text:
Salah Bouregbi
email: salihbourg@yahoo.fr

The 'I,' the 'Other,' and the Text: Is There any Strategy in Teaching Literature?

Keywords:

Is methodology necessary for teaching literature? Does literature need theories? Is it fair to push students to see the text through the eyes of others? Does student need autonomy in understanding the text? The text is a mine, where the reader tries to dig and probe inside the multilayered structure of its depth. The more you dig and disturb its quietness and quietude, the more you discover unexpected elements, which are hidden under its sediments. Which meaning do we get from reading? Is it of the text, or the author, or the teacher or the student? Interpretation is not a logical process that looks at variations at different levels of meanings. Frequently, it cannot be done without free intentional process of meaning regeneration. The reader/the teacher recreates a story through his

Est-ce-que la littérature a besoin d'une méthodologie pour son enseignement? Est-il raisonnable d'enseigner le texte littéraire à travers des théories et d'oublier/négliger le rôle de l'étudiant et son engagement dans la compréhension du texte ? Où est son implication dans la lecture et l'interprétation du texte ? Accepte-il la version des autres et oublie/néglige la sienne ? Toute théorie n'est qu'une convention : le texte reste toujours au-delà de ces présuppositions théoriques. Le texte est un gisement à explorer et à découvrir. Le lecteur essaye de creuser et chercher dans ses structures, qui sont profondes et difficiles à déchiffrer. Quel sens doit-on avoir en lisant un texte? Est-il du texte, ou de l'auteur, ou de l'enseignant ou de l'étudiant ? L'interprétation n'est pas un processus logique ; elle diffère selon la stratégie de lecture. Le texte est ce qu'en fait le lecteur. C'est à lui de régénérer son propre sens à travers sa propre lecture. Que doit-on enseigner du texte, alors ? D'où provient le sens et comment le trouver ? Quelles sont les paramètres qui nous permettent d'avoir le sens ‗réel' du texte ?

Mots clés: Enseignement -Texte littéraire -Enseignant-mentor -Pacte et négociation -Dialogisme

Introduction:

Does Literature really need methodology for teaching? What do we teach? Do we look for the meaning of the text, or do we use the literary text as a means for teaching language? The choice is very daring and very important: literature as a subject for study is something, and as a tool for teaching is something else. No doubt, they are different and differing, and the ends are not the same. The focal element of this study, then, is the text as a creative piece of literature, which differs from any other empirical, scientific text. It is authentic to itself and ‗enjoys' its autonomy.

When we get a text, we think of reading and finding out what it means. But meaning in a literary text is very problematic and needs great skill and apprehension. The graspability of the text seems to be a problem for both teachers and students: it is multi-languaged and multi--voiced. Such spirit of complexity is a real obstacle for the reader, who is lost within the labyrinth of the text: he hears many voices and faces many languages. Which voice to listen to and which language to accept is his problem. So, how can we get the meaning? Is the meaning we have from the text the only one of the text? What about other meanings and interpretations we get from our strategy of reading?

1-Meaning(s) and the Literary Text:

Though the reader is trying to keep closer to the original meaning of the text, or at least what he pretends to see, the strategy of reading makes the text exhibit new clues and complexities in its mode of expression/construction. Reading is not a logical process that looks at logical literary structure that gives the logical meaning of the text. The text is suggestive and its suggestiveness gives possibilities for many interpretations. In other words, if the reader determines the meaning of the words of the text, he will give birth to a new text. That is, intentionality plays a big role in identifying the nature of the reading strategy, which guides the reader to a specific meaning.

BUT: What can we do to understand a text? Through/with which tools can we apprehend it? Whatever we choose as a tool imposes a special meaning dialogically related to the tool chosen. Bryan Harmelink (2011) acknowledges the difficulty of getting the meaning from the sum of words that constitute the text. The meaning is beyond these words and sentences that compose the structure of the text, whether fictional or poetical. He states: -A word still has all the meanings, and context filters out the meanings which do not fit.‖(p.27) In other words, words do not give meaning, but they contribute in its existence. The literary text holds countless meanings and interpretations. The original is farfetched: it is beyond any understanding and any theory. Even the author cannot understand his text: it is from him but not for him. Put otherwise, the text is autonomous and authentic to itself: being-in-itself. The critic Aiga [START_REF] Kramina | Translation as Manipulation: Causes and Consequences, Opinions and Attitudes[END_REF] raises the following pertinent question: -Who is in the position to claim that s/he has understood the text -correctly?‖ (p..37) Reading is manipulating the text and trying to adapt it to your world and intention. Thus, you reproduce another text with the meaning you want.

Other questions impose themselves, here: Is meaning an interpretation derived from the text, or outside of it? How do we get it? Who is in the position to get it? There is a kind of dialogism between the reader and the text: he wants to know; it wants to resist. The text is flexible but at the same time uneasy. It is like mercury; it slips from your hands and you cannot catch it. This dialogism creates a kind of response within the reader, who tries to penetrate the ‗depth', or some darker regions, of the text in order to decipher what the word and structure and composition hint to. In his article, -Theories of Meaning,‖ William [START_REF] Alson | Theories of Meaning[END_REF] points out that: -An expression to have a meaning is for it to refer to something other than itself, but they [readers] locate meaning in different areas of the situation of reference.‖ (p.20)

The reference, itself, is not clear in literary texts. It could be more inner and inward; furthermore, one reference could have many representations, i.e, more than one meaning. Alson maintains that: -Anything to which we can refer can be referred to by many expressions that do not have the same meaning at all.‖ (p.21) In the same context, the critic Luis [START_REF] Garagalza | In the Footsteps of Hermes: The Meaning of Hermeneutics Symbolism. Translated by Michael Marder[END_REF] points out that: -the search for meaning is endless; it is an infinite adventure.‖ (p.2)

The literary text is subject to interpretations, and any interpretation is what we only guess as meaning, which is in any way very personal and does not reveal all what the text hides under its multilayered structure. In other words, the truth you find in the text is only a truth you have found or created in the text, nothing more.

