Gajendra Liyanaarachchi

Giampaolo Viglia

Fidan Kurtaliqi

Privacy in hospitality: Managing biometric and biographic data with immersive technology

Keywords: Privacy paradox, unbalanced privacy, immersive technology, biometric data, hospitality, metaverse

Purpose -This study investigates the implications, risks, and challenges of data privacy due to the use of immersive technology in the hospitality industry.

Design/methodology/approach -We adopt a mixed-method approach. Study 1 is a focus group. We then provide external and ecological validity with a field experiment conducted with 139 hotel clients at a three-star continental European hotel.

Findings -Collecting biometric data results in unbalanced privacy compared to biographic data, as it diminishes individuals' control over their data and grants organizations absolute power. This unbalanced privacy directly influences consumers' willingness to disclose information, affecting their choice of hotels and access to services.

Originality/value -This study introduces unbalanced privacy as a unique state due to sharing biometric data. We propose a novel doctrine, the uncontrollable privacy paradox, which is a shift from the privacy paradox. The uncontrollable privacy paradox addresses the unbalanced privacy envisaged through consumer powerlessness in data management. This research addresses the literature gap on the privacy paradox by offering a broader perspective, including business, industry, and mixed reality considerations.

Practical implications -Hotels should redesign their strategies to accommodate heightened privacy risks with biometric data. This can be obtained by introducing systems that foster customer confidence in data usage and facilitate customers' willingness to disclose biometrics through immersive technology or biographic data.

Introduction

The service industry is at the forefront of using industry 4.0 technologies. Immersive technologies enable businesses and customers to co-create value throughout life (Flavián et al., 2019). Service providers such as hotels, airlines, and travel agents can design a unique digital identity for each customer, providing a personalized experience. Delta Airlines has improved operational efficiency using biometric data by reducing boarding time with enhanced customer satisfaction [START_REF] Chang | New Delta airport screen shows personalised flight info to dozens of travellers at once using A.I[END_REF]. Using biometric data with immersive technology will be the future of the hospitality industry, as ninety percent of its retail executives foresee the dominance of immersive technology, bridging the digital and physical experience (Accenture, 2022).

Immersive technology-driven service experiences from hotels are about to connect 125 billion objects in 2030 [START_REF] Kruyne | How Hotels Can Leverage New Technologies and Emerging Trends to Deliver Better uest Experiences[END_REF]. Hotels are already using immersive technology checkin systems. For example, Hoteza, an interactive guest-oriented platform, utilizes biometrics for mobile check-in with over 500 global hotels, including Hilton, Radisson, Wyndham, Kempinski, IHG, and Accor hotels [START_REF] Amper | How Biometrics Helps Modernize the Hotel uest Experience[END_REF]. However, despite technological advancement and process improvement benefits, biometric data such as face recognition increases data privacy risk. The Information Commissioner's Office (ICO) in the U.K. fined US-based company Clearview A.I. for £7.5m for collecting images of people for commercial purposes without consent [START_REF] Milmo | UK Watchdog fines facial recognition firm £7.5m over image collection[END_REF]. Further, Mary Kay and Ulta Beauty face legal action for collecting biometric data through face recognition apps violating privacy [START_REF] Nash | Try-on facial recognition apps land cosmetics firms in court[END_REF].

Companies that use biometric data lack clarity in protecting consumer privacy [START_REF] Morosan | Disclosing facial images to create a consumer's profile: A privacy calculus perspective of hotel facial recognition systems[END_REF]. Hackers can manipulate immersive systems, penetrate the algorithm, and use customer biometrics, violating privacy [START_REF] Tussyadiah | A review of research into automation in tourism: Launching the Annals of Tourism Research Curated Collection on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in Tourism[END_REF]. E.U. General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) and local legislation such as the California Consumer Privacy Act (CCPA) require transparent policies for data collection and use [START_REF] Tikkinen-Piri | General Data Protection Regulation: Changes and implications for personal data collecting companies[END_REF]. Biometric data differs from biographic data due to reliance on unique biological or behavioral traits specific to each individual, which are beyond the person's control after disclosure. In contrast, biographical data consists of factual information and details about an individual, constituting descriptive data disclosed and controlled by the individual.

Scholars agree that despite the growth in immersive technologies, there is a lacuna in research on privacy in the collection, sharing, and use of biometric information [START_REF] Knani | Artificial intelligence in tourism and hospitality: Bibliometric analysis and research agenda[END_REF][START_REF] Lehto | Traveler attitudes toward biometric data-enabled hotel services: Can risk education play a role?[END_REF]. Biometric data is more sensitive than biographic data, as it is irrevocable and cannot be changed or overwritten. A user cannot control biometric information once disclosed to a system through immersive technology, as data is permanent. As such, there is a lack of investigation and evaluation of data protection approaches [START_REF] Ioannou | Privacy concerns and disclosure of biometric and behavioral data for travel[END_REF][START_REF] Tussyadiah | A review of research into automation in tourism: Launching the Annals of Tourism Research Curated Collection on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in Tourism[END_REF].

We argue that consumers experience unbalanced privacy due to the lack of flexibility in managing biometric data compared with biographic data. The existing privacy protection methods used in managing biographic data are inadequate to protect biometric data. Customers can change their biographic privacy preferences, a feature unavailable with immersive technology. This unbalanced power situation lingers in the hospitality industry, where cybercriminals can trace customers through biometric data. As a result, sharing biometrics leads to a privacy paradox. A privacy paradox originates from the contradiction between an individual's attitude and the behavior on disclosure of information.

Firms in the hospitality industry use rigid, immersive technology and pressure consumers to disclose sensitive data, regardless of the associated risks [START_REF] Lehto | Traveler attitudes toward biometric data-enabled hotel services: Can risk education play a role?[END_REF].

Biometric data, such as fingerprints and facial recognition, are highly personal and unique identifiers. The collection of such data in hospitality raises concerns about the level of invasion of individuals' privacy [START_REF] Cowan | Privacy concerns when using augmented reality face filters? Explaining why and when use avoidance occurs[END_REF]. We portray that the privacy paradox will increase with a heightened awareness of privacy violations due to the irrevocable nature of biometric data compared with biographic data. For example, biometric data disclosure to visit Turkey may be obsolete if the consumer does not intend to revisit the same destination. However, the data will remain in the metaverse, creating continuous privacy risks irrespective of the use of further services.

Through a mixed-method study (refer to Figure 1), we introduce a novel doctrine, the "uncontrollable privacy paradox," highlighting the unbalanced privacy implications of disclosing biometric data. We provide a unique and significant addition to the literature on a distinct aspect: the elevated level of risk inherent in using biometric data with immersive technology, in contrast to biographic data. We summarize and systematically compare our findings with the core contributions of the literature in Table 1 to comprehend our distinctive contribution. Our findings contend that the conventional privacy paradox is inadequate in comprehending the impact of such disclosure, mainly due to individuals' limited autonomy in managing biometric data. This study provides practical recommendations for effectively managing biometric data and fostering consumer willingness to disclose personal information in the hospitality industry.

Authors

Context

Research design Main findings [START_REF] Morosan | Disclosing facial images to create a consumer's profile: A privacy calculus perspective of hotel facial recognition systems[END_REF] Profile creation and biometric information disclosure via facial recognition systems in hotels with immersive technology.

A survey with 421 US consumers who stayed in hotels.

The study employed confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling.

The consumers consider a trade-off between the cost and benefit of biometric data disclosure.

Moon et al. (2022)

The perception of hotel guests on the effectiveness of privacy management to determine the disclosure decisions and hotel choice.

A survey with 492 South Korean consumers on their hotel experience. The study employed confirmatory factor analysis using structural equation modeling.

The privacy policy, privacy assurance, and employee information access controls are key factors shaping consumer trust building an effective privacy management system.

Lehto et al. (2023)

Compare the privacy attitude toward using biometrics data in hotels before and after receiving information about the risks and benefits of disclosure. A mixed-method approach with an exploratory focus group and a subsequent field experiment in a three-star continental European hotel with 139 clients.

We introduce the concept of unbalanced privacy, resulting in biometric data collection. We propose the uncontrollable privacy paradox as a novel doctrine, addressing consumer powerlessness in data management with immersive technology in hospitality.

Table 1. Key literature contributions. Source: Authors own creation.

Literature review

Privacy Paradox

The privacy paradox illustrates the dichotomy between attitude and behavior regarding disclosing personal information [START_REF] Acquisti | Nudges (and Deceptive Patterns) for Privacy: Six Years Later[END_REF][START_REF] Barnes | A privacy paradox: Social networking in the United States[END_REF]. Consumers continue to disclose data despite protecting their privacy, leading to inconsistent online behavior [START_REF] Liyanaarachchi | Managing privacy paradox through national culture: Reshaping online retailing strategy[END_REF]. This paradox exists due to the perceived trade-off between the expected benefits and the perceived risk of disclosure [START_REF] Masur | Understanding the effects of conceptual and analytical choices on 'finding'the privacy paradox: A specification curve analysis of large-scale survey data[END_REF]. In the context of the metaverse, where extensive consumer data collection occurs, the privacy paradox becomes more prevalent (Hilken et al., 2022). As the value of consumer data increases over time, organizations and consumers must adapt their privacy behaviors to ensure data protection.

