Ignacio Requena-Ruiz

Daniel Siret

Xenia Stavropulos-Laffaille

Thomas Leduc

Designing Thermally Sensitive Public Spaces: An Analysis Through Urban Design Media

Keywords: public space design, urban coolspots, microclimate, thermal comfort, adaptation strategies

Urban designers face the challenge of preserving urban life by creating public spaces that are resilient to rising temperatures. This paper studies the dissemination of urban designs specific to summer ("urban coolspots") throughout urban design media. The study of an inventory of urban coolspots (182 references) delineates, firstly, their urban context, the main actors and principal cooling techniques. Secondly, a typological analysis of the projects' spatio-climatic setups highlights four trends as presented in the media. Finally, this article discusses the contributions of the media to an emerging urban design field and establishing an aesthetic of freshness in public space.

Introduction

Cities are particularly sensitive to the predicted rise in global temperatures (IPCC 2021).

Researchers accept that cities' built environment frequently exacerbates global warming effects by causing a deterioration in outdoor thermal comfort and increasing thermal stress [START_REF] Stewart | Local Climate Zones for Urban Temperature Studies[END_REF][START_REF] Santamouris | On the Impact of Urban Overheating and Extreme Climatic Conditions on Housing, Energy, Comfort and Environmental Quality of Vulnerable Population in Europe[END_REF]. Amongst the multiple negative effects, current research highlights the fact that implementing adaptation measures is a major challenge for cities to avoid public spaces gradually becoming unliveable [START_REF] Tavares | Public Health and Well-Being in Public Open Spaces through Climate Responsive Urban Planning and Design[END_REF]. In preserving the quality of life of public spaces, urban design plays a central role in promoting both [START_REF] Tavares | Public Health and Well-Being in Public Open Spaces through Climate Responsive Urban Planning and Design[END_REF] mitigation strategies that aim at decreasing air temperature over the whole city (e.g. parks, green roofs, whitening pavements) and ( 2) adaptation strategies that focus on area-specific cooling techniques and behavioural adaptation (e.g. urban canopies, misting nozzle structures, green surfaces).

Knowledge of thermal retrofitting of public spaces nowadays informs urban design practices through various kinds of evidence-based guidelines [START_REF] Cortesão | Visual Guidelines for Climate-Responsive Urban Design[END_REF][START_REF] Cortesão | Retrofitting Public Spaces for Thermal Comfort and Sustainability[END_REF]; however, the contribution of urban design media to popularizing such expertise from a wider perspective remains little studied. Design media can be regarded both as a mirror of public space design practices and as a medium for knowledge dissemination.

Urban design media present recent design practices that intertwine adaptation strategies with design's cultural, social and material inputs to explore attractive and resilient public spaces (Santos [START_REF] Nouri | Placemaking and Climate Change Adaptation: New Qualitative and Quantitative Considerations for the 'Place Diagram[END_REF][START_REF] Stanislav | Evaluating Livability and Perceived Values of Sustainable Neighborhood Design: New Urbanism and Original Urban Suburbs[END_REF]. Rather than presenting general transformations of the city with ubiquitous solutions, public space designs are gradually appearing as a form of "tactical heat stress interventions on a street-level scale" [START_REF] Kluck | Climate Resilient Urban Retrofit at Street Level[END_REF]. Such a process leads to the identification of "urban coolspots" (also called "cool urban retreats", or "cool urban oases") within the urban fabric as spaces that locally decrease the perceived temperature and enable public life during hot periods. This paper hypothesizes that urban design media help to promote thermally sensitive public spaces in ways that complement design guidelines. By presenting real designs resulting from a negotiated process with multiple actors and variables, including thermal ones, they influence urban practitioners' inspirational and problem-solving processes [START_REF] Forty | Words and Buildings. A Vocabulary of Modern Architecture[END_REF]. This study analyzes the main characteristics of urban coolspots as thermally sensitive public spaces from the urban design media perspective.

From specialized periodicals to online design platforms, published photographs of public space designs provide records and interpretative information. Through visual representations of both spatial and climatic dimensions of design, these photographs summarize the phenomenal situation of public space and "help us to clarify forms, processes and conditions engendered" [START_REF] Morselli | Eyes That Hear. The Synesthetic Representation of Soundspace through Architectural Photography[END_REF]. Considering that the editorial process of practitioneroriented design journals organizes and categorizes the information to guide its interpretation, this paper examines the emerging design approaches for thermally sensitive public spaces as promoted across urban design media.

From urban climate science to urban design media

Thermal retrofitting of public spaces encompasses at least three scientific fields with an extensive body of scientific literature [START_REF] Lenzholzer | Qualitative Methods to Explore Thermo-Spatial Perception in Outdoor Urban Spaces[END_REF]: [START_REF] Tavares | Public Health and Well-Being in Public Open Spaces through Climate Responsive Urban Planning and Design[END_REF] thermal perception and comfort in outdoor public spaces; (2) urban cooling and mitigation technologies; and (3) public space and public life studies.

From the perspective of thermal perception, various studies analyze the effects of urban spatial characteristics (e.g. shapes of buildings, materials, technical systems, greenery) on human thermal perception [START_REF] Middel | Micrometeorological Determinants of Pedestrian Thermal Exposure during Record-Breaking Heat in Tempe, Arizona: Introducing the MaRTy Observational Platform[END_REF][START_REF] Steane | Environmental diversity in architecture[END_REF].

They explore the human body's thermoregulatory responses in outdoor built environments [START_REF] Johansson | Instruments and Methods in Outdoor Thermal Comfort Studies -The Need for Standardization[END_REF], to create thermal sensation indices according to physiological or psychological factors. Other studies have opened up this field by examining factors that affect thermal perception, such as people's culture or climate adaptation [START_REF] Lenzholzer | Qualitative Methods to Explore Thermo-Spatial Perception in Outdoor Urban Spaces[END_REF].

From the perspective of urban cooling and mitigation technologies, current research addresses the undesired consequences of urban heat island mitigation [START_REF] Santamouris | Passive and Active Cooling for the Outdoor Built Environment -Analysis and Assessment of the Cooling Potential of Mitigation Technologies Using Performance Data from 220 Large Scale Projects[END_REF]. Researchers agree on four main approaches for thermal retrofitting of public spaces: reducing solar radiation by shading [START_REF] Middel | Impact of Shade on Outdoor Thermal Comforta Seasonal Field Study in Tempe, Arizona[END_REF], increasing evapotranspiration through green or water-based solutions [START_REF] Jacobs | Are Urban Water Bodies Really Cooling?[END_REF][START_REF] Aram | Urban Green Space Cooling Effect in Cities[END_REF], optimizing the materials of surfaces in order to decrease the absorption of solar radiation or enhance heat transfer [START_REF] Santamouris | Using Cool Pavements as a Mitigation Strategy to Fight Urban Heat Island-A Review of the Actual Developments[END_REF], and improving the urban form to optimize solar gains and wind effects [START_REF] Stewart | Local Climate Zones for Urban Temperature Studies[END_REF].

From the perspective of public space and public life studies, pleasant thermal conditions in public space are often linked to the occurrence of optional activities (e.g. standing, sitting, eating, reclining) and social activities (e.g. children playing, group sports, music playing) [START_REF] Chen | Outdoor thermal comfort and outdoor activities: A review of research in the past decade[END_REF][START_REF] Gehl | Life between Buildings: Using Public Space[END_REF][START_REF] Whyte | The Social Life of Small Urban Spaces[END_REF]. Various studies have discussed the potential of urban forms to create public spaces that modify climate parameters and shape citizens' ordinary experience of urban climates (Heschong 1981;[START_REF] Roesler | The Urban Microclimate as Artifact: Towards an Architectural Theory of Thermal Diversity[END_REF].

The aforementioned fields of thermal perception and urban cooling techniques contribute to urban design guidelines with evidence-based knowledge [START_REF] Cortesão | Visual Guidelines for Climate-Responsive Urban Design[END_REF]. They offer transferable knowledge that "works beyond a specific case to a more generalizable set of situations" [START_REF] Prominski | Design Guidelines[END_REF]. Strategies for designing thermally sensitive public spaces nowadays incorporate guidelines for urban planners and designers from a supranational level (e.g. C40-cities 2021; [START_REF] Georgi | Urban Adaptation to Climate Change in Europe 2016: Transforming Cities in a Changing Climate[END_REF] When addressed only from the perspective of the problem-solving philosophy of guidelines, the framework of adaptation strategies remains incomplete for the design of a public space. Thus, the inspirational references published in urban design media, presented as a whole, could affect the creative trial-and-error process of design complementary to guidelines.