Due to its complexity, it seems difficult to select an approach that could explain entirely the text. What this selection can do is only to give something/anything of the whole: it is incomplete, intentional and biased. Subsequently, any meaning generation becomes very personal built up on what fits our reading and develops our interpretation. Since interpretation is always undertaken in the present, which continuously evolves, there might in principle be other ways of questioning the text. (Rasmussen,2002, p.3) Having endless interpretations, the text resists and fences its core with language that reveals beyond what its tenses, structures, sentences and expressions denote: the meaning is beyond language. In the words of M. M. Bakhtin (1992): -Reality as we have it in the novel is only one of many possible realities; it is not inevitable, not arbitrary, it bears within itself other possibilities.‖ (p.37) In the same vein, the critic Kenneth T. [START_REF] Gallagher | Meaning and Subjectivity[END_REF] maintains that: -All explanations ‗from underneath' is an attempt to explain the more evident in terms of the less evident.‖ (p.152) Language function is the representation of an idea or a thought, whether psychological, or ideological, cultural or social. It also binds unspoken thoughts together. To explore such texture, the reader should see beyond what language evokes or/and reveals. He must ‗undress' it and get inside its kernel. William [START_REF] Righter | Myth and Content[END_REF] points out: -To represent something was to become the mask for a truth, either occult or abstract.‖(p.8) Paul De [START_REF] Man | Blindness and Insights: Essays on the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism[END_REF], on the other hand, claims that language, in its external and internal representations, becomes a mask of what it represents. He says: -It is the distinctive privilege of language to be able to hide meaning behind misleading sign, as when we hide rage or hatred behind a smile.‖ (p.11) How can, then, the reader accommodate the text, which resists to him? How can he get inside it and listen to its voice(s)? The text is creative and imaginative. The truth, we get from it is no more than the truth inside it. The text is -clouded with ambiguity [and] needs no historical reality.‖ (Righter, p.9) So, interpretation is a process of meaning regeneration issued from the text. It cannot be otherwise.

2-Which Methodology and to What/Whom?

Which adequate methodology should teachers use to teach literature? How can they make it for students? Do we recourse to conventional methodologies already-made for teaching? Do we teach literature as a subject autonomous and independent? Or, do we use it as a means to teach language, culture and even history? Literature is beyond any methodology convention; it is authentic to itself. This authenticity makes it very particular in teaching: that is, the text imposes its own way of teaching. This way becomes very fruitful when the student is involved in text's negotiation. D. Jonathan [START_REF] Picken | Literature, Metaphor, and the Foreign Language Learner[END_REF] states that:

Authenticity is considered to be a virtue in communicative language teaching…. However, authenticity can be understood in at least two ways: authenticity as a quality of a text, and authenticity as an experience. Literature can be authentic in both senses, but the learners' L2 proficiency is likely to play a role in determining whether literary texts can be experienced in something like an authentic manner.(p.12) When the author produces his text, he does not intend to use it for language teaching, but, rather, to represent something outer and inner to the reader. The literary text is not -fashioned for the specific purpose of teaching a language and it therefore requires students to cope with language intended for native speakers.‖( pp. 3-4) What is significant in literature is that the text triggers within students the will to decode and defy its ambiguity and complex structure in order to understand what is hidden behind: the intrinsic more than the extrinsic, the esoteric more than the exoteric. This involvement and the ‗savoir s'engager' are made possible through motivation, mainly when the text deals with human issues that are common, whatever is the race. Picken maintains that: -Well-written stories of any kind may motivate students to keep on reading for other reasons-because of the ‗suspense of unraveling the plot.'…Thus, both literature and popular fiction genres, such as thrillers, possess qualities that have the potential to make them highly motivating as teaching materials.‖ (p.14) So, the free personal response to the text makes the reader delve inside its labyrinth trying to comprehend and grasp the meaning-or at least what he finds as a meaning. This moment by moment process of involvement encourages, progressively, the reader to create (or find) a way to enter the text and challenge its resistance. He tries, at least, to track a voice-his voice-among so many voices the text holds. In literature, as Paul de [START_REF] Man | Blindness and Insights: Essays on the Rhetoric of Contemporary Criticism[END_REF] points out, the question of -the self appears at least in four types: 1-the self that judges, 2-the self that reads, 3-the self that writes, 4-the self that reads itself.‖ (p.32) In the words of Bertrand [START_REF] Russell | An Inquiry into Meaning and Truth[END_REF]: -Only sentences have intended effects, whereas meaning is not confined to sentences. Object-words have a meaning, which does not depend upon their occurring in sentences.‖ (pp.28-29).

