediation and automaticity are two contradictory notions associated with the epistemic status of photography.

The photographer's intention during the capturing process concerns deciding on the setting (e.g., the point of view, lenses, light). On the other hand, the TL mechanism implements automaticity in the system of capturing instantaneous photographs. It is possible to take a TL without monitoring the camera during the capturing process. The viewer of a photograph or an AP video seeks for the visually accessible information. She finds the counterpart properties and subsequently, without considering the meditated parameters, watches what is becoming visible.

The expectation (especially in a scientific context) is to be able to represent the referent transition in the scene, by allowing the viewer to observe the spatial change in acceleration. In some cases, the TL representation tallies with and in others, it differs from the captured phenomenon. Whatever the maker's intention, this representational system has prominent capacities to communicate new aspects of a change. Nonetheless, these two contradictory factors of automaticity and intentional mediation should not be overlooked. We believe that even in "learning by doing TL" in the education domain, the consciousness of the intentional configuration provides a high evidentiary status for the learner and the eventual viewers.

Ludwik Fleck (1947) remarks:

In order to see one has to know what is essential and what is inessential: one must be able to distinguish the background from the image; one must know to what category does the object belong. Otherwise we look but do not see, we look intently at too many details without grasping the observed form as a defined entity. (as cited in Hoffmann, 2016, p. 420)

Different Descriptions of an Event; Typical and Supernormal Stimulus

We followed the discussion on epistemic values of TL by focusing on the use of its representational advantages in various domains (e.g., scientific experiment or fictional narrations). In the previous section, we discussed the predetermined interval as the principal factor of integrating pace all over the TL. The present section investigates the factors that determine TL as a supernormal stimulus. The railway transports produce from the fishing port to the Bangkok markets, passes through the market that is centred on its track. When a train approaches, vendors close the awnings, move their products and people go back from the rails to make space for the train passing. Once the train passes, all goes back to the normal situation.

Rusil captured this event in drone-lapse. It seems that when the train would come through, people rush to leap into action to move back or roll back the awnings and push their products out of the railway. As soon as the train passes, the crowd comes out from the stalls.

In one moment, the other train comes from the opposite side and the crowd rushes back to the stalls.

In the standard frame rate video from the ground view, space is as tight as we perceive from the aerial p.o.v, and there is no essential difference in the spatial properties of two views.

We hear the train whistle many times before the arrival. It seems that everyone can take their time to move, the tourists to prepare their cameras and the vendors to push the piles of vegetables to avoid it being run over by the train. In the standard video, it is not a hurry situation, indeed. The train passes, and then vendors re-open the stalls. There are eight trains per day, and they move reasonably slow (the average speed for the whole line is only 30 km/hr; Nielsen, 2011).

In drone-view TL video, Rusil syncs the sound of the whistle with the arrival of the train in the scene. He also sped it up to 10 times (i.e., 2.4 fps). The other strategy is choosing the upside-down point of view to represent all the path of the train. We see the opening awnings one after the other following the train path. The motorcyclists ride as soon as the train passes.

In contrast to the grounded p.o.v and regular frame rate playback, TL is more surprising for the viewer.

The event consists of several motions at various places that concretely follow each other. The shop covers rolled back, the people go out of the way of rail, the train passes, the covers open and people move through the railway. The viewer can concurrently see the combination of these movements because the event's part happened in sequence.

Hence, the event of a train passing the market is easy to follow, and on the other hand, the rush is apparent because moving to the next part of the event occurs 10 times faster than in reality. All these alterations make a compressed time representation.

What is the constructive function of this alteration? Moreover, which one of the resulting representations fits better with the desired description of the event?

All these questions rely on how TL's structure provides the viewer with a comprehensible event.

Time-lapse; An Apparatus of Producing Supernormal Stimuli

Provoking the viewer, making them reflect and causing the innate responses are among the functions of art. TL performs part of them in the form of a supernormal stimulus. Eisenstein and Zacks call response the observer's reflex [START_REF] Zacks | Flicker: Your Brain on Movies[END_REF].

"Echoing later research into mirror neurons, Eisenstein claimed that viewers involuntarily repeat movements they see, but in a weakened form" (Shimamura, 2013, p. 35).

Filmmakers attempt to portray the event most efficiently. TL as a "time-controller" is the most logical mechanism with required settings to make the invisible event visible.

Moreover, depending on the subject's pace, TL could produce sufficient motion structure to attract the viewers. The TL of the railway market is the most appropriate idea for representing the attractive characteristics of the location. If you say to someone, a train passes through a market where there are no safety barriers and the space is very tight, based on her background belief about a train speed, she then asks "how do they make it without an accident and getting hit by the train?!" To represent this linguistic report, TL is the most effective technique in order to depict the optimum narration; "A speedy train passes through a market!". Niko Tinbergen studied the effects of supernormal Stimuli on animal behaviour. For [START_REF] Tinbergen | The herring gull's world: A study of the social behaviour of birds[END_REF], some artificial objects could elicit a stronger response than normal stimuli [START_REF] Barrett | Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose[END_REF]. TL represents the facts beyond the evident realities visible by naked eyes and to that end, from a series of still images, the video maker creates a superstimulus. As Eisenstein points out: "there is no ghost in the machine; mind and feelings can be reduced to brain and body" (Shimamura, 2013, p. 35).

Studying TL as a supernormal stimulus in this epistemologically oriented part of our work is crucial to understanding the epistemic values of TL and the strategy it employs in order to make us believe an unknown phenomenon. Are we entitled to use TL for epistemic functions, is their use justifiable? The following part of this chapter moves on to describe Why does the video-maker choose this technique and how this amplification via TL makes the information accessible properly?

Simplifying; Making it Understandable

As was pointed out in the second chapter, we introduced TL as a cognitive artifact whose primary function is of "making visible". The previous chapter has established the cognitive advantages of this kind of AP moving images and assessed the representational aspects of this artifact. As we pointed out when discussing some analogies with microscopes and telescopes in the second chapter, TL is a technique of observing. The supernormal stimuli it delivers have two separable essential functions. Firstly, they make the invisible visible. Secondly, they direct the vision of something in an ideal intended way.

In the railway market TL, Rusil had witnessed the event beforehand. According to his knowledge and also presumptions about the possible "reflex" of the viewers, he decides on two technical parameters: Employing a drone to obtain the wide-angle view on the whole market and choosing drone-lapse technique to amplify the speed of motions of the scene and enable the viewer to observe the entire event at the optimum human visual rate. By the advantages mentioned above, TL here eases the comprehension process. It can therefore be assumed that in the case of multiple dynamic events, representing the scene by a superstimulus makes knowledge easier to transfer.

Making visible and simplifying the event, in TL, have a nexus. In order to simulate or make a dynamic event visible, we simplify the representation. We, therefore, provide the viewer with an idealized perceptual experience. The novel temporal perspective delivers the visual experience different from watching the represented phenomenon in real-time circumstances. The resulting superstimulus makes the viewer sensitive to the transition, and by this approach, TL simplifies the event.

Stephan Schwan in his "The art of simplification" (2013) studies the strategies of simplification in narrative film from a cognitive psychological viewpoint. Based on the recipient's cognitive process, he presents an argument on the way the films portray events. "In contrast to real-life events and situations, narrations can be carefully crafted by means of appropriate selection and simplification, thus allowing the recipients to have a kind of idealized first-hand experience of a certain social constellation and its dynamics" (p. 227). What convinces us to use Schwan discussion here, is the similarities between the reasons for simplifying events in narrative films and the potential of the TL system, which result as a supernormal stimulus. The outcomes of the simplifying strategies -predicted in advance and determined by the filmmaker's mediation -is potentially set in TL structure. Depending on the proportionality of the event pace to be represented in TL, the video-maker chooses the preprepared tool including a justifiable interval setting. In contrast, in narrative moving images, the strategies are applied from the beginning in the scriptwriting phase and on the narrative structure, scripting of images, the position of the camera, editing part and technical possibilities. As Schwan states:

"the portraying of the ongoing events may be carefully planned with regard to which parts of the events are shown and which are skipped, as well as from what position an event is

shown at a certain point in time" (ibid., p. 2017). He points out that in narrative films for scriptwriters and filmmakers, simplification strategies are used for ease of comprehensibility and dramaturgy. Schwan reminds us that in fictional narration, these strategies of representing an event are designed based on human cognitive system activities (e.g., in re-modulating the event for compensating and reconstruction of the invisible part of events). "Instead of events simply being stored in memory the way they have been observed, they undergo several steps of information processing that takes the observations as raw material and transforms them into a more systematic and coherent mental representation" (ibid., p. 216). These similarities between "simplification strategies" in film and cognitive advantages of TL mechanism suggest that the technical aspect of TL on accelerating the motions is subordinate to providing the viewer with experiencing an event in a particular time-perspective.

TL mechanism is an apparatus of producing supernormal stimuli rather than a visual effect technology. Focusing on making an entirely "crafted experience" of the whole process is one of the principal advantages of TL. TL functions as a simplifier.

The purpose is to synchronise the event time-frame with the human visual cognitive system. As a simplifier, TL enables the viewer to watch the more extended duration of the event. In addition to the cognitive aspects, it provides the filmmaker with a system of time control in order to transform the long inaccessible stream of time to the short and efficient stream of time. In detail, the time-frame synchronisation is to make visible every long transition, and in general, it enables the viewer to overcome her endurance to watch the whole event. TL eases the comprehension for the recipient's visio-cognitive system. As Schwan considers in the narrative cases, in addition to limited time in narrative movies, the psychological state of the viewer also determines the simplifying reasons.

In Rush Hour (Nicholls, 1970) Thereby TL works like all other visual superstimuli. The input of a TL machine involves the actual domain (the same process as in face recognition system). The real thing depicted in compressed temporal perspective would additionally engage the proper domain.

The compression and the relationship between spatial variations and temporal structure amplify the event. The amplification indicates that some perceivable properties are common to the recognisable object in TL video and the real source of presentation. Accordingly, in TL, we do not exaggerate a series of still images by projecting them in a very limited duration. In the case of caricatures, the difference appears through exaggeration in certain forms; in cartoons and animation, it appears in exaggerated movements [START_REF] Johnston | The illusion of life: Disney animation[END_REF]. In TL, the difference is observable through a distortion of the time perspective which preserves the spatiotemporal proportions. The principal exaggerated stimulant is the temporal structure of the capturing and projecting process.

This entails that this magnification is recognisable because the differences between the referent and its representation are apparent (we all know that glaciers do not flow that fast). It applies to the form (spatial features) of the captured phenomenon and at the same time, to the behaviour and the act of the content (the movement).

The Functional Description with Time-lapse

As described in the previous section, one of the strategies of simplifying is using supernormal stimuli. In TL as well as slow-motion, the simplifier mechanism could generate supernormal stimuli. We define TL sequences as cinematic supernormal stimuli because the simplification is the functional concept of the mechanism, as it captures the shots in intervals, compresses the duration of the transition and leaves out the irrelevant lapsed moments. In botanical research, the aim is to provide access to unavailable temporal registers of the plant whose slowness is the stimuli to exaggerate. In this vein, the other movements around the plant (e.g., flying insects around the flowerpot) are not involved in the visualizing process. In visual learning, TL as a technique enables botanists to overcome the imperceptible temporal realm of the vegetal system and adjust it to the perceptible forms. For this reason, these superstimuli are used for research, teaching, and study purposes. Wilhelm Pfeffer, the plant physiologist, explains his use of TL for educational purposes:

By the compression into such a short time, growth and movement are played back to our vision in a most visual manner [in sehr anschaulicher Weise]. . . . Since in my experience it is difficult for most students to garner a correct and plastic image of the progression of a physiological process from the contemplation of a single, decontextualized phase, these projections have, as experience has also taught me, a high didactic value. This value is heightened by the visible evidence that in seemingly static plants lively activity is present and that visible actions and reactions actually are possessed by all plants and not just to certain unusual ones such as the mimosa that have been regarded with wonder as an exceptional case for a long time. (Pfeffer, 1900, p. 742) Especially in the case of scientifically relevant events by TL, the researcher selects and documents those pieces of information that are essential for understanding the phenomenon.

TL system functions as a recorder/simplifier and generates a documented superstimulus. The principal purpose of exaggerating normal stimuli is to make them visible and straightforward to understand. As an epistemic structure, TL maintains the pace of motions and the proportion of spatial properties between the referent and its accelerated image. On the other hand, in order to perceive the movement, the visio-cognitive system of the human is enabled to make connections between projected keyframes. It should be noted that over and above the aesthetic parameters, keeping the pace of the referent's movement is a critical parameter in simplification by TL. Producing a supernormal stimulus in order to simplify the cognate process depends on a condition; The referred stimulus has to be recognisable at a different perspective of time. The viewer usually can follow the motion even at an inappropriate pace (e.g., a jerky representation). However, the inherent temporal properties of the phenomenon (e.g., the speed of the motion) is crucial in simplifying the knowledge transfer process.

In his article on "visualising vegetative movement", Oliver Gaycken (2012) scrutinises the process of elaborating TL technique by the pioneer botanists and other researchers at the Marey Institute who take advantage of TL imaging. He mentions the striking issue on the quality of the represented movement in the learning domain suggested by F.A. Talbot:

The timing is perhaps the most difficult part of the undertaking, because if it is not gauged to a nicety the movement on the screen is apt to be unnatural, the growth taking place in a series of sudden jerks instead of proceeding slowly, steadily and gracefully. (Talbot, 1913, p. 126) According to Caycken's investigation (2012) beyond TL aesthetic phase, Talbot here remarks that every transition process has its particular temporal properties. As he points out:

"A mushroom has a different speed from a grain of wheat" (Gaycken, 2012, p. 63). Although due to the "time elasticity" concept, there is no definite speed of playback in order to enable the visual system to see the continuum motion. [START_REF] Athwal | Synchronised multimedia for engineering and scientific analysis[END_REF] have a predominant view on this issue that the human visual system perceives the motions between 1 and 50 frames per second:

It is interesting to note that the exact speed of playback in slow motion or time lapse is not critical within quite wide bounds. The human psychovisual system can in fact interpret motion at frame rates between 1 and 50 frames per second, varying from very jerky to very smooth motion. In practice, this capability implies that it is possible to relax constraints pertaining to precise realisations of playback speeds. We call this time elasticity. (Athwal & Robinson 2003, p. 365) Nevertheless, it's worth asking why do we make supernormal stimuli when we can represent the phenomenon's transformation otherwise?" For example, by employing chronophotography with large time intervals-or even just a set of two "before-after" images.

Discussing the experience of observing an event and comparing it with perceiving it in TL, we will address this question throughout the remainder of this section.

Observing the Essential Pieces of the Event

You are watching some digital photos on birds building behaviour on a tablet. To see a bird's nest architecture in a higher specification, you slide your thumb and forefinger apart to zoom in. Although the image appears to get larger, the image is manipulated to appear like it is zooming in. By digital zooming, you do not exaggerate the size of the bird. The mechanism makes it visible by enlarging the bird size, including whatever happens in the frame.

Simultaneous magnification of all the visual forms on the screen is what makes us know that it is not an "exceptional exaggeration" limited to a single object. Accordingly, zooming into the digital images on the screen does not make a supernormal stimulus (Figure 3.23). If you regularly go watch the bird making its nest on a far branch of a tree, it is an instance of an observation. If you take several videos of a nesting bird perched on the branch, edit and attach them one after the other thereby creating a visual documentary. The latter represents the spatial and temporal properties of the event without any exaggeration. However, it is not a representation of the whole process, and it is likely that we miss some crucial moments.

If we place the camera for a whole week to do a longer-term documentary, such that every two hours, the camera regularly takes shots during the nest construction process, we end up with a visual report of the process. We did not imply any exaggeration: the only choice is the interval between every two frames. You can cut out the favoured pieces and present them as a contact print. The viewer will look at them at once. It doesn't matter how tangible the change is.

Can we usefully compare this process with a linguistic representation (e.g., telling the story to a child)? You will not translate all the snapshots into sentences. You choose and explain the frames of the essential pieces of the event: the bird, the nest construction, the eggs, and the birth. You probably add some details (e.g., wind, tree, and the light of the days). You choose the notable moments and highlight them. That could be a kind of exaggeration (Figure 3.24). Retrieved from https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-3592155/Video-shows-snake-raid-bird-nest-eat-four-eggssoon-mother-leaves.html

In story-telling, we need to simplify the narration to make the experience understandable and therefore attract far more attention. For this, we use various linguistic techniques. In the linguistic rendering, the narrator chooses the structure of events in the plot of the story. Depending on his linguistic competence, he magnifies the moments of the highest interest (e.g., building a nest, attracting a mate and giving birth). Whereas in TL the exaggerated events happen systematically in an orderly manner (regularity in interval settings). Different constraints on the preservation of temporal order apply as well. In order for a TL to be understood as a TL, the temporal relations between parts of the representation must mirror temporal relations between parts of the represented event; narratives are not so constrained; A snake exits the scene after having swallowed four eggs. These were laid by a bird that we do not see when the snake is present, as it is probably scared by the latter.

The difference between visualising an event through observation and representation is in selecting the essential pieces of information in representation form. In TL representation, the selection applies to the form of the event. Indeed, depending on the transformation process, the novel configuration in form could conditionally affect the content.

Schwan draws our attention to distinctive categories of superstimuli often observed in static and moving images. As we mentioned before, with using the term "exaggeration" to refer to a strategy of simplifying, he considers animations and fantasy films as supernormal stimuli in the field of moving image:

"Besides exaggerating shape, similar comprehensional effects have also been shown

for exaggerating movement [START_REF] Hill | Exaggerating Temporal Differences Enhances Recognition of Individuals from Point Light Displays[END_REF]. "In films, particularly in cartoons and fantasy films, simplification by exaggerating shape and movement abounds" (Shimamura, 2013, p. 215). Cartoons also provide violations of physics that are not customary in TL; and as we said, appealing to perspectival change is a way to salvage the physics of the event (TL do not make glaciers flow "faster").

Here, the term exaggeration refers to an intentional sense in choosing the keyframes, whereas the frames are taken at regular intervals and the only parameter to choose by the filmmaker is the predetermined capturing settings (intraframe interval). This intentional intervention is essential for suggesting the viewer an interpretation. When there is no intentional manipulation of a particular frame, the moving image is coherently re-presenting the event, and it could be another epistemological aspect of TL.

Exaggeration is applied to the output by adopting an integrated pace, the spatial properties of the object undergo significant changes, and the event's temporal properties are compressed. Returning briefly to the involved link between time and space in the analogies with microscope and telescope in Gaycken's discussion (2015), it seems that the term "speed magnification" used by Smith and Urban, is questionable because the idea of magnifying spatial properties differs from providing temporal appropriateness in that it does not include defining preferences. To us, the indicated analogy with optical instruments (chapter 2) was to explain the representative cognitive function of TL. TL mechanism quality depends on determined choices on temporal configuration by the TL maker, and in this vein, the term amplification appears to be more fit for this mechanism. This definition highlights the subject matter's own agency and energy [START_REF] Smith | Experimental Time-Lapse Animation and the Manifestation of Change and Agency in Objects[END_REF]. The keyword here is "choice". As we mentioned, it may refer to the TL maker's background knowledge (Figure 3.25). Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/SecretsOfNature TL makes design a super stimulus for amplification purposes -the same decision in creating the face in the form of caricatures. In exaggerating the eyes size, the artist has to choose certain features to represent them and neglect the others "due to the key role they play in face perception and processing" (Costa & Corazza, 2006, p. 229). On top of the aesthetic values it provides, exaggeration in artistic portraits and caricatures taps into the face recognition process.