The privacy paradox persists because data remains online indefinitely, even after its initial use, creating a dilemma for consumers in assessing privacy risks. The privacy paradox, commonly examined within the consumer context, presents higher challenges for organizations with immersive technology in navigating privacy violations (Gotsch and Schögel, 2021).

Moreover, the privacy paradox escalates as consumers have no ownership or the ability to control data after being collected through immersive technology within the metaverse. Despite extensive research on the privacy paradox, we need more consensus regarding its application and scope [START_REF] Kokolakis | Privacy attitudes and privacy behaviour: A review of current research on the privacy paradox phenomenon[END_REF][START_REF] Masur | Understanding the effects of conceptual and analytical choices on 'finding'the privacy paradox: A specification curve analysis of large-scale survey data[END_REF].

Previous studies have primarily focused on the consumer-firm relationship, overlooking broader conditions such as the advancement of technology (2021Cowan et al., 2021[START_REF] Zhang | AIoT-enabled smart surveillance for personal data digitalization: Contextual personalization-privacy paradox in smart home[END_REF]. Scholars have tried to establish a universally applicable definition of privacy using various theories [START_REF] Acquisti | Nudges (and Deceptive Patterns) for Privacy: Six Years Later[END_REF][START_REF] Masur | Understanding the effects of conceptual and analytical choices on 'finding'the privacy paradox: A specification curve analysis of large-scale survey data[END_REF], but with limited success.

Research is needed to explore the privacy paradox in various settings involving socio-technical systems, aiming to comprehensively capture this phenomenon's full scope and implications [START_REF] Dienlin | A longitudinal analysis of the privacy paradox[END_REF][START_REF] Kokolakis | Privacy attitudes and privacy behaviour: A review of current research on the privacy paradox phenomenon[END_REF]. The privacy paradox remains an unresolved issue despite significant research. To bridge the research gap and comprehensively explore the impact of the privacy paradox, we conducted a mixed-method approach encompassing various platforms, technologies, organizational settings, and industry contexts.

Metaverse and immersive technology

Metaverse became popular after Facebook changed its name to Meta in 2021, altered the logo, rebranded, and repositioned its business. Meta is investing $10 billion with similar investments from Google, Microsoft, Nvidia, and Qualcomm [START_REF] Tucci | What is the metaverse? An explanation and in-depth guide[END_REF]. The Metaverse economy could reach $5 trillion by 2030, transforming business and social life and creating a new world order [START_REF] Mckinsey | Value creation in the metaverse[END_REF]. Metaverse denotes a significant impact on hospitality as consumers can link past, present, and future experiences with immersive technology. Moreover, the experiences can be permanently stored, reused, or sold, providing more significant benefits than a physical experience (Dwivedi et al., 2023). The transition between the virtual and physical world enables consumers to consider a hybrid mode as a new experience and a benchmark for the industry.

The consumers can achieve their aspirations, such as enjoying luxuries beyond their financial capacity. For example, enjoy experiences such as staying in a super luxury resort, visiting the Gobi Desert, or challenging adventures such as climbing the Himalayas. With a National Geographic V.R. subscription, a consumer can use a V.R. headset or Google Cardboard on a smartphone and kayak through icebergs in Antarctica [START_REF] Barrell | Virtual reality travel: is it more than just a gimmick?[END_REF]. The hospitality industry is at the forefront of collecting vast amounts of biometric data that require stringent data security measures [START_REF] Knani | Artificial intelligence in tourism and hospitality: Bibliometric analysis and research agenda[END_REF]. Therefore, organizations must introduce radical processes and reengineer the systems to accommodate disruptions and transformation [START_REF] Buhalis | Smart hospitality: from smart cities and smart tourism towards agile business ecosystems in networked destinations[END_REF]. Consumers must disclose biometric data to access services, where data is stored permanently with immersive technology [START_REF] Cowan | Privacy concerns when using augmented reality face filters? Explaining why and when use avoidance occurs[END_REF].

Furthermore, using facial recognition for customer identification before arriving at a hotel amplifies the risk of privacy violations, as it allows hackers to monitor customer intentions, locations, and service usage, thereby enabling fraudulent activities and identity theft. Organizations can design privacy strategies to protect biometric data from affecting consumer well-being, which is pivotal for industry growth. However, despite the hospitality industry's size and significance, there needs to be more research on managing the risk of biometric data [START_REF] De Keyser | Opportunities and challenges of using biometrics for business: Developing a research agenda[END_REF]. Firms should prioritize consumer privacy over the commercial interest of using biometrics-based service decisions and denounce decisions purely on efficiency improvements [START_REF] Lehto | Traveler attitudes toward biometric data-enabled hotel services: Can risk education play a role?[END_REF].

Method

This study employs a mixed-method approach, integrating qualitative and quantitative investigations to enhance the overall quality and robustness of the study [START_REF] Creswell | Designing and conducting mixed methods research[END_REF]. Combining qualitative and quantitative methods in information technology-driven research offers notable benefits, facilitating a comprehensive and in-depth understanding of the phenomenon under investigation [START_REF] Venkatesh | Bridging the qualitative-quantitative divide: Guidelines for conducting mixed methods research in information systems[END_REF]. To achieve this objective, an exploratory sequential design mixed-methods approach is adopted, wherein qualitative findings from a focus group in Study 1 reinforce a subsequent quantitative investigation in Study 2 [START_REF] Teddlie | Mixed methods research[END_REF]. Study 1, consisting of a focus group, examines the impact of privacy by comparing biometric and biographic data. The subsequent experimental Study 2 validates the findings and further strengthens the privacy paradox's proposed theoretical extension (see Figure 1).

Study 1: Qualitative research on customer perception of biographic vs. biometric data collection

Qualitative research aids in investigating emergent phenomena by integrating theory and reality and yielding compelling insights [START_REF] Bouncken | Flexible pattern matching approach: Suggestions for augmenting theory evolvement[END_REF]. Consistent with the literature review, the goal of Study 1 is to investigate how hotel consumers perceive these two datagathering methods (biographic and biometric) and their privacy concerns. We take a qualitative approach, relying on the focus group method (Fern, 2001) to obtain exploratory data. The focus-group technique is a qualitative strategy that focuses on small, non-probability samples with a range of age, gender, education, socioeconomic status, and other relevant variables [START_REF] Ritchie | Qualitative research practice: A guide for social science students and researchers[END_REF]. The focus group provided us with the opportunity to examine group interaction.

tud 1 tud

• Compare biometric and biographic data practices with immersive technology.

• Test the effects of choice, psychological ownership, transparency, and willingness to disclose, comparing biographic and biometric data.

• Focus roup • Framed field experiment.

• Biometric data poses a higher privacy risk than biographic data as customers denote a lack of control and ownership.

• The higher risk of biometric data leads to powerless customers compared to organizations on data use, leading to unbalanced privacy.

• The unbalance privacy demonstrates an uncertainty on disclosure which this study defines as the uncontrollable privacy paradox.

• The availability choice between biometric and biographic data influences psychological ownership and the willingness to disclose.

• Biographic data provides higher control, transparency, and psychological ownership over biometric data resulting in a higher willingness to disclose.

• Consistent with study 1, biometric data leads to unbalanced privacy, resulting in an uncontrollable privacy paradox.

Results

A roach ur ose

Data collection, study design, and procedure

Online focus groups with a shared discussion format developed by the research team are a validated research protocol [START_REF] Cyr | Focus groups for the social science researcher[END_REF]. The research team developed a coherent protocol after developing generic research questions based on the objectives. In particular, the moderator must adhere to a topic guide to stimulate a conversation. In this case, the goal was to understand how we can manage our private data when interacting with hotels and what are the subjective views of biometric vs. biographic data.

Twelve relevant subjects (i.e., hotel customers) were found through referrals [START_REF] Aiello | Customers' willingness to disclose personal information throughout the customer purchase journey in retailing: The role of perceived warmth[END_REF]. Recruiters were given stringent referral parameters to guarantee a broad set of participants. The heterogeneous participants include people of various origins, educational levels, occupations, and ages. We used a stratified sampling technique with people familiar with hotel bookings (i.e., have already booked a room and stayed in a hotel at least two times).

The participants' initials are specified at the end of each quote below.

Before the focus group began, the moderator explained the procedure and the purpose of the session. The focus group lasted 2 hours, starting with exploring the main factors around data privacy in the hotel context and the perception of customers' control of such data depending on the used technology (biometric vs. biographic data collection). The session was transcribed into a word processing package to allow NVivo content analysis [START_REF] Bazeley | Perspectives: qualitative computing and NVivo. Qualitative data analysis with NVivo[END_REF]. The transcripts were independently read, analyzed, and compared, leading to interrater reliability measured with Cohen's kappa coefficient (0.83). Using a categorization process suggested by [START_REF] Brocato | Understanding the influence of cues from other customers in the service experience: A scale development and validation[END_REF], recurring themes in the data were identified by listing items that reflected similar characteristics. We first open-coded all the data, which provided the basis for developing the coding framework. As we progressed through the data analysis, our codes became more specific.