The dialogue between the text and the student is fruitful; it engages the student to accommodate it and generates meaning through interpretation. His reading involvement becomes a kind of extension of his self. Isaac [START_REF] Goldberg | The Wonder of Words: An Introduction to Language[END_REF] claims that: -Not for nothing does I see mean ‗I understand.'‖ (p.85) But the student cannot do it by himself alone. He is in need for a teacher, who plays the role of a mentor, who helps him make it but not make for him. Vridhagiri [START_REF] Ganeshan | Grounding Language and Literature Studies in Ethics or Altum Silentium[END_REF] states that: -Teachers are expected to reflect upon the broader and deeper meaning of human life and through their teaching initiate discussions on how one can develop oneself into a qualified and competent personality and contribute to improving the world not in self-interest, but for the welfare of humanity. This attitude enlivens and vitalizes teaching and learning.‖ (p.43)

The challenge of teaching literature is very obvious, mainly in the way to attack the text and approach it. The text is deep; its depth is multilayered. The more you get inside, the more you discover the unexpected: another depth. It becomes hard for the learner to apprehend all this. It is the role of the teacher to guide him in his meaning quest. He should not impose, but only propose what is, probably, expected by the learner. Takis Kayalis and Anastasia Natsina (2010) point out that: -Literary studies, requiring an ethos of patient engagement with challenging texts, confront a cardinal difficulty at this level.‖ (p.1) In other words, the teacher should know what do students want from him, and, reversely, what does he want from them? This interaction is very positive. It enables the teacher to find a way to involve students in the text and engage in its interpretation. In an introduction to their book, Teaching Literature: A Companion, Tanya Agatholeous and Ann Dean ( 2003) claim that the teacher should ask himself questions that are significant in the understanding of the classroom interaction and students' motivation. They write: -What do you want your students to learn? What do you want them to do in your class? What do they do instead? How do you respond?... How did the students come to see it? How did the teacher know that they had come to see it?‖ (p.1)

The problem with the teaching of literature is that the literary text is taken as a means not an end in itself. The text is displaced and excluded from its right place and used to serve other places and spaces that affect its autonomy and mode of being. In Murat [START_REF] Hismanoglu | Teaching English Through Literature[END_REF] terms: -The use of literature as a technique for teaching both basic language skills (i.e. reading, writing, listening and speaking) and language areas (i.e. vocabulary, grammar and pronunciation) is very popular within the field of foreign language learning and teaching nowadays.‖ (p.54) The text has become a devoiced body, whose unity is ‗dismembered' and oneness watered down.

The text is a mode of expression and self-metamorphosis, which is beyond any logic. It is an image authentic to itself and has many suggestive meanings related to the strategy of reading. That is to say, the literary text is not exclusively made for teaching foreign learners the target language. It can be an aid in teaching, but cannot be the primary data for this. In the words of Hismanoglu: -Literature is authentic material….Literature is perhaps best regarded as a complement to other materials used to develop the foreign learner's understanding into the country whose language is being learned.‖ (pp.54-55)

The teacher of literature should not axe his teaching strategy on vocabulary and structure. Rather, he should encourage the student to read the text and inhabit it. To keep the thread of engagement makes the student more dynamic and enthusiastic. This engagement enables him to immerse within the different layers of the text in order to get, at least, a meaning among other meanings it enfolds. Hismanoglu points out:

Literature speaks subtly different meanings to different people. It is rare for two readers to react identically to any given text. In teaching, this has two advantages. The first advantage is that each learner's interpretation has validity within limits. The second advantage is that an almost infinite fund of interactive discussion is guaranteed since each person's perception is different. That no two readers will have a completely convergent interpretation establishes the tension that is necessary for a genuine exchange of ideas.(p.56)

In the words of Truong Thi My [START_REF] Van | The Relevance of Literary Analysis to Teaching Literature in the EFL Classroom[END_REF]: -The reader's role is to discover the one correct meaning by a close reading and analysis of formal elements such as rhyme, meter, imagery, and theme.‖ (p.3)

The mentor must be present to guide his students. Reading without help is boring and the student fails to find pleasure in reading. Because of the linguistic nature of the literary text, which is beyond the conventional language structure and semantic codes, the teacher must be behind the student to back him and develop his sensitivity to literature. Van states that the literary text includes -the unconventional structure of literature, especially poetry, where language often is used in a non-grammatical and loose manner….The teacher encourages students to use their linguistic knowledge to make aesthetic judgments and interpretations of the texts.‖ (p.4) Involvement in the text creates motivation in the learning process. It must be smooth without any constraint or pressure, mainly when students fail to approach the text. It is for the teacher to create favorable environment and facilitate the dialogic relation with the text. Majeed Mohammed [START_REF] Midhin | Techniques Used by University Instructors in Teaching Short Story[END_REF] in his article -Techniques Used by University Instructors in teaching Short Story,‖ argues that:

The mission of the story instructor involves imparting and developing notions of taste, assessing validity and the ability to recognize beauty….In addition to the fact that not all the students appreciate literature; the teaching effective techniques used by instructors are good means to motivate them. Here, his genius appears to guide his students to full understanding of literary texts. (p.83)

As the quote notifies, the teacher's task is to provide the student with good environment in order to make him move and react to the text without obstacles. He should present a variety of tools and manners that could give a way to the student to build up his track to get inside the text. Midhin claims that:

The teacher in the language classroom can mediate according to this approach between the text and learner. But the vital initial subjective response on which the -meaning‖ of the text needs to be based must come from the students if it is not be imposed. The implication of this comes from the teacher who devises ways of encouraging students to view the text as it relates to their own lives and society and to negotiate the meaning of the text as a group. (p.92) Free response to the text is very significant. It gives possibility to students to try by themselves find a meaning through their personal reading strategy. The teacher paves only the way for such engagement. Dinh Thi [START_REF] Hien | Reader-response Criticism in Teaching Literature for EFL/ESL Students at the University Level[END_REF] states that:

Teachers and students have much concern and interest in literature and relatively broad knowledge on language and language teaching and learning; Students' limited English proficiency and limited knowledge on culture are obstacles that hinder their responses to literary texts….Teachers feel that the materials are challenging to their students, the meaning of literary text changes by generation, and literature is a fruitful means in developing students as whole persons.(p.154) Undoubtedly, language actualizes literature and organizes its different parts into one unity of effect: its existence. It, thus, represents more than what it hints to, as culture, society and ideology. It steps further to some other aspects and spaces beyond language. So, teaching literature as a work of art is quite different from using literature as a tool for teaching language. It is somehow a problem of doing this; because in the text we can find mistakes made by the author intentionally. Artistic, fictional style is beyond the standard languagelanguage that everyone knows. The cases of James Joyce, A Portrait of the Artist as a Young Man, and Finnegan's Wake, and Alice Walker's The Color Purple are very illustrative examples. The literary text cannot, always, be a sample for teaching language. Koutsompou Violetta-Irene (2015), in his article -The Use of Literature in the Language Classroom: Methods and Aims,‖ points out such problem in his criticism to the communicative competence. He says:-The focus of this teaching method was on form, on learning the rules of grammar and the lexical items as they appeared in the text. There was no literary interest, nor interest on content.‖ (p.74) Content in the text dictates its shape and form. The form is the representation of the content through structure. Thus, involvement in the text starts with the form, which guides the reader to the different layers that compose it. This state of being makes the student enthusiastic and motivated. Sharria [START_REF] Hoskins | Encouraging student motivation[END_REF] point out that: -Students with intrinsic motivation will perform better academically than those with extrinsic motivation….Intrinsically motivated students might be expected to develop a deeper understanding of the material than extrinsically motivated students.‖ (p.29) The closer reading of the text enables the student to apprehend the text and its features in order to find some threads that lead to interpretation. Sheridan [START_REF] Blau | Building Bridges Between Literary Theory and the Teaching of Literature[END_REF] maintains that:

The job of the reader or critic of such an artifact was to apprehend all of its features (to engage in "close reading") and to uncover the structures of meaning that informed the text, particularly revealing the ironies and paradoxes that create ‗tensions' and explicating the ‗unity' that resolved those tensions. In this enterprise, which was typically as much an evaluative as an interpretive one, critics were expected to conduct inquiries in a way that was finely tuned to the emotional nuances of their own reading experiences. (p.2) Exploration of the text needs help from the mentor, who knows how to do it. In the words of Sheridan [START_REF] Blau | Building Bridges Between Literary Theory and the Teaching of Literature[END_REF] -The problem seemed to derive from what the teachers took as their obligation to arrive through their discussions in their reading groups at a ‗correct' or authoritative interpretation of the difficult texts they were studying.‖ (p.9) The multi-voiced reading creates a dialogue between the text and the student. This negotiation in the presence of the teacher is very fruitful. The teacher facilitates this negotiation but does not dictate his intentions. Blau points out that: Instead of competing for the same discursive space, members of reading groups found themselves collaborating to construct more inclusive readings or to a process of negotiation with each other and with texts that yielded multi-voiced readings which were valuable for the degree to which they revealed subtle features of texts at the same time that they reflected a range of plausible interpretive responses. (p.11) Negotiation is a mode of thinking, where skill, argument and conviction are substantially used. Thus, the text comes to be the real stimulus that triggers student's potential. In the words of Celia [START_REF] Esplugas | The Use of Critical Thinking Skills in Literary Analysis[END_REF]:

Critical thinking helps students gain confidence in the interpretation of literary works. This can be done by encouraging students to draw their own conclusions by using their own rational faculties…regarding such literary elements as character, theme, and narrator. This process, which includes students' weighing opposing viewpoints, assessing facts and ideas, and drawing conclusions about issues presented in the text, provides students with ‗higher order learning'…that enables them to gain a deeper understanding of the work. (p.450)

The critic Neil [START_REF] Addison | Post-Colonial criticism in ELT reading: Encouraging a Critical Response towards literature[END_REF] is in favour for teachers' help in student's negotiation with the text. He writes: -To avoid being confused or locked out of the text, students need to be encouraged to critically engage with literature by critical comparison with their own culture and individual identities…Teachers should also seek to equip students with a deeper knowledge of the ideological values of the text itself, and the cultures it both embodies and represents.‖ (p.21)

In his article, -Language for Literature,‖ Alex [START_REF] Rodger | Language for Literature[END_REF] acknowledges the text's metamorphosis, multi-languagedness and multi-voicedness. He attests that the meaning, the reader gets from the text, is what he intends to find out or create through his negotiation. He writes:

Reading experiences are inevitably subjective, so interpretations are likewise inescapably subjective….Texts, however, are not in themselves works of literature: they are simply the reader's means of access to them. The words on the paper remain mere words on paper until a reader actively engages with them as intelligently and as sensitively as his knowledge of life and his command of the language will allow and we have already seen what that implies Interpretation of a text holds many horizons. Subsequently, it cannot be what the text is, but only an answer to what the interpreter has raised as a question. The truth is that the text cannot hold one objective and static understanding: the text‗s meaning is the outcome of the act of reading, which is a perspective, related to the intention of the reader and the voice he intends to dialogue with.

Literature, as a subject, is in search of a methodology which keeps pace with student's intuitive responses rather than a methodology that inculcates (and hammers) some orthodoxy and a set of ready-made critical judgements. What is noticeable, in our literary classes, is that students are frequently pushed to see literature through the eyes of others. They are not encouraged to use their eyes (‗I's') for understanding and interpretation. The teacher is a generator of guiding ideas; he is a catalyst and a reflector for students.

