Tran L'

Je Remercie

Mme Patricia Gurviez

Jean-Marc Ferrandi

Mme Souad Djelassi

M Michel Simioni D'

Guillaume Duteurtre

REMERCIEMENTS

Je tenais à remercier ici toutes les personnes et les institutions, qui de près ou de loin, m'ont apporté leur appui. Je ne peux toutes les nommer.

Avant tout, je tiens à exprimer ma sincère gratitude à ma directrice de thèse Prof. Lucie SIRIEIX pour le soutien continu de mes études et recherches doctorales, pour sa patience, son inspiration, sa motivation et ses immenses connaissances. Ses conseils m'ont aidée tout au long de la recherche et de la rédaction de cette thèse. Je n'aurais pas pu imaginer avoir un meilleur conseiller et mentor pour mon doctorat.

Je tiens à remercier profondément le reste de mon comité de thèse: Florent Saucede, Gilles Serede-lanauze, Nicolas Bricas et Nguyen Thi Tan Loc pour leurs encouragements, leurs commentaires perspicaces et leurs questions difficiles

 Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 vii
ABSTRACT

The retail business in Vietnam has gone through noteworthy changes in the last few years. Despite being a predominantly agricultural country, it is forecast to be the fastest-growing market for convenience stores in Asia by 2021. Whilst most of the studies on market in Vietnam focused on individual retail choices between traditional or modern formats, some focused on consumer' shopping practices as part of their daily life. These researches, however, have not considered crossshopping, do not focus on practitioners and do not study the different dimensions of practices. The purpose of this study, therefore, is to provide a deeper understanding on urban consumers in an emerging market, their strategies in choosing between and/or combining different retail formats to buy fresh produce and the factors affecting their shopping practices. The study was conducted to provide insights into how urban Hanoians choose where to go buy vegetables and why they are doing what they are doing. Shopping and cross-shopping practices, as a result, were studied in relation to the individuals who engage in them. Individual interviews using semi-guided questions were carried out to explore, describe, and understand the shopping and cross-shopping practices of seventy-night shoppers of fresh vegetables in their everyday life. Qualitative research method was used as a key approach in developing a comprehensive understanding of food-related phenomena from the perspective of research participants. Insights into the relationships between the factors related to shopping practices and the shopping strategies, as well as the dimensions of shopping practices were explored. Social relations between actors in the market appeared to have particular characteristics that originate from the broader cultural context of Southeast Asia, its tradition of collectivism and reciprocity, and individual lifecourse events. The study proposes a framework of shopping practices in emerging markets and also provides managerial recommendations regarding retail policy and development. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 viii

RÉSUMÉ

Le commerce de détail au Vietnam a connu des changements notables ces dernières années. Bien qu'il soit un pays à prédominance agricole, il devrait être le marché à la croissance la plus rapide pour les magasins de proximité en Asie d'ici 2021. Alors que la plupart des études sur le marché au Vietnam se sont concentrées sur les choix individuels entre les formats traditionnels ou modernes, certaines études sont axées sur les pratiques d'achat des consommateurs dans le cadre de leur vie quotidienne. Ces recherches, cependant, n'ont pas envisagé le cross-shopping, ne se concentrent pas sur les individus et n'étudient pas les différentes dimensions des pratiques. Le but de cette étude est donc de fournir une compréhension plus approfondie des consommateurs urbains dans un marché émergent, de leurs stratégies de choix et / ou de combinaison de différents formats de vente au détail pour acheter des produits frais, et des facteurs affectant leurs pratiques d'achat.

L'étude a été réalisée pour fournir un aperçu de la façon dont les habitants urbains de Hanoi choisissent où acheter des légumes et pourquoi ils font ce qu'ils font. En conséquence, les pratiques de shopping et de cross-shopping ont été étudiées en relation avec les individus qui les pratiquent.

Des entretiens individuels utilisant des questions semi-ouvertes avec soixante-dix neuf participants ont été réalisés pour explorer, décrire et comprendre les pratiques de shopping et cross-shopping des acheteurs de légumes frais. La méthode de recherche qualitative a été utilisée comme approche clé pour développer une compréhension globale des phénomènes liés à l'alimentation du point de vue des participants à la recherche. Cette étude a exploré les relations entre les facteurs liés aux pratiques d'achat et les stratégies d'achat, ainsi que les dimensions des pratiques d'achat. Les relations sociales entre les acteurs du marché semblent avoir des caractéristiques particulières qui proviennent du contexte culturel plus large de l'Asie du Sud-Est, de sa tradition de collectivisme et de réciprocité, et des événements de parcours de vie individuels. L'étude propose un cadre mettant en relation les pratiques d'achat, les facteurs liés et les stratégies correspondantes dans les marchés émergents et fournit également des recommandations managériales concernant la politique et le développement du commerce de détail. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 ix

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The completion of this undertaking could have not been possible without the participation and assistance of so many people and institutions, in Vietnam and France, those I cannot all name explicitly.

Foremost, I would like to express my sincere gratitude to my advisor Prof. Lucie SIRIEIX for the continuous support of my PhD study and research, for her patience, inspiration, motivation, and immense knowledge. Her guidance helped me in all the time of research and writing of this thesis. I could not have imagined having a better advisor and mentor for my PhD study.

Besides my advisor, I would like to thank the rest of my thesis committee: Florent Saucede, Gilles Sere-de-lanauze, Nicolas Bricas, and Nguyen Thi Tan Loc for their encouragement, insightful comments, and hard questions. They guided my first steps in PhD research and their rich expertise have motivated me to deepen my knowledge and enrich my work greatly. I thank Mme. Patricia Gurviez, M. Jean-Marc Ferrandi, Mme. Souad Djelassi, M. Michel Simioni for accepting to be my jury's members.

My sincere thanks also goes to members of MALICA (Markets and Agriculture Linking Chains in Asia) network in Hanoi: Estelle Biénabe, Isabelle Vagneron, Paule Moustier, Delphine Marie-Vivien, Guillaume Duteurtre, Denis Sautier, Olivier Lepiller… for their warm welcome. They offered me the opportunities to attend valuable workshops and formed a place of exchange and construction with their diverse exciting projects. I offer my sincere appreciation for their knowledge sharing and their comments on my field studies.

I do thank Jean-Walter Schleich, Anne-Cécile Leroux and Elisabeth Bozsonyik for their documentation and administrative support during my registration at Supagro Montpellier. I thank my fellows in Building 26 SupAgro as well as my colleagues in Banking Academy for their supportive attitutes, for the fun and friendly working environment they have created. I send thanks to my friends, people from Eramus and Collège Doctoral, who made my adventure possible and enjoyable. I thank Mai Huong from RUDEC Hanoi for her proof-reading my thesis.

Finally, to my caring, loving, and supportive mother: my deepest heartfelt thanks. It has been ups and downs at times, and your confidence in me has enhanced my ability to get through it all when things get rough. I cannot imagine being the person I am today without such a great mother through the years. Van

Chapter Introduction

Background: A rapid development of modern retail, a new landscape for consumers in Hanoi, Vietnam

The retail business in Vietnam has gone through noteworthy changes in the last few years.

Despite being a predominantly agricultural country, it is forecast to be the fastest-growing market for convenience stores in Asia by 2021 (IGD Research, 2017). More than a decade after joining the World Trade Organization (WTO) in 2007, Vietnam has emerged into one of the very attractive retail markets for investors. Many international retail groups have entered the market, providing greater choices for consumers whilst creating intense competitive challenges for domestic players (Deloitte, 2014). Accordingly, the level of competition is intense across different retail formats in Vietnam as they embark on aggressive expansion strategies [START_REF] Nguyen | Retail in Vietnam: Navigating the digital retail landscape[END_REF].

With an annual income per capita of over $2,300, World Bank (2018) considers Vietnam to belong to the lower middle-income group of emerging countries. In Vietnam, food plays a crucial role in the lives of consumers and access to safe food is of great concern due to the established excessive amounts of chemical fertilizers and pesticides used in production practices to increase yields (Figuié et al., 2004;Figuié and The-Anh, 2004;[START_REF] Nhung | Factors Affecting Consumers' Decision to Purchase Vietgap Vegetables in Hanoi Vietnam[END_REF].

Public policy has placed supermarket development at "the core of strategies aiming to ensure access to safe food" [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF]. Modern food retailing in Hanoi, and Vietnam generally, is now characterized by a large number of small to medium-scale retailers (mini-markets, safe shops) and a few large supermarket chains. Traditional food retailing also comprises a variety of retail types including formal wet markets, informal street markets and mobile sellers. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 2 The capital Hanoi is home to an estimated population of 8.05 million and is divided into 12 urban districts, one district-level town, and 17 rural districts. These are further divided into town-lets, communes, and wards. Over the last 5 years, Hanoi has witnessed impressive development in its food retail landscape, with new formats via modern channels. According to the data of Hanoi Department of Industry and Trade (2018), there were 588 supermarkets, minimarkets and safe shops and 454 markets selling fresh vegetables in the city's 12 central urban districts. In 2015, one of the biggest indigenous conglomerate-VinGroup decided to distribute its own agricultural products and establish its own farms via its member called VinCommerce.

VinCommerce currently leads in the number of stores in the retail market, with over 100+ supermarkets (named VinMart) and approximately 1800+ minimarts (named VinMart+) in Vietnam as of 2018 (Company's website). On average, VinCommerce experienced a growth rate of more than 50 new stores per month [START_REF] Evbn | Vietnam's distribution and retail channels, Vietnam[END_REF].

Under the pressure of the fast modern retail development, several issues have been raised such as how to ensure the provision of daily fresh food (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014b) as well as the safety of daily food purchases [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF]Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014a) especially for the poor consumers [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]. Food safety has become a major social and political issue in Vietnam (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014a). Public awareness of risky hazards associated with pesticides residues [START_REF] Van Hoi | Market governance for safe food in developing countries: the case of low-pesticide vegetables in Vietnam[END_REF] and scandals related to agrochemicals in vegetables reported on mass media has resulted in an on-going concern among Vietnamese consumers about agrochemical contamination (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014b;[START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Ha | Consumer concern about food safety in Hanoi,Vietnam[END_REF].

It is widely acknowledged that supermarkets in emerging markets face particular difficulties in fresh food retailing [START_REF] Humphrey | The supermarket revolution in developing countries: tidal wave or tough competitive struggle?[END_REF]Mergenthaler et al., 2009) and Vietnam also falls into this category. Vegetables are the second most important food group consumed in Vietnam after rice [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Nhung | Factors Affecting Consumers' Decision to Purchase Vietgap Vegetables in Hanoi Vietnam[END_REF]. Recent research shows that traditional channels continue to dominate daily vegetable purchasing practices [START_REF] Cadilhon | Modelling vegetable marketing systems in South East Asia: phenomenological insights from Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Jensen | Food-buying Habits in Hanoi[END_REF][START_REF] Maruyama | Modern Retailers in Transition Economies[END_REF]. Likewise, an urban consumer survey carried out by The Centre for Global Food and Resources-University of Adelaide (2018b) reported that modern outlets are capturing about 14% of monthly vegetable expenditure per person in Vietnam.

Problem statement

Literature of food market in Vietnam has consistently shown the situations where traditional retailers serve as the dominant channel for distributing and purchasing fresh food [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF]Figuié and The-Anh, 2004;Cadilhon et al., 2006;[START_REF] Maruyama | Traditional bazaar or supermarkets: A probit analysis of affluent consumer perceptions in Hanoi[END_REF][START_REF] Hino | Antecedents of supermarket formats' adoption and usage: A study in the context of non-western customers[END_REF], 2012;Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014b; The Centre for Global Food and Resources-University of Adelaide, 2018a). Early research attempts were to investigate consumer consumption [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF]Figuié and The-Anh, 2004) and the impact of the development of supermarket on the food purchasing practices of the poor [START_REF] Moustier | The Participation of the Poor in Supermarkets and other Distribution Value Chains[END_REF] especially their access to this newly introduced modern retail format [START_REF] Moustier | The Participation of the Poor in Supermarkets and other Distribution Value Chains[END_REF]Figuié and Nguyen, 2006;[START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]. In the case of Vietnam, Figuié et al. (2004) argue that the extension in food supply channels in towns has actually increased the distance between producers and consumers. And the poor have limited involvement as consumers, traders and farmers despite the advantages of modern food retail distribution [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF].

In Vietnam, public policy increasingly considers replacing traditional markets with supermarkets as a way to guarantee the safety of food, especially in urban settings with growing populations [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF]. Vietnamese consumer food behaviour in general has been studied with sociological perspective (Figuié et al., 2004), sensory approach (Figuié and 4 Bricas, 2010), social practices approach (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014b;Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014a;[START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF]) and a number of quantitative studies [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF]Figuié and Nguyen, 2006;[START_REF] Nhung | Factors Affecting Consumers' Decision to Purchase Vietgap Vegetables in Hanoi Vietnam[END_REF]. Some mixed qualitative -quantitative researches were carried out [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF] to express limited access of poor consumers to supermarket during the early years of modern market entry or to study food safety and different consumer shopping practices (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014b;Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014a;[START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF].

While researchers have studied consumer behaviour and their shopping channels in Vietnam, many have put a focus on poor consumers' access to modern retailing. Studies also lack inclusion of factors of family, peer, and life-course events in their process of retail format choice.

In order to understand and predict retail choice, the retail literature has mainly adopted psycho-economic perspectives which focus on consumer choice and factors influencing it.

Previous research has also identified a common phenomenon of multi-store patronage (crossshopping behavior) in retail food shopping, which is partly caused by the proliferation of different retail formats.

Beyond the well-known fact that consumers prefer to buy fresh produce from traditional wet markets and non-food products from modern retailers, little attention has been given to the situation in which consumers combine or switch between the traditional wet markets and modern retailers while shopping for food. This research will focus on such combination.

Nature of the research

Qualitative research is systematic in discovery and allows participants to express data in their own words and images. A qualitative research study consists of multiple individuals who experience the same phenomenon (Creswell, 2003). I used qualitative research to develop a holistic understanding of consumers' shopping and cross-shopping practices in the emerging urban food retail of Vietnam.

Participants in this study were adults aged above 21, residing in 6 out of 12 urban district of the capital Hanoi in North Vietnam. To gather data, interviews were conducted as the form of data collection. Detailed methodology is discussed further in Chapter 4.

Research Aim and Research Questions

The aim of the research is to explore i.

How consumers are shopping in current emerging market situation with the diffusion of modern retailing? Beyond the opposition between rich consumers and modern retailing on the one hand and poor consumers and traditional retailing on the other, are there other possible patterns of shopping and especially cross-shopping practices?

ii.

What are the influencing factors and the specific dimensions of consumers' shopping practices and how do consumers form their shopping and cross shopping strategies?

The main purpose is to better understand and to propose a framework of shopping practices in emerging markets. The study is taking into account not only the identification of different daily shopping practices and strategies in emerging market context, but also their links with sociomaterial context and individual factors.

Significance of the Study

This study adds to the body of literature about shopping and cross-shopping practices in an emerging retail context.

The theoretical implications of the study are twofold: related to the cross-shopping literature and to the shopping-as-practice approach. First, this research is, to my knowledge, the first to use practice theories to study cross-shopping. Given the complexity of consumer behaviour, consumer's choice regarding foods, difference in cultures and the impacts of modern food retail diffusion in retail environment on behaviour, I chose to employ qualitative approach for this study.

Second, shopping-as-practice approach allows better understanding of shopping practices and takes into account, albeit indirectly, physical food environment and personal environment, but does not explicitly consider individual factors. In the attempt to explore people's everyday behaviour, this research calls for greater consideration of individuals (rather than just as practicecarriers), as these individual factors may change the meanings of the practices, therefore, their maintenance.

For the Vietnamese authorities and policy makers, this study will also provide suggestions with regard to the co-existence of traditional and modern retailers. It advocates the idea that Vietnamese policy makers could aim for versatility through 'glocal hybridization' instead of topdown enforced collectivization [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF][START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF] The findings from this study, which involve consumer behaviour in a non-Western setting, will add to the extant literature. The main theoretical contribution of this study lies in the proposal of an integrated multi-perspective framework to explain consumers' shopping practices in the context of an emerging market.

Organization of the Thesis

In this qualitative study, I explored urban consumers' shopping and cross shopping practices of fresh vegetables in Hanoi, Vietnam.

Chapter 2 includes 2 sections. The first section presents literature and theories of consumer food behavior and shopping behavior. This includes a review of consumer behavior in relation to food; the theories and models of food choice; food environments and their relations to consumer behavior and practices. Additionally, it looks at cultural differences in different market contexts.

The second section of Chapter 2 reviews consumers' retail format choice and shopping practices.

Chapter 3 presents 2 sections which focus on the context of food and retailing in emerging countries, especially in Vietnam. Section 1 looks at food retailing transformation in emerging countries. The growth in modern food retailing and the impacts of modern food retail diffusion on food system and on consumer behavior will be discussed. This is followed by a literature on consumer segmentation in the context of emerging markets. Section 2 discusses food and vegetable retailing in Vietnam.

Chapter 4 justifies the qualitative research design of this thesis. This chapter is divided into 3 sections. The first section discusses three research approaches of qualitative, quantitative and mixed methods. It then presents the methodology adopted within this study. The second section will give a description of research procedure including research site selection, sampling strategy and selection of participants, evidence of saturation, data collection process and the interview guide. Section 3 provides more details of how qualitative data analysis is done for this thesis. Data organization, the coding and analysis of data, how themes are constructed and then, validity, reliability of the research data will be presented.

Chapter 5 presents the study results in accordance with the research questions and Chapter 6 presents my discussion, conclusions and recommendations of this study

Chapter Understanding consumer food behavior and shopping behavior -a critical review Introduction

This chapter of the thesis identifies the previous research efforts and directions related to the present studied area. The review sets off with perspectives and scope when it comes to terms of consumer shopping behavior in food retailing. It studies the different perspectives related to food choice, shopper behavior versus choice of retail formats (Section 1). It presents previously proposed models of retail format choice and patronage to introduce the theoretical approach of this study. Then the far-reaching literature relating to important constructs of food retail format choice and cross shopping behavior is revised (Section 2).

Section 1. Theoretical perspectives on consumer behavior and food choice

To gain insights about consumer behavior, in other words, why consumers buy and act the way they do, is the first and foremost aim of the scientific study of marketing. Research field of consumer behavior draws for its theoretical underpinning on the major established social sciences, in particular, economics, psychology and sociology [START_REF] Schröder | Food quality and consumer value: Delivering food that satisfies[END_REF]. Figure 2.1 demonstrates the contributions of food science, economics, psychology and sociology to the study of consumer behavior in relation to food choice proposed by [START_REF] Schröder | Food quality and consumer value: Delivering food that satisfies[END_REF]. The first sub-section of this review is going to present different theoretical perspectives on consumer behavior related to food and their food choice process (1.1). The second and third subsection will present theories and models of food choice (1.2) and shopping as practice approach (1.3). Then we will present a specific focus on the impact of food environment (1.4) and culture (1.5) on consumer behavior.

Consumer behavior in relation to food

Consumer behavior may be broadly defined as the study of 'the processes involved when individuals or groups select, purchase, use, or dispose of products, services, ideas, or experience to satisfy needs and desires' (Solomon 1992 cited in van Trijp and[START_REF] Van Trijp | Marketing and consumer bahviour with respect to foods[END_REF]. This definition highlights that consumer behavior covers a very wide range of activities [START_REF] Van Trijp | Marketing and consumer bahviour with respect to foods[END_REF]. Correspondingly, Khan (2006, p. 4) defines consumer behavior as 'the decision-making process and physical activity involved in acquiring, evaluating, using and disposing of goods and services'.

Consumer behavior involves much more than purchasing products (Khan, 2006, p. 4;Hoyer and MacInnis, 2010, p. 3). The overall model of consumer behavior proposed by [START_REF] Hoyer | Consumer behavior[END_REF] indicates four basic domains covered in consumer behavior including: (1) the psychological core, (2) the process of making decisions, (3) the consumer's culture, and (4) consumer behavior outcomes. Thus, it is a dynamic process and reflects more than the way that a product is acquired by a single person at any one point in time because of the continuous changes in ideas, perceptions and activities of consumers as an individual or in a group (Hoyer and MacInnis, 2010, pp. 10-15). In other words, the study of consumer behavior needs a multidisciplinary approach as food consumer behavior integrates insights from different scientific fields and its broadness renders it impossible to cover all its aspects [START_REF] Van Trijp | Marketing and consumer bahviour with respect to foods[END_REF].

Studying consumer behavior helps marketers gain insights that will lead to more effective marketing strategies and tactics, by understanding how to segment markets and how to decide which to target, how to position an offering, and which marketing-mix tactics will be most effective [START_REF] Hoyer | Consumer behavior[END_REF]. Many variables will influence the way consumer patterns differ. These will change depending on the types of retailers in the market place and the way individuals have learnt to approach purchasing opportunities. The choices over purchase, accordingly, are subject to a vast number of factors acting collectively. The behavior of shoppers differs according to the place where they are shopping and their involvement level with the act of shopping [START_REF] Berman | Retail management: A strategic approach[END_REF]. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 11 Chances of success in local retail achievements rely on a number of interacting factors, with a key central one being the consumer, plus aspects related to the context in which the retail sector activity takes place; and other actors such as retailers, other public and private local stakeholders [START_REF] Sanabria | 1/5 New retail trends and consumer behaviour[END_REF]. The evolutions of retailing systems in developed and emerging economies clearly share certain common characteristics, but also differ from each other in many important ways [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF].

Besides, Schutte and Ciarlante (1998) argued that Asian consumer behavior is distinctively different from non-Asian, specifically Western, consumer behavior. Indeed, the differences between Asian and Western cultures along the underlying cultural dimensions (religion, tradition and philosophy etc) influence different aspects of consumer behavior, e.g the concept of self and interpersonal relationships. The authors stress two important aspects of culture which indicate that it is (1) shared by the members of a given society, and (2) dynamic and transmissible. Their threelevel structure of culture implies that behavioral practices, as the most visible aspect of culture, are only 'the tip of the iceberg' and to gain a firm understanding of consumer behavior, one must venture 'to examine not only a society's declared values and beliefs, but also the basic assumptions taken for granted by that society's members' (Schutte and Ciarlante, 1998).

With regards to consumer food behavior, [START_REF] Van Trijp | Marketing and consumer bahviour with respect to foods[END_REF] discussed in details five stages in the consumer's decision process: (i) problem recognition, (ii) search behavior, (iii) evaluation of alternatives, (iv) purchase, and (v) evaluation of purchase outcomes in which 'choice' is modelled as the resultant of two forces: purchase intention and unanticipated circumstances. The authors also pointed out that in affluent societies, i.e. Western food markets, food consumption has reached high levels and basic quality standards of food supply have increased substantially. More precisely, in modern food markets it is hard to find products that 'do Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 12 not meet the basic standard in terms of hygienic and sensory quality' [START_REF] Van Trijp | Marketing and consumer bahviour with respect to foods[END_REF]. As a result, despite being the most important choice criteria that need to be fulfilled, the role of hygienic and sensory quality as a decisive criterion for food is reduced: it is becoming a necessary but not sufficient condition.

As researchers have demonstrated, the study of consumer food behavior needs a multidisciplinary approach in looking at consumers' process and activities involved in acquiring food products; and it is also of great important to take into consideration the specific market context alongside with its typical diverse cultural dimensions.

Theories and models of food choice

The review of extant literature has shown that food choice is a process full of complexity [START_REF] Furst | Food Choice: A Conceptual Model of the Process[END_REF][START_REF] Pollard | Factors affecting food choice in relation to fruit and vegetable intake: a review[END_REF][START_REF] Share | Determinants of food choice in Irish adolescents[END_REF][START_REF] Sobal | Food Choice Is Multifaceted, Contextual, Dynamic, Multilevel, Integrated, and Diverse[END_REF], studied by a great varieties of approaches to the context [START_REF] Vabø | The Relationship between Food Preferences and Food Choice: A Theoretical Discussion[END_REF] and a diversity in determinants of the process itself [START_REF] Köster | Diversity in the determinants of food choice: A psychological perspective[END_REF]. Research into food choice behavior is designed to investigate why and how people select the food they eat. Many researchers and practitioners pay attention to food choice behavior because of its crucial biological, psychological, economic, social, cultural and epidemiological importance [START_REF] Furst | Food Choice: A Conceptual Model of the Process[END_REF]. This can be a topic where there is no 'one best way', requires multi-theoretical approaches (Achterber andMiller 2004 cited in Sobal et al., 2014), and fragmentation may offer advantages by permitting diverse work to understand the process [START_REF] Sobal | Food Choice Is Multifaceted, Contextual, Dynamic, Multilevel, Integrated, and Diverse[END_REF].

Several representative research models include, but not limited to, Food-related lifestyle (FRL) model developed by [START_REF] Grunert | Food-related life style: Development of a cross-culturally valid instrument for market surveillance, MAPP working paper[END_REF]; Grunert et al. (2011a); Total Food Quality Model developed by [START_REF] Grunert | Automatic and Strategic Processes in Advertising Effects[END_REF][START_REF] Grunert | Food quality and safety: consumer perception and demand[END_REF]; Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ), originally developed by [START_REF] Steptoe | Development of a Measure of the Motives Underlying the selection of food: the Food Choice Questionnaire[END_REF]; and Food Choice Process model [START_REF] Furst | Food Choice: A Conceptual Model of the Process[END_REF]. These are the models Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 13 that have been adopted, tested, and cited by various researchers across different research fields later on. Their implications and adoption are discussed in more details in the following section.

Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ) [START_REF] Steptoe | Development of a Measure of the Motives Underlying the selection of food: the Food Choice Questionnaire[END_REF] focuses on investigating the motives for food choice of consumers in the attempt to develop a food motivation model. It is a multi-dimensional measurement instrument of motives related to food choice developed through factor analysis of responses. The FCQ consists of 32 items measuring nine factors 'health, mood, convenience, sensory appeal, natural content, price, weight control, familiarity and ethical concern'. The research found differences in motives for food choice associated with sex, age and income of which sensory appeal, health, convenience and price are the most important factors on average. Price is the most important factor for the lowest income group, and sensory appeal for the better off.

The FCQ measures self-reported attitudes and it has been shown that the food-related attitudes people have often correlate with their dietary intake or actual food choice [START_REF] Scheibehenne | Fast and frugal food choices: uncovering individual decision heuristics[END_REF]. However, FCQ does not reflect actual dietary behavior [START_REF] Steptoe | Development of a Measure of the Motives Underlying the selection of food: the Food Choice Questionnaire[END_REF]. The instrument has been used and adapted in several studies related to different fields such as vegetarianism and ethical food choice [START_REF] Lindeman | Measurement of ethical food choice motives[END_REF]; food motivation [START_REF] Fotopoulos | Food Choice Questionnaire (FCQ) revisited. Suggestions for the development of an enhanced general food motivation model[END_REF]; attitudes towards healthy eating [START_REF] Carrillo | Main factors underlying consumers'food choice: a first step for the understanding of attitudes towards "healthy eating[END_REF]; consumption of traditional food [START_REF] Pieniak | Association between traditional food consumption and motives for food choice in six European countries[END_REF] and consumption of functional food [START_REF] Ares | Influence of gender, age and motives underlying food choice on perceived healthiness and willingness to try functional foods[END_REF]. The tool has also been tested across countries of consumers from Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia and New Zealand [START_REF] Prescott | Motives for food choice: a comparison of consumers from Japan, Taiwan, Malaysia and New Zealand[END_REF]; across western urban populations [START_REF] Eertmans | The Food Choice Questionnaire: Factorial invariant over western urban populations?[END_REF]; and across four countries of Belgians, Hungarians, Romanians and Filipinos consumers [START_REF] Januszewska | Food choice questionnaire revisited in four countries. Does it still measure the same?[END_REF]. Overall, large scale quantitative research using the FCQ has shown Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 14 that sensory appeal is one of the most important factors affecting food choice along with health, convenience and price.

Total Food Quality Model [START_REF] Grunert | Automatic and Strategic Processes in Advertising Effects[END_REF] is an integrative framework for analysing issues related to consumer food choice and quality perception. The model, however, focuses on one product/ one stimuli, adopting the academic perspective of behavioral approach to the analysis of consumer behavior. According to this model, consumer food choice is framed in terms of the formation of quality expectations before and quality experience after the purchase. The main argument of this model is that in order to make purchase decisions, consumers have to form quality expectations and after the purchase has been made, the actual product will lead to some kind of quality experience. The information used to form quality expectations is called cues and there might be intrinsic or extrinsic quality cues, with intrinsic quality cues are physical characteristics of the product while extrinsic quality cues refer to everything else such as price [START_REF] Brunsø | Consumers'food choice and quality perception[END_REF]. After purchasing the product, the consumer has a quality experience and the relationship between quality expectation and quality experience is often believed to determine whether the consumer will be satisfied with the product. Both the expected quality and the experienced quality are only partially under the control of the producer as several other factors affect them.

Although through this model the authors have raised a number of issues on consumer food choice from a behavioral research perspective, they clearly state that the analysis of consumer food choice is and should be studied with a multi-disciplinary framework drawing on economics, psychology, sociology and other social sciences [START_REF] Brunsø | Consumers'food choice and quality perception[END_REF]. The total food quality model has considerably focused on only one narrow aspect of consumer food choice, i.e the quality, instead of looking at the broader image of the whole selection process. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 15 A broader approach to the food choice process by synthesizing all the values, consumer choices and their strategies after the purchases into one model is also proposed by the same group of food researchers is the Food-related lifestyle (FRL) model [START_REF] Grunert | Food-related life style: Development of a cross-culturally valid instrument for market surveillance, MAPP working paper[END_REF]. Tested as a cross-cultural measurement for consumer food consumption patterns, the FRL model is based on a theoretical approach which rooted in the personal values concept, and the assumption that food products are related to values in consumers' cognitive structure. The model extended the meansend chain approach in consumer behavior, by including procedural knowledge about shopping and meal preparation. The FRL instrument consists of 69 Likert-type attitudinal scales each rated on a 7-point scale from "completely disagree" to "completely agree" which are collapsed into 23 dimensions belonging to five different areas of food-related lifestyles, including ( 1 Purchasing motives. Application of the model as a segmentation approach of food consumers has been observed in Denmark, France, Germany and the United Kingdom [START_REF] Brunsø | An analysis of national and crossnational consumer segments using the food-related lifestyle instrument in Denmark[END_REF]; in comparing Australia with Singapore, Britain, France and Denmark [START_REF] Reid | Food-Related Lifestyles in a Cross-Cultural Context[END_REF]; in the Netherlands [START_REF] Hoek | Food-related lifestyle and health attitudes of Dutch vegetarians, non-vegetarian consumers of meat substitutes, and meat consumers[END_REF], in Ireland and Great Britain [START_REF] Buckley | The Convenience Consumer and Food-Related Lifestyles in Great Britain[END_REF]O'Sullivan et al., 2005) and in urban China (Grunert et al., 2011b). This instrument is a person-related construct with a higher level of abstraction than product-specific beliefs and attitudes. Therefore, it is more suitable to use FRL to identify segments which are not product specific. As the food choice is affected by various factors relating to the product, the person and the environment [START_REF] Steenkamp | Dynamics in Consumer Behavior with Respect to Agricultural and Food Products[END_REF], this model shows a particular focus on one aspect of 'the person', bringing in mainly the approach of quantitative researches.

Winter [START_REF] Falk | Food Choice Processes of Older Adults: A Qualitative Investigation[END_REF] mentioned that many of previous studies had employed quantitative approaches to investigate the determinants of the food choices made by older people, Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 16 showing the relationship between food beliefs and perceptions and dietary practices. However, the authors also noted a gap about why differences exist between food beliefs and practices, as an indication for a need of complementary qualitative researches.

One of the most multi-perpective and comprehensive models is the model of Food Choice Process (FCP) [START_REF] Furst | Food Choice: A Conceptual Model of the Process[END_REF]. It builds a conceptualized food choice model to sketch out factors influencing the way people construct their process of choosing foods. There are numerous factors that influence food choice including biological, physiological factors such as taste health, price, convenience, mood, sensory appeal, natural content, familiarity and ethical concerns [START_REF] Steptoe | Development of a Measure of the Motives Underlying the selection of food: the Food Choice Questionnaire[END_REF][START_REF] Shepherd | Social determinants of food choice[END_REF]. In addition to this, cultural factors and social influences are also important to food choice [START_REF] Rozin | The psychological categorization of foods and non-foods: A preliminary taxonomy of food rejections[END_REF][START_REF] Nestle | Behavioral and social influences on food choice[END_REF]. While [START_REF] Rozin | The psychological categorization of foods and non-foods: A preliminary taxonomy of food rejections[END_REF] applied psychological approach to food choice, [START_REF] Nestle | Behavioral and social influences on food choice[END_REF] Relationships and Quality. Repeated value negotiations in food decisions leads to the emergence of strategies, which are regular patterns that make certain food choices more habitual [START_REF] Furst | Food Choice: A Conceptual Model of the Process[END_REF]. [START_REF] Devine | Life-Course Influences on Fruit and Vegetable Trajectories: Qualitative Analysis of Food Choices[END_REF] and [START_REF] Devine | A Life Course Perspective: Understanding Food Choices in Time, Social Location, and History[END_REF] focused on the life course perspective to understand how food choice develops during a person's life transitions, trajectories of actions and the timing of life events. [START_REF] Devine | Life-Course Influences on Fruit and Vegetable Trajectories: Qualitative Analysis of Food Choices[END_REF] used this life-course perspective to examine influences on the fruit and vegetable consumption, applying qualitative analysis of 86 in-depth interviews in one U.S. city. The analysis revealed that past life-course events and experiences were strong influences on present systems for fruit and vegetable choices. According to the researchers, personal characteristics interact with social, cultural and physical forces in the multiple environments in which a person chooses food resulted in the construction of a 'fruit and vegetable trajectory' for each person over his/her life course. These trajectories involve a person's persistent thoughts, feelings, strategies and actions as they select food. The study showed that overall, fruit and vegetable consumption trajectories were relatively stable over long periods of most people's lives.

Studies of

Figure 2.2. A conceptual model of the components in the food choice process [START_REF] Furst | Food Choice: A Conceptual Model of the Process[END_REF] Another project in the US [START_REF] Devine | Food Choices in Three Ethnic Groups: Interactions of Ideals, Identities, and Roles[END_REF] examined how ethnicity is enacted in food choices among 86 adults then produced a conceptualization of influences on food choices that spanned the different ethnic groups. Ideals, identities, and roles interacted with each other and the food and eating context in reciprocal and dynamic ways to influence food choice. The third study by [START_REF] Devine | A Life Course Perspective: Understanding Food Choices in Time, Social Location, and History[END_REF] further described the application of the life course concepts (trajectories, transitions and turning points) to food choices in term of Time, Social Location and History.

Research by [START_REF] Bisogni | Who We Are and How We Eat: A Qualitative Study of Identities in Food Choice[END_REF] involved in-depth inquiry about self-images and eating to yield conceptual understanding of identities related to what people eat. Identity is generally considered to involve the mental self-images that a person assigns to herself/himself based on everyday interactions with people, groups, and objects. The results reported many different types of identities which were grouped into (1) eating practices, (2) other personal characteristics, and

(3) reference groups and social categories. The conceptualization for identities related to eating that emerged in this study is also consistent with the mentioned FCP by suggesting that one of the ways in which these multiple forces influence food choice is through the set of salient selfimages that an individual develops.

Qualitative approach and several elements of the FCP model are chosen as a guideline for this exploratory study of Vietnamese urban household. To study consumers' s choice in current fast emerging retail transformation of Hanoi, the interplay of various factors that shape consumers' choice decision is well expected. One of the most important factors are food environments, which are presented below.

The impact of food environments on consumer behavior and practices

The structure of food retailing systems is dependent upon the prevailing environmental characteristics of the countries in which these systems are operating, and accordingly, innovative food retailing institutions in emerging countries may lead to a major impact on the shopping behavior of consumers [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF]. As food and nutrition environments have been transforming rapidly over the past few decades, there has also been numerous studies to investigate these changes in access and availability of food as well as consumers' shifting dietary patterns. This extensive body of research, however, has been carried out to measure food Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 20 environments' impacts on public health nutrition mostly in developed markets but much less has been studied in emerging markets such as Vietnam. [START_REF] Herforth | The food environment, its effects on dietary consumption, and potential for measurement within agriculture-nutrition interventions[END_REF] describe food environments as the range of foods which are available, affordable, convenient and desirable to people in a given context, while [START_REF] Rideout | Food Environments: An Introduction for Public Health Practice[END_REF] suggest that food environments are created by the human-built and social environments which consist of the physical, social, economic, cultural, and political factors that impact the accessibility, availability, and adequacy of food within a community or region.

According to Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (2016):

"Food environments comprise the foods available to people in their surroundings as they go about their everyday lives and the nutritional quality, safety, price, convenience, labelling and promotion of these foods. Food environments play an important role in shaping diets because they provide the choices people have when they make decisions about what to eat. A healthy food environment is one that creates the conditions that enable and encourage people to access and choose healthy diets."

Food environments differ enormously depending on context, which makes them extensive and diverse with a seemingly endless array of options and price ranges, or sparse with very few foods on offer [START_REF] Grace | Influencing food environments for healthy diets through food safety[END_REF]. They encompass availability, affordability, convenience, and desirability of various foods [START_REF] Herforth | The food environment, its effects on dietary consumption, and potential for measurement within agriculture-nutrition interventions[END_REF]. Changes in food environments, therefore, are often linked with dietary changes. In the US, a number of projects has been carried out in the attempts to influence food environments for healthy diets through food safety, food labelling, food-based dietary guidelines and the production of diversified foods (Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 2016).