Results

Overall, the qualitative findings reveal that consumers consider biometric data collection a riskier privacy threat than biographic information.

Hotel consumers are concerned about what data will be stored and for how long: "I find it very intrusive when at the check-in they encourage me to leave my fingerprint or facial image to access their services more easily. My data will be stored by them forever" (M.N.). Similarly, the participants are worried about losing control over the data they are giving away. Indeed, as one participant reported, "Despite I do not want to give away my data, I often do it because it is practical to access hotel services more easily. However, I regret it ex-post because, in several data breaches, the customer has no control"(L.C.).

On the contrary, the findings show that hotel customers are less concerned with biographic data. "I am in better control with biographic data. I can log in to my account and amend or remove my private information. Even if I don't do it, that possibility gives me peace of mind" (K.G.); "Compared to biometric data, I prefer biographic data as I have a better control of what is going on" (M.H.). Moreover, hotel customers realize that immersive technologies increase their tendency to give away sensitive data they would not normally share: "With immersive technologies, I feel I am living a dream. Sharing sensitive data does not seem to be a big issue.

However, when I realize they now have a digital copy of every inch of my face, I find it scary" (T.T.).

Importantly, participants discuss the behavioral action they take from interacting with such technologies: "I get frustrated when I cannot delete my data. They make it harder to do it.

Therefore, unless extremely necessary, like at the airport security borders, I tend to avoid services that are uniquely based on biometric information" (V.V.); similarly, "Hotel stays should remain private unless we want to share what we are doing. Giving away my biometric data would mean having that data stored forever on a server somewhere. I would rather switch hotel" (L.T.); additionally, "If they offer me the option to either go with biometric or biographic data, I am fine. It is my choice and my risk" (F.P.). Thus, consumers are aware of the unbalanced privacy risk with biometric data; however, they are occasionally ready to take that risk provided they are offered a choice.

Discussion

The exploratory approach offers new insights that can enrich our theoretical understanding. A conceptual framework (see Figure 2) and two propositions highlight the main evidence visually. Participants are concerned that disclosing biometric data leads to vulnerability and powerlessness due to a lack of choice in managing their data. Specifically, they feel subordinated compared to the companies that collect data. This indicates a lack of confidence, credibility, and fear of sharing information due to privacy violations. Further, they are concerned about the lack of choice in determining the disclosure level due to collecting biometric data. As data collection through immersive technology happens in real-time, there is no time to think or provide a counterargument on privacy as they are compelled to experience the services.

Choice for consumers

No choice for consumers

Online technology

The findings suggest that consumers experience unbalanced privacy due to the lack of flexibility in managing biometric data compared with biographic data. The existing privacy protection methods used in managing biographic data are inadequate to protect biometric data.

We identify this powerlessness as "unbalanced privacy," where one party (the company that collects data) has the absolute power to decide on the use of data over the original owner (consumer) who discloses the data. This unbalanced power situation lingers in the hospitality industry, where cybercriminals can trace customers through biometric data. This leads to our first proposition: P1: Consumers experience unbalanced privacy due to organizations obtaining biometric data compared with biographic data.

Participants denote a higher regret after disclosing biometric data, including fingerprints and facial images, which are highly sensitive and unique. Also, there is a change of attitude between the time of disclosure and after the experience. The findings suggest that the gratification of obtaining a novel experience undermines privacy risk, leading to later remorse for such disclosure, depicting a privacy paradox. We argue that the lack of autonomy to manage biometric data disclosure results in a more significant privacy paradox than the biographic data situation. We propose that the privacy paradox will increase due to the irrevocable nature of biometric data driven by unbalanced privacy compared with biographic data.

Further, with biographic data, a consumer can change the disclosure preference and control the privacy paradox. We argue that the privacy paradox shifts beyond the personal control state to an uncontrollable level with biometric data. Thus, building on this premise, we propose a novel concept, the "uncontrollable privacy paradox," adding a new theoretical paradigm. With unbalanced privacy risk due to biometric data, consumers experience a higher privacy paradox that we identify as uncontrollable. This leads to our second proposition: P2: The lack of choice to manage biometric data due to unbalanced privacy leads to an uncontrollable privacy paradox.

Study 2

In line with Study 1 and the proposed Figure 2, Study 2 aims to focus on the impact of biometric data privacy and test the effects of choice, psychological ownership, transparency, and willingness to disclose in a framed field experiment. The difference between a framed field experiment and a natural field experiment is that in framed field experiments, participants are aware of being the subjects of an experimental study [START_REF] Viglia | How to design good experiments in marketing: Types, examples, and methods[END_REF].

Choice, psychological ownership, and transparency

Consumer choice directly influences the privacy paradox [START_REF] Acquisti | Nudges (and Deceptive Patterns) for Privacy: Six Years Later[END_REF]. The privacy choice depends on the relative risk and benefit of disclosure. Within the hotel industry, data privacy and information disclosure on digital platforms significantly impact consumer choice [START_REF] D'acunto | Most Americans like their privacy :Exploring privacy concerns through U.S. guests' reviews[END_REF]. Biographic data makes the choice more specific due to the control associated with and after disclosure. Hence, the privacy paradox is controllable as a consumer has autonomy on the level of disclosure. We identify this state as the balanced privacy paradox.

In contrast, with biometric data, the consumers have no choice on the level of disclosure. Thus, the company that collects biometric data will possess absolute authority, undermining the existing basis of the privacy paradox. Consumers experience an unbalanced privacy paradox due to a lack of disclosure choices.

We focus on testing the impact of the choice between biographic and biometric data. Thus, we hypothesize that:

H1. The availability of the choice to use biographic or biometric data to access hotel services positively influences the willingness to disclose.

Psychological ownership is a "state in which individuals feel as though the target of ownership (material or immaterial in nature) or a piece of it is 'theirs" (i.e., It is MINE!)" (Pierce et al., 2001, p. 299). For example, [START_REF] Yao | Exploring tourist citizenship behavior in wellness tourism destinations: The role of recovery perception and psychological ownership[END_REF] showed that tourism engagement predicts psychological ownership, influencing citizen behavior. Indeed, controlling own data facilitates a sense of psychological ownership [START_REF] Morewedge | Evolution of Consumption: A Psychological Ownership Framework[END_REF]. Psychological ownership refers to individuals' sense of control, responsibility, and attachment to personal data in data privacy.

The availability of data choice will facilitate a sense of control in decision-making, thus increasing the feeling of psychological ownership. Eighty-one percent of customers consider passwords for online payments due to greater security and control than biometric alternatives [START_REF] Paysafe | Consumers reluctant to swap passwords for biometrics for fear of identity fraud[END_REF]. Psychological ownership is prominent concerning biographic data owing to personal control, a factor absent in the case of biometric data. The significance of control is evident with the following quote from study 1: "If they offer me the option to either go with biometric or biographic data, I am fine. It is my choice and my risk" (F.P.). With biographic data, consumers can change the scope of information revealed, during and after the process, depicting psychological ownership.

We hypothesize that: H2. Control available with biographic data over biometric data positively influences psychological ownership. [START_REF] Martin | The role of data privacy in marketing[END_REF] emphasize that consumers have a positive tendency to share data with service providers supporting data ownership. Psychological ownership reflects how consumers value their data, resulting in a positive attitude toward disclosure [START_REF] Barth | Lost in privacy? Online privacy from a cybersecurity expert perspective[END_REF]. The ability to manage own data and determine the level of disclosure facilitates favorable opinions about the organization. Research by [START_REF] Kokolakis | Privacy attitudes and privacy behaviour: A review of current research on the privacy paradox phenomenon[END_REF] demonstrates that customers who exert greater control over their shared data have higher confidence in service providers. Therefore, psychological ownership significantly influences individuals' willingness to disclose data.

We hypothesize that: H3. Psychological ownership positively influences willingness to disclose.

Transparency in data use by allowing customers to amend data will enhance the willingness to disclose information in hospitality [START_REF] Lei | Will tourists take mobile travel advice? Examining the personalization-privacy paradox[END_REF]. The inability to delete or modify biometric data is a critical factor that can significantly impact willingness to disclose compared to biographic data. With biographic data, consumer willingness is high due to the transparency associated with data usage. Transparency in data management is critical to induce customers to disclose information [START_REF] Barth | Lost in privacy? Online privacy from a cybersecurity expert perspective[END_REF]. Lack of transparency leads to an unbalance in privacy, as sharing biometric data with third parties occurs without obtaining the customer's explicit consent. The inability to change own data after disclosure can negatively influence psychological ownership [START_REF] Morewedge | Evolution of Consumption: A Psychological Ownership Framework[END_REF]. Thus, a lack of transparency in data usage will have a negative effect. Therefore, we predict: H4. The level of transparency moderates the impact of offering a choice on psychological ownership.

Data collection, study design, and procedure

The field experiment examines the combined impact of choosing between biometric and biographic data on willingness to disclose. Building on qualitative evidence, this study explores the significance of the hotel's data usage transparency and the role of psychological ownership that explains the connection between offering data choice and willingness to disclose. We conducted the field study at a three-star family business hotel in continental Europe in April 2023 with real hotel clients under higher involvement than a lab study [START_REF] Viglia | A review of experiments in tourism and hospitality[END_REF]. One hundred thirty-nine random clients participated in the field study.