It is important to bear in mind, making a superstimulus is beneficial if the amplified aspect is critical. Amplifying distinct properties does not increase the chance of creating superstimuli:

"the stretching will affect performance only if these dimensions are critical for the task" (Hill & Pollick, 2000, p. 223). The critical feature in amplifying a slow transition by moving images is the long duration of motions and slow process of spatial change in the scene. Regulating the temporal perspective of the movements appears in a new configuration of the spatial relations of the moving objects in the scene. These spatial transitions become noticeable with a more spectacular effect. TL compresses the duration of the represented event, and thus connects the temporal properties to the spatial ones. As [START_REF] Barrett | Supernormal Stimuli: How Primal Urges Overran Their Evolutionary Purpose[END_REF] reminds us: "The essence of supernormal stimuli is that the exaggerated imitation can exert a stronger pull than the real thing" (p. 3). As previously stated, recognising the essential pieces of information to amplify and transfer, depends on the TL maker's background knowledge. Despite that she is aware of the coherent amplification of the temporal structure, does this assumption make the representation justified as an actual event? Returning to the epistemic values of TL, we discuss perceptual illusion in the supernormal stimulus structure.

By simplifying, the information is becoming accessible in a more direct way. But, here as in other cases it is legitimate to ask whether this kind of simplification of the representation maintains the epistemological values of the image. In the static realm, you can represent a piece of land by a geometric figure, thereby abstracting from many properties of the terrain. You can then calculate the figure in a way to divide the land in two halves. In general, we feel entitled to claim that the division on the piece of paper is a proxy for a similar operation we may want to perform on the land itself (e.g., establishing where we should put a fence). In the same vein, we can claim that this is the case if we use simplification in order to justify a certain understanding of the represented event.

In fiction, the filmmaker applies it as a strategy to narrate the event accurately. She does it through exaggerations of linguistic and facial expression, capturing the video in different points of view, auditory and visual effect, editing and other techniques.

Actors, directors, and editors have worked these out over the history of film by trial and error. You could think of these stimuli as being like processed foods with amped up sugar and salt: products that exaggerate dimensions of naturally occurring variation, producing an irresistible response. (Zacks, 2015, p. 82) According to a definition provided by Barrette (2010), in 1927 neurologist Ivan Pavlov named the term "orienting response" for the instinctive reflexes to any moving stimulus or sound. According to Barrette, the effect persists for four to six seconds after each stimulus. In these moments, human's attention gets increased. In the visual learning domain, this factor could be related to the time of keeping the viewer focused on the screen and therefore, the proper duration of TL. Barret states:

After a certain level of intensity, however, the orienting response is overworked and effects on learning and attention begin to reverse. This is what we see with ads, action sequences, and music videos, where formal features provoke orienting at the rapid-fire rate of one per second. (ibid., 134) TL, like a standard frame rate video, activates the orienting response. On the other hand, in a moving image, after each particular stimulus, the persistence of visual state remains for specified time. In this point, in attracting attention and functioning, TL is different from the other visual superstimuli. The fundamental features of TL mechanism allow us to control the parameters that drop the perception to lower levels of learning and following.

TL typically expects to be the shortest possible and understandable. The filmed object transforms and changes fast. On the other hand, often the process is unknown, and the viewer is observing and at the same time discovering.

In the TL mechanism as a "device" for discovery, the concept of simplifying the transformation of visual data is embedded in the predetermined process. To visualise an invisible phenomenon of non-human timescale, make a discovery or popularise a scientific fact, TL amplifies the change process consistently and systematically.

Simplification of the visual stimulus can go a long way without hindering recognition.

This has been seen in the case of observing a movement by point-light displays (e.g., led placed at joints of a walking person, then filmed in the dark) allows us to recognise the action and the direction of movement, identify features of the object and also imagine the three-dimensional shape of the person (Thomas & Johnson, 1981).

The parameters which disable visualising the recognisable properties of the phenomenon will limit the cognitive process. To a large extent, providing this condition depends on the TL maker's approach and knowledge on three factors: TL mechanism, the motion's properties (as pace and cycle) and above all, the purpose of making TL.

For example, in biological motion, it is crucial to know at which point exaggerating the biological process is advantageous. Because the synchronisation of points may have been scrambled. The cyclical movement could be started at different places in the cycle.

Manipulating the temporal properties affects the perception of biological motion. "biological motion information is integrated over longer time periods than non biological motion and adapts to stimulus-based properties, such as number of cycles, rather than stimulus-independent properties, such as absolute time" (Hill & Pollick, 2000, p. 223). In fact the epistemic value of the representation depends on the filmmaker's knowledge on the filmed object. The knowledge about the phenomenon directs the TL maker to choose the temporal configuration, which stands for simplifying the complex event in the form of accurate and comprehensible representation.

Regulation of the inter-frame interval in the capturing process maintains the motion's pace. On the other hand, our belief in a moving phenomenon depends on the role of explicit knowledge for recognising it (analysing into the object's characteristics in the real world). The simplifying process does not affect the phenomenon inherent properties.

The other point is that in watching a TL, at first glance, the visual features indicate the non-human perspective of time (see chapter 2, The silence of pictures). The result justifies the system. Fragmentation and acceleration in TL, extended capturing in slow motion, simulation in virtual realities, deformation in animation, etc. all of these visual techniques emphasize and exaggerate a particular aspect of an inexperienced image.

In the next chapter, we will discuss how TL simplification is a strategy to provide viewers with an ideal simulation of social experience.

Conclusion

The mediation of the agent, as any alteration and editing, can change the epistemological statute of TL. The barn managers use the TL as evidence. They were already aware of the condition in the barn (animal movements and speed and on the other hand the space condition).

Moreover, they could change the TL configuration at will. The TL of crossing the Atlantic, as an educational case, has been made by the intention of the researcher. The accurate predetermined setting of intervals, considering the environmental condition, anticipated spatial changes, decision on point of view and the other technical choices have been taken regarding the cognitive purpose. This accuracy in technical configuration comes from the researcher's background knowledge and research's purposes. The viewer also watches it in a scientific mindset.

Comparing different TL making conditions and purposes, the "epistemic peculiarity" of TL is conditional. As a supernormal stimulus, we exaggerate and highlight the transition through temporal alteration. Employing the mechanism in a way the essential information is preserved depends on the researcher's aim and knowledge. As mentioned in the previous section, in this way, the mechanism helps the viewer in knowing/learning the invisible phenomenon in easier condition. The epistemological status of TL depends on the method and purpose of making supernormal stimuli. In other words, it works when we need to amplify a normal stimulus in a determined cognitive approach.

The factors of mediation such as selecting the camera's movement, point of view and the interval setting is determined by the purpose of TL making in each category. In the case of scientific TL in which the epistemic status of the recording process has the most important manifestation, these decisions rely on the scientist's background knowledge. Cohen and Meskin, in their discussion, consider the "mediation by intention" as one of the parameters which criticise the epistemic status of photographs. They mention the production process and various decisions made by the intention of photographers. They also ignore the role of automaticity in the production of photographs. However, TL is more automatic than a photograph because the intention is never applied to all the snapshots one by one. Moreover, in most cases of popular science film, the scientist/filmmaker is observing while recording the phenomenon (discovering by doing). In Cohen and Meskin's view, photographs are epistemically different from the other spatially agnostic representation because of the background belief about them to be the source of visual information and the history of using them as evidence.

In our approach to the TL epistemic status, we found the epistemic conditions of TL depending on background knowledge of the TL maker about the phenomenon and the tool's mechanism. In the case of TL, indeed, public background beliefs about the media are not confidential. Typical digital applications in manipulation and producing moving images, change the viewers' belief about the truthfulness of these images. The belief on the possibility of integration of real phenomenon's image and CG elements reduces the evidentiary weight of photographs and still less on temporarily altered counterparts. Consequently, when we employ these media, as a recording device to make "popular" science films for using them in news and educational fields, the epistemic values are crucially conditional.

Considering the advantages of TL amongst the other devices of recording and portraying a process of change, we defined the conditional epistemic status of TL as a simplifier in transferring the proposed knowledge. In order to make a distinction and represent highlight and exaggeration, TL is epistemically more practical to standard frame rate video (in the same way illustration is preferable to photographs in depicting a specific characteristic of a particular subject among visually similar phenomenon).

One educational approach to identify a phenomenon (e.g., a biological experiment), is to compare two different spatiotemporal conditions. Then in the case of analysing the data by taking TL to record the experiment process and results, the epistemic status of the device matters; its function depends on intentional choices and the technique is epistemically practical,

where TL records two experiments by the same configuration.

As we mentioned at the beginning of the discussion, to see a normally invisible transition, we need prostheses to enable us to perceive the essential spatial and temporal information simultaneously. By watching TL sequences in knowledge in the wind (Casati, 2019), we might be misinformed about the spatiotemporal properties such as the size of the boat, the angle of the sail, the time, etc. The TL maker provides corresponding information all along with the video in order to reinforce the epistemic structure. In intervals, we are informed continuously about the time and location. Taken together, this study suggests that TL purpose is not to represent reality as it is. TLs of flowing glaciers misrepresent the principal features of icebergs and their movement. Nevertheless, they represent the effects of climate change on them by projecting the viewer into another time-perspective.

Professionals, whether artists or scientists, use TL as a tool to produce a new perspective on the world and direct the visual perception in a way cognition improved. The purpose of the current chapter was to determine the condition in which TL could represent the phenomenon in an epistemic way. Overall, this study strengthens the idea that TL epistemic state depends on its application in producing a supernormal stimulus. In using TL, there is, therefore, a definite need for amplifying a stimulus in the scene. Further research could be conducted to determine the effectiveness of this tool in monitoring familiar events to amplify an unknown phenomenon. The next chapter evaluates TL as a tool for transmission information about social events.

Social Time-lapse: A Method of Monitoring Collective Behaviour

In the previous chapter we evaluated the epistemic status of TL as evidence. How does TL enable us to observe the otherwise unavailable features of a familiar phenomenon (e.g., human collective behaviour)? In this chapter, we study the effectiveness of TL images in monitoring long-span social events. By analysing observation methods in the research projects on collective behaviours, we examine the capacity of Social TL in enhancing our apprehension of collective human behaviour. We propose that TL through manipulating temporal properties of the represented scene can dehumanize human beings' images in order to portray social behaviours.

TL as a Discovery Tool

"To the casual observer, the birds appear to just stand around on the ice and endure their frigid world" [START_REF] Biographic | Lens of Time: When Plants Fight Back | bioGraphic[END_REF], Lens of Time: Huddle Masters).

Physicist Daniel Zitterbart and his team at the Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution 14 study the penguin colonies health in order to identify the environmental factors related to climate change.

By using a network of nine robotic TL cameras at a research station in Atka Bay iceport in eastern Antarctica, they observe the penguins staying stable in tight groups and examine their ability to preserve body temperature when outside temperature goes down to -70°c. TL cameras

14 "The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution is dedicated to advancing knowledge of the ocean and its connection with the Earth system through a sustained commitment to excellence in science, engineering, and education, and to the application of this knowledge to problems facing society" (The Woods Hole Oceanographic Institution, 2020, Vision & Mission, Mission Statement).

provide them with long-term observations showing how the "penguins huddle" form and by comparing images at different moments, they investigate how this action of huddling functions and changes over time (Figure 4.1).

In Zitterbart's view, TL is an ideal tool of observation to see "very slow dynamics". It helps him track the bird's colony. The researcher calculates the transition temperature by watching the penguins' movement over the day. The information on transition temperature permits them to measure the temperature gradient and understand what are their energy resources in that environment. (For instance, it is interesting to see how groups of penguins move in sync within larger groups.)

If we consider penguin huddling as a collective action, and believe that the individuals' behaviours affect the state of huddling, the question is: how does TL enable the team to observe the collective action? We suggest that besides providing the researcher with a short-duration visual document, the TL technique as a supernormal stimulus makes the unavailable information on penguins huddling accessible by amplifying certain pieces of information and neglecting some others.

The main issues addressed in this discussion are those proper to TL sequences of social events, and in this vein, the chapter has been divided into two parts. The first part deals with the function of TL as a discovery tool for observation of long-term social events (4.2 and 4.3).

It will then go on to discuss how TL images can de-humanize human beings' images in order to portray a social behaviour (4.4).

The Observation Methods in the Researches on Collective Behaviours

In the previous chapter we discussed the instant replay videos as visual prostheses to scrutinize an event that actually happened, and that the viewer could see beforehand with the naked eye.

We took slow-motion videos in matches as an example. The advantages of TL as a research tool in documentation of evidence is related to their function as instant replays. Moving image veridicality in portraying natural phenomena, here penguins huddling, depends on the preknown motions relating to the location and rules of the filmed subject and also on the laws of the event and of the environment. In these cases, via the help of the AP techniques, the transitions within long processes become recognizable. It should be noted that the rhythm of natural phenomena is uniform, and the technical configuration could manage the aliasing effect (see the previous chapter: section on aliasing and interval setting).

Re-constructing a scene, representing an action or re-illustrating an event is not limited to expanding the time duration of an unknown phenomenon. In some research, we need a documentary tool just to record what is already perceived. In very short or very long-term events, in order to provide the viewer with otherwise inaccessible information (inaccessibility due to the time perspective), replay videos function as tools of recording and discovery.

Moreover, recording an event by AP videos has benefits both in visible-making and information-carrying.

The question was raised in the context of studies of phenomena emerging in an unknown event. In other words, when the circuit of the event is unknown. For example, in the video of the seal somersaulting through the ocean (Figure 4.2), oftentimes a new form appears in the pattern of schooling fishes; however, the change in the form is entirely predictable for the viewer. By contrast, a video of the pilgrim in Mecca shows the spontaneous behaviour of people in the changing form of the human crowd, which is visible in the TL (Figure 4.3). Is this change otherwise visible -as in the case of the fish school-by normal frame-rate video?

What is the difference between the human crowd and the school of fish? However, in some cases of collective behaviour that happened in a short time duration, the event can be understood using a normal frame-rate video. These are mostly the new dynamic behaviours which emerged in the collective forms and are not part of existing and known behaviours under the norms and convention in society.

In some cases (e.g., protests), these behaviours arise from interactions among the various groups spontaneously involved in the event. In some situations (e.g., a busy airport during holiday season), these behaviours are guessable, considering the rush-hours and morning crowds.

The empirical research began in early 1970 reports of on-site observation. They use visual pieces of evidence as film and photograph. The other way used by social researchers, before that, was the "eyewitness accounts" which are less reliable. Clark McPhail investigated the different forms of collective behaviour with on-site observation method.

There has been no systematic empirical analysis of the extent to which the description of protests and protest actions in the print and electronic media correspond to systematic observations of protesters' actions recorded by social scientists across the space time of duration of the protest event. (McPhail & Schweingruber, 1999, p. 459) The initial problem was the determination of the collective phenomena to observe and record. Schweigruber and McPhail, in their 1999 paper, introduce a method to study the temporary gatherings. Their method employed observers to record in person all instances of "elementary forms of social behaviour or collective acts" in the event. The observation and recording result in a list of forty regularly recognised forms of collective action.

"Our method uses trained observers, distributed across a gathering, who complete a code sheet during time interval samples. The data collected proved a rich record of collective action across space and time" (ibid., p. 451).

For the on-site observation, the social researcher had to recruit and train the observers, precise their location in the event, formulate the code sheets and debrief the observers. The next step was entering the records into the database (See ibid.).

Monitoring Crowd and Collecting Representative Information

There are methodology problems faced by scholars of collective action and social movements.

Regardless of the approach, the investigator is presumed to have witnessed the phenomenon.

By making systematic records, finding the repeated forms and behaviour in the crowd, the social research on collective behaviour must contain empirical evidence to provide information on the event. Interestingly, in their paper McPhail and Schweingruber mentioned: "later, these observers improved their observations by making videotape and photographic records" (ibid., p. 455). In the situation in which the density of the crowd is high, the way the method is performed becomes complicated. For example, in a high-density crowd as in protests, the educated observers may be unable to stand because of the crowd pressure and the motion of other pedestrians. "Because the data were gathered by multiple observers as uniform times, they can be used to show how the proportion of people participating in each form of collective action varies in the gathering by space and time" (ibid., p. 492). This method has numerous advantages in investigating a part of the event.

In his paper, McPhail and Schweingruber suggest a method in which the time and space sampling is used to collect representative information. Regardless of the subject, the suggested method applies to any size and type of demonstration. He discusses the time-limitation and synchronisation in the observation process. The observers have to set their watch and record the information at the same time: "this requires a taxonomy simple and clear enough that observers with a minimum amount of training will be able to identify and code the elementary forms in a few minutes" (ibid., p. 484). They need accuracy in synchronising the time of recording information. Recording information from multiple positions in the long duration event and possible errors in time synchronisation could affect the evidentiary weight of information. The other problem would be the limitation of space. An observer is bound to record the accessible information in small groups observed in the sector of the responsibility.

She has to estimate the number of actors in the section of observation, which is not precise in a crowd. Therefore, the reported information is limited to the people who are visible and as the observer stands among them, monitoring all the actions, communications and the change in the form of the group at the same time is not conveniently possible. The McPhail method was further used to study collective action. In the observation of the public, there is a chance of anticipating the moment that the group will change its form, act and communication. In the case of non-institutionalised gathering as in casual crowds, when individuals do not appear to follow a rational decision, observing and recording the collective behaviour is more complicated. Thus, recording TL could be more advantageous in observing a collective action, due to the possibility of anticipating the behaviour and setting the proper temporal and spatial configuration for recording. Monitoring a social event through the TL footages is a kind of surveillance system that leads us to have adequate information without interference of intentional agencies. McPhail's suggestion on using normal frame rate video as the tool of observation is notable:

We note in passing another possible use we can make of video records with our method.

Instead of human observers making records on site, an array of video cameras could be stationed throughout a demonstration gathering. Each camera would provide a continuous record of one location in the gathering. Each record could then be coded to create a set of data that would be far more detailed that the set that we have analysed here the sets we could produce from television news records. These data would also be free of description bias inherent in network news reports. (ibid., p. 491)

Time-lapse as a Recording Tool in Social Studies

If TL could not represent the temporal properties of the event, it provides the researcher with a visual analysis of multiple parts of the event in a short time scale. Mcphail mentions, "coding video records is cheaper and quicker than coding on site" (ibid., p. 491). Indeed, the event's social patterns detected in TL at a predetermined/desired frame rate, would be different from the models detected in a normal frame rate video. The other point about observation through a normal frame rate video is the long-term changes in the event. The observer view can be expanded by employing a wide lens or multiple cameras in order to detect the size of the crowd.

For instance, once the size of the control area is chosen, the normal frame rate video can provide the data by counting people to get information about changes of the crowd size. But this is only possible for the short duration events. For comparing the crowd density during peak and offpeak hours in an airport or a subway station, finding the bottlenecks in a crowded environment, estimating the navigational problems and ultimately adapting the spatial design, the individual movements and gestures do not affect examining the behaviour. Therefore, TL as a summary is more useful for seeing and managing "peaks" and "lows".

Using archival images to make TL helps us to see repetitive behaviours in certain events (all four types of the crowd) 15 over time. There are differences in using TL as a recording tool in social studies. John Withall, in his paper on patterns of classroom activity ( 1956), explained his method of using TL (by 35mm photographs and 15-sec intervals). Paul Gump (1967) and Louis Smith (1971), used similar techniques (long time intervals and black and white prints) to record the ongoing events. Since the electronic TL equipment was expensive at the time, their method provided a low-cost way of recording and playing back TL with snapshots that were provided at more widely-spaced intervals throughout the event [START_REF] Walker | Time-Lapse Photography in Recording Classroom Events[END_REF].