  . The reader has to reconstruct or re-create his own version of what the author hopes to convey by means of language.(p.46) All meanings are contextual, and all contexts are dialogically related to the reader through his intention and the 'what' to discover and/or create. The literary text is an iceberg: what it hides is more than what it shows. Like mercury, it slips from your hands whenever you try to grasp it.


domain: scco scco shs

text:
Salah Bouregbi
email: salihbourg@yahoo.fr

Translation Industry and the World Economy: Between Academic Skills and Market Requirements

Keywords:

One of the legacies of translation is faithfulness in meaning transfer. The word is supposed to be expressive, easy to comprehend and holds the denotative meaning of the original. That is, it must restrict itself to the nature of register and categorization. The literariness of language is not permissible in the world economy. The latter is in an ongoing development and transformation, and so is the register of its language. The problem, such development causes, is the normalization of the word to the original. Economic text necessitates a special skill in translation that cannot be done without a thorough knowledge in the field of economy. In this world of globalization, no error is permissible. Translators must be professional: they are constrained to learn, besides translation curricula, the major legacies of the specialized field of their choice, as the case here, economy. So, to indulge in the translation industry, the translator must have two major pre-requisites: the mastering of mechanisms of translation, and a fair substantial knowledge in the domain of economy. That is, his academic qualifications are the cornerstone of professionalism. Thus, training and certification are recommended for translators.

Introduction

Translation industry has become a must in this on-going process of change, mainly in the domain of market economy. It has become incentive to learn and get skills and adapt them with what you have got academically. In other words, in this world of globalization, translation activity has become inseparable from such economic growth. It affects and is affected by the economic boom of the world. The translator is no longer the one who knows languages and linguistic transformations and transfer, but, more importantly, the one that is performant, creative and comprehensive to what surrounds him in his activity.

Translation industry enables factories to know better and fair enough of what is going on Řout thereř in Europe and all over the globe. That is, we know the outside world and the latest developments in the field of inventions, industry and economy, through translation. This faster and faster process of change has caused a change in translation activities. Translation is no longer the one that transfers poetry, drama, fiction, cultures and modes of writing of/to other people; its nature has become more professional and specific: it transfers science, economic terminology, and the like, to customers and businessmen to better know and be known by other in and outside the country. Furthermore, translation allows fair knowledge of the product. In the words of Bruce Maylath, ŖThese changes are accelerating the process of providing documents, especially technical documents, in multiple language versions.ŗ (40) Translating is informing the consumer about firms and factories and their products. ŖFirms anywhere have an incentive to sell everywhere, and that means adapting their products and services to the local languages and cultures.ŗ (Maylath 41) This adaptation cannot be done without professional translation. In the words of Gisèle Sapiro, ŖThis [adaptation] was accompanied by a steady process of professionalization, contributing to the gradual unification of a global market of translations governed by the rhythm of the major international book fairs.(5) Globalization boosters translation. Translation, in turn, encourages, advertises and presents the products to the global world and opens the way to consumers to know better about any product. Maria Lucia maintains that: ŖOne of such issues would be the role of translation in responding to the march of the overall globalization process toward the making of the entire world into a single space.ŗ (47) But how could a translator reply to these transformations and requirements imposed by globalization? Does the translator, who has got his academic skill, need only training in the field of specialization that keeps pace with market opportunity, or does he need to learn and get specialized degrees so that he could translate without any constraints?: ŖAs globalization takes hold, the size and cost of language handling make translation more visible and create a huge market opportunity for vendors, who provide products and services in this area. (ŖOpportunitiesŗ5) Globalization has diversified and specified the world economy. Subsequently, it has segmented translation. The latter has become less general and more specialist. It has no longer become a meaning transfer of a culture, or a novel or a play or a poem, to another to language, but has exceeded to other domains imposed by such a change, mainly translation services. The increasing demand for translation services has made it an industry by itself, with different disciplines and domains. That is, translation has become a real profession that no country or economy or industry can overpass. No industrial project can ever be done without it. In the words of A. L. Jan Chan: ŖMore economic and social resources have been spent on translation activities by regional and international organizations as well as multinational corporations.ŗ(1)

1-Characteristics of Economic Register and Terminology

Economic text is not easy to grasp because it needs a background in the field of specialty. Thus, we need relevant skill that is specific to the text of economy. ŖCompared with other subjects, economic literature characterized by profound linguistic and cultural connotation, epochal feature and disciplinary limit can be easily translated with mistakes.ŗ (Wang, Students are supposed to be equipped with a vast knowledge in the global world and understand conditions that characterize the global economy. This fact makes them develop and get acquainted with what this world offers as a job market. It enables the translator/student adapt his profession to the changes required and even imposed by the world economy. Furthermore, having learned about all the parameters of the market, the student is in disposition to know better and offers to himself a choice of the field of his professionalization.