The guests were randomly allocated across four conditions (i.e., choice: we give a choice to customers to use biometric data to access services to the hotel or use biographic; no choice: we inform customers that hotel services are available after giving biometric data;

transparency: we inform customers that they can no longer modify or delete their biometric data; no transparency: we do not inform customers that they can no longer change or delete their biometric data). The four conditions are synthetized in Figure 4. The average age of the clients was 36, and 43% of customers were women. Our dependent variable was consumer willingness to disclose, measured through 7 levels (1 strongly disagree; 7 strongly agree).

Results

Study 2 tested a moderated mediation model using the PROCESS macro (Model 7) by Hayes (2022), with biometric/biographic as the independent variable, the level of transparency as the moderator of choice on willingness to disclose, and psychological ownership as the mediator.

As established in prior experimental research, we used a dummy variable coding approach to include experimental treatments as the independent variables in the model [START_REF] Bagozzi | Structural Equation Models in Experimental Research[END_REF].

We coded one dummy variable for message framing (0 no choice vs. 1 choice for biographic or biometric) and another for transparency level (0 no vs. 1 yes).

Regarding H1, we predicted that choosing biographic or biometrics to access hotel services would positively influence the customer's willingness to disclose information. Results

show that this direct effect is significant (β=0.812, SE=0.227, t = 3.56, p=0.005), validating H1. Psychological ownership also positively affects the willingness to disclose (β=0.297, SE=0.075, t = 3.95, p=0.001), in support of H3. Taking the outcome variable psychological ownership (mediator), the interaction between choice and transparency on psychological ownership shows a significant positive effect (β=1.88, SE=0.498, t = 3.77, p=0.002). Only age was positively substantial among the control variables, with older guests feeling higher psychological ownership when offered a choice (p = 0.0255).

Discussion

Study 2 investigates the impact of choice and transparency on customers' willingness to disclose information and psychological ownership. Both choice and psychological ownership significantly affect customers' willingness to disclose, supporting H1 and H3, respectively. The finding that giving customers the choice of using biographic or biometrics to access hotel services positively influences their willingness to disclose is consistent with previous research on the value of giving customers control over their information [START_REF] Dienlin | A longitudinal analysis of the privacy paradox[END_REF][START_REF] Lei | Will tourists take mobile travel advice? Examining the personalization-privacy paradox[END_REF]. This result implies that customers demonstrate a higher willingness to disclose information when they have the power to decide on managing data.

Consistent with previous research, psychological ownership significantly affects the willingness to disclose [START_REF] Morewedge | Evolution of Consumption: A Psychological Ownership Framework[END_REF]. Further, the finding highlights the importance of cultivating a sense of psychological ownership in customers by giving them control over their data. The study also investigated the impact of transparency on psychological ownership, and the results show that transparency significantly affects psychological ownership, supporting H4. This finding is consistent with prior research that indicates transparency is perceived as a favorable characteristic, fostering a greater inclination to disclose information [START_REF] Lei | Will tourists take mobile travel advice? Examining the personalization-privacy paradox[END_REF]. Lack of transparency can reduce or eliminate a sense of psychological ownership. Although the interaction between choice and transparency was significant, we did not find support for the H2 effect of choice on psychological ownership. This finding is inconsistent with previous research that suggests greater choice leads to higher psychological ownership [START_REF] Morewedge | Evolution of Consumption: A Psychological Ownership Framework[END_REF].

Consistent with Study 1, customers understand the difference in privacy risk between biographic and biometric data. Customers prefer balanced privacy to unbalanced privacy, which provides better choice, transparency, and psychological ownership. It is evident from the findings of both studies that biometric data denote a higher risk due to unbalanced privacy beyond the traditional privacy paradox situation.

Conclusions, implications, limitations, and future research

Conclusions

This paper highlights the significant privacy concerns with collecting biometric data compared with biographic data in the hospitality industry. We introduce the "uncontrollable privacy paradox" as a novel concept, highlighting the unique privacy challenges with immersive technology. The study provides practical recommendations for efficiently managing biometric data collection in hospitality to ensure consumer willingness to disclose information. The conceptual framework introduced in this paper extends its applicability to industries beyond hospitality, such as banking, advertising, and entertainment, all of which rely significantly on immersive technology.

Theoretical implications

We offer two clear theoretical contributions. First, we present unbalanced privacy risk as a unique privacy situation for consumers due to the disclosure of biometric data. The use of immersive technology in the metaverse and its impact on data privacy is at the forefront of current research [START_REF] Dwivedi | Artificial Intelligence (AI): Multidisciplinary perspectives on emerging challenges, opportunities, and agenda for research, practice and policy[END_REF]Femenia-Serra et al., 2022;[START_REF] Koohang | Shaping the metaverse into reality: a holistic multidisciplinary understanding of opportunities, challenges, and avenues for future investigation[END_REF].

Scholars have emphasized the need to introduce comprehensive strategies to manage data privacy and protect consumer interest [START_REF] Barrera | Marketing in the Metaverse: Conceptual understanding, framework, and research agenda[END_REF]Dwivedi et al., 2023;[START_REF] Tussyadiah | A review of research into automation in tourism: Launching the Annals of Tourism Research Curated Collection on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in Tourism[END_REF]. Addressing the concern of scholars, we identified a unique privacy condition depicting an unbalanced privacy risk on the powerless of consumers in sharing biometric data. Hence, identifying the inequality of the bargaining power of consumers, we introduce a unique dimension to privacy literature.

Second, this study contributes to the existing literature by defining the privacy paradox through the lens of unbalanced privacy, shedding light on the challenges of using immersive technology in the metaverse. This study offers a novel doctrine, the uncontrollable privacy paradox (see Figure 2), acknowledging the unbalanced privacy of consumers in sharing biometric data in the metaverse. In doing so, we address the call of scholars [START_REF] Barth | Lost in privacy? Online privacy from a cybersecurity expert perspective[END_REF]Gotsch and Schögel, 2021;[START_REF] Kokolakis | Privacy attitudes and privacy behaviour: A review of current research on the privacy paradox phenomenon[END_REF][START_REF] Masur | Understanding the effects of conceptual and analytical choices on 'finding'the privacy paradox: A specification curve analysis of large-scale survey data[END_REF], offering a holistic understanding of the privacy paradox. The demarcation of privacy paradox from biographic to biometric data strengthens the privacy paradox literature and its position in the dynamic metaverse environment. Unbalanced privacy and the uncontrollable privacy paradox will provide a new theoretical lens to understand consumer vulnerability and the resulting impact on decisionmaking. Further, the proposed definition that addresses the future data privacy issues of using immersive technology in the metaverse provides a new direction for future research.

We define the uncontrollable privacy paradox as follows:

"The uncontrollable privacy paradox emerges due to unbalanced privacy, which confers unfair advantages to firms with absolute power to manage customer data".

Managerial implications

This paper also provides three actionable implications for practice. Firstly, organizations should redesign the privacy strategy by adhering to the relevant national and international legislature, such as GDPR and CCPA, regarding the use of biometric data. The city of Portland, Oregon, US, introduced legislation prohibiting public-facing businesses like stores, restaurants, and hotels from using facial recognition technology [START_REF] Metz | Portland passes broadest facial recognition ban in the US[END_REF]. Consumers remain unaware of the risks associated with disclosing biometric data. For instance, in the UK, a survey found that 60% of people were unaware that their biometric data can be shared with other companies (Garcia, 2022). Article 9 of GDPR recognizes biometric data as a particular category necessitating businesses to enforce stringent privacy measures, including impact assessment of customers [START_REF] Kindt | Having yes, using no? About the new legal regime for biometric data[END_REF]. Our framework enables a manager to understand the higher challenges of biometric data and the impact on consumer willingness to obtain future services.

Secondly, we recommend that systems be designed with automatic verification mechanisms to prevent unauthorized data transfer without obtaining the necessary consent.

Biometric data collection provides a significant business value in hospitality with the ability to build intelligence to derive a competitive advantage [START_REF] Tussyadiah | A review of research into automation in tourism: Launching the Annals of Tourism Research Curated Collection on Artificial Intelligence and Robotics in Tourism[END_REF]. However, to disclose data confidently, consumers should be aware of the transparency of data use. Therefore, companies should redesign strategies to encourage consumers to share biometric data by providing higher transparency, indicating an audit trail allowing the consumer to trace the data management process. Therefore, one possible approach is to implement a system, such as a loyalty card with points based on usage, to notify and inform consumers about using their biometric data. This can be in the form of an SMS or by updating a consumer profile that is visible to the consumer, like having an online bank account.

Third, managers should consider unbalanced privacy a core element in redesigning a privacy strategy. Companies should create consumer risk profiles by classifying data on controllable and uncontrollable privacy to differentiate biometric from biographic data. Firms can rank consumers based on the impact of unbalanced privacy. This ranking will enable managers to detect vulnerable consumers based on the effect of uncontrollable privacy paradox in advance. Profiling consumers based on privacy risk will provide a unique platform to manage the privacy paradox [START_REF] Ioannou | Privacy concerns and disclosure of biometric and behavioral data for travel[END_REF][START_REF] Liyanaarachchi | Online privacy as an integral component of strategy: allaying customer fears and building loyalty[END_REF]. Management of uncontrollable privacy paradox will enable an organization to build customer loyalty on privacy protection and create a competitive advantage through immersive technology.