In addition to its use as a research tool, replay of edited material to teachers or student teachers could be used to illustrate a point in a lecture or seminar, or enable teachers to make their own observation, raise questions and possible answers. If it is to be used widely, the replay facility has to be as simple as possible. (ibid., p. 10)

For a more detailed result (and as children are fast-moving), they needed long-term videos with the short-spaced intervals. On the other hand, long intervals made the gap in observing all the transition in the social scene: "we did not want a complete record of everything that occurred, but rather a visual record to which we could refer in analysing selected events over long periods of time" (ibid., p. 6).

By and large, using the closed-circuit cameras as a research tool has advantages in observation and makes accessible the unavailable information on collective behaviour in the classrooms at a detailed level. They provide the teachers with insight into the structure of "dynamics of classroom events and educational processes" and in a more general approach enable them to take corrective action in order to prevent or to control abnormal behaviour.

Providing the teachers with a long-term observation, TL as a research tool helps them to revise what happens during a lesson: "We have realised that an even longer time-scale for observation allows us to realise yet another level of structure in classroom events" (ibid., p. 3).

By contrast, one disadvantage of TL for detecting abnormal behaviours in the social environment is the short term changes: a research on "Prediction of human crowd pressures"

shows that five minutes or less is sufficient for estimating subsequent crowd pressures [START_REF] Lee | Prediction of human crowd pressures[END_REF]. The other problem is that TL images do not provide information on sound.

Hence, using TL is limited to record the nonverbal (and in general, non sounding) collective behaviours.

Amongst the various methods such as interviewing crowds and simulating the event by using the questionnaire, or even combining the interviews with observation and getting a more detailed description, another method is the one in which researchers evaluated archives. In

McPhail's account, social media represents the event in a predetermined proposition and the result would be a superficial image of the gathering. "Constructing the collective action data sets leaves little doubt that national papers carry valid if superficial accounts of protest events" (McPhail & Schweingruber, 1999, p. 454).

The superficial image, resulted by the technique and then the intentional setting of TL maker, could be the critical problem of TL as the tool of observation. In a fast motion video, there are difficulties in segmenting individuals properly. The technical settings and compressed time could result in neglecting the individual role of people in the collective action. On the other hand, the method of direct observation and recording has many obstructions in transferring information in the unpredictable events. In the same vein, the method of direct observation is limited. McPhail did not find it applicable for all the studies on collective action.

The problem is the simultaneity in individual and collective behaviour sequences and being able to observe and record all at the same level of importance (ibid., 1999).

Crowd behaviour analysis has been subject to various empirical research in social science studies. Being able to observe and study crowd behaviour for social behaviour studies is crucial. Beyond the research on social behaviours, information on the crowd size and form function as alerts to security operators and space designers. Several methods have studied the behaviour of humans in densely populated situations in order to adopt rules and to observe the people's motion. Research by [START_REF] Hughes | The flow of large crowds of pedestrians[END_REF] on the large crowds of pedestrians shows that around 2000 people die in large pedestrian crowds per year. For instance, in 2015, in Mecca, 717 people were trampled to death during a stampede. In the case of religious events, for instance, when the crowd forms on the base of predetermined rituals, people follow the action at a slow pace due to the pressures generated by a very high density of people. In this situation, when the density of the crowd is high, individuals unintentionally find their movement related to the rhythm of the people around them. Consequently, massive changes in the crowd form and direction emerge gently.

Therefore, TL images are convenient to observe the crowd's behaviour. LeBon (1896) notes:

The psychological crowd is a provisional being formed of heterogeneous elements, which for a moment are combined, exactly as the cells which constitute a living body form by their reunion a new being which displays characteristics very different from those possessed by each of the cells singly. (p. 4)

By studying the cause and the repeatability of an accident, the social institutions can establish a solution, define the norms and therefore, formalise and prescribe a collective behaviour [START_REF] Blumer | The crowd, the public and the mass" en LEE[END_REF].

TL is a kind of substitute method for on-site observation with the same advantages and fewer errors: Recording a collective action across space without attention to individual patterns.

(employing multiple recording points provides a large spatial view to observe all the collective behaviour at once.)

A TL video taken from Montparnasse tower in Paris shows a large group of pedestrians crossing the "18 Juin" square illegally due to the infelicitous urban planning (Figure 4.7). This is a kind of casual crowd, and through these TL images, we see how people act, "as rational beings" [START_REF] Schweingruber | A Method for Systematically Observing and Recording Collective Action[END_REF]. In this video, the reason for collective behaviour is recognisable. Turner and Killian, in their book Collective behaviour (1957), discuss the new norms emerging from collective groups (i.e., crowd, mass and public). The members of a public intentionally share the ideas, and the members of a mass share their interests. Whereas in an ambiguous or confusing situation as in a crowd, there is a chance that people spontaneously change or make new norms.

Representing the Dominant Continuous Movements

TLs cannot represent the interest or the ideas of the mass and public. However, they are useful in representing emergent patterns of crowd behaviour. In the pages that follow, we present the reason for the utility of TL images in the representation of crowd behaviour. In the case of "crowd TL", we see a large group of individuals as "self-propelled entities", and their motion pattern reminds us of the swarm behaviours.

Since the individual behaviours are not recognisable in swarm behaviour, we see them as one single congregating tight body. Likewise, in TL, the particular temporal perspective enables the observer to see them as a unity (Figure 4.8). TL images display the human crowd as swarms that migrate in some direction, showing notable locomotion in masse. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/kp-yC5gaVvQ

As evident, in this social TL, the novel temporal perspective makes the form recognisable. As mentioned before, here in the case of crowd behaviour, TL does not make the motion stream visible (we could see the motion stream in a fast motion video too), but it makes the form integrate and easy to see as a unity. Following a single shape in movement is visually more convenient than a large number of moving objects in the scene.

If multiple cameras are set with a proper angle and record the event with an appropriate temporal configuration, the advantages of the visual tool include seeing a large number of people. In the case of TL recording by a single camera, defining the camera's fields of view is essential to cover the convergent orientation of the group (i.e., collective locomotion from one point to another in Figure 4.9). Retrieved from https://youtu.be/mrjqS5zd268

All these visual cues help the researcher to encode the behaviour. For instance, the visual system will be sensitive to the pop-out effect of a pedestrian in a flow of motorbikes, or of a still-standing security officer in a flow of walkers. Examining these TLs of various collective behaviours, it can be seen that, in observing the three different forms of collective behaviour (Crowd, mass and public), TL, function as a terse form of visual documentation and as an instrument of visual discovery. The document helps sociologists to observe, recognise and interpret the emergent phenomena: "incisive observations presuppose a set of conceptual criteria specifying the phenomena to be observed" (McPhail & Schweingruber, 1999, p. 452).

The common characteristics between on-site observation method and the replay of recordings of social events by TL (as a piece of visual evidence), is making accessible the information on the orientation of the crowd such as vertical and horizontal locomotion (i.e., movement of the body over the same point on the ground or from one point on the ground to another"; ibid., p. 457). However, TL is more reliable in the specification of dimensions and directions, even if in the crowd cases, the motions that TL can represent are limited to the overall body of the crowd. These images are not authentic in the representation of some determinative categories of collective acts such as the collective actions in which the verbalisation (making words with the mouth) or vocalisation and "mouth sounds" are eventful.

In other words, TL is limited to the collective physical body movement and gesticulation. In the TL of Figure 4.10, only the hands are recognisable but we do not receive any information about the chants and slogans. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/KaKMugW8Bqc

In the psychological view, collective behaviours have emotional sources and manifest features such as fear, joy and anger. In the crowd in which people express their common emotions, the form depends on the emotional expressions related to the purpose of gathering.

As when TLs do not record the emotional expression of the individual in a social event's scene, there is not adequate information for recognising the cause of emergent forms. The result does not represent the emotional sources of the behaviour, but as a visual tool, it can obviously represent the principal feature on the moment the collective actions happen. As mentioned before, in the case of using TL as the single tool for recording the interactions, the observation Furthermore, apart from not representing verbal communication, there is not the evidentiary weight problem in observing a long duration social event by TL. On the other hand, the other methods of observation in which the researchers evaluated the event through social media make it challenging to establish an authentic narration (the description bias was a critical problem in mass media reports of gathering as they represented the same event differently in newspapers (i.e., photographs) and television accounts (i.e., video report; ibid.)).

McPhail, in his view, aims to design a concise method in which the observation provides a "multilevel analytical scheme". Blumer (1957) claimed that having a "well-thoughtout multilevel analytic scheme" is necessary for more incisive observations. Hence, it could conceivably be hypothesized that TL can contribute this to this analytical scheme for providing an incisive observation. TL provides us with an overview of the form the crowd takes in a social environment. On the other hand, in the investigation used on-site observation, the observers record the cues of communication. Using these two methods of observation can work well for data about the causes of the change in the form of the crowd. In other words, TL has the visual advantages to transfer the codes in a limited time. Analysing a crowd behaviour, under a TL camera network, is a kind of monitoring system that leads the researchers to make a direct and incisive commentary. However, detecting the individual abnormal behaviours in a short duration event, crucially depends on the interval settings.

De-humanization in Social Time-lapse

So far, our research has tended to focus on technical aspects and potential cognitive advantages of the apparatus rather than on critical characteristics of the filmed subject such as size, colour, perspective and the other spatial features. In the previous chapter, we have talked about the epistemic values of TL representation and the features through which TL cognitive advantages manifest themselves. It has been explained how the TL visually manipulates the reality and transforms data according to the intention of the filmmaker and makes a form of supernormal stimulus (i.e., changes the "manner") as a way to magnify and reveal the content (i.e., matter) he or she wishes to represent [START_REF] Carroll | Philosophy and the Moving Image[END_REF]. The form of the film affects the content. The temporal setting depends on the pace of the moving objects and manifesting the change process occurs by projecting the frames that were taken less frequently than standard videos.

Consequently, a new dynamic event in acceleration has been produced with innovative temporal features and configurations. In this succession, the revealed phenomenon is the content the viewer sees in the TL representation. In the second chapter, we introduced TL as a cognitive tool to make the invisible phenomenon visible. We discussed the change in the relationship between temporal and spatial properties, and we investigated the reason for this modification. We examined this relation, the purpose and the principal function of TL in carrying the information on the "change" process.

As explained in the introduction, it is clear that the issue of becoming able to see something, -for the scientists-, means making some visually unavailable information accessible and in their observation process through AP videos, they might access two kinds of transformation, previously known or previously unknown. TL becomes interesting when it represents unavailable information on the transformation. In this section, we aim to investigate, With the help of TL, the researcher documents the ants' mechanism of orientation and organization. By observing their collective behaviour in the long process of building ladders and bridges to expedite their traffic, he models the systems of ants' dynamic behaviour. Indeed, the apparent features of the ants and their movements are not epistemically represented, but what helps the researcher to investigate this organism is the ability to see their collective action and outcomes. However, manipulating the main properties of the objects in the scene sometimes causes difficulties in recognising the filmed object or instils doubt about the truthfulness of the representation. TL compresses the representation of the main properties in order to unveil a subtle aspect of the phenomenon. The question now is about the TLs in which the filmed subject is recognisable without effort (e.g., the human body). The remarkable point

In other words, this method in representing the scene affects the inherent feature of the component in the way the viewer can perceive the circuit of change. The difference between the referent object and the represented object is notable. This chapter assesses the design and implementation of social TL images in this process of simplifying and making the supernormal stimulus to the extent that we consider the resulting superstimuli as a cognitive artifact. Social TL is one of TL's subcategories that could function as the other representational artifacts such as the TLs of glaciers. Like graphs and maps, they illustrate the principal common action, which reappears several times in the scene. They map how an event starts to happen (e.g., a traffic jam). The purpose of social TL is applying a structure to the event representation. Observing social events through a manipulated representation could affect our experience about collective behaviours in urban spaces. Watching these kinds of collective beings produces emotional effects on the viewer and could illustrate anthropological meanings. Here we focus on the cognitive outcomes of these representations and not on emotional aspects.

In real time-scale, a process, from beginning to end, has a continuous axe and rhythm.

This characterization is close to the Bergsonian description of the movement as "the continuous, indivisible flow of the reality of the world" (Tortajada & Albera, 2015, p. 111). As it was mentioned in the previous chapter, even in a TL representation, these kinds of movements maintain their continuity. In a TL representation of these continuous movements, if the intervals are appropriate, we succeed to produce an artificial continuity. Therefore, the result would be a simulated movement with the same rhythm.

There is another kind of movement which is intrinsically compatible with the TL system of representing movements (i.e., the representation of an event with the fragmentation of film frames). In this second category, movement is defined as a recomposition of various actions in various axes and rhythms. In other words, the movement has its particular rhythms and degrees of tension with different fragments of motion. These fragmentariness and segmentation are definitory characteristics of the movement. In addition, TL records them in intervals, restructures the already fragmented movement and implies a novel model of discontinuity.

The observer seeks to see a successive movement in the image. This is why TL of Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/40837061 [START_REF] Smith | Experimental Time-Lapse Animation and the Manifestation of Change and Agency in Objects[END_REF], defines TL as "a branch of animation that does not involve drawing things, or constructing objects specifically for the purpose of filming them, but rather captures imagery of objects that already exist in the world" (p. 81). As is pointed out in the introduction of her paper on experimental TL animation, she remarks the anthropomorphic experience afforded by TL in dominant cinema, which entails disappearing objects' own power in these films. Afterward, she explains the nexus between the early 1970s experimental moving images (film and animation) and the experimental filmmaker's attention to manipulating the technical structures in apparatuses so as to avoid anthropocentrism. By innovating to represent the inherent properties of natural phenomena, these filmmakers opened up a novel perspective in observing an object that breaks the film anthropocentric characteristics. The central point is in the capacity to make visible and in parallel make apparent the agency and energies of objects as they are, away from "the anthropocentrism often found in nature documentary or character animation" (ibid., p. 79). To get into the eco-philosophical view in making experimental TL animation, she considers the theory of Timothy Morton who magnifies the natural phenomena via an acceleration in the frame rate.

At some point, she presents the new material-focused approach of Jane Bennett, in which animal or mineral phenomena "are all shown to exist, as material". She takes Hamlyn'

Gasometers as an example that engages the ecological concerns in this kind of visibility. The article seeks to scrutinise the eco-philosophical aspect in the experimental moving image (Figure 4.16). In this vein, it is crucial to introduce natural agencies as the main content of these films. Smith interprets TL in an eco-aesthetical approach and addresses the invisible phenomena: amplifying their movements via TL makes apparent their force and agency (e.g., wind). Smith concludes that in TL animation, Objects "appear to possess their own agency and are seen to animate themselves" (ibid., p. 81). Smith presents a concise overview of the technical aspects of TL, considering the idea of "avoiding anthropomorphism" when making a distinction between urban space or still life scenes and natural landscapes. The idea becomes pertinent when she distinguishes the dramatic deployment of TL in fictional narration or still life from the experimental TL of landscapes.

She mentions the lack of manifestation of the change in the metaphoric use of TL in still life scenes, while in landscape TLs (without a metaphoric or anthropomorphic approach) the "matter appears to act autonomously" (ibid., p.82). She investigates how anthropomorphism in landscape TL is avoided, and this issue creates a common ground between landscape TL and the eco-philosophy view.

Smith's study on TL clearly indicates that change in natural phenomena and objects appears as it happens in reality, even more definite. It becomes perceptible in a particular timeperspective and provides a new lens to represent their properties and forces.

It is obvious that to make visible a phenomenon, TL might represent the phenomenon with different characteristics. Because of intentional segmentations in capturing the movement, TL distorts some visual aspect of the phenomenon. On the other hand, even in some cases of continuous actions, the movement appears in a magnified form within novel features (e.g., the pressure we notice when watching earthstar fungi flourishing in TL; see Figure 4.11). In contrast, watching the moment of unfurling a fungus in a chronophotography or a TL with long intervals does not transmit any sense of pressure (Figure 4.17). If there is no sign of attributing human traits to the natural phenomenon in landscape TL, do we notice any sign of de-anthropomorphism in the TL of human beings moving around in an urban space? We aim to focus on the TL's potential to remove anthropomorphism even in the representation of human bodily movements. The following part of this chapter moves on to examine in greater details the novel temporal concepts attributed to the human beings, as the main component of the social TL sequences.

As we have seen, there are two principal functions of TL for representing a movement.

One is to make visible "natural" phenomena (mostly landscape) in a novel dimension of time, (currently being discussed in the second chapter) and the second is magnifying "otherwise imperceptible" agency of matter, which is related to TL status as a supernormal stimulus. In other words, to make visible, TL makes matters agency recognisable. This recognition comes from the supernormal stimulus function of simplifying the perception of the event.

These two main capacities are given to TL by manipulating spatiotemporal properties.

The following spatial relations don't vary between TL and normal videos:

-The relation between the camera and the scene.

-The relation between the scene and the component.

-The relation between the components among each other.

Accelerating the pace of each element makes these relations magnified. Consider a TL such as Inner City super 8 (Sundog Media, 2020). Human beings in these representations act perceive them as human beings, not as puppets. The difference between TL and stop-motion here is that in these blurred body movements, individual's gestures without fitting connection to the previous or next state disappear. How do we still recognise them as human beings?

In the TL of Figure 4.19, consider a scene of people rushing to get into the train. We might distinguish the individuals, but the relationship between them is ambiguous. We do not notice how many people are exactly involved in the action. We do not see them individually, and in this way, we get little about their gestures, attitudes and facial expression. This is why narrative potentialities of TL are limited (e.g., comedic movements). TL does not work in many cases of fictional narratives or a drama scene, because it does not represent, or it alters, the descriptive or emotional state. By contrast, the slow-motion transmits and highlights the emotional aspect of human behaviour because of its ability to represent the gesture, subtle movements, facial expression, etc. We are involved with the individual in the scene because each moment of his movement becomes deep and relevant. We have enough time to recognise the individuals and the details. It is like a comet or avalanche becoming tangible. We will not miss observing it, and the process is one of discovery [START_REF] Rogers | Truth, lies, and meaning in slow motion images[END_REF].

While a variety of definitions of the term "gesture" has been suggested, in social TL it refers to particular positions in the body mass, which helps our perceptual capacities to figure out the common behaviour. Giorgio Agamben defines the gesture as the "basic expressive element of cinema" (As cited in Väliaho, 2010, p. 17). In this vein, collective gestures could be precisely the element by which the otherwise imperceptible phenomenon becomes revealed as collective behaviour. Well, of course, we return our hypothesis of the mechanism to produce collective gestures. The individual motions are passed through a filter, and the different ones get a common rhythm. One can set a static camera far from the crowd to get clear the idea of relations in the scene. The dominant movement of the social event is followingly noticeably being recorded with a TL.

By contrast, in character centred hyper-lapse, the camera follows a chosen spatial point on some unique figure in the environment. In this case, the capturing process goes precisely as in stop-motion animation: The hyper-lapse maker takes the snapshots in determined, regular and adjacent steps, and the result is a change, both in the temporal perspective and spatial displacement of the (egocentric) point of view of the camera at the same time. The point of view is limited to the positions of the person who moves. Thus, the viewer does not have a broad view of the environment and thus of the possible crowd behaviour.

In some cases, the crowd movement is only one of many factors that helps determine the collective behaviour. In a sequence in which the predominant movement is not recognisable, and the scene comprises various parallel movements, excluding the unimportant individual movements helps to identify the collective behaviour as a single act. In these cases, TL makers try to turn the focus from individual movement to common behaviours, what is frequent and occurs in a long duration process. TL makes visible the otherwise invisible collective motion as it magnifies undivided movements and presents them as a visual means to establish a cognitive fact. Amplifying the dominant movement by changing the temporal perspective is like changing the focal point in photography. With TL, we get away from the scene's details.