Students will draw Ŗindependent conclusions as they confront development problems, their sometimes ambiguous evidence, and real-life development policy choices ŕ ultimately to play an informed role in the struggle for economic development and poverty alleviation.ŗ ( Todaro,and Smith18) So, many words and expressions are daily coned by the world economy and globalization. The translator must be up-to-date with them and has to offer a good understanding and transfer to the target language. That is, he must read referential documents and update his knowledge in this field of industry and get acquainted with the newness and changes that globalization (re)generates. Jian jun Wang and Yize Fan state that: ŖThere are a lot of terminology or technical words with specific meaning in the texts. These words and expressions loaded with special meanings are fixed and mainly used in economic texts, for example, externality, internalization, present value, and consumer surplus, etc...ŗ (786) Inequality between languages is a fact imposed by the process of globalization. That is, language development is dialogically related to its use in technology and science developments. Powerful languages are those which are related to developed countries. Translators constrained to coin words to adapt with the product they want to translate if the term or the register is absent. In doing so, they develop the target language. In other words, If the translator cannot or is enable to specify or find out the relevant words and terms, he risks to water down and affect the original text. Subsequently, the message becomes flat and ineffective and, worst, out of context and erroneous. Maylath maintains that: ŖTranslators create a means of communicating in a specific target situation. Translation can be seen as a problem-solving process in which the communication expert is part of a complex, dynamic system with various cultural, communicative, situative and professional aspects. (44) Maylath extends further claiming that: ŖExpending knowledge and register and skill repertoires in the field of specialization is the surest way to get a job and secure it permanently.ŗ (47) Faithfulness is the primary criterion to translation. The translator is supposed to give accurate loyal version to the original: the more the translator is ambiguous, the more the message fails to pass and, subsequently, the translation loses its effect and its mode of information. The translated text should be expressive, understandable and easy to communicate the right message, mainly if the text to be translated is economic. Suqing Huang maintains that: ŖEconomic literature is the product of economic development. More translation works of economic literature came into being with the developed economy. Meanwhile, the problem of normalization in translation of economic terminology cannot be ignored.ŗ (111)

The basics of any translation are: the translator should have at least two languages to know quite well. He should have academic degree in translation and appropriate skills in the field of his professional choice. Besides, he needs experience and training before indulging, as a professional, within the job market.Therefore, when we translate economic literature, Ŗit is necessary for us to learn something about economics, which can help us better understand the source language and deeply analyze the economic facts to give good translation to the readers.ŗ (Wang,and Fan 787) Common words and expressions are unnecessary and even problematic in economic translation. The latter is highly specific with characteristics that are typical to the domain of economy. That is, no common language is ever possible to express or replace economic terms and registers. In the words of Jian Jun Wang and Yize Fan: ŖIn translation, particularly with regard to economic terminology, translators are required to deeply understand its connotation and set proper translation version. Improper translation can lead to confusion of the meaning. Hence we have to attach high importance to the norm to avoid inaccurate translation.ŗ(788) Accuracy and clear terms do not create ambiguity, which is the enemy of transfer process. No literary, poetic impressive words are supposed to be used in economy, mainly abstract ones. Mei Liang and Jia feng Liu put it well when they warn us about the exaggerating of metaphorical use in industry. They point out: ŖThe abstract concepts and expressions in business activities would hinder readers from assimilating and digesting relevant information. Consequently, business discourse employs conceptual metaphors to explain unfamiliar economic activities with familiar concepts. As a part of business discourse, stock news report is also metaphorical. With conceptual metaphors, the abstract and complicated stock activities are vividly explained in stock news report.ŗ (119) Translation process is a decisive act based on mind-decision of the translator after consulting the necessary tools and data of and about the text to be translated. In the words of Andy Lung Jan Chan: The act of translating is seen as Ŗa series of a certain number of consecutive situationsŕmoves, as in gameŕsituations imposing on the translator the necessity of choosing among a certain (and very often exactly definable) number of alternatives.ŗ (11)

The rapid growth of translation is dictated by two parameters imposed by globalization: Information and communication. Chan states that:

Although globalization is by no means a non-problematic concept, it should encompass the following forces: the rise of the network economy; the restructuring of the economic world system; the political reshaping of the world order; growth in the real and virtual mobility of people, capital and knowledge; the erosion of nationstates; and the increasing complexity of cultural developments. Although globalization creates more opportunities for translators as there is increasing demand for translation services, the development also brings a number of formidable challenges. Therefore, in a globalized world where multinational corporations have played an increasingly important role, it is common for a translation project coordinator to be responsible for translating and localizing a product into a number of languages in a short time.( 183)

In china, according to Chan, there are more than 450000 people and 3000 translation companies, who/which contract and work with individuals and commercial authorities.

To access to information and communication and the circulation of economic notions and concepts, people and nations are in need of translation and language that respond to such facts and realities. Marco E.L Guidi claims that:

An important part of the market for political economy is also the market for economic translations, which inform about ideas and institutional settings (packages) that efficiently functioned in other contexts and that, once adapted, can be useful to other countries. Both the knowledge of languages and that of economic notions and realities serve to categorize an informed participation of actors in the market and in its surrounding institutional network. They both play a cognitive function, because they contribute to socially constructing what they categorize.( 14) Oleg Rudavin stresses the importance of the translator to follow the changes occurred in the world economy and links any development of professional translation to economic sectors. He writes: ŖOne thing to mention though: the translation industry does not generate its own product and only processes Řraw materialsř supplied by other sectors of the economy. Hence, we are fully dependent on the shape the world economy takes in the coming years. How the economy is going to develop remains to be seen.ŗ (Rudavin net) Rudavin is right to a great extent, because it is the market that dictates what the translator has to do and has to avoid. His competence and performance are canalized by the market economy: his skill and intelligence have to develop in this context. Anthony Pym states that this millennium has imposed a new mode of job requirements: more technical, more particular and specific. Thus, it needs more skills and know-how. He writes:

This millennial problem is partly handled by claims to fidelity or its technocratic surrogate equivalence: translators will always signal their loyalty to the cause of their client. In particularly closed cultures, trustworthiness is only properly signaled by the translator being born into one social group rather than the other, or even by the translator belonging to a family of hereditary professional translators.( 12).