Limitations and future research

First, building on the existing literature while adopting a mixed-method study, this paper proposes a unique direction to research biometric data in immersive technology use. Scholars can test the propositions across various contexts to achieve a broader perspective in future studies across different contexts. Additionally, the conceptual model will be helpful for application in industries such as banking, advertising, and entertainment, which extensively utilize immersive technology.

Secondly, testing key boundary conditions, such as consumer characteristics, readiness to utilize immersive technology, understanding the metaverse, and acceptance of privacy imbalances, can further enhance our framework. This also applies to the American population, in that recent research found that Americans particularly care about their privacy in hospitality [START_REF] D'acunto | Most Americans like their privacy :Exploring privacy concerns through U.S. guests' reviews[END_REF][START_REF] Hwang | Desired privacy and the impact of crowding on customer emotions and approach-avoidance responses: waiting in a virtual reality restaurant[END_REF]. The strategy redesign based on the study's conceptual framework will ensure ethical conduct and adherence to the national and international protocols in data protection.

Third, future research could examine the impact of the uncontrollable privacy paradox on selecting service providers in hospitality. More specifically, the degree of competitive advantage a firm can achieve by designing a proactive privacy strategy in managing biometric data. Also, it is essential to test the conceptual model with consumers from different countries and cultures to examine different degrees of privacy [START_REF] Liyanaarachchi | Market-oriented corporate digital responsibility to manage data vulnerability in online banking[END_REF]. We thus encourage future research to investigate the impact of the uncontrollable privacy paradox in different country settings, international contexts, and continents.

Fourth, we invite scholars to explore the differential impacts of the proposed framework across consumers with different age levels (baby boomers to Gen Z) and identify the effect of unbalanced privacy on disclosure decisions.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Purpose, approach, and results of Studies 1 and 2. Source: Authors own creation.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Redesigning privacy strategies transitioning from biographic to biometric data

Figure 3

 3 Figure3presents the overall model to be tested in the field experiment.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Model of Study 2. Source: Authors own creation.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Conditions of the field experiment. Source: Authors own creation

Femenia-Serra, F., Ioannou, A., and Tussyadiah, I. P. (2022), "Is smart scary? A mixedmethods study on privacy in smart tourism", Current Issues in Tourism, Vol. 25 No. 14, pp. 2212-2238. Fern, E. F. (2001), Advanced focus group research, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage. Marketing, Vol. 39 No. 8, pp.1660-1671.


MÉTHODOLOGIE ET RÉSULTATS

Microjets de plasma d'Argon. Une micro-décharge à barrière diélectrique alimentée par impulsions de haute tension (230 ns, 6 kV, 20 kHz) a permis de produire un jet de plasma d'argon de petit diamètre (1.7 mm) et flux modéré (< 1.0 l/mn) se propageant sur une distance de plusieurs centimètres dans l'atmosphère ambiante. La caractérisation physique de ce plasma a été effectuée à l'aide de méthodes électriques (mesures de tension et courant de décharge) et optiques (imagerie rapide intensifiée, spectroscopie optique d'émission, absorption laser dans l'infra-rouge), résolues en temps à l'échelle de la nanoseconde. L'absorption laser a permis de cartographier la densité de l'état métastable Ar(1s 5 ), qui constitue un important réservoir d'énergie, avec une résolution spatiale de 20 µm.

Source d'ions pour l'ionisation chimique. Une configuration originale de décharge à micro-cathode creuse (MHCD, 400 µm de diamètre) fonctionnant en régime continu à faible tension (< 500 V) a été utilisée pour générer des ions hydronium à pression de 0.1 mbar. Le plasma est créé dans un mélange Ar/H 2 O ou air/H 2 O avec un faible flux de gaz (0.02 l/mn) assuré par la différence de pression (100 mbar) établie entre deux chambres séparées par la structure de décharge.

Piège à ions linéaire. Un spectromètre compact basé sur un piège à ions linéaire est développé spécifiquement pour ce projet. Le piège lui-même a une longueur de 30 mm et un rayon interne de 3 mm. Il permettra de détecter les ions sur la gamme de masse 15-300 u avec une résolution unitaire. Opéré à une pression de 10 -3 mbar il nécessite des moyens de pompage réduit (pompe turbomoléculaire de 10 L/s).

Analyse des espèces désorbées. Dans une première étape il a été montré en utilisant une technique chromatographique que le jet de plasma d'argon est capable d'éjecter des molécules de bibenzyle, prises comme modèle de l'application envisagée, préalablement déposées sur une surface de verre. Une partie de ces molécules n'est pas fragmentée. Ainsi il apparaît possible d'identifier le dépôt sans avoir recours à un schéma cinétique de dégradation de la molécule qui serait nécessaire à partir d'une mesure de sous-produits neutres ou ioniques.

VALORISATION ET PERSPECTIVES

L'interaction des jets de plasma avec les surfaces est un sujet qui dépasse largement les applications en chimie analytique. En particulier, une recherche intensive est menée au niveau international concernant le traitement de matériaux biologiques par plasma, avec applications en médecine dont la cancérologie. Les résultats obtenus par le projet PLASPAMS pourraient intéresser cette communauté, et également les équipes travaillant sur la fonctionnalisation des surfaces.

L'analyseur compact développé dans le cadre de ce projet associé aux jets de plasmas sera une méthode originale d'analyse des surfaces. Celui-ci pourra être aussi utilisé pour l'analyse des composés présents dans l'air en mode impact électronique ou ionisation chimique avec une bonne sensibilité. Les domaines d'applications sont nombreux et variés : analyse de l'air, suivi de process industriel, détection des toxiques chimiques.

  développement d'un instrument associant l'utilisation de microjets de plasma froid et la spectrométrie de masse afin de mettre en évidence et d'identifier les molécules peu volatiles (parmi lesquelles des explosifs ou des stupéfiants) qui pourraient être présentes sur des surfaces. développé est constitué :-D'un analyseur sensible et haut débit basé sur un spectromètre de masse mettant en oeuvre une méthode d'ionisation chimique afin d'ioniser spécifiquement les classes de molécules recherchées et aussi de préserver l'information moléculaire en ne fragmentant pas ces molécules lors de l'ionisation.-Des microjets de plasma froid, en l'occurrence dans l'argon, qui en interagissant avec les surfaces feront passer dans la phase gazeuse les molécules qui y sont déposées.Les différents éléments de la chaîne analytique devront être optimisés pour aboutir à un instrument précis, sensible et compact : prélèvement, mode d'ionisation et analyse. Le mode de prélèvement est crucial. Les avantages que présentent les plasmas froids pour réaliser une désorption douce et peu coûteuse énergétiquement font que leur utilisation dans le domaine de l'analyse est en croissance très rapide. Le système devra permettre l'analyse haut débit de surfaces assez grandes. La méthode de désorption ainsi que le mode d'ionisation ne doivent pas détruire l'information par une technique trop brutale. Il faut ioniser sans dissocier et c'est ce que permet l'ionisation chimique. Elle permet, de plus, d'ioniser spécifiquement les analytes recherchés sans ioniser le gaz porteur ce qui est essentiel pour avoir une bonne sensibilité.

Publications

Les travaux ont jusqu'à présent donné lieu à 11 présentations en conférences internationales, 5 en nationales, ainsi qu'à la publication d'un article. D'autres articles sont en cours d'écriture. Une sélection est donnée ci-dessous :

PLASPAMS

PLASmas Pour l'Analyse en Masse des Surfaces


Fidan Kurtaliqi

Romain Sohier

The psychological reassurance effect of mobile tracing app's in Covid-19 Era

Introduction

As COVID-19 has created a worldwide public health crisis (i.e., hospitalizations, deaths) and pushed society into social and cultural crises and financial insecurity [START_REF] Beaunoyer | COVID-19 and digital inequalities: Reciprocal impacts and mitigation strategies[END_REF][START_REF] Mckibbin | The Global Macroeconomic Impacts of COVID-19: Seven Scenarios[END_REF][START_REF] Rajkumar | COVID-19 and mental health: A review of the existing literature[END_REF][START_REF] Vo-Thanh | How does hotel employees' satisfaction with the organization's COVID-19 responses affect job insecurity and job performance[END_REF], the use of mobiles devices is essential in fighting the virus and improve our lives [START_REF] Brem | Implications of the coronavirus (COVID-19) outbreak for innovation: Which technologies will improve our lives?[END_REF][START_REF] Beaunoyer | COVID-19 and digital inequalities: Reciprocal impacts and mitigation strategies[END_REF]. Therefore, it is not surprising that various countries have decided to launch mobile apps to (1) identify people or contacts who may have encountered infected people and (2) trace the virus transmission chain by collecting data on people's movements and contacts [START_REF] Rowe | Contact-tracing apps and alienation in the age of COVID-19[END_REF].