Urban coolspots: designing the thermal experience of the city

Urban coolspots are public spaces of different scales (from the square to street furniture) in which the design process combines space and climate while creating reciprocal relationships with social activities. They are "thermal places", or places with thermal qualities that "naturally tend to become social places as people gather to take advantage of the comfort to be found there" (Heschong 1979, 60). They modify climate variables (e.g. temperature, humidity, air movement) at the level of the body through ephemeral or permanent strategies (e.g. misting canopies, water mirrors, floor-mounted dry fountains).

A simple review of urban design periodicals shows that the media echo this interest across articles and special issues on urban health, climate change, or urban greening. However, the influence of thermal retrofitting approaches in practitioner-oriented urban design media remains little studied and raises questions such as the following: How do the media delineate, directly or indirectly, a summer-specific approach to public space design? How do media contribute to establishing an aesthetic of freshness in public space by presenting inspiring projects of urban coolspots?

Research method

This paper adopts observatory science's [START_REF] Miller | Urban Sustainability Observatories: Leveraging Urban Experimentation for Sustainability Science and Policy[END_REF] inductive approach based on the construction of a multi-source inventory of urban design projects involving urban cooling techniques. A consolidated version of the inventory was examined with two techniques of data analysis for addressing the aforementioned research questions: a descriptive statistical analysis and a constructivist approach to grounded theory [START_REF] Corbin | Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory[END_REF] through qualitative data analysis and variable coding [START_REF] Della Porta | Comparative Analysis: Case-Oriented versus Variable-Oriented Research[END_REF].

Data collection procedures

The research work started with compiling an inventory of built projects of public space design. These projects were selected via a four-type systematic review of practitioneroriented sources of urban design media. The study period was set from 2002 (year of creation of the European Prize for Urban Public Space) to December 2020, although it was reduced for several sources, depending on their publication period or their accessibility. Four categories of research sources were monitored (see Table 1 for further detail):

• Architecture, urban and landscape design periodicals published in paper form.

• Online journals and platforms in architecture, urban design and landscape architecture.

• Design awards in architecture, urban design and landscape architecture.

• Architecture and urban design programmes. Paper periodicals were surveyed via a review of the table of contents, the article title and the project's illustrations. Online sources were analyzed through a Boolean query string in the site's main language. This was followed by a review of titles, introduction and thumbnails.

To capture different dimensions of the same phenomenon and triangulate data, a second method was used for data collection. The documentary research was complemented by identical Boolean queries in multilingual word-based search engines (Google and Duck-DuckGo) and image-based search engines (Google Images and Pinterest). This process was conducted in English, French and Spanish.

Three cumulative criteria were needed to include the projects in the inventory:

• The project deals with a design of an outdoor public space already built;

• The project's statement and illustrations reveal the designers' intention of dealing with climate parameters, creating cooling effects or introducing cooling techniques;

• The project's photographs provide visual evidence of climate conditioning by representing cooling effects (e.g. shadows, mist) or citizens potentially enjoying the freshness.

Based on grounded theory's data collection protocols, the sample size was determined by three cumulative conditions:

• Informational redundancy on urban cooling techniques: data collection was finished when no new information on the topic was elicited by adding more projects.

• Thematic saturation: data collection was finished when no new thematic codes were found by sampling more projects [START_REF] Guest | A Simple Method to Assess and Report Thematic Saturation in Qualitative Research[END_REF].

• Temporal limitation of research: data collection was carried out from March 2019 to December 2020.

As a result of this process, 232 references were initially identified. After a detailed review of texts and illustrations, each project in a different urban context was isolated as a single study item. When further information was needed for the analysis, it was collected from the websites of designers, consultants or commissioners. At the end of the process, 182 references constituted the first version of the inventory as presented in the dataset (10.5281/zenodo.4646959).

Each item in the dataset identifies an urban coolspot located in a different environment with spatiotemporal data (GPS coordinates, address, city, country, construction year), design actors (designers, specialist consultants, sponsors), urban context (compact/dense city, suburbs, city, or cultural parks) and the urban cooling technique applied. These facts were complemented by a description of the project and its architectural illustrations: technical drawings (plans and sections), published and descriptive photographs (space, materials, construction, events or ordinary situations).

Data analysis procedures

Descriptive statistical analysis

A statistical analysis aimed at describing the inventory and delineating the definition of an urban coolspot: the urban context, the actors involved, and the cooling techniques applied.

Qualitative data analysis and theory inference

The inventory forms the foundation for a constructivist approach to grounded theory [START_REF] Corbin | Basics of Qualitative Research: Techniques and Procedures for Developing Grounded Theory[END_REF], through qualitative data analysis and variable coding (della Porta 2008), with the intention of inferring general trends and theories [START_REF] Charmaz | Grounded Theory: Methodology and Theory Construction[END_REF].

This procedure was assisted by MaxQDA ® and R statistics.

The steps for the qualitative data analysis (QDA) process were as follows:

(1) Open coding: selecting key terms in cooling strategies, spatial layout and potential activities through the projects' textual descriptions and illustrations;

(2) Restating key elements: reviewing selected texts and illustrations to identify repeated characteristics and singularities;

(3) Reducing elements: codes were accumulated and reduced to avoid redundancies.

-8 -(4) Generating categories: codes were grouped by themes to develop categories and, where possible, codes were organized in gradual scales;

(5) Linking categories: links were made between the categories, based on theories of urban and architectural design, urban atmospheres and thermal perception, to enhance the strength of the framework.

Steps one to five were conducted by two researchers trained in architecture and urban planning. As a result, the coding scheme explained above was created and implemented consistently throughout the inventory content.

Microclimate coding description. The physical aspects that can be observed in the projects' illustrations and texts are classified according to four categories: (1) urban cooling strategy, (2) heat transfer approach, (3) potential use of resources (energy & water), and

(4) area of influence of the microclimatic effect appraised in photographs compared with its surface. Table 2 presents a detailed definition of the coding categories.

Codes Sub-codes Description Urban cooling strategies

Blue Water-based approaches: stagnant, in storage or circulation.

Green

Approaches using diverse forms of vegetation integrated with the design.

White

Approaches based on the formal characteristics of the design favouring shade and wind currents as cooling effects.

Grey

Material and technology-based approaches: they influence the albedo of surfaces, their ability to absorb water or their surface temperature. Heat transfer approaches Conduction Cooling effect produced by heat transfer when directly in contact with a cooler element. Convection Cool feeling created when the body comes into contact with cooler moving air. Evaporation Cooling effect by reducing surrounding air temperature or surface heat dissipation when a liquid changes its state to a gaseous one.

Radiation (shading)

Cooling produced by masking shortwave solar radiation transmission.

Radiation (absorption)

Cooling effect created by heat dissipation through shortwave radiation to a cooler element.

Potential use of resources (energy & water)

Active

Energy-demanding devices. Passive Zero-energy devices. Area of influence of the microclimate effect (compared with the device surface)

Diffused

Area of influence diffused far from the device's surface.

Expanded

Area of influence expanded to the device's immediate environment.

Restricted

Area of influence restricted to the device's surface.

Localized

Area of influence located at a spot within the device.

Table 2. Microclimate coding structure and description.

-9 -Spatial coding description. The climate-relevant spatial aspects of public space design are classified according to four categories (see Table 3). The categorization (1) of the design scale, the (2) spatial identification and the (3) prevailing material appearance for each urban coolspot was achieved through the analysis of illustrations. The project's textual descriptions and plans contributed to characterizing the (4) temporality of the design. Devices as an open construction enclosed on at least three sides.

Closed

Device is in the form of a closed space limiting the area of influence of the microclimatic effect.

Prevailing material appearance

Artificial/Mineral Mainly traditional manufactured materials: metal, stone, concrete, plastics, wood. Vegetation (manufactured) Artificial space integrating vegetal plantations. Vegetation (free) Vegetal space with free-growing vegetation.

Temporality of the design

Permanent

Long-term design.

Ephemeral

Reversible device installed in the urban space for a finite time.