The function is just the same as in the vision system when it achieves a general view on the form, colour or light of a landscape. As it happens when the photographer changes the focal point to blur the landscape because it helps her to have an overview of dominant colour and light and make a coherent composition. In a social scene, in order to watch the predominant or repetitive behaviour, TL reduces the spatiotemporal detail. As individuals move in an objectlike fashion, the TL appears to be a stop-motion film of human beings. However, the act remains the same as its natural counterpart and not a simulated action. This is to say, even if TL affects the referent's features, it does not alter its action.

In fieldwork done in 2018, we set the camera in front of the Cathedral (Figure 4.22).

People came to watch, take pictures, enter or leave the place. As a result, in the TL, we can distinguish the action of taking pictures as it happens in a normal time scale. We can employ social TL as an informational artifact to understand repetitive behaviour in the condition of recording the activities, continually and in the conventional intervals. The accelerated repetitions and tempo in human bodily movements in composition with the repetitive movements in the urban environment, do not deliver an accurate measure to estimate the duration of the event. In the social scene represented in TL, the rhythm as a result of the technical choices does not imply solely aesthetic effects, but also, it delivers new insights into the social interpretation of the bodily movements in a modern environment. Rhythm could be an imperative element to depict the mechanization of modern life even if, by emphasizing this tempo, the moving image does not represent the natural rhythm of movement; "You could say that animation is the art of timing. But you could say that about all motion pictures" (Williams, 2001, p. 39). For every movement to be represented in motion pictures, we have key poses at certain frames as the start and the end-point of an action or gesture at a particular time instant, that are critical to recognise that movement. Beside the keyframes, the function of the inbetween frames is to make the smooth transition between the key poses.

In animation production, the timing of these keyframes is used to define the rhythm of the action. Timing is the number of frames for the change to take place. We also need spacing (i.e., the change within a defined time), to complete the timing. Therefore, to animate a movement, we start with placing the keyframes, and then we fill up in-betweens to reach a smooth movement.

If we consider a human movement (e.g., walking), we need to capture at least the key poses of the movement in order to keep its rhythm, in which case we keep the same timing while representing it in a film or reproducing it in an animation. However, in TL, the rhythm is changed as we necessarily miss some frames while capturing the movement in time intervals.

In contrast to animation, in TL, we shoot a complete movement, and we remove the details in the capturing process. In this process, if the timing of the walk cycle and the intervals are the same, and also we capture all the keyframes, we can recognise the movement even if the rhythm is changed. However, if our intervals of capturing the movement do not match the timing of the movement itself, or if the key poses are not captured, we will miss the nature of the movement. The less we have the keyframes and the details of the movement, the less the movement is recognisable (or even altered; see the marathon athlete who appears to slide on the ground). Figure 4.24 shows eight consecutive frames of human walking in TL. In this case,

we not only have the key poses, but even some in-between frames, and consequently, the movement looks normal despite the accelerated rhythm. Even if we capture these keys in ½ seconds intervals so that we have just the key poses, we can say the person is walking even if we missed the rhythm and the rest of the movement frames.

"People are skilled at perceiving the subtle details of human motion. A person can, for example, often recognize friends at a distance purely from their walk. Because of this ability, people have high standards for animations that feature humans" (Hodgins, 1998, p. 1).

Conversely, in the case more details and frames are missed, for example in crowd TLs, the action will be seen in a more general way and as just a human or an object moving from one point to another.

If we consider rhythm as an element of movement and duration, we notice its impact on the temporal qualities of things and events in moving image representation. As a consequence, we no longer recognise them as they move in real temporal circumstances. Bíro (2008) identifies meaning in moving images as provided via the rhythm as a dominant element that creates integrity by adjusting other variable components in a unique form. As a result, in the case of social TL, we notice a different perspective in the representability of time affecting the spatial properties (as reviewed in the previous chapter).

How TL (in general) represents the rhythm of human body movements? Differences in behavioural and expressive aspects of human bodies in TL and normal frame rate videos are noticeable. Here we aim to focus on how to reconstruct the temporal features without considering the background knowledge of the viewer. In TL, as in all kinds of temporal art, the rhythm of the movement "aptly incorporates the two basic features of cinematic aesthetics, namely, movement and duration" (Väliaho, 2010, p. 11). For Väliaho, rhythm, as an essential analytic concept concerning cinematic aesthetics, gives rise to the relation of duration. He states that in cinema as a time-based art, rhythm contributes to our perception of time and the length of things and events [START_REF] Väliaho | Mapping the Moving Image: Gesture, Thought and Cinema Circa[END_REF].

Beyond the difference between rhythm in real time scale and TL, the main idea is to scrutinize how much the change of our temporal perspective through TL representation affects the cognition of the events.

TL uniformly changes the temporal features of the scene, to reveal the phenomenon (here the collective behaviour movement form). Depending on the interval setting, the key poses of the referent have not been necessarily represented in the video of Figure 4.25.

It is crucial to consider the difference between the rhythm of a movement created by TL and slow-motion. The rhythm of a movement in a slow-motion video is a slower scale of the real movement because the slow-motion maintains the same pace and keyframes. In contrast to slow-motion, the rhythm created in TL might generate quite a different pace. The "change process" depicted in TL is not projected faster or slower by reducing or intensifying the pace of moving images. TL changes the rhythm in the capturing process; in which the key state of action might be missed. [START_REF] Münsterberg | The Film: A Psychological Study[END_REF] state that rhythm in moving images does not represent the metric quantity of time. [START_REF] Reggio | Koyaanisqatsi: Life Out of Balance [Film[END_REF]. From Koyaanisqatsi part 6/9, by thesumofparts, 2009. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/jOIvJTuCrlE

In the final perception, they are scaled in a compressed form. In contrast, the various rhythms of human bodies are manipulated by acting on the recording process via a uniform compression of the interval. In this case, the combination of various and unusual rhythms in the screen space functions as a visual effect to impact the viewer emotionally rather than transforming information about the individuals. As Dulac suggests in Aesthetics, Obstacles, Integral Cinégraphie (1988), the rhythm of filmed movements has an emotional value. He found considerable differences between the use of rhythm in narrative development and its function to set the homogeneity between moving image and music.

Indeed, the function of rhythm in social TL is different from that in a fictional narrative.

In the latter, rhythm tends to be used as an expressive tool, producing enjoyment in the reader.

In social TL, it does not function as an effective temporal tool to create a coherence in the visual narrative. In TL the produced dynamic rhythms transfer an unnatural rapidity along the movements. On the other hand, the visual segmentation between actions, spasmodic jerks of the movements, affect the necessary factors to observe and identify the individual's specific motions (e.g., gestures). Besides, at the same time, the activities in different sections of the scene happened much more quickly than in the real world. Being able to observe all of them in order, might block recognising the collective behaviour in the social event.

The rhythm of the play is marked by unnatural rapidity. As the words are absent which, in the drama as in life, fill the gaps between actions, the gestures and deeds themselves can follow one another much more quickly... This heightens the feeling of vitality in the spectator. He feels as if he were passing through life with a sharper accent which stirs his personal energies. (Münsterberg, 2013, p. 153) If we plan to produce a rhythm to generate this homogeneity, it must have been implied

in the editing process, as a predetermined intentional act in the scriptwriting process as Eisenstein believes that sympathetic feelings come from editing. "In Eisenstein's treatment, the rhythmic function of the image, as performed by the technique of montage, amounts to generating perception and sympathetic feelings" (Väliaho, 2010, p. 13). In TL, providing these results is not intended. However, at least in social TL, this kind of rhythm could simplify the narration to comprehend.

The rhythm in TL, in case, might have an emotional and dramatic phase. It is the accidental result of configuring the temporal structure. Rhythm in social TL is the product that might help to make the phenomenon unfolded (i.e., the rhythmic impression of the acceleration rather than the dramatic impression of the rhythm itself).

On the contrary to the theories on rhythm in the cinema, in social TL, rhythm could be a visual outcome. As mentioned above, the action and energy of various subjects are different -the rhythm of walking of everyone is different. Therefore the pace of action is configured fundamentally. Acceleration and fragmentation affect recognising the individual's behaviour but helps to observe the collective's. In case, if these collective beings and their actions have directly been distinguishable from our individual experience of social events, it becomes an experience that reveals a social phenomenon visually.

Humans Novel characteristics in Time-lapse

TL compresses the long duration actions and makes them visible. Manipulating the temporality configuration does not affect our cognition about human beings. The temporal anchors in the scene, help us to see all the movement corresponding to the new perspective of time. We believe they are not puppets in stop-motion. However, we observe that the corporeal movements have been re-modulated. We do not observe human gestures or facial expressions.

It is a result of the TL technique in which the rhythm is being manipulated and correlative to the content (i.e., collective motion). "Cinematic rhythms are, like any rhythm, repetitions that create new modes of being, but also ones that bind and captivate" (Väliaho, 2010, p. 15).

In most cases, apart from experimental and artistic TLs, the content is specifically a still object phenomenon to represent. The sought of effect is not solely that of an aesthetic experience. Non-experimental TL does not seek to affect the viewer emotionally. They modify the form of representation, in order to reveal an invisible content even if some properties of the content have been changed. The goal is reconstructing the form to represent the content which is imperceptible in normal vision circumstances. To that effect, many aspects of the filmed subject could be changed. Besides, in some cases, positional information is not the real one as the content is not exhausted by the line, colour or shape we see. The content is whatever has been made perceptible by acceleration, reducing the frame, and fragmentation. For example, in Koyaanisqatsi TL sequences [START_REF] Reggio | Koyaanisqatsi: Life Out of Balance [Film[END_REF], the content is the crowd behaviour rather than the individual corporeal movements. The camera is still. Without any narration, the sequence is designed so that we perceive from a wide point of view the struggle of individuals to move according to the rhythm of the progression in-crowd.

In crowded spaces, human bodies make connections and interact in a flow of energy.

In this chapter, we have shifted the domain of the study from the vehicle to the content of TL videos. In the process of producing a supernormal stimulus form a scene "full of human bodies", some inherent characteristics of the content is changed (e.g., the humans' gestures).

The TL maker identifies the initial aspect of the event to amplify (i. From Baraka [Ron Fricke, 1992], by unisono89, 2010. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/2irFhia8r_o

It seems that something is artificially manipulated in the image because it seems that human bodies do not move by themselves. Believing the change in temporal perspective of the video, helps us recognise the content of the image as real (i.e., as a crowd of human beings).

Observing social interactions and crowd behaviour through TL turns human beings into objects and makes the human-centric aspect of the representation disappear. The resulting cognitive advantage is to enable the viewer to see the crowd behaviour.

To take advantage of the technical potentials of cinema in segmentation, control and the way of representing time in a novel temporal configuration has long been a question of great interest in a wide range of experimental filmmakers. The TL system of transforming visual data and capturing snapshots in intervals renders the human phenomenon a lifeless object. It manipulates the temporal aspect of a process in which moving is a principal part and then re-animates it in another temporal structure.

Conclusion

The discussion has tackled TL of social events and the observation of collective human behaviour at a relatively rapid speed. The target of social TL is to enhance our apprehension of collective behaviour in urban spaces and the observation of speeding-up living bodies in general. We have focused on the representation as a form that renders some of the content's characteristics visible by emphasising them. Body movements in the crowd are recognisable as such and thus as real. Hence the form of the representation changed the perception and thereby, the third level of the mechanism has been performed (i.e., transferring information on the change process).

The experience of the city we live in is entirely different from our understanding when we watch it in TL. TL has the potential to reveal existing characteristics, although it certainly implies and attributes the new characteristic to the "image" of the event as general. We start off watching the movement at some specific point, but the passing of time that we observe does not comply with the speed of the event we actually experience in an urban environment. For example, even if the pace of the action seems normal, we do not say it is the same stream of With the use of materials and technology, TL gives this whole body a force that we can see in the landscape TL in which the object exposes its force and vitality.

In this chapter, we have reviewed the theory that insisted on potentials of TL in amplifying the change in objects, especially regarding the work of 1970s experimental landscape filmmakers who made TL for representing the natural landscape. We have discussed the concept of dehumanization in social TL, in which human beings are portrayed without their gestures and facial expressions. We cannot recognize their identity, age, colour and because of capturing them in intervals, their movements become jerky. According to these data, we can infer that TL is a manipulated representation of reality, affecting the information on the change process with a different temporal perspective of the event. The represented content (whatever it is) lost its inherent temporal features as we perceive them as objects in snap movement.

Nevertheless, we accept the content of representation as real, because the acts remain recognisable and by the negligence of the removed details, we follow the dominant movements.

As [START_REF] Smith | Experimental Time-Lapse Animation and the Manifestation of Change and Agency in Objects[END_REF] argues about landscape TL, even if the subjects are human beings, they seem to be self animated. However, in social TL sequences, the aim is not to give the component a vitality. The aim is always to make visible an invisible phenomenon or to make accessible the normally unavailable information. Here, the collective behaviour is an otherwise invisible phenomenon that is brought to perception. In these sequences, the reality of the act, instead of bodily movements, helps the viewer recognise the reality of a collective action. When the acts occur collectively in acceleration, the predominant behaviour is more noticeable. TL, arguably, could provide a kind of visual averaging, which is not available in normal time flow videos of crowded people because the sampling rate is limited.

The temporal concepts assessed in this chapter (e.g., rhythm), have been analysed as the outputs. For example, the discussion on collective gestures suggests that in social TL, in order to make a crowd behaviour visible, the mechanism applies the characteristics of animated objects to human beings in the scene. In Social TL, we are confronted with the notion of objectifying as the representation affords lifeless characteristics to a group of human beings. It seems that the notion of de-anthropomorphism avoided in landscape TLs is applicable to the social TLs as they amplify the vitality of the crowd by portraying the humans in the form of one moving object.

Conclusion

The main concern of psychologists and cognitive scientists in their approach to cinema studies has been the experience of film narrative. Building on the existing literature, we have attempted to refocus the research -at least about TLs -bending it away from the (however important) conventional directions which tackle the emotional and aesthetic aspects of the experience of moving images, in order to delineate a cognitive approach in studying this genre of moving images as cognitive artifacts.

We have endeavoured to examine the cognitive structure of TLs, depending on the represented phenomenon, and to consider the perceptual features of the representation. The theoretical part of the research has been presented across four core issues about TL by describing the TL mechanism, its cognitive advantages, its epistemic status and also the use of TL in situation as an observation tool. Each of these issues offers a partial response to the central questions of the project while contributing to the practical phase and data collection part.

Based on discussion on historical cases, the first section focused on the perception of movement in the early versions of moving images instruments (e.g., optical toys and instantaneous photography), and addressed the major uses of TL that were the starting point in describing TL's structure in various fields of use. Looking beyond the accomplishments of the key-studies on altered pace moving images, instead of concerning the beholder's share in experiencing these images, we have attempted to focus on the cognitive structure of these images as they imping on knowledge. Introducing TL as an independent sub-field of moving images, and not merely as a visual technique to provide the temporal effect to these images, we have laid down the description of TL structure. Re-defining the structure helped us to examine the representation as the vehicle in which the concepts of space and time are both manifesting in a perceivable relationship, contrary to a construal in which time and space are often concerned as two independent variants in moving images' research in the humanities and science.

The first chapter entitled "The study of movement, historical development and applications of time-lapse", introduced the perceptual phenomena, making movements perceptible through moving images. We described sequential photography, and the first optical toys helped characterizing the mechanism for producing moving images and provided the recording tool for long-term observation in both scientific and ecological studies. Through a historical lens in this chapter the works of the pioneers of photography and moving images allowed us to outline the TL's structure as situated in the midst of the cinematography invention. Afterwards, in order to evaluate the utility of the preserved structure (and incidentally, to find out the practical and descriptive advantages of TL), we investigated the role of TL in its various fields of use as pedagogical, narrative and expressive and recording use. Through this section, we found the principal reason for documenting an event by TL, is the need to represent the event from a different time perspective. Consequently, the fast pace of the representation delivers the viewer experiencing a high-speed, temporally compressed report of the event. As a result, the viewer of TL would not experience the event's time through the representation because the information about the time and duration of the phenomenon is transmissible. The discussion aims to explain that experiencing the inner temporal structure of the represented event is not possible by TL. But as the objective time would not be preserved, what is the difference between manipulation while recording an event in TL and making the moving image accelerated in the playback phase?

This question adequately led us to distinguish between fast-motion and TL, and therefore to categorise TL as an independent genre of moving images. By considering Smith's account (2018) on amplification of agency in objects by "time-lapse animation", we claim that the similarity of the structure between TL and stop-motion animation might be an element that allows the object to be recognized sharply in stillness and discrete immobile position. Hence, we can better notice the position and the state of the object. In the TLs of plants' growth, the reason for noticing the energy released at the moment of blossoming is being able to visualize these moments. By accelerating the representation in the playback phase, the event is captured in video format and a great amount of the frames have been neglected or blurred. TL snapshots have the power of representing the state of the plant in the moment of blooming: "The petals of a flower gradually open, and then in a supreme moment, the bud becomes a blossom, a visible thrill or quiver passes through the plant and affects the leaves" (Gaycken, 2015, p. 81).

Although the aim of this research is a broad investigation of the cognitive state of these images, the spectacular aspect of TL also depends on its chronophotographic structure in the capture phase. At the end of the first chapter, we concluded that the TL mechanism is an independent genre of moving images with a mechanical shortage in recording the continuous movement. By describing the mechanism of TL as a sub-field of moving images (i.e., AP moving images), we present the mechanism as a "time machine" in which the temporal perspective has been changed. When the event's principal feature to consider is the long term duration, TL functions as a mechanism that helps vision to recognise the event. The term "time machine" is used here to explain the notion of temporal displacement in TL. The manipulated element in TL is not the time of the event, but the temporal viewpoint of the observer. Indeed, in the second chapter, we have suggested that it is the vision of the viewer that gets reshuffled and displaced, shifting her to a novel temporal perspective. The event in TL gets accelerated as observed by a viewer that moves virtually quickly in time and this notion of temporal displacement creates the epistemological conditions for obtaining knowledge about the represented phenomenon. The purpose is to enable the viewer to discover an otherwise "invisible" change by making it visible, whereas in the "fast-motion", the purpose could be accelerating the representation in order to observe the process in a shorter time.

This discussion in the second chapter set out to explain the aim of making TL which is thus not representing an event in an accelerated mood. TL can represent a phenomenon that is below the threshold of human temporal perception and not observable with the dynamically naked eye in normal time flow.

Therefore the second chapter developed around an analogy of TLs with optical instruments such as telescopes. The chapter began with a discussion on this analogy; we categorised TL as visible maker. Although, despite telescopes, TL's basic structural unit (i.e., picture of an object in a particular moment), is a representational cognitive artifact, we have introduced TL as representational artifact on its own. The chapter went on to describe the notion of the silence of pictures. The description assists us in explaining the notion of temporal anchoring which plays an important role in the perception and recognition of some key properties of the unfolding phenomenon. Throughout this section, we have evaluated the role of background knowledge in interpreting TLs.

If the first major finding was that TLs are sui generis cognitive artifact and make some invisible features of a phenomenon visually accessible, this clarification in turn characterizes TL as a valuable prosthesis for obtaining knowledge. We conclude that the epistemic value of TL images arises from the principle that there is no informational device that could afford us the cognitive advantages of TL. In this vein, the third chapter concerns the epistemic status and costs of the TL. When we accelerate an event systemically in the recording phase, specific epistemological problems surface, as the emergence of artifacts in the representation (e.g., aliasing and perspective distortion).

The third chapter addressed the question of veridicality. How can we obtain knowledge from a representational vehicle that is deliberately distorting some features of the represented object?