Different market context's influences on consumer behavior have been studied since the very early years of the marketing literature. According to [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF], in an affluent society, consumers would be more oriented toward education, leisure, and recreation, thus functions performed by consumers in the process of obtaining products would be 'somewhat reshuffled and reduced'. The time saving indulgence of these consumers, for example, tempt them to patronize various forms of non-store retailing units, accelerating the development of distribution networks that supply non-store operations. Consumers in these societies context, as a result, displayed a lower preference for 'shopping', especially for routine categories of consumption, than for other demands upon uses of time. On the other hand, a majority of food shoppers in many emerging economies are poor. [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF] argued that as such consumers could not afford many forms of diversion, the chance to visit with traders at the market place and corner shops played as an important part of their social activities. Thus, the small food store was something of a social institution in which the food retailer kept his customers happy and was often not concerned about enlarging his circle of customers. The daily, twice daily, or three times daily food shopping expeditions were an important part of poor consumers' routines, which brought shoppers 'in contact with the outside world' [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF] The geographic food access or accessibility is a measure of the community nutrition environment that refers to the ease of access to a food outlet, including the measurement of geographic proximity, density and variety [START_REF] Thornton | Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to assess the role of the built environment in influencing obesity: a glossary[END_REF]. Food environments have been characterized in many ways, with geographic information systems (GIS) being the most frequently used analytical tool and the simplest measure of access-distance or proximity to the nearest retailing site-has been most commonly used in food environment research [START_REF] Charreire | Measuring the food environment using geographical information systems: a methodological review[END_REF][START_REF] Barnes | Scale effects in food environment research: Implications from assessing socioeconomic dimensions of supermarket accessibility in an eight-county region of South Carolina[END_REF][START_REF] Thornton | Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to assess the role of the built environment in influencing obesity: a glossary[END_REF][START_REF] Barnes | Scale effects in food environment research: Implications from assessing socioeconomic dimensions of supermarket accessibility in an eight-county region of South Carolina[END_REF]. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 22 This study takes on the aforementioned definition of the local food environment as the set of different types of retail stores and markets that provide access to food for the population within the studied community and region.

Food environments can affect people's food purchasing and eating choices, the quality of their diets, and diet-related health outcomes. However, evidence from past researches is mixed on how specific food environment features affect specific outcomes [START_REF] Herforth | The food environment, its effects on dietary consumption, and potential for measurement within agriculture-nutrition interventions[END_REF].

Previous studies have provided data for a positive relationship between increased availability of healthy foods in retail or food service outlets and better quality diets in urban retail environments in the US [START_REF] Black | Neighborhoods and obesity[END_REF][START_REF] Rose | Neighborhood food environments and Body Mass Index: the importance of instore contents[END_REF] whereas a large quantity of convenience stores selling less healthy packaged food products is associated with higher rates of overweight and obesity [START_REF] Larson | A review of environmental influences on food choices[END_REF][START_REF] Holsten | Obesity and the community food environment: a systematic review[END_REF][START_REF] Casey | Determinants of childhood obesity: What can we learn from built environment studies?[END_REF]. [START_REF] Pechey | Supermarket Choice, Shopping Behavior, Socioeconomic Status, and Food Purchases[END_REF], consistently with previous US results, found that supermarket choice had implications for diet quality and health in the UK. Their analyses of large data further indicated that supermarket choice and socio-economic status of shoppers had independent effects on purchasing behavior.

The researchers also found that consumers who patronized low-cost supermarkets consumed less nutritious diets and fewer vegetables and fruit whilst more-frequent trips and fewer small trips were associated with healthier purchasing.

Changing geography of food retailing and competition and the consequences for local consumer choice have been the focus of the Government in the UK for a long time [START_REF] Kirkup | Inequalities in retail choice: exploring consumer experiences in suburban neighbourhoods[END_REF]. The term 'food deserts' has been mentioned as to describe an area with relatively poor access to adequate food provision, which is measured by not only food availability but also by variety and price [START_REF] Clarke | Deriving Indicators of Access to Food Retail Provision in British Cities: Studies of Cardiff, Leeds and Bradford[END_REF]. The situation is explained by the tendency of large multiple grocery retailers moving their operation to out-of-town areas, causing restricted grocery provision to the choice set in inner-city areas of low-income households with low mobility. [START_REF] Clarke | Deriving Indicators of Access to Food Retail Provision in British Cities: Studies of Cardiff, Leeds and Bradford[END_REF] chose two performance indicators to measure the effectiveness of delivery of grocery retailing to residential locations, which are aggregate level of provision and the level of provision per household respectively. The authors therefore stressed the necessity to relate the level of provision to the number of households in the area and proposed a spatial interaction model for food retailing in the analysis of 'food deserts' in the UK. [START_REF] Kirkup | Inequalities in retail choice: exploring consumer experiences in suburban neighbourhoods[END_REF] advocated research on the store choice problems experienced by consumers in areas of existing socio-economic disadvantage, and claimed that such consumers may experience inequalities in retail choice where instances of 'food deserts' exist. They examined how consumers' experiences and perceptions of choice of grocery stores vary geographically, socially and culturally in suburban neighbourhoods; and found dissatisfaction with the quality of the "small local store". The results revealed that the set of stores provided in an area does not equate with the perceived real choice. Rather, 'a lack of mobility, lack of income, dependent relative or dietary constraint could act as a significant constraint on the perception of choices available'.

Researches on fundamental changes in local structure of provision of British food retailing as well as changes of consumer lifestyles later revealed a surprising degree of behavioral inertia [START_REF] Clarke | Retail Restructuring and Consumer Choice 1. Long-Term Local Changes in Consumer Behaviour: Portsmouth, 1980-2002[END_REF]. The authors maintained that retail development over long periods affect consumer choice at the local level and emphasized the need for qualitative research to fully equip the understanding of these effects. [START_REF] Pitt | Exploring the influence of local food environments on food behaviours: a systematic review of qualitative literature[END_REF] published a systematic review of qualitative literature that has specifically looked at the local food environment and dietary behaviors, which solely considered environmental determinants of food and purchasing behaviors. The authors came up with four Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 24 analytic themes of (1) community nutrition environments, (2) consumer nutrition environments,

(3) other environmental factors and (4) individual coping strategies for shopping and purchasing decisions. This review, however, only included studies published between 2001 and 2015 which studied the 'food-rich countries' such as the US, the UK, Canada, Australia and the Netherlands.

Research into food environments has progressed from more static examination of spatial differences to broader environmental or contextual studies that have delivered different, sometimes contradictory, results [START_REF] Barnes | Scale effects in food environment research: Implications from assessing socioeconomic dimensions of supermarket accessibility in an eight-county region of South Carolina[END_REF]. It has been suggested that food environment research can benefit from employing a relational approach which goes beyond spatial mapping or evaluating local food access [START_REF] Story | Creating healthy food and eating environments: policy and environmental approaches[END_REF].

Food environments can determine what foods consumers can access at a given time, at

what price and with what degree of convenience so they can both constrain and prompt food choices [START_REF] Grace | Influencing food environments for healthy diets through food safety[END_REF]. As a result, researches on subtle influences on food choice that go beyond spatial accessibility could possibly extend existent literature on the food environments, by illustrating inter-relational aspects of environments and practices, giving insights into the relationships between these different factors affecting consumer food behavior.

Linked to the consumer environment, culture is another aspect that must be taken into account in the study of consumer behavior. The next sub-section is dedicated to this factor.

Cultural differences

Cultural dimensions place effects on aspects relevant to consumer behavior (Schutte and Ciarlante, 1998). One of the dimensions that has received much attention in understanding cultural differences in consumer behavior is the examination of the differences between individualismand collectivism-cultures [START_REF] Schwartz | Individualism-Collectivism[END_REF][START_REF] Schwarz | Individualism and Collectivism[END_REF][START_REF] Aaker | The Effect of Cultural Orientation on Persuasion[END_REF].

Originated from [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values / Geert Hofstede[END_REF]'s theory, the concept of individualism versus collectivism refers to the differences in basic beliefs that individuals hold in regard to their interaction with others, priority of group goals, and perceived importance of unity with others. Individualism is characterized by independence, self-reliance, freedom of choice and a high level of competition [START_REF] Triandis | The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts[END_REF], while collectivism emphasizes interdependence, in-group harmony, family security, group-oriented goals, social hierarchies, cooperation, and a low level of competition [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values / Geert Hofstede[END_REF][START_REF] Triandis | The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts[END_REF]. Accordingly, people from societies with a more collectivist social structure and those from a more individualistic cultures are likely to be different in forming opinions or making decisions [START_REF] Guess | Decision Making in Individualistic and Collectivistic Cultures[END_REF]. To conclude, the basic difference between collectivist and individualist cultures is that an individualist culture emphasises 'I-identity' and personal selfesteem enhancement, whereas a collectivist culture pays more attention to 'we-identity' and social group esteem maintenance [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values / Geert Hofstede[END_REF][START_REF] Triandis | The self and social behavior in differing cultural contexts[END_REF][START_REF] Lee | Cross-Cultural Examination of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentions Model[END_REF].

A number of cross-cultural studies have been done to test the validity of consumer behavior theories and models given that many of them were developed on American consumers [START_REF] Lee | Cross-Cultural Examination of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentions Model[END_REF]. The study on Korean and American consumers by [START_REF] Lee | Cross-Cultural Examination of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentions Model[END_REF] showed substantial differences in the importance of personal attitudes and societal norms in determining behavioral intention. Specifically, social pressures were shown to play a major role in the formation of Koreans' behavioral intentions and to have a relatively weak influence on Americans.

Their results illustrated the high relative importance of social influence in behavioral intentions formation in a collectivist culture (Korea). The authors also supported the idea that there existed fundamental cultural differences between Americans and people of Confucian cultures with regard to group-orientation.

The concept of "face", well-known for consumers of Confucian cultures, expressed their concerns with other people's perception of themselves and with the maintenance of their own status [START_REF] Lee | Cross-Cultural Examination of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentions Model[END_REF]. Although face is a universal phenomenon, how people shape its meaning differs from one culture to another (Juan [START_REF] Li | How Face Influences Consumption -A Comparative Study of American and Chinese Consumers[END_REF]. This concept has been considered as an important cultural value that influences human behaviors particularly in collectivist societies [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's consequences: International differences in work-related values / Geert Hofstede[END_REF][START_REF] Lee | Cross-Cultural Examination of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentions Model[END_REF][START_REF] Ting-Toomey | Facework competence in intercultural conflict: an updated face-negotiation theory[END_REF][START_REF] Li | How Face Influences Consumption -A Comparative Study of American and Chinese Consumers[END_REF] .

For example, by comparison to the American, face in China not only stands for prestige for one self but also for one's family, relatives, friends and even colleagues (Joy 2001 cited in Juan [START_REF] Li | How Face Influences Consumption -A Comparative Study of American and Chinese Consumers[END_REF]. Chinese consumers have been shown to be more likely to be influenced by their reference groups than American consumers (Juan [START_REF] Li | How Face Influences Consumption -A Comparative Study of American and Chinese Consumers[END_REF] According to [START_REF] Aaker | The Effect of Cultural Orientation on Persuasion[END_REF], consumers who are more of an individualist cultural frame may rely more on attribute information and use systematic processing to decide between product alternatives, whereas one from a more collectivist frame may reply on heuristic processing in product selection. [START_REF] Dutta-Bergman | The Values and Lifestyles of Idiocentrics and Allocentrics in an Individualist Culture: A Descriptive Approach[END_REF] argue that because food often plays a significant role in families and is often perceived as a sharing experience that ties people together, individuals of more collectivist cultures spend more time in lifestyle activities centered in and around the home (such as preparing food or reading) than in making consumption a central part to socialize. Also the authors found people of more individualist cultures to be hedonistic and impulse buyers.

Understanding of whether a society is structured "horizontally" (valuing equality) or "vertically" (emphasizing hierarchy) is important as it may influence the behavior of consumers [START_REF] Shavitt | The Horizontal/Vertical Distinction in Cross-Cultural Consumer Research[END_REF]. The authors listed four cultural positions of (1) vertical, individualist societies or cultural contexts (e.g., United States, Great Britain, France); (2) horizontal, individualist societies or cultural contexts (e.g., Sweden, Denmark, Norway, Australia); (3) vertical, collectivist societies or cultural contexts (e.g., Korea, Japan, India) and (4) horizontal, Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 27 collectivist societies or cultural contexts (exemplified historically by the Israeli kibbutz). Findings reviewed and reported in their research indicated that status appeals were more persuasive for individuals with a vertical cultural orientation. To be specific, the tendency of individualists to focus upon interactions with strangers made people high in vertical, individualist societies orientation more likely to value symbols designed to convey status to a broad, undifferentiated audience. Meanwhile, the tendency of collectivists to prefer interactions with in-group members made people high in vertical collectivist societies orientation more likely to value ascribed positions in a hierarchy and symbols that convey concern for others' needs.

Consumers may be operating in any of the four cultural positions previously outlined by [START_REF] Shavitt | The Horizontal/Vertical Distinction in Cross-Cultural Consumer Research[END_REF] and their experience of power was found to shape self-concept, which affected everyday consumption practices [START_REF] Henry | Social Class, Market Situation, and Consumers' Metaphors of (Dis)Empowerment[END_REF]. In a culture where negotiation is a traditional part of an exchange, consumers' perceptions of power interact with cultural values and influence prices that are paid as well as perceived fairness [START_REF] Benet-Martínez | The Oxford handbook of multicultural identity, Oxford library of psychology[END_REF].

Synthesis of section 1

The first sub-section of this review which presented different theoretical perspectives on consumer behavior related to food and their food choice process (1.1) illustrated the complex and multi-disciplinary nature of consumer behavior in relation to food consumption. The second subsection which presented theories and models of food choice (1.2) showed that a multi-perspective approach is essential in studying consumer food choice process and qualitative research study is prone to provide researchers with further understanding of the topic. The review also suggested several important influencing factors on consumer choice that are beneficial for the purpose of this thesis especially life course and personal factors.

The focus on the impact of food environment (1.3) and culture (1.4) on consumer behavior is of great importance to this study as the context chosen is an emerging urban retail market in a South East Asian middle income country. This review highlighted the significance of a contextimpact in relation to consumer food behavior, given its extant complexity as discussed above.

Section 2. Consumers' retail format choice and shopping practices

The literature research for this thesis has shown that the terms 'retail format choice', 'store format choice', 'store preferences' and 'store choice' are used liberally throughout the literature in studying the choice of 'where' consumers go to shop. This can be shaded differently depending on the focus and context of each research as the definition of a retail format can differ depending on the specific market and country of interest. The following sections will reflect on these factors as they differ from developed to emerging food retailing markets.

First, we will study the factors influencing consumers' retail format choice (2.1). Then we will focus on the choice between modern and traditional retailers (2.2). A specific attention will be paid to crossshopping (2.3). Finally, consumer segmentations related to retail choice will be presented (2.4) 2.1. Factors influencing consumers' retail format choice Many of the extant retail literature adopts psycho-economic perspectives which focus on factors influencing the consumer's choice. In particular, an extensive body of research has studied the various influencing factors of consumers' choice which include individual attributes and store-related attributes. For many years, researchers have considered issues related to consumers' retail format choice across various purchasing situations [START_REF] Carpenter | Consumer demographics, store attributes, and retail format choice in the US grocery market[END_REF].

A study by [START_REF] Wakefield | Excitement at the mall: Determinants and effects on shopping response[END_REF] revealed that many consumers are apt to make a decision regarding where to shop on the basis of their attitude toward a shopping place's environment. The nature of the influence of the shopping mall environment was measured by linking a number of factors such as its physical environment, tenant variety, involvement and emotion, to different retail responses (desire to stay, re-patronage intentions, and out-shopping behavior). This study by Wakefield and Baker also measured perceptions of specific environmental constructs in relationship to consumer's emotion of excitement. Tenant variety (assessed with variety of food service, stores and entertainment), together with mall environment were found to influence excitement in a mall setting. The authors concluded that shoppers who considered quality of a shopping center to be important will also consider the variety of stores to be important whereas key environmental element in generating excitement is the overall architectural design of this mall. Specific demographic characteristics of the consumers were studied in relation to store choice and product choice behavior of grocery shoppers in Greece by [START_REF] Baltas | Shopper characteristics, product and store choice criteria: a survey in the Greek grocery sector[END_REF]. The research revealed that merchandise quality and merchandise variety were the most important choice criteria for Greek shoppers. And product-related criteria appeared to dominate the consumer decision making in both brand and store choice processes. Store location was of high importance and store atmosphere was a core element of store image. The results reflected an antithesis in economic and non-economic choice criteria which were also related to specific shopper characteristics (budget and age). The market covered in the research was dominant with international multi-chain supermarket and local retail stores with high degree of merger and acquisition activity. [START_REF] Pan | Determinants of retail patronage: A meta-analytical perspective[END_REF]'s meta-analysis of previous empirical studies of US retailing market suggested factors such as service, product selection and quality are strong predictors of shoppers' store choice, whereas factors of store attributes and store image are important antecedents of shopping frequency. The authors argued that store choice and frequency of visit are Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 30 key concepts of 'retail patronage'. Another research in the same market (the US) in the same year by [START_REF] Carpenter | Consumer demographics, store attributes, and retail format choice in the US grocery market[END_REF] investigated consumer demographics, store attributes and retail format choice in the grocery market. Their study reported that education, income and household size predict patronage within the supercenter format. Specifically, as income and education decrease, consumers are more likely to shop in the supercenter format and it goes the same as their household size increases. With regard to store attributes, consumers take cleanliness as the most important attribute while visiting store, regardless of format. Nevertheless, the price competitiveness attribute appears to be most important among shoppers in the traditional supermarket format and the supercenter format though it is not of top important attributes for occasional shoppers in the supercenter format or the specialty grocery format and warehouse format. Findings from this study help support the authors' argument that although price competitiveness is believed to strongly drive the grocery consumer's shopping, product selection and courtesy of personnel are also very determinant factors.

On the factors influencing consumers' decisions on where to shop, [START_REF] Kirkup | Inequalities in retail choice: exploring consumer experiences in suburban neighbourhoods[END_REF] claimed a need for future research to revisit traditional, often over-simplified, store choice criteria.

According to their research, considerable changes in local store provision alongside changes in consumer lifestyles, demographics and demand over recent years would affect the parameters of choice and choice criteria. The authors contended that 'choice' is valued but is relative and perceived and as a result, real choice sets will be considerably smaller than the choice sets that are theoretically available. Consumers' awareness of the store options, and an individual's perception of the accessibility of particular stores (whether in terms of transport, time or economic access) may further reduce the choice set and some may even further exclude themselves from certain retail brands based on their experience. [START_REF] Reutterer | Store format choice and shopping trip types[END_REF] identified store format attributes that impact on store format choice when consumers conduct fill-in or major trips to buy groceries. The results showed that consumers go to discount stores and hypermarkets when conducting major trips whereas supermarkets are preferred for fill-in trips. The study, in other words, found a relationship between store format preference and distinct shopping occasions. They also explore the comparative importance of the diverse store format attributes for different kinds of shopping trips. In sum, merchandise-related attributes of store formats indicated a higher impact on the utility formation regarding major-trips, whereas service-and convenience-related attributes did so with regards to fill-in trips. The research was done in Austria thus the formats considered were only of modern retail (hypermarket, supermarket and discount store). The consumer's choice of store format was conceptualized as primarily a consequence of their intention to use that format [START_REF] Anand | Store format choice in an evolving market: role of affect, cognition and involvement[END_REF]. The authors, while analysing Theory of Planned Behavior [START_REF] Ajzen | The theory of planned behaviour[END_REF] proposed the use of 'Quality of past experience' instead of past behavior as a surrogate for habit. This surrogate is, therefore, defined as the degree of satisfactory experience derived from a previous set of choice decisions. Figure 2.3 reflects their TPB-based conceptual framework for store format choice, in the attempts to capture specific insights into store choice patterns among grocery purchasers of modern format customers in the Indian context. This research was an exploratory research using one-to-one unstructured in-depth interviews. The findings indicated that customers used many store formats but used just one of them as their primary store for bulk purchases. 2010)'s research on consumers of food and grocery retailing found significant association between shopper attributes, store attributes and store format choice decisions. Four major strategic formats used by food and grocery consumers were traditional kirana stores, convenience stores, supermarkets and hypermarkets. The findings revealed merchandise, customer service, location and atmospheric related store attributes were main determinants of the store format choice behavior. The authors highlighted the significance of consumer demographic dimensions in segmenting and targeting food and grocery retail customers. [START_REF] Prasad | Effect of shopper attributes on retail format choice behaviour for food and grocery retailing in India[END_REF] extended previous research on the impact of gender or emotions [START_REF] Márcia | Man, I shop like a woman!" The effects of gender and emotions on consumer shopping behaviour outcomes[END_REF][START_REF] Brosdahl | Shopping orientations of US males: A generational cohort comparison[END_REF] on shopping behavior by examining the interaction between these two variables. The authors argued that consumers' perceptions of the retail environment mediate the effect of gender and emotions on shopping behavior outcomes.

They further demonstrated that women and men can have similar levels of hedonic shopping when positive emotions are salient, and negative emotions affect the shopping experience more for women than for men. In general, according to [START_REF] Prasad | Effect of shopper attributes on retail format choice behaviour for food and grocery retailing in India[END_REF], shoppers' age, gender, occupation, education, monthly household income, family size and distance travelled to store had significant association with retail format choice decisions which were also varied among shoppers' demographic attributes. The study, from shoppers' psychographic dimensions of values, lifestyle factors and shopping orientations, identified 5 consumer segmentations of food and grocery retail which are hedonic, utilitarian, autonomous, conventional and socialization type. [START_REF] Goodman | Store choice: How understanding consumer choice of 'where' to shop may assist the small retailer[END_REF] used a choice experiment approach to investigate consumers' store format choice and identified a specific segment of shoppers towards small, independent retailers. The research was carried out in Adelaide, South Australia and only studied store choice of wine shoppers. The results showed the most important reason for a customer to choose a specific wine store was the convenience (proximity) store and the specialty type of store and other variables including demographics did not influence the decision as much as the type of store did. The authors, in contrast with [START_REF] Prasad | Store choice behaviour in food and grocery retailing in India -an empirical analysis[END_REF]; [START_REF] Prasad | Effect of shopper attributes on retail format choice behaviour for food and grocery retailing in India[END_REF], argued that when examining store choice from the consumer perspective, the type or format of the store may be a better segmentation tool for the market than traditional segmentation variables (demographics or psychographics) such as age, gender and income etc [START_REF] Hino | Determinants for store-switching in shopping for fresh produce: investigating the mediating role of consumer way of life[END_REF] highlighted the role of consumer's way of life in consumption of fresh food and explained how it has a mediating effect on consumer intention to switch food stores.

Their data was obtained from the Israeli Arab community and store outputs (perceived variety, freshness, price, store cleanliness) were acknowledged as key factors affecting consumers' shopping practices. The findings revealed that store outputs had a direct and significant influence on consumer emotions toward fresh food stores, thus poor perceived variety and freshness directly lead to customer dissatisfaction. In other words, low levels of sanitation and hygiene and/or high prices gave consumers a sense of dissatisfaction, and hence drove them to store-switching. [START_REF] Desai | Attributes Influencing Retail Store Choice Decision of Shoppers: A Case of Pune City[END_REF] used exploratory factor analysis to identify the attributes and the structure of factors influencing Indian shoppers while purchasing grocery items from supermarkets. The study identified various store attributes that influence the choice of stores by shoppers and studied shoppers' decision to choose a particular supermarket for their grocery purchases. Specifically, product assortment was found to be the most important influencer of choice of stores among shoppers, followed by location of store (time, cost, convenience of travel), and store atmosphere. This study was carried out solely for the benefits of supermarket retailers.

These aforementioned researchers have shown an attempt to study store format choice and store choice in an overlapping manner [START_REF] Tripathi | Store format choice and relationship quality in apparel retail: A study of young and early-middle aged shoppers in New Delhi region[END_REF]. A majority of these studies pay attention to store attributes or individual factors influencing consumers' decision to go to a particular, mainly modern, retail store but not among different choices of traditional markets and modern retailers. Shopping behavior of people who live in a 'food-rich society' [START_REF] Sobal | Food Choice Is Multifaceted, Contextual, Dynamic, Multilevel, Integrated, and Diverse[END_REF] where modern retail has reached high diffusion should be different from that of people in emerging countries with a different set of retailer types. The term 'format choice', as indicated from the aforementioned researches, appears to be much utilised by researchers as a 'preference choice' between traditional wet markets and modern retailers when studying emerging markets, as will be demonstrated in the following sub-section.

Choice between modern or traditional retailers

The debate about consumers' choice between modern and traditional food retailers in emerging markets has been discussed with heterogeneous approaches and findings regarding the factors influencing shopping behaviors at traditional markets or modern retailers. [START_REF] Bai | Consumer Choice of Retail Food Store Formats in Qingdao, China[END_REF] studied Chinese consumer choice of retail food store formats and how household demographics affect their shopping behavior. Four formats were included in the study: wet markets, small grocery stores, supermarkets, and hypermarkets. The quantitative research reported the consumers' shopping frequency, store shopping visit frequency and their most frequently used forms of transportation. In terms of choice of where to shop for food, results

showed that quality, store location, price, food variety, shopping environment and service are the most important factors. The study also found that the modern retail formats (e.g., supermarkets and hypermarkets) did not bring significant pressure on the wet market and small grocery stores. [START_REF] Chamhuri | Consumer Choice of Retail Outlet: Focus Group Interviews in Malaysia[END_REF] applied a qualitative approach of focus group interviews to explore the preferred place to purchase fresh fruit and vegetables among Malaysian consumers.

Their results indicated that price, convenience, variety, freshness, promotion and environment were the major factors influencing the decision of retail format choice. The traditional market in Malaysia was found to be the preferred place to buy fresh fruit and vegetables as participants who shop in the traditional markets enjoy competitive prices for they are allowed to bargain whereas modern retailing places were considered to be more convenient for one stop shopping.

Several studies have highlighted the importance of socio-demographic factors in the choice of consumers. [START_REF] Chaiyasoonthorn | Factors Affecting Customers Using Modern Retail Stores In Bangkok[END_REF], for example, adopted a quantitative approach to study factors affecting customers using modern retail stores in Bangkok, Thailand. Socio-demographic factors such as personal and household income together with distance from home, distance from workplace, purchase intention, customer satisfaction and perceived service quality were found to be correlated with the purchase of goods and services from modern retail stores. The results, however, only showed factors correlated with purchase of goods and services from modern retail stores of discount stores, hypermarts, and supermarkets and provided no discussion on traditional wet markets. [START_REF] Kelly | Traditional, modern or mixed? Perspectives on social, economic, and health impacts of evolving food retail in Thailand[END_REF] argued that although in Thailand modern retail controls half the food sales, traditional fresh markets remain important. Their quantitative study revealed that fresh foods were mainly purchased at traditional retail formats and dry packaged foods at supermarkets. Among the various factors influencing the choice of a food retail shopping venue, the most important factor was hygiene or cleanliness of food available, followed by the variety of food and then convenience of the store's location. The least important factors were the availability of promotions, sales, and then the availability of local/traditional foods. Further qualitative study, however, was also used to investigate consumer motivations behind food retail format choice, and showed that price and quality of produce and availability of culturally important products were significant reasons for continued support of fresh markets. Also in contrast with [START_REF] Chaiyasoonthorn | Factors Affecting Customers Using Modern Retail Stores In Bangkok[END_REF], a study by [START_REF] Maruyama | The modernization of fresh food retailing in China: The role of consumers[END_REF] on the modernization of fresh food retailing in China argued that while freshness, accessibility and the possibility of bargaining were factors that influence consumers' decisions to buy fresh food from traditional vs modern retail formats, the effects of socioeconomic factors such as income and storage facility were very limited. This was in line with a previous research by [START_REF] Goldman | Supermarkets vs. traditional retail stores: diagnosing the barriers to supermarkets' market share growth in an ethnic minority community[END_REF] which showed that socioeconomic factors have no impact on shopping behavior across formats in an ethnic minority community. [START_REF] Goldman | Supermarkets vs. traditional retail stores: diagnosing the barriers to supermarkets' market share growth in an ethnic minority community[END_REF], moreover, highlighted that the geographical diffusion barrier (distance of supermarkets) was the main limitation on supermarkets' market share growth.

The results from [START_REF] Gorton | Wet Markets, Supermarkets and the "Big Middle" for Food Retailing in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand[END_REF]'s study in Thailand reported important differences which were apparent across the food categories regarding the average percentage spent in a typical month by type of retail outlet (wet market, supermarket/ hypermarket, and other which includes convenience stores). In specific, wet markets continued to account for the majority of expenditure of fresh produce and supermarkets were more important for packaged goods and beverages. The authors, however, argued that the penetration of supermarkets into fresh produce was still greater than [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF] assessment and that in urban Thailand, supermarkets were no longer minor players in fresh produce markets. Moreover, the study found that on all items of retail outlet attributes, supermarkets performed better in the choice of where to buy food, and socio-economic profile of supermarkets consumers appeared to be higher educated and younger consumers in capital cities. Shoppers appeared to value more highly the convenience of supermarkets as "a one stop shop", which was in line with Malaysian consumers from the study of [START_REF] Chamhuri | Consumer Choice of Retail Outlet: Focus Group Interviews in Malaysia[END_REF].

Researches in Indian food market have reflected a very similar situation to Thailand. [START_REF] Ali | Buying behaviour of consumers for food products in an emerging economy[END_REF], for example, studied the preferences of marketplace for the consumers who purchase food and grocery items. Their results suggested that fruits and vegetables were mostly purchased daily or twice a week due to their perishable nature, whereas grocery items were less frequently purchased. High consumer ratings were found on the product attributes of freshness/cleanliness along with price and quality. Results of the factor analysis of various market attributes indicated that consumers preferred a convenient marketplace with additional service facilities whereas market attributes like entertainment for children, basic amenities and affordability were also considered to be important. [START_REF] Yadav | Consumer Preference towards Retail Stores for Food and Grocery in Evolving Retail Market[END_REF], on the same research topic of consumer preference towards retail stores for food and grocery in India, also revealed that young and high income consumers were gradually shifting from local kirana stores to organized retail stores in relation with price and benefits in shopping.

Moving on to an other market in South East Asia, i.e. Indonesia, the study of Sunanto (2012) focused on effects of modern retail on changes in consumers' store preferences. This research focused on retailers selling convenience goods and analyzed attributes of modern retail practices in creating environment to attract consumers. The results showed that consumers had changed their preferences, to buy fresh goods, staple goods, food and beverages, and toiletries and other goods at modern retailers, rather than at traditional retailers. According to [START_REF] Sunanto | Modern Retail Impact on Store Preference and Traditional Retailers in West Java[END_REF] in this study of Indonesian consumers, the change in preference was due to the store attributes offered by modern retailers such as product availability, product quality, and product prices, but not store location or promotion. The study also found larger sales reductions for traditional markets Consumers' preferences for retail format choice between modern and traditional retails was also studied in Malaysia. [START_REF] Terano | Consumers' Shopping Preferences for Retail Format Choice Between Modern and Traditional Retails in Malaysia[END_REF], from a quantitative approach, found that sociodemographic variables such as age, education, being accompanied by children while shopping, and family size as well as packaging, store environment, and price of products had influence on retail format choice of Malaysian shoppers. The results indicated a preference to buy fresh food products at traditional markets rather than at modern markets, but not with a big gap (55% of the respondents for traditional markets and 45% for modern markets). Younger respondents with a higher education level were believed to be more likely to shop at modern markets, as well as respondents with a bigger family size. Fresh food products were also found to be less likely purchased in modern markets with not-affordable or negotiable prices and where only large quantities were available for sale.

2.3. Shopping across different retail formats: cross shopping behavior [START_REF] Cort | Cross-Shopping and Retail Growth[END_REF] and [START_REF] Cassill | Department Store Cross-Shoppers[END_REF] defined cross-shopping as the act of a single consumer patronizing multiple types of outlets that carry the same broad merchandise lines. And this was found a common behavior among grocery consumers using modern retail formats [START_REF] Carpenter | Consumer demographics, store attributes, and retail format choice in the US grocery market[END_REF][START_REF] Cervellon | Shopping orientations as antecedents to channel choice in the French grocery multichannel landscape[END_REF][START_REF] Leszcyc | Store-switching behavior[END_REF].

Regarding from a retailer's perspective, two types of cross-shopping behavior are identified. The first type of cross-shopping behavior is labelled as 'intratype' crossing which refers to crossing between the same types of outlets (i.e. crossing from one supermarket to another supermarket).

The second type is labelled as 'intertype' crossing, which refers to crossing between different types of outlets (i.e. crossing from a supermarket to a speciality store).

In this sub-section we will focus on antecedents of cross shopping (2.3.1) and on motivations and shoppers' typologies (2.3.2).

Antecedents of cross shopping behavior

To date, several studies have focused on the antecedents of cross-shopping behavior.

In order to study the determinant of location strategies adopted by many retailers of similar standardized convenience products at the time, [START_REF] Davies | Patterns in Cross Shopping for Groceries and their Implications for Cooperation in Retail Location[END_REF] reflected on patterns in cross shopping for groceries in the UK. The approach to access location of grocery retailers, in this case, was to use analogue techniques to replace traditional spatial analyses in to order to obtain 'cumulative attraction' of similar but complementary retail outlets. The study demonstrated that perceived difference in store image was a determinant of cross shopping behavior but different patterns of behavior, however, were apparent and depending upon the retailer. In one of the studied retailers pair, cross shopping was increased for retailers seen as similar; in another, cross shopping was decreased for retailers seen as similar. The authors found no explanation in this different cross shopping behavior patterns by analyses of the customer profiles or image data, but rather the attitudes from shoppers towards the retailer pairs. [START_REF] Cude | Why do consumer cross shop between different types of food retail outlets?[END_REF] analysed consumer cross-shopping between traditional supermarkets and non-traditional food retail outlets (warehouse clubs, limited-line discount stores, and super-centers) in the US using focus group approach. All the participants reported patronizing at least one non-traditional retail format in addition to traditional supermarkets for their grocery purchases. Participants also described shopping for food at ethnic markets, specialty stores (meat markets and drug stores), farmers' markets, school fund-raisers, home-delivered food shopping services and by mail order for meats. This reflects a diverse range of format choices for shoppers which shows notably difference when compared to emerging countries in Asia. The study of [START_REF] Cude | Why do consumer cross shop between different types of food retail outlets?[END_REF] observed that grocery cross shoppers in the US appeared not to make the once-a-week major shopping trip as traditional but instead, fit grocery shopping in among other errands. Influencing factors discussed were store location (proximity to other stores they also patronize), product selection, salespeople, convenience (hours of operation and ability to get in and out of the store quickly), being locally operated, having a discount card program, and accepting the form of payment the consumer wants to use. [START_REF] Davies | Patterns in Cross Shopping for Groceries and their Implications for Cooperation in Retail Location[END_REF] and [START_REF] Fox | Consumer Shopping and Spending across Retail Formats[END_REF] added to the literature on shopping across different retail formats of household shopping and packaged goods in the US by looking specifically at their spending and shopping frequency across grocery stores, mass merchandisers, and drug stores. The results showed that shopping and spending varied much more across the same format (intratype) than within formats (intertype). In specific, cross shoppers spent more when having varying levels of assortment (in particular grocery stores) and promotion. Price sensitivity was most evident at grocers and shoppers at drug stores were more sensitive to travel time than in other formats. Also, households who shop more at mass merchandisers also shop more in all other formats, which indicated that visits to mass merchandisers do not substitute for trips to the grocery store. [START_REF] Skallerud | An examination of consumers' cross-shopping behaviour[END_REF] in Norway addressed five main antecedents of cross-shopping behavior including product assortment, convenience orientation, price consciousness, impulse buying tendency and perceived time pressure. The authors focused solely on 'intertype' food store cross-shopping behavior. The results indicated that impulse buying tendency and perceived time pressure had a negative effect on supermarket patronage, that product assortment and price consciousness had a negative effect on specialty store patronage, and impulse buying tendency and convenience orientation had a positive effect on specialty store patronage.

In the same research scheme to address 'intertype' cross-shopping behavior, [START_REF] Hino | Shopping at different food retail formats[END_REF] studied the cross-shopping phenomenon in food retail by employing the format-selective use approach. The author concluded that while the economic status of households showed less impact on consumers' cross-shopping, format attributes and way-of-life variables were stronger predictors of this behavior. The findings reflected significant differences between Israeli Arabs and Jews in many aspects using way-of-life variables [START_REF] Baltas | The Role of Customer Factors in Multiple Store Patronage: A Cost-Benefit Approach[END_REF] emphasized the role of customer factors in multi store patronage regarding supermarket customers in the US. According to this study, multiple store patronage was influenced by variables such as customer income, satisfaction, and expenditure which were 'suggestive of heterogeneous cost-benefit tradeoffs and opportunity costs of time'. The empirical analysis also suggested two segments as they differed in their loyalty predisposition and not in observed behavior. These two segments -customers in steady and unsteady loyalty states, however, were treated by the research's methodology as latent and the research could not determine their profiles. [START_REF] Maruyama | Multiple store patronage: The effects of store characteristics[END_REF], on the other hand, focused more on the effects of store characteristics on multiple store patronage of Chinese supermarket consumers. The empirical results showed that consumers who valued promotion highly were more likely to have a larger patronage set size. Individuals' socio-demographic characteristics were found to put no causal effects on the subjective importance values of store characteristics. Thus only one factor, namely income, exerted an effect on multiple store patronage and wallet share. The authors found out that for Chinese consumers, 'the more stores a consumer usually patronizes, the more likely he treats the secondary stores as a complementary service choice' [START_REF] Maruyama | Multiple store patronage: The effects of store characteristics[END_REF]. Store characteristic factors, in general, did not exert significant effect on multiple store patronage. The study further suggested that market segmentation should be carried in order to capture a full and accurate picture of loyal consumers, and selective strategies should be adopted with regard to different consumer groups.