Table 3. Spatial coding structure and description.

Citizens' experience coding description. The activity range and the bodily engagement presented in photographs is classified according to four categories: the definition of the (1) diversity of activities, (2) the spatial kinetics, and (3) the responsiveness through design as observed in architectural illustrations. A theory-driven approach contributed to hypothesizing (4) citizens' perceptual gradient and the apparent conditions of the designed climate in the public space. The typology applied in this paper was inspired by [START_REF] Torgue | Immersion et émergence : qualités et significations des formes sonores urbaines[END_REF]

Typology Construction Process

This paper presents a typological approach that aims to elucidate how the singular characteristics of each project can be related to the global picture of public space design in the face of rising temperatures. Frequently adopted in social sciences when no theoretical model explains the parameters of each possible type [START_REF] Henry | Clustering Methods with Qualitative Data: A Mixed-Methods Approach for Prevention Research with Small Samples[END_REF], a typological approach contributes to knowledge in public space design. This has been achieved by defining the set of common attributes that characterizes ongoing design trends, as shown in urban design media.

A typology is the result of a clustering process in which all elements within a type or cluster are as similar as possible, while the differences between the latter must be as strong as possible. Based on the analysis of occurrences of qualitative attributes in the same project, MaxQDA® was used to infer an early typology through unsupervised learning --11 -also called clustering in statistics. The measure of similarity between the coded projects was analyzed by applying the coefficient of Kuckartz & Rädikers (2019): codes in two or more documents were counted twice, whereas the non-repetition of the same codes was counted once. The early results were evaluated and discussed by analysis of a tree diagram and visual inspection of the projects' thumbnails of each category. This allowed the sensitivity of the model to the qualitative attributes to be refined. In other words, the attributes avoiding a clear differentiation between types were filtered - mostly because they did not contribute to differentiation of types.

Delineating urban coolspots through urban design media

Urban context analysis

The inventory consists of 182 references from 33 countries around the world. As Table 5 reveals, the research method has led to a geographic distribution in which 161 out of 182 coolspots are in Western Europe, North America and Southern Europe. Half of the projects are located between latitude 40.5° and 49.0° - from Madrid or New York (southern limit) to Paris or Nuremberg (northern limit). The use of languages of Indo-European origin for research (English, French, Spanish) introduces a significant bias that needs further research to refine a global picture. For instance, the presence of only 16 references in Eastern and South-eastern Asia, a region heavily urbanized and with high-income populations, could be underestimated.

In the context of Europe and North America, this finding provides evidence for the hypothesis that urban coolspots, as presented in urban design media, are relatively specific to mid-latitude cities in wealthy countries. -12 -Analysis of the published projects' cities shows that this phenomenon tends to be limited to big cities and metropolises. Table 6 shows that 101 projects appear in urban agglomerations, with populations between 500,000 and 10 million people. Influenced by the global competition in urban attractiveness, big cities seem to allocate more resources to creating attractive public spaces that are more resilient to rising temperatures. This finding could also be explained by a general bias of urban design literature towards big-city projects.

Urban fabric

Main actors in urban cooling

The diversity of designers of urban coolspots

In accordance with the inherently interdisciplinary nature of urban design (Carmona -13 -2014), the inventory shows nine types of designer profiles working alone or in collaboration in the design of urban coolspots; still, as luvial, JML, The Fountain Workshop). Although these 6 specialist firms emerge as leaders in the field as presented in urban design media, another 25 specialists have been identified through the inventory references, so the high visibility of the 6 outstanding firms could also be explained by self-promotion.

Commissioners of Urban Coolspots

The results presented in Table 9 show that 124 out 182 commissions come from public developers or cultural institutions. Private companies or semi-public companies, in charge of 41 projects, concentrate their activities on the scale of temporary installations or pavilions, occasionally moving towards permanent intervention in public space, depending on urban development policies in each country.

A wide range of urban cooling techniques

Throughout the data collection process, 54 different combinations of urban cooling techniques were found. Although they are not always specified in design magazines, additional documentary research provided this study with at least the range of techniques used for further categorization. Table 10 presents the independent use of the 20 techniques that were identified.

The blue approach (water-based), using water for cooling, whether or not combined with other approaches, was applied in 143 out of 182 projects. The white approach, referring to the formal characteristics of the design, is also widely employed (56 out of 182 projects), specifically regarding shadow creation. The grey approach, concerning the properties of the materials or systems, applies to 31 projects. Lastly, the green approach, utilizing plants in various forms, watered or not, applies to 29 projects. The predominance of water-based techniques for local public space cooling is consistent with other studies analysing their cooling potential [START_REF] Santamouris | Passive and Active Cooling for the Outdoor Built Environment -Analysis and Assessment of the Cooling Potential of Mitigation Technologies Using Performance Data from 220 Large Scale Projects[END_REF]. Blue approaches, when the local climate is dry, lead to a mean peak air temperature drop of 4.5 °C, whereas grey, green and white approaches remain less efficient (air temperature drop by 1.3-1.7 °C). This study also highlights the fact that the combination of approaches, as it prevails in the inventory content, leads to a higher cooling potential.

From the wider perspective of carbon-free public space design, urban cooling globally remains an energy-dependent or water-dependent design practice. A total of 143 out of 182 projects in the inventory consume energy or water resources in different ways and intensities. Specifically, blue and grey techniques are the most resource-dependent. Only 38 devices are described as passive during the occupancy phase, and they are primarily based on green and white techniques. An alternative explanation for the reduced number of projects using green techniques could be found in the difficulties for plant growth in dense urban areas, as previously explained (see Urban context analysis).

An early typology of urban coolspots as spatio-climatic configurations through urban design media

The typological study of the inventory produces an early typology structured into 4 types and covers 165 projects out of 182 (see Figure 1). The remaining 17 projects were judged as too singular for integration into other categories. Typologies can be consulted in the dataset (10.5281/zenodo.4646959).

Microclimatic plazas

A major part of the inventory's references lies in this category (73 projects). From the perspective of the spatio-climatic configuration, microclimatic plazas are public open spaces of medium or large size in which the presence of cooling techniques remains visually discreet. The technical systems integrate the spatial layout of the public space that reveals their presence through subtle changes in flooring textures or materials. In this regard, plazas are mainly permanent public spaces (64 cases), with the exception of a few ephemeral approaches (9 cases) that involve mineral and massive materials combined with dynamic water elements. Occasionally they involve shading from trees or canopies.

From the perspective of the microclimate experience, plazas create background effects disseminated throughout the space. The imbrication of space and climate seems to be indissoluble from the atmosphere of the public space that is presented. Design magazines show plazas as multifunctional or flexible areas that host different everyday activities (e.g. sitting, strolling, passing through) and events.

In more general terms, microclimatic plazas enhance the thermal regulation purpose of traditional plazas and pocket squares [START_REF] Heschong | Thermal Delight in Architecture[END_REF]. As a complement to them, the emergence of microclimatic plazas can be explained by both environmental and socioeconomic factors, such as the climate constraints imposed by inherited urban forms originally designed for sunlight accessibility [START_REF] Foshag | Viability of Public Spaces in Cities under Increasing Heat: A Transdisciplinary Approach[END_REF] Four major setups have been identified within this category:

• Flexible floors (29 cases) integrate the cooling sources in the floor of the public space. The horizontal surface is designed as a continuous topography in which cooling sources can be positioned at individual points or distributed throughout the space. Through the use of techniques such as dry fountains, misting nozzles, or waterjets, they appear to be designed for functional reversibility.

• Water mirrors (27 cases) are presented as horizontal surfaces with a subtle ground socket of a few centimetres' depth, allowing the presence of water. Water characterizes the space both visually, with the effect of reflection on the water, and thermally, with the presence of fresh water, jets and misting. Although their uses and activities are flexible, the device seems designed with an almost permanent presence of water.

• Artificial gardens (12 cases) develop varied climate zones by combining water with other cooling techniques - frequently shading with greening. They also combine permanent and temporal approaches that transform the space throughout the seasons - for instance, integrating collapsible structures for shading.

• Roofs (5 cases) appear, such as canopies covering a high proportion of the surface of the public space. Shading is their main thermal effect, even if some cases also include water-based strategies. They involve major interventions achieved through ephemeral or permanent approaches.