In the same vein, Tian Chunmao claims that translation industry has developed and been developed by companies and states. This development allows them to have a more performing and powerful industry in the world economy. He writes: ŖTranslation services became more and more needed. As a response to this demand, translation companies began to make their debut in the translation market. Some of the companies developed out of the translation department of the government or state-owned enterprises.ŗ (Chuanmao net).

But how does this new industry (Translation at service of economy) develop through the world? What are the mechanisms used by developed and developing countries, mainly in the Arab world? My Illustration is essentially of two trends: one is Europe; the other is the Arab world.

Europe: For 20 years, in Europe, Canada and the USA, many researchers have tried to overcome the difficulties caused by the problem of transfer of technology, within and to the market, in every European country. ŖWhile some participants in the Canada survey believe technology is being developed in collaboration with the service industry, others see inadequate links between these two core segments. Unless these links are strong, and perceived to be important, the synergy between the two segments of the industry may be lostor may provide opportunities for exploitation outside Canada. (ŖOpportunitiesŗ 10)

In Canada, translation industry has always been segmented so that it satisfies and responds to the needs of companies and the market. This fact consolidates the industry and serves the market and favours exchanges with the other world economy. In other words, it broadens the size market and exchange. (ŖOpportunitiesŗ 14)

The report of Claudio Sfreddo about translation and interpretation associations pretends that there are around three (3) associations of translators and interpreters in the European Member States, many of them of quite recent creation. This proliferation of associations has mostly as job information and social functions. (Sfreddo net) The report maintains that: ŖBeyond the positive market effects of associations and the measures that can be taken for authorised/sworn translators, there are many areas where inefficient or confusing signals seem to be resulting in market disorder, low status and a corresponding decline in perceived standards. (Sfreddo net ) Sfreddo sums up the inefficiency and disorder in the following indications:

1-A general lack of efficient signaling training (qualifications or certification) with regard to translation services in Ŗimmigrantŗ languages; 2-Online lists of Ŗprofessional translatorsŗ that have been compiled with no checking of qualifications or skills; 3-Outsourcing of translation services for justice systems, notably to private companies that have little regard for skills or qualifications (case of Spain) or are not trusted by translation professionals (case of the United Kingdom); 4-Review processes of long-standing certification systems, especially in the United States, Canada and Australia. As a response to market disorder, employers tend to trust professional experience or their own recruitment tests rather than academic qualifications or membership of an association. (Sfreddo net ) In his PhD dissertation entitled, ŖInformation Economics, the Translation Profession and Translator Certification,ŗAndy Lung Jan Chan cites, for matter of illustration, many associations that are essential for consolidation through collaboration. No professional translator could stand and endure alone without being into a mass and associations. He writes:

In the translation profession, the two major professional translator associations and the largest accreditation body, ATA, IoL and NAATI, have made CPD an important element of their membership. Starting in January 2004, ATA-certified translators have been required to accumulate 20 continuing education points per three years in order to maintain their credentials. Members must keep a record of all activities through which they earn continuing education points. These activities include approved seminars and conferences, university courses, membership in other translation, interpreting and specialization-specific professional organizations (e.g. Society of Automotive Engineers and European Society of Clinical Pharmacy), becoming mentors, mentees and ATA Certification Program graders, and publishing articles on the subject of translation or interpretation.

As ATA-certified translators may refer to their certification in their résumés, business stationery, cards, and other related materials and these can be important signals to the prospective employees that they are competent and reliable, losing certification may affect translatorsř competitiveness in the translation market.ŗ(203) Arab World: Translation in the Arab world suffers a lot. Its primary concern was the translation of European and Latin American literary and philosophical works. It rarely directs its concern to industry, except some Middle east (Gulf) regions, where English is dominating and where a serious translation industry has given birth to some associations linked to this field. So, Arabic translation activities are not as important as the European ones. Foreign firms, which activate in the area, take hold of translation by themselves and delivers what they translate as products to the inside consumption and to the external world. In other words, translation industry is not a must since Arabic is not global and the Arab world has to learn English in the East and French in the North to solve the problem of the market.

The Arab world is a market of consumption more than a space of industrialization. Thus, what we get as product is translated in the origin of the product: companies inside Řusř translate for us. Take any product and you find the Arabic translation labeled on it. Even China has imposed itself in the Arab world through the Arabic translation of its product, which is very lousy and erroneous. In his report on Saudi Arabian translation in the oil sector, Mamdouh Alkhiab points out the characteristics of Arabic translation industry and claims that they do not respond to the importance of the sector: These characteristics can be summarized as fellows:

1: The size of the Arabic translation, in the field of oil sector, reveals very small compared to other sectors and sub-sectors of the economy. The overall performance of this industry can be considered as poor.