Regarding cross-shopping's antecedents in emerging markets, [START_REF] Abidin | Investigating Antecedents of Cross Shopping Behavior among Consumers in Selangor[END_REF] later conducted a study to test the antecedents which influence cross-shopping behavior among consumers in Selangor, Malaysia. Out of the five antecedents mentioned by [START_REF] Skallerud | An examination of consumers' cross-shopping behaviour[END_REF], only two (price consciousness and perceived time pressure) were found to be significant in predicting the cross-shopping behavior of Malaysian consumers. The study only concerned about consumers of modern formats including hypermarkets, super department stores and conventional supermarkets, with Price Consciousness deemed to be the best predictor for grocery cross shoppers.

Motivations and shopper typologies

Motivations and shopper typologies are another research scheme to study cross-shopping behavior.

To correlate the distinct store features with the true motivations of various consumers in patronising various stores [START_REF] Sinha | Store choice behaviour in an evolving market[END_REF] conducted a quantitative study to Indian consumers across different types of retailers. The results showed that proximity and merchandise were the primary reasons for consumer's store choice. Grocery, fruit, and vegetable stores were visited by shoppers based more on proximity and patronisation whereas relationship/comfort level with the retailer were stressed with regard to grocery stores. Moreover, the relationship between the type of store (product category sold) and consumers' perceptions on the store was also measured. The study's findings were contradictory to the idea that newer store formats were likely to opt for better in-store services and format characteristics and paid lesser attention to productrelated dimensions. From the results of this study, dimensions such as in-store service, trustworthiness, entertainment value and store design did not have any impact on store choice and in-store ambience was found to be the only store environment parameter that influenced store choice in certain product categories [START_REF] Sinha | Store choice behaviour in an evolving market[END_REF]. The authors suggested that customers in an emerging market (such as India) do not require the service paraphernalia offered by many of the new modern store formats.

Three continuous studies on cross-format shopping motives and shopper typologies of food and grocery consumers in India were published by [START_REF] Jayasankaraprasad | Study on Crossformat Shopping Motives and Shopper Typologies in Emerging Food and Grocery Retail Market in India[END_REF] and by [START_REF] Jayasankaraprasad | Consumers' Cross-Format Shopping Behavior in an Emerging Retail Market: Multiple Discriminant Analysis[END_REF]; [START_REF] Jayasankaraprasad | Cross-format shopping motives and shopper typologies for grocery shopping: a multivariate approach[END_REF]. The authors identified nine cross-format shopping motivations (value for money, value for time, price consciousness, local shopping, shopping enjoyment, social shopping, variety seeking, entertainment motive, and brand consciousness) and five cross-format shopper segments (economic shopper, convenience shopper, price-promotional shopper, hedonic shopper, and socialization shopper). [START_REF] Cervellon | Shopping orientations as antecedents to channel choice in the French grocery multichannel landscape[END_REF] found that shopping orientations were the antecedents to the way consumers patronaged different store formats for grocery purchase in France. The study on 300

French consumers investigated the influence of their shopping orientations on grocery channel Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 44 (hyper/supermarkets, hard discounts, organic stores…) attractiveness and choice. It included new online channels of Drive-through and newly deployed store formats of city stores. More specifically, the authors argued that it was the congruence between the channel attributes (such as price, location, assortment, service etc) and consumer shopping motives that attracts consumers to specific channels. Three segments of shopping (value) orientation were identified as Utilitarian, Hedonic and Sustainable. The consumers were labelled into segments of ( 1) the supermarkets and hard-discount-focused consumers, (2) online segment (Drive and Home delivery), (3) proximity multichannel consumers (Home delivery, City stores, Local markets, and Organic stores), ( 4) supermarket and hypermarket-focused consumers, (5) hypermarket-focused consumers, and ( 6) the city stores-hard-discounts multichannel consumers. It was obvious from the results that French consumers often practice multi-channel (cross-shopping) between online and offline formats while purchasing grocery and segments were classified based on their choice set of retail formats rather than socio-demographic approach.

In the markets for Fast Moving Consumer Goods (FMCG), [START_REF] Klein | Main-format dominance in consumers' FMCG crossformat shopping patterns[END_REF] highlighted consumers' specific cross-format shopping combinations and identified three consumer segments of 'Supermarket cluster', 'Discount cluster' and 'Hypermarket cluster'. The research revealed that the supermarket cluster's intra-format loyalty appeared to be less than that of the hypermarket, but still higher than that of the discount cluster. Whereas in the hypermarket cluster a majority of respondents patronized only one hypermarket brand, which confirmed its advantage as a 'one stop shop' format. Respondents from the discount cluster appeared to patronize more formats seemed to be much less intra-format loyal to one discount retail brand. Proximity (closeness and time) showed no significant differences between all three consumer clusters. In summary, this study indicated that consumers regard different retail formats as 'complementarities' and combined them in a main-format dominated shopping pattern with additional fill-in formats.

Aforementioned researches have studied 'cross shopping' in modern-retail-dominant markets and failed to take into consideration the co-existence of traditional wet markets in lessdeveloped countries. This thesis will widen the term of 'cross-shopping' as consumers combine or switch between the traditional markets and modern retailers while shopping for food, to add to the extant literature on modern retail evolution in emerging countries.

Consumer segmentation

There is a need to construct measurements of the innovativeness trait of food consumers and retailers to evaluate how different segments of consumers and retailers are likely to react to supermarketing as a socio-economic institution (Kaynak 1979 in Kaynak and[START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Van Trijp | Marketing and consumer bahviour with respect to foods[END_REF], market segmentation builds on the idea that markets consist of customers that may differ in their specific needs and wants. Market segmentation, as a result, aims at the identification of subgroups of customers (a market segment) that are internally homogeneous in some relevant aspects (e.g. their needs and wants) and different from other market segments. The segmentation strategy is familiar to many marketers of food products. [START_REF] Peter | Consumer behavior[END_REF] define market segments as groups of consumers who have some similarity in cognition, affect, behavior, and environment. [START_REF] Blackwell | Consumer behaviour: An Asia Pacific approach, 1st, Cengage Learning[END_REF] stated that other than demographics, geographic, psychographic, personality, values and culture, consumers can be grouped based on situational criteria (time, place of consumption/usage and work versus leisure usage). As market segmentation classifies consumers with similar needs and behavior, businesses can adjust their marketing strategy to meet their specific needs and thus increase the opportunity to sell [START_REF] Blackwell | Consumer behaviour: An Asia Pacific approach, 1st, Cengage Learning[END_REF]).

Table 2.1 refers to [START_REF] Kotler | Marketing eBook[END_REF]'s outline of the four alternative criteria for segmenting consumers: geographic, demographic, psychographic and behavioral aspects Table 2.1. Key criteria for segmenting a market [START_REF] Kotler | Marketing eBook[END_REF] Aforementioned research by [START_REF] Kirkup | Inequalities in retail choice: exploring consumer experiences in suburban neighbourhoods[END_REF] specifically put a focus on retail choice in different neighbourhoods, which was under geographical approach. [START_REF] Solomon | Consumer behavior: Buying, having, and being, Second Edition[END_REF] suggested that residential area was an influential factor of lifestyle, but added the possibility to assess consumption patterns using both geographic and demographic information to identify groups of consumers with similar psychographic attributes. [START_REF] Kim | A New Shopper Typology: Utilitarian and Hedonic Perspectives[END_REF] attempted to classify retail shoppers based on shopping orientations, and to profile the shopper groups in terms of demographic characteristics and shopping outcomes. A cluster analysis identified groups of retail store shoppers based on shopping orientations of consumers (aesthetic, shopping enjoyment, convenience seeking, sale proneness, and smart shopping) in the US. Shopping value and satisfaction were obtained as outcomes of shopping. The researchers then revealed four final distinct retail shopper types represent the consumers in the new millennium including Hedonic shoppers, Utilitarian shoppers, Demanding shoppers, and Apathetic shoppers 2.5. Shopping-as-practice approach By focusing on the individual, the psycho-economic literature neglects the social and cultural dimensions of shopping. On the contrary, the socio-cultural approach focuses on these dimensions. Griffith (2003), for example, investigates the meanings associated by consumers with shopping from lifetime shopping experiences, while Haytko and Baker (2004) see retail spaces as social spaces where relationships are maintained. The socio-cultural approach, however, neglects the material aspects of practices [START_REF] Cochoy | Calculation, qualculation, calqulation: shopping cart arithmetic, equipped cognition and the clustered consumer[END_REF].

By seeing shopping strategies as "cognitive devices-enabled and supported/reproduced by a socio-material context" [START_REF] Fuentes | Managing green complexities: consumers' strategies and techniques for greener shopping[END_REF], the shopping-as-practice approach can address these shortcomings.

Practice theories advocate for an alternative approach to consumer studies which is not based on consumers' rationality but focuses on practices rather than on individuals [START_REF] Halkier | Methodological challenges in using practice theory in consumption research. Examples from a study on handling nutritional contestations of food consumption[END_REF]. They focus on daily routines and study the arrangements of actions in their spatiotemporal dimensions (Schatzki, 2005). The most widely employed definition of practices is Reckwitz's, which describes a practice as "a whole and stabilized 'configuration' consisting of several elements, interconnected to one another: forms of bodily activities, forms of mental activities, "things" and their use, a background knowledge in the forms of understanding, knowhow, states of emotion and emotional knowledge" (Reckwitz, 2002). According to [START_REF] Shove | The dynamics of social practice: Everyday life and how it changes[END_REF], the "elements" that constitute practices are the material dimension, meanings and competences. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 48 In social science research on consumption, [START_REF] Clarke | Retail Restructuring and Consumer Choice 1. Long-Term Local Changes in Consumer Behaviour: Portsmouth, 1980-2002[END_REF] emphasised that shopping choices are as much related to the rhythms of everyday life and their associated social relations, as about specific trade-offs of store attributes. According to these scholars, shopping choices are, in short, something to be fitted in with other responsibilities, routines and pleasures. From the perspective of the rhythms of everyday life, therefore, 'some people would embrace choice to simplify the tasks of food shopping their domestic situation foists upon them; others will be overtly resistant to influence and make choices based on their own alternate beliefs' [START_REF] Clarke | Retail Restructuring and Consumer Choice 1. Long-Term Local Changes in Consumer Behaviour: Portsmouth, 1980-2002[END_REF].

Shove and colleagues developed an approach in which the multiple elements of practice are collapsed into three components: competencies, meanings, and materials [START_REF] Shove | Consumption and Competence: DIY Projects[END_REF][START_REF] Shove | The dynamics of social practice: Everyday life and how it changes[END_REF]. Competence was used to denote the cognitive capabilities necessary to engage in and perform a specific practice (understandings and know-how). Meaning referred to 'the social and symbolic significance of participation at any one moment'. Finally, the category materials included objects, tools, and infrastructures, also the body itself. The elements were believed to be interlinked in practice and their linkage simultaneously made the practice possible and shapes its performance. In other words, according to [START_REF] Shove | The dynamics of social practice: Everyday life and how it changes[END_REF] a practice is dependent on a specific configuration of meanings, competencies, and materials, and modifications of any of these elements also entail changes in the performance of the practice.

Shopping as practice has been defined by [START_REF] Røpke | Theories of practice -New inspiration for ecological economic studies on consumption[END_REF] as "one practice among others in daily life -a way of procuring many of the goods and services consumed in the course of other practices". [START_REF] Fuentes | Managing green complexities: consumers' strategies and techniques for greener shopping[END_REF], in agreement with Schatzki et al. (2001), considers shopping as "a complex social practice involving various cognitive techniques, embodied knowledge and understandings of the world, as well as specific bodily movements, meanings, and material artefacts".

As such, a shopping practice is constituted by a combination of material dimensions (the physical stores or points of sale), meanings (shopping as part of taking care of the family or enjoyment of social interaction) and competencies (product knowledge or bargaining skills).

Discussed in practice theory, when an individual engages in his/her shopping activity, his/her engagement with it is structured by his/her habitus. That habitus in Vietnamese market, in turn, has been formed in the context of a society where people are saturated with negative information of food safety delivered through the media for many years. The shopping-as-practice approach [START_REF] Røpke | Theories of practice -New inspiration for ecological economic studies on consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Fuentes | Managing green complexities: consumers' strategies and techniques for greener shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Fuentes | Mobile phones and the practice of shopping: A study of how young adults use smartphones to shop[END_REF] is thus particularly relevant for this thesis's research aims and was used in this study. In the following chapters, the study will explore vegetable shopping of Hanoian by examining the various ways in which groups of consumers use different retail formats to shop.

Synthesis of section 2

Consumer's retail format choice is influenced by a number of factors including storerelated attributes and individual attributes (2.1). The research on choice between traditional or modern retailers (2.2.) to date has tended to focus on studying traditional markets and modern markets as two separate choices for consumers, with a reference to their socio-demographic attributes. Whilst it has been reflected as a trend in discussed countries that consumers prefer to buy fresh produce from traditional markets and non-food products from modern retailers, little attention has been given to the situation in which consumers combine or switch between the traditional markets and modern retailers while shopping for food. This thesis will take on the term of 'cross-shopping' as such combination, to add to the extant literature on modern retail evolution (2.3 and 2.4). A shopping-as-practice as discussed in 2.5 will be employed.

Summary of the chapter

The importance of food shopping in the field of consumer behavior has been identified in a number of previous research. For this study, retail food shopping behavior provides a base to explore consumers' cross-shopping behavior between traditional wet markets and modern food retail stores.

In order to understand and predict retail choice, the retail literature has mainly adopted psycho-economic perspectives which focus on consumer choice and factors influencing it.

Previous research has also identified a common phenomenon of multi-store patronage (crossshopping behavior) in retail food shopping, which is partly caused by the proliferation of different retail formats. Extant studies have particularly found that consumers cross-shop to fulfil different needs based on several factors and over different product categories. The overall influencing factors of consumers' choice included individual attributes and store-related attributes. However, the attributes established or recognized in a Western context do not necessarily explain consumers' perspectives in emerging countries. There are potential influences of culture/religion on consumer cross-shopping behavior, which suggests an exploratory study in a specific context, which, in this study, is the context of emerging urban Vietnam.

Beyond the well-known fact that consumers prefer to buy fresh produce from traditional wet markets and non-food products from modern retailers, little attention has been given to the situation in which consumers combine or switch between the traditional wet markets and modern retailers while shopping for food. This research will focus on such combination.

Besides, by focusing only on the individual considered as rational, the literature has neglected the emotional and social dimensions of shopping and the socio-material context. The shopping-as-practice approach addresses these shortcomings: it is not based on consumer's 51 rationality but on daily routines or practices, and thus provides an understanding of the links between practices and socio-material context. This study adopts this approach and specifically studies shopping and cross-shopping practices in relation to factors linked to both socio-material context and individual factors.

The next chapter will outline the specificity of food retailing in emerging countries and the context in which this study is carried out: the urban retail revolution in Vietnam, where the expansion of modern retailers has notably increased retail market competition. This market situation calls for more insights into consumers' cross-shopping behavior between modern and traditional food retailers. The thesis will add to the extant literature of shopping and cross-shopping practices in emerging countries.

Chapter Food and retailing in emerging countries and Vietnam

Introduction

Emerging markets are countries and regions experiencing substantial and rapid economic growth and industrialization that are likely to emerge in the future as mature markets [START_REF] Reinartz | Retailing Innovations in a Globalizing Retail Market Environment[END_REF]. This chapter of the thesis presents the previous research related to the food and retailing in emerging countries in general, and in Vietnam in particular. The review sets off with literature on food retailing in emerging countries. It first presents the growth in modern food retailing, in specific the supermarket revolution and its impacts; then continues with extant research on consumer segmentation in the context of emerging countries (Section 1). Section 2 presents the context of Vietnam's food and vegetable market. The section presents current market situation as well as Vietnamese consumer behavior in relation to food purchase, their consumption and food practices.

Section 1. Food retailing in emerging countries

The first sub-section of this review is going to present the food retailing situation in emerging countries: the supermarket revolution (1.1) and its impacts on the food system (1.2) and on consumer behavior (1.3). Then we will discuss a specific focus on consumer segmentation in the context of emerging countries.

Growth in modern food retailing-the supermarket revolution

What differentiates the retailing systems in more advanced economic systems from those in the less developed ones is the difference in the nature of their basic retailing institutions [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF]. While food retailing system of the less-developed countries is characterized Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 53 by traditional markets and independent, small, limited line retailers occupying the main marketspace, the large multi-line supermarket characterizes food retailing in the more developed countries [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF][START_REF] Gorton | Wet Markets, Supermarkets and the "Big Middle" for Food Retailing in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand[END_REF].

A 'supermarket revolution' has occurred in emerging countries since the early 1990s [START_REF] Reardon | The Supermarket Revolution in Developing Countries: Policies to Address Emerging Tensions Among Supermarkets, Suppliers and Traditional Retailers[END_REF][START_REF] Reardon | The global rise and impact of supermarkets: an international perspective[END_REF]Gulati, 2008a, 2008b), creating a significant transition in the food retailing and numerous studies have documented this process. Several theories have been attempted to conceptualize the evolution patterns of retailing systems which commonly reflect the 'stage-type' or 'cycle' hypotheses. These hypotheses can either focus on uni-directional development trends, in which the changes in food retailing institutions are thought to consist of a series of stages of development leading from a simple to a more complex version; or they are concerned with patterns that presumably repeat themselves over time. All of these provide valuable insights into the developmental patterns of food retailing.

Initially, modern food retailers might mainly appeal to high-income class in urban areas, then spread to sub-urban, even rural areas [START_REF] Faiguenbaum | The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Chile: Effects on Dairy, Vegetable, and Beef Chains[END_REF][START_REF] Reardon | The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Latin America: Challenges and Opportunities for Development[END_REF][START_REF] Dries | The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Central and Eastern Europe: Implications for the Agrifood Sector and Rural Development[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | The Emergence of Supermarkets with Chinese Characteristics: Challenges and Opportunities for China's Agricultural Development[END_REF][START_REF] Reardon | Rural nonfarm employment in developing countries in an era of globalization[END_REF][START_REF] Stringer | Producers, Processors, and Procurement Decisions: The Case of Vegetable Supply Chains in China[END_REF]. Or in the early stages, supermarkets were limited to offer processed and staple foods, and later expanded to provide fresh produce [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF][START_REF] Reardon | Agrifood Sector Liberalisation and the Rise of Supermarkets in Former State-controlled Economies: A Comparative Overview[END_REF][START_REF] Maruyama | Traditional bazaar or supermarkets: A probit analysis of affluent consumer perceptions in Hanoi[END_REF]. This can also be observed by the patterns of increased competition and the growing tensions among supermarkets, suppliers and traditional retailers [START_REF] Reardon | The Supermarket Revolution in Developing Countries: Policies to Address Emerging Tensions Among Supermarkets, Suppliers and Traditional Retailers[END_REF][START_REF] Humphrey | The supermarket revolution in developing countries: tidal wave or tough competitive struggle?[END_REF]Reardon and Gulati, 2008a) or difficulty in access of small farmers to supermarket chains (Reardon and Gulati, 2008a;[START_REF] Reardon | The global rise and impact of supermarkets: an international perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Reardon | Supermarket revolution in Asia and emerging development strategies to include small farmers[END_REF].

To date there are three main schools of thought regarding whether supermarkets can capture markets in emerging economies. The first school of thought, most prominently associated Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 54 with Goldman (1974b) and [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF]; [START_REF] Goldman | Barriers to the advancement of modern food retail formats: theory and measurement[END_REF]; [START_REF] Goldman | Supermarkets vs. traditional retail stores: diagnosing the barriers to supermarkets' market share growth in an ethnic minority community[END_REF], is concerned about whether supermarkets can overcome barriers and proceed advancement despite the persistent competitive advantage of traditional food retailers in Asia (1.1.1). The second [START_REF] Reardon | The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America[END_REF][START_REF] Dries | The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Central and Eastern Europe: Implications for the Agrifood Sector and Rural Development[END_REF] argues that emerging economies are subject to the globalization of food retailing which characterized by the growing dominance of grocery retail chains. And as these chains utilize investments in supply systems and cross-national buyer power, they then overcome the barriers to their development outlined by Goldman et al. (2002) (1.1.2). The third and most recent attempt to explain the evolution of retail formats in emerging countries is the "Big Middle" advocated by Gorton et al. (2011) (1.1.3). Goldman (1974a) described the strategic transformation of a small store into a large store and explained the characteristics of the modern retail system as including the need to have a traceability system implemented. He then pointed out in Goldman (1974b) that low outreach of consumers is an important barrier to the establishment of such a more modern, more economical supermarket system in emerging countries. [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF] while comparing the evolution of food retailers in developed and less-developed societies, also advocated that the adoption of a new modern institution would face difficulties by a number of factors that 'are unique to emerging economies'. Factors addressed by the authors included the number of potential customers, the levels of income, acute disparities in the distribution of income, and lifestyles of residents. Various limitations from the institutions themselves at the time, such as the inadequate supply of managerial talent, financial resources, initiative, and necessary capital, were also mentioned.

Barriers to modern food retailing

From their study of Hong Kong market, [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF] found that traditional retailers possessed a persistent competitive advantage towards consumers in this country. Their research revealed that the emphasis on fresh ingredients and daily cooking had led to a high shopping frequency (an average of 5.8 times per week at wet markets, small amounts on each purchase) of consumers. This was explained by the proximity of the wet markets at an average of 7.4 minutes walking time, which made it easy for them to shop almost daily. The qualitative study also revealed that consumers viewed wet markets and supermarkets as complementing one another and as being equally important. Consumers also claimed that wet markets offered more advantages than supermarkets in fresh food. 'Wet market retailers were regarded as specialists offering deep selection in a narrow range of items and advice about origins, quality, and freshness' [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF]. The authors, in conclusion, argued that the superiority of wet markets was based on functional advantages in variety, service, freshness, and price, not on traditional values or social interaction.

Further analysis of market share growth of modern retailers in Hong Kong between 1995 and 1999 showed that geographic and economic segment diffusion of supermarkets was complete but not product category-dependent diffusion, specifically for perishable produce. According to [START_REF] Goldman | Barriers to the advancement of modern food retail formats: theory and measurement[END_REF] the segment diffusion is 'where growth comes from the format's adoption by identifiable groups of consumers' (most relevant are geographic and economic segments). The results showed that perishability of the purchased category remained the overwhelming determinant of format choice. Accordingly, consumers were reported to split their food purchases, buying staple and processed food from supermarkets and fresh food from the wet markets, indicating a selective adoption of modern retail. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 56 In summary [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF] and [START_REF] Goldman | Barriers to the advancement of modern food retail formats: theory and measurement[END_REF] both argued that food retailing differs significantly between Asian and Non-Asian markets because of structural and cultural differences. In contrast to North America and Western Europe, wet markets in Asian countries have not been 'squeezed out' by supermarkets and retain an enduring superiority. [START_REF] Goldman | Supermarkets vs. traditional retail stores: diagnosing the barriers to supermarkets' market share growth in an ethnic minority community[END_REF] later attempted to identify the barriers to the advancement of the supermarket format in an ethnic minority community of Israel. Socio-economic factors which were found in earlier supermarket diffusion studies to be the main barrier had no impact in this case. The study also witnessed a tendency to purchase perishable food items in traditional outlets; the geographical diffusion barrier (distance of supermarket formats) was found to be the main limitation on supermarkets' market share growth. In specific, there were major differences found in relative travel distance between supermarkets and the traditional outlets specializing in perishable; and between supermarkets and the grocery stores. Data evaluation indicated that the impact of the distance factor was very strong in the case of non-perishable items but weak in perishable ones. Further, the findings indicated that both these two factors were influenced by underlying cultural and ethnic factors characterizing the studied population. Some researchers have argued that Goldman's perspective fails to capture recent structural change and lacks an appropriate historical context [START_REF] Reardon | The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America[END_REF][START_REF] Gorton | Wet Markets, Supermarkets and the "Big Middle" for Food Retailing in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand[END_REF][START_REF] Mcarthur | The Evolution of Retailing[END_REF] Hino ( 2010) argued that the concept of the ''diffusion'' of the supermarket formats was too general and vague. Instead, the author built up the process into three distinct components. The first component is the geographic diffusion of supermarket formats, i.e. super markets' accessibility to the consumers. The second is the adoption, i.e. whether consumers shop regularly in supermarkets. The third represents the degree of usage by the adopting consumers which vary Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 57 across a continuum from full use (one stop shopping) to partial/limited use (selective adoption).

The purpose was to detect 'gaps': between geographic diffusion and adoption (geographic diffusion-adoption gap), and between adoption and full use (adoption-usage gap), which constitute ''barriers'' to supermarkets' success.

.2. The supermarket diffusion

Now we will look at the second scheme of argument for supermarket diffusion of countries in transition, prominently associated with [START_REF] Reardon | The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America[END_REF] and [START_REF] Dries | The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Central and Eastern Europe: Implications for the Agrifood Sector and Rural Development[END_REF][START_REF] Dries | The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Central and Eastern Europe: Implications for the Agrifood Sector and Rural Development[END_REF] studied the retail transformation in Central and Eastern Europe (CEE), less-developed countries in EU agrifood sector at the time. Three stages appeared to structure the path of change in the retail sector in this region were (1) the pre-transition, or 'communist', period, roughly pre-1990s; (2) the early transition period when the earlier system was changed, often via privatisation (ownership change) and format (small versus large) of the retail stores; (3) the 'globalisation period' that started in some CEE countries in the second half of the 1990s with major investments by multinationals, and was strong at the time of research. The study acknowledged profound changes in procurement systems over the stages, which affected the conditions that local farmers faced, and also created important opportunities and challenges for the rural development process. [START_REF] Reardon | The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America[END_REF] in their paper explained how modern retailing evolved across Africa, Asia and Latin America. Supermarket diffusion was described as 'waves' as diffusion rolling, which was later concluded more concretely in Reardon and Gulati (2008a) -Table 3.1 Table 3.1. Three waves of supermarket diffusion (Reardon and Gulati, 2008a) Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 59 From their perspective, traditional food systems can be regarded as 'internationally similar', though the rate and timing of structural change may vary geographically as economic development between countries is uneven [START_REF] Gorton | Wet Markets, Supermarkets and the "Big Middle" for Food Retailing in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand[END_REF]. In general, the process was reflected as the agri-food systems in these countries shifted from fragmented, local markets to larger centralized, wholesale markets. Further extant literature also detected how increase in income, urbanization, globalization and changing lifestyles have contributed to the rapid rise of supermarkets in aforementioned continents [START_REF] Reardon | The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America[END_REF][START_REF] Reardon | The Rise of Supermarkets and Their Development Implications: International Experience Relevant for India, IFPRI Discussion Paper[END_REF][START_REF] Reardon | The global rise and impact of supermarkets: an international perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Tschirley | The Rise of a Middle Class in East and Southern Africa: Implications for Food System Transformation[END_REF]. This perspective considers that emerging economies are subject to the rapid growth of modern retail chains, thus supermarkets are able to overcome some of their traditional disadvantages, combining superior quality with price advantages and proceeding to win market share over traditional wet markets. Investments in procurement and distribution systems, according to Reardon and Gulati (2008a) and [START_REF] Dries | The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Central and Eastern Europe: Implications for the Agrifood Sector and Rural Development[END_REF], accompanied the rapid growth of grocery retail chains in emerging economies.

As observed by [START_REF] Reardon | The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America[END_REF], the take-over of modern food retailing in the three regions of Asia, Latin America and Africa had occurred much more rapidly in processed/packaged foods, and gaining control of fresh food markets had been slower. Additionally, within each of these three broad regions, there were large difference over sub-regions and countries because of local habits and responses by wet markets and local shops. Later record by [START_REF] Reardon | The global rise and impact of supermarkets: an international perspective[END_REF] showed that the rapid growth observed in the early 2000s in China, Indonesia, Malaysia, and Thailand has continued, and the 'newcomers' -India and Vietnam -have grown even faster. Moreover, this study acknowledged again that Asia's supermarket revolution exhibited 'unique pathways of retail diffusion and procurement system change'.

The "Big Middle" framework

The third and most recent approach to retail evolution in Asian countries is the "Big Middle" framework advocated by [START_REF] Gorton | Wet Markets, Supermarkets and the "Big Middle" for Food Retailing in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand[END_REF]. This approach was built on from the 'Big Middle' theory of [START_REF] Levy | The concept of the "Big Middle[END_REF], which combined economic with cyclical factors in arguing that the most successful retailers are drawn into being volume-driven generalists in the long run.

Although the "Big Middle" advances the understanding of retailing change, it is deterministic and largely based on large-scale retailing experience from the US [START_REF] Mcarthur | The Evolution of Retailing[END_REF]. [START_REF] Gorton | Wet Markets, Supermarkets and the "Big Middle" for Food Retailing in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand[END_REF] advocated the framework in reference to Thailand marketspace as to focus on "where the largest number of potential customers reside". The authors developed a customer-centric model for explaining the evolution of retail institutions that occupy the Big Middle and assessed the extent to which supermarkets can capture the Big Middle for food retailing in East Asia. The authors suggested that for East Asia, models should assume that consumers choose between two retail formats, i.e. supermarkets and wet markets. Additionally, they added an assumption that in specific time period, consumers may use both formats but differ in the frequency of visits and the percentage of total spending on a product category. The results showed both retail outlet attributes and socio-economic characteristics as important determinants considering the wet market visits. Whereas, frequency of supermarket visits was negatively related to age and educational attainment.

The analysis of retail attributes and the weighting given to them by consumers in [START_REF] Gorton | Wet Markets, Supermarkets and the "Big Middle" for Food Retailing in Developing Countries: Evidence from Thailand[END_REF]' study revealed that supermarkets outperformed wet markets on all salient attributes and they possessed a strong perceived advantage on food safety. The authors argued that rather than their appeal being restricted to a particular socio-economic niche, the supermarkets' share of fresh produce expenditure was not dependent on consumer's socio-demographic factors such as educational group, age or household income. In accordance with the Big Middle model, the drift to supermarkets was consumer-led, i.e. largest marketspace was occupied by those that provided superior relative value.

1.2. The impacts of modern food retail diffusion on food system Alongside the growth of modern food retailing are a number of impacts on actors in the food system. Notably several research papers have discussed these impacts on the supply side, the demand side, policy makers and the general environment. [START_REF] Reardon | The Supermarket Revolution in Developing Countries: Policies to Address Emerging Tensions Among Supermarkets, Suppliers and Traditional Retailers[END_REF] addressed emerging tensions among supermarkets, suppliers and traditional retailers as a result of the supermarket revolution in emerging countries. These were specified as the tensions between: (1) supermarkets and traditional retailers; and (2) supermarket chains and their suppliers. The authors analyzed the sources of these tensions in emerging countries, drawing on experience of the developed countries (mainly the US and UK), and put a focus on policy approach. The diffusion of supermarkets was, again, expressed in waves, 'from large cities, to intermediate cities, then to small cities and even rural towns, and from richer consumer groups to the middle class, then to the lower middle class and the working poor in urban areas' [START_REF] Reardon | The Supermarket Revolution in Developing Countries: Policies to Address Emerging Tensions Among Supermarkets, Suppliers and Traditional Retailers[END_REF]. They then stressed that commercial regulations concerning contract compliance by retailers and suppliers, payment periods by retailers, and competitionbased pricing, were crucial as regulatory context affecting the speed and nature of the modernisation of the food economy. Given the differences in political and regulatory structures between and within regions, this approach raised a question of how such implications could actually be practically applied in a specific country's context.

According to [START_REF] Humphrey | The supermarket revolution in developing countries: tidal wave or tough competitive struggle?[END_REF], the depth and implications of retail transformation in emerging countries was unclear and the pioneering analyzes over-generalised both its reach and its impact. The author also considered that large supermarket chains engaged in intense competition with other retailing formats, both traditional and non-traditional. Specifically, since the supermarkets faced big challenges in the area of fresh food, consumer preferences have to be considered carefully when trying to generalise about the advance of this modern format. On the supply side, it was argued that modern supermarkets radically change food supply chains by introducing new procurement practices. By linking supermarket expansion to changes at the farm level, Humphrey pointed out that the marginalisation of small farmers by the supermarkets' preferred supplier system suggested by [START_REF] Reardon | The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America[END_REF] and [START_REF] Reardon | The Supermarket Revolution in Developing Countries: Policies to Address Emerging Tensions Among Supermarkets, Suppliers and Traditional Retailers[END_REF] was not always the case. Findings from the paper implied that the future landscape of fresh produce sourcing and marketing in emerging countries is varied and the expansion of large supermarket chains will not have 'a uniform impact'. Reardon and Gulati (2008a) called the supermarket revolution a "two-edged sword" as 'On the one hand, it can lower food prices for consumers and create opportunities for farmers and processors to gain access to quality-differentiated food markets and raise incomes. On the other hand, it can create challenges for small retailers, farmers, and processors who are not equipped to meet the new competition and requirements from supermarkets.' Their statement indicated effects of modern retail diffusion not only on consumers, traditional retailers, but also the wholesale, processing, and farm sectors within the food system.

For consumers, Reardon and Gulati (2008a) believed supermarkets to have competitive advantages in lower prices, offering more diverse products and higher quality than traditional retailers in most countries. Traditional retailers, as a result, faced high competition and faced a decline in their market share, at different rates over product categories and locations. The authors then discussed and suggested a number of policies and strategies to seek "competitiveness with inclusiveness" for actors in the food retail chain system, with a special edition for India in [START_REF] Reardon | The Rise of Supermarkets and Their Development Implications: International Experience Relevant for India, IFPRI Discussion Paper[END_REF]. [START_REF] Suryadarma | Traditional food traders in developing countries and competition from supermarkets: Evidence from Indonesia[END_REF] studied the business practices of modern and traditional businesses to see whether traditional traders experienced a greater decline in profit due to competition from the modern ones. The results showed that 66.2% of traditional traders actually perceived other traders and street vendors as their main competitors, not supermarkets. The authors argued that there was no statistically significant effect of supermarkets on traditional markets in Indonesia as stated by [START_REF] Reardon | The Rapid Rise of Supermarkets in Latin America: Challenges and Opportunities for Development[END_REF]; Reardon and Gulati (2008a). A possible explanation was that supermarkets did not perceive traditional markets as their main competitors and vice versa. The two markets were believed to be largely complementary, attracting different segments of consumers (low-end consumers towards traditional markets, mainly the middle and upper class consumers towards supermarkets). Their qualitative interview with traders expressed a need for improvement in traditional market infrastructure, organization of the street vendors and the implementation of better market management practices. [START_REF] Reardon | Supermarket revolution in Asia and emerging development strategies to include small farmers[END_REF] found a preference of modern retailers for sourcing processed foods, staples, and dairy from medium and large companies in the region. The authors believed that this trend would continue, driven by intensive investment, by regulations such as the emerging food safety regulations or consumer sensitivity to food safety which supposedly leads them to shift from wet-markets to supermarkets. For fresh products, in a number of horticulture zones (such as India and Indonesia), where small farmers dominated in number, it was still common, for medium and even large farmers to have the majority of the volume of sales in the market at least in commercial agriculture zones. This, according to Reardon et al., put strains on traditional produce supply chains and the need for specific strategies to be developed to link farmers to supermarket channels. Two of these strategies described by the authors were (1) the "hub"/ "platform"/ "park" of the various companies and services that link farmers to modern markets and (2) the establishment of collection centers and multipronged collection cum service provision arrangements. [START_REF] Tandon | Expansion of Modern Grocery Retailing and Trade in Developing Countries[END_REF], based on an analysis of a data set of 103 emerging countries, concluded that the expansion of modern grocery retailing was associated with growth in demand for 'non-price characteristics', such as convenience in food shopping and preparation, but not with variables indicative of the emergence of more efficient food supply chains. Specifically, the study found out a relationship between the rate of penetration and base income level in emerging and transition countries; an uncorrelated relation between growth and a number of supply-side factors, such as conducive business environments and infrastructure; and demand factors such as increased convenience were very important to growth. [START_REF] Zhang | The Transformation of Urban Vegetable Retail in China: Wet Markets, Supermarkets and Informal Markets in Shanghai[END_REF] claimed that a series of policy choices made by municipal governments had made significant changes to China's agri-food system over years thus creating relative competitiveness between wet markets and supermarkets. By the early 2000s, agricultural production in China had been fully liberalised and vegetable production had shifted from periurban areas of municipalities to rural areas. The state-run public vegetable retail system, as a result, was replaced with a market-based, profit-driven system, shaped by the state's intervention in building market infrastructure and institutions. Market forces, despite expanding the supermarket sector rapidly and increasing the overall supply of retail space, had not met consumers' needs in variety, freshness, scale, convenience and affordability. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 65 Extant literature has raised a typical issue regarding the integration of farms into supermarket supply chains, which is the indirect environmental impacts. As new production processes, it usually also entails increased inputs of fertilisers, pesticides, energy and water, which give rise to greater environmental hazards and result in higher production costs [START_REF] Altenburg | Making retail modernisation in developing countries inclusive: A development policy perspective[END_REF]. [START_REF] Schreinemachers | Too much to handle? Pesticide Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 231 dependence of smallholder vegetable farmers in Southeast Asia[END_REF]'s study in Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam also found problems in farmers' knowledge, attitudes, and practices regarding agricultural pest management and synthetic pesticide use. According to their research, as vegetable production in the three countries were mainly small-scale, vegetable farmers heavily depended on pesticides for managing pests and diseases. The frequency of fertilizer use showed that the intensity of production was much higher in Vietnam and Cambodia than in Laos, which followed by marketable crop yields and profit margins also higher in these two countries. Small farmers, despite being aware of the adverse health effects associated with pesticide use, considered pesticides to be highly effective and indispensable farm inputs.