Climatic capsules

A small part of the inventory's references lies in this category (31 projects). From the perspective of the spatio-climatic configuration, climatic capsules are mostly small spaces that envelop the pedestrians and immerse them in a microclimate effect circumscribed by the limits of the space. They are ephemeral installations (24 projects) rather than permanent ones (7 projects). Built with light materials, climatic capsules appear as covered spaces with a perimetric enclosure, sometimes even façades, which pedestrians can access only through entrances. They combine diverse cooling strategies: blue (misting nozzles), green (green walls, suspended plants), grey (fans, cooling surfaces, insulation materials) and white (canopies, wind towers).

From the perspective of the microclimate experience, climatic capsules create situations of contrast between the surrounding environment and the interior of the space, like a fresh break in the public space. They create microclimate events, possibly as part of large microclimate sequences of an urban path, that create a sensory disruption in the citizens' experience of the public space. Climatic capsules are specialized structures for individuals or small groups, often for a finite time. They seem to enhance experiences of the public space at various points, which can be either activity-oriented (e.g. cultural, commercial) or non-functional experiences (e.g. urban rest areas).

In more general terms, climatic capsules recall the landscaping perspective of the pavilion or garden "follies" and introduce a climatic dimension to it, sometimes to create pleasant situations, sometimes shelter. This type contributes to the construction of the thermal representation of the city structured in nodes, paths and edges, which enrich to the visual structure of the city [START_REF] Lynch | The Image of the City[END_REF]. • Vessels (12 cases) are ephemeral installations effecting a total disconnection from the outdoor environment. They are light constructions that envelop the pedestrians, isolating them and simultaneously promoting a fresher atmosphere inside.

Entrances to the device are at various points.

• Tunnels (4 cases) are a variation of the previous group. They emerge as linear tents allowing routes through the urban space with regulated climate conditions.

Climatic stage settings

Only 30 projects out of 182 references of the inventory lie in this category. From the perspective of the spatio-climatic configuration, climatic stage settings create dynamic visual and thermal setups that appear as theatrical effects in the public space depending on temporal or activity patterns. They are usually materialized by small sources, or sources at various points, integrated into the shape or materials of the public space, but they can also be created by more prominent temporary structures. Their flexibility is further enhanced by the exclusive use of water-based techniques (e.g. misting nozzles, popjet fountains, dripping water features). Climatic stage settings are mainly ephemeral installations (25 projects) even if few permanent designs also coexist in the inventory content (7 projects).

From the perspective of the microclimate experience, climatic stage settings can produce two kinds of perceptual gradients: background microclimates covering a large area or event microclimates targeted at the citizen's body. Photographs present them as flexible public spaces for mainly dynamic activities.

In more general terms, climatic stage settings appear as an urban staging approach to the public space, in which climate effects prevail over material ones. The space becomes the canvas for collective or individual intangible climatic effects that are spontaneously recognizable by citizens. -20 -Two subgroups have been identified within this type:

• Clouds (21 projects) link climate and visual effects through the creation of a mist moving along a surface larger than the urban coolspot itself. Integrated into floors, roofs or other structures, they involve expansive climate effects created through water-misting techniques. The devices' formal presence, limits and temporality vary according to the weather (wind, relative humidity, air temperature) and the neighbouring urban forms. Clouds mainly involve ephemeral installations in the public space, yet some permanent ones also adopt this approach. From the perspective of the microclimate experience, cooling street furniture creates event gradients that contrast with their environment and whose area of influence is limited to the device's footprint. Their presence in the public space creates an opportunity for interaction that attracts individuals and concentrates people around them. Designed mainly for sitting or standing postures, most of these designs propose an almost monofunctional use.

In more general terms, this type emerges as a renewal of street furniture in the context of rising temperatures. Based on the consideration of the city as a whole, street furniture -21 -contributes to the thermal experience of the city with a body-scale climatic approach.

Urban cooling techniques integrate street furniture in meeting the challenge of increasing comfort whilst creating a strong identity and a qualitative perception of the public space. Two subgroups have been identified within this type:

• Canopies (20 cases) are stand-alone structures that cover a small area in the public space. They can emerge from the ground or be superimposed on it. The shaded zone can be a covered free-use space, in which the visual and thermal qualities of the zone act as an attractor for pedestrians' dynamic activities; it can also be partially occupied by a platform that allows more calm and static activities. Both vegetal and artificial canopies can enhance the shading and cooling effect with other complementary approaches - e.g. misting, contact cooling, forced-air ventilation. Canopies are usually presented as sculptural lightweight structures in the public space.

• Platforms (11 cases) are devices placed on the floor of the public space used. Integrated in the general design, they emerge either as salient artefacts or as delicately posed objects. In other cases, they appear as a superimposed structure contrasting with the initial design of the public space. They combine the visual and haptic dimensions intrinsic to urban cooling furniture with the production of climate conditions that influence the activities nearby or on the device. Most platforms use water-based techniques (misting, watercourses and bodies of water) to cool down the atmosphere. Therefore, their effects can be slightly diffused around the device itself.

Conclusions

In the context of adaptation strategies for rising temperatures, the design of thermally sensitive public spaces becomes crucial to preserving their liveability in hot periods. This paper puts the focus on urban coolspots, considered here as spatio-climatic devices specific to summer that intertwine both the spatial and the climatic dimensions of public spaces in the design process. Through the study of an inventory of urban coolspots as presented in urban design media, this paper explores the hypothesis that the media contribute to disseminating knowledge on adaptation strategies, and by doing so they delineate a subfield of climatic urban design. This process can be a complementary approach to design guidelines for inspiring the design of thermally sensitive climatic public spaces.

According to the descriptive statistical analysis of the inventory's content, design media provide a distinctive perspective on urban coolspots. Four main features compose this image:

• Urban coolspots appear as adaptation strategies suitable for mid-latitude cities and their socioeconomic contexts [START_REF] Foshag | Viability of Public Spaces in Cities under Increasing Heat: A Transdisciplinary Approach[END_REF], in which urban coolspots become tactical interventions to mitigate pedestrians' heat stress [START_REF] Kluck | Climate Resilient Urban Retrofit at Street Level[END_REF]. The design media present them as public facilities, funded by public or semi-public institutions, usually located in city centres or activity districts, to help urban attractiveness policies.

• Urban coolspot design appears as an emerging specialist field for a small group of designers, who can be principal designers or consultants collaborating with a large panel of generalist designers (e.g. architects, urbanists, landscape designers).

Their increasing prominence in a field of overlapping disciplines like urban design [START_REF] Cozzolino | What Is Urban Design? A Proposal for a Common Understanding[END_REF]) reveals a process of skill renewal in design practice.

• Urban coolspot design combines a diversity of approaches to urban cooling tech- The study of the inventory presented in this paper reveals that urban coolspots are presented in media from a panoramic perspective that syntheses the complexity of the design process and contextualizes climate adaptation strategies. They complete the approach of climate design guidelines which, from a structured approach, present the parts and criteria that are helpful for the design process, including visual guidelines that implement the spatial translation of the scientific information [START_REF] Cortesão | Visual Guidelines for Climate-Responsive Urban Design[END_REF]. This paper develops an inductive typological approach to characterizing the spatio-climatic approaches promoted by the media when publishing urban coolspot projects. By moving beyond the case-by-case approach media, this typology contributes to understanding the design trends of urban coolspots and, more specifically, clarifies the constructs of a contemporary "aesthetic of freshness" in public space as presented in the media.

A typology of four types of urban coolspots results from the inductive approach of this paper. Two of these types (microclimatic plazas and cooling street furniture) appear as a thermally sensitive renewal of already existing urban devices. The third type (climatic capsules) recalls the landscape approach of pavilions and garden "follies" to produce a fresh area to take a break from the urban heat islands. The fourth type (climatic stage settings) concerns urban climate staging techniques to modify the perception of the public space.

Directions for future research involve opening up this first version of the inventory to external contributions. On the one hand, the inventory research should be expanded to other geographical areas (e.g. Asia, South America) or professional media underrepresented here (e.g. fountain design, engineering). Alternatively, by addressing the collection and the qualitative coding processes through the perspective of a participative network, the evaluations could be enriched by various experts: a process that could minimize analytical biases and structure a new survey of urban cooling design practices.

  to national and local ones (e.g. Osmond and Sharifi 2017; Ruefenacht and Acero 2017; Mairie de Paris 2018).