2: By examining the structure of the Saudi economy, the performance of the industry in general and the performance of the Arabic translation industry in particular, the role of labor as determinant of the supply in the last industry can be evaluated as poor. (Alkhaib 28) Besides, the problem of having foreign workers, who do not need translation, because the staff of the companies is mostly formed in English, and because of the poor, non-qualified national labor, Alkhaib adds another parameter. He maintains that the relationship between translation industry and oil industry is very poor. He says: ŖThe industries based on the products of Arabic translation activities as production inputs are almost neglected. The public institutions producing the Arabic translated books (universities, institutes, etc,,) are non-profit institutions. The foreign competition is very high.ŗ (29) For Alkaid, the problem in the Arab world (the case of Saudi Arabia) is that there is a deficiency and lack of qualified experts in translation in foreign language as well as Arabic. He writes: ŖMost of the translators exercise translation as an additional job to their education profession in the universities and institutions. Thus, the translation activities constitute additional load for them.ŗ (32) Another diagnosis about translation industry is attempted by Nadjib Haribi. Haribi claims that what we have as data about translation industry is not encouraging. It even gives the impression that there is no dynamism and substantial activities in translation, in almost all the sectors, compared to Europe and America. He claims that the Arab world suffers from translation qualifications. He writes: ŖThe lack of a sufficient number of qualified translators both in quantitative and qualitative termsand the lack of capital investment in the latest publishing equipment seem to be major handicaps for the development of publishing companies engaged in Arabic translation.ŗ (12) Haribi gives the case of Egypt, where translation activities is felt. But, hopelessly, it is only in humanities, especially in literature and without any quality control. In Egypt, he writes, Ŗthere is an abundance of translators but they are not always specialized. In addition, quality control is lacking. Specialized translators in areas such as banking, insurance, engineering, science, and some modern branches of law are still lacking.ŗ (12)

The translation performance in the world economy needs favorable conditions for consolidation and continuity. This is not the case in the Arab world. ŖNeither the size nor the characteristics of the demand side is growth-enhancing for this industry.ŗ (13)

2-Certification/Accreditation

Is certification the only issue for the remedy of translation and its development as a real industry? But after all: what does it mean? Is it an Řaccreditationř?ř Does it solve the problem?

Here are the definitions of the two terms, according to Pym:

-Certification: ŖA voluntary process by which an organisation grants recognition to an individual, who has met certain predetermined qualification standards.ŗ.( 15) -Accreditation: A process by which an entity grants public recognition to an organisation such as a school, institute, college, program, facility, or company that has met predetermined standards.( 15) What characterizes our degree of ŘLicenceř in translation is its academic nature. It does not qualify in any of the job market. In other words, not anyone who has a degree of translation is a translator par excellence. So, what does certification/accreditation do in this field? We can have degrees in languages, where we find its holders better qualitied in translation than the translator himself. In Europe, as pointed out by Pym, the degrees we get from universities are only the first for a better qualified translator. The European Commissionřs Directorate-General for Translation selects through competition candidate for the domain of translation. This competition lasts around none months (between five and nine). Candidates must have two foreign languages and Ŗa university degree, not necessarily in languagesŗ. In some cases, degree in translation is not required. They only need qualifications and competences in more than one language. (Pym 21) Pym goes on underlining the importance of this competition for translation industry. He claims that there are so many European organizations (around 31) that apply such selection. A report of European commission in 2008-2009 (DGT, IAEA, ICC, ICRC, ILO, ITU, OECD, UN (ESCWA, UNHQ, UNOG and UNOV), World Bank, WIPO and WTO) reads as follows:

The findings on admission criteria for examinations and tests show a universal requirement for a first-level university degree but not for a specific translation qualification, which is required by relatively few organizations but seen by many as an asset. All organizations test for translation into and not out of the mother tongue (or main language), and testing précis writing in an examination appears to be confined to the UN in this respondent group. Most organizations test ability to translate out of at least two languages, and other expertise is occasionally an alternative to a second source language. (IAMLADP 2009: 79 in Pym 21) But can the certification or accreditation be possible and functional without authorization from higher qualified instances, whether governmental/institutional or academic? In Europe, the terms Ŗswornŗ and Ŗstate authorizedŗ are used and are useful for the translator to be acknowledged of being so. In Austria, Belgium, Croatia, Czech Republic, France and Germany the term Řswornř or Řauthorizedř is carried out by courts, whether regional or local; in Austria the case is different: there is a national register of sworn translators (Pym 26). In Finland the authorization is got by an exam organized by the Authorized Translatorsř Board under the auspices of the National Board of Education. (Pym 27) But a question poses itself here: can certification be a solution and a means to enable the translator to get a job easier and better than a common translator, who does not hold it? Chan claims that: ŖA translator certification system, if properly designed, can act an effective signal to differentiate between Ŗgoodŗ translators and Ŗbadŗ translators. The recruiters seeking translators surveyed see translator certification as something that can enhance the overall image of the translation profession and bring benefits to translators who hold it.ŗ(1) If it is used in its positive context, this certification could be a good sign and effective signal in the world market.

In his research, Chan cites for us some associations, which have developed some systems for translation development: The American ŘTranslators Associationř and the British ŘChartered Institute of Linguistsř have developed systems for translator certification. Likewise, in China, there is an attempt initiated by the Ministry of Personnel to devise a national certification system for translators in 2003, called ŘChina Aptitude Test for Translators and Interpretersř (CATTI). This certification is modeled after the Australian ŘNational Accreditation Authority for Translators Authority for Translators and Interpretersř (NAATIŕ1977). ( 33)

Conclusion

Translation has become by the force des choses a real industry that should be consolidated through certification, specialization qualification and segmentation. Companies and institutions, which are supposed to care after translation professionalization, are constrained to coordinate their efforts to develop it. Companies should keep in touch with professionals, as engineers, scientists, to develop programmes to respond to the needs of translation necessities.

Basing recruitment and job market enrolment on academic qualification only is not enough. There must be training and certification related to the specialty the translator leans to and likes as a field of interest. His choice must be done via exams, competitions or at least testing.

Internet Data basis has become a necessity. It is a place, where the translator can find facilities, dictionaries, models of translations supports, contacts of institutions qualified in language and linguistics, besides the profile of his certification. On the other hand, it is preferable, but not a must, to have competent institutions qualified for the control of the quality of translation and the job in general. Government should organize and promote the professionalization of translation, mainly in the field of marketing and commerce.