From an institutional perspective, retailers in emerging countries have confirmed the dilemma of intense competition from modernisation, making both foreign and local retailers face difficulties in gaining competitive advantage [START_REF] Phambuka-Nsimbi | Modern Retailing and its Implications for Developing Countries: Insights from Retail Managers[END_REF]. Consumer demand and cost-associated factors have also increased, making it more challenging to stay competitive.

Insights from the challenges faced by retailers in Sub-Sahara Africa as a result of the growing influx of large foreign retail establishments were presented by [START_REF] Phambuka-Nsimbi | Modern Retailing and its Implications for Developing Countries: Insights from Retail Managers[END_REF].

The study revealed that bureaucracy in decision-making, poor store image and pressure to meet sales targets were perceived as common challenges by retailers.

In Myanmar, Hardaker (2017)'s research on the attractiveness of the market showed that although the retail market appeared to be relatively highly attractive, foreign retailers were still hesitant to expand to the country. The author explained the difficulties of foreign institutions in entering the market with three main aspects: first the unique characteristics of the consumer market in Myanmar, owing to its own economic policy history and consumer' income; second the local supply and logistics infrastructure, with inconsistencies in quality of suppliers; and third the new and partly missing regulations in the real estate sector, indicating certain geographic boundaries for diffusion.

The impacts of modern food retail diffusion on consumer behavior

The focus of this section is to study the impacts of modern food retail diffusion on consumer shopping practices (1.3.1) with a special focus on bargaining practice (1.3.2) as a very unique behavior of consumers from countries with traditional wet markets found in the extant literature.

The impacts on consumer shopping practices

The supermarket revolution brings in a number of new establishments, and is promising to possess many competitive advantages. As discussed in the above sections, modern retail formats have one major advantage: convenience. Supermarkets are believed to offer consumers additional product choices at lower price over a wide range of product categories, to increase shopping convenience as a 'one stop shopping' and, with the influx of international supermarket chains, to increase consumer shopping experience by enhancing store environment.

Poor consumers who earn daily wages or lack the storage space of refrigeration, however, tend to make very small purchases and shop more frequently to meet their immediate needs. For such consumers, the kind of shopping convenience offered by supermarkets appears to be less relevant [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF][START_REF] Goldman | Barriers to the advancement of modern food retail formats: theory and measurement[END_REF][START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF].

The supermarket revolution can also enormously affect consumer behavior, which in turn influence their nutrition and health in positive or negative ways [START_REF] Tessier | Regular users of supermarkets in Greater Tunis have a slightly improved diet quality[END_REF][START_REF] Hawkes | Dietary Implications of Supermarket Development: A Global Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Asfaw | Does Supermarket Purchase Affect the Dietary Practices of Households? Some Empirical Evidence from Guatemala[END_REF][START_REF] Timmer | Do Supermarkets Change the Food Policy Agenda?[END_REF][START_REF] Kelly | Nutrition transition, food retailing, and health equity in Thailand[END_REF][START_REF] Banwell | Evolving food retail environments in Thailand and implications for the health and nutrition transition[END_REF][START_REF] Reardon | Urbanization, Diet Change, and Transformation of Food Supply Chains in Asia, Global Center for Food System[END_REF].

On the positive side, supermarkets offer a more diverse diet choice available and accessible to more people [START_REF] Hawkes | Dietary Implications of Supermarket Development: A Global Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Tessier | Regular users of supermarkets in Greater Tunis have a slightly improved diet quality[END_REF] . On the down side, supermarket purchases increase the choice share of highly and partially processed foods at the expense of staple foods, encourage the greater consumption of high-calorie, nutrient-poor processed 'problem foods', and increase adult BMI (Body Mass Index) and the likelihood of being overweight or obese [START_REF] Asfaw | Does Supermarket Purchase Affect the Dietary Practices of Households? Some Empirical Evidence from Guatemala[END_REF][START_REF] Timmer | Do Supermarkets Change the Food Policy Agenda?[END_REF][START_REF] Kelly | Nutrition transition, food retailing, and health equity in Thailand[END_REF]. Major shifts in dietary patterns and diet-related health have been studied by nutritionists and public health researchers.

The diffusion of modern food retailing in emerging countries has created a major research line on choices between modern retailers or traditional retailers (as discussed in chapter 2 subsection 2.2.) or choices within modern retailers (chapter 2, sub-section 2.3). However, few attention has been given to consumers' cross shopping behavior in the 'co-existence' context. [START_REF] Sohail | Shopping Behavior and Evaluation of Store Features: Perspectives from a Food Market in the Arabian Peninsula[END_REF] investigated the shopping behavior of shoppers in Saudi Arabia, the largest retail market in Arabian Peninsula. Comparisons based on demographic factors were discussed which showed a variation of preferences over different demographic profiles (age and income;

Locals and Expatriates). The research attempted to show an exhibition of a transformation from the traditional retail outlets, which were dominated by bazaars (locally called souks), bakalas, or groceries, to the modern retail outlets. However, this was not clearly demonstrated by the range of questions in which no specific types of retail definition were mentioned to participants of the survey. It was an interesting point to see that the largest groups of respondents from the study were male and only 8% were female though in many other cultures, females are thought to be the main shoppers for the households. Most respondents reported to shop at night (73%) and 61% did their shopping at weekend. The results of this study also suggested that Saudi shoppers prefer to alternate their shopping in different shopping outlets, but did not demonstrate the range of retail choices that they made in the survey results. Price, shop atmosphere, and store location were found to be not important determinants of store selection for Saudi shoppers. In general, the authors claimed shopping to be more of a social activity to people in Saudi as a nature of the society, in the absence of entertainment avenues. However, this study and its results are specific to Saudi Arabia.

Moving on to South East Asia, i.e. Indonesia, the study of [START_REF] Sunanto | Modern Retail Impact on Store Preference and Traditional Retailers in West Java[END_REF] focused on effects of modern retail on changes in consumers' store preferences. Sunanto and Tuninga (2009); Sunanto, et al. (2010) found that the opportunity to bargain and indulge in personal relationships between sellers and buyers are the main reasons why people still prefer to buy goods at a traditional market rather than at a modern market. Their study concentrated on how consumers shifted their buying preferences from traditional stores to modern retailers. As they pointed out, supermarket was preferred due to convenience, assortment, and cleanliness and 'one-stop shopping' concept was a competitive advantage offered by modern retailers Research by [START_REF] Amine | Shoppers' reactions to modern food retailing systems in an emerging country[END_REF] exploring Moroccan shoppers' reactions to modern food retailing systems showed how the mass arrival of foreign distribution concepts was affecting local buyers' habits in emerging countries. Using a qualitative approach, combining instore observations of behaviors and in-depth interviews, the results indicated that the differences in social classes gave rise to various ways of shopping and generate singular symbolic representations of shopping experiences. The authors revealed (1) practices which consider modern retailing stores as a place of social confrontation and categorization and (2) a hybridization of shopping practices in which consumers transpose some traditional commerce related practices to modern retail formats. The data gathering was conducted with observation and interviews with clients previously observed in two modern retailers (one foreign modern retailer and one local hypermarket chain). The selection of participants for their interview did not show an inclusion of customers who frequent traditional open air markets at the time. Consumer practices in this case, as a result, could possibly be biased towards modern types. Otherwise, it is worth marking that these types of hybrid shopping practices tied for the retail banner expressing a strong local identity, i.e. by highlighting the local tradition and the religious values [START_REF] Amine | Shoppers' reactions to modern food retailing systems in an emerging country[END_REF].

Bargaining practice

Bargaining/negotiation/ haggling is a social exchange activity which allows the possibility to reach a mutually satisfactory outcome between the parties [START_REF] Evans | A Theoretical Model of Consumer Negotiated Pricing: An Orientation Perspective[END_REF]. [START_REF] Morley | The social psychology of bargaining[END_REF] defined bargaining in general term, as 'the process whereby parties with conflicting aims establish on what terms they will co-operate'. The possibility to bargain has been found to be one of the reasons why consumers purchasing fresh food enjoy traditional markets in Malaysia [START_REF] Chamhuri | Consumer Choice of Retail Outlet: Focus Group Interviews in Malaysia[END_REF], Indonesia (Sunanto and Tuninga, 2009;Sunanto, et al., 2010) and China [START_REF] Maruyama | The modernization of fresh food retailing in China: The role of consumers[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Dawra | Can you do something about the price?" -Exploring the Indian deal and bargaining-prone customer[END_REF], in many emerging countries where traditional trade and small trade remain dominant, the practice of haggling 'still retains all its vigor and topicality'.

Consumers bargain for a variety of reasons, ranging from obtaining better value to establishing long term relationship with sellers [START_REF] Sharma | Recognizing the Importance of Consumer Bargaining: Strategic Marketing Implications[END_REF]. The social setting of consumer bargaining, however, may vary from one country to another [START_REF] Sharma | Recognizing the Importance of Consumer Bargaining: Strategic Marketing Implications[END_REF]. [START_REF] Lee | Cross-Cultural Examination of the Fishbein Behavioral Intentions Model[END_REF]'s research about retail bargaining behavior of American and Chinese customers showed that the Chinese consumers possessed a more competitive bargaining style and a higher level of bargaining intention than the Americans although their attitudes and subjective norms of the act did not differ. [START_REF] Putthiwanit | Buyer success and failure in bargaining and its consequences[END_REF] provided insights of buyer as bargainer by carrying out in-depth interviews with ten international respondents in Taiwan on various kinds of product such as daily consumption items, clothing, automobile, etc. The results showed that successful bargainers tended to be younger people and easterner, compared to unsuccessful bargainers who tended to be older people and westerner. The authors also found that confident interviewees shared their successful bargaining experiences whereas calm and quiet attitude interviewees expressed about their unsuccessful bargaining stories. Self-esteem was claimed to be an antecedent factor to shape buyer becoming bargainer. The interviews indicated this as a situation in which the buyer was afraid to lose face and decided not to bargain and accept the seller's initial offer. The study called for the need for buyer and seller to maintain mutual-interest, and simultaneously retain their long-term relationship.

In accordance with this research, while studying the relationship between consumer behavior and price negotiation, [START_REF] Wieseke | Willing to Pay More, Eager to Pay Less: The Role of Customer Loyalty in Price Negotiations[END_REF] proposed a phenomenon which they labelled the "loyalty-discount cycle". This cycle proposed increasing loyalty and discounts over time of consumers across several retail industries. Further analysis showed that loyal customers demanded a reward for their loyalty and invoked their elevated perceived negotiation power, and thus those customers on average received greater discounts in price negotiations. In turn, salespeople granted discounts more willingly to retain loyal customers. These effects were moderated by the basis of customer loyalty, customer-seller relationship length, and salespeople's customer-oriented behavior. Although the study was done in the US's non-food retail industries, it provided profound findings on price negotiation and salesperson-consumer relationship. [START_REF] Sharif | Following Mothers to the Wet Market: The Significant Benefits Gain by Young Generations[END_REF] found out that confidence would be gained by Malaysian youngsters when they repeatedly practice the knowledge and skills that they attained from mothers while following them to the wet markets. As they argued, food knowledge transfer could occur spontaneously without intention, with visible and support involvement which helped youngsters in the form of mentoring from one generation to another generation. By following mother to the wet market, Malaysian youngsters was found to gain knowledge on differentiating the quality of fresh products (options, availability and seasonal products) at the wet market. Moreover, the study found that skills of bargaining were passed down to the children by their mother through the practice and buying raw materials at the wet market cost became less an issue for the family.

Hence, the authors believed that the youngsters became empowered in handling the steps in buying raw materials at the wet markets with the continuation of knowledge transmission from one generation to the next generations. [START_REF] Djelassi | La perception du marchandage par des consommateurs et des commerçants de cultures différentes, 22e Colloque International Etienne Thil[END_REF] studied the meaning of the bargaining practice in the eyes of consumers and the sellers of two different cultures. Taking the case of French tourists in Tunisia and using a dual qualitative study with in-depth interviews, the authors highlighted the diversity of haggling approaches used by French tourists and Tunisian sellers to negotiate prices. Specifically, three different bargaining approaches were revealed including (1) "resignation" (adopted by buyers who do not like to haggle and who submit to the price offered by the merchant);

(2) the use of "tricks" to get the expected price drop and (3) entrusting the bargaining task to an acquaintance of Tunisian origin more familiar with bargaining practices. A theme came up during the interviews and emphasized that the determination of prices by bargaining was culturally rooted in African countries such as Tunisia and bargaining was found to be a tradition of determining prices. According to [START_REF] Djelassi | La perception du marchandage par des consommateurs et des commerçants de cultures différentes, 22e Colloque International Etienne Thil[END_REF], since haggling is not a widespread practice in Western countries such as France where the practice of fixed prices is rather dominant, having to haggle was proved to be either a difficult and tiring exercise, or a conversely fun and curious activity. research results showed that the traditional market was more for the elder people and the supermarket was more for the younger generation aged below 50. To be specific, it was found that the women aged 15 to 30 and of higher class status were most likely to shop at the supermarket while the male aged more than 50 and of lower class status were less likely to shop at supermarket. A person's consciousness of food health was found to be insignificant in exerting an impact on his / her choice between the two retail formats for these Taiwanese consumers. The authors, as a result, indicated a possibility that other variables, such as shopping habit, outweighed people's concern for food health in the retail choice process.

Aforementioned [START_REF] Reardon | The rise of supermarkets in Africa, Asia and Latin America[END_REF]'s approach to study supermarket revolution in Latin America, Africa and Asia was a typical example of segmenting consumers based on geographic factors. Their results also went further by indicating that the share of the fresh food market captured by modern retailers varied greatly within individual countries and between urban and rural areas.

In Malaysia, Yue-Teng et al. (2011) identified three groups of student shoppers based on psychographic statements. The largest group (more than half of respondents) was economic Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 73 shoppers, who were mostly attracted to careful shopping (bargain, comparison). The second largest group (convenience shoppers) provided the lowest mean score for all dimensions except choice optimization. These convenience shoppers were attracted to finding the right products in the least amount of time. The smallest group (addictive shoppers) provided the highest score for most dimensions and were driven most by the shopping motives of anticipated utility and affiliation.

Shopping motivations were the approach of the three continuous studies published by [START_REF] Jayasankaraprasad | Study on Crossformat Shopping Motives and Shopper Typologies in Emerging Food and Grocery Retail Market in India[END_REF] and by [START_REF] Jayasankaraprasad | Consumers' Cross-Format Shopping Behavior in an Emerging Retail Market: Multiple Discriminant Analysis[END_REF]; [START_REF] Jayasankaraprasad | Cross-format shopping motives and shopper typologies for grocery shopping: a multivariate approach[END_REF] on cross-format shoppers in India. Five cross-format shopper segments were economic shopper, convenience shopper, price-promotional shopper, hedonic shopper, and socialization shopper.

Similarly, [START_REF] Mehta | A typology of Indian hypermarket shoppers based on shopping motivation[END_REF] identified typology of Indian hypermarket shoppers based on their shopping motivation. Their study results revealed that hypermarket shopping in India is driven by functional, recreational and social motivation. Four types of hypermarket shoppers were distinguished: (1) utilitarians (high on functional motivation), (2) maximisers (high on functional and recreational motivation), (3) browsers (high on social motivation) and ( 4) enthusiasts (high on all dimensions of shopping motivation). The maximisers formed the largest group of shoppers which, according to the authors, indicated that majority of Indian shoppers went to hypermarkets with a combination of product and entertainment motives.

For this thesis, the research was conducted in an urban area only (center Hanoi City) because the topic on consumer cross-shopping behavior required that respondents had access to both traditional wet markets and modern food retail stores. Thus in this study the geographic attribute was defined as geographic proximity, which has been identified in previous study as one attribute influencing choice [START_REF] Thornton | Using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) to assess the role of the built environment in influencing obesity: a glossary[END_REF][START_REF] Goodman | Store choice: How understanding consumer choice of 'where' to shop may assist the small retailer[END_REF]. It followed Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 74 [START_REF] Hirsch | Exploring the role of the food environment on food shopping patterns in Philadelphia, PA, USA: a semiquantitative comparison of two matched neighborhood groups[END_REF]'s definition of geographic location the 'proximity or closeness to home, schools, work, or other shopping locations'. Segmentation of this study followed [START_REF] Cervellon | Shopping orientations as antecedents to channel choice in the French grocery multichannel landscape[END_REF]; [START_REF] Goodman | Store choice: How understanding consumer choice of 'where' to shop may assist the small retailer[END_REF], of which segments were classified based on their choice set of retail formats (type of retail format) from traditional wet markets and modern food retail stores rather than socio-demographic approach.

Synthesis of section 1

The first sub-section of this review of market situation in emerging countries presented three perspectives on the growth of modern food retailing (1.1): barriers to modern retailers, the diffusion of supermarket and the "Big Middle". The second and third sub-section presented impacts of such changes on consumer food system and practices, and revealed a rising tension in market competition, the importance of market governance by policies and a need to understand consumer behavior in such transitioning markets. Section 1.4. presented different factors allowing consumers' segmentation.

Section 2. Food and vegetable retailing in Vietnam

The present section reports the desk study undertaken within the scope of this PhD thesis to gain insights of the food retail market development in Vietnam. This section sought to thoroughly review extant literature ranging from official industry reports, policy documents to technical working papers and scientific articles with relevance to the context of Vietnamese food retail sector, exploring market situations and consumer food behavior over the last 20 years (Refer to Annex 1 for a sample of tables used for literature review). Specifically, sub-section 2.1 describes the background of the urban food retail transformation in Vietnam. Sub-section 2.2 provides a review on consumers' food behavior in Vietnam, especially on fresh food produce and presents Vietnamese consumers' shopping practices.

Vietnam's population in 1999 was 76.3 million inhabitants and reached almost 80 million in 2002, being the most densely populated country in the region after Singapore [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF]. The rate of urbanisation was 25% in 2002, relatively low compared to the average for South-East Asia (36%) (Cour, 2001cited in (Moustier et al., 2003). Since the early 2000s Vietnam was considered a country in demographic transition towards an urbanised population [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF].

In 2017, Vietnam's population was 95.54 million people and was projected to reach 98.4 million in 2020, an increase of 1% on average between 2015-2020 (EVBN, 2018). 70% of the population aged between 15 and 64 years and this was projected to continue to increase (Deloitte,

2014). National urban development programme proposed by the Ministry of Construction reported

Vietnam to achieve an urbanisation rate of 38% with 870 urban areas by 2015 and this was expected to increase to 45% with nearly 940 urban areas by 2020 (Deloitte, 2014).

After the national economic reforms initiated in 1986, Vietnam has evolved from a command economy into a market economy, joining middle-income group of emerging countries with an annual income per capita of over 2,300 USD (World Bank, 2018). Overall economic growth, rapid urbanization, increasing disposable income, increasing purchasing power and transformation in lifestyle have been the important factors contributing to the growth of urban retailing in the country. Van Vietnam is considered one of the "newcomers" to the "supermarket revolution" in developing countries [START_REF] Reardon | Supermarket revolution in Asia and emerging development strategies to include small farmers[END_REF] According to the reports by [START_REF] Eare | Vietnam retail report, Philippines[END_REF]McKinsey&Company, 2019), modern retailers in Vietnam offer a wide range of imported products and also offer private brands/ products that can be exclusively purchased in their stores. In response to consumers' needs to buy ingredients in smaller portions, supermarkets are offering ready-to-cook packages (RTCs) to better suit their daily needs. To further improve shopping experience, some supermarkets offer in-house bakeries and cafes where consumers can hang out with family and friends.

It is evident that modern retailing continues to flourish in the country as their numbers continue to grow each year. However, although traditional retail formats have been replaced by supermarkets and modern retail channels are expanding fast, Vietnam's food retail sector is still dominated by many small traditional sellers [START_REF] Eare | Vietnam retail report, Philippines[END_REF][START_REF] Evbn | Vietnam's distribution and retail channels, Vietnam[END_REF]. Concentration of modern retailers remains in the two biggest cities of the countries, i.e. the capital Hanoi in Northern Vietnam and Ho Chi Minh City (Saigon) in the South. Statistics has shown that supermarkets would take more than five years to breakeven in Vietnam, twice the time needed in Indonesia, Malaysia, and Singapore (EVBN, 2018).

Hanoi, the capital of Vietnam, is the second largest city in Vietnam and is the country's political and administrative center. In 2008, the plan of enlarging Hanoi in the northern region, through merging with all of Ha Tay Province and parts of Vinh Phuc and Hoa Binh Provinces, became active. As a result, the size of Hanoi is now 3.6 times bigger, with estimated population of more than 7.5 million people at the end of 2016, resulting in huge changes in demand and supply of food system.

As of 2018, 10 years after the expansion, income per capita of Hanoian was 117 million VND (equivalent to 5,134 USD) per year, 2.3 times higher than that of 2008, and was projected to increase to 6.700 -6.800 USD per year in 2020 (Nhandan, 2019). The rate of poor households in the whole city decreased from 8.43% in 2008 to 1.69% in 2018, and there are no more difficult communes and villages. The average number of people getting jobs every year is about 140 thousand.

Unemployment rate decreased from 3.18% in 2009 to 2.41% in 2018 (Chau-Anh, 2019).

Accordingly, the city is currently experiencing significant changes to its food market system and more particularly the distribution system.

Issues in local food environments

Previous research showed great concern over the impacts of supermarkets on the poor in Vietnam. More specifically, the studies focused on how producers and local farmers attempted to meet the supply requirements set by large retailers and to gain access to the supermarket chains [START_REF] Moustier | The Participation of the Poor in Supermarkets and other Distribution Value Chains[END_REF] and how poor consumers got access to supermarkets (Figuié and Nguyen, 2006;[START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF].

In the case of Vietnam, Figuié et al. (2004) argued that the extension in food supply channels in towns actually increased the distance between producers and consumers. And the poor had limited involvement as consumers, traders and farmers despite the advantages of modern food retail distribution [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]. [START_REF] Cadilhon | Modelling vegetable marketing systems in South East Asia: phenomenological insights from Vietnam[END_REF] while trying to model vegetable marketing systems in Ho Chi Minh, Vietnam concluded that it was difficult to try to place a country and its food market structure in one of the development levels proposed by the evolutionary approach to market studies. They highlighted the environmental components (domestic legal and policy factors, international trade policies and food markets, history, geography and cultural and social norms) surrounding the marketing system as potent explanatory factors in understanding the functioning of the system. In addition, they indicated that individual decisions of stakeholders within a complex network of collaborating and competing firms and individuals were fashioned by the relationships they built with their counterparts to facilitate trading in an imperfect market and legal environment.

Figuié and Nguyen ( 2006)'s study regarding poor consumers' access to supermarkets in Hanoi showed that poor households had to deal with the problem of low purchasing power and also faced other constraints such as little mobility and little storage capacity, irregular income, and sometimes constraining working hours when considering food purchasing. The results indicated that they had to possess skills in composing nutritious, safe and tasty meals with little means. Supermarkets were associated with market appeal and social distinction by poor consumers during their early days of entrance into the market (Figuié and [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]. While shopping at traditional markets was a practice common to the entire population, shopping at supermarkets was found restricted to more affluent consumers who could afford the higher prices and adopted shopping practices better suited to this kind of outlet (shopping in large quantities, which implies transport and storage facilities) [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]. Moustier et al. (2010) emphasized the role of farmer organizations in supplying supermarkets with quality food in Vietnam. Their study investigated farmer organizations' abilities in helping small-scale farmers obtain access to supermarkets, and the role that supermarkets and public support played in the emergence and development of these organizations. The study revealed that farmer groups' ability to supply supermarkets was related to the combination of functions they made available to their members, especially with regard to promoting and controlling quality for which they received public support. Farmers' profits per kilo were found to increase while supplying supermarkets via farmer associations in comparison to traditional chains, but the quantities supplied to supermarkets remained limited. The authors argued that changes in farmer organizations were not primarily due to supplying supermarkets, but rather to public and international support for food quality improvement. [START_REF] Wang | Quality Control of Safe Vegetables by Collective Action in Hanoi, Vietnam[END_REF], however, added that group leadership and farmers' sense of responsibility were the main ways for current Vietnamese farmer organizations to ensure producing a high-quality product.

Later [START_REF] Moustier | Operation and results of a vegetable market information and consultation system in Vietnam[END_REF] reported the operation and results of the vegetable market information and consultation system (MICS), which was set up between 2002 and 2005 in Hanoi, to address marketing problems faced by vegetable farmers. The system was based on a network of contact traders and dissemination was by television; besides, workshops made it possible to reach a consensus for market opportunities. Their report showed that price dissemination was easier to sustain (with the involvement of the public sector) than the consultation workshops due to low local capacity in terms of meeting facilitation and the present weakness of extension services and sector organisations. A combination of a system based on relational proximity (between farmers and consumers), expert systems, and labelling regarding the origin of vegetables was believed to enhance consumers' trust and farmers' commitments in guaranteeing vegetable safety [START_REF] Moustier | The Role of Proximity and Standards in Guaranteeing Vegetable Safety in Vietnam[END_REF].

For Vietnamese consumers, the main worry concerning food quality is about pesticides (chemical residues) in fruits and vegetables and antibiotics (stimulants) in meat (Figuié and Bricas, 2009). Indiscriminate use of chemical inputs in agriculture has led to severe environmental and public health problems in Vietnam and especially in Hanoi [START_REF] Nhung | Factors Affecting Consumers' Decision to Purchase Vietgap Vegetables in Hanoi Vietnam[END_REF]Hoi et al. 2016).

Vegetables are the second most important food group consumed in Vietnam after rice, being an important component of diets in Vietnam (Figuié, 2003). In 1995, the government even launched a "clean/ safe vegetable" program ("rau sach" or "rau an toan") to counteract food safety problems in horticultural produce. The program promoted the application of good practices by cooperatives involved in production, and set up the establishment of a distribution network for this production through "clean vegetable shops". In this context, the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development issued a temporary regulation on the production of "safe vegetables," which adopted maximum residue levels from Codex Alimentarius as a benchmark in 1998 (Mergenthaler et al., 2009a).

However, insights from a consumer survey conducted by [START_REF] Moustier | Food safety in Hanoi's vegetable supply some insights from a consumer survey[END_REF] still raised a major concern over food safety in Hanoi's vegetable supply. The study revealed a significant number of contaminants present at levels far above the tolerance limits, notably for pesticides, nitrates and heavy metals in vegetable produce. According to their analysis, the constraint at the time appeared more at the level of supply than at the level of demand. The survey confirmed that consumers wanted food security guarantees, and suggested that they are ready to pay a premium for quality but the "clean vegetable" shops were still experimental, and supplied only 1.5% of the Hanoi market. Figuié et al. (2004) argued that consumers' point of view regarding food safety risks must be analyzed in terms of social representation in order to understand the complexity and the social dimension of the interface between risk and the individual. Their survey of 200 households of the urban area of Hanoi showed that consumers of Hanoi were aware of food safety risks, and estimated that available foodstuffs were actually dangerous. However, results also showed that because the consumer trusted in their own practices of purchasing and preparing food they did not fear food-borne diseases greatly. Figuié et al. (2004) believed that this trust might be over enthusiastic and just be a way for consumers to reassure themselves, in a context where their demand for insurance, was not yet satisfied due to the context of urbanization and economic liberalization.

In 2008, the Government started another project which called for the implementation of VietGAP (GAP=good agricultural practices) standard. The certificate requires the producers to write down their practices and examine production and harvesting according to many food safety criteria. An external inspector came and checked these records and the Government expected VietGAP to be respected in at least half of all vegetable produce by 2015. However, the external inspection costs were found to be high (an equivalent of 1000€ for a hectare with VietGAP), which the small-scale producers could't afford (Moustier and Anh, 2010). Mergenthaler et al. (2009b)'s survey targeting 499 households in urban and peri-urban Hanoi and Hồ Chí Minh City revealed that more than 90% of the respondents said to have heard of or seen reports about negative health impacts caused by spoiled/and or contaminated food in media, especially on TV. A research conducted by Hanoi Medical University found E. coli bacteria in around 72% of the 660 collected vegetable samples in Hanoi and Nam Dinh [START_REF] The Anh | Food Safety Advocacy Report: Current situation of food safety law implementation and safe vegetables quality management[END_REF]. There has been reportedly more unofficial and illegal trading at the borders to China, Cambodia and Laos, where the quality control system and scanning is weak or non-existent, which means high level of difficulty to guarantee the quality of the vegetables, fruits and agricultural products [START_REF] The Anh | Food Safety Advocacy Report: Current situation of food safety law implementation and safe vegetables quality management[END_REF].

As the vast majority of farmers in Vietnam are smallholders, they tend to be extremely dependent on pesticide to safeguard and intensify their production [START_REF] Van Hoi | Market governance for safe food in developing countries: the case of low-pesticide vegetables in Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Schreinemachers | Too much to handle? Pesticide Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 231 dependence of smallholder vegetable farmers in Southeast Asia[END_REF]. The "safe vegetable" production system introduced as a domestic alternative to conventional vegetable production, found limited success according to [START_REF] Van Hoi | Market governance for safe food in developing countries: the case of low-pesticide vegetables in Vietnam[END_REF]. Their study revealed a lack of trust from market actors (especially consumers) towards this private arrangement in food governance. They also indicated a shortage of an active state that organized transparency and got market actors involved. Consequently, consumers are calling for more clarity and control over their food, facing a changing food system driven by sprawling urbanization and in which food scandals and food-borne diseases are of great concern [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF]. [START_REF] Pulliat | Food securitization and urban agriculture in Hanoi (Vietnam)[END_REF] addressed the process of construction of food vulnerability in Hanoi by considering people's practices and strategies, their choices, motivations, and arbitrations. The author defined 'food securitization' as 'a range of practices and strategies that people adopt to securitize or enhance one's food situation, considering one's capabilities and resources'. Based on her fieldwork in Hanoi during 2011-2012, Pulliat concluded that the case study of Hanoi illustrated food issues which emerged from the metropolisation process. The study's qualitative approach highlighted the drivers of residents' choices. The author identified two category of food insecurity groups (1) the transitory food insecurity group (those with difficulties that impacted their food Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 84 habits for a short period of time), and (2) the structural food insecurity category (people who had trouble with buying food for extended periods of time). The study suggested that urban agriculture was an asset among livelihood-securitization strategies, and also highlighted the special role of this asset in those strategies. The specificity of household agriculture was found to be multifaceted and served as a source of safe food amidst concerns about food safety. Food securitization, in conclusion, paused several issues in urban-planning. [START_REF] Nguyen-Viet | Food safety in Vietnam: where we are at and what we can learn from international experiences[END_REF] argued that one of the key issues of food safety in Vietnam was that certain food value chain stakeholders lack ethics, which lead to the production and trading of unsafe foods in order to make profits irrespective of adverse health effects on consumers. [START_REF] My | Consumers' familiarity with and attitudes towards food quality certifications for rice and vegetables in Vietnam[END_REF], however, while studying consumers' familiarity with and attitudes towards food safety aspects, suggested that food safety aspects of safe vegetables and high quality rice should be emphasized during policy and marketing activities for food quality certification. The results showed that consumers' awareness of food quality-related terms was relatively low and so was their familiarity with food quality certification. The author also discovered that food safety concern and perceived importance of environmental consequences were positively associated with consumers' attitudes towards safe vegetables, as well as high quality rice.

In recent year, the Vietnamese government has adopted a number of regulations in order to promote the modernization of the retail sector: these regulations are primarily aimed at limiting street vending in favour of supermarket development [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]. However, recent researches have also discussed the efficiency of this approach. According to Wertheim-Heck and Raneri (2019, p. 67), although the often unhygienic conditions and lack of adequate control mechanisms of traditional open-air markets were not contested, the limits of pushing Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 85 modernization and banning traditional retail structures without inclusive consultation of the urban poor by public policy was risking their food and nutrition security.

Current vegetable distribution channels in Hanoi

The context of retail market in Vietnam has shown typical characteristics, thus a clarification of retail format choices available is important for this thesis. Figure 3.2 presents current vegetable chain with involving actors in Hanoi, Vietnam as adopted from the market review (Cadilhon et al., 2006;[START_REF] Loc | Study on the vegetable distribution through the system of markets and supermarkets in Hanoi[END_REF].  Market class 1: A market with over 400 business points, solidly and modernly invested in construction according to planning; to be located at important economic and commercial centers of provinces or cities or to be wholesale markets of goods and other economic sectors and to be held regularly. Having a market scope suitable to the operation scale of the market and organizing full services in the market: car parking, loading and unloading goods, goods storage, measurement and inspection services; ensuring quality of goods, hygiene and food safety and other services.

 Market class 2: A market having from 200 business points to 400 business points, is invested solidly or semi-solidly in accordance with the planning; Be located in the center of regional economic exchanges and held regular or irregular meetings;

Having a market scope suitable to the market operation scale and organizing the minimum services at the market: car parking, loading and unloading of goods, goods storage, measurement and public hygiene services.

 Market class 3: A market having less than 200 business points or markets that have not been invested solidly or semi-solidly. Mainly serving the purchase and sale of goods by people in the commune, ward and adjacent areas.

Nevertheless, in Vietnam, there are also many ways to call the market depending on: (i) The type of market organization and business items: General market and specialized market; (ii) Mode of organization and form of sale: wholesale markets or retail markets;

(iii) Location: Urban markets, rural markets, mountainous markets, border-gate markets and border-economic-zones; (iv) Scale: Markets of class 1, class 2 and class 3 and (v) Form of construction: There are solid markets (formal markets), and informal markets (semisolid markets and temporary markets) [START_REF] Loc | Study on the vegetable distribution through the system of markets and supermarkets in Hanoi[END_REF].

From the common convergence of the concepts and how to call to the market, the author adopts the concept of the market as "A type of commercial business formed and developed in a traditional way, organized in one public place; gather many people who do trading, exchanging goods and services, exchanging with each other and visiting; formed by the requirements of production, circulation, social consumer life and entertainment activities following certain time cycles" [START_REF] Loc | Study on the vegetable distribution through the system of markets and supermarkets in Hanoi[END_REF].

Thus, the forms of markets vary and when assessing the current distribution of vegetables, it is necessary to look at the perspective of the market's sales form which is associated with the locality in order to facilitate the market research. In this thesis, three forms of retailers that represent traditional market include formal wet markets, informal street markets and mobile vendors present in urban Hanoi districts.

Modern retail stores

Vietnamese consumers' food behavior and practices

This section is going to present research on extant literature of Vietnamese consumer food behavior (2.2.1) and their food practices (2.2.2)

Vietnamese consumers' food purchase and consumption

Early researches' attempts in the food market to investigate consumer consumption were on their food purchasing practices in the context of new supermarkets' entrance [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF]Figuié and The-Anh, 2004) especially the access to this newly introduced modern retail format by the poor [START_REF] Moustier | The Participation of the Poor in Supermarkets and other Distribution Value Chains[END_REF]Figuié and Nguyen, 2006;[START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF].

In this early stage, Vietnamese food consumption's changes were strongly influenced by changes in demographic and economic parameters, crop production and food supply channels during the period from 1991 to 2000 [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF]. New food behaviors appeared in urban areas with the development of supermarkets and, in particular, of street food and restaurants (Figuié and Bricas, 2003).

Figuié and The-Anh ( 2004)'s food consumption report underlined that malnutrition had considerably decreased but at the same time transitional diseases were beginning to appear slowly.

In this context, the authors highlighted a careful consideration of the increasing intake of meat from previous surveys in combination with a decreasing intake of fruits and vegetables. They also emphasized that the consumption of fruits and vegetables (at the moment 110 g/cap/day in Vietnam) was still under FAO/WHO requirement: minimum 400 g of fruits and vegetables per capita and per day (excluding starchy tubers such as potatoes).

Quantities of consumption of the different products were found to increase with household income as urban consumers appeared to consume much less rice/staple foods and more vegetable and animal products than the one from rural areas (Figuié and Bricas, 2009) Mergenthaler et al. (2009a) confirmed that Vietnamese consumers on average were willing to pay 60% more for vegetables that are free of agrochemical residues. Willingness to pay (WTP)

for food quality and food safety attributes was found positively related to household expenditure levels, so the authors argued that further income growth would fuel demand for safe and convenient food products. They also put particular emphasis on the potential role of consumer perceptions as mediators of the effects of socio-demographics and media. For example, they found that education as well as location variables could significantly affect consumer perceptions, which lead to indirect effects on WTP for food safety and convenience. And the influence of public media on WTP was mediated or partly channeled indirectly through consumer perceptions. Additionally, WTP for convenience attributes was mostly channeled through perceptions such as price consciousness and openness. They believed that a more widespread and regular use of different media channels was likely to increase consumer demand for new product attributes. Mergenthaler et al. (2009b), in contrast with [START_REF] Moustier | Food safety in Hanoi's vegetable supply some insights from a consumer survey[END_REF], highlighted the importance of considering demand side aspects when projecting future trends. The authors analyzed demand patterns for fresh fruits and vegetables in Vietnam using household survey data and a demand system approach. Their study showed that demand for products from modern supply chains -particularly supermarkets and non-traditional imports -was highly income elastic, and the income effect was stronger than the impact of prices and supermarket penetration.