When TLs are offered as evidence, they help scientists observe the otherwise unavailable features of a phenomenon. When we investigate TL as a cognitive artifact, depending on the field of use, the first question is how much this tool is truthful in transmitting information about the represented event. In this vein, the third chapter examines the epistemic values of TL as a tool for obtaining information about the event's visually unavailable features.

The process of carrying information about the event is provided through the three-level We then investigate the boundaries of intelligibility of TL images in the extent that they do not represent the accelerated events. They amplify the change, and we take into account that the TL representation is a sub-field of moving images, whose structure allows the function of making visible.

Through these three levels, TL amplifies the otherwise invisible phenomenon to simplify an event to be comprehensible. Taken together, we suggest that TL is a mechanism of producing superstimuli and the epistemic status of TL depends on that very production process.

In this section, we develop Stephan Schwan's opinion on simplification by exaggerating shape and movement offers a valuable insight through which the notion of amplification in TL has been propounded (Schwan, 2013, p. 214-226).

The outcome of categorising TL images as a simplifier, is making a supernormal stimulus from a typical stimulus. This process enables the viewer to notice the change.

By assuming that this form of representation conveys information in an epistemically valuable structure if the TL maker is aware of the process and the ultimate epistemic deficiencies (e.g., aliasing), this chapter has attempted to evaluate TL as an epistemic tool for cognition and for gaining knowledge about an unknown phenomenon.

In the case of observing an event, whose component movements are familiar, how could it be possible to notice the phenomenon and make a supernormal stimulus? The fourth chapter described the procedures and methods used in TL-based observation of social events. As we defined the epistemic status of TL as a simplifier in transferring information about the represented event, the fourth chapter evaluates how TLs produce a supernormal stimulus in the scene whose all typical stimuli are familiar to the viewer. If TL is an epistemic tool, how can we determine the effectiveness of this tool in monitoring familiar events and making an unknown phenomenon visible?

Vicky [START_REF] Smith | Experimental Time-Lapse Animation and the Manifestation of Change and Agency in Objects[END_REF] offers an insight into the change in object's features in TL. In her view, in the case of experimental TL films, the change mentioned above manifests matter's own force and avoids anthropocentrism. Her statement led us to propose that humans represented in TL also lose certain characteristics like gestures and facial expressions, and this effect ultimately makes the dominant behaviour appear in TL.

By analysing the observation methods in the research on collective behaviours, we argue that the novel perspective of vision by TL could provide the researchers with a comprehensive recognition of some key aspects of collective behaviour in long-span social events. The chapter went on to hypothesize that this process of recognition through changing the temporal perspective in TL depends on novel features of the referents in the representation.

TL, by attributing novel characteristics to the objects in the scene, functions as a method of monitoring collective behaviour. The fourth chapter in particular weights the value of documentaries and social research driven by TL observation methods. This framework serves to draw attention to the cognitive advantages of documenting complex events by moving images.

The final chapter is followed by an appendix containing a first analysis of the wealth of data that nourished and informed this inquiry. The collection phase helped us to categorise the research question and account for the cognitive ways that TL can be used. Approaching these questions through data analysis (although the latter is still in its infancy, due to the large heterogeneity of materials collected) led us to develop new discussions in the practical and the theoretical phases, which now sits alongside.

Representing a new temporal perspective by TLwas one of the main reasons for studying this sub-field of moving images. This study has gone some way towards enhancing our understanding of the nature of time perceived by moving images. By taking advantages of the structural features and creating a novel form of representation, the TL system transforms valuable visual data and allows putting emphasis on the invisible aspect of a process. One of the main goals of the current study was to investigate the TL structure in manipulating the visual information. Our research underscores the cognitive potentials in the moving images' structure as a mechanism of representation that involves not only the narrative representation of events but also larger cognitive values. Overall, this study strengthens the idea that representing a phenomenon requires to adjust and align the features of the human representation system with the phenomenon's material features. Of course, this configuration and alignment requires knowledge about the phenomenon as well as about the system of representation. TL can only be beneficial as a tool to observe, record and interpret invisible phenomena, in the case we know the cognitive framework of the tool's structure.

The combined portfolio of practice contributes to the written thesis by providing a window into TL practical outcomes. The practical phase offers a novel vision to the viewer who endeavors to observe long term events.

One potential weakness in this study was the absence of metadata information for a number of videos in the corpus. This complementary information concerned the technical configurations of TLs (e.g., chosen frame rates and the overall duration of the event). The constraints of technical information, such as the chosen interval for various subjects and the pace of the movements in certain TLs, could have led us to scrutinise TL images from the viewer's point of view and investigate how the TL enables them to see the phenomenon and on top of that to believe the representation. We would recommend to TL producers to integrate this information (fps and total length of the shot) into the filename metadata.

The experimental approach in the practical phase has significantly developed the discussion on the technical configuration. Investigation and experimentation into the relationship between the pace of the movement and the TL interval setting are strongly recommended in order to find the appropriate temporal factors for representing the diverse kinds of motion. Further research on TL could usefully explore how much the segmentation between the key-position of movement affects recognising the phenomenon and the action features.

The contribution of this study has helped, in our case, to develop creative applications of TL within a cognitive foundation. We hope that this research will be taken up by scholars studying the ways of perception through moving images and the cognitive advantages of these representations as well as TL makers who are actively exploring the expressive potentials of TL themselves.

For the pioneer users of TL in the scientific domain, this process of correlating the time scale of the event with the human cognitive time was an adaptation of the cinematography.

Pioneers applied the idea of the difference between the human subjective time scale and the objective time of the studied phenomenon. They could not only illustrate the unknown nature and transfer the inaccessible information, but also record and popularise their scientific observations such as vegetal movements or astronomical events. For example, TLs in the botany category, whether made by professionals or amateurs, enable us to observe a continuum of vegetal movements that are too slow for the human visual system.

The difference in professional TL is the speed of playback. However, to perceive and recognise the movement, the playback speed is not as determinative as capturing frame rate.

Usually, professional TLs are smoother. The movements in amateur's TL might seem jerky or extremely slow, but so long as the plant's growing frame rate is between 1 and 50 frames per second, we can observe it.

These "time-lapse" images provided novel visual records that initially were seen as providing evidence of an evolutionary link between the plant and animal kingdoms.

While time-lapse plant growth images ultimately could not provide proof that plants are evolutionarily related to animals, time-lapse images did remain useful as a means to demonstrate the remarkable vitality of plants to students and lay audiences, and Oskar Messter's exhibition of a time-lapse plant growth film was the first of a long tradition of time-lapse plant growth films that circulated in popular culture. (Gaycken, 2012, p. 51) The aesthetic aspect of scientific TL might be remarkable. However, a measure of aesthetic analysis does not come to play. As In social TL, most of the sequences were captured at a frame rate of 1½ frames per second. In professional cases, for the cinematographer, it is convincing that the footage to "look normal" and not contain any "gimmicky" special effects.

On the contrary, the urban TLs, especially in hyper-lapses, the sequences are captured with long delays between frames. These variations in interval setting helped us in discussing social scenes and crowd behaviour (Chapter 4).

A.2.2.3 Time-lapse in Entertainment

From this data, we can see that professional TL developed the various high-technology equipment. One can spot a convergence between new techniques and the digital turn.

Considering that these TL belong to a neither artistic or scientific domain, but rather a "technical experience", we put them in the professional category.

Making TL of a number of slow transition scenes and then piecing all of the footage into a short documentary, having a piece of music in the background, and finalizing with visual effects is a widespread genre amongst TL makers. "Time-lapsers" edit several shots of clouds, planets, stars, illuminated urban space and most of the time, export them all together without any specified subject. Capturing landscapes in TL by various techniques as hyperlapse, dronelapse or tilt-shift is often chosen to demonstrate the potential of the technique. These TL impress the viewer with an aesthetically attractive clip and do not necessarily aim at making visible an otherwise inaccessible phenomenon.

In this corpus, 23 use drone-lapse, 25 use hyperlapse and 7 under-lapse to introduce touristic attractions. In the representation of urban space, the hyperlapse changes the perspective parameters of urban architecture and sculptures appear somewhat unreal. We discuss this question in the chapter on the epistemology of TL. Clearly, one TL could belong to several categories, for example, a TL of the entertainment that belongs to the tourism subcategory represents urban spaces and also some natural landscape of a town. Especially in the case of artistic and scientific TLs, there may be a certain amount of overlap between some of the categories.

A.2.4. Sub-Categories

Each category may be divided into several main sub-categories. This system of classification allows for finding the relationship between the time scale of the phenomenon and relative setting to the applied technique. In the chapters, this relation has been discussed to determine the factors that affect the perceptibility of TL as a cognitive artifact.

At the beginning of this study, we had the theoretical challenge concerning how to classify the various uses and types of TL and how temporal manipulation affects the representation.

Including TL categories and the applied technique, helped us to determine the features of "bad" TL and the cause of apparent artifact and jerky images, inappropriate duration and inefficiency in representing the action stream.

As concerns technical choices, we classify TL in two primary groups: the photographic images and digital vector images.

Thirty-four videos in the corpus are made from successive screenshots in a custom interval. The photographic images are the snapshot material in 93% of the collection. CG images make 2.8 % of the gathered TL, and other 4.2% of TLs in the corpus are made through mixed media.

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1.1. Flower Phenakistoscope. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.2. Apparent motion (phi phenomenon). ..................................................................... Figure 1.3. Passage de Venus. .................................................................................................. Figure 1.4. Photographic revolver. ........................................................................................... Figure 1.5. Galloping horse. ..................................................................................................... Figure 1.6. Left: A later version of photographs mounted on a disk for viewing in Muybridge's zoopraxiscope. Right: Horse in Motion. ............................................................. Figure 1.7. Multiple portraits of James Duncan Graham, Jr. ................................................... Figure 1.8. Photographic Sequence of Soldiers on a Bridge Over the Pamunkey River During the Civil War. .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.9. Turning portrait of Nadar (left) and Gustave Arosa (right) .................................... Figure 1.10. Self-portraits on discs for Kinetoscope ................................................................ Figure 1.11. TL plant-growth record created at the Marey Institute. ....................................... Figure 1.12. Video stills from Wilhelm Pfeffer's film on root development in Vicia faba ...... Figure 1.13. Exploring the Spectrum. ....................................................................................... Figure 1.14. Secrets of nature ................................................................................................... Figure 1.15. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) ................................................................... Figure 1.16. Animated TL of blossoming flower in Catalogue ................................................ Figure 1.17. Academic still life ................................................................................................. Figure 1.18. The Machine of Eden. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.19. Short Film Series ................................................................................................. Figure 1.20. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.21. Moon' score .......................................................................................................... Figure 1.22. Koyaanisqatsi ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.23. Left: Dramatic glacier melt, by O. William, 1941. Right: Dramatic glacier melt, by B. Molnia, 2004. ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.24. Columbia Glacier, Alaska (c. From October 5 2007 to May 7 2009) .................. Figure 1.25. Balog. J. Design, build and deploy the 25 TL cameras ........................................ Figure 1.26. Demolishing and Building Up Star Theatre ......................................................... Figure 2.1. Anchoring modulates color perception. ................................................................. Figure 2.2. The boy's movement provides a temporal anchor. ................................................ Figure 2.3. Perceiving the Earth's rotation, DIAL Project ....................................................... Figure 2.4. Oriented Globe ....................................................................................................... Figure 3.1. Cows' behaviour in TL. ......................................................................................... Figure 3.2. 300-Foot-Tall Iceberg Drifts Dangerously Close to Greenlandic Village. ........... Figure 3.3. visualisation of the navigation process. .................................................................. Figure 3.4. Summarization by TL. ........................................................................................... Figure 3.5. Long interval TL. .................................................................................................... Figure 3.6. Temporal Aliasing. ................................................................................................Figure 3.7. Temporal Aliasing in TL. .......................................................................................Figure 3.8. A sequence of frames representing only Sun at sunrise shows the "displacement" of the Sun during the year ...............................................................................Figure 3.9. Short Intervals for a long term process. ..................................................................Figure 3.10. Compressed time. ................................................................................................. Figure 3.11. The change of light and shadow. Helens dome growth 2004-2008. ...................Figure 3.12. Spatial relations between the airplane and the buildings. .....................................Figure 3.13. We moved away from the house, and regardless of the perspective its location in the frame remains the same. ....................................................................................

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 1.1. Flower Phenakistoscope. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.2. Apparent motion (phi phenomenon). ..................................................................... Figure 1.3. Passage de Venus. .................................................................................................. Figure 1.4. Photographic revolver. ........................................................................................... Figure 1.5. Galloping horse. ..................................................................................................... Figure 1.6. Left: A later version of photographs mounted on a disk for viewing in Muybridge's zoopraxiscope. Right: Horse in Motion. ............................................................. Figure 1.7. Multiple portraits of James Duncan Graham, Jr. ................................................... Figure 1.8. Photographic Sequence of Soldiers on a Bridge Over the Pamunkey River During the Civil War. .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.9. Turning portrait of Nadar (left) and Gustave Arosa (right) .................................... Figure 1.10. Self-portraits on discs for Kinetoscope ................................................................ Figure 1.11. TL plant-growth record created at the Marey Institute. ....................................... Figure 1.12. Video stills from Wilhelm Pfeffer's film on root development in Vicia faba ...... Figure 1.13. Exploring the Spectrum. ....................................................................................... Figure 1.14. Secrets of nature ................................................................................................... Figure 1.15. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) ................................................................... Figure 1.16. Animated TL of blossoming flower in Catalogue ................................................ Figure 1.17. Academic still life ................................................................................................. Figure 1.18. The Machine of Eden. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.19. Short Film Series ................................................................................................. Figure 1.20. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.21. Moon' score .......................................................................................................... Figure 1.22. Koyaanisqatsi ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.23. Left: Dramatic glacier melt, by O. William, 1941. Right: Dramatic glacier melt, by B. Molnia, 2004. ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.24. Columbia Glacier, Alaska (c. From October 5 2007 to May 7 2009) .................. Figure 1.25. Balog. J. Design, build and deploy the 25 TL cameras ........................................ Figure 1.26. Demolishing and Building Up Star Theatre ......................................................... Figure 2.1. Anchoring modulates color perception. ................................................................. Figure 2.2. The boy's movement provides a temporal anchor. ................................................ Figure 2.3. Perceiving the Earth's rotation, DIAL Project ....................................................... Figure 2.4. Oriented Globe ....................................................................................................... Figure 3.1. Cows' behaviour in TL. ......................................................................................... Figure 3.2. 300-Foot-Tall Iceberg Drifts Dangerously Close to Greenlandic Village. ........... Figure 3.3. visualisation of the navigation process. .................................................................. Figure 3.4. Summarization by TL. ........................................................................................... Figure 3.5. Long interval TL. .................................................................................................... Figure 3.6. Temporal Aliasing. ................................................................................................Figure 3.7. Temporal Aliasing in TL. .......................................................................................Figure 3.8. A sequence of frames representing only Sun at sunrise shows the "displacement" of the Sun during the year ...............................................................................Figure 3.9. Short Intervals for a long term process. ..................................................................Figure 3.10. Compressed time. ................................................................................................. Figure 3.11. The change of light and shadow. Helens dome growth 2004-2008. ...................Figure 3.12. Spatial relations between the airplane and the buildings. .....................................Figure 3.13. We moved away from the house, and regardless of the perspective its location in the frame remains the same. ....................................................................................

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 1.1. Flower Phenakistoscope. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.2. Apparent motion (phi phenomenon). ..................................................................... Figure 1.3. Passage de Venus. .................................................................................................. Figure 1.4. Photographic revolver. ........................................................................................... Figure 1.5. Galloping horse. ..................................................................................................... Figure 1.6. Left: A later version of photographs mounted on a disk for viewing in Muybridge's zoopraxiscope. Right: Horse in Motion. ............................................................. Figure 1.7. Multiple portraits of James Duncan Graham, Jr. ................................................... Figure 1.8. Photographic Sequence of Soldiers on a Bridge Over the Pamunkey River During the Civil War. .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.9. Turning portrait of Nadar (left) and Gustave Arosa (right) .................................... Figure 1.10. Self-portraits on discs for Kinetoscope ................................................................ Figure 1.11. TL plant-growth record created at the Marey Institute. ....................................... Figure 1.12. Video stills from Wilhelm Pfeffer's film on root development in Vicia faba ...... Figure 1.13. Exploring the Spectrum. ....................................................................................... Figure 1.14. Secrets of nature ................................................................................................... Figure 1.15. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) ................................................................... Figure 1.16. Animated TL of blossoming flower in Catalogue ................................................ Figure 1.17. Academic still life ................................................................................................. Figure 1.18. The Machine of Eden. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.19. Short Film Series ................................................................................................. Figure 1.20. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.21. Moon' score .......................................................................................................... Figure 1.22. Koyaanisqatsi ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.23. Left: Dramatic glacier melt, by O. William, 1941. Right: Dramatic glacier melt, by B. Molnia, 2004. ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.24. Columbia Glacier, Alaska (c. From October 5 2007 to May 7 2009) .................. Figure 1.25. Balog. J. Design, build and deploy the 25 TL cameras ........................................ Figure 1.26. Demolishing and Building Up Star Theatre ......................................................... Figure 2.1. Anchoring modulates color perception. ................................................................. Figure 2.2. The boy's movement provides a temporal anchor. ................................................ Figure 2.3. Perceiving the Earth's rotation, DIAL Project ....................................................... Figure 2.4. Oriented Globe ....................................................................................................... Figure 3.1. Cows' behaviour in TL. ......................................................................................... Figure 3.2. 300-Foot-Tall Iceberg Drifts Dangerously Close to Greenlandic Village. ........... Figure 3.3. visualisation of the navigation process. .................................................................. Figure 3.4. Summarization by TL. ........................................................................................... Figure 3.5. Long interval TL. .................................................................................................... Figure 3.6. Temporal Aliasing. ................................................................................................Figure 3.7. Temporal Aliasing in TL. .......................................................................................Figure 3.8. A sequence of frames representing only Sun at sunrise shows the "displacement" of the Sun during the year ...............................................................................Figure 3.9. Short Intervals for a long term process. ..................................................................Figure 3.10. Compressed time. ................................................................................................. Figure 3.11. The change of light and shadow. Helens dome growth 2004-2008. ...................Figure 3.12. Spatial relations between the airplane and the buildings. .....................................Figure 3.13. We moved away from the house, and regardless of the perspective its location in the frame remains the same. ....................................................................................