Today, no one can imagine using a smartphone that lacks mobile applications (apps); they are now regarded as inherent features of the technology. Mobile apps are not only easy to use but also provide ways to be informed (e.g., about health indicators such as heartbeat or number of steps taken) and entertained [START_REF] Hackett | Keeping secrets in the cloud: Mobile phones, data security and privacy within the context of pregnancy and childbirth in Tanzania[END_REF]. Most of the time people spend online is spent on mobile screens (e.g., 77% in the United States; ComScore, 2019) as smartphones allow people to access information anywhere, at any time.

Medical and epidemiological research show that implementing mobile tracing apps is a top-down government intervention [START_REF] Ferretti | Quantifying SARS-CoV-2 transmission suggests epidemic control with digital contact tracing[END_REF][START_REF] Pan | Association of Public Health Interventions With the Epidemiology of the COVID-19 Outbreak in Wuhan, China[END_REF] and crucial in epidemic crisis [START_REF] Chan | Privacy concerns can explain unwillingness to download and use contact tracing apps when COVID-19 concerns are high[END_REF]. However, tracking technologies may raise acceptability issues [START_REF] Georgieva | Ensuring social acceptability of technological tracking in the COVID-19 context[END_REF] and more specifically privacy concerns that may influence the intention to use the mobile tracing app [START_REF] Chan | Privacy concerns can explain unwillingness to download and use contact tracing apps when COVID-19 concerns are high[END_REF]. Moreover, there has been no research on the reassurance effect of mobile tracing apps in a pandemic context. Therefore, our aim is to (1) show how the antecedents (cost and benefits) of a mobile tracing app create value; (2) identify the consequences of value creation in terms of trust in government, the future, well-being, and word of mouth (WOM); and (3) determine how various moderators affect overall perceptions of value (see Figure 1).

Our results suggest that the success of mobile tracing apps depends on three factors: utility, status and risks perception. Beyond antecedents, we establish strong links between perceived value and trust in government, well-being, and trust in the future. Moreover, we highlight the effects of several moderators on the overall perception of the mobile app (e.g. social media usage, Covid-19 symptoms).

Finally, our results show that the launch of a tracing app has a psychological reassurance effect on individuals, even if they have not installed it.

Theoretical framework

Our paper studies a central mediating construct that is perceived value [START_REF] Kumar | Creating Enduring Customer Value[END_REF].

According to [START_REF] Kumar | Creating Enduring Customer Value[END_REF] the perceived value is a "customers' net valuation of the perceived benefits accrued from an offering that is based on the costs they are willing to give up for the needs they are seeking to satisfy". As a mediating construct, we use several antecedents (benefits and costs) and consequences (e.g., trust in the future) of perceived value to better measure the overall perception of mobile app value. It is now well established that people have the ability to perceive the benefits and undesirable consequences of a product/service [START_REF] Gutman | A Means-End Chain Model Based on Consumer Categorization Processes[END_REF]. With regard to the StopCovid mobile app, individuals can evaluate it because they are used to manipulate mobile apps frequently. Therefore, individuals can perceive the value of StopCovid even without installing it.

Insert Figure 1 about here

Cost/benefit impacts on value perception

Research on the acceptance of technology has identified pragmatic determinants, such as ease of use and utility (F. D. [START_REF] Davis | Perceived Usefulness, Perceived Ease of Use, and User Acceptance of Information Technology[END_REF]. With regard to mobile apps, the technology acceptance model (TAM) has been used widely to determine usage intentions. Research focused on utility, or the extrinsic and cognitive benefits that enable task accomplishment [START_REF] Cocosila | An integrated value-risk investigation of contactless mobile payments adoption[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Value-based Adoption of Mobile Internet: An empirical investigation[END_REF], reveals that the perceived utility of mobile apps positively influences satisfaction and intentions to use [START_REF] Cocosila | An integrated value-risk investigation of contactless mobile payments adoption[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | The role of utilitarian and hedonic values and their antecedents in a mobile data service environment[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | The difference of determinants of acceptance and continuance of mobile data services: A value perspective[END_REF]. Researchers also have investigated the role of status for mobile app use-that is, the ability of apps to enhance the image users present to others [START_REF] Holbrook | Consumption experience, customer value, and subjective personal introspection: An illustrative photographic essay[END_REF]. In the context of the COVID-19 pandemic, people may use apps such as the French StopCovid app to seek gratification from their social identity and social relationships for; according to Cocosila and Trablesi (2016), the status value of mobile apps positively influences perceived value.

Although there are benefits to mobile app use, there also are costs. For example, because mobile apps collect data and send notifications to users (E.-S. [START_REF] Kim | Korean mothers' morality in the wake of COVID-19 contact-tracing surveillance[END_REF], they raise questions about risk, privacy, and intrusiveness. Research shows that privacy and intrusiveness concerns related to mobile apps negatively influence their perceived value [START_REF] Cocosila | An integrated value-risk investigation of contactless mobile payments adoption[END_REF][START_REF] Wottrich | The privacy trade-off for mobile app downloads: The roles of app value, intrusiveness, and privacy concerns[END_REF]. Moreover, in mobile environments, users may feel more vulnerable to risks-which also may negatively affect mobile apps' perceived value [START_REF] Kleijnen | An assessment of value creation in mobile service delivery and the moderating role of time consciousness[END_REF][START_REF] Sweeney | The role of perceived risk in the quality-value relationship: A study in a retail environment[END_REF].

Effects of value perceptions on well-being, trust in the future, trust in government, and WOM

The three main consequences we investigate (i.e. well-being, trust in the future, trust in government) are related to psychological aspects and overall to the reassurance construct. Reassurance is a method, a process by which we provide information to a patient in order to remove fears or doubts and to comfort him [START_REF] Linton | Reassurance: Help or hinder in the treatment of pain[END_REF]. Reassurance is needed when the situation of an individual change in such that it affects his psychological state and behavior. As the pandemic has increased anxiety, it has in the same time created an undesired context where people seek to be reassured. In such situations, reassurance can generate mechanisms such as seeking the presence of others in order to reduce anxiety [START_REF] Spector | Reassurance: A Mechanism by Which the Presence of others Reduces Anxiety[END_REF]. Beyond the presence, a key factor to reassure people is the information provided by various actors (e.g. government, mass media). Because it has to fight the virus, information provided by the government have a great impact on the reassurance of people.

Consequently, the sides of reassurance we measure in this paper deals with trust and well-being.

Because the StopCovid app was launched by the French government (on June 2, 2020), trust in government is an important variable to consider [START_REF] Ye | Trust, risk perception, and COVID-19 infections: Evidence from multilevel analyses of combined original dataset in China[END_REF]. From the perspective of public health policy, if people do not trust the government, their intentions to use a tracing app may be affected, even if the perceived value of the app is high. Trust in government is strongly associated with adherence to health guidelines [START_REF] Sibley | Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and nationwide lockdown on trust, attitudes toward government, and well-being[END_REF] and is vital for implementing social policies that require people to take action (M. [START_REF] Davis | Compliant, complacent or panicked? Investigating the problematisation of the Australian general public in pandemic influenza control[END_REF]. Moreover, in a crisis context, trust in government leads to cooperative, responsible, altruistic behaviors and a tendency to follow government recommendations (e.g., lockdown rules) [START_REF] Chanley | The Origins and Consequences of Public Trust in Government: A Time Series Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Hetherington | The Political Relevance of Political Trust[END_REF]. By addressing actions by the government to develop this app, we propose:

H3. High levels of perceived value of the StopCovid app positively influence trust in government.

Disasters (e.g., war, hurricanes, virus) cause harm to mental and physical health [START_REF] Huang | Generalized anxiety disorder, depressive symptoms and sleep quality during COVID-19 outbreak in China: A web-based cross-sectional survey[END_REF]Zhang & Ma, 2020). In such contexts, people may have negative feelings because their well-being is affected. [START_REF] Sibley | Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and nationwide lockdown on trust, attitudes toward government, and well-being[END_REF] note that healthiness includes the presence of positive wellbeing. In the context of the StopCovid app, the perceived value of the app, due to utility and status benefits, may have a positive influence on the well-being of the population. Therefore, we propose: H4. High levels of perceived value of the StopCovid app positively influence well-being. [START_REF] Sibley | Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and nationwide lockdown on trust, attitudes toward government, and well-being[END_REF] note that one dimension of well-being relates to trust in the future, which links to feelings of security and satisfaction with one's standard of living (i.e., not having to wear masks outside, going to restaurants). Accordingly, we propose: H5. High levels of perceived value of the StopCovid app positively influence trust in the future.

For many years, researchers have studied the word-of-mouth (WOM) concept, especially with regard to mobile apps. They suggest that entertainment, subjective norms, and satisfaction are the key antecedents of positive WOM for mobile apps [START_REF] San-Martín | The impact of age in the generation of satisfaction and WOM in mobile shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Verkijika | Understanding word-of-mouth (WOM) intentions of mobile app users: The role of simplicity and emotions during the first interaction[END_REF]. To date, there has been no study of the connections between WOM and trust in the future, trust in the government, well-being, and perceived value. We propose, in the context of the COVID-19 pandemic and its associated level of anxiety, that with regard to mobile tracing apps, these four concepts positively influence WOM: H6. High levels of (a) perceived value, (b) trust in government, (c) well-being, and (d) trust in the future positively influence WOM.