Figuié and Bricas (2010) studied the relations to food in the context of modern Vietnam, in the attempt to understand how the reformed economy affects the 'micro-practices' of the urban population and how possibly it was reflected in the values of the emerging class of urban consumers. The authors considered the street market as a symbol of the traditional food distribution system and the recent installation of supermarkets in Vietnam as a symbol of the modernization of this system. It can be seen that during this early period, the system was very simple with not many format choices. In their study, street marts were characterized by the importance of raw foodstuffs in household purchase, short commodity chains supplying vegetables or meat produced in periurban areas and face-to-face relationships with the sellers or even with the farmers themselves.

Supermarkets, in contrast was where consumers served themselves and chose from pre-packed and 'delocalized' foodstuffs (imported food). The study focused on how consumers adapt their traditional food qualification processes to the new context of the supermarket, i.e, the role of the senses in the context of supermarket 'domestication'. Freshness was found to be particularly important for Vietnamese consumers. It was even considered a construction to guarantee quality in terms of taste, consistency and above all, safety. According to the authors, cross-cultural studies on odour-category organization showed differences which underlined the cultural dimension of the senses regarding Vietnamese people.

Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 92 Some studies have argued that the competitiveness of wet markets against supermarkets in Vietnam derives from cheaper prices and proximity to consumers [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Maruyama | The nature of informal food bazaars: Empirical results for Urban Hanoi, Vietnam[END_REF]. The trend on which studies agree is that wet markets have an advantage over other retail formats in fresh food, meeting consumer' demand for day-to-day fresh supplies in Vietnam (Figuié and The-Anh, 2004;[START_REF] Jensen | Food-buying Habits in Hanoi[END_REF]Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014a;[START_REF] Umberger | The Vietnam urban food consumption[END_REF].

Most of the studies on vegetable market in Vietnam focused on individual retail choices between traditional or modern formats (e.g. [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]; whilst some focused on consumer' shopping practices (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014, 2015;[START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF]. These studies consider food safety (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014, 2015; Wertheim-Heck and Spaargaren, 2016), socio-economic factors and especially income (Figuié and [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF], as well as product/store attributes, especially price and freshness [START_REF] Maruyama | The nature of informal food bazaars: Empirical results for Urban Hanoi, Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF], as the main factors affecting consumers' choice of vegetable retail outlets. Other factors include convenience (proximity), the relationship with sellers and consumers' habit of not storing food (Figuié and [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014, 2015;[START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF]. Social relations between actors appeared to have particular characteristics that originate from the broader cultural context of Southeast Asia (as discussed in Chapter 2) and its tradition of collectivism to save face (Figuié and [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF] and reciprocity (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014a).

Vietnamese consumers' shopping practices

As developed in chapter 2, a shopping practice is constituted by a combination of material dimensions (the physical stores or points of sale), meanings (shopping as part of taking care of the family or enjoyment of social interaction) and competencies (product knowledge or bargaining Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 93 skills). Discussed in practice theory, when an individual engages in his/her shopping activity, his/her engagement with it is structured by his/her habitus. That habitus in Vietnamese market, has been formed in the context of a society where people are saturated with negative information of food safety delivered through the media for many years. The shopping-as-practice approach [START_REF] Røpke | Theories of practice -New inspiration for ecological economic studies on consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Fuentes | Managing green complexities: consumers' strategies and techniques for greener shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Fuentes | Mobile phones and the practice of shopping: A study of how young adults use smartphones to shop[END_REF] is thus particularly relevant for this thesis's research aims and was used in this study. In the following chapters, the study will explore vegetable shopping of Hanoian by examining the various ways in which groups of consumers use different retail formats to shop. Wertheim-Heck et al. (2014a) discovered key findings on poor consumers' strategies for handling food-safety risks at wet-markets. Within a rural setting, the study found that both providers and consumers applied different repertoires for generating trust in vegetables. Their indepth interview and household surveys provided clues for understanding why traditional trust relations survived under the increasing threats and anxieties generated by food-safety scandals.

Wertheim-Heck et al. argued that habitual practice of buying vegetables within the wet-market closest to home hampered the active search for alternative sales location of consumers. The most important ingredients of the specific repertoires used by the key social actors during their interactions identified by the research were (1) personalized trust-relations (reciprocity), ( 2) locality (known territories), (3) seasonality and (4) personal skills for identifying the relevant product characteristics.

Using practice theory in order to explain the persistence of street-market shopping for vegetables in Hanoi, Wertheim-Heck et al. (2014b) identified different consumer vegetable shopping practices including traditional established practices and modern individualistic ones. The formers are space-constrained and socially driven, i.e. these consumers combine vegetable purchasing with other social engagements, whereas the latter are time-constrained and adopted by consumers whose time allocated for vegetable shopping is in competition with other daily activities.

Wertheim-Heck and Spaargaren (2016) made a distinction between six shopping practices: three of them do not involve specific points of sale (self-provisioning, kinship shopping, i.e. obtaining vegetables from relatives, and farmer shopping) and the other three involve points of sale: market shopping, safe vegetable outlet shopping and supermarket shopping. However, the study did not explore potential cross-shopping practices. The authors combined a social practices approach with historical analysis to study everyday shopping practices from a food safety perspective. Their main purpose was to assess the extent to which the policy-enforced process of supermarketization has proven to be an engine of change in daily vegetable purchasing while improving food safety. When discussed from a historical perspective, food practices were shown to be highly dynamic, being constantly reinvented and reconfigured by consumers who used their established skills, routines, and social networks to sometimes resist top-down enforced supermarketization while developing the coping strategies that best suit their local circumstances.

The studies by Wertheim-Heck et al. (2014b); Wertheim-Heck (2015); Wertheim-Heck and Spaargaren (2016) provide an understanding of shopping practices in Hanoi but do not consider cross-shopping, do not focus on practitioners and do not study the different dimensions of practices.

The aim of our research is therefore to build on these previous studies by trying to understand both shopping as a practice but also the individuals who perform it. As [START_REF] Fuentes | Managing green complexities: consumers' strategies and techniques for greener shopping[END_REF] did in an effort to understand how consumers manage to consume green, we also draw on practice theory to understand the strategies developed by individuals in their shopping practices. has covered the major shopping practices but no attention has been given to cross-shopping behavior. The consumers' shopping practices have been deeply studied, but they have been considered separately and not in a broader sense of a hybrid combined practice. Using shoppingas-practice approach, this research aims to develop a conceptualisation of shopping and cross shopping practices in the context of emerging urban retail market of Hanoi and contributes to a better knowledge of these practices.

Chapter Research methodology Introduction

With limited reference material available employing shopping-as-practice approach which discusses food retail shopping and cross-shopping behaviour in emerging markets, this study applied a qualitative research design. This chapter will begin by outlining the aims and the rationale of the study.

A discussion of the methodological foundations for the thesis will then follow (Section 1).

An overview of three major research paradigms and the rationale for the approach adopted in this thesis will be provided. Subsequently, description of the research process will then be provided (Section 2), providing an explanation of the research design for the qualitative phase. The section presents the choice of the site of research and sample selection, preparation for the interviews, the conduct of the interviews, the structure of the interview guide and the documentation procedure.

These are followed by the process implemented to execute data analysis (Section 3).

Research Aims and Rationale

The aim of the research is to explore i. How consumers are shopping in current emerging market situation with the diffusion of modern retailing? Beyond the opposition between rich consumers and modern retailing on the one hand and poor consumers and traditional retailing on the other, are there other possible patterns of shopping and especially cross-shopping practices?

ii. What are the influencing factors and the specific dimensions of consumers' shopping practices and how do consumers form their shopping and cross shopping strategies? Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 98 The main purpose is to better understand and to propose a framework of shopping practices in emerging markets. The study is taking into account not only the identification of different daily shopping practices and strategies in emerging market context, but also their links with sociomaterial context and individual factors.

The theoretical implications of the study are twofold: related to the cross-shopping literature and to the shopping-as-practice approach. First, this research is, to our knowledge, the first to use practice theories to study cross-shopping. Given the complexity of consumer behaviour, consumer's choice regarding foods, difference in cultures (as discussed in chapter 2) and the impacts of modern food retail diffusion in retail environment on behaviour (as discussed in chapter 3), I chose to employ qualitative approach for this study. Second, shopping-as-practice approach allows better understanding of shopping practices and takes into account, albeit indirectly, physical food environment and personal environment, but does not explicitly consider individual factors.

In the attempt to explore people's everyday behaviour, this research calls for greater consideration of individuals (rather than just as practice-carriers), as these individual factors may change the meanings of the practices, therefore, their maintenance. There were two phases conducted within this thesis: In choosing appropriate methods, researchers are presented with a number of challenges [START_REF] Blaikie | Designing social research: The logic of anticipation / Norman Blaikie[END_REF] and they can adopt a variety of fundamentally different strategies to generate new knowledge. The selection of a research approach involves several decisions that span the steps from broad assumptions to detailed methods of data collection, analysis, and interpretation (Creswell, 2014).

Firstly, philosophical assumptions or positions are the basic component of any research. Some of the approaches to social inquiry position towards the very nature of reality and existence and from this, basic assumptions about knowledge arise. This is known as Ontology, the study of 'being' and is concerned with 'what is', i.e., the nature of existence and structure of reality as such [START_REF] Crotty | The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process / Michael Crotty[END_REF]. Ontology focuses on the philosophy of reality where '…claims and assumptions that are made about the nature of social reality, claims about what exists, what it looks like, what units make it up and how these units interact with each other. Thus ontological assumptions are concerned with what we believe constitutes social reality' [START_REF] Blaikie | Designing social research: The logic of anticipation / Norman Blaikie[END_REF]. [START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF] also defined ontology as 'the nature of the world and what we can know about it'. Later on, [START_REF] Ormston | The foundations of qualitative research[END_REF] asserted that ontology concerns about 'whether or not there is a social reality that exists independently from human conceptions and interpretations and, closely related to this, whether there is a shared social reality or only multiple, context-specific ones' (p.4).

Epistemology in general is the theory of knowledge, the assumptions we make about the kind or the nature of knowledge, or how it is possible to find out about the world [START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF]. It has been described as 'the possible ways of gaining knowledge of social reality, whatever it is understood to be. In short, claims about how what is assumed to exist can be known.' [START_REF] Blaikie | Designing social research: The logic of anticipation / Norman Blaikie[END_REF]. In a nutshell, Epistemology can be described as an understanding of how it is Table 4.1. Epistemological positions that shape the roles of researcher and the knowledge produced [START_REF] Biggerstaff | Qualitative research methods in psychology[END_REF] The set of beliefs that researchers bring, which lead to variations in the approach to research, were described by [START_REF] Kuhn | The structure of scientific revolutions[END_REF][START_REF] Kuhn | Second Thoughts on Paradigms[END_REF][START_REF] Kuhn | The structure of scientific revolutions[END_REF] as a paradigm. [START_REF] Kuhn | The structure of scientific revolutions[END_REF] defines a scientific paradigm as 'universally recognized scientific achievements that, for a time, provide model problems and solutions for a community of practitioners, i.e., what is to be observed and scrutinized.' Paradigms represent a view of the world as we perceive it, where we 'fit' and how we interact with it (Guba and Lincoln, 1994) and are said to '[establish] the parameters and [set] the boundaries for scientific research and, in the ordinary course of events, scientific enquiry is carried out strictly in line with it.' [START_REF] Crotty | The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process / Michael Crotty[END_REF]. Historically, researches of espistemological stances have been influenced by two major paradigms -positivism and interpretivism, which in turn influence the methods by which research data is collected. In social research as in everyday life, our assessment of data is likely to reflect the interests we bring to it and the use we want to make of it [START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF].

Positivism and Objectivism

Positivism is an epistemological position in which the position focuses on the importance of objectivity, and evidence in searching for truth since the world is unaffected by the researcher.

Objectivism is reality-orientated and suggests that everything exists independently of consciousness. These assumptions underpin the positivist perspective, which is often regarded as a scientific method involving knowledge being gathered in ways that are not subjective but are direct-experiences [START_REF] Crotty | The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process / Michael Crotty[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF], in positivism, facts and values are very distinct, thus making it possible to conduct objective and value-free inquiry.

In this tradition, knowledge about the world originates in our experiences, and is derived through our senses. Thus only phenomena, which can be confirmed by the senses, can genuinely be regarded as knowledge (Bryman, 2012;[START_REF] Ormston | The foundations of qualitative research[END_REF]. In other words, when we recognise objects around us, we simply discover meanings which have been lying in them all along.

Positivists seek explanations through the testing of theories and hypotheses, using quantitative Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 103 variables and methods that yield numbers and statistics such as questionnaires or surveys. Data collected in this manner is for the purpose of testing pre-determined hypotheses and the researcher remains objectively separated from the subject.

It has been argued that such positivist and objectivist approach fails to capture the complexity of human behaviour and social interaction. This approach inevitably informs our view of the world -but it is not the only way of seeing. In the positivism traditions, reality is regarded as unaffected by the research process and the researcher has to distance himself or herself from the findings. In its opposing tradition, however, researchers construct meanings and interpretations based on those of their participants. Thus, the qualitative -quantitative methodology debate on research may be seen as a reflection on the different emphasis between values versus facts [START_REF] Biggerstaff | Qualitative research methods in psychology[END_REF].

Interpretivism and Constructionism

As a rejection to the positivist and objectivist traditions, interpretivists and constructionists possess opposing views [START_REF] Crotty | The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process / Michael Crotty[END_REF]Bryman, 2012). Interpretivists believe that reality exists and can be measured, but recognise that interpretation of information cannot be wholly objective but rather built through our perceptions and interpretations of the world around us. In other words, people use their perceptions to interpret what their senses tell them. As such, knowledge of the world is based on our 'understanding' which arises from our reflection on events rather than only on lived experiences [START_REF] Ormston | The foundations of qualitative research[END_REF].

Interpretivism and constructionism approaches argue that knowledge is produced by exploring and understanding (not discovering) the social world of the people being studied, focusing on their meaning and interpretations, i.e., meanings are socially constructed by the social actors in a particular context. It thus proposes that there can be multiple realities of phenomena, and that social reality cannot be captured or portrayed accurately because there are different perceptions and understandings of reality. These realities can differ across time and place [START_REF] Crotty | The foundations of social research: Meaning and perspective in the research process / Michael Crotty[END_REF][START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF]Bryman, 2012;[START_REF] Ormston | The foundations of qualitative research[END_REF].

Interpretivism aims firstly to understand the context and then to make interpretations. Facts and values, in such traditions, are not distinct and findings are inevitably influenced by the researcher's perspective and values [START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF]. The research process, in this stance, is considered to be largely 'inductive' in the sense that the aim is to generate a theory from the data collected rather than use the data to test an already existing theory. Hence qualitative methods are frequently used when little is known about a phenomenon and where the investigator seeks to collect 'information rich' cases [START_REF] Patton | Qualitative research & evaluation methods[END_REF]. Qualitative methods are seen to 'concentrate on understanding, rich description and emergent concepts and theories' [START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF].

Qualitative research, broadly defined, means 'a situated activity that locates the observer in the world. It consists of a set of interpretive, material practices that makes the world visible. These practices ... turn the world into a series of representations including field notes, interviews, conversations, photographs, recordings and memos to the self. At this level, qualitative research involves an interpretive, naturalistic approach to the world. This means that qualitative researchers study things in their natural settings, attempting to make sense of, or to interpret, phenomena in terms of the meanings people bring to them.' (Denzin and Lincoln, 2005) The definitions for qualitative research may vary but in short, Creswell (2007) consider qualitative study as:

'an approach to inquiry that begins with assumptions, worldviews, possibly a theoretical lens, and the study of research problems exploring the meaning individuals or groups ascribe to a social or human problem'

Studies involving qualitative approaches are regarded as being 'subjective' where the researcher's interpretation of the events recorded is primarily to address research questions that 'require explanation or understanding of social phenomena and their contexts' [START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF]. And the fairly wide consensus about qualitative research is that it is a naturalistic, interpretative approach which is 'well suited to exploring issues that hold some complexity and to studying processes that occur over time' [START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF].

Today there is an increasing acceptance of the use of qualitative methods in the social sciences (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994, 2000, 2005;[START_REF] Blaikie | Designing social research: The logic of anticipation / Norman Blaikie[END_REF]Das and Bhaskaran, 2008;[START_REF] Neuman | Basics of social research. Qualitative & quantitative approaches[END_REF][START_REF] Padgett | Qualitative methods in social work research[END_REF] and psychology as [START_REF] Frost | Qualitative research methods in psychology: Combining core approaches[END_REF] observes, though in the field of psychology, qualitative methodologies are still considered to be relatively 'new' [START_REF] Banister | Qualitative methods in psychology: A research guide[END_REF]. [START_REF] Biggerstaff | Qualitative research methods in psychology[END_REF] stresses that the recent feature of the debate in the future direction for psychology has been a concern for the philosophical underpinnings of the discipline and an appreciation of their importance. As the author concludes, this is an intrinsic part of theoretical developments in psychology and the related social sciences, in particular sociological research, e.g. Grounded Theory [START_REF] Glaser | The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research[END_REF]Denzin and Lincoln, 1994;Creswell, 2007); modes of social inquiry such as interviewing [START_REF] Seidman | Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences[END_REF]Flick et al., 2007b) and content analysis [START_REF] Elo | The qualitative content analysis process[END_REF][START_REF] Prasad | Content Analysis. A method of Social Science Research[END_REF][START_REF] Schreier | Qualitative content analysis in practice[END_REF]; narrative, ethnography, phenomenology and case study methods (Denzin and Lincoln, 1994;Creswell, 2014Creswell, , 2007)); and, finally, the combining or integrating of methods, often known as 'mixed methods' [START_REF] Frost | Qualitative research methods in psychology: Combining core approaches[END_REF].

As mentioned, qualitative research is developing. Therefore, it promises new ways of thinking and revisions to the more established methods are constantly being introduced and debated by researchers across the world [START_REF] Biggerstaff | Qualitative research methods in psychology[END_REF]. In applied marketing research, a focus on context has fuelled something of a revolution in practice, including the propagation of qualitative research as a valued research tool [START_REF] Belk | Handbook of qualitative research methods in marketing[END_REF] The author explained this as the attempts to improve product design and positioning, and improve target marketing. [START_REF] Kozinets | The Field behind the Screen: Using Netnography for Marketing Research in Online Communities[END_REF], for example, garnered valuable theoretical insights from his study of consumers of the Burning Man Festival. One of his objective was to explore what differences could be understood about some consumer phenomena by studying consumers in the context.

Specifically, what boundary conditions of consumer resistance and marketplace emancipation could be found at the Festival. His results showed a spatial and temporal environment that contrasts with everyday consumer life rather than variations in consumers. This was done solely with the use of qualitative data. The author, subsequently, developed "netnography", ethnography adapted to the study of online communities, as an online marketing research technique for providing consumer insights.

As stated by [START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF], qualitative data embraces an enormously rich spectrum of cultural and social artefacts and its assessments are less standardized and less precise than quantitative measures.

During the 70s, 80s and early 90s debates concerning the opposing views of the differing paradigms in qualitative research took place (Guba and Lincoln, 1994). The notion that whether one must take one stance or another was held by a number of scholars. A new era of research methods slowly emerged where it was considered that 'the struggle for primacy of one paradigm over others is irrelevant as each paradigm is an alternate offering with its own merits' (Guba, Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020107 1990). From this a movement regarded as the 'third methodological movement' (Creswell, 2009) evolved. Whilst the philosophical issues were still of importance, there was less focus on trying to ensure that one method had primacy over the other. And some researchers started to advocate the use of mixed methods, also known as Pragmatism.

The Third paradigm -Pragmatism

The pragmatist approach is a theoretical stance that has been widely regarded as the 'third paradigm' [START_REF] Johnson | Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research[END_REF]Creswell, 2009;Creswell and Plano Clark, 2017).

Pragmatists hold the belief that when making a decision about the method or methods to be adopted, the limitations and opportunities of the context in which the research is to be conducted are of primary importance [START_REF] Johnson | Toward a Definition of Mixed Methods Research[END_REF]Creswell and Plano Clark, 2017). It is, as a result, closely associated with research using both quantitative and qualitative methods (Creswell and Plano Clark, 2017). [START_REF] Patton | Two Decades of Developments in Qualitative Inquiry[END_REF] stressed the importance of not getting 'bogged down' with the opposing differences that different paradigms present but to use a pragmatic approach, responding to the context in which the research is conducted. And [START_REF] Snape | The Foundations of Qualitative Research[END_REF] also discussed about the suggestion that it is possible and appropriate to mix methods associated with different paradigms within the same study. The authors, however, considered the debate about whether mixing methods across paradigms might lead to a lack of analytical clarity because each method relies on different assumptions in data collection and produces different types of data which may be difficult to reconcile. They addressed 'the key dilemma' of this method concerns 'whether it is feasible to maintain a positivist stance to research undertaken using quantitative methods while also accepting the more interpretivist or constructivist stances which tend to underpin some qualitative methods'.

The current study aimed to gather knowledge that helps better understanding of shopping and cross shopping practices within a particular urban emerging market context with much changes in market situation. In achieving this aim consideration of methodologies and the methods that could be used took place.

Methodology Adopted Within this Study

According to [START_REF] Denzin | Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research[END_REF] and [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative research in business & management[END_REF], one of the key differences between quantitative and qualitative approaches is apparent here: the quantitative approach states the hypothesis from the outset, (i.e. a 'top down' approach), whereas in qualitative research the hypothesis or research question, is refined and developed during the process (i.e. a 'bottom-up' or emergent approach). Qualitative research embraces the concept of 'intersubjectivity'. This concept is usually understood to refer to how people may agree with or construct meaning: perhaps to a shared understanding, emotion, feeling, or perception of a situation. As such, qualitative research then aims to interpret the social world that they inhabit (Nerlich, 2004cited in Biggerstaff, 2012).

The implicit use of methods in qualitative research, however, makes the field far less standardized than the quantitative approach [START_REF] Goertz | A tale of two cultures: Qualitative and quantitative research in the social sciences[END_REF].

This study aims to stress the socially constructed nature of reality, advocates the inevitable relationship between the researcher and the researched, and the situational constraints that shape inquiry. Employing a shopping-as-practice approach, I seek answers to questions that allow better understanding of how shopping and cross shopping experience is practiced and given meaning by urban consumers in the context of an emerging market. Given the nature of the subject and the context chosen as discussed in the previous chapters, and as qualitative methods have much to offer when we need to explore people's feelings or ask participants to reflect on their experiences [START_REF] Biggerstaff | Qualitative research methods in psychology[END_REF], it was chosen as the approach for my study. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 109 Regarding the use of quantitative approaches to investigate the determinants of the food choices made by adult people, Winter [START_REF] Falk | Food Choice Processes of Older Adults: A Qualitative Investigation[END_REF] noted a gap about why differences exist between food beliefs and practices, as an indication for a need of complementary qualitative researches. [START_REF] Brown | Scientific method and retailing research: A retrospective[END_REF], in their review of scientific methods and retailing research, concluded that too few studies in retail marketing use qualitative methods and the field might benefit from further possible insights based on qualitative methodologies. Similarly, [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative research in business & management[END_REF] considered qualitative research as the best way for research in business and management 'to become both rigorous and relevant at the same time' and deal with complex, unquantifiable issues that are the reality of business.

In the context of food shopping, [START_REF] Skallerud | An examination of consumers' cross-shopping behaviour[END_REF] justified the exploratory approach on the basis that the extant findings on store choice were tied to specific contexts and in many cases cannot explain general store choice behaviours, especially in the grocery market. The literature on the topic of cross-shopping behaviour was also found to be sporadic and the research findings were unequivocal [START_REF] Carpenter | Consumer demographics, store attributes, and retail format choice in the US grocery market[END_REF][START_REF] Skallerud | An examination of consumers' cross-shopping behaviour[END_REF], thus calls for further insights from different contexts.

Qualitative research "has an unrivalled capacity to constitute compelling arguments about how things work in particular contexts" [START_REF] Mason | Qualitative researching[END_REF]. Some of the studies discussed in chapter 2, including [START_REF] Furst | Food Choice: A Conceptual Model of the Process[END_REF]; [START_REF] Devine | Life-Course Influences on Fruit and Vegetable Trajectories: Qualitative Analysis of Food Choices[END_REF]; [START_REF] Clarke | Retail Restructuring and Consumer Choice 1. Long-Term Local Changes in Consumer Behaviour: Portsmouth, 1980-2002[END_REF]; [START_REF] Anand | Store format choice in an evolving market: role of affect, cognition and involvement[END_REF] and [START_REF] Chamhuri | Consumer Choice of Retail Outlet: Focus Group Interviews in Malaysia[END_REF] all showed valuable contributions applying a qualitative approach to study impacts of retail development on food choice. Other authors such as [START_REF] Cervellon | Shopping orientations as antecedents to channel choice in the French grocery multichannel landscape[END_REF]; [START_REF] Goodman | Store choice: How understanding consumer choice of 'where' to shop may assist the small retailer[END_REF]; [START_REF] Cervellon | Shopping orientations as antecedents to channel choice in the French grocery multichannel landscape[END_REF]; [START_REF] Klein | Main-format dominance in consumers' FMCG crossformat shopping patterns[END_REF] tried to understand segments of consumers using qualitative approach. It has shown a greater tendency of using qualitative research in understanding data in specific context. Few of them, however, were conducted in emerging Asian context. To understand the shopping practices more explicitly as expressed through the everyday language of consumers qualitative study is considered to be more appropriate [START_REF] Kirkup | Inequalities in retail choice: exploring consumer experiences in suburban neighbourhoods[END_REF][START_REF] Clarke | Retail Restructuring and Consumer Choice 1. Long-Term Local Changes in Consumer Behaviour: Portsmouth, 1980-2002[END_REF]. This thesis seeks to advance the knowledge of current shopping practices in Vietnam, which have been predominantly approached through a number of quantitative and mixed-method studies. This research aims to study shopping practices in relation to the individuals who engage in them. To understand phenomena from the perspective of research participants is one of the most important purposes of qualitative research, and this is also recognized as a key approach in developing a comprehensive understanding of food-related phenomena [START_REF] Harris | An introduction to qualitative research for food and nutrition professionals[END_REF].

Qualitative research comprises of a number of techniques (Creswell, 2007;[START_REF] Maxwell | Qualitative research design: An interactive approach[END_REF][START_REF] Myers | Qualitative research in business & management[END_REF] including personal interviewing (open-ended, non-directive, depth, casual etc); discourse analysis, case study, participant observation, grounded theory, biography, comparative method, group or focus group interviewing, historical research, etc. Addressing the differences in the approaches revealed that in order to meet the aim of the study, a qualitative approach would be the most rational choice. Adopting such an approach would assist with identifying consumers' perceptions on different retail formats and their practices in everyday life under current market situation. It then would allow for the dimensions of the practices to be explored, in relation to the identified influencing factors. Such data can be taken as the actual content of the urban consumers' shopping practices and such possible relationships can lead to a better understanding about the practices per se and therefore, their maintenance. The interpretive approach helps to provide explanations for why there are such connections between different factors and why this should be considered for further research. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 111 I, with this thesis, did not start with a set of hypotheses that I seek to test, but rather, attempted to obtain the data that could possibly emerge into contribution of concepts and theory.

The principle research design of this qualitative inquiry was a semi-structured interview using open-ended questioning. The data gathering was done in two phases; the first was open-ended questions with experts in the field, in additions to non-participating market observation. These were completed before enhancing the interview guide for the face-to-face interviews with consumers.

The second phase of the data gathering was in two parts. First, semi-structure interviews were conducted at the participant's house, some were at a café of their choice. Semi-structured interviews are conducive to candid and spontaneous responses, which allow the interviewee the opportunity to add important insights as they arise during the course of the conversation. The semistructured interview seems to be best suited for garnering descriptive insights and [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative research in business & management[END_REF] considered it to be the most commonly type of qualitative interview used in business and management.

The credibility of qualitative enquiry depends on belief in the phenomenological paradigm, which is a fundamental appreciation of naturalistic approach, qualitative methods and inductive analysis [START_REF] Denzin | Introduction: The Discipline and Practice of Qualitative Research[END_REF] For this study, little is known about the cross-shopping practice phenomenon and what is behind the cross-shopping and selective adoption behaviour of Vietnamese consumers. Given the nature of qualitative research, active engagement of the researcher around their own set of research questions are required, and thus modifications along the data collection process is essential [START_REF] Mason | Qualitative researching[END_REF].

The qualitative study design thus allows us to better understand the diversity of shopping and cross-shopping practices in the context of emerging retail market in Northern Vietnam. It helps Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 112 to construct the relationships between different factors and ( 1) shopping and cross-shopping strategies and (2) the dimensions of shopping practices. From a retail policy perspective, this study helps explain why the process of top-down supermarketization in emerging countries is of limited success. It will then propose a framework of shopping practices in emerging markets and also provide managerial recommendations regarding retail policy and development.

Section 2. Description of research procedure

Site selection

To identify potential sites of research, in this case, the districts of Hanoi, for inclusion, a number of strategies were adopted. Previous involvement of my research unit in several projects on agro-products market in Hanoi had opened up opportunities to attend meetings and workshops of studies being conducted in Vietnam and particularly Hanoi, my hometown. With these, the opportunity to network with well-known academics and researchers involved in markets and agricultures linkages was established. As the progress and level of modern retail diffusion differed nationally it was important to determine the research site from the beginning. From discussions, desk research and networking opportunities six central urban districts were chosen.

In the first phase, following initial conversations, I arranged to meet to discuss the ideas of the project with experts in the field, to get a hold of the overall market situation, changes in retail development as well as consumer behaviour in such conditions. In the second phase, initially contact was made through my personal network at each of the sites. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 114 selling fresh vegetables in the city's 12 central urban districts. Notably, after the now-dominant brand VinGroup decided to distribute its own agricultural products and establish its own farms since October 2015, 12 new VinMart supermarkets appeared, followed by 363 mini-markets named VinMart Plus (VinMart+). This has resulted in significant changes in the retail food environment.

The study was conducted in 6 out of the 12 districts of Hanoi, which were chosen relatively considering their population density and density of retail formats. As the focus of my thesis involves urban consumers whose residential areas offer cross-shopping experience, only central urban districts were chosen. 3 out of 4 oldest districts of the city before the expansion in 2008, which are Hoàn Kiếm, Đống Đa, Hai Bà Trưng (founded in 1961) were first chosen. 2 out of 3 newer districts (founded in 1995-1996), which are Tây Hồ, Cầu Giấy were then selected. The last selection was Hà Đông, a new district founded after the expansion in 2008. The aim is to try to include diversification in characteristics of each district while assuring my accessibility for onfield's research. Table 4.2 presents a description of these selected districts. A list of markets and shops/supermarkets in Hanoi was developed during Phase 1 of market observation into an Excel file (distribute upon request) and is illustrated by Figure 4.3. This was recorded using the Internet, Google Location and Safe & Organic Shop Finder (SOFF) software. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 116 Once in the locality, it was important for me to identify and gain access to the community where the data collection took place. In some places, shops and markets listed on the list had moved or terminated their business. Similarly, there were new shops established in the neighborhood without a notification on the Internet. To get familiar with the locality and get informed about the retail points were essential before carrying out interviews in each district. [START_REF] Seidman | Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences[END_REF] was reluctant to establish a concrete number as to answer "How many interviews are enough?" in qualitative research. Instead he justified "enough" as an interactive reflection of every step of the interview process and different for each study and each researcher.

Name of district

Brief

Sampling strategy and selection of participants

The author suggested qualitative researchers to be on the side of more rather than less to avoid the struggle of making sense of data that are just too thin. Fewer participants interviewed, as for him, may save time earlier in the study, but may 'add complications and frustration at the point of working with, analyzing, and interpreting the interview data'. [START_REF] Bonde | Qualitative Interviews: When enough is enough[END_REF] proposed five factors to be considered in determining and justifying qualitative sample size which are: (1) Scope of investigation; (2) Characteristics of the target audience; (3) Expertise of researchers; (4) Resource and (5) Research audience. The author also provided a table synthesizing suggestions for the number of sample size to achieve data saturation in qualitative interviews from academic research, with regards to these 5 qualifiers (refer to Annex 2).

Evidence of saturation

Saturation describes a situation/ a point in a study at which the interviewer begins to hear the same information reported which he or she is no longer learning anything new [START_REF] Seidman | Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences[END_REF]. While arguing that the criteria of sufficiency and saturation are useful, [START_REF] Seidman | Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences[END_REF] also urged the needs to consider practical exigencies of time, money, and other resources especially in doctoral research. When the qualitative researcher determines that additional interviews no longer reveal fresh insights, theoretical data saturation can be said to have occurred (Bryman, 2012;[START_REF] Myers | Qualitative research in business & management[END_REF].

A variety of factors can influence the amount of data qualitative researchers gather, and this is not measured only by numbers of interviews, but also by the presence of participantobservation, where applicable. [START_REF] Baker | How many qualitative interviews is enough? Expert voices and early career reflections on sampling and cases in qualitative research[END_REF] suggest a sample of between 12 and 60 interviews as the guideline. According to the authors, adequate sample sizes are impacted by project scope and resources, as well as characteristics pertaining to the target audience, researchers and research audience.

Considered the above discussion, this study's actual plan to conduct semi-structured interviews was also based on practical reasons of timeframe and resources. Quota sampling was decided in advance as a guide and motivation at the beginning of the field-work. 12-15 interviews were set as an objective for each studied districts. As a matter of fact, I made sure to check the point of saturation as the data collection progressed, to determine when to stop the number of interviews to be conducted.

Given the aforementioned qualifiers, in phase 2 of the research, semi-structured face-toface interviews were conducted with adults aged over 21 residing in the 6 selected districts. This research sample was constructed in order to identify individuals who would provide alternative perspectives on retail format choice and shopping practices. A number of potential participants were initially identified through my existing contacts in the community. The list was then expanded by means of snowballing to reach a quota sample of 12-15 interviews for each district.

Interview participants included both sexes but, unsurprisingly, more than 95% of them were women as they are the main "gatekeepers" of Vietnamese households. Participants were of varying ages, levels of mobility, domestic and employment situations.

Data Collection

According to [START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF] any 'data', regardless of method, are in fact 'produced' by the researcher. As he argued that data are not 'out there' waiting collection, they have to be noticed by the researcher, and treated as data for the purposes of his or her research. As a result, Dey defies the process of 'collecting' data involves selecting data, and the techniques of data collection and transcription (through notes, tapes, recordings or whatever). This will subsequently affect what finally constitutes 'data' for the purposes of research.

For this study, observational research across districts and retail sites and expert discussion in phase 1 enabled adjustment to the interview guide in phase 2 as an important data collection method of this study. Field notes were used as 'an aide-memoire' [START_REF] Biggerstaff | Qualitative research methods in psychology[END_REF] and provided 'back-up' for further analysis. [START_REF] Biggerstaff | Qualitative research methods in psychology[END_REF] stressed that research governance details are particularly important in qualitative research 'since a person's audio interview is more likely to be unique to that individual compared to a briefer set of responses contained from a questionnaire for example.' The author then took note that it can be harder for the qualitative researcher to offer total confidentiality since a person's narrative about an experience may be unique to them, thus offering more likelihood for possible identification. For this research, I tried my best to make total protection of my data by using fully anonymized verbatims with assigned pseudo. Below are more details on each data collection methods of the research in this thesis. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 119

Non-participating market observation

The non-participating observation was used in the first phase to supplement the information I gathered from the desk research and helped refine my retailing list. Non-participating observation is a method of data collection in which the observer does not participate in the situation being studied but is only an observer (Creswell, 2007;Flick et al., 2007c) Some of the non-participating observations were done before my talk with the experts in the field. Such observations provided a general perspective of the market and made me familiar with the scope discussed during the workshops and meetings. The information derived from these observations helped me to improve the interview guide for the personal interviews and also helped me to ask proper probing questions when needed during the interviews.

Upon perceiving the subjects as Hanoian consumers, I also started to watch their shopping processes at selling venues and, if possible, to listen to the relevant conversations. It should be mentioned that the unit of observations in this phase was not solely individual consumers, but their shopping practices. To remain unobtrusive, the subjects were not followed around the entire shopping venues. An observation generally referred to the shopping practice of the subject(s) recorded at the vegetable aisles/stalls/stores/sellers within each selected venue. Careful ethical considerations were made before the start of observations though it was deemed acceptable not to ask for consent from the subjects as the selected shopping venues are common public places [START_REF] Angrosino | Doing Ethnographic and Observational Research[END_REF]. The observation was not expected to cause any harm or discomfort, especially in the culture of Vietnam. I am from Hanoi and was present, but acted like a shopper in the selected shopping venues. When doing observations, the author posed as an ordinary Vietnamese shopper and the subject(s) were neither disturbed nor asked any questions during their shopping processes.