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 1.1. Flower Phenakistoscope. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.2. Apparent motion (phi phenomenon). ..................................................................... Figure 1.3. Passage de Venus. .................................................................................................. Figure 1.4. Photographic revolver. ........................................................................................... Figure 1.5. Galloping horse. ..................................................................................................... Figure 1.6. Left: A later version of photographs mounted on a disk for viewing in Muybridge's zoopraxiscope. Right: Horse in Motion. ............................................................. Figure 1.7. Multiple portraits of James Duncan Graham, Jr. ................................................... Figure 1.8. Photographic Sequence of Soldiers on a Bridge Over the Pamunkey River During the Civil War. .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.9. Turning portrait of Nadar (left) and Gustave Arosa (right) .................................... Figure 1.10. Self-portraits on discs for Kinetoscope ................................................................ Figure 1.11. TL plant-growth record created at the Marey Institute. ....................................... Figure 1.12. Video stills from Wilhelm Pfeffer's film on root development in Vicia faba ...... Figure 1.13. Exploring the Spectrum. ....................................................................................... Figure 1.14. Secrets of nature ................................................................................................... Figure 1.15. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) ................................................................... Figure 1.16. Animated TL of blossoming flower in Catalogue ................................................ Figure 1.17. Academic still life ................................................................................................. Figure 1.18. The Machine of Eden. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.19. Short Film Series ................................................................................................. Figure 1.20. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.21. Moon' score .......................................................................................................... Figure 1.22. Koyaanisqatsi ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.23. Left: Dramatic glacier melt, by O. William, 1941. Right: Dramatic glacier melt, by B. Molnia, 2004. ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.24. Columbia Glacier, Alaska (c. From October 5 2007 to May 7 2009) .................. Figure 1.25. Balog. J. Design, build and deploy the 25 TL cameras ........................................ Figure 1.26. Demolishing and Building Up Star Theatre ......................................................... Figure 2.1. Anchoring modulates color perception. ................................................................. Figure 2.2. The boy's movement provides a temporal anchor. ................................................ Figure 2.3. Perceiving the Earth's rotation, DIAL Project ....................................................... Figure 2.4. Oriented Globe ....................................................................................................... Figure 3.1. Cows' behaviour in TL. ......................................................................................... Figure 3.2. 300-Foot-Tall Iceberg Drifts Dangerously Close to Greenlandic Village. ........... Figure 3.3. visualisation of the navigation process. .................................................................. Figure 3.4. Summarization by TL. ........................................................................................... Figure 3.5. Long interval TL. .................................................................................................... Figure 3.6. Temporal Aliasing. ................................................................................................Figure 3.7. Temporal Aliasing in TL. .......................................................................................Figure 3.8. A sequence of frames representing only Sun at sunrise shows the "displacement" of the Sun during the year ...............................................................................Figure 3.9. Short Intervals for a long term process. ..................................................................Figure 3.10. Compressed time. ................................................................................................. Figure 3.11. The change of light and shadow. Helens dome growth 2004-2008. ...................Figure 3.12. Spatial relations between the airplane and the buildings. .....................................Figure 3.13. We moved away from the house, and regardless of the perspective its location in the frame remains the same. ....................................................................................

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 1.1. Flower Phenakistoscope. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.2. Apparent motion (phi phenomenon). ..................................................................... Figure 1.3. Passage de Venus. .................................................................................................. Figure 1.4. Photographic revolver. ........................................................................................... Figure 1.5. Galloping horse. ..................................................................................................... Figure 1.6. Left: A later version of photographs mounted on a disk for viewing in Muybridge's zoopraxiscope. Right: Horse in Motion. ............................................................. Figure 1.7. Multiple portraits of James Duncan Graham, Jr. ................................................... Figure 1.8. Photographic Sequence of Soldiers on a Bridge Over the Pamunkey River During the Civil War. .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.9. Turning portrait of Nadar (left) and Gustave Arosa (right) .................................... Figure 1.10. Self-portraits on discs for Kinetoscope ................................................................ Figure 1.11. TL plant-growth record created at the Marey Institute. ....................................... Figure 1.12. Video stills from Wilhelm Pfeffer's film on root development in Vicia faba ...... Figure 1.13. Exploring the Spectrum. ....................................................................................... Figure 1.14. Secrets of nature ................................................................................................... Figure 1.15. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) ................................................................... Figure 1.16. Animated TL of blossoming flower in Catalogue ................................................ Figure 1.17. Academic still life ................................................................................................. Figure 1.18. The Machine of Eden. .......................................................................................... Figure 1.19. Short Film Series ................................................................................................. Figure 1.20. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 1.21. Moon' score .......................................................................................................... Figure 1.22. Koyaanisqatsi ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.23. Left: Dramatic glacier melt, by O. William, 1941. Right: Dramatic glacier melt, by B. Molnia, 2004. ....................................................................................................... Figure 1.24. Columbia Glacier, Alaska (c. From October 5 2007 to May 7 2009) .................. Figure 1.25. Balog. J. Design, build and deploy the 25 TL cameras ........................................ Figure 1.26. Demolishing and Building Up Star Theatre ......................................................... Figure 2.1. Anchoring modulates color perception. ................................................................. Figure 2.2. The boy's movement provides a temporal anchor. ................................................ Figure 2.3. Perceiving the Earth's rotation, DIAL Project ....................................................... Figure 2.4. Oriented Globe ....................................................................................................... Figure 3.1. Cows' behaviour in TL. ......................................................................................... Figure 3.2. 300-Foot-Tall Iceberg Drifts Dangerously Close to Greenlandic Village. ........... Figure 3.3. visualisation of the navigation process. .................................................................. Figure 3.4. Summarization by TL. ........................................................................................... Figure 3.5. Long interval TL. .................................................................................................... Figure 3.6. Temporal Aliasing. ................................................................................................Figure 3.7. Temporal Aliasing in TL. .......................................................................................Figure 3.8. A sequence of frames representing only Sun at sunrise shows the "displacement" of the Sun during the year ...............................................................................Figure 3.9. Short Intervals for a long term process. ..................................................................Figure 3.10. Compressed time. ................................................................................................. Figure 3.11. The change of light and shadow. Helens dome growth 2004-2008. ...................Figure 3.12. Spatial relations between the airplane and the buildings. .....................................Figure 3.13. We moved away from the house, and regardless of the perspective its location in the frame remains the same. ....................................................................................

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

Figure 4 . 3 .

 43 Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

Figure A. 3 .

 3 Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

  Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. ............................................................................ Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. ............................................................................................................ Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view ................................................................... Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer ............................................................................... Figure 3.18. in the Sky .............................................................................................................. Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd...................................................................................................... Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse .......................................................... Figure 3.21. Maeklong Railway Market in standard frame-rate ...............................................Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour .............................................Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. ...................................................................................... Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. .............................................................. Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL ..............................................................................................Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. ......................................Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. ........................................................... Figure 4.3. Change in the crowd's form. ................................................................................. Figure 4.4. Crowd control. ......................................................................................................Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. .............................................................................Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. ...........................................................Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. ...................................................................................Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). .............................................................................................Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. ................................................................................................. Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. .....................................................Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. ..............................................................................................Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. .................................................................Figure 4.13. Humans in TL. ....................................................................................................Figure 4.14. Natural transition in Secrets of nature ................................................................Figure 4.15. Crowd's form ......................................................................................................Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn ............................................................................Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. .........................................................................Figure 4.18. Different motions in a social scene. ..................................................................Figure 4.19. Rush Hour ...........................................................................................................Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. ......................................................... Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. .................................................................... Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. .......................................................................................... Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. .............................................................................................Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking ............................................................Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. ................................Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi .......................................................................................Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi .....................................................................................Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka ....................................................... Figure A.1. TL Makers ...........................................................................................................Figure A.2. Domain Categories ..............................................................................................Figure A.3. Post-editing in the scientific cases .......................................................................Figure A.4. Interval settings in artistic TLs ............................................................................Figure A.5. Edited narrative TLs ............................................................................................Figure A.6. Environmental themes ....................................................................................... 163

Figure 1 . 1 .

 11 Figure 1.1. Flower Phenakistoscope. From Flower Phenakistoscope, by atlasofaffinities, 2014. Retrieved from https://atlasofaffinities.tumblr.com/post/76326935892/flower-phenakistoscope

Figure 1 . 2 .

 12 Figure 1.2. Apparent motion (phi phenomenon). With appropriate spatiotemporal stimulus conditions,

Figure 1 . 3 .

 13 Figure 1.3. Passage de Venus (Janssen, 1874). From 1874 Pierre Jules César Janssen, by magical media museum, 2012. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=LowU9vKZzJs

  accurate interval time in the capturing process enabled him to calculate the precise instant of each position of Venus based on the frame number. He henceforth obtained the best possible result of photographing the successive phases of a temporally extended phenomenon at that time. Even if his goal was to study the phenomenon at a frozen moment in the process of transition, he likely delivered us the very first natural scene TL of history. During his studies on solar photography, he employed the same revolver photography mechanism to represent the elapsed time (Figure1.4).

Figure 1 . 4 .

 14 Figure 1.4. Photographic revolver. Adapted from Jules Janssen's 'Revolver Photographique' and its British Derivative, 'the Janssen Slide', by F. Launay, P. D. Hingley, 2005, Journal for the History of Astronomy.

Figure 1 . 5 .

 15 Figure 1.5. Galloping horse. Adapted from The horse in motion, illus. by Muybridge. "Sallie Gardner," owned by Leland Stanford..., by E. Muybridge, 1878, the Library of Congress Prints and Photographs Division. Retrieved from https://www.loc.gov/item/2007678037/ Although flicker fusion 2 , as a result of persistence of vision, is a phenomenon that occurs while seeing motion in real, it can make even a discontinuous movement perceptible. Similar to the zoetrope mechanism, if we display the instantaneous photographs through a projector, i.e. in a standard frame rate, it delivers us the moving image of Muybridge's Galloping horse. In 1879, a science journal, Nature published the Muybridge photographs. By cutting and placing the series of photos in their own zoetrope, the subscribers could see the movement in succession (Figure 1.6).

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1.6. Left: A later version of photographs mounted on a disk for viewing in Muybridge's zoopraxiscope. Adapted from Visual cultures in science and technology: A comparative history, by K. Hentschel, 2014. Right: Horse in Motion (Muybridge, 1878). From Horse In Motion Eadweard Muybridge, by Free Film Classics, 2018. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/jNMS7X2arQI

From 1853 ,

 1853 the photographer André Adolphe-Eugène Disdéri used a device with four lenses and a multiplier chassis which allowed simultaneous or sequential shooting to record four, eight, ten or twelve exposures on the same photographic plate. It seems that Disdéri did not use the possibility of sequentiality offered by successive shots. Following the spread of this invention, many other photographers used the same technique in the 1850s. It is worth mentioning the portrait of James Duncan Graham taken by the American photographer, Montréal Alexander Hesler. This portrait which dates from 1850-1859, shows the model in four successive poses (Figure 1.7).

Figure 1 . 7 .

 17 Figure 1.7. Multiple portraits of James Duncan Graham, Jr. From Artnet, by A. Hesler, 1850-1859.

Figure 1 . 8 .

 18 Figure 1.8. Photographic Sequence of Soldiers on a Bridge Over the Pamunkey River During the Civil War. From National Archives Catalog, by M. Brady, 1864. Retrieved from https://www.archives.gov/research/military/civil-war/photos On successive snapshots, the most remarkable photographic sequence is the «spinning» self-portrait of Gaspard-Félix Tournachon (Félix Nadar) of 1865 (Figure 1.9; Chik, 2014).

Figure 1 . 9 .

 19 Figure 1.9. Turning portrait of Nadar (left) and Gustave Arosa (right) by F. Nadar, around 1865. Adapted from La photographie sérielle et séquentielle. Origines et ambiguïtés by C. Chik, 2014.Copyright by Hervé Lewandowski

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.10. Self-portraits on discs for Kinetoscope, by Purkinje, 1865. Adapted from La photographie sérielle et séquentielle. Origines et ambiguïtés by C. Chik, 2014. Copyright by Petr Kliment

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.11. TL plant-growth record created at the Marey Institute. Adapted from The secret life of plants: Visualizing vegetative movement 1880-1903, by Gaycken, 2012.

  in stroboscopic procedure or chronophotography technique) provide the viewer with a different time perspective. The viewer can see various states of the phenomenon otherwise imperceptible in constant flux. The principle of Temporal expansion in these images, as a result of stroboscopic effects, provides a cognitive tool for monitoring the rapid motion. Besides, applying intervals between each frame in the capture phase and projecting them in the standard frame-rate allowed the scientists to access a concise version of the process. Parallel with the technological development, there were considerable debates on the various forms of moving images and their contribution to producing knowledge. Ernst Mach's account had a central role in introducing the optical apparatus in scientific research. In 1888, Mach introduced the principles of temporal diminution and temporal expansion through altered pace moving images. On the subject, Marey wrote a book named Le movement in 1894, in which he mentions Ernst Mach's account on the principle of temporal diminution in TL and discusses the cognitive advantages of TL in producing the compact imaging record of movements.Perception of the change in the spatial states of an object, as locomotion and transformation, involves perceiving it visually and temporally. Temporal factors in moving images affect the observation of the phenomenon. For instance, in TL, the viewer feels the events appear fast on screen.

  photographed plant growth, brought them into motion and made four TL films (Figure1.12).

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.12. Video stills from Wilhelm Pfeffer's film on root development in Vicia faba (1898-1900).Adapted from The secret life of plants:Visualizing vegetative movement 1880-1903, by Gaycken, 2012.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.13. Exploring the Spectrum, by J. Ott, 1974. From the Science of light website. Retrieved from https://www.scienceoflight.org/exploring-the-spectrum/ TL photography of plants produced by Walt Disney and directed by John Ott is a striking example in TL history. Nature's Wonderland (1951) is a film series which presents the wondrous "Secrets of Nature". The series displays how John Ott uses TL to study cell division, hybrid corn, pollen and hay fever under a microscope. He filmed plant growth with cameras he himself contributed to improve, regulating floodlight.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.14. Secrets of nature, by J. Ott, 1951. From Chicago film archives, Margaret Conneely Collection, 2012. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/SecretsOfNature.

  the lapse of time (e.g., Duchamp adjusts the different static positions of the model at discontinuous and different moments; Figure 1.15).

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.15. Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2), by M. Duchamp, 1912. Adapted from Philadelphia Museum of Art, n.d. Retrieved from https://www.philamuseum.org/collections/permanent/51449.html?mulR=864354163. Copyright Artists Rights Society (ARS), New York / ADAGP, Paris / Succession Marcel Duchamp By using a TL photograph, Marcel Duchamp (1887-1968), in his painting Nude Descending a Staircase (No. 2) (1912), portraits a frozen body in the indivisible number of a static position. In contrast, moving images allow to record the referent motion through the temporal factors (e. g., duration and pace of representation).

Film

  industry grew throughout these years and experimental artists took the advantage of TL, not only by compressing time. They focused on time and duration elements in their moving images projects. John Whitney invented his own analog computer that projected forms by modifying the light. In 1961, by animating a TL of a blossoming flower, he presented the idea of changing shapes through time in a film called catalogue (Figure 1.16).

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.16. Animated TL of blossoming flower in Catalogue (Whitney, 1961). From John Whitney

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.17. Academic still life, by M. Le Grice, 1976. From ACADEMIC STILL LIFE, by Luxonline, n.d. Retrieved from http://www.luxonline.org.uk/artists/malcolm_le_grice/academic_still_life.html In Academic Still Life (1976), impressed by a Cezanne painting and changing the viewpoint, le Grice employed TL and time exposure (Figure 1.17) for his expressive purposes.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.18. The Machine of Eden (Brakhage, 1970). From Stan Brakhage -The Machine of Eden, by Endimione17, 2010. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/czEdZyF8FHw

  he captured and froze movement in Regent's Park. In the same year, he made a short TL, Colours of This Time (1972) to render all the color changes in daylight observable. He used long-time exposures by leaving the camera shutter open during the full 16 hours filming. In another example of TL of light, Metronome (1978), one of the Short Film Series (1975 -2014) by Guy Sherwin: by making a TL at one frame per second of the passage of sunlight at sunset in one hour on a metronome, he demonstrated an illusion of movement in real-time turned into stability

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.20. in the Sky (Dennis di Cicco, 1979). Adapted from Beyond vision (179), by Darius, 1984, Oxford.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.21. Moon' score, by Hitoshi Nomura, 1975. Adapted from Grey Art Gallery, New York. Retrieved from https://www.artsy.net/artwork/hitoshi-nomura-moon-score-december-19-1975 Employing TL in experimental films continued and attained a peak in the Koyaanisqatsi: Life Out of Balance trilogy by Godfrey Reggio of the early 1980s (Figure 1.22).

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure1.22. Koyaanisqatsi (Reggio, 1982). From Koyaanisqatsi part 6/9, by thesumofparts, 2009.

  Figure 1.23. Left: Dramatic glacier melt, by O. William, 1941. Right: Dramatic glacier melt, by B. Molnia, 2004. Adapted from Graphic: Dramatic glacier melt, by NASA Climate 365 project, 2013. Retrieved from https://climate.nasa.gov/climate_resources/4/graphic-dramatic-glacier-melt/ Still, the aim is to enable the viewer to perceive a continuous event which has occurred in a slow flow of time. The environment activists need to inform the public about the lack of time and representing the lapse of time is essential because the change in climate patterns is constant. Therefore, besides making the change perceptible, the representation has to convey the concept of wasting time.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.24. Columbia Glacier, Alaska (c. From October 5 2007 to May 7 2009), by J. Balog, 2007-2009. From JamesBalog_RiversideLecture, by The Extreme Ice Survey, 2017. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/219873507

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.26 represents a TL demolition of the Star Theatre, in New York in 1901. Today this method is commonplace to document more efficiently the organised events.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1.26. Demolishing and Building Up Star Theatre, American Mutoscope and Biograph Company and preserved by the Library of Congress, 1901. From Demolishing and Building Up Star Theatre, by akb, 2005. Retrieved from https://archive.org/details/star_theatre_190

  focus on the boundaries of intelligibility in this kind of representation. We shall look into more detail into the mechanics of TL. Their popularity rests on some cognitive advantages they provide to their makes and viewers, but how exactly do these advantages arise, and what are they? This chapter examined the changing nature of still images to moving images from 1830 onwards. Little research attention has been devoted to TL as a cognitive artifact, and in particular it is an open question what features in TL are conducive to an advantageous representation.

  analogy with time machines only concerns the outcome of the time travel. You time travel to your childhood, then stop the time machine, and start look out of its window: what you see is what the video recording shows you. In the cases we discuss, of AP moving images, it is as if you looked out of the time machine window during the travel itself.

Figure 2 . 1 .

 21 Figure 2.1. Anchoring modulates color perception. Absent a lighter celestial body, the moon is seen as white. But when seen on the background of much brighter items (here the clouds on Earth) the visual system retrieves its true color (gray). Note that the satellite sees a full moon, hence the luminance is the same as when we see the full moon from Earth. Image credit: The far side of the moon, illuminated by the sun, as it crosses between the DSCOVR spacecraft's Earth Polychromatic Imaging Camera (EPIC) camera and telescope, and the Earth. From From a million miles away NASA camera shows moon crossing face of earth, by NASA and NOAA, 2015. Retrieved from https://www.nasa.gov/feature/goddard/from-a-million-miles-away-nasa-camerashows-moon-crossing-face-of-earth

Figure 2 . 2 .

 22 Figure 2.2. The boy's movement provides a temporal anchor. From A boy in Marseille, by S.Yasaei, 2017. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/241928682

Figure 2 . 3 .

 23 Figure 2.3. Perceiving the Earth's rotation, DIAL Project (Casati & Puccetti, 2018). From The DIAL project, by R. Casati, 2018. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/yGO5A95fSgA

Figure 2

 2 Figure 2.4. Oriented Globe (Casati, 2014). From Oriented Globe New Hampshire 2014 Summer solstice, by R. Casati, 2015. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/144114301

  limits of acceptable accelerations (what can be learned by a video run at 1000-fold speed?), that may change according to the represented domain, and the emergence of artifacts in the representation (e.g., the seeming inversion of the movement of a wheel). The discussion of this thesis has been largely limited to TL moving images. A generalization to Altered Pace moving images could show commonalities (and highlight differences) with Slow Motion and other types of Altered Pace moving images, such as video run in the reverse. We also restricted our discussion to moving images that represent natural phenomena, and only hinted at the study of social phenomena by use of AP moving images. It would be interesting to see what visual advantages become salient in systematically accelerating (or slowing down) social interactions.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.1. Cows' behaviour in TL. From Timelapse video -Night in the robot barn, by 4dBarn, 2019. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=YyKdYX9ZOjE

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.2. 300-Foot-Tall Iceberg Drifts Dangerously Close to Greenlandic Village. From 300-Foot-Tall Iceberg Drifts Dangerously Close to Greenlandic Village, by Storyful Rights Management, 2018. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/ofzt1e4mvuI. Copyright 2018 by Oline Nielsen via Storyful.