  , the difficulty of planting -17 -trees, or the intensification of the urban experience through multifunctional open public spaces (Stanislav and Chin 2019).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Distribution of the inventory's reference types and subtypes: (1) Microclimatic plazas; (2) Climatic capsules; (3) Climatic stage settings; (4) Cooling street furniture; and (5) Non-classed items.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Examples of climatic capsules: (a) tents; (b) vessels; and (c) tunnels.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Examples of climatic stage settings: (a) clouds; and (b) pop-ups.

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Examples of cooling street furniture: (a) canopies; and (b) platforms.

  niques. While guidelines present a material categorization of urban cooling techniques in which vegetation-based techniques are central, the inventory analysis shows 54 strategies merging 20 cooling techniques, with a prevalence of waterbased techniques. This result echoes previous work on the necessity of mixing techniques to achieve a more efficient and resilient strategy (Santamouris et al.2017).• Urban coolspots are strongly dependent on urban accessibility to resources for locally cooling down the public space. Mainly located in dense urban fabric with difficult conditions for vegetation-based strategies[START_REF] Czaja | The Complex Issue of Urban Trees-Stress Factor Accumulation and Ecological Service Possibilities[END_REF], urban coolspots appear as "soft adaptation strategies" (Martinez-Juarez et al. 2019), creating intermediate scenarios towards the ideal of green and sustainable cities.

Type of source Name Source's scope Query description Architecture, ur- ban and landscape design periodicals published on pa- per

	A+T	Spanish/ww	Search period 2005-
			2020
	Domus	Worldwide	Search period 2002-
			2020
	Journal of Landscape Architecture	Worldwide	Search period 2006-
			2020
	L'Architecture d'Aujourd'hui	French/ww	Search period 2002-
			2020
	Urban Design Journal	Worldwide	Search period 2002-
			2020
	Revue Urbanisme	French	Search period 2014-
			2020
	Design

awards in architecture, ur- ban design and landscape archi- tecture

	Architecture and	Young Architects Programme	Worldwide	Search period 2002-
	urban design pro-	MOMA PS1 (New York)		2019
	grammes	Young Architects Programme	Worldwide	Search period 2011-
		Maxxi (Rome)		2020
	Online
		European Prize for Urban Public	European	Search period 2002-
		Space		2020
		European Union Prize for Contem-	European	Search period 2005-
		porary Architecture Mies van der		2020
		Rohe Award
		LILA -Landezine International	Worldwide	Search period 2016-
		Landscape Award		2020
		Urban Land Institute's Urban Open	American	Search period 2010-
		Space Award		2020

journals & platforms in archi- tecture, urban de- sign and landscape architecture

		Archdaily	Worldwide	Boolean query "public
		Dezeen	Worldwide	space OR urban" AND
		Landezine	Worldwide	"cooling OR oasis OR
		Metropolis	Worldwide	cool spot"
		Topos Magazine	Worldwide
	Search engines	Google	Worldwide	Boolean query "public
		DuckDuckGo	Worldwide	space OR urban" AND
				"cooling OR oasis OR
				cool spot"
		Pinterest	Worldwide	Reiterative random
		Google Images	Worldwide	search starting with
				previous word chains.

Table 1 .

 1 Inventory data sources

Table 4 .

 4 Coding structure and description for citizens' experience.

	morphological principles for urban atmospheres (backgrounds, located
	sequences and signals) and Popovic's (2017) typology of climate stimuli at body level
	(microclimate islands, bands of climate atmospheres and thermally striking climates). A
	detailed definition of these coding categories is presented in Table 4.
	Codes	Sub-codes	Description
	Diversity of activities	Mono-functional	Device photographs show people in only one activity.
		Multifunctional	Device photographs present people in a variety of
			uses without showing fully reversible situation.
		Flexible	Device photographs present a fully reversible situa-
			tion in which the device can appear and disappear
			from the space.
	Spatial kinetics	Seating	Device photographs show people sitting.

Table 5 .

 5 Project distribution across world regions.

	World region	No. of projects
	Western Europe	96
	Northern America	27
	Southern Europe	25
	Eastern Asia	12
	Northern Europe	7
	South-eastern Asia	4
	Eastern Europe	4
	Western Asia	3
	Oceania	3
	Latin America	1

Table 6 .

 6 Distribution of the projects' city sizeAmongst the three categories proposed in Table7

	No. of projects

49

Table

7

, 120 out of 182 projects are located in compact/dense urban fabric, mostly close to the city centre. Less often, they are located in cultural parks or commercial activity areas in which the urban coolspot helps to diversify cooling situations and amenities. This result confirms three main trends: (1) urban coolspots appear as activity attractors in the city, to strengthen existing nodes or create new ones; (2) urban coolspots appear as design solutions in areas where plant growth conditions are limited due to soil compaction or limited space for root growth

[START_REF] Czaja | The Complex Issue of Urban Trees-Stress Factor Accumulation and Ecological Service Possibilities[END_REF]

; (3) decision-makers and designers' awareness of the necessity of prioritizing urban coolspots in densely urbanized areas more sensitive to urban heat islands

[START_REF] Stewart | Local Climate Zones for Urban Temperature Studies[END_REF]

.

Table 7 .

 7 Distribution of the projects' urban contexts.

Table 8 .

 8 Table 8 presents, 143 out of 182 projects were designed by architects or landscape architects. In 61 cases, the designers operated in interdisciplinary teams, combining architects and landscape architects (20 out of 182), Distribution of project designers.

	engineers and designers (7 out of 182), architects and artists, or designers (10 out of 182),
	architects and urban planners (6 out of 182), or urban planners and landscape architects
	(6 out of 182).
	Type of professional	No. of projects 2
	Architects	88
	Landscape architects	55
	Engineers	20
	Artists	19
	Designers	17
	Urban planners	8
	Fountain designers	8
	Researchers	5
	Stage designers	2

For generalist urban practitioners such as architects, landscape architects or engineers, urban cooling has become a prerequisite for dealing with climate change adaptation strategies. Only 79 projects out of 182 report the contribution of specialist consultants in outdoor space comfort or urban cooling; amongst them, just 6 consultants/designers appear in 38 projects. Urban cooling skills are handled by a few professionals specializing in outdoor space comfort (e.g. Transolar KlimaEngineering, Breathe Earth Collective, Philippe Rahm Architects) or urban cooling techniques, such as fountain design (e.g. Di-

Table 9 .

 9 Distribution of project commissioners.

	Type of commissioner	No. of projects
	Public planners	92
	Cultural organization	32
	Private companies	28
	Mixed economy companies	13
	N/A	17

Table 10 .

 10 Urban cooling approaches and techniques implemented in the inventory.

	Thermal insulation	1

Table 11 .

 11 Distribution of the inventory's reference types and subtypes.

	Figure 1. Distribution of the inventory's reference types and subtypes: (1) Microclimatic plazas; (2) Cli-
	matic capsules; (3) Climatic stage settings; (4) Cooling street furniture; and (5) Non-classed items.
	Type	Subtype	No. of
			items
	Microclimatic plazas	Flexible floors	29
		Water mirrors	27
		Artificial gardens	12
		Roofs	5
	Climatic capsules	Tents	15
		Vessels	12
		Tunnels	4
	Climatic stage settings	Clouds	21
		Pop-ups	9
	Cooling street furniture	Canopies	20
		Platforms	11
	Non-classed items		17
	Total		182

•

  Pop-ups (9 projects) introduce urban surprises in which technical devices are built within other regular urban objects; thus, they go almost unnoticed from a visual perspective. They create a localized climate event directly applied to the citizen's body, like a "bit of freshness". They act on the citizen's thermal perception by using individual and focused techniques such as misting nozzles or waterjets. Popups can involve both automatic activation or a direct form of interaction, including activation by the pedestrian's action or presence.

	Cooling street furniture
	A total of 31 projects out of 182 lie in this category. From the perspective of the spatio-
	climatic configuration, cooling street furniture involves the engagement of pedestrians'
	bodies with the device. They appear as micro or small interventions, presented as open or
	semi-closed structures, with remarkable visual presence in the public space. They can be
	either permanent or ephemeral installations, materialized by hybridizing greenery with
	construction materials. Cooling street furniture modifies pedestrians' thermal perceptions
	by combining the use of white techniques for reducing solar radiation (canopies, vegetal
	structures) or water-based techniques (misting) with grey (cooled surfaces, moistened
	fabrics, forced-air ventilation) or green (green walls) techniques.

Note that projects can involve several type of professionals recognized as principal designers.

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the French National Research Agency (ANR) under reference ANR-18-CE22-0003 (COOLSCAPES project). The authors would like to thank Sophie Provost and

Type of approach

No. of projects 3 Note that projects can combine several approaches, using various urban cooling techniques.

-24 -


Svetlana Radtchenko-Draillard

Actual and Potential Prospects for the Application of the Negotiation in Companies in the Age of Digitalization

Keywords: digitalization, negotiation, decision-making, management style, agreements

The purpose of my article is to analyze from the point of view of psychology the prospects of optimizing the modelling of private, public and semi-public business companies in the age of digitalization. In defining the main axes of modern business management practices, I believe that the effectiveness of the evolution of the business of companies and its managers requires the use of negotiation (social, interpersonal and trade). The results obtained in my theoretical and empirical research confirm the need for the application of negotiations in these activity in the era of digitalization.

Introduction

The widespread use of digital technology in companies includes the intensive adoption of new information and communication technologies, dematerialization on the part of the production process and it also calls into question the organization and their workings of these companies, as well as the trades, the working and management methods, the daily lives of their employees. This result is potentially a profound transformation of the company itself that affects all of its operations and management processes. From my point of view, negotiation can be effectively used in two simultaneous processes: in the digitization processes (during the increasing use of digital technologies to connect people, systems and products and services) and in the process of digitalization (the way in which many areas of employee interpersonal and social life are restructured around the company's digital communication infrastructure). I also believe that new technologies, the digitalization of the world, industrial, economic and political powers, increasingly efficient technological systems where our interpersonal relationships are also affected by a growing quest for success.

In this sense, ever-increasing and perpetually unsatisfactory generate new activities, new behaviours, new ways of desire, of being in the world, and of forming modern human society. In these circumstances the profound change in the functioning of companies, negotiation with these two main modes (social and commercial) plays an indispensable and essential role. It should be remembered that negotiation is a decision-making process by which people tend to find a common agreement instead of acting unilaterally. It is a formidable summary of social activity with its cooperative (integrative) and conflicting (competitive) intertwined dimensions. In this context, the main objective of social and interpersonal negotiations in the age of digitalization is to preserve human relations, improve working conditions, take into account the heterogeneity of employees' knowledge in order to adapt to these transformations. During these negotiations, the agreement must be based on two main convictions: firstly, digital technology must remain a tool; secondly, the legitimate and necessary right to disconnect must be considered insufficient because it aims to limit the effects induced by the excessive or uncontrolled use of digital tools instead of addressing the precise causes (e.g. individual behaviour of persons, organisation of work, lack of training or evaluation of staff usage, incentive to respond to professional e-mail at undue hours, etc.). It is therefore possible to approach the real and potential situation in a positive way as an opportunity for the social partners and managers to build a standard more adapted to the concrete company. This is an important problem for trade unions, co-owners and professional associations and their future depends on it and the training of their members. On the other hand, there is also the role of commercial negotiation which concerns all the steps to conclude immediately or in the future, a contract (deed of sale, contract, "deal", order, "transaction", etc.) binding two or more parties. This contract always includes a supply (of goods or services) and a consideration, usually in monetary form. The development of a commercial negotiation strategy leads the negotiator (seller and buyer, intermediary) to set certain major axes in the conduct of his action. These axes correspond to "strategic orientations" (sometimes referred to as "generic" by reference to management models). Finally, the objective of my article is to analyze the consequences of the modernization of societies in the era of digitalization with the help of the involvement of negotiations (social, interpersonal and trade) and their role on the human factor and people's professional activities.

The psychological peculiarities of work organisation and the role of social and interpersonal negotiation in modernising businesses the era of digitalization

Digitalization reflects the intrusion of information and communication technologies (ICT) not only in industrial, economic or financial production processes, but also in all trials of the company's human activity. ICT facilitates the implementation of quality approaches within companies through the intra-organizational communication system between employees. Digital technology is part of all the company's activities. On this occasion, some precautionary principles must be put forward: a) question the place and articulation of digital tools with other modes of communication; b) maintain a balanced position between unconditional adoption of digital technology or, conversely, refusal to enter digital transformation. In addition, three major risks can be identified: 1) the digital divide, 2) the balance and porosity of work and personal life, 3) personal data: the management of salaried data must be the subject of great vigilance transparency in their use. In order to minimise these risks, I thinks that the necessary commitments must be made by companies: 1) give the necessary time for training, taking into account the specific needs and capabilities of each employee in his mastery of digital technology; 2) prevent the risks of drift due to the vast possibilities of processing digital tools made available by the company and which could concern the control of the activity of employees. As a result, digital technology opens up new ways of working, including working remotely -carrying out an activity on a deported, home or mobile site-workspaces become multiple. Add to this the fact that the automation of the means of production and the digitization of information processing generate massive movements of reallocation of labour according to the sectors of activity, the qualifications professional locations.

The organization of work, the content of tasks, and the status of workers are undergoing profound transformations. The design and layout of workspaces are therefore becoming more strategic and managerial tools in this vector of change than ever before. It should be added that the manager, in the digital age, must focus his role on communication, cooperation, and coordination of work with his hierarchy and his subordinates. Of course, he must emphasize "human intelligence and solidarity"; contribute to the "well-being" of his team by creating a "positive" environment and setting clear and achievable goals. The manager must also be exemplary in his use of digital tools and the collective management of them. The combination of automation and digitization promotes the creation of highly competitive and scalable ways of organising work. From a psychological point of view these developments can generate stress and suffering at work, either as a result of increased responsibilities or because of the continuing threat of surveillance. Another trend is task fragmentation, which can be pushed to extreme degrees, as illustrated by the development of crowdworking infrastructure. The actors of prevention -psychologists, physicians and occupational health and social services professionals must be present in order to control extreme uses and to be able to identify them, assess individual risks (on a voluntary basis of a particular employee, a manager, the team leader or company, etc.) in a quantitative way (in particular, analysis of email volume, use of instant messaging, corporate social network, etc.) and qualitatively (in particular, setting up interviews, analytical psychotherapy sessions to analyze potential conflicts, stress or the probable appearance of burnout, etc.).

It should be added that the approaches of ergonomic psychology and occupational psychology note that the pace of work, punctuated by the requirements of the digital environment (in particular, speed, volume, variability of information, etc.) leads to an intensification of the different approaches to the treatment of professional tasks for employees; leads to cognitive overload and loss of energy in peripheral tasks that are often at the heart of different professions and trades. Concretely, there are about twenty digital tools or applications mobilized for employees in companies. Thus, the application of social and interpersonal negotiation must solve several problems, human, technical and organizational, arising from productive action. The agreement signed at the end of this negotiation will become a decision-making judgment; it will deal with the essential rules of management. Therefore, these negotiated rules are as many principles that guide this common action as they are constraints that channel it. For Druckman and Wagner (2021) '' The examination of the literature reveals that such variables as whether the setting is official or unofficial, whether the negotiators have an egalitarian or meritorious orientation, how the negotiating parties have defined the bargaining space, and whether the negotiators have shared or conflicting values will have an impact on how the issues are framed. These variables contribute to the initial stage of the negotiation, as manifested in an agenda of issues to be discussed, whether the negotiating parties have a guiding formula for their discussions, and whether the parties use more value-claiming or problem-solving behaviors " [START_REF] Druckman | The Role of Issues in Negotiation: Framing, Linking, and Ordering// Negotiation[END_REF]. In this sense [START_REF] Pruitt | Negotiation behavior[END_REF] considers that "The negotiation is directly related to "problem-solving" orientation, but also to the expectations and results of the other party, as such." [START_REF] Pruitt | Negotiation behavior[END_REF].

On this occasion, in all actual or potential negotiations, it is necessary to address issues of quality of life at work (QLW), occupational health or working conditions in order to include them in agreements with the social, corporative or associative partners. In my opinion, the objectives of the QLW agreements in social negotiation generally relate to: 1) improving the conditions and quality of work, the psychological well-being of employees, the recognition of know-how and in a context of digital transformation, they allow to accompany changes with taking into account the human impacts of transformations, etc.; 2) setting up the association of employees in the search for improvement and innovation solutions by formulating proposals to improve all the collective functioning. The themes of these negotiations that will allow negotiators (employers and union social and professional representatives, etc.) to express their views may relate to: a) professional practices; 2) work experience; 3) work organisation, working conditions and workload; 4) refining and simplifying work processes; 5) quality and sense of work; 6) collective functioning and quality of life, etc. Managerial and organizational agility can be identified during these negotiations as a source of additional workload intensification. Precisely, it involves the permanent recomposition of teams in an organization that proceeds through mutual adjustments in an ever-dynamic system, in order to obey the injunction of responsiveness. I improve that the financialization of economic activity in the age of digitization subject the interpersonal dialogue in the social negotiation to the objective of maximizing shareholder value with a deferral of risk to salaried work. Add to this the fact that the automation and robotization of the means of production and the digitization of information processing generate massive movements of reallocation of the workforce according to sectors of activity, qualifications, professional locations, etc.

Digitalization is the conversion of information from a medium or electrical signal to digital data. By looking at these different issues, I think they can be analysed at two levels: 1) that of a widespread impact of new digital technologies on work; 2) that of specific modes of activity that are associated with certain forms of new production, such as digital platforms. Automation eliminates routine tasks and develops highly skilled tasks that are analytical, interactive and non-routine. But it can only partially reduce non-routine manual tasks that involve flexibility, problem solving or communication functions. These findings highlight a large margin of uncertainty. In my opinion there can be here a high probably risk of failure, burnout and aggravation, uncertainties and conflicts at the vertical level (with the hierarchy and subordinates) and at the horizontal level (with counterparts, other managers). Obvious, the combination of automation and digitization promotes the creation of highly competitive and scalable ways of organising work. These developments can generate psychological stress and suffering at work, either as a result of increased responsibilities or because of the continuing threat of surveillance.

Regarding organizational agility, I think that all managers who make a decision in a team organization, must take into account two aspects: a) the rational aspects of that decision, b) the psychological emotional aspects and character managers who is still under pressure from a third factor -time during the making of this decision. Moreover, the stimulation of positive emotions, including pleasure, through interpersonal negotiation (reel or formal-simulation) and interactive conflict solving role-playing can significantly reduce interpersonal conflict, intrapersonal discomfort, stress and burnout of employees and managers. Radtchenko-Draillard (2019) writes" In order to evaluate the effects of emotional therapeutic stimulation, analytical psychotherapy and interpersonal negotiations through the enhancement of pleasure I carried out a qualitative study (interviews) on the 119 managers (of the French companies and Foreigners located in Paris and its suburbs). "According to my analysis, 75% of male managers and 69% women managers consider that pleasure is indispensable in the prevention of burnout. In addition, for 69.8% of managers the pleasure in the work increases the motivation and makes it easier to find problem solving, 81.3% of managers compare the pleasure with the satisfaction of being responsible for those of his team, 74.3% of managers the pleasure and the positive emotions necessary for the balance of the society". [START_REF] Radtchenko-Draillard | The Impact and Prevention of Burnout of Psychic Activity and Nervous and Immune Systems[END_REF] In order to facilitate social and interpersonal negotiations (between employers and social professional organizations, etc.), different computer software can be used, including business process management (BPM), which brings together the business processes and computer models of a company. It should be noted that BPM is a tool for optimizing the productivity of the company that includes: 1. objectives, 2. readings of the needs of the company in order to define the activities of the different professions of managers within the company, 3. modelling of business processes that to hire, remunerate or move managers in the company, 4. management and optimizationoptimize the business processes of managers and apply these optimizations according to the company objectives. In addition, the local manager appears here in the negotiated agreement as a fundamental element, a pillar of the success of the digital transition. Thus, negotiating means methodically managing a disagreement, so that the parties agree on rules, which then leave their preference status (each of the parties deems desirable a certain type of regulation, which it deems to be congruence with its to become a reference (i.e. a collective norm, adopted during an argumentative confrontation, and sketched in the form of a compromise). I have also found in the course of my research that in effective negotiation the link between the originality of solutions and the productivity of the motivation of negotiators can stimulate the emergence of the mechanism of "optimum creativity" that comes at a crucial time for the negotiation process in order to promote the progress of thought and at the same time block all other negative impacts at the intrapersonal and interpersonal level of individuals, which could prevent to achieve its performance. Therefore, the resolution of problems, conflicts and obstacles thus defined is called a joint settlement of the parties involved in the negotiation. This work has a dual purpose: to produce choices and to produce rules. Because an organization is not just an established whole; it is also a negotiated arrangement. In other words, it is necessary to negotiate an actual and potential organizational change. Theorizing the negotiated organization of work requires a pragmatic approach (to equip partners) and understanding (to understand current and potential goals for its development and optimization). In addition, partners' ability to mobilize and monetize the company's human resources is further amplified by the online crowdsourcing (or crowdsourcing) made possible by digital media. According to Brabham (2008) combined with crowdsourcing, social entrepreneurship can both serve the community and enable creative individuals to make a contribution "Crowdsourcing offers individuals in the crowd a chance at entrepreneurship, or at the very least an outlet for creative energy. (…). Coupled with an individualistic, libertarian mentality that seems pervasive on the web, the entrepreneurial prospects of crowdsourcing experience presumably become evident for many individuals in the crowd" [START_REF] Brabham | Crowdsourcing as a Model for Problem Solving[END_REF]. Therefore, [START_REF] Lessig | The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World[END_REF] explains "Creativity once flourished because the Net protected a commons on which widest range of innovators could experiment" [START_REF] Lessig | The Future of Ideas: The Fate of the Commons in a Connected World[END_REF]. As a result, at the time of digitization, the private, public or semi-public sector states more the characteristics of the creative societies: 1) the nature of the product, which is part of experiential goods, i.e. those whose value cannot be assessed like that of another commercial product, because they require testing before the act of purchase; 2) the nature of the production process: if production requires a large starting point to obtain a prototype that guarantees the uniqueness of the product, the costs of reproduction and distribution on the other hand are very low; 3) the nature of consumption: the prototype is never consumed, and the consumer gives value to the lived experience, not to the material form of the product; 4) the difficulty of forecasting: the value of the product on the market is very difficult to predict, creating uncertainty and requiring significant risk-taking; 5) the relationship to the consumer: each product being unique and irreplaceable, it does not compete with others in the manner of conventional consumer products. It focuses on the absorption of the individual's free time and competes with other products for time/consumer. The benefits of these creative industries have not escaped the private sector, which is doing everything possible to consolidate privileged access to Digital Rights Management (DRM) and other tools of Intellectual Proprieties (TIP) as proprietary instruments. Another issue that needs to be addressed is cultural diversity in these crowdsourcing and social entrepreneurship practices during social and interpersonal negotiations.

The specificity of trade negotiations the era of digitalization

Actually, companies' business activity is evolving on many fronts. It responds more and more to incoming requests, intervenes more and more often downstream of a route started online, is active on social networks to be initiator of a course by multichannel. Ritter and Pedersen (2019) defined a firm digital capability with the three dimensions "1) data (data generation, data transmission, data storage, data access ) the commercial value cannot be extracted from data if the firm does not generate or have access to data, and if that data is not transmitted and stored appropriately; 2)permission ( related to legislation, related to contracts, related to society : firms need permission to use data in accordance with local and international legislation; the use of data needs to be negotiated with the partners in a firm's eco-system and the data-utilization needs to pass the moral test of society and may raise ethical issues; 3)analytic (analysis, visualisation, reporting are needed to process data in order to produce insights and valuable information )" [START_REF] Ritter | Digitization capability and the digitalization of business models in business-to-business firms: Past, present[END_REF]. Digital technologies are tools for companies' relationships with their customers. With technology, some simple, value-added interactions in multichannel conversions are automated. During these interactions, trade negotiation attempt to find an acceptable agreement between two parties and also to find common ground to achieve mutual benefit. So there are two trade bargaining groups: sales negotiation and purchase negotiation. The parties therefore engage in a negotiation process that must create and find a solution that is satisfactory to both parties involved. The establishment of a diagnosis and the setting of the objectives prepare the consideration of the choices to be preferred in the panoply of implementation methods such as: scenarios; field study; alternatives and withdrawals; alternatives (options) available or to create; time modulation technical and tactical; major initiatives to be planned (and possibly prepared in advance); determination of positions (initial, or displayed position; point of resistance and rupture; realistic or risk position); preferential terms of the agreement; preparation for the future relations.

Using computer statistical software and social networks via the internet facilitates the precise determination of these strategic modalities and leads to the careful preparation of the organisational issues of commercial negotiation (training the negotiating team, choice of location and timing argument, etc.). The counterparty can take on the most diverse aspects and it often comes with very different conditions, such as deadlines, after-sales services, terms of payment, contractual obligations, etc. Although distribution is sometimes difficult to make, it is arguable that negotiation should not be confused with sales techniques. I thinks that regarding the essential strategies in relation to the company's products one can distinguish: 1) a penetration strategy (development, conquest and reconquest), 2) a strategy of maintenance or consolidation, 3) a strategy of relative interest (non-priority or partial attention, gradual disengagement, etc.). From my point of view the negotiation in the first case, the process is similar to "sales techniques" where tactical and communicational aspects dominate; in the second case, the strategic dimension takes over, in the third case the tactics of customer retention are dominant until the possible modification of the strategy or activities.

In addition, Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) provide a significant amount of information about their clients-buyers or intermediaries in order to better understand current and future needs. To effectively explore trade negotiation, it is useful to use the Customer Relationship Management (CRM) system, which is a customer relationship management tool that allows: to centralize and manage contact information. In addition to contact details of customers and prospects, CRM software can record their communication preferences, every interaction the company has had with them, their latest news, etc. Again, the CRM tool makes it possible to centralize this information in one place, which then makes it possible to share it with all teams, from salespeople to after-sales services, including marketing and communication. These information flows then become actionable business data, essential to improve your efficiency. With digital tools, it's getting easier and easier to keep an eye on these KPI (Key Performance Indicator). A multi-channel approach, which builds on the strengths of each leverage and loyalty, is essential to develop the most effective business strategy possible. But if customers and intermediaries are ready to go online to learn about offers and compare prices, it is still necessary to be wary of "all digital" sales. Indeed, buyers are often seeking human interaction in critical moments, when commercial services have a key role to play in demonstrating its added value: negotiation, impactful decision-making, etc. Face-to-face in business negotiations must therefore take place at the right time, without the customer or intermediary feeling that this approach is intrusive. The physical meeting phase during which negotiation begins also requires mutual discovery. This phase makes it possible to get to know the interlocutor, to refine or repeat what is known about him about his place in the company, his role in the decision-making process (decision-maker, prescriber, influencer, etc.), his training skills (commercial or technical, etc.). All interactions, whether digital or physical, must therefore be adapted to the expectations of customers. It is based on a good interaction with the different services of a company (legal, marketing, production, customer relations) to achieve common goals.

Currently, the efficiency of commercial execution requires increased synchronization and communication between the different departments of the company. The organization of the company can also evolve in this direction: sedentary salespeople (or internal sales) to prospect and organize appointments, field sellers to negotiate and sign contracts, Customer Account Manager (CAM) or account manager (key counts, financial benefits, etc.) to find, retain and grow customers. Digital marketing is also maturing and fuelling the pipeline of business opportunities. It should be noted that the automation of commercial tasks (prospecting, relaunch, tracking, etc.), customer information, targeted marketing operations: these new levers simplify the work of sales representatives while multiplying their strengths and create more synergies with the other departments of the company to allow them to focus on their core business: sales and purchasing. An essential digital transition will simplify the work of sales representatives and accelerate sales processes (automation of tasks, online invoicing and traceability of customer data). CAM tools with Artificial Intelligence (AI), automation marketing software based on chat (automated conversation), evaluation of the interest of prospects via rating systems are all features when they allow effective monitoring, tracing all the actions taken by the customer. The relationship will remain homogeneous from pre-sales (during commercial negotiations) to after-sales (followed by the commercial agreement). As a result, digital technology gives new capabilities to business departments: a) get to know their customers, b) very easily collect a mass of information about the profiles, backgrounds, relationships, interests of their customers and even sometimes their buying psychological habits. Thanks to digital means, commercial departments are now able to constantly track and analyze customer movements and operations (interactions, content viewed, frequency, etc.). It must be said that digital technology has redefined the distribution of roles between marketing and commerce.

Marketing is no longer limited to market research and the organization of events to facilitate the task of sales departments, it now directly supports the acquisition, qualification and activation of prospects through its conversion channels. It even acts in parallel with commercial services to attract and retain current and potential customers. Beyond reinventing their relationship with marketing, sales departments must also function for cross-functional collaboration within the company, using intra-organizational negotiations. I would add that in international trade negotiations cultural factors and stereotypes can play a key role in the outcome of a purchase or sale contract. My empirical psychological researches with 64 managers of different nationalities show that: " managers who have negative stereotypes very often choose (78%) the distributive strategic direction of the negotiation, based on the hardfought competition, unilateral argument and pressure, which they exert on the adversary in order to persuade him to accept their proposals to enter into a contract; managers with positive stereotypes often choose (82.5%) integrative strategic orientation, based on cooperation, respect for the adversary, exchanges in the development of satisfactory solutions for all and facilitating the conclusion of a contract". [START_REF] Radtchenko-Draillard | L'influence des stéréotypes nationaux sur le déroulement de la négociation internationale commerciale//Revue internationale de psychologie politique sociétale-SPPIR[END_REF][START_REF] Radtchenko-Draillard | The psychological aspects of the human factor in the economy and society at the digital era// Digital challenges for the global economy: The Eurasian Perspective and Beyond. Collection of scientific articles on the materials of the international scientific conference[END_REF] As a result, in international trade negotiations, the psychological analysis of cultural factors and specific national characteristics of partners (buyers, sellers, intermediaries) becomes absolutely essential, and the use of the necessary information on the Internet and social networks is increasingly sought after by companies. I would add that an increasing number of companies, both in the industrial, financial and service sectors, are engaged in international electronic sales. Finally, while digitalisation is important for all sectors, it is especially important for exports of more sophisticated manufactured goods and potentially digitally deliverable services.

Conclusion

The indispensable impact of digitalization in the activities of private, public and semi-public companies leads to major changes in its activities and, therefore, increases the role of real and potential negotiation to achieve them effectively. My theoretical and empirical research has shown that two diametrically different negotiations are conducted interdependently and largely during these entrepreneurial developments: social and interpersonal negotiation (which is multiple in these contexts and variable with the different participants) aims to maximize the effective intra-organizational transition of the conditions, norms and working methods of employees and managers in this reorganization, while commercial negotiation (which is very precise and strict in its operation) aims to promote extra-organizational links between companiestraders, companies -buyers and individual customers in order to increase mutual benefits under particular conditions and by intermediaries of the Internet. Therefore, social and interpersonal negotiation aims to build agreements, overcoming the contrary interests of everyone, to establish forms of collaboration on issues that could be problematic. The tasks of the evolution of social dialogue must be conditioned by the responses to three major challenges: the mastery of the interdependent movements of digitalisation and ecological transition, the control of demographic transformation and control of the risks of uncertainty in human activity. In this context, negotiation must question the willingness of men to contribute to the production of norms and instruments of economic and social regulation in the era of digitalization. On the other hand, during the trade negotiation, once the analysis of the need is carried out, the computer networks are informed about the products and services that can respond to them, and about the companies that offer them; we compare offers and collect user reviews, etc. These all affect businesses operating in national and international markets; businesses and their associations must learn how to influence such negotiations, nationally and internationally, in order to best position themselves to benefit from the evolving global trading environment. As a result of its autonomy and this increased level of demand, the company's customers now feel much more free to learn and connect with companies that it does not hesitate to "change" at the slightest dissatisfaction. This new gives the advantage of significantly shortening the sales cycle. In fact, when the consumer comes into contact with commercial services, he is already well informed and knows what interests him in the company's offer. Digital therefore acts as a facilitator of the buying process and helps to fluidize it by allowing the customer to progress continuously, at times alone, at times accompanied. But, the current circumstances and the ongoing changes in digitalization in business activities, it is still difficult to say to what extent these factors analysed can influence the levels and future forms of social, interpersonal and trade negotiations.