In other words, covert observations were conducted in this study, where the shoppers were unware that they were being observed. When field notes were written, shoppers involved in each observation were coded as Sa, Sb etc. Accordingly, research diaries were written to record additional information on the subjects and make fresh reflections on data collection.

Interviews with experts

To enhance trustworthiness and rigor of the findings, refining the content of interview questions and a better organization and timing of the interview, I conducted interviews with two research experts in the field. These interviews enabled me to check the suitability of my later semistructured interview guide and also gain feedback from individuals who possess valuable knowledge of the market. After conducting these interviews, the interview guide was refined based on the experts' reflections, comments, ideas and also through discussions with my supervisory committee members.

In the period of conducting face-to-face interviews (phase 2), I continued to participate in MALICA's meetings and talking to experts. These observations provided me an opportunity to appreciate the meanings the respondents conveyed during interviews. During the observation, I The insights derived from this pilot study enabled me to improve the semi-structured interview guide (refer to Annex 3). The data derived from the pilot study was not included in the findings of this study.

Interview Observations/ Field Notes

In this study, I wrote memos at different times throughout the research process. Writing memos were a way to express my thoughts and feelings in the process of conducting the study and helped me to be aware of the emerging themes. I also wrote down my interpretations, questions which came up in my mind regarding participants' attitudes and behaviour (Flick et al., 2007c;Schutt). This was facilitated by using a contact form, in which some of the participant's information (genders, ages, and the shopping practices) were recorded in as much detail as possible).

Qualitative research consists of relationship building with the participants (Creswell, 2007). I gathered the data in a conversational manner in order to encourage participants to respond openly and honestly. At all times I protected the integrity of the research by following professional ethics. In particular, I protected participants by obtaining their consent to record the interviews and by including an explanation of the nature, purpose, and implications of the study, as well as the confidentiality and security of the data which were anonymized.

The collection process consisted of audio-recorded interviews, my written notes, informal e-mail, and face-to-face conversations. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 122 2.4.4. Semi-structured interviews Semi-structured interviewing was considered suitable as the data collection method (partly discussed in section 1.4), because it allows researchers to ask a set of open-ended questions related to the topic of interest with the flexibility to explore particular responses further (Bryman, 2012).

To facilitate the conduct of interviews, the author developed an interview guide that listed the questions to be addressed (refer to Annex 3).

At the end of the fieldwork, 79 semi-structured face-to-face interviews were recorded with adults aged over 21 and residing in 6 central urban districts of Hanoi. As already mentioned, I am a Hanoian and thus speak the local Vietnamese language. The cultural familiarity helps enhance the authenticity of the interviews, as well as minimizing language and cultural barriers. Participants were interviewed mainly in their home or place of work, and were assured of the anonymity and confidentiality of the interviews. Weekend time allowed more interviews as many of the participants were working people. The interviews lasted an average from 45 minutes to 1.30 hours and were audio-recorded and later transcribed and translated into English.

The data was not initially gathered with a direct reference to shopping practices but rather consumers' vegetable shopping behaviour over their life course. The practice themes naturally emerged throughout data collection and analysis.

Transcription

Texts and notes of naturally occurring interaction allow qualitative researcher to return to our data in its original form as often as we wish [START_REF] Silverman | Doing qualitative research: A practical handbook[END_REF] In making field notes, one is not simply recording data but also analysing it. Unlike quantitative researchers who try to analyse written materials in a way which will produce reliable evidence about a large sample, in qualitative research texts and documents may be analysed for a very different purpose.

Interview Guide

The interviewer used a semi-structured interview guide to ask participants open-ended questions about their personal vegetable shopping practices, their life experiences related to food shopping and retail format choice. Open-ended questions were followed with further follow-ups such as "Tell me more about that" or "Could you explain that further?" A flexible approach was employed instead of a fixed "research protocol" where each respondent is asked the same question in the same order.

Each semi-structured interview consisted of two main parts (see Annex 3 for the interview guide). General information on participants, such as their socio-demographic information (age, income), was put in the second part as it was advised that these are considered 'sensitive information' for Vietnamese people and should be asked later in the interview. The first part, which was the main part, consists of guiding questions asking the participants focusing on their shopping across different retail venues. For example, the participants were requested to provide the frequency and name of the place they usually go for buying vegetables, examples of the products they bought and tell the author why they chose these places, bought these products. Also, photoelicitation was employed as a supplementary method to ground the author's interview questions and to evaluate the participants' abilities remembering brands and product's labels (if applicable in case of modern retailers). The photos used included images of logos/labels of safe vegetables in Vietnam.

The original list of questions was formed taking into account the literature, (e. g. food choice model by [START_REF] Furst | Food Choice: A Conceptual Model of the Process[END_REF] and shopping as practice literature), comments from experts and my field notes. It reflected my initial constructs of the topic, which were Personal system, Awareness, Constraints and Strategy. Section 1 was Personal system, Section 2 was Awareness, Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 124 Section 3 was Constraints and Section 4 was Strategy. The Section 1 questions asked participants about their routines and habits in where, how often and what affect them in going buying vegetables.

The Section 2 questions asked about their awareness of the retail food system and its changes, to see if and how these changes are creating changes in their behaviors.

The Section 3 questions concerned about any constraints that participants might consider when buying vegetables. The last section questions asked about their shopping strategy.

Section 3. Qualitative data analysis

The data analysis is the procedure that enables a researcher to make sense out of data. In qualitative studies, the general process applied by researchers for data analysis involves preparing and managing data for analysis, followed by reducing the data and condensing the codes into themes. There is no one kind of qualitative data analysis, but rather a variety of approaches, related to the different perspectives and purposes of researchers [START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF]. The process of data collection, data analysis, and report writing are interrelated and simultaneous activities (Creswell, 2007). [START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF], in looking for a basic core of qualitative data analysis, encouraged the approach not in some consensus about research perspectives and purposes, but rather in the type of data produced and the way the researcher analyzed it. He proposed several steps involved in data analysis of qualitative research as presented by Figure 4.4. [START_REF] Leech | Beyond constant comparison qualitative data analysis: Using NVivo[END_REF] presented 7 types of qualitative data analysis techniques include constant comparison analysis, classical content analysis, keyword-in-context, word count, domain analysis, taxonomic analysis, and componential analysis. Table 4.3 summarises the coding methods based on research questions by [START_REF] Saldaña | The coding manual for qualitative researchers[END_REF]. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 125 For this study the data was analyzed through the thematic and constant comparative method in which each set of data was compared for common themes [START_REF] Glaser | The discovery of grounded theory: Strategies for qualitative research[END_REF]. This method joins inductive category coding with concurrent comparison of all meaning units gained in the process of coding to determine similarities and differences. Nowadays this strategy is extensively used in all kinds of qualitative studies because of its inductive comparative nature that provides a systematic method for analyzing any kind of data set. The specific steps were reviewed and clarified later by [START_REF] Cho | Reducing Confusion about Grounded Theory and Qualitative Content Analysis: Similarities and Differences[END_REF]. [START_REF] Saldaña | The coding manual for qualitative researchers[END_REF] A total of 82 semi-structured interviews were conducted by the author during a four-month fieldtrip in Hanoi. The sample covered a heterogeneous group of Vietnamese consumers with respect to both demographic characteristics (gender, age, occupation, household income and geographic location) and shopping practice types. At the end of the data collection process, however, only 79 interviews were used for data analysis as the other three interviews did not show efficient evidence for analysis and were cut short in time. The participants, despite having voluntarily agreed to be interviewed, showed unconscious avoidance talking about their shopping habits, either by talking in especially low voice or abruptly turning to other source of distraction (kept looking at their phone or suddenly trying to talk to their neighbor). These behavior, in my opinion, actually reflects a sentiment of wanting to 'keep face', given the three's jobs and incomes (two of them were local merchants in the old quarter, one was a stay-at-home mother for 10 years).

Admitting to another Vietnamese that they can't afford to/never go to supermarkets or have only been shopping at wet markets can actually cause discomfort to a Vietnamese person, as in Vietnamese language we even have an adjective to say 'losing face' (mất mặt) which is commonly used. This can be explained by the mindset of our own people, considering the ability to afford modern retail as a privilege to 'the rich' and subsequently for those who cannot, it is 'losing face'.

After each interview, I transcribed the audio files from face to face interviews verbatims.

Depending on the length of the interview and the speed of talks, the time attributed to the transcribing was different. In general, transcribing and translating one hour of audio record of an interview lasted 5 to 6 hours. During the transcription, I wrote down any further opinion or idea which came up to my mind in the right margin of the transcription by using the comment review icon of the Word processor. Also, the words from the respondents' voice which could attribute as potential themes were highlighted and written in the right margin. After the initial transcription, I listened again to the interviews to check the accuracy of the transcripts. [START_REF] Kvale | Doing interviews[END_REF] stated that researchers who transcribe their own interviews have the chance to learn much more about the style of their interviews. To some extent, they have the emotional and social dimensions of the interview position again; so, they begin the analysis of the meaning of interviews.

Data organization

For organizing the data, I gathered together the transcriptions derived from interviews, field notes and relevant documents. For safe keeping and easy access to the data, I kept the information into 2 main folders:

(1) Field work folder: I kept all the notes and materials relating to the process of conducting the research in this folder. Field notes of the non-participating market observations, interviews with experts, MALICA's participation workshops notes, decisions and legal documents of urban/market/retail development from the Government/People union of Hanoi City etc. A list of markets and shops/supermarkets in Hanoi was developed in the form of an excel file (distribute upon request). This was recorded using the Internet, Google Location and Safe & Organic Shop Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 128 Finder (SOFF) software. An interview guide (refer to Annex 3) and scenario for the observation and the interviews were elaborated.

(2) Analytic data folder: The main folder was attributed to the transcripts of the semistructured interviews, participants' storylines and their contact summary notes. A list was created on Excel file to facilitate labelling and managing participants' profiles.

Each research site (studied district) was given a number, in random order. Each participant was then labeled in the form of X-Y with X being the number of the district that he/she resides in and Y being their assigned number depending on the total number of participants for that district (Table 4.4). Their profiles were then transferred into an Excel file. This facilitates the searching, re-sorting and/or cross-checking enquiries of the profiles to serve data analysis. 129 reporting data that will be discussed later in Chapter 5. A hand analysis was preferred as I wanted to, and was able to, be close to the data and had a hands-on feeling for doing the analysis without using the machine (Creswell, 2009).

Analyzing the data

'A method of analyzing qualitative interview data is outlined as a stage-by-stage process.

Some of the problems associated with the method are identified. The researcher in the field of qualitative work is urged to be systematic and open to the difficulties of the task of understanding other people's perceptions' [START_REF] Burnard | A method of analysing interview transcripts in qualitative research[END_REF].

Analysis begins with the first interview, observation, or document. Emerging insights, hunches and tentative assumptions affect the next stage of data collection. Data collection becomes more rigorous when all data are collected [START_REF] Merriam | Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation[END_REF]. As the process of data collection and data analysis are simultaneous activities, the data analysis started with the first set of data. The observations made during each interview helped me to understand what was meant from the voices, gestures and emphasis. While reading and immersing in the transcripts, I wrote memos or notes to get my thoughts as they emerged.

Coding process

After familiarizing with the data, I started the coding process which is the central part of qualitative analysis and is about building up concepts from raw data.

First, I coded the transcripts line by line and labelled certain concepts common to them (open coding). I then set aside codes unrelated to my research questions as well as those that appeared infrequently, and tried to find relationships among codes (axial coding). Several tables were used to facilitate this process (refer to Chapter 5 for more details). Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 130 Through those processes, I identified the most significant and frequent codes (selective coding). Using the multi-sourced data, I coded interviews with consumers and observations separately.

Third, I carried out visual aid analysis of consumers' transcripts using word-map to compare patterns among different districts as related to shopping venues and determinants of choice. The cross analysis was to determine whether any different features of shoppers arose among the six districts. This cross check showed no outstanding difference in accessibility of consumers to retail venues across districts.

Once confirmed codes from consumers in each district, I conducted a horizontally analysis of consumers among the six districts. It then helped me to compare the 79 consumers' profiles and segment them in accordance with their choice of retail venues, instead of geographical aspects.

Each segment profile was given one colour code for further organisation.

The transcripts were examined to look for themes of determinants of consumer shopping practices, personal related and store related attributes. These data were coded, and I reduced extraneous data for the analysis report. While reading the transcripts, I made notes and highlighted statements, then categorized the responses.

To answer the questions of this study, a code was defined as a statement -words, sentences or phrases-that (1) illustrated any kind of factors affecting vegetable shopping behaviour, factors and aspects related to the choice made by consumers while choosing retail venue to go buy vegetables and (2) demonstrated any change or transformation in the respondents' shopping practices, feelings or behaviours that they attributed to the process of shopping and cross shopping over their life course. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 131 Keeping the research questions in my mind, I checked the statements of the first transcript carefully to find any clue which could answer the research questions. Using the "new comment" function and my own system of color code in the Microsoft Word processor, I highlighted each statement which seemed to be relevant to the research questions in the text and put the number of research question in the pertinent comment section. Then I copied that statement and pasted in the Excel file which I drew for reporting the process of deriving themes from the data in accordance with my research questions. For managing data, I drew separate spreadsheets for interview profiles in each studied district; so I could put each relevant segment of data in the related to research question's table. Cutting the transcript down to manageable segments helped me not feel so overwhelmed by the data. Initial selective codes were put into a mind-map to aid the thinking flow for later categorization. They are presented in Figure 4.5 below: In qualitative research, coding is about data retention, not just to label different parts of the transcript about the purpose of the study, but rather to bring them together in a way that the Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 132 researcher can review them [START_REF] Belk | Handbook of qualitative research methods in marketing[END_REF][START_REF] Biggerstaff | Qualitative research methods in psychology[END_REF][START_REF] Silverman | Doing qualitative research[END_REF]. The process of coding the data helps the researcher to identify similarities and differences in the data set. Setting boundaries of the categories needs interpretive judgment of the researcher [START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF] 3.4. Theme constructing After the end of the process of coding for the first transcript, I constructed themes by grouping those codes that seemed possible to go together. Afterwards, I repeated precisely the same process of analysis for the next set of data while keeping in my mind the list of groupings which extracted from the first transcript. After making a separate list of codes and themes from the second set of data, I compared this list with the first transcript's list to establish the original sketch or classification system which points out the recurring patterns in the study.

I acknowledged the words or phrases that different respondents often used similarly to express the same ideas. These common repeating words and phrases became themes. In this study, some of the theme names were derived from respondents' own words, and some others were derived from my interpretation based on the related theories discussed in Chapter 2 and 3. These patterns made categories or themes which are conceptual elements that cover many individual codes [START_REF] Merriam | Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation[END_REF].

I presented the process of data analysis, coding process and the themes derived from this initial data analysis to thesis supervisory committee after coming back from the fieldwork. After having approval of the process of data analysis by the supervisory committee, I continued to work on the analysis of the transcripts.

The process of assigning and fitting codes into themes or sub-themes was actually a struggling procedure for me at the beginning of data analysis. Some of the codes were repeated in the interviews, which were clear and easier to put in a specific theme. But some others were Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 133 difficult to fit in a particular theme or appeared to overlap with each other. As the data analysis progressed and more interviews were analyzed, I could get a better understanding about the classification of those themes. When it was necessary, I collapsed two themes into one more comprehensive theme or relocate codes to made more sense grouping them under a different theme than initials. Also, sometimes, it was needed to categorize one particular theme into two subthemes. Subsequently, after working on the constant analysis of more data, and also improving the definition of themes, it was easier to decide on related themes or sub-themes. The preliminary definitions of categories are presented in Table 4 The construction of categories is highly inductive at the beginning of constant comparative method. By the time the researcher reaches saturation, s/he will most likely be thinking in a more deductive rather than inductive [START_REF] Merriam | Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation[END_REF].

The research questions, were considerably redefined and reformulated by the time the final stage of data analysis had been reached. This selection is made by the researcher in terms of what Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 134 seemed significant, puzzling or problematic for generating a category system. Identifying and refining important concepts is a key part of the iterative process of qualitative research [START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF] Relationships between identified determinants of retail choice and (1) shopping and crossshopping strategies and (2) the dimensions of shopping practices were the results emerged from the analytic process. It allowed me to realize explanations of why things happened as they did with those consumers in that setting.

A storyline was prepared for each participant including socio-demographic information, retail shopping practices and every particular related factor. Vertical analysis was used for each participant, followed by horizontal analysis to synthesize all the transcripts, allowing for the construction of categories and sub-categories.

The meaning of a category evolved during the analysis, as I made more and more decisions about which bits of data could or could not be assigned to the category. The meaning depends upon the context in which the expressions was given by the participant, and the interpretation of voice and words used also took account of the setting. The process of developing categories is one of continuous refinement [START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF].

Links and causal links were created and compared among participants, to develop the proposition of a framework which will be presented in Chapter 5. Figure 4.6 illustrates a sample of this process.

The use of a long table facilitated the analysis by comparing the words used to answer each question by each participant. This approach is similar to 'framework analysis' advocated by Ritchie andSpencer (1994, cited in Flick 2007a), which uses a grid to identify or 'frame' patterns in the data. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 135 A grid or matrix summarizes the patterns with regard to raising specific issues (or codes) within the themes. There is, however, no model matrix of interesting categories that one can impose on all texts in qualitative research data analysis as what is of essential interest is embedded in each research topic and will arise from each transcript [START_REF] Seidman | Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences[END_REF].

"I only shop at supermarkets and I have no intentions to shop at wet markets, except from the things that supermarkets do not have I never go there (the wet markets) actually. If I need something I will ask my mother.

Oh things like traditional style tofu or some special spice.

But since I moved here I no longer need to ask her (my mother) I can buy them from the minimart downstairs.

Since I returned to Vietnam I only shop at supermarkets. I am used to shop once a week since

I lived abroad

We have that market here? I have no idea I drive a car so it is difficult to see and drop by I guess I am afraid of the quality of the vegetables there. How can we tell that they are clean vegetables? They are not guaranteed Yes, one thing is that I cannot tell the difference you see? Crafting such profiles is 'a way to find and display coherence in the constitutive events of a participant's experience, to share the coherence the participant has expressed, and to link the individual's experience to the social and organizational context within which he or she operates' [START_REF] Seidman | Interviewing as qualitative research: A guide for researchers in education and the social sciences[END_REF]. Second, I have marked individual passages, grouped these in categories, and then studied the categories for thematic connections within and among them, which will be presented accordingly in themes and a proposition of a framework for analyzing shopping and cross-shopping practices.

Validity and Reliability (Trustworthiness) of data

Quality in qualitative research remains a 'complex and emerging area' (Creswell, 2007).

Three of the major aspects of trustworthiness in qualitative research are internal validity, reliability, and external validity which Lincoln and Guba (1985, as cited in Creswell andMiller 2000) respectively named credibility, consistency or dependability, and transferability. Creswell (2007) later outlined several aspects which will make the study a good qualitative project: rigorous data collection and analysis; the use of a qualitative approach (e.g., narrative, phenomenology, grounded theory, ethnography, case study); a single focus; a persuasive account; a reflection on the researcher's own history, culture, personal experiences, and politics; and ethical practices. Validity or credibility copes with the question of how congruent research findings are with reality, and is the researcher measuring and observing what one thinks one is measuring or observing. There is not a single, immutable reality for which validity and credibility can be measured and observed. [START_REF] Kvale | Doing interviews[END_REF] sees the issue of validity as a question of the "quality of craftsmanship" of the researchers as they make defensible knowledge claims. Therefore, in qualitative research, it is significant to understand the outlooks of those involved on the phenomenon of interest, to reveal the complication of human behaviour in a contextual framework, and to provide a holistic understanding of what is happening [START_REF] Merriam | Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation[END_REF].

To realize how findings were congruent to the reality in this study, I used triangulation, adequate engagement in data collection, peer examination, and researcher's position or reflexivity.

Triangulation

Although triangulation itself does not ensure validity it is regarded as 'a way of ensuring comprehensiveness and encouraging a more reflexive analysis of the data' [START_REF] Mays | Qualitative research in health care. Assessing quality in qualitative research[END_REF].

Hesse-Biber and Leavy (2006) identified four types of triangulation including method triangulation, data triangulation, investigator triangulation and theoretical triangulation. Regarding investigator triangulation, although I collected data by myself, I involved different experts in the different parts of conducting my research including the development of the interview guide and the process of analysis and interpreting the data. I also employed the cross-checking of information from different dimensions. Within this study different methods of data collection (nonparticipating observation, field notes and qualitative interviews) were employed in order to produce a meaningful understanding of consumers' shopping practices. So, concerning data triangulation, different sources of data were compared and cross-checked. Using triangulation in Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 138 this study was a means to explore similarities between data collected through different sources and methods, in addition to identify if any contradictions arose.

Peer Examination

From the early stages of this study, experts were consulted about the design and conducting research, as well as data analysis. I consulted constantly with the thesis's supervisor and supervisory committee during the whole process of the study from the beginning of the study with the research proposal until initial data analysis and report-writing. Moreover, I discussed several times with two of my colleagues in the university back in Vietnam, with experience in the field of market research and consumer behaviour, and asked them to comment on the interview guide and also on the emerging themes on the process of data analysis. Constant adaptation was made during my presentation to the committee, the EAAE (European Association of Agricultural Economics) conference, and alongside my submission of a joint article with my supervisor to the Journal of Retailing and Consumer Services. Valuable comments were provided via my supervisor, committee members and journal reviewers and I ensured to make the changes where necessary.

Adequate Engagement in Data Collection

Adequate engagement in data collection is another strategy that is applicable when the researcher is trying to get close as possible to respondent's understanding of a phenomenon. The period of time needed for observation depends on the study but the best rule is reaching to the saturation in the data and emerging findings [START_REF] Merriam | Qualitative research: A guide to design and implementation[END_REF].

For accomplishing this strategy, I spent sufficient time for persistent non-participating observation as well as personal interviews, until no new information surfaced. Two phases of study, with a duration of three and four weeks accordingly for market observation, personal interviews and taking part in meetings and workshops in Hanoi enabled me to gain valuable knowledge and engage in very useful discussions with experts in the fields. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 139 3.5.4

. Reflexivity of Researcher's Position

The reflexivity is "the process of reflecting critically on the self as researcher, the human as instrument" [START_REF] Guba | Paradigmatic Controversies, Contradictions, and Emerging Confluences[END_REF]. Regarding the reflexivity, I explained my position as the main instrument of this study earlier in this chapter. I tried to be alert about my biases, dispositions, and assumptions regarding the research in the whole process of conducting the study.

Personal interviews, in addition to market observation, were carried out in a consistent approach that allowed participants to readily portray their experiences, clarifying any ambiguities during the talk, confirming interpretations of interview data by multiple assessments with supervisors and reporting the findings in a systematic manner with comparison to existing literature.

Throughout the research process the concept of reliability was addressed to minimise any possible misinterpretation or bias. In order to ensure that quality was maintained throughout the research process various applications of the aforementioned principles were applied in context and demonstrated throughout this thesis.

Summary of the chapter

This chapter has presented the research paradigm for this study, justifying the selection of a qualitative research design. It presented a description of the justification for methodology adopted, and description of the research process. This chapter has also detailed the qualitative data analysis, how the data was organized, analyzed and ensured validity and reliability. Nonparticipating market observation, in combination with expert interviews and participation in the field's workshops were done before carrying out the semi-structured interview guide for individual consumer. Finally, the chapter has described the process of managing the interviews during data collection and the procedure for transcribing and identifying themes in this qualitative research thesis.

Chapter 5 Results

Introduction

This chapter presents the findings of the study based on the following research questions: i.

How consumers are shopping in current emerging market situation with the diffusion of modern retailing? Beyond the opposition between rich consumers and modern retailing on the one hand and poor consumers and traditional retailing on the other, are there other possible patterns of shopping and especially cross-shopping practices?

ii.

What are the influencing factors and the specific dimensions of consumers' shopping practices and how do consumers form their shopping and cross shopping strategies?

The first section of the findings provides the reader with the background information of different types of fresh vegetables purchasing practices that emerged from the data analysis. The subsequent sections of this chapter present and discuss the findings in answering the research questions. Final codes, categories and themes derived from data analysis will also be presented to support these answers.

Background information of the participants

This section of the findings describes the overall information of the participants who were interviewed during phase 2 of data collection process. They are all adults aged above 21 years old and are residing in 6 central urban districts of Hanoi. Interviewed participants included both sexes but evidently more than 95% of them are women as they are the main 'gatekeeper' of Vietnamese households. Participants were of various ages, levels of mobility, domestic and employment situations. When the participants were asked about their shopping habits for vegetables, a variety of patronage behavior was revealed. However, fundamentally, a majority of the participants have a clear preference for frequent daily shopping for food as many of them cook on a daily basis. Based on the nature of formats (tradition vs modern) and the frequency of visits that participants mentioned, this research identified 5 predominant shopper groups of practices. In general, Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 144 traditional retail formats are still dominating participants' retail shopping patterns, however the trend of cross-shopping is also notably common.

The table shows background information of the participants, divided into 5 different types of shopping and cross-shopping practices. It allows an overview of the 5 types derived for this research with regards to their age, means of transport, income class and family size. The distribution of each type in each district is also presented. As mentioned in Chapter 4, there was no significant difference found for each type of practice across district. The number of bigger-size households appear to belong slightly more to Type 1 and Type 5 practices. Most of participants with nature of Type 2 and Type 3 practices have smaller size family with 2-3 members.

A quick run of all transcripts through a word frequency query plug in (the word cloud) enabled me to identify most frequent 1000 codes in the text. I then removed the stop words like "also", "else", "and" etc, as well as the word "vegetable(s)" since they, as a matter of fact, were This first word cloud showed a visual of the most common items on the list by all participants, representing places of purchase and influencing factors on shopping/cross shopping practices. It included 'wet market' (as the major shopping venue for consumers in Hanoi), and other expected factors such as 'time', 'origin', 'sellers' and 'fresh'. It also highlighted a noticeable number of participants who mentioned 'family', as to prove the level of importance this factor plays in their choice process.

The Participants' practices from each district were labelled (as described in Chapter 4) and listed accordingly to the 5 types founded.

They were then color coded as shown in Figure 5.4, to facilitate horizontal analysis process across the participants. shoppers includes words such as 'can't' and 'shop' could be interpreted as more of an internalrelated influence. Most frequent items for modern cross-shoppers (Type 4 and 5) appeared to be stronger intransitive verbs such as 'trust' and 'wants' and highlighted the act of 'shopping' per se. -Type 1 (23 participants) 'Selective tradition' includes participants who choose only traditional retail formats (traditional formal markets, informal markets or mobile vendors) while buying vegetables.

They include participants with Low, Low Middle and Middle High household income, no access to car. All age classes are present in this group in an equivalent way. Nearly 35% of this group are living alone/ cooking for themselves only, and 43% of them are families with 4-6 people.

-Type 2 (25 participants) 'Limited cross shoppers' includes consumers who choose traditional retail formats as their primary place to go buy vegetables but sometimes incorporate limited modern retail formats for buying home products/processed food etc. 64% of this group are families with 2-3 members. Many of them are people aged more than 50 years old (44%) and from Low Middle or Middle High income classes. None of the family owns a car.

-Type 3 (17 participants) 'Diverse cross shoppers' includes participants who choose to vary their sources of buying vegetables among traditional and modern formats. They are more likely to be Middle High or High income household with 2-3 members in the family.

None of them use a car.

-Type 4 (3 participants) 'Supermarket shoppers' are those who choose to buy vegetables from one supermarket to another supermarket. They represent a very small number (3 out of 79) of the participants. Two of them are High income households and the other one belongs to Upper High income class. Two use car on a daily basis, one drives motorbike. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 148 -Type 5 (11 participants) 'Cross-shoppers within modern formats' are those who choose to cross-shop between different modern types of retail outlets (i.e. crossing from a supermarket to a safe vegetable store or minimart). No participant over 60s or with a Low or Middle Low income is included in this group. More than 45% of them are from 30 to 40 years old and more than 63% belong to high income household.

Most participants still frequent wet markets and other traditional retail outlets to make their daily purchases. Simultaneously, modern retailers are gaining popularity, especially in urban areas.

A first analysis was conducted to better understand the different shopping and crossshopping profiles based on the following sample tables. Each of these tables (Table 5.3,5.4,5.5,5.6,5.7) accordingly presents the initial analysis with collection of quotes, rationale and place of purchase for different questions derived from the interviews. The sample tables above represented the open coding process which allowed me to take a fresh look at the data collected as they were and build up rationale directly from translated texts.

Rationale

They enabled the reflection upon the field notes and my own scripts of interviews without being totally bounded to the literature. This process later helped me to construct elements for my proposed framework, and for when it's necessary to relate them back to discussed factors in literature review.

Section 2. Findings of the Second Research Question

This section will be presented in accordance with the themes derived from the coding process in answering the research questions.

2.1. Factors related to shopping and cross-shopping practices

The common themes (sub-categories) that emerged from our vertical and horizontal analyses formed three categories of the factors influencing shopping and cross-shopping practices -( 1) physical food environment, (2) personal environment and (3) individual factors -and one category for shopping strategies.

Physical food environment: general food environment and local food environment

The table below provides a sample of verbatims, summaries and sub-categories included in the Physical food environment category:

General food environment

Great concerns about problems in the food safety system and the hazards associated with the intensification of agricultural production and agrochemical contamination were expressed.

"With everything we read and hear on the media, I feel really insecure about the quality of the food that I buy for my family. Especially vegetables, which are easily contaminated with pesticides", (Type 5 working woman in her 40s).

This high level of uncertainty in the current food environment in general can lead consumers to adopt cross-shopping and diversify the products bought from each retail outlet.

"Well, I began to buy vegetables from VinMart as soon as they started selling their own produce. I feel a bit more secure with the vegetables there since they are a big brand. I still shop at the nearby wet market because it is convenient and there are some culinary herbs that VinMart does not provide", (Type 3 working woman in her 30s).

Local physical food environment

Consumers live in different food environments and levels of awareness of the local food environment and changes in it vary a lot. While type 1 and 2 practitioners showed little interest in new shops or newly opened retail formats, others showed great awareness of big modern retail brands (types 4 and 5) or safe vegetables shops (type 3).

Some participants mentioned the availability of different modern retail formats as a factor that affects their choice. For example, one participant referred to her limited choice of retail formats as a result of her house's geographical location (Table 5.8), whereas participants who live in Hoan Kiem district were more prone to shop from peddlers and informal street markets as they live in the so-called "tourist district" where there are less available spaces to build big supermarkets. These two districts have much higher population density as well as retail format density.

Participants in Ha Dong favor informal markets for fresh vegetables as they claim the distance to supermarkets is greater.

Personal environment

Content analysis indicated that social networks play an important role in shopping practices. These networks include (1) family members and/or (2) peers in the workplace/interactive social circles. The table below provides a sample of verbatims, summaries and sub-categories included in the Personal environment category:

Role of peers in workplace/interactive social circles

As for working female shoppers, discussions with and suggestions from their working peers played an important role as a reference information source. Shoppers who enjoy talking to their co-workers often took suggestions from them about tastes, prices and potentially "clean" produce to try and shop via new retail formats.

"Since we work at the same place and often talk during breaks, we are pretty close. When we saw the new Vin Plus opening near our company, we all went there to buy vegetables. After a while, I got used to going there", (Type 2 working woman in her 20s).

Non-working participants also turn to people from their social groups when choosing which products to buy and where to buy them. One participant who often takes part in tai chi groups frequently talked about how she had seen others from the group who were buying from specific shops/market stalls and it made her trust those places more. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 156 "They are people with knowledge, I think that if she goes to that store the products should be good so I go there too", (Type 3 retired woman in her 50s).

So benefiting from the guidance/opinions of others is not limited to the workplace but includes one's overall interactive social network.

Individual factors

The table below provides a sample of verbatims, summaries and sub-categories included in the Individual factors category: Younger shoppers among the participants, especially those who are single and live alone, often mentioned shopping for food in general -and vegetables in particular -as something they "just want to get done fast" and showed no interest in changing their habitual retail outlet.

"Since I live alone and cook only for myself, I just want to do it fast […] I have this seller that I often pass by on my way home. It is convenient and the price is ok so I buy there often [...] That new shop? I am not aware of it [...] There is that market just opposite? I don't know, I did not really pay attention …", (Type 1 working woman in her 20s).

For younger participants, their choice of supermarkets and safe vegetable stores is associated with their lack of bargaining skills.

"After a long time living in the EU, I do not know how to estimate the price and how to negotiate for vegetables anymore. The price is fixed in supermarkets so it is better for me to go there", (Type 4 working woman in her 40s).

Conversely, older shoppers aged over 50 showed much stronger preferences for traditional markets. For these particular participants, the interpersonal experience at traditional markets plays an important role in their choice.

"I want to be able to talk with people at the wet markets [...] I used to buy vegetables at supermarkets because they are packaged and convenient to store in the refrigerator but now that I am retired and have time, I want to feel the lively atmosphere at the wet markets again [...] In supermarkets there is no chit chat and familiar people saying hi to each other while shopping", (Type 2 retired woman in her 50s).

Role of life-course events

Changes in domains such as work status, family composition and income occur over the course of one's life, affecting shopping practices. The changes in shopping practices mainly occur after people get married. For the traditional married couples living with their in-laws, some of the young wives interviewed do not engage much in food shopping if working full-time, as more than often the mother-in-law would take care of this task. This culture also enables some young crossshoppers to free themselves from the responsibility of daily shopping and choose to patronize both wet markets and modern stores depending on their own time schedules. However, for those who still shop for food, this is quite stressful. Modern young nuclear families with higher incomes who are not living with their in-laws are more likely to adopt modern retail formats. working woman in her 30s).

Shopping and cross-shopping strategies

Given the stress-inducing concerns over food quality and food safety, and other factors related to each individual and their environment, several coping strategies are developed by consumers in their shopping practices. Two categories of strategies emerged: dominated by constraints and based on trust. These strategies may be combined.

Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 159

Strategies dominated by constraints: price and accessibility

Price prevents many participants from buying specific types of imported vegetables or vegetables delivered from the south.

"I bought all those vegetables from the VinMart plus close to my old place since I had special promotions from them. I had bought almost every household thing from that shop so I had a discount on buying vegetables. But now that I have just moved here and things have changed a bit I am not sure if I will keep buying vegetables from VinMart plus. They are actually quite expensive when I have a close look at the price!", (Type 3 working woman in her 30s).

Type 1 and type 2 practitioners all said that the price of vegetables from modern retail outlets can be 1.5 to 2 times more expensive than those from traditional retailers so this limits their freedom to shop there. Accordingly, although vegetables are said to be a relatively inexpensive part of one's diet, some less common types of vegetables such as red cabbage or mushrooms, which are above average in price, are still described as "less consumed". Similarly, even though the amount spent daily on vegetables is considered to be really low in comparison with other food items, these amounts differ significantly depending on the respondent's income level. Lowerincome participants' spending ranges from 12,000 to 20,000VND (approximately $0.50-$0.86) while those with higher incomes may spend more than 60,000VND (approximately $2.60) each time they go shopping for vegetables. Their choice of shopping location varies according to the amount of money spent.

Accessibility has different meanings for different types of shopping practice: parking availability, proximity and walkability, or time.

For Type 4 and type 5 practitioners -the only ones who had a car -, accessibility was evaluated by the parking available for their vehicle. 160 "I always prefer Big C Thang Long although it is a bit further than the one near our house because they have big parking lots that are easy to navigate and well organized", (Type 5 working woman in her 40s).

In contrast, especially for consumers who are retired, some shopping trips more typically start walking from home, and walkability is therefore a key priority (Types 1 and 2 in particular).

Time was often identified as an important factor of accessibility, especially for working participants when choosing where to go shopping. In Hoan Kiem, the central district in the old city of Hanoi, buying vegetables from mobile sellers is convenient for those who are small street sellers themselves or appreciate the availability of mobile sellers from the biggest wholesale markets passing by their house every day. Shopping practices appear linked to storing and cooking practices: "I do not like to go buy food for the family that often, only once or twice is enough. Every time I shop it's better to shop as many as possible. We can always keep things fresh in the fridge!", (Type 5 working woman in her 40s) "I do not feel that the vegetables are still fresh after 2 or 3 days in the fridge. May be because I often shop everyday. Their look, their colours all seem to be the best […] I like culinary herbs for my dishes, a little bit of everything is always delicious. You can't keep all of them in the fridge for long time.", (Type 1 retired woman in her 60s).

As can be seen from the verbatims, while types 4 and 5 often reduce the frequency of food shopping to a minimum and keep food in the refrigerator, types 1 and 2 mostly prefer to consume fresh produce daily. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 161

Strategies based on trust: (1) self-confidence and trust in skills vs (2) trust in the seller

Self-confidence appeared to be of high importance in determining "Quality" for older consumers participating in the study. Perceived expertise and personal self-confidence are key factors when it comes to choosing where to buy vegetables.

"I can tell just by the colors and the freshness of the produce, of course", (Type 1 retired woman in her 50s).

The ability to bargain for better price was also mentioned by younger respondents as part of what built their self-confidence in choosing where to shop. Conversely, some cross-shoppers expressed less confidence in their ability to differentiate products and bargain at wet markets. Their lack of self-confidence was also associated with the difficulty of bargaining for the best prices; they therefore opt for modern retailers "I also hesitated because I do not want to have to bargain for the price. For frequent consumers they (the sellers) set one price and for newcomers like me they might set another. In supermarkets and stores the prices are listed so I do not need to think about it", (Type 3 working woman in her 40s).