Figure 3 . 3 .

 33 Figure 3.3. visualisation of the navigation process. From Knowledge in the Wind TRANSAT ARC 2019 Time Lapse, by R. Casati, 2020. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/9CJCSRa4wOg Do TLs display features that could make us claim that they provide knowledge about a phenomenon? Here we aim to examine the truthfulness of TL as a tool to describe an unknown or unobserved phenomenon and generate cognitive states about it. If we consider TL as a representational artifact in scientific experiments, we have to ensure the truthfulness of the tool.

Figure 3 . 4 .

 34 Figure 3.4. Summarization by TL. From Lens of Time: When Plants Fight Back | bioGraphic, by bioGraphic, 2017. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/gha8eF5xk4IThis question gives a different answer in SM. Biographic Laboratory chooses the key shots to explain the process quickly. Depending on frame rate we choose to see the variable amount of detail of an event. The inherent continuity of movement is not represented in the projected video. In this case, does TL seem untruthful?

Figure 3 . 5 .

 35 Figure 3.5. Long interval TL. From How Do Glaciers Move? TIMELAPSE! | Earth Lab, by BBC Earth Lab, 2018. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=ghC-Ut0fW4o

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.6. Temporal Aliasing. From Temporal Aliasing, by S. Yasaei, 2020. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/466326854

Figure 3 . 7 .

 37 Figure 3.7. Temporal Aliasing in TL. From Mont Blanc Time-lapse and Tunnel Lights artifacts, by R. Casati 2020. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/di42W5EwxxE Temporal aliasing could be a major epistemic deficiency of TL in motion representation. Notwithstanding, in representing natural phenomena, (controlled) aliasing could be useful and instructive (Figure 3.8).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.8. A sequence of frames representing only Sun at sunrise shows the "displacement" of the Sun during the year (towards the South till the Winter solstice, towards the North till the Summer solstice) by R. Casati 2014. From sunrise time lapse solstice to equinox, by R. Casati, 2017. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/241689891

Figure 3 . 9 .

 39 Figure 3.9. Short Intervals for a long term process. From Time Lapse Formation of Salt Crystals, by sctgranger, 2012. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/mvvNruJ-8LYDepending on the pace or intensity of change, the filmmaker determines the interval setting of the shutter. How can we say the represented locomotion with such an interval is justified in a way we can believe it? Generally, TL is not similar to the other recording tools as they record all movements or sound as they are in the real world with a unique clock timeinterval (24 or 16 fps). The interval is adjustable to make the relationships and effects of time on spatial properties relating to the mobile object tangible. To record these causal effects, keeping the succession in frame capturing is essential. Each frame records a change that occurs in a different temporal point, and there are the continuous movements of different spatial points-of the camera or/and objects' motion. By the way, there should be some common spatial points in both burst frames (The same case in Chronophotography).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.10. Compressed time. From EIS Permafrost-Coastal Erosion Time-lapse, by Extreme Ice Survey, 2010. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/94208870

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.11. The change of light and shadow. Helens dome growth 2004-2008. From Time-lapse images of Mount St. Helens dome growth 2004-2008, by USGS, 2013. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/h6B1myUKAS4

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.12. Spatial relations between the airplane and the buildings. From Time of Rio, by Moov, 2012. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/55945051

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.13. We moved away from the house, and regardless of the perspective its location in the frame remains the same. From Dolly Zoom Tutorial for Timelapse Hyperlapse, by E.[START_REF] Stemen | Dolly Zoom Tutorial for Timelapse Hyperlapse[END_REF] Retrieved from https://youtu.be/Azo5HfgHrro

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.14. The building appears to move. From Dolly Zoom Tutorial for Timelapse Hyperlapse. by E. Stemen, 2014. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/Azo5HfgHrro

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.15. Tiny boats. From Time of Rio, by Moov, 2012. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/55945051

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.16. Fast zoom changes the point of view. From Nike Women's Half Marathon San Francisco, by R. Whitworth, 2014. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/108922424 In this TL, the change in the spatial relations between moving objects is concomitant with the change of the observer's point of view. In addition to the relation between the egocentric camera position and the moving object in the scene, we have the other spatial information on focal length. This might also happen in a standard frame rate video, but in TL, we have two kinds of vision aid simultaneously (i.e., the spatial expansion and the temporal diminution).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.17. Annihilation of time in Pacer (Roland, 1995). From Pacer, by NBD creative, 2015. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/123553635

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.18. in the Sky (Dennis di Cicco, 1979). Adapted from Beyond vision (179), byDarius, 1984, Oxford.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.19. Moving Crowd. From Time-lapse of Hong Kong protests over the weekend, by I. Bremmer, 2019. Retrieved from https://www.facebook.com/watch/?v=497879854346096

  For this purpose we aim at getting closer to the constructive epistemic values in the structure of TL as a representational vehicle. What epistemic advantages does TL give us (as a vehicle)? If we depict an event in two diverse representations with different correlations between the rate of capturing and playing back the frames, we apply two altered synchronised temporal perspectives to all moving objects in the scene. A notable example here is the two videos by Great Big Story video and Demas Rusil aerial TL from the Umbrella Pulldown market in Thailand (Figure 3.20 & 3.21).

Figure 3 .Figure 3 .

 33 Figure 3.20. Maeklong Railway Market in Drone-lapse (Rusli, 2020). From Aerial Timelapse : Maeklong Railway Market, by T8 stock, n.d. Retrieved from https://shutr.bz/2IIvnPL

  the film represents the morning rush in the train station in sequence. Nicholls here plays with two different temporal perspectives; the arrival and departure scene and the commotion of commuters are in TL, the scenes of the switchboard operators in the control room overlooking the tracks are in standard frame-rate. The twodirectional time-frame makes the film easier to follow (Figure 3.22).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.22. Employing two different time-scales in Rush Hour (Nicholls, 1970). From Waterloo Station rush hour time-lapse film, by BFI, 2009. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/bPIaG644jsI By presenting the train approaching the station in TL sequences, temporal adjustments emphasise the train-movement and simplify the following process. Otherwise, the viewer probably might get distracted with irrelevant details and could not follow the event until the end. Therefore, re-modulate the perceiving time, enables the viewer to understand where the event begins and ends. As Sutton (2011) writes: "The fact that time-lapse presents to us different blocks of time which are normally beyond our endurance (or simply our patience)illustrates how much time itself is a psychological concept" (p. 9). Images captured in regular intervals provide a coherent recording of principal spatial points and thereby create a series of key-frames. Projecting the selected shots makes the otherwise invisible transition amplify in the scene. This predetermined mechanism exaggerates the essential spatial point of the slow change and skips the unnecessary between points.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.23. A bird nest architecture. Adapted from "Individuality in nest building" (p. 2), by Walsh et al., 2011, Behavioural Processes.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.24. The essential pieces of the event in TL. From Nature's brutal truth, by M. Margan, 2016.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3.25. Plants growth in TL. From Secrets of Nature, by Ott, 1951.

Figure 4 . 1 .

 41 Figure 4.1. Observing the collective behaviour of penguins by TL. From Lens of Time: Huddle Masters | bioGraphic, by bioGraphicMagazine, 2018. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/fptbl79t_Iw

Figure 4 . 2 .Figure 4 . 3 .

 4243 Figure 4.2. The seal somersaulting through the ocean. Adopted from School of fish hunted by a seal, by Cindy Tran, 2016. Retrieved from http://dailym.ai/3kbgq6x

  Figure 4.4 refers to a video of crowd behaviour, and in the 2:58, it shows how the movement and behaviour of people are unpredictable and, to an extent, unthinkable.

Figure 4 . 4 .

 44 Figure 4.4. Crowd control. From Top 5 Crowd Control Videos, by Top Fives, 2018. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/kp-yC5gaVvQ

  For example, in a long-term research on the development of social structures, norms and values, recording and observation through TL technique could be advantageous since the research would not concern the detailed analysis of behaviour. An example of this is the observation that through several months unfolds the communication codes and continuous changes in children and teachers' relationship (Figure 4.5).15[START_REF] Turner | Collective behavior[END_REF], categorise four types of the crowd: I. Causal crowds: People in the same place and at the same time without any communication. II. Convention Crowds: a planned event that occurs repeatedly. III. Expressive crowds: People who gather to express emotion. IV. Acting crowds: gathering for a particular purpose.

Figure 4 . 5 .

 45 Figure 4.5. Classroom Observation in TL. From Exploring The Spectrum -Dr. John Ott documentary on the health effects of light, by David Getoff, 2018. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/BOUA8UAEAdY

  Figure 4.6 shows the movement of Muslims during the pilgrimage in TL.

Figure 4 . 6 .

 46 Figure 4.6. Movement of Muslims during pilgrimage. From Time-lapse illustrates movement of Muslims during pilgrimage to Mecca, by Ysrb10, 2018. Retrieved from https://wapo.st/3lZGi66

Figure 4 . 7 .

 47 Figure 4.7. Illegal collective behavior. From June 18 Square, by S. Yasaei, 2018. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/270097444

Figure 4 . 8 .

 48 Figure 4.8. Crowd form (07:05). From Top 5 Crowd Control Videos, by Top fives, 2018.

Figure 4 . 9 .

 49 Figure 4.9. Cross-road traffic. From Intuition driving in Iran, by Taver Net, 2018.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.10. Observable forms of collective action in TL. From Hong Kong Protests, by Mike Y, 2019. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/nl_UnB4DX3cIf TL are representational tools to transfer information about the status of collective behaviour, their epistemic limit is missing the short-term changes. The shortcomings of TL on crowd movements are similar to those occurring with natural phenomena. In the case of TL of extremely slow processes of a natural phenomenon, visual artifacts can emerge. For instance, an inherent, illusory pressure during the transformation can be perceptible. Figure4.11 refers

  Figure 4.11 refers to a TL in which the fungus is perceived to have released stored energy for blooming 16 . This is different from the TL of a fast process, in which these kinds of visual artifacts do not appear.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.11. Blooming Fungus. From Woodland fungi growing time lapses, by N. Bromhall, 2019.

  process contains only non-verbal communications. It is an inevitable cost of TL of collective actions which are formed by an individual's spontaneous actions. The first part of our discussion examined the TL function as a tool of social observation in order to create a new analysis method. TL helps researchers of social behaviour to classify their observations and recognise normal and abnormal behaviours in empirical researches on collective behaviour. Based on continuous visual observation, recording social events through sequences of TL helps to find sources and impacts of emergent behaviour in a group of animals or humans. Here is the set of footages that TL could carry information on: I. Collective orientations as clustering, arcing, facing, II. Collective vertical locomotion as sitting, standing, jumping, bowing, kneeling, kowtowing and III. Collective horizontal locomotion as pedestrians clustering, queuing, surging, marching, running, etc. Recording a social scene by TL technique depends on the knowledge and the intention of observing collective behaviour.TL likely functions as a discovery tool and for recognising the collective phenomena in detail, we may need to record multiple and simultaneous footages, with the coordinated interval setting and spatial configurations. Employing multiple cameras and synchronising the time results in having pairs of images whose comparison allows the researcher to obtain essential information about the long duration events.

  depending on the nature of the phenomenon, what effect this manipulation induces in the phenomenon's inherent feature (i.e., the manipulation in spatiotemporal properties). We ask what is the result of this manipulation and in a cognitive view, what advantage does it have?We return to Ludwig Mach's view on "tools that foster scientific knowledge" (as cited inBowles, 2016, p. 450). If we consider TL as the tool of representation and information carrier, -in the condition they function as a supernormal stimulus-we can say the referent is recognisable during the representation. In this vein, the representation entails unfolding the unknown aspect of the referent (i.e., an invisible phenomenon). Making visible the invisible phenomenon is the principal purpose of making TL as a supernormal stimulus, although it has not necessarily an epistemic relation to the principal referent.Let us consider a case in which the representation of the scene aims to provide a further piece of information beyond the information perceived by the naked eye. By making a TL of ant movement patterns, Simon Garnier does research on swarm intelligence (Figure4.12).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.12. Collective behaviour in ant colonies. From The Road Best Traveled: A Tale of Ants, Slime Mold and the New Jersey Turnpike, SciFri, 2015. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/NUJ_6vju_U0

  collective human behaviour helps us neglect the segmented corporeal movement of each individual in the crowd and notices the dominant continuous movements. (By employing short intervals, the corporeal movements become less segmented.). The effectiveness of TL in making visible some characteristics and behaviour of the matter, and also neglecting and making the secondary movements invisible is exemplified in the TL of Montreal's earth day march when the crowd forms a tree (Figure4.15).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.15. Crowd's form. From 22 Avril -Un arbre huMain -Timelapse, by Nomadlife.tv, 2012.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.16. Gasometers by Nicky Hamlyn. From Gasometers Part 3 (extract), by N. Hamlyn, 2015. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/134450336

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.17. The earthstar's petals unfurling. From Invisible Nature: Star of the Dunes | bioGraphic, by bioGraphicMagazine, 2017. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/zZCr3e4Zo2s

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.19. Rush Hour by N. Nicholls (1970). From Waterloo Station rush hour time-lapse film, by BFI, 2009. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/bPIaG644jsI

  Figure 4.20. Crowd behaviour in Slow-motion and TL. From Al Masjid Al Haram & Kaaba Timelapse, by T. El-Mahrouky, 2015. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/HOaFvUPS_k4 Considering TL as an artifact has been instrumental in our understanding of its emotional or semantic effects. What we call emotional or semantic perception is the consequence of recognising and observing the collective behaviour in the scene. TL does the transmission of data with unifying them and depicting the movements in a single form. Hence we perceive the movement of the group, not the individual movements. Movement may be an important factor in revealing a social phenomenon in a TL sequence, but the unfolded fact is the result of an association between temporal and spatial factors. When we look from a long distance to a crowd; the speed of the movements are reduced. This is clear in the example of watching a crossed road and cars from the window of a train. The moving objects in a great distance seem slower in the normal time-flow. The crowd orbiting the Kaaba in the TL of Figure 4.21, seems slower than their real pace of walking, and it increases the poetic sense of the video (Nebesio, 2019). The distant and the temporal setting of TL decreases the spiritual aspect of the image.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.21. Long-distance observations by TL. From A Time Lapse video on Tawaf of Kaaba at Makkah, by Momins Azkar, 2017. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/vFz8_SJ1YUU

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.22. Repetitive behaviour. From Cathedral of Barcelona, by S. Yasaei, 2018. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/269518389It is necessary here to delve into the difference between social TL and natural landscape TL. Two elements or components play a role here:I.Temporal concepts that include the different configurations of temporality caused by limiting capturing frames, segmentation between frames, reducing the projecting time and therefore misrepresenting the bodily movements.II.Background knowledge (i.e., all we know about the phenomenon).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.23. Urban space in TL. From Timelapse of New Delhi Traffic, by Window Seat For Two, 2016. Retrieved from https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=L2mNdvIGPyQ

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.24. 8 consecutive frames of human walking. From Tilt Shift Timelapse -Miniature Riverside, by Fenchel & Janisch, 2016. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/N9--0hx5hVE

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.25. The relation between key frames and key positions in TL. From Tiny Tokyo time lapse part 3, by darwinfish105, 2014. Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/108806485 "It is more of felt energy, the intensity of sensation in the intervals of gestures and actions" (Väliaho, 2010, p. 14). Social TL sequences contain the lifeless components which could help estimate the duration of the represented event. The human-made mechanical objects by their steady rhythms or static status could function as a temporal anchor and measure the duration. In a compressed time representation, the crowd of people as a component of urban space, interact with human-made objects which seems self animated by TL and could be employed as tools to estimate the event duration. If they are still they act as the spatial anchor and the smallest movement in urban space becomes highly apparent.Figure 4.26, shows the

  Figure 4.26, shows the clock in the train station as an anchor.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.26. 00:38 in Koyaanisqatsi[START_REF] Reggio | Koyaanisqatsi: Life Out of Balance [Film[END_REF]. From Koyaanisqatsi part 6/9, by thesumofparts, 2009. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/jOIvJTuCrlE

  Figure 4.27 refers to a scene of Koyaanisqatsi (01:42) that shows the crowd density moving through, climbing and coming down the stairs, choosing and changing direction on a pedestrian bridge and moving just after the gaps open up.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.27. Crowd in Koyaanisqatsi[START_REF] Reggio | Koyaanisqatsi: Life Out of Balance [Film[END_REF]. From Koyaanisqatsi part 6/9, by thesumofparts, 2009. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/jOIvJTuCrlE

  e., collective behaviour/action of the group), to represent it as a unique pattern of the image. The normal stimulus in the event's image is the individual human bodies moving around. TL makes a supernormal stimulus from crowd movement and exaggerates the locomotions. In this investigation, the aim was to assess how much does TL represent human beings behaving as non-human models? To what extent are they perceived as objects in a still life? Social TLs show us human beings as spots moving around without representing their individual agency. In the process of reducing the capturing time, imply fragmentations and then representing the snapshots at the standard frame rate, the subject -here, human beings-is represented far away from the embodiment. InBaraka (1992), Ron Fricke employs TL to record a series of postures from muslims in prayer time. By setting the camera upside down, and taking the shots in prolonged intervals, the transition between poses are skipped. We continuously observe people standing, bowing, prostrating (not dissimilar to a textile machine) and lastly navigating to the exits or lying down right there on the carpet (Figure4.28).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.28. Muslims in prayer time (01: 08) in Baraka (Fricke1992).FromBaraka [Ron Fricke, 1992], by unisono89, 2010. Retrieved from https://youtu.be/2irFhia8r_o

  time. The first impression of watching a human being in TL footage is becoming present in the event at a different time perspective. This kind of experience lets the viewers explore the familiar event in a different time-scale. The incorporation of the viewers into an accelerated movement brings a time-compressed experience to them. As a series of discrete snapshots, TL allows the viewers a continual presence in time. Furthermore, social TL provides us with the possibility of watching human beings in a social figure. We can see them individually, but we do not recognise them as individual human beings with their identical gestures and apparent characteristics. Just like the function of lines in a drawing, we can identify a single body through a combination of a large number of individuals.

  of transmission: I. Alteration of the temporal perspective II. Amplification of the spatial transitions, and ultimately III. Making the transition visible All of these three levels are structural. The spatial change in TL depends on the interval setting (the alteration of temporal perspective), while determining the interval in the capture phase depends directly on anticipation and measuring the spatial change in a certain period of time. Regarding the content of the representation and the notion of continuity and change, we acknowledge these three levels of the process, and we distinguish the concept of amplification and acceleration.

  Figure A.3 indicates, In 69.7% of the scientific cases of the corpus, any post-editing is avoided (e.g., The visual effects, or reversing). They are visually "seductive" but don't have an aesthetic comment. "time-lapse would be used in a variety of practical and scientific ways, simultaneously 'revealing beauty while serving as a tool for the scientist'"(Jones, 2016, p. 92).

Figure A. 5 .

 5 Figure A.5. Edited narrative Tls (corpus of 1k TL)

Figure A. 6 .

 6 Figure A.6. Environmental themes (corpus of 1k TL)

More explanations are provided in the first chapter.

More explanation in the third chapter, the discussion on subjective time in TL.

The 4th chapter describes this approach.

We use the term 'displacement' to avoid ambiguity with spatial movement. Temporal 'movement' or 'displacement' are metaphors that would deserve an independent discussion.

The claim is not completely accurate given the properties of telescopic and microscopic optics, that deliver compressed perspectives, but the approximation is sufficient to our discussion.

Some TL of this section are visible at the address: cognitivedesigners.scigog.fr.