Pandemic moderators

Perception of a product's value depends on the context in which it is used. A mobile app used in one context can generate more value than in another context [START_REF] Kleijnen | An assessment of value creation in mobile service delivery and the moderating role of time consciousness[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | What Affects Mobile Application Use? The Roles of Consumption Values[END_REF]-that is, it has conditional value [START_REF] Sheth | Why we buy what we buy: A theory of consumption values[END_REF][START_REF] Woodruff | Customer Value: The Next Source for Competitive Advantage[END_REF]. Perceptions of the costs and benefits of the StopCovid mobile app may vary significantly in the context of COVID-19. During the pandemic and especially lockdowns, people have been exposed to daily media information, government announcements, and health concerns for themselves and their families. In this study, we identify key moderators that affect overall perception of the mobile app: age and technology factors, trust in media, trust in government, and health factors.

First, we consider the moderating effects of general factors such as gender and age. There is a significant difference between men and women in terms of deaths from COVID-19; in both the United States and France, for example, the gender breakdown of deaths is 54% male and 46% female (CDC, 2020;Santé Publique France, 2021). Even though men seem to more vulnerable to the virus, no research evidence exists to support hypotheses about the difference. In contrast, for age, research has shown clearly, and the media has communicated widely, that older people are far more vulnerable to the disease (e.g., in the United States, from march 2019 to January 2021, 20.8% of COVID-19 patients are in the 65-74 year age group vs. 0.5% in the 5-17 year age group) (CDC, 2020). However, with regard to technology factors as moderators, there may be differences in terms of value perceptions between users and non-users of the StopCovid app. Although users might have a more positive perception of the app's value, because they have the opportunity to test it in real time, there is no evidence that leads us to formulate any hypotheses in terms negative or positive effects for the entire model. Rather, we postulate only:

H7. Compared with those younger than 55 years of age, those 55 years of age and older perceive the value of the StopCovid app as greater.

Second, we investigate the moderating effect of trust in media by noting differences in the perceived value of the mobile app between groups: high vs. low trust in government media, high vs. low trust in mass media, and high vs. low trust in alternative media. During a crisis, people obtain information from television, the Internet, and social networks [START_REF] Garfin | The novel coronavirus (COVID-2019) outbreak: Amplification of public health consequences by media exposure[END_REF]. Media context plays an essential role in shaping institutional trust and attitudes toward nations and governments.

However, parts of populations may disbelieve government and mass media information. In France, only 23% of the population trusts the news media (Statista, 2020). Moreover, trust in government can decline over time, even if it is initially high, because perceptions of risk increase over time, and conspiracy theories develop (e.g., "anti-mask" movement). The COVID-19 pandemic has provided alternative channels (e.g., YouTube influencers, Twitter users) opportunities to expand their visibility by communicating (dis)information that differs from and opposes to official information (i.e., mass and government media). Because in pandemic situations, people seek accurate information to protect themselves and their families, those who trust mass and government media may be more likely than others to perceive the StopCovid app as valuable. Conversely, those who trust alternative media (more than they trust official information channels) and express defiance toward decisions by governments may be less likely to perceive the StopCovid app as valuable:

H8. Compared with those who trust alternative media more than government and mass media, those who trust government and mass media more than alternative media perceive the value of the StopCovid app as greater.

Third, we evaluate the moderating effect of trust in government and how it moderates the other model effects. As previously mentioned, with regard to COVID-19, trust in government can decline over time [START_REF] Sibley | Effects of the COVID-19 pandemic and nationwide lockdown on trust, attitudes toward government, and well-being[END_REF], especially following the imposition of government actions to fight the virus (e.g., mask mandates, confinement). People judge the effectiveness of government actions, or at least form opinions about those actions, according to the actions implemented by the government and the numbers of deaths or infections. Similar to other countries, France has set up a scientific council to fight the virus. Yet some medical scientists hold opposing views on the pandemic situation and promote alternative treatments (e.g., hydroxychloroquine). This situation led to the formation of two sides, which mass media refers to as the "reassuring" (rassuriste) side and the "alarmist" side, generating even more confusion in the population [START_REF] Mansour | Du rejet des masques à la « prétendue » deuxième vague… comment le discours des médecins « rassuristes » a émergé[END_REF].

Therefore, we hypothesize: H9. Compared with those who evaluate the government's actions negatively and trust the government council less (i.e., "reassuring" side), those who evaluate the actions of the government positively and trust the government council (i.e., "alarmist" side) perceive the value of the StopCovid app as greater.

Fourth, we investigate the moderating effect of health and, specifically, how people's health situations and the situations of those around them moderate the model effects. The COVID-19 crisis has generated feelings of stress, depression, fear, and loneliness [START_REF] Jungmann | Health anxiety, cyberchondria, and coping in the current COVID-19 pandemic: Which factors are related to coronavirus anxiety[END_REF]Liu et al., 2020). During a viral epidemic, most people develop health anxiety (Zhang & Ma, 2020), including unwarranted fears of the perceived health threat [START_REF] Abramowitz | Psychological Treatment of Health Anxiety and Hypochondriasis: A Biopsychosocial Approach[END_REF], on a continuum that ranges from an absence of health awareness to pathologic anxiety [START_REF] Abramowitz | Psychological Treatment of Health Anxiety and Hypochondriasis: A Biopsychosocial Approach[END_REF]. When anxiety arises, people often develop safety behaviors, such as checking (for symptoms, fever, signs of illness), avoiding risky activities, seeking confirmation of good health, and reading information on the crisis [START_REF] Brown | Online health research and health anxiety: A systematic review and conceptual integration[END_REF]. Those who perceive themselves to be in poor health suffer greater anxiety. A survey in China showed that more than half of the respondents had concerns about COVID-19 or potential infections of their families [START_REF] Zhang | Impact of the COVID-19 Pandemic on Mental Health and Quality of Life among Local Residents in Liaoning Province, China: A Cross-Sectional Study[END_REF]. Those affected by quarantine (i.e., themselves or someone they know) suffer from greater anxiety [START_REF] Jungmann | Health anxiety, cyberchondria, and coping in the current COVID-19 pandemic: Which factors are related to coronavirus anxiety[END_REF]; their perceptions change when they (or their families/friends) have had the virus or were identified as contact cases. Finally, the constant flow of COVID-19 information uses emotional language to capture people's attention [START_REF] Garfin | The novel coronavirus (COVID-2019) outbreak: Amplification of public health consequences by media exposure[END_REF], such that their brains, discussions, and thoughts become focused on the pandemic. This excessive absorption [START_REF] Jungmann | Health anxiety, cyberchondria, and coping in the current COVID-19 pandemic: Which factors are related to coronavirus anxiety[END_REF] and hyper-consumption of news can lead people to develop "cyberchondria" (i.e., obsession with selfhealth auto-evaluation), which correlates positively with anxiety [START_REF] Jungmann | Health anxiety, cyberchondria, and coping in the current COVID-19 pandemic: Which factors are related to coronavirus anxiety[END_REF]. Therefore, in line with research on conditional value and the psychological and health effects of COVID-19, we hypothesize:

Method

Data collection and sample

We conducted our study in the context of the Covid-19 pandemic. We designed a questionnaire consisting of 82 items, with a time duration of 10 minutes. At the beginning of the survey, we introduced a brief description of the StopCovid mobile app launched by the French government. We informed all respondents of the presence of sensitive questions and asked them to accept the conditions, in line with the European Union's General Data Protection Regulation (GDPR) rules. The survey started online one week before the launch of the app and end one week after the launch. A survey agency administered the questionnaire online. Respondents were selected rigorously and received gifts rather than payment. Our data collection represents the ratio of the actual use of the mobile app (i.e. the ratio of 10% having installed the StopCovid mobile application versus 90% not having installed it). A total of 832 mobile app users, representative of the French population, responded to our questionnaire; we discarded 12 respondents because they failed answered a verification question introduced in the middle of the questionnaire. Table 1 presents the main characteristics of our sample.

Insert Table 1 about here

Measurements

We began by using partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM) to test our hypotheses in Smart PLS 3.3.2 [START_REF] Ringle | SmartPLS 3. Boenningstedt: SmartPLS Gmbh[END_REF]. We used the path scheme [START_REF] Henseler | On the convergence of the partial least squares path modeling algorithm[END_REF] with the consistent PLS algorithm, which can correct reflective constructs' correlations and to ensure the results are consistent with a factor model [START_REF] Dijkstra | Consistent Partial Least Squares Path Modeling[END_REF]. Next, to test the significance of the relationships between variables and estimate predictive validity (Q 2 values), we used bootstrapping and blindfolding procedures [START_REF] Stone | Cross-Validatory Choice and Assessment of Statistical Predictions[END_REF][START_REF] Geisser | The Predictive Sample Reuse Method with Applications[END_REF]. Finally, we ran a multigroup analysis (MGA) to determine whether the data groups (e.g., installation of app vs. non-installation of app) exhibited significant differences in their group-specific parameter estimates (e.g., outer weights, outer loadings, path coefficients). We first tested the overall model without differentiating between the data groups, then ran the MGA to test for differences between the data groups.

To check the reliabilities and validities of the constructs, we used Cronbach's alpha (α), composite reliability (CR), and average variance extracted (AVE) indicators. For all measures, the α value was greater than .70 [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Nunnally | Psychometric theory[END_REF], the CR was above .70 [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF][START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis[END_REF], and the AVE exceeded .50 [START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF][START_REF] Barclay | The Partial Least Squares (PLS) Approach to Causal Modeling: Personal Computer Use as an Illustration[END_REF][START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF][START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis[END_REF] (see Table 2). We also assessed the loadings of the measures of each item with their respective constructs, and all loadings were greater than .70 [START_REF] Hulland | Use of Partial Least Squares (PLS) in Strategic Management Research: A Review of Four Recent Studies[END_REF]. We used the heterotrait-monotrait ratio (HTMT) method to assess and confirm the discriminant validity of the measures, as an alternative to the Fornell-Larcker criterion (Henseler et al., 2015). Finally, we evaluated R-square, Q-square, and model fit using the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) and normed fit index (NFI) indicators. Perceived value showed a high predictive value (R 2 = .790; Q 2 = .622), as did trust in government v (R 2 = .754; Q 2 = .572), well-being (R 2 = .620; Q 2 = .519), trust in the future (R 2 = .749; Q 2 = .616), and WOM (R 2 = .873; Q 2 = .78). The SRMR values are below .08 (.056), and the NFI (.917) also confirms good fit [START_REF] Hu | Fit Indices in Covariance Structure Modeling: Sensitivity to Underparameterized Model Misspecification[END_REF].

Results

Overall results

With regard to H1, related to the effects of benefits on perceived value, we find significant effects of the benefits of utility (γ = .360, t = 7.475, p < .000) and status (γ = .227, t = 5.142, p < .000), in support of H1a and H1b. That is, both benefits have significant effects on perceived value, though the utility effect is greater. We also observe significant negative effects of privacy (γ = -.096, t = 2.590, p < .05), intrusiveness (γ = -.107, t = 2.689, p < .05), and risk (γ = -.276, t = 4.958, p < .000), in support of H2a-c. Risk has the most significant negative effect on perceived value. The second part of the model shows significant effects of perceived value on trust in government (β = .868, t = 59.399, p < .000), well-being (β = .787, t = 43.481, p < .000), and trust in the future (β = .865, t = 59.919, p < .000), in support of H3-H5. Then in the third part of the model, we tested the relationships of four variables (i.e., perceived value, trust in government, well-being, and trust in the future) with WOM. The relationship between trust in government and WOM is not significant (β = .089, t = 1.231, p > .05), so we must reject H6b. However, we find a significant effect of perceived value (β = .400, t = 5.541, p < .000), well-being (β = .355, t = 6.059, p < .000), and trust in the future (β = .149, t = 1.904, p < .05) on WOM, as predicted by H4a, H4c, and H4d (see Table 3).

MGA results

We ran several MGAs to test the moderating effects of various factors related to the pandemic situation. Our first MGA analysis consisted of testing the moderating effects of gender and age (see Table 4). With regard to gender, we observe two differences: Privacy concerns have a greater effect on perceived value for men (γ diff = .151, p < .05), and perceived value has a greater effect on WOM for women (β diff = .243, p < .05). We find four differences with regard to age: The status effect on perceived value is greater for those aged 18 to 54 years (γ diff = .146, p < .05); the effects of perceived value on trust in the future (β diff = -.63, p < .05) and well-being (β diff = -.72, p < .05) are greater for those older than 55 years; and the effect of trust in government on WOM also is greater among this older category (β diff = -.363, p < .05).

Regarding the moderating effect of mobile app installation, we find that those who installed and used the mobile app indicate greater effects of perceived value on WOM (β diff = .370, p < .05), of trust in the future on WOM (β diff = -.779, p < .05), and of well-being on WOM (β diff = .297, p < .05).

The effect of perceived value on well-being is greater for the group that did not install the app (β diff = -.292, p < .000).

The second part of the MGA, related to media trust, shows one difference with regard to trust in government media, two differences with regard to trust in mass media, and three differences with regard to trust in alternative media (see Table 4). First, only the effect of perceived value effect on wellbeing is greater for those with low levels of trust in government media (β diff = -.150, p < .05). In this group, we find a greater effect of perceived value on well-being (β diff = -.135, p < .05) and a weaker effect of trust in government media on WOM (β diff = .264, p < .05). Second, the group with high levels of trust in alternative media shows a greater effect of intrusiveness on perceived value (γ diff = -.241, p < .05) and of perceived value on well-being (β diff = .072, p < .05). However, for the group with low levels of trust, we observe a greater effect of privacy on perceived value (γ diff = .126, p < .05).

With regard to social media behavior as moderators, such as YouTube use, we observe a difference, such that low levels of use relate to the effect of risk on perceived value (γ diff = .290, p < .05). For those with low levels of social media use, we find greater effects of perceived value on trust in the future (β diff = -.077, p < .05), of trust in the government on WOM (β diff = -.181, p < .05), and of trust in the future on WOM (β diff = -.371, p < .05). Those with high levels of social media use show greater effects of perceived value on WOM (β diff = .368, p < .05) and of well-being on WOM (β diff = .189, p < .05).

With regard to trust, we tested the moderating effects of (1) efficiency of government action against COVID-19, (2) trust in the government council, and (3) trust in heterodox (non-conforming) scientists (see Table 4). We find few differences with regard to trust in the government council and trust in heterodox scientists; only the moderator of low level of trust in the government council shows a greater effect of perceived value on well-being (β diff = -.069, p < .05), whereas high level of trust in heterodox scientists shows greater effects of intrusiveness on perceived value (γ diff = -.167, p < .05) and of perceived value on trust in the future (β diff = .069, p < .05). In addition, the group that evaluates the French government's action against COVID-19 as efficient notes greater effects of status on perceived value (γ diff = -.085, p < .05) and of perceived value on trust in government (β diff = -.196, p < .05). Conversely, those who evaluate the French government's actions as inefficient indicate greater effects of perceived value on well-being (β diff = -.102, p < .05) and of trust in the future on WOM (β diff = .304, p < .05).

The fourth part of our MGA focused on health factors. We tested the moderating effect of having experienced COVID-19 symptoms oneself, of having friends/family experience COVID-19 symptoms, and of feelings experienced during the pandemic. We find no effects for the moderator "having experienced Covid-19 symptoms" and two differences for the moderator "feelings experienced during the pandemic." Feeling good during the pandemic leads to a greater negative effect of privacy on perceived value (γ diff = -.190, p < .05), whereas feeling bad during the pandemic indicates a greater negative effect of risk on perceived value (γ diff = .186, p < .05). The moderator of whether friends/family have experienced COVID-19 symptoms shows greater effects for the "non-experience of symptoms" group, including the effects of risk on perceived value (γ diff = .214, p < .05), of perceived value on well-being (β diff = -.121, p < .05), and of perceived value on WOM (β diff = -.402, p < .05).

However, for the "experienced symptoms" group, we observe greater effects of utility on perceived value (γ diff = .298, p < .001) and of trust in government on WOM (β diff = .469, p < .05). Therefore, all the effects are at least partially validated (Table 4).

Insert Tables 2-4 about here

Discussion

Theoretical contributions

In a pandemic context, the utility of the mobile tracing app is an important benefit, and risk is an important cost. These results are in line with previous research [START_REF] Cocosila | An integrated value-risk investigation of contactless mobile payments adoption[END_REF][START_REF] Kleijnen | An assessment of value creation in mobile service delivery and the moderating role of time consciousness[END_REF]. However, it should be noted that people are concerned about the risk that their personal information will be used for non-pandemic purposes; in the pandemic, privacy costs have a very low effect on perceived value. They are more willing to provide personal data to help fight the virus than they would be to disclose them in traditional contexts, such as to private companies [START_REF] Wottrich | The privacy trade-off for mobile app downloads: The roles of app value, intrusiveness, and privacy concerns[END_REF]. We establish strong links between perceived value and trust in government, well-being, and trust in the future. Theoretically, this completely new finding shows how a tool such a mobile app can significantly reassure people.

Other contributions derived from our work relate to the moderators we test: Several of them show significant effects. First, those who have installed the mobile app express stronger links with regard to WOM. In this group, perceived value, trust in the future, and well-being strongly affect WOM, such that people who use the StopCovid app are more likely to encourage their friends and families to use it.

Second-and not surprisingly-those who rate the government's virus-fighting efficiency as high show stronger effects of status on perceived value and, in turn, of perceived value on trust in government. In contrast, those who give the government a low efficiency rating show stronger effects of perceived value on well-being, and of trust in the future on WOM. That is, for the former group, the StopCovid app reinforces status and trust in government, whereas for the latter group, it fosters well-being and WOM. Third, our study shows that those whose friends/families have experienced COVID-19 symptoms show a greater effect of utility on perceived value and of trust in government on WOM, whereas those whose friends/families have not experienced COVID-19 symptoms are more oriented to well-being and more concerned by the risks of using the StopCovid