The second strategy is based on Trust in the seller. Consumers may depend on their sellers to build trust in the quality of the produce. This trust may be in the seller at the market "I always shop with this lady at our nearby market, I trust her to sell good produce. I have known her for a very long time", (Type 1 retired woman in her 60s).

On the opposite, wet markets can generate distrust and trust can be oriented towards modern retail formats.

"I am very afraid to buy vegetables from wet markets [...] I believe in the supermarket(s).

Since they are a big brand, they must have some sort of system to control quality" (Type 4 working woman in her 50s). Based on the experiences and interpersonal interactions accumulated through shopping trips, their relationship with sellers/staff have strengthened and this causes some of them to remain loyal even after moving away.

Finally, shopping practice strategies may be based both on constraints and trust.

"I choose that lady because she always offers me a good price. I did try other sellers, but she's the best since I am a frequent customer", (Group 2 working woman in her 40s).

Section 3. A proposed framework of shopping practices in emerging urban markets

A proposition of framework is presented in Figure 5.6 that summarizes the findings of this study. The framework illustrates the factors influencing shopping practices in emerging markets and the link between such factors and shopping and cross-shopping strategies.

As such, a shopping practice is constituted by a combination of material dimensions (the physical stores or points of sale), meanings (shopping as part of taking care of the family or enjoyment of social interaction) and competencies (product knowledge or bargaining skills). Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 163 Discussed in practice theory, when an individual engages in his/her shopping activity, his/her engagement with it is structured by his/her habitus. That habitus in Vietnamese market, in turn, has been formed in the context of a society where people are saturated with negative information of food safety delivered through the media for many years. The shopping-as-practice approach [START_REF] Røpke | Theories of practice -New inspiration for ecological economic studies on consumption[END_REF]; [START_REF] Fuentes | Managing green complexities: consumers' strategies and techniques for greener shopping[END_REF]; [START_REF] Fuentes | Mobile phones and the practice of shopping: A study of how young adults use smartphones to shop[END_REF] is thus particularly relevant for this thesis's research aims and was used in this study. Factors important for explaining the shopping and cross-shopping practices of consumers in emerging market included in this framework include (1) physical food environment (general food environment and local food environment), (2) personal environment (family and peers) and

(3) individual factors (generation and life course events). Firstly, the framework proposes a link between the identified factors and the nature of the shopping strategies. Secondly, the shoppingas-practice approach also makes it possible to link the factors mentioned (physical food environment, personal environment and individual factors) to the different dimensions of practices (material dimension, competencies and meanings).

Summary of the chapter

Overall, this chapter presented descriptive results in answering the research questions of Individual interviews using semi-guided questions were carried out to explore, describe, and understand the shopping practices of seventy-night shoppers of fresh vegetables in their everyday life. Insights into the relationships between the factors related to shopping practices and the shopping strategies, as well as the dimensions of shopping practices were explored.

This chapter consists of two sections. In the first section, I analyze, interpret, and discuss the findings of the study in the context of shopping-as-practice approach [START_REF] Røpke | Theories of practice -New inspiration for ecological economic studies on consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Fuentes | Managing green complexities: consumers' strategies and techniques for greener shopping[END_REF] and peer-reviewed articles from Chapter 2 and Chapter 3. The second section discusses recommendations regarding retail policy and development, theoretical implications and managerial contribution both for public policy and for retailers in Vietnam, and limitations and future research venue.

Section 1. Discussion of the results

Before beginning the discussion on the results of my study, let me walk you through a life story of an urban Hanoian food shopper. You will see that I mainly use the 'she' or 'her' pronouns as more than 90 percent of the time the woman is supposed to be the main 'gatekeeper' of the house and thus will be doing the food shopping for the family. Multigenerational households are still common, and the children do not leave their home unless they join university in another city.

For a person who was born in the capital, the lady might as well go study abroad while her fellows from outside of Hanoi come and stay for universities. Either way, a lady normally stays with her parents until she gets married.

For her mother's generation, it used to be essential for a young lady to go to the wet market in the early morning with her mother to buy food for the house. The most popular type of food market here is the 'wet markets' (chợ). A typical informal wet market is open air, by the side of the streets in a residential area (Figure 6.1). Vendors primarily sell meat, poultry, seafood, vegetables, fruits, spices, rice and dried herbs. Impatient shoppers hurry on foot or on their bikes/motorbikes. Other shoppers take their time, shopping at one seller or another, inspecting the product, smelling, touching and even tasting it. Selecting vegetables in traditional food markets also requires the use of many senses. At the wet markets, the prices are not displayed and thus are negotiable. Customers who have established close relationship with sellers can even buy on credits and pay later. Following the mother to a wet market, the lady then may gain competences in 'recognizing the good products' and get to learn bargaining skills from her mother. For the younger generation, however, this is no longer the 'must-have' practice of everyday life. Mothers in modern life, feeling that their girls should be spending time studying, socializing or working, rather than involving too much in the tasks of buying and cooking food like they used to do. Young ladies whose families are still living in or originate from rural or semi-rural cities/towns get more familiar with food shopping, since they have to live independently earlier. After graduating from the university and getting the first job in their 20s, Hanoi-born ladies keep staying with the family while others live alone or share rent. The day they get married, the Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 169 ladies move out, then, either move in to live with their in-laws given that the in-laws are also living in Hanoi, or, the couples might move out to live by themselves. More and more young Vietnamese couples now prefer 'neolocal residence' [START_REF] Werner | Gender, Household and State in Post-Revolutionary Vietnam[END_REF], i.e. living with in-laws for a short period of time before starting their independent households. A Vietnamese woman normally has her first child before she gets to the age of 30, or she might as well get two children by then. If her parents are still around, her mother more than anyone, will be helping her taking care of the baby, together with her mother-in-law. Working young mothers often find themselves having their child(ren) over at their retired mothers' house on a daily basis until the babies get into kindergarten, or at least often at weekends if their mother is still working. The family might all enjoy a weekend visit at the big air-conditioned supermarket once in a while, as an entertaining activity for the baby(ies). The grandmother of the child(ren) may as well come all the way from their hometown to look after the little one(s). It is also normal for the parents to move in to live with the son's family after they retire or get around 60s and/or are no longer in good health. Family, in a nutshell, has a powerful influence on a person's shopping decision process.

The process of urbanisation is changing rapidly Hanoi more than one can imagine. The capital is transforming from a city of low buildings to one of high rises, with high dense buildings and modern infrastructure (Figure 6.3). New urban areas designed in a homogenous way are replacing old style architect, welcoming thousands of incoming migrants, bringing with them their own culture, lifestyles and perceptions. Now let me zoom in and look at a typical cross-shopper in Hanoi, how will she make her vegetable purchase? Hanoi over the past 5 years has witnessed the blooming of modern retail outlets especially with the development of safe shops and minimarts taking place in the food distribution sector. The lady, over her conscious concern about food safety for her new born child, starts looking around to find 'better options'. She might turn to modern retailers, hoping to get better 'quality'. But how could she be sure if it is truly of 'better quality'? The uncertainty is so high that shops even put the word 'safe' (an toàn) or 'clean'(sạch) onto their store sign as a way of advertisement (Figure 6.4). There are different brands, labels, logos that she herself is not capable of telling them apart. Sometimes she can't find culinary herbs for her traditional Vietnamese dishes there, or her husband/child(ren) prefer(s) typical traditional vegetables only available at wet markets. With all the choices, the lady decides that she can diversify and practice a combination of shopping venues, getting creative with her shopping strategies. The development of modern retail outlets in Hanoi symbolizes the modernization and urbanization process. Modern retail stores are being favored by public development policies [START_REF] Maruyama | Modern Retailers in Transition Economies[END_REF], but open-air markets still dominate the consumption of fresh food. Previous recent studies in Hanoi have shown that supermarkets are largely inaccessible to the poor and have highlighted policy gaps at both national and local levels. However, these studies focused mainly only on poor people [START_REF] Moustier | The Participation of the Poor in Supermarkets and other Distribution Value Chains[END_REF]Figuié and Nguyen, 2006;[START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014b;Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014a).

In this study, I aimed to understand the shopping practices of Hanoian consumers with different profiles. I identified five shopping practices of differing natures and degrees of crossshopping, and different strategies used to accomplish these practices, dominated by constraints or based on trust (self-confidence or trust in the seller). The analysis showed the relationships between the identified factors (physical food environment, personal environment and individual factors) and shopping and cross-shopping strategies and between these factors and the dimensions of shopping practices.

By identifying five types of shopping and cross-shopping practices, which differ in terms of the extent of cross-shopping and the nature of the retail formats, this study builds on the previous work by [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF], who made a distinction between market shopping, safe vegetable outlet shopping and supermarket shopping but without exploring potential cross-shopping practices.

Factors related to shopping and cross-shopping practices

Factors important for explaining the shopping and cross-shopping practices of consumers from this study include (1) physical food environment (general food environment and local food environment), (2) personal environment (role of family and peers) and (3) individual factors (role of generation and life course events). 'Food desserts' [START_REF] Clarke | Retail Restructuring and Consumer Choice 1. Long-Term Local Changes in Consumer Behaviour: Portsmouth, 1980-2002[END_REF] did not appear as a problem for consumers living in the central urban districts of Hanoi.

The results regarding the socio-material context and other factors confirmed some of the findings of previous studies conducted in Hanoi [START_REF] Maruyama | Traditional bazaar or supermarkets: A probit analysis of affluent consumer perceptions in Hanoi[END_REF][START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF][START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | We have to eat, right? food safety concerns and shopping for daily vegetables in modernizing Vietnam[END_REF]: a combination of factors such as geographical inaccessibility, income limitations and mobility constitute impediments on food-insecure households from fully participating in the modern retail market.

Many of the participants of this study still frequent wet markets and other traditional retail outlets to make their daily purchases. In the many wet markets for fresh produce, prices are negotiable and customers who have established close relationship with sellers can even buy on credits. Bargaining, thus, is part of our daily life.

My findings were in accordance with previous studies in terms of traditional consumers' shopping habits and their perceived images towards traditional and modern retailing. Hanoian traditional consumers tend to shop daily for food items to ensure freshness. They still find advantages in the more traditional way of doing their shopping practices. As confirmed, wet markets are generally found near populous residential areas and are often competitive in terms of prices. (In)formal wet markets and street vendors allow consumers to purchase goods in smaller quantities, which better suite this day-to-day consumption habit.

This study goes beyond previous research such as [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF] and the analysis of the risks and benefits of changes in the food system. Whereas these authors focused on the accessibility of supermarkets among poor urban consumers, this study considers a wider range of consumers from different social groups in an effort to understand their different shopping strategies. While poor consumers often rely on traditional food retailers, there is also a notable trend in which consumers combine both traditional and modern food retailers to suit their needs and requirements.

On the one hand, the traditional practices (Type 1 and 2) reflect customers who perceive modern retail formats as being more expensive or traditional practices can also be explained as an opportunity for social interaction outside family and workplace. The traditional markets are where people can interact, where they can meet others and fulfil their needs of belonging to a community. These practices are common with any age groups, but especially easy to be found among older generations. Retired older women in their late 50s often find shopping early in the morning familiar and a common practice that they have been doing since they were young. Younger working women and women around 30s-40s with adolescent child(ren) preferred to link their practices of buying at wet markets with convenient and time-saving.

Many of the traditional shoppers incorporate the shopping practice with other activities in the morning such as after exercising at the parks, or before sending off kids to school, going to work etc. On occasions, consumers would want to spend time at supermarkets and modern stores with their family as an outing and for leisure entertainment. Or they might buy products at modern retailers to cook for special events such as New Year, Ancestors Day, house-warming parties and several traditional festivals in accordance with the Lunar calendar. The approach adopted herein challenges the argument made by [START_REF] Kaynak | The Evolution of Food Retailing Systems: Contrasting the Experience of Developed and Developing Countries[END_REF], that purchase behavior and spending rates are impacted more by the economic situation than culture in poor countries. Indeed, this study builds on previous results by [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | We have to eat, right? food safety concerns and shopping for daily vegetables in modernizing Vietnam[END_REF] by showing that revenue and accessibility are not sufficient to explain shopping practices. There are participants who are not notably disadvantaged in terms of accessing modern retail formats, nor do they fall into the category of lower-income households, but display the type 1 practice of Selective tradition. A relational approach which goes beyond spatial mapping or evaluating local food access [START_REF] Story | Creating healthy food and eating environments: policy and environmental approaches[END_REF] appear to be more appropriate for the case of emerging market context as Hanoi.

Consumers are seen to actively adapt to their local food environment based on their different levels of awareness of the changes taking place. Cultural social and individual aspects and the influence on cooking of traditional dishes appear to be better explanation for these participants' practices. The results of this study agreed with [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF] that consumers viewed wet markets and supermarkets as complementing one another, offering different ranges of products, and as being equally important rather than competitors. However, for the participants of this study, the superiority of wet markets was also based on traditional values or social interaction and not only on functional advantages in variety, service, freshness, and price as [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF] had argued.

Simultaneously, modern retailers are also gaining popularity, especially as in urban areas.

The results of this thesis confirmed that with changes in food environments which encompass availability, affordability, convenience, and desirability of different foods [START_REF] Herforth | The food environment, its effects on dietary consumption, and potential for measurement within agriculture-nutrition interventions[END_REF][START_REF] Grace | Influencing food environments for healthy diets through food safety[END_REF], consumer behavior changes. A process of changes, though slowly but inevitable in consumer behaviour of people experiencing the emerging market of Hanoi has been witnessed. New shopping practices in which the consumer patronage between both traditional wet markets and modern retail stores, or even within different modern retail formats are getting more and more visible.

On one side, the rise of living standards has made consumers more willing to pay a premium on products and services offered by modern retailers. Concerned young mothers, being exposed to the development of local food environment, appeared to possess higher awareness regarding modern retailing diffusion. Participants of diverse cross-shopping practice (Type 3) expressed high level of uncertainty in safety of the food system, thus tried to diversify their shopping venues and some got 'creative'. These participants showed no problem storing food in the fridge. They might visit a supermarket one or twice per week after work hour, and go to wet markets as fill-in trips if needed. They can switch stores, and like to compare prices, promotion programs as they also look for a good bargain. Some consider buying more green/leafy/eaten-raw vegetables at modern retails and more roots and starchy vegetables at wet markets as "they are less likely to be affected by excessive fertilizer application and pesticide residues" (working woman in her middle 30s).

Recent development of safe vegetable greengrocers across all urban districts of the city appears to impress the modern cross-shoppers. Diverse cross-shoppers were highly aware of these small sized shops with clear store signs signalling the offer of certified safe (rau an toàn), clean (rau sạch) or organic (rau hữu cơ) vegetables. The aspiration of modern shopping outlets with regard to urban lifestyles has resulted in the increasing usage of these modern retailers. It, of course, requires a higher and stable income. These participants realized that vegetables in modern stores are significantly more expensive than those at wet markets. Shopping in the rhythms of everyday life is still important, but is rather driven by the attempt to avoid food safety risks.

On the other side, supermarkets are now considered as a convenient shopping experience as a one stop shopping for participants of Type 4 and 5 practices. Customers have shown appreciation for the modern outlets' responsive to their preferences, e.g. offering prepared meals that appeal to the daily shopper looking for fresh products or having discount and cards program for loyal customers. These participants explained that while their own dietary preferences had not yet shifted, they were starting to adapt their cooking to include new westernized dishes requested by their child(ren). Vietnamese mothers tend to think that children who eat more grow better.

The overall influences of family members (children, husband) are derived significantly from the interviews for all types of practices. For cross-shoppers, however, opinions of peers such as colleagues or people from the same social circles appeared to affect their choice of where to buy more. The participants in this study appear to represent a vertical, collectivist cultural context [START_REF] Shavitt | The Horizontal/Vertical Distinction in Cross-Cultural Consumer Research[END_REF], displaying the tendency of collectivists to prefer interactions with in-group members, more likely to value ascribed positions in their social hierarchy and convey concern for others' needs. Although many of them reply heavily on heuristic processing in product selection, the vertical cultural orientation helps explain their choice of shopping venue(s).

A theme that emerged notably from participants who practiced diverse cross-shopping and modern shopping types was their mentioning of life course events, which have not been discussed in previous literature of food market in Vietnam. While traditional practitioners often mentioned the importance of family and habitual activities, modern practitioners further explained their choice of retail venues as a consequence of their life path events. Ladies in their late 20s, early 30s for example, mentioned switching to modern retailers due to them having a new born baby. Older generation also showed preference in buying safe vegetables rather than conventional wet market vegetables for their small grandchild. "I want to buy better quality vegetables for my daughter's child because he is so small, and small children are more sensitive you see. So I would pass by the store to buy safe vegetables and meat for him. For us we are older and we are used to products from the wet market already so no problem [laugh]" (retired woman in her late 50s).

They mentioned several events in the past that had consequence on their choice later in life.

"I used to see a boy who got very very sick from eating unsafe food, it affected me a lot and now I only look for safe products" (retired woman in her early 50s). "When I was in my village I saw farmers growing vegetables separately, for their own family and for selling to customers. Now, you know that conventional vegetables at wet markets are not safe. I only buy from safe shops and supermarkets since I lived alone" (working woman in her early 30s).

Participants with kinship shopping (Wertheim-Heck and Spaargaren, 2016) in the past actually showed less trust in the quality of vegetables elsewhere, thus this affected their choice of where to buy fresh produce at present. "We used to have vegetables sent from my parents in our hometown. My mother used to grow vegetables in the garden. Now that both my parents get older, they are no longer able to do this farming activities and so me I need to start buying from the shops here in Hanoi […] Conventional vegetables at the market is not appealing, you see, you cannot tell where they are from and I do not feel safe. After all, we are familiar with safe vegetables from our hometown so I feel like I should at least turn to trustworthy source" (Working woman in her 40s).

Another theme derived from the interviews with participants of this study was a shift in shopping practices due to changes in lifestyle of generations. Younger generation participants who used to live with parents were less involved in food shopping since their mothers were in charge and were changing their views on roles of woman in the house. Going to the markets with mothers is losing its practice and the ladies expressed less confidence in their knowledge of produce and bargaining. The experiences of living abroad also affected this younger generation in their openness to western lifestyle and thus changed their shopping habits. [START_REF] Goldman | Barriers to the advancement of modern food retail formats: theory and measurement[END_REF] had predicted that younger Asians may be more modern or westernized than their older relatives but could not find any difference in their format choices. The results of this study advocate that a traditional-modern cultural and social change is leading to a change in their format choices.

Affluence among young nuclear family households who are concerned about food safety and in need of time-saving convenience are growing in number, turning to modern shopping formats for their food. Their trust in food safety at this moment, however, is based on food safety 'claims' by institutionalized outlets rather than trust based on government's official objectified checks. Some of the certified safe vegetables (rau an toàn) are authorized by official government authorities, but it is not a clear case for all the vegetables sold in modern retail stores such as clean or organic vegetables (rau sạch or rau hữu cơ). Some of these participants might have heard or read about the store's brand on social media, and recognized it when they opened a new store in their neighborhood. Others are open to try new stores, new products as they show presence in the area. Culturally, it is easy to establish a type of 'virtual kinship relationship' (Wertheim-Heck and Spaargaren, 2016) in Vietnam as this is a country that ranks number 7 globally in number of facebook users and the power of word-of-mouth remains strong no matter it's in an online or offline context. Supermarket shopping is a developing practice that in 2012 accounted for approximately 2 % of total vegetable sales in Hanoi (Wertheim-Heck et al., 2014b) and is slowly becoming a routine practice for a limited higher income group of consumers. The supermarket shoppers can afford larger volume shopping as they have a higher, more stable income, storage facilities (fridge and freezer) and the means of transportation from shop to home [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF]. Participants from this study, however, also expressed reasons for their choice of shopping related to life course and health elements. "I have weak abdomen conditions these recent years since I am getting older. It got bad when I bought vegetables from wet-markets so I started to buy vegetables from supermarkets only" (retired woman in her late 50s).

"In my house we only shop at supermarkets. My husband and I used to live abroad, we are used to it. I do not need to shop daily or go to wet markets." (working woman in her early 40s).

Modern retail development, though it is largely a leisure outing for more traditional practitioners, is now an important part of these intra-shopping practices.

Cross-shoppers within modern retail formats and supermarket shoppers also considered shopping at modern formats to be 'convenient', given that parking lots are available and community facebook groups are always available for support. These participants complemented their down-the-block stores or supermarkets at their residential area, who were willing to deliver directly to their door via phone order. They could also phone the store's staff, and had their order pre-packed so they could pick it up after work. This trend shows the same convenience mechanism in a different setting with customers at wet-markets.

Cross shoppers in this study tend to add new formats to the current rather than replacing them completely, which is similar to the results of [START_REF] Cude | Why do consumer cross shop between different types of food retail outlets?[END_REF] in the US.

However, the retail context between the two countries are different with different actors in the market. Cross-shoppers from this study display important social networks based on mutual commitment and obligation and the continued exchange of favours which emerges from traditional values.

Cross-shopping practices are as well driven by new and special product categories that are traditionally not offered, or by products which are perceived as of 'higher risk' at wet markets.

Retail formats attempt to attract fresh produce shoppers with quality-oriented positioning.

Participants of cross-shopping within modern outlets practices expressed the shopping practice per se as part of their daily life, not as a leisure or outing activity. Traditional practices were sustained over time, whereas cross-shopping practices and modern shopping practices are the modern phenomena. An important dimension of contemporary Vietnamese consumption is the traditional collectivist nature of the culture. Collectivism is connected to consumer choice through social conformity and group influence over purchase decisions. This collectivist approach to consumption is especially evident in the way social media and the Internet affect information search and guide consumer's perception towards modern retailers especially safe shops.

Regarding traditional shoppers, the habitual practice of buying vegetables within the wetmarket closest to home hampers the active search for alternative sales location. Social relations between buyers and sellers have particular characteristics that originate from the broader cultural context of collectivism and reciprocity in social relations. As confirmed by Wertheim-Heck et al.

(2014a) it helps explain the persistence and continued dominance of wet-markets in the overall food system. Traditional Vietnamese consumers at the moment display similar behaviour as consumers in Hong Kong market back in [START_REF] Goldman | The Persistent Competitive Advantage of Traditional Food Retailers in Asia_ Wet Markets_ Continued Dominance in Hong Kong[END_REF]'s research. The results also corroborate the study in Indonesia [START_REF] Suryadarma | Traditional food traders in developing countries and competition from supermarkets: Evidence from Indonesia[END_REF][START_REF] Sunanto | Modern Retail Impact on Store Preference and Traditional Retailers in West Java[END_REF] . Looking at in-depth interview results, it appears that the Vietnamese limited cross-shoppers mimic the situation in Indonesia where the women of the households believe that traditional wet markets provide fresher products and enjoy the more personal shopping experience that they find in modern stores.

The modern Vietnamese consumers, however, exhibit unique behaviour regarding the practice of bargaining at wet markets, which is different from Taiwanese consumers in the study of [START_REF] Putthiwanit | Buyer success and failure in bargaining and its consequences[END_REF]. While successful bargainers in Taiwan tended to be younger people and easterner compared to unsuccessful bargainers who tended to be older people and westerner, participants of younger generation in this study display low self-esteem in their ability to bargain.

The results support findings of [START_REF] Sharif | Following Mothers to the Wet Market: The Significant Benefits Gain by Young Generations[END_REF] on confidence gained by Malaysian youngsters while following their mothers to the wet markets. As they argued, food knowledge transfers and skills of bargaining were passed down to the children in the form of mentoring from one generation to another generation. As the act is less practiced in modern Vietnamese urban families, younger shoppers were found to be less confident in their skills.

The results support Humphrey (2007)'s argument that supermarkets in developing countries are expanding, and will expand, their sales of fresh food. It is argued that modern retailers radically change food supply chains by introducing the new cross-shopping practices. Although at the moment, low-income customers buy much less fruit and vegetables from supermarkets than do the higher-income ones, it will change as companies diversify their formats and increase their market experiences. However, since the supermarkets face big challenges in the area of fresh food, consumer preferences have to be considered carefully when trying to generalize about the advance of this modern format. The success of the Vietnamese brands such as VinMart, Bac Tom or Soi Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 185 Bien in Hanoi is an example. Their approach in the domestic market is the application of smallersize stores (safe shops and minimarts) which embrace community social culture image.

Although [START_REF] Sohail | Shopping Behavior and Evaluation of Store Features: Perspectives from a Food Market in the Arabian Peninsula[END_REF] claimed that modern retail outlets is very impersonal, the safe stores in Hanoi appeal to younger consumers by the same trust mechanism as the wet markets using their brand image building.

Buyers in Hanoi can make only a partial payment or nothing at all at the time of purchase with sellers whom they have frequented for sometimes. The local seller would grant them the produce on credit because they are from the same neighborhood community. In the case of Vietnamese consumers, this is not only due to the financial constraints, or in other words, limited to poor consumers. The relationship between seller and buyer is viewed as part of the local community revolving around their daily life.

The expansion of modern retailing in developing countries such as Vietnam would be associated with growth in demand for 'non-price characteristics' as stated by [START_REF] Tandon | Expansion of Modern Grocery Retailing and Trade in Developing Countries[END_REF].

Convenience in food shopping and preparation is on increasing demand. Towards Vietnamese consumers, shopping at modern retailers can as well be considered an opportunity to interact and communicate with staff and customers who share common interests (communication), or to enjoy being the centre of attention in a shopping situation (status or authority). The emerging evidence that the supermarket chains' safety claims are seen by consumers as more credible than those of the informal sector (Figuié, 2004) remains true. Otherwise, it is worth marking that the modern cross-shoppers in Hanoi mimic the hybrid shopping practices tied for the retail banner expressing a strong local identity of Moroccan consumers [START_REF] Amine | Shoppers' reactions to modern food retailing systems in an emerging country[END_REF]. Moreover, person's consciousness of food health was found to impact his/ her choice of modern retail formats in Vietnam, which is in contrast with Taiwanese consumers [START_REF] Shiu | Demographic Segmentation of Shoppers at Traditional Markets and Supermarkets in Taiwan[END_REF].

Consumption cultures in Hanoi appear to develop in ways that make them crucially different from their western counterparts in some circumscribed respects [START_REF] Humphrey | The supermarket revolution in developing countries: tidal wave or tough competitive struggle?[END_REF][START_REF] Maruyama | Traditional bazaar or supermarkets: A probit analysis of affluent consumer perceptions in Hanoi[END_REF]. This study is in line with [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF] to confirm that it is via routinized practices that Vietnamese consumers confront contemporary food safety scares in Vietnam.

However, this study went further by showing the relationships between the identified factors (physical food environment, personal environment and individual factors) and ( 1) shopping and cross-shopping strategies and (2) the dimensions of shopping practices.

Relationships between the identified factors and shopping and cross-shopping strategies

The identified factors are linked to the nature of the shopping strategies. This qualitative study revealed that consumers viewed wet markets and supermarkets as complementing one another and they can choose between or combine different formats for their shopping. Regarding strategies dominated by constraints, the importance of price confirms previous studies that highlighted the financial constraints on poor consumers when accessing supermarkets (Figuié and Bricas 2010;Figuié and Nguyen 2006;[START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]Wertheim-heck et al. 2014[START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF]. However, while previous studies focused on poor consumers, our results show that price is a shared concern, and that its importance is also linked to one's life path.

Accessibility has long been identified as an important factor of retail format choice, and convenience was often chosen over every other aspects by participants discussing their main shopping trip (Moustier and Loc 2005). However, accessibility has been assimilated to proximity in previous studies (Moustier and Loc 2005;[START_REF] Maruyama | The nature of informal food bazaars: Empirical results for Urban Hanoi, Vietnam[END_REF], while the results of this study reveal that accessibility has different meanings for different types of shopper: parking availability for those who own a car, proximity and walkability for those who shop near their home or place of work, time for those who work. Accessibility therefore seems related to both the local food environment and personal factors linked to life path such as work status, family composition and income. Wertheim-Heck et al. (2014) had already identified different shopping practices including traditional space-constrained and socially driven practices, and modern time-constrained individualistic ones. Our study shows that beyond this opposition, the same time constraint can lead to different shopping and cross-shopping practices adopted by different practitioners. The food safety dilemmas experienced by consumers in particular has now urged modern crossshoppers to break with the well-established routine of shopping for vegetables at wet-markets.

Besides, previous research had shown that consumers' shopping behavior is linked to their habit of not storing food [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]Wertheim-heck et al. 2014[START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF][START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF]. Our results show that shopping practices are also related to cooking and eating practices. Therefore, it helps to understand how difficult it can be, especially for older shoppers, to change their practices.

Regarding strategies based on self-confidence or trust, the general food environment and concerns over food safety have consequences for the strategies used to judge the quality of a product (self-confidence for those who have the skills or trust in the seller for others). Regarding strategies based on trust, our results show the role of peers in reinforcing trust in the seller.

Participants of divers cross-shopping practices tend to listen to people from the workplace or social circle as of where to buy. 1.3. Relationships between the identified factors and the dimensions of shopping practices.

The shopping-as-practice approach makes it possible to link the factors mentioned (physical food environment, personal environment and individual factors) to the different dimensions of practices (material dimension, competencies and meanings). The general food environment has consequences on the necessary competencies to judge the quality of a product.

The local physical food environment shapes the material dimension of practices and involves specific constraints (location of the home or shops). The personal environment affects the meanings of the shopping practice, be they related to the sense of the nurturing role within the family or the pleasure experienced in chatting with the seller or discovering a new supermarket.

Finally, individual factors are also related to all dimensions of practices.

Generation has an impact on the competencies and meanings linked to shopping practices. Indeed, the ability to bargain for better price is confirmed as a skill developed by Vietnamese consumers [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF], but this skill seems linked to generation, since it is less present in the younger generations, who by default turn to modern retail formats. Besides, the meanings associated with shopping practices differ between older and young generations: whereas the notion of being a good parent seems common, older practitioners insist on the pleasure associated with their relationship with sellers [START_REF] Moustier | Are supermarkets poorfriendly? Debates and evidence from Vietnam[END_REF]Wertheim-heck et al. 2014[START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF][START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF], but for younger shoppers or grandparents with their grandchildren, a visit to a supermarket may also be associated with leisure and pleasure.

One's life path and changes to work status, family composition and income, also affect the dimensions of shopping practices. First, the results clearly show that factors such as disposable income or owning a car affect the material dimension of practices. In the same vein, having a child changes the meaning of the shopping practice because the sense of the nurturing role within the family is accentuated. The composition of the household influences the skills needed, with a difference between traditional married couples who rely on their in-laws and modern ones who need to rely on their skills in their shopping practices.

The food safety dilemmas experienced by consumers in particular has urged cross-shoppers to break with the well-established routine of shopping for vegetables at wet-markets. By performing the practice as routinized, consumers reproduce long established and culturally embedded relations of trust. Their existing skills and knowledge also determine their level of selftrust and in turn affect their choice of food retail venue(s). The results from this research demonstrate how Vietnamese traditional consumers' reluctance to accept retail modernization is related to the deep-rooted cultural aspects. This study, however, advocates the inevitable change in the coming years of modern retail diffusion in rapidly changing contextual conditions. Modern retail shopping is expected to become more "normal" in daily life, losing its novelty.

Section 2. Contribution of the research

The food retail sector is undergoing major changes in emerging countries that have significant impact on both the restructuring of the food system as a whole and on the evolution of consumer shopping practices at local food environments. This research has shown that in the case of urban Hanoian consumers, the movement was behind the emergence of hybridization of shopping practices. These changes reflect the need for nesting modernity and convenience offered by the modern sales network as well as commitment to cultural habits and values related to traditional practices.

The upper and middle classes that have converted early to modern retail venues will gradually seize and make it their main source of supply. These practices of shopping, although they meet the needs of utilities, appear to indicate symbolic meaning and also reflect consumers' concerns over food safety risks. For the more modest consumers, the fact of not having the means to buy exclusively in supermarkets or modern retail stores does not prevent them to attend. These customers are seeking to go to modern retail venues for reasons that do not routinely order to buy and find out more in these modern retail stores a moment of relaxation and entertainment with their family.

This study points out the trend of urban cross-shoppers who produce hybridized shopping practices that allow them to cope with the uncertainty of the food environments. It shows how urban consumers in emerging market use and combine different retail stores to invent hybrid shopping practices, in addition to their traditional retail choice. The results of this study have both theoretical and managerial implications.

Theoretical and managerial implications

Previous literature investigating consumers' behaviors in the context of food retailing in emerging markets has adopted either psycho-economic perspectives which focus on consumer choice and factors influencing it (e. g. individual attributes and store-related attributes [START_REF] Baltas | Shopper characteristics, product and store choice criteria: a survey in the Greek grocery sector[END_REF][START_REF] Carpenter | Consumer demographics, store attributes, and retail format choice in the US grocery market[END_REF][START_REF] Cervellon | Shopping orientations as antecedents to channel choice in the French grocery multichannel landscape[END_REF] or -for a very limited number of studies-a shopping as practice approach which focuses on practices and not on individuals, who are only considered as practice carriers. The social practice-based inquiries into shopping shift the focus from the choices and values of individual shoppers to the organization and dynamics of the actual shopping activities. In choosing one or the other of these approaches, it is impossible to fully understand how individual and environmental factors interact and are related to shopping practices. Therefore, the main theoretical objective of this study was to combine these two approaches, using the shopping-as-practice approach but adding a focus on practitioners, in order to complete previous studies focusing only on the consumer or only on shopping practices. The main theoretical contribution of this study lies in the identification of different daily shopping practices and strategies, but also of their links with socio-material context and individual factors, combined in a proposition of framework. Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 191 The theoretical implications of the study are twofold: related to the cross-shopping literature and to the shopping as practice approach. First, this research is, to our knowledge, the first to use practice theories to study cross-shopping. Instead of focusing on individual or storerelated factors, it shows that cross-shopping is not merely a choice but a combination of different strategies based on constraints and/or trust. It calls for greater consideration of trust in retailing, as shown for specific markets such as organic markets (Hamzaoui-Essoussi et al., 2013). Second, this research calls for greater consideration of individuals in shopping as practice approaches. Indeed, shopping as practice approaches allow to understand shopping practices and take into account, albeit indirectly, physical food environment and personal environment, but do not explicitly consider individual factors. Yet, these individual factors may change the meanings of the practice and therefore, their maintenance.

The main managerial contribution lies in several recommendations that can be made both for public policy and for retailers. With rapid urbanization and income growth, the 'supermarketization' policy of Vietnamese government is set to close traditional retail outlets like wet markets, and instead favor modern retail outlets such as supermarkets and convenience stores.

The goal, was to improve food safety as companies could be held responsible for issues that might arise from the food they sold as it is harder to do so with traditional wet markets. This push towards supermarkets, however, has led to some unintended consequences particularly for the urban poor, regarding food and nutritional security.

Recommendations

The first recommendation relates to the necessary diversity of retail outlets in an emerging market such as Vietnam. The results help us understand why consumers are more or less likely to incorporate new modern retailers into their everyday routines. This study is in line with Figuié and Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020192 Moustier (2009)' recommendations to maintain the present diversity of retail outlets in Hanoi as it fits the diversity of consumer groups and allows small-scale traders to maintain their livelihoods.

The author also supports the recommendation by [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Food safety and urban food markets in Vietnam: The need for flexible and customized retail modernization policies[END_REF] for flexible and customized retail modernization policies as opposed to the current trend of promoting supermarkets as a single, ideal-type form of food shopping. However, these authors had based this recommendation on their study of poor consumers, while this research shows that the diversity is necessary for all types of consumers, who, even with diverse revenues, adopt cross-shopping strategies. This study has shown that consumers practices differ across different shopping venues and there has been a visible evidence of changes in consumer behavior over time.

The research supports that there are potential benefits from considering traditional and modern formats as complementary to each other. The question is how to yield positive health and nutrition aspects from retail diversity within the local food environments while maintaining affordability, convenience and healthy diets. There should be a balance regarding the future of local traditional markets and modern retail stores.

Regarding confidence building, the results show that consumers' competencies regarding food knowledge seem to be weaker in the young generation. Hence some practices based on trust in supermarkets are also based on a lack of confidence regarding wet markets. It could thus be useful for the government to increase and better control the level of cleanliness and sanitation at wet markets. This would help ensure customers' trust in the food environment and the quality of produce sold.

Policy makers primarily need to embrace the retail diversity available in urban food environments and provide solutions to increase both the safety and quality of foods available from traditional wet markets. To eliminate consumer fear in current food environments, better Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 193 communication aiming at educating consumers as well as sellers about food safety standards is required. Trust in food would be restored by aiming for better controlled hygienic hazards selling meat, fish, vegetables, fruits and other perishable goods. A strict guidance on wet markets should be developed, setting standards and strict enforcement measures. Food quality control and awareness campaigns should be effective to improve consumers' trust in food safety guarantees as well as to educate traditional sellers about safe and sustainable behavior. Ensuring access to safe, healthy and affordable food will empower consumers to adopt balanced and healthy diets. Cultures and food traditions are part of healthy eating. Healthy and sustainable food environments, therefore, should reflect the diversity of cultures, territories and communities they serve. From a policy perspective, this study is in line with Mergenthaler et al. (2009) and [START_REF] My | Consumers' familiarity with and attitudes towards food quality certifications for rice and vegetables in Vietnam[END_REF] who stated that public media can and should be used to promote the spread of objective information, especially with respect to standards and measurement of public health issues and safety risks. Efforts to improve public awareness and knowledge of food quality certification and sustainable agricultural practices are highly recommended.