This chapter is a slightly modified version of "The Philosophy of Time-lapse Movies: Vision makers", co-written by the thesis supervisor, Roberto Casati, and the doctoral researcher, published in The Age of Immediacy on Trial of Meaning, Feb 2018, Locarno, Switzerland and has been reproduced here with the permission of the copyright holder.

According to Currie, in the case of misrepresenting the temporal properties of the phenomenon, TL could not be a temporal art form because the temporal features of the representation don't work to represent the temporal properties of the event[START_REF] Currie | Image and Mind: Film, Philosophy and Cognitive Science[END_REF].

In the TL of fungi growing, light is stable over the time of the shooting, implying an artificial source of light. In this TL, the growth of the fungus is a temporal anchoring for detecting the time-frame of the illumination.

A natural development of this research would be to train a machine-learning program on the corpus and to harvest the web for TL productions.

These techniques are the branch of TL altered in the spatial setting of the camera, point of view and the equipment.

Acknowledgements

This project has contributed my knowledge and worldview. I owe that to my supervisor, Roberto Casati. I sincerely acknowledge his support and thoughtful guidance.

My sincere thanks go to Mrs Dorothée Butigieg, director of literature studies at École Normale Supérieure for her support and all the help provided. I would like to express my deepest appreciation to the follow-up committee, Mrs Fereshteh Shakib, Mrs Valeria Giardino and Mrs Valérie Vignaux for their advice and devoted time to assess my thesis. My thanks also go to the disorientation group members. I would particularly like to thank Pablo Fernandez Velasco, Bastien Perroy and Francesco Pierini for their helpful comments and suggestions offered for the preparation of this thesis. Also thanks to Charlotte Jacquemot. I was glad to have the opportunity to interact with her as my mentor.

My heartfelt gratitude goes to my parents, grandparents and my friends for their support and thoughts throughout the entirety of this endeavor. This project has been fostered by conversations with my better half, Mohammadreza. His unwavering support and enthusiasm made me delighted along this way. Thank you.

is that TL both adds and reduces the inherent vitality of humans as the film subject and changes the spatial relations between matters in the scene (Figure 4.13). Retrieved from https://vimeo.com/7332762 [START_REF] Smith | Experimental Time-Lapse Animation and the Manifestation of Change and Agency in Objects[END_REF], named this interaction "agency of matters". The cases she scrutinises are landscape TLs, representations of natural objects and natural transitions. The point about the natural phenomena in TL when the process is extremely slow is that the accelerated movement will remain almost smooth and natural: despite the fragmentation between the frames, making visible seems to happen spontaneously. The form of representation is perceived as odd, but we engage more with the content because the pace of the action remains natural. In the Secret of nature series (1951), by taking successive shots of seeds growing in regular intervals, and as we do in our everyday life. We easily recognise the urban spaces and how individuals must move through them according to civil laws and social habits. In the TL of Figure 4.18, we have three layers of components in the scene: Choreographers in the foreground, spectators in the middle ground and people passing by in the background. The motion in each layer has a different pace. The technical configuration applies in all the three kinds of motion, and the temporal relation between different layers of motions remains as in the real-time flow. If human-made objects exist in the scene (e.g., elevators and clocks), the tools could function as a temporal anchor to recognise the duration of the event (A more detailed account of the temporal anchor in the social scene is given in the section on rhythm.). Social TL challenges the viewer's cognition by intervening on the basic temporal concepts of the filmed objects. If the main temporal features of human movement are being configured in TL, how is the human body still identifiable and categorized in social TL? The following section will discuss the gestures and rhythm as determiner elements in neglecting details and seeing the general average movement.

Gestures 17 and Facial Expression in TL

We can compare TL to stop-motion photography, in which inanimate objects seem to come alive. We can also consider compositional movements of human beings with various subtle transitions in gesture making. The point is representing human bodily movement in TL as similar to the stop-motion technique. In TL, regardless of the emotional impressions, we 17 "Generally speaking, the gesture is not simply bodily movement but "a manner of carrying the body" as the Oxford English Dictionary defines it" (as cited in Väliaho, 2010, p. 17).

Appendix A: Data Collection and Analysis of Time-lapse Sequences

Watching a moving image is, to have visual access to motion on a screen, whatever the content is. We no longer consider the conventional narrative points, the primary characteristics of a film format as size and duration, or a particular character, as unavoidable elements constituting a film. Hence, the necessity is images moving continuously in a certain duration. An association between time and space leads to consider a moving image as a film. In the process, the techniques define the form of this visuality. How do the objects move on the screen and how do we see them? As in linguistic communication, when new words appear in daily conversation and become usual, in moving images the new techniques are "the language [we] were missing" (Gold, 1984, p. 65).

The temporal and spatial characteristics of a moving image are not perpetually in a tension. In general, film-makers manipulate the temporal properties -slow down or speed up the rate of motion -to magnify or understate the spatial change. As a result, in the cinema industry, "time-based techniques" are created one after another. Depending on the user's purpose, scientific visualisation or popular entertainment, then they get upgraded. TL as a moving image technique was first envisioned in research in astronomy, and these days it ends up in smartphones, for example in order to make a TL about cooking during the quarantine period and to send a concise and watchable report to one's social network friends. In making the long process of cooking perceivable in a short time-span, and in thus making the viewer aware of the event, the TL enables the viewers to monitor the long time stretch by an "expansive vision". But, to what extent does the TL change the visual feature of our experience of cooking? By representing a process in TL, what has been abstracted from, and what has been highlighted? What do people do in order to make a better time-lapse? The study began with these open-ended questions to indicate the parameters that enhance or reduce TL strengths and weaknesses. In the following phase, in order to ask more critical questions on TL, we started to consider and categorise TLs in the cognitive approach.

"time-lapse photography once thought of as a window on the momentousness of nature, once poetic, has lost its 'otherworldliness' -become prosaic" (Lavery, 2006, p. 27).

A difference between filmmaking and time-lapse making is the organization process.

Making TL demands to estimate and predict the motions and to make decisions on intra-frame intervals. In the process, applying the appropriate setting to the equipment is tributary to on our knowledge of the human visual perception system. Considering these fundamental questions and cognitive approach, we categorised the TL sequences we gathered in order to make a cognitive analysis based on their common characteristics and on their (relative) cognitive advantages.

To begin this process, the criteria for selecting the first cases were the various platforms of using TL as a cognitive artifact in science films. This system of classification includes two main approaches: cognitive science and moving image studies. Once the categories had been decided upon, by considering TL as a cognitive artifact we aimed to investigate the data and assess the epistemology of TL. The overall structure of the research takes the form of three parts, including:

1.Watching and Collecting 2. Categorising items

Analysing items and Drawing problems

A.1.Watching and Collecting

A.1.1. Initial Database

The first group of initial data in this corpus is drawn from the literature review chapter of the thesis in which we give a brief overview of the history of TL.

In the second phase, the data gathered from 2017-2020 matches the theoretical dimensions of the research. The temporal order is maintained all over the study to show the thread of association between the various parts. This study cannot encompass the entire production of TL 18 . Therefore, the results need to be interpreted with caution. The purpose of this investigation is to assess the extent to which "making visible" is the critical function of TL. Thus, the selection made from an initial cast of several hundred TLs and a second selection step follows the essential cognitive criteria. We informally assessed the level of comprehensibility and in an attempt to categorise each TL as accurately as possible data is gathered in two basic categories: Specialists and Non-professionals. In the Specialist category, the selection takes the form of a case study of TLs made by artists, journalists or scientists. In the Non-professional category, we organized a collection of TLs by using the terms which arose through studying the specialists TL cases. Hence, in many cases of non-professional use of TL, as with professional use, we expect to see TL to focus on the revelation of some visually inaccessible phenomena.

Concerning scientific and artistic works, a case-study approach was chosen to obtain further in-depth information on the filmed phenomenon and also to determine the eventual subcategories in each domain. For each of the thousand TLs in the collection, the link to the video and related terms are provided based on cognitive criteria. We mark, on top of the categories, but accessible information on technique, photography condition and duration of the process, as well as, whenever available, exact date, equipment and in the case of scientific purpose the experimental condition. These divisions also helped us to assess the particular technical choices in various fields. This part of the study aims to provide essential insights into developing research questions and conducting the research. All the examples cited in the manuscript are drawn from the corpus. It should be noted that many examples might have been neglected and that the collection does not have a formal collecting policy. Indeed, it is only a partial archive and database to support a general analysis on TL.

A.1. 2. Collecting: Accidental sampling Method

Prior to data collection, we reviewed the origins and primary technical structure of TL (1st chapter). After studying the pioneering cases, the data was gathered and classified into two broad types: Professional and non-professional TL. Considering the general themes of the professional works, non-professional TLs were assembled randomly from various types of sampling frames 19 and once a list of 1000 TL was made and checked, the process of parameter evaluation was carried out. 20 In some categories, they have a cluster sampling form. Following the collection of basic categories, the samples were found and stored and the sub-categories developed. As mentioned before, given the accidental sampling method and collecting TLs from different sample frames, the corpus is not representative enough to make any generalization on TL. However, it provides interesting insights and allows the formulation of hypotheses. 19 The sampling frames are the online video libraries of published videos in various determined themes; professional as The British Film Institute, National Film Board of Canada, The Internet Archive, Chicago Film Archive and user-generated content video websites as Youtube, Vimeo and related groups on social media. 20 All data were used just as collected sequences to direct the research and to engage with the research without any general investigation plan. Thus, all the sampling frames are the sample.

A.2. Collection Categorises

A.2.1. Time-lapse Makers

For the purpose of extracting the subject categories, two segments, the first step in this process The specialists are scientists, artists, commercial time-lapsers, journalists and whoever makes TL for a professional purpose. On the other hand, TL technique enables nonprofessionals to make documentary films artistically. Haworth Village website, a score of TL footage, introduces TL in this way: "Time-lapse photography is where you can speed time up" (Haworth Village, n.d., Time Lapse Photography). As we claimed in chapter three, epistemology of TL, TL makers manipulate an essential aspect of the representation (i.e., temporal perspective), therefore, the objects may seem to be self-animated, and the represented event has been re-created. TL provides a short dynamic report of a long and slow event. These interventions provide some sense of creativity and discovery, that goes beyond the analogy of placing a colour filter on the image or installing music on a clip. To make something appear/visible where nothing stood in reality is felt as a creative act.

In some topics, the effectiveness of the TL technique has been more remarkable. Three percent of the home-made TL are on biological life-span (pregnancy, birth and growing up).

Thirty-eight and three tenths percent of non-professional are on nature, and amongst them, landscape is the most common theme (21.2%). Eighty-five and three tenths percent of TL sequences captured in restaurant kitchens or at home's kitchen are made by non-professionals.

On the other hand, 27.6% cases in the food category by non-professionals represent a social scene.

It seems that the non-professional TL makers, deliberately or inadvertently, learn the essential rules from professionals. For example, in scientific experiments, the stability of viewpoint is a benchmark of verification. In most of the TL conducted by a scientist or research team, the event is captured from a single point of view to simplify the controlling and analysing process. Similarly, in 5.6% of non-professional cases on simple scientific experiments, TL is made in the single shot setting.

A.2.2. Time-lapse Application Domains

TLs in both categories made by specialists and the Non-professional refer to the various domains of application as the hard science, social life, art, entertainment and news (see Figure

A.2).

A.2.2.1. Time-lapse in science

"High speed photography to capture rapid events and time lapse to record slow ones. Fast and slow are anthropomorphically defined, our retinal integration and cerebral processing rates being taken as the norm" (Darius, 1984, p. 18). TL represents the captured phenomenon in a different time-frame. Researchers take advantage of this technique in recording the sequence over several days and afterwards analysing the data in a format that is fit for our visual and cognitive time scale. This way, they can both record and observe the phenomenon. Therefore employing TL enables the researchers to control and adjust the temporal properties of the phenomenon, verifying the process of the experiment and using the film as proof. Sixty-one percent of the geographical cases in the scientific category are created by archived and online maps to provide spatial analysis for geographic applications.

Researchers appear to have benefitted from the TL technique in order to merely collect data and document them.

Several early terms for time-lapse involved a comparison to optical magnification:

Ernst Mach wrote about "temporal diminution" [Zeitverlängerung]; and Charles Urban and Percy Smith talked in terms of "speed magnification" in the period 1908-10.

Beyond the optical register, other metaphorical options existed as well: the German word for time-lapse uses the metaphor of "collecting" or "gathering together"

[Zeitraffer]; Pfeffer's description of the process had recourse to the notion of "compression" or "condensation" [Zusammendrängen]; and Antoine Pizon contributed the moniker "bio tachygraphy", e.g., the "shorthand of life". (Gaycken, 2012, p. 62) It thus looks that scientists, more than the other TL makers, explicitly rely on the cognitive and visual advantage of TL as a "vision maker". The other advantage for them is to exploit the potential of moving image technique in popularising science.

For example, Nasa, by making TL from archived photographs, familiarised the number of astronomical phenomena. Seventy-six and two tenths percent of professional cases in the field of astronomy use the photographic image taken by satellites over a number of months.

Many questions draw our attention to the epistemology of TL used in experiments.

In this corpus, the predetermined setting of the camera and the regularity of intervals in the projecting process surfaces in 99.5% of scientific TLs. Maintaining the same time-order as when the event was captured helps the scientist to get the same action-pace in the representation. These epistemological aspects of the truthfulness of TL have been discussed in the third chapter.

A.2.2.2. Time-lapse in Art

For artists, from the pioneer theatrical films as Carrefour de l'opera (Melies, 1898) to the digital videos and installations, making TL is a challenge to change the perspective on the temporal properties of moving images. This manipulation intentionally affects the objective time to achieve a designed outcome in representing expressive gestures, poetic scenes and above all, social behaviour and crowd interaction with urban space. This section of the corpus gathers 125 artistic examples in various fields of the moving image. These subcategories are experimental film, animation, narrative movie, social documentary and installation artwork. The selection was then applied from the sampling frames that arose in the literature review.

In 32% cases of artistic TL, the TL maker does not set a predetermined interval in the capturing process (Figure A.4). In these cases the time-order of the still frames is redefined in a uniform or non-uniform way. However, making a tracking shot, in which the camera physically follows a moving subject (usually a person walking around the city) in the centre of the frame, and showing the city at a time in a couple of minutes is an favoriteway for travel agencies to advertise an attraction.

We encounter here the commercial world of TL: For about US$700 a clip (about 40 second) TL agencies provide footage as well as filler, opening and ending shots for video makers and vloggers 21 . Lyric lapses and reverse motions are the usual techniques used in music videos.

Comparing the differences in the use of TL, it can be seen that the expected advantage is to narrate the passing time. TL collects the information and represents them in the most compressed form. It is what Annie [START_REF] Dillard | Seeing. Environmental Ethics[END_REF] called "the scope of texture's motion in time" (p. 143) in order to realise how the world is changing in another temporal perspective.

A.2.2.4. Time-lapse in News

Eight tenths percent of TLs are used in journalism about natural disasters, weather changes or protestations.

Unquestionably, the popularity of TL and its use in providing short-information can be advantageous in news. Five and seven tenths percent of the news category use the screen lapse technique. Screen lapse is a technique in making TL of the computer screen. One of the advantages of Screen-lapse TL is to enable us in presenting a long archive.

A.2.3. Subjects

The videos were classified in different groups, regarding their subject. These groups are listed as follows: Nature, urban space, social behavior, events, life span, shadow, history, sport and food.

Fifty-three and five tenths percent of TLs are classified in the nature category, divided into several branches. These are: The sky, landscape, volcano, plant, weather, daylight and shadow, tide, glacier, seismology and animals. Twenty-three and six tenths percent of TL are placed in the urban space section divided into these subcategories: 47 in Social behaviour, 50 in construction and 48 in tourism (Figure A.6). On the other hand, 24.8% are in the entertainment category as commercials or non-commercials that are used in advertising, sport, tourism and food.

A comparison of these two categories reveals that setting an " intraframe interval" is essential in making all kinds of TL. The differences are in spatial settings of camera, equipment and editing process after capturing.

Forty-eight and nine tenths' percent of the other photographic sub-categories as Hyperlapse, 360° and drone-lapse are used by time-lapsers in entertainment and commercial production. 22

A.3. Analysing and Drawing Problems

TL is a mechanism for synchronizing the real-time of the event with the subjective time of the viewer. It is "a tool for discovery" imperceptibly slow movements. The corpus helps us in assessing the cognitive advantages and the costs of this technique. Whether they are historical documents as the transit of the planet Venus across the Sun in 1874 by Pierre Janssen, popular as 30 seconds receipt videos, or artistic as experimental films such as Pacer (Roland, 1995), we use the corpus to understand and evaluate the diverse uses of TL as a cognitive artifact. The corpus includes the historic TL from its origins to the present day, the different technical aspects for professionals and the general public by scientists, artists, commercial time-lapsers and amateurs. We attempted to provide a concise explanation of each category of subject and technique. The insights gained from this analysis was of assistance in the process of conducting the theoretical discussions.

The pioneer examples contribute in several ways to our understanding of TL structure and provide a basis for the historical research, the role of pioneer cinematography and interpreting the advantages of this artifact as a "time-machine" for scientists. The collecting part was in parallel to the historical research in which we did a case study in both cognitive science and film studies approach. This collecting part, therefore, set out to assess the artistic and scientific case at a time. In some cases, the techniques are developed by the scientists and on the other hand, the creations of artists are the sources of discussion on social behaviour.

The emphasis in all of the categories falls on the cognitive criteria. The results in this part indicate the characteristics of TL, its cognitive advantages and costs in various domains.

The third chapter, therefore, have moved on to discuss the epistemological questions and cognitive function of TL in each category.

In each of the categories, we compared the truthfulness and representative capacity of the video. The most obvious finding is that recognising the principal characteristics of the represented phenomenon depends on the viewer's background knowledge. Besides, by considering the technical varieties and the basic structure of TL, scrutinising the intra-frame interval determines the accuracy of TL. The related questions raised: How we process and notice-or do not notice the hidden part of the events which occurs during the intervals. We have discussed this epistemology problematic in the third chapter. However, we did not aim to restrict the research to the comparisons of technical choices raised by scientists or artists. It is hoped that this research will contribute to a deeper understanding of cognitive facilities by TL.

These findings raise intriguing questions regarding the adjustment of the temporal stream of TL and that of the real world. How do they set the technique for various speeds in different phenomena?

What are the similar patterns and common characteristics between the filmed object and captured and projected image? For example, in most scientific cases, amateurs as well as professionals, choose to capture the event in a single shot without any manipulation in temporal perspective. In the third chapter, with respect to this finding on the common characteristics, we discussed the relation between spatial and temporal properties of the object in TL.

Comparing the object with the human in TL, led us to analyse the inherent characteristic changed by TL. The still life objects seem to be self-propelled, and people appear as the poppets in stop-motion animation. Further, TLs of social events and crowd scenes, raise questions on human collective behaviour. In the last chapter, we discussed how this tool provides us with an expanded vision to observe social interaction and to analyse crowd behaviour.

ABSTRACT

Time-lapse provides us with an expanded time-perspective. The general subject area of the thesis is the cognitive advantage of the moving image. The focus will be on Time-lapse (TL), a sub-field of moving images, whose structure enables the function of making visible.

Discussing the diverse applications of TL and the cognitive advantages delivered by this representational artefact, we evaluate the epistemic status of these Altered Pace movies as evidentials. In this regard, we construe TL as a tool for obtaining information about some of the event's visually unavailable features. In analysing the epistemic virtues and the possible epistemic deficiencies of this amplification process, we suggest that TL is a mechanism of producing superstimuli.