The use of supermarkets only for selected product categories is clearly a barrier to the market share growth of supermarkets in developing countries [START_REF] Maruyama | Modern Retailers in Transition Economies[END_REF].

The transmission channels through which the 'retail revolution' affects national development are manifold and complex. Thus, legal and regulatory instruments that may positively influence the determinants of a healthy and sustainable food environment may also come from local or decentralized authorities and organizations ('glocal hybrization' as indicated by [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | We have to eat, right? food safety concerns and shopping for daily vegetables in modernizing Vietnam[END_REF]. Provinces, states, regions and different stakeholders may contribute to the elaboration of this legal framework.

On the opposite, shopping practices at wet markets often rely on trust in the seller based on personal relationships. Modern retailers could also consider strategies to offer consumers a friendlier environment with enhanced interpersonal experiences and trust building between customers and sales staff. This is also of major importance to modern retailers and to foreign retailers that operate in or plan to enter non-Western markets.

By identifying the factors related to food store cross-shopping behavior, this study provides a stepping stone for understanding the nature of shopping and cross-shopping practices in an emerging food retail context at different retail venues. This research will provide food retailers in accessing different types of outlets with knowledge of the rationales their customers judge to be Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 196 important when making format choices. This is of particular importance to the small-size food stores that have difficulties in maintaining their market shares. As competition in the food retail industry continues to develop, a better understanding of consumer shopping practices regarding different format choice is crucial to the food retailer's performance.

This study has provided some evidence that there has been a shifting in the practices of urban consumers on Hanoi. It may be indicative of a new coming stage of modern format evolution and therefore be possible to conjecture that consumer's format evaluation basis is in a transition.

Consequently, it becomes important for the marketers of the various modern formats to study the attitude and motive profiles of their target group from time to time as it helps to form the basis of the retail format's communication decisions and business proposition changes. Finally, for researchers studying the modern retail diffusion process, insights into the transfer issue of advanced supermarket technologies into the emerging economies and the process of retail globalization would benefit future institutional actors in retail industry.

A key contribution of this research has been the development of a multi-perspective framework for understanding the format choice through relational linkage. The importance to study the relations among factors related to shopping practices and (1) shopping and crossshopping strategies and (2) dimensions of shopping and cross shopping practices in the framework is well illustrated in this study. The research looks at format level choices instead of store level choices, as mostly reported in the literature. The study shows good relevance for the transition stage of retail evolution in emerging markets. Cultural social considerations were also raised, including a routinized nature and the concerns over maintaining the culture and tradition associated with shopping practices. It would be relevant to further study the cultural construction of freshness perceived by Vietnamese consumers. This might create a niche for small-scale players in emerging markets. Hence, companies in the food retail market should pay close attention to trends in society that boost food industry, which result in the need of a variety of supply of products.

In the long term, we need to be concerned about determining what institutional changes are required to accelerate the evolutionary process of modern retailing in emerging markets.

Alternative approaches in addition to current formats would be sought if progress is to be made in aiding the accessibility to retail choices. The presence of international retailers would also help raise standards for consumers. And local private sector should also be part of an inclusive and sustainable retail modernisation with the support of the Government. Further studies on the supply side built upon Maruyama and Le Trung (2012)'s study is highly recommended.

To reach for perishable foods of high value, effective connectivity within the supply chain includes -but is not limited to -efficient product handling and logistics services, and physical management of product lines from rural areas to end users. It also relates to the flow of product information from farm to market, as well as the source of origin, quality characteristics, biosafety status and production processes. In order to institutionalize this, various tasks and relationships should be developed. In fact, attributes and capabilities required for a well-connected, wellfunctioning market supply system for perishable fresh foods are highly in demand.

Limitations and research avenues

This work is not exempt from limitations, regarding both the methodology and the results.

Firstly, given the original purpose of the research, which was to collect data on the vegetable shopping over consumer life course and under modern retail diffusion in Hanoi, the data collection tools were strongly biased towards collecting data on shared meanings held towards shopping and possibilities of cross-shopping. As mentioned in section 4.3. those who really cannot afford cross-shopping were partly excluded from the data collected during interviews.

Secondly, it is sometimes acknowledged that only asking questions to the carriers of a practice will only generate limited insights into the structure of the practice itself (e.g [START_REF] Hargreaves | Practice-ing behaviour change: Applying social practice theory to pro-environmental behaviour change[END_REF][START_REF] Spotswood | Analysing cycling as a social practice: An empirical grounding for behaviour change[END_REF]. Nonetheless using qualitative interviews has been recommended for practice-based research since 'discursive interaction between researchers and research participants' presents an appropriate way to explore the structure of linkages between the elements of a practice (Martens, 2012;[START_REF] Spotswood | Analysing cycling as a social practice: An empirical grounding for behaviour change[END_REF].

Taking this view that respondents are important gatekeepers for insights on practices, an analysis of their talk on the subject in addition to non-participating observation was considered an appropriate way of exploring the structure of linkages between the elements of shopping-aspractice.

These results are by nature qualitative and subject to certain limitations related to their generalizability. The first limitation is due to the nature of the study, which concentrates on urban consumers in central districts of Hanoi and only aims to understand practices, so no generalization can be made about the importance of each type of practice. The findings, propositions, and framework emerging from this study reflect the subjective experience of the consumers living in 6 central urban districts of Hanoi in Vietnam. The interactions between such consumers and retailers in other emerging contexts might vary, depending on the level of modern diffusion, the types of retailing venues etc. This study needs to be replicated in other emerging market contexts to explore a cross-country perspective. Such replication of this study will contribute to understanding the differences and similarities in factors that related to shopping and especially cross shopping practices.

In addition, different factors should be studied in a systematic way, particularly cultural aspects and features of consumers' life paths associated with their food consumption practices.

More generally, further research is needed to better understand the link between the factors mentioned (physical food environment, personal environment and individual factors) and the different dimensions of practices (material dimension, competencies and meanings). In the same vein, shopping practices should be studied in association with other routines such as cooking and consumption practices. Observations would deepen the understanding of the constitutive elements of practices and the link between shopping practices and other practices and eventually lead to new findings regarding consumers' awareness and acceptance or rejection of the food retailing transition.

Section 3. Conclusions

Wet markets not only grow well in Vietnam, but also continue to be important food providers in Thailand, Indonesia, Malaysia, and China, as well as in more economically developed countries such as Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. The analysis of this study explored changes in consumer behavior, a potential shift in the market and future development of urban food system in emerging countries.

Food choice is a complex human behaviour determined by a combination of biological, psychological, social, cultural and economic factors (Shepherd 2005). It is a dynamic, flexible concept that is changed or modified throughout the life-course, developing from early childhood up until old age (Sobal & Bisogni 2009). The study related to food behaviour should also be considered in specific context, regarding different possible institutional actors in the market. This research applied a qualitative approach, which combine both psycho-economic perspectives with social practice-based inquiries. The main theoretical objective of this study was to combine these two approaches, using the shopping-as-practice approach but adding a focus on practitioners, in order to complete previous studies focusing only on the consumer or only on Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 200 shopping practices. The main theoretical contribution of this study lies in the identification of different daily shopping practices and strategies, but also of their links with socio-material context and individual factors, combined in a proposition of framework.

While this study found support to some of the theoretical expectations, it has some limitations of its own. The present study unravels the mechanisms behind consumers shopping and cross-shopping practices in an emerging retail market. It should be kept in mind that the explanation provided in this study is neither exclusive nor all-inclusive. It rests a need for many further researches to be done to fully understand shopping practices and their evolution.

  FIGURE 2.1. CONTRIBUTION OF FOOD SCIENCE, ECONOMICS, PSYCHOLOGY AND SOCIOLOGY TO CONSUMER BEHAVIOR IN RELATION TO FOOD CHOICE (SCHRODER, 2011) .................................. 9 FIGURE 2.2. A CONCEPTUAL MODEL OF THE COMPONENTS IN THE FOOD CHOICE PROCESS (FURST ET AL., 1996) .............................................................................................................................................. 18 FIGURE 2.3. TPB BASED CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK FOR STORE FORMAT CHOICE (ANAND AND SINHA, 2009) .............................................................................................................................................. 32 FIGURE 3.1. SEQUENCE OF ADOPTION-DIFFUSION GAP (HINO, 2010) ..................................................... 57 FIGURE 3.2. DISTRIBUTION OF VEGETABLES IN HANOI (ADOPTED FROM CADILHON ET AL., 2006 & LOC, 2016) .................................................................................................................................................. 85 FIGURE 3.3. ILLUSTRATION OF DIFFERENT VEGETABLE RETAIL OUTLETS IN HANOI (AUTHOR'S PHOTOGRAPHS) ....................................................................................................................................... 89 FIGURE 4.1. THESIS RESEARCH FLOW CHART ............................................................................................ 99 FIGURE 4.2. THE CITY OF HANOI BEFORE AND AFTER EXPANSION (PHAM, 2011) ............................. 113 FIGURE 4.3. RETAIL POINTS IN HANOI'S CENTRAL DISTRICTS (AUTHOR'S DATA) ............................ 115 FIGURE 4.4. THE STEPS INVOLVED IN DATA ANALYSIS (DEY, 2005) .................................................... 125 FIGURE 4.5. INITIAL SELECTIVE CODING (AUTHOR'S DATA) ................................................................ 131 FIGURE 4.6. EXPLAINING ONE PARTICIPANT'S REASONING (AUTHOR'S DATA) ................................ 135 FIGURE 5.1. MAP OF HANOI'S CENTRAL DISTRICTS (IMAGE SOURCE: INTERNET) ............................ 141 FIGURE 5.2. DISTRIBUTION OF MONTHLY HOUSEHOLD INCOME OF PARTICIPANTS (AUTHOR'S DATA) ...................................................................................................................................................... 142 FIGURE 5.3. THE OVERALL WORD CLOUD (AUTHOR'S DATA) ............................................................... 144 FIGURE 5.4. COLOR CODE OF DIFFERENT SHOPPING PRACTICES (AUTHOR'S DATA) ....................... 145 FIGURE 5.5. THE WORD CLOUD OF THE 5 PRACTICE TYPES (AUTHOR'S DATA) ................................. 146 FIGURE 5.6. THE PROPOSED FRAMEWORK OF SHOPPING PRACTICES IN EMERGING MARKETS .... 163 FIGURE 6.1. INFORMAL STREET MARKETS IN HANOI (AUTHOR'S PHOTOGRAPHS) .......................... 167 FIGURE 6.2. FORMAL WET MARKETS IN HANOI (AUTHOR'S PHOTOGRAPHS) .................................... 168 FIGURE 6.3. URBAN HANOI NOWADAYS (AUTHOR'S PHOTOGRAPHS) ................................................. 170 FIGURE 6.4. AROUND-THE-CORNER SAFE SHOPS (AUTHOR'S PHOTOGRAPHS) .................................. 171 FIGURE 6.5. CUSTOMERS JOINING AN OPENING EVENT OF A SAFE SHOP IN HANOI (AUTHOR'S PHOTOGRAPHS) ..................................................................................................................................... 175 FIGURE 6.6. CONDITIONS OF SOME (IN)FORMAL WET MARKETS IN RESIDENTIAL AREAS (AUTHOR'S PHOTOGRAPHS) ..................................................................................................................................... 194

  NIELSON 2013) ........................................................................................................................................ TABLE 5.2. DESCRIPTIVE BACKGROUND OF THE PARTICIPANTS BELONGING TO THE 5 TYPES OF SHOPPING AND CROSS-SHOPPING PRACTICES (AUTHOR'S DATA) .............................................. TABLE 5.3. 'HOW DO YOU CHOOSE WHERE TO GO WHILE BUYING VEGETABLES AT WET MARKETS/ FROM MOBILE VENDORS?' .............................................................................................. TABLE 5.4. 'HOW DO YOU CHOOSE WHERE TO GO BUY VEGETABLES FOR THE MEALS WHILE SHOPPING AT SUPERMARKETS/MINIMARTS/SPECIALTY SHOPS?' ............................................... TABLE 5.5. 'WHY DO YOU NOT BUY VEGETABLE AT SUPERMARKETS/MINIMARTS/SPECIALTY SHOPS?' ................................................................................................................................................... TABLE 5.6. 'WHY DO YOU NOT BUY VEGETABLE AT WET MARKETS/MOBILE VENDORS?' ............ TABLE 5.7. 'YOU SAID THAT YOU BUY VEGETABLES BOTH AT SUPERMARKETS/MINIMARTS/SPECIALTY SHOPS AND WET MARKETS, HOW DO YOU DO THIS?'....................................................................................................................................................... TABLE 5.8. A SAMPLE OF VERBATIMS, SUMMARIES AND SUB-CATEGORIES INCLUDED IN THE PHYSICAL FOOD ENVIRONMENT CATEGORY (AUTHOR'S DATA) ................................................ TABLE 5.9. A SAMPLE OF VERBATIMS, SUMMARIES AND SUB-CATEGORIES INCLUDED IN THE PERSONAL ENVIRONMENT CATEGORY (AUTHOR'S DATA) .......................................................... TABLE 5.10. A SAMPLE OF VERBATIMS, SUMMARIES AND SUB-CATEGORIES INCLUDED IN THE INDIVIDUAL FACTORS CATEGORY (AUTHOR'S DATA) ..................................................................

Figure 2 . 1 .

 21 Figure 2.1. Contribution of food science, economics, psychology and sociology to consumer behavior in relation to food choice (Schroder, 2011)

  ) Ways of shopping; (2) Cooking Methods; (3) Quality Aspects; (4) Consumption Situations and (5)

  studied behavioral and social influences and Shepherd (1999) advocated its social determinants. The FCP model emphasizes that food choice can only be understood by a mixture of biological, psychological, social and cultural perspectives, and taken within a historical context. The FCP model (Figure 2.2) consists of three major components: (1) Life course, (2) Influences and (3) Personal systems. The model was first developed using a constructionist orientation and a qualitative research methods of interviewing adult food consumption. It is one of the most multi-perpective and comprehensive models showing particular relationship of the aforementioned components to each other which generates the process leading to the point of choice for food consumers. The Life course component includes personal roles and the social, cultural and physical environments to which a person has previously been exposed. The life course of individuals forms the basis for the operation of Influences affecting food choice. Five influences include (1) Ideals Van, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 17 -the beliefs and standards by which people evaluate food choices, (2) Personal factors -the food needs and preferences based upon physiological and psychological characteristics, (3) Resources -the tangible and intangible factors involved in acquiring food, (4) Social Framework -the interpersonal relationships and social roles associated with food choice contexts, and (5) Food Context -the physical surroundings and cultural environment of the food choice setting. These influences share and develop an individual's Personal System for making food choices that include a Value Negotiation Process and a set of Strategies. The value negotiation process involves the weighing and accommodating of identifiable values salient to a person in a given food choice situation. Values that were most apparent in food choices among a sample of adults included Sensory Perceptions, Monetary Considerations, Health/Nutrition, Convenience, Managing

  Figure 2.3. TPB based conceptual framework for store format choice[START_REF] Anand | Store format choice in an evolving market: role of affect, cognition and involvement[END_REF]

  Figure 3.1 presents the sequence proposed by Hino. This model indicated that in such situations where diffusion of supermarket formats is complete or close to completion but consumers continue to patronize traditional stores, Adoption-Diffusion Gaps exist. The influencing factors of format adoption included by the author consist of three variable sets: consumer economic abilities, format outputs, and store familiarity.

Figure 3 . 1 .

 31 Figure 3.1. Sequence of adoption-diffusion gap[START_REF] Hino | Antecedents of supermarket formats' adoption and usage: A study in the context of non-western customers[END_REF]

  1.4. Consumer segmentation in the context of emerging markets Shiu and Dawson (2001) studied shoppers at traditional markets and supermarkets in Taiwan. The authors classified retail shoppers based on their demographic characteristics in relation to the shopping outcomes. According to them, the origin of the traditional market in Taiwan is connected with religious activities; hence there are deep-rooted cultural traditions in Taiwanese retailing. With the duality of traditional and westernized forces, their quantitative

  with the first supermarket opened in Hanoi in 1995.Early development of supermarket in Vietnam witnessed a share of only 0.8% of national food market in 2002 in which higher prices were expected and target customers were young(25)(26)(27)(28)(29)(30)(31)(32)(33)(34)(35)(36)(37)(38)(39)(40) with high income(Figuié and Nguyen, 2006). Since joining the WTO in 2007, the structure of food retailing in Vietnam has changed radically.Modern retail sales in Vietnam has shown a steady growth every year since the 2010s, growing from 30.9 trillion VND in 2011 to 69.2 trillion VND in 2015-A 124% growth rate in 5 years[START_REF] Eare | Vietnam retail report, Philippines[END_REF].McKinsey&Company (2019) also reports this growth to be consistent over several years and expects it to keep accelerating at a 10.3% growth rate per annum until 2020. Convenience stores and mini-marts have been growing rapidly, from 350 stores in 2014 to over 2,600 stores in 2017 (EVBN, 2018). In 2017, the country ranked sixth in the Global Retail Development Index (GRDI), being the market with the second highest index (after Malaysia) within the ASEAN region (EVBN, 2018). The development of modern retail has been witnessed to be stronger in Southern city of Saigon than in Northern City of Hanoi (Deloitte, 2014; EARE, 2016; EVBN, 2018; McKinsey&Company, 2019). A number of big modern retailers that offer food products in Northern Vietnam includes: -Casino (European grocer): first stepped in the Vietnam market in 2003 via Big C, now owns 5 supermarkets in Hanoi. -South Korean Lotte Mart: entered in 2007, now owns 2 supermarkets in Hanoi. another European grocer, entered Vietnam in 2015, 4 stores in Hanoi but exited the market in 2019. Newer players include AEON, Asia's largest retailer from Japan (entered Vietnam in 2011); and VinCommerce (started in 2014), who acquired the Ocean Mart supermarket chain in 2014, Fivimart in 2018. VinCommerce currently leads in the number of stores, with over 100+ supermarkets (named VinMart) and approximately 1800+ minimarts (named VinMart+) in Vietnam as of 2018 (Company's website). On average, VinCommerce experienced a growth rate of more than 50 new stores per month (EVBN, 2018).

Figure 3

 3 Figure 3.2. Distribution of vegetables in Hanoi (adopted fromCadilhon et al., 2006[START_REF] Loc | Study on the vegetable distribution through the system of markets and supermarkets in Hanoi[END_REF]

  According to the Supermarket Regulation by the Trade Center of the Ministry of Trade of Vietnam (now the Ministry of Industry and Trade of Vietnam, 2004) issued on September 24, 2004: "Supermarkets are a modern store type; providing general orVan, Tran L'institut Agro 2020 88 specialized business; having a diversified assortment of goods with quality assurance; meeting the standards of business area, technical equipment and management level as well as business organization; ensuring civilized and convenient service modes to satisfy customers' shopping needs of goods".Besides supermarkets, other present modern store choice in urban Hanoi includes minimarkets (food and non-food stores in smaller size) and safe shops (convenience shops specializing in selling certificated food products).

Figure 3

 3 Figure 3.3 below illustrates the different retail formats of vegetables in Hanoi

Phase 1 (

 1 February-April 2017): Exploration of consumers' shopping practices with regards to current retail development and the overall market situation in the central urban district of Hanoi through the use of market observation and interviews with experts. This pilot study was to ensure the possibility of cross-shopping practices and to support the development of the study's interview guide. Phase 2 (March-June 2018): Research on urban consumers' shopping and cross-shopping practices in buying vegetables, influencing factors and nature of the practices.Within phase 1, two different methodologies were used including site observation (nonparticipating observer) and interviews with experts. Phase 2 included semi-structured interviews and non-participating observation with consumers shopping for vegetables.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.1 provides an outline of different aspects of this thesis in relation to the aims described

Figure

  Figure 4.1. Thesis research flow chart

  about the world whilst Ontology is the nature of the world and what we can know about it. And there are quite a range of epistemological and ontological positions. The nature of this thesis belongs to Epistemological stance. Biggerstaff (2012), adapted from King & Horrocks (2010), differentiated three main epistemological positions that decide the knowledge produced and the role of researcher in their study (Figure 4.2).

  which, in my case, were the vegetable retail development context in the selected districts. I also participated in the workshops, scientific meeting and technical committee of MALICA (Market and Agricultural linking chains in Asia), one of the most influential research network in Hanoi and gained valuable knowledge about the market. During non-participating observation, I focused on the experiences of Hanoi market regarding the aggressive diffusion of the dominant's brand, the development of modern retail formats and the situation of the traditional ones. I also paid attention to what has been presented in recent research of MALICA regarding changes in consumer's behaviour. I was interested in the positive changes of the food/vegetable markets, and eye witnessed surprisingly fast growing changes in my own hometown, considering both its urbanisation and retail development.

  but then later I expanded my account of the observation as field notes. The field notes of this study became part of the triangulation to validate the data gathered from the interviews.

Figure

  Figure 4.4. The steps involved in data analysis[START_REF] Dey | Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists[END_REF]

Figure 4

 4 Figure 4.5. Initial selective coding (Author's data)

  where food safety, overall issues in food market and awareness of the local food retail system were mentioned Personal environment Include any data which relates to factors of family, friends, colleagues that express influence on choice of shopping venues Individual factors Include any data where indication made about changes in their shopping habits (life course events and generations) Shopping and cross shopping strategies Data related to how and what consumers are buying from each shopping venue

Figure 4 . 6 .

 46 Figure 4.6. Explaining one participant's reasoning (Author's data)

  Figure 5.1 presents the map of central Hanoi districts with circled names of the chosen site.

Figure 5 . 1 .

 51 Figure 5.1. Map of Hanoi's central districts (Image source: Internet)

  2. Descriptive background of the participants belonging to the 5 types of shopping and crossshopping practices (Author's data)

  repeated a lot but do not necessarily yield a special meaning. I ran the query once again and finally identified 100 open codes, which are shown in Figure 5.3.

Figure 5

 5 Figure 5.3. The overall word cloud (Author's data)

  Figure 5.4. Color code of different shopping practices (Author's data)

Figure 5

 5 Figure 5.5. The word cloud of the 5 practice types (Author's data)

  one or two sellers that I am familiar with… I go to her (the seller) first… only when she (the seller) is out of the types of vegetables that I am looking for then I will switch to the other the look of the vegetables… too green vegetables or those that look too good, I never buy them…I even like buying a bit 'ugly' ones Product attributes/ ConvenienceWet markets Mobile vendorsIt is close to my house/ The seller passes by my door… it is very all of the sellers there I want to be able talk to sellers/other people

"

  It is very convenient. Every morning the peddlers pass by, or sometimes they stop out in front of the alley leading to my house. I even have the phone number of that lady so I can call her in advance and ask her to drop by my house on her way", (Type 1 working woman in her 50s). Participants living in Dong Da and Hai Ba Trung often expressed more satisfaction with the number of retail formats from which they can choose. "We have a VinMart Plus at the corner next to Cho xanh Kim Lien, a Hapro just opposite, and a bigger VinMart down Dong Tac road. Many choices! I can drop by any of them on my way to the gym, on my way back home, or on my way to take my grandchild to school. Whatever I feel like. It is great to have choices", (Type 3 retired woman in her 50s).

"

  Because my stomach is more sensitive than other people, I often have problems eating vegetables bought from wet markets but not from Big C supermarkets. I trust them and often shop there. I trust their products because I have tried them", (Type 5 retired woman in her 50s).Besides, participants may enjoy a steady and direct relationship with local sellers at wet markets established after many years living in the same area, or enjoy the services provided by staff at shops or supermarkets."I have known her since I first moved here after my marriage, that's been nearly 2 years such a long time (laugh) […] I sometimes pass by in a hurry and she always spent time do the picking of the vegetables while I rush to other place to buy meat […] She can even let me take things home and pay later, such a lovely lady.", (Type 2 working woman in her 30s)

Figure 5

 5 Figure 5.6. The proposed framework of shopping practices in emerging markets

  the thesis. The embodied actions within Hanoian consumer shopping practices were examined by drawing upon the notion of shopping-as-practice. The data analysis of 79 semi-structured interviews conducted in 6 central urban districts of Hanoi revealed 5 types of practices which represent different natures and levels of cross-shopping. Themes and patterns emerged from the data analysis revealed factors related to shopping and cross-shopping practices including (1) Physical food environment, (2) Personal environment and (3) Individual factors and strategies of shoppers. The two sub-categories of shopping and cross-shopping strategies were strategies dominated by constraint or based on trust. This section came up with a proposition of a research framework to study shopping and cross shopping practices in emerging markets. Discussion in the next chapter of the thesis will give a review of these findings in light of existing literature, and analyze the implications of such findings.6. Chapter 6. Discussion, conclusions and recommendationsIntroductionThe purpose of this study was to provide a deeper understanding about urban consumers in an emerging market, their strategies in choosing between and/or combining different retail formats to buy fresh produce and the factors affecting their shopping practices. The study was conducted to provide insights into how urban Hanoians choose where to go buy vegetables and why they are doing what they are doing. The results may provide context for food retailers and public policy programs in approaching consumers and enhancing their food shopping experience in this market.

  Figure 6.1. Informal street markets in Hanoi (Author's photographs)

Figure 6

 6 Figure 6.2. Formal wet markets in Hanoi (Author's photographs)

Figure 6

 6 Figure 6.3. Urban Hanoi nowadays (Author's photographs)

Figure 6

 6 Figure 6.4. Around-the-corner safe shops (Author's photographs)

Figure 6

 6 Figure 6.5. Customers joining an opening event of a safe shop in Hanoi (Author's photographs)

Figure 6 . 7 Figure 6 . 8

 6768 Figure 6.7 Packaged vegetables and price signs at supermarkets (Author's photographs)

  Innovative food safety policies and interventions, such as participatory guarantee systems should be identified. Policies to renovate and upgrade existing traditional wet markets should be given more attention with safety control mechanisms and improvement of business standards, especially towards illegal street markets.

Figure 6

 6 Figure 6.6. Conditions of some (in)formal wet markets in residential areas (Author's photographs)

Figuié

  [START_REF] Moustier | Food markets and agricultural development in Vietnam[END_REF], "Vegetable consumption behaviour in Vietnam". MALICAFiguié, M. and Bricas, N. (2003), "The evolution of food consumption", in Moustier, P., The-Anh, D. and Figuié, M. (Eds.), Food markets and agricultural development inVietnam, MALICA, Hanoi, Vietnam, pp. 36-47. Figuié, M. and Bricas, N. (2009), Assessing consumers' requirements for food quality, CIRAD_training doc, Bangkok. Figuié, M. and Bricas, N. (2010), "Purchasing food in modern Vietnam when supermarket affect the sense", in Kalekin-Fishman, D. and Low, K.E.Y. (Eds.), Everyday life in Asia: Social perspectives on the senses, Routledge, London. Figuié, M. and Moustier, P. (2009), "Market appeal in an emerging economy: Supermarkets and poor consumers in Vietnam", Food Policy, Vol. 34 No. 2, pp. 210-217. Figuié, M. and Nguyen, D.T. (2006), Assessing poor consumers' access to supermarkets in Hanoi, available at: https://agritrop.cirad.fr/536079/1/document_536079.pdf (accessed 19 January 2017).Figuié, M. and The-Anh, D. (2004), Food consumption in Vietnam: food markets, food habits, diversity and trends, Hanoi, Vietnam. Figuié, M., Bricas, N., Vu, P.N.T. and Nguyen, D.T. (2004), "Hanoi consumers' point of view regarding food safety risks an approach in terms of social representation", paper presented at Globalisation, risks and resistance, July 25-30, Trondheim, Norway. Flick, U. (Ed.) (2007a), The Sage qualitative research kit, SAGE, London. Flick, U; Kvale, S.; Angrosino, M.; Barbour, R.; Banks, M.; Gibbs, G. and Rapley, T.D. (2007b), Doing Interviews, The Sage qualitative research kit, SAGE, London.

TABLE 2 .

 2 1. KEY CRITERIA FOR SEGMENTING A MARKET (KOTLER ET AL., 2012) ................................ TABLE 3.1. THREE WAVES OF SUPERMARKET DIFFUSION (REARDON AND GULATI, 2008A) ............ TABLE 4.1. EPISTEMOLOGICAL POSITIONS THAT SHAPE THE ROLES OF RESEARCHER AND THE KNOWLEDGE PRODUCED (BIGGERSTAFF, 2012) .............................................................................. TABLE 4.2. DESCRIPTION OF SELECTED DISTRICTS (AUTHOR'S DATA) ............................................... TABLE 4.3. CHOOSING CODING METHODS BASED ON RESEARCH QUESTIONS (SALDAÑA, 2013)... TABLE 4.4. CODING OF THE PARTICIPANTS .............................................................................................. TABLE 4.5. PRELIMINARY DEFINITIONS OF CATEGORIES (AUTHOR'S DATA) .................................... TABLE 4.6. STRATEGIES FOR PROMOTING VALIDITY AND RELIABILITY (CRESWELL 2007) ........... TABLE 5.1. CATEGORIES OF GROSS MONTHLY INCOME OF PARTICIPANTS (ADOPTED FROM

Table 4 .

 4 5. Preliminary definitions of categories (Author's data)

Table 4 .

 4 6 presents several strategies for promoting validity and reliability suggested in the literature

Table 4 .

 4 6. Strategies for promoting validity and reliability(Creswell 2007)

	Van, Tran
	L'institut Agro 2020

Table 5

 5

	Van, Tran
	L'institut Agro 2020

.3. 'How do you choose where to go while buying vegetables at wet markets/ from mobile vendors?'

Table 5 .

 5 4. 'How do you choose where to go buy vegetables for the meals while shopping at supermarkets/minimarts/specialty shops?'

	Rationale	Quotes
	Safety concerns/	I read the news/heard from […]/I saw […], I do not believe that they are
	Lack of trust	truly safe vegetables
	Product attributes	They do not look fresh to me
	Habit	I already go buy vegetables in the early morning
	Product attributes	There are not enough/few types of vegetables there
	Table 5.5. 'Why do you NOT buy vegetable at supermarkets/minimarts/specialty shops?'

Table 5 .

 5 8. A sample of verbatims, summaries and sub-categories included in the Physical food environment category (Author's data)

	Verbatim	Summary of verbatim	Sub-categories (themes)	Category
	"These days, quality is highly important because we see all the	Concern about quality	Raised concern over quality
	bad news in the media [...] After watching such news I have to		of the general food
	think more carefully about where to go buy food."		environment
	(Type 3, retired woman in her 50s)
				Physical food
	"I have seen with my own eyes how they (farmers) were using unknown chemicals to increase yields [...] and the quality of	Concern about quality		environment
	the water nowadays is so horrible you see [...] I could never
	have faith in the types of vegetables sold at wet markets now,
	they are contaminated." (Type 4, working woman in her 30s)
	"Of course we have more places to go compared to 5-7 years	Awareness of new retail	Awareness about
	ago, we have supermarkets and new stores everywhere now"	outlets	development of local
	(Type 3, retired woman in her 50s)		physical food retail
			environment
	"In this district we have a variety of shopping choices and it is	Awareness of available	Awareness about local food
	very convenient."	shops	environment
	(Type 3, working woman in her 30s)
	"In this area we do not have many shops/stores, you know.	Awareness of limited
	Because beyond this small alley is the highway, so the choice	choice of shops
	is limited"
	(Type 1, retired woman in her 50s)

Table 5 .

 5 9. A sample of verbatims, summaries and sub-categories included in the Personal environment category (Author's data) When reflecting on which types of vegetables they choose to buy and where they go to buy them, participants explained that much of their consideration is based on the opinions of family members. By paying attention to other members' vegetable consumption preferences, participants figure out what they will include in their grocery shopping, and decide where to purchase those items. The sense of the nurturing role within the family was a prominent indicator of motherhood I went to the store with my colleagues during lunch time. They often shop there and they took me with them since I started working here. They often dicuss new products offered at that store" (Type 2, working woman in her 20s) My in-laws do not like such new types of vegetables. They are already familiar with the lady at the closeby wet market so I should just go there. She knows my mother-in-law well. Why bother changing place and risk being seen as 'rebelling against MIL" (Type 1, working woman in her 20s) "Oh I tried to buy the new violet-like colored salad once when I saw it in VinMart. I found it quite nice, but then my husband and son didn't like it much, so I did not buy the vegetable there again. I only shop there (the supermarket) for vegetables that I cannot find in normal markets. If My little grandchild likes it a lot when I take her to the supermarket, you know, children get excited at those places. That new Big C supermarket is new, it is big and has many shops with lights, it's all fascinating. When she stays over at our place, it's a joy to take her there and I can do my shopping at the same time!", (Type 2 retired woman in her 50s).

	Verbatim	Summary of verbatim	Sub-categories (themes)	Category
	"I remember there was a time that I tried buying the cress from	Attention given to	Importance of family
	Seika supermarket. My son did not like it […] so I did not go	reaction of a family	members' preferences
	back there and buy that type again" (Type 3, retired woman in	member to a product
	her 50s)	bought from place of
	"Asparagus and beetroot are good or so I heard. I had only seen	purchase
	them in the supermarket and I bought some as a try. People in
	my family were not very enthusiastic trying those new types so
	I stopped" (Type 2, working woman in her 50s)

""

Table 5 .

 5 10. A sample of verbatims, summaries and sub-categories included in the Individual factors category (Author's data)

	Role of generation

"

  My in-laws live in their hometown and only come visit sometimes so I can cook anything I like for my husband. We both work full time and are quite busy. Personally I prefer salads and light/healthy meals so I shop at safe shops and supermarkets. When you eat salads you need to buy quality vegetables", (Type 3 working woman in her 20s).

	Major changes also occur after having one's first child.
	"When I was very young and on my own, I only shopped at wet markets. But since my first
	baby was born, I have paid more attention to her food and I only buy vegetables from safe shops
	for her. Their stomachs are much more sensitive and I don't want her to get upset or ill. Me and
	my husband can take vegetables from wet markets, but not her, as she is still little", (Type 3

Synthesis of section 2

The first sub-section of this review which presented the desk study of market situation in Vietnam (2.1) showed a context of emerging retail market in transition through a rather long process with several issues in food safety, public policies and low level of consumer's trust. The second sub-section which presented consumer food behavior and practices (2.2) indicated factors including socio-demographic, freshness, price and proximity as influencing consumer's choice of fresh food produce. The focus study on practices will be further developed by this thesis with aspects of cross-shopping strategies, driving attention to practitioners and dimension of practices.

Summary of the chapter

Emerging countries have been under a process of market transformation with the diffusion of modern retail. Supermarket has been found to face several barriers entering emerging markets where traditional wet markets play a culturally rooted role. However, modern diffusion also has been found to impact the food system and consumer behavior greatly. It is apparent that food consumer behavior in general has attracted attention from previous researches in Vietnam. Several factors that affect consumer's shopping places have been studied sporadically. The majority of the studies measured satisfaction with shops and service, preferences for shop and product features, or intention to purchase. In virtually all of these studies there was an underlying assumption of a direct link between these measures and actual purchase behavior. No attempt has been made to synthesize these factors into a multi-perspective framework analysing consumers' retail format choice across traditional and modern retailers. Wertheim-Heck et al. (2014b); [START_REF] Wertheim-Heck | Shifting configurations of shopping practices and food safety dynamics in Hanoi, Vietnam: a historical analysis[END_REF] Each transcript of the interviews in Word form was named accordingly to their label.

Subsequently, in soft copy, I have 2 files for each participant, one being named "X-Y_Name of P_transcript" and another is his/her storyline named "X-Y_Name of P_their pseudo". The labels were put on the printed version of interview transcripts.

The data was managed through manual analysis; Microsoft Word processor and Excel, along with extra tools of visual paradigm (wordmap and mind map) which were utilized for You are invited to participate in a marketing research study conducted by Van TRAN This study is about the purchase of vegetable. As a customer and user of retail formats, we trust that you have insightful information to share. We will be grateful if you could spare some of your valuable time to answer this questionnaire. Your views are very important for us. The knowledge gained from this study will contribute to the development of food and grocery retail formats that meet the needs of all segments of consumers.

If you have any queries or needs for further clarification, feel free to contact me directly.

Please note:

1) There are no correct answers to the questions. We are only interested in knowing your opinion 2) I value your opinions and respect your privacy. I hereby promise that no information about your name or identification will be used in the research for any other purpose.

PART A PERSONAL SYSTEM

Rules, routines & habits

Is vegetable purchase important to you/Do you pay attention to vegetable purchase (in comparision with other food_? Can you tell me a bit about the routines you have for buying fresh vegetable? (How often/separately or in combination with other food...)

Where is /are your favourite store(s) to go buy vegetables? What do you think about the vendors there? Are there stores that you do not want to go? Why? What do you think of this shop? Have you been to that one? Why?

CONTRAINTS Finances

Are there certain vegetables you won't buy based on their cost? Tell me about the place where you see them? Does it ever seem worth it to buy them there? When? Why? What do you do to try save money on vegetable? In general, do you think that your financial situation shapes where and how much you spend on shopping for vegetable? How? Convenience -location, time, effort and energy Is time an issue for you in choosing where to go to shop for vegetable? How do you deal with that?

Are you able to get to the stores /places you like to purchase vegetable? How do you get there?

How do you feel about spending time shopping/cooking vegetables?

Where is the most convenient vegetable selling place for you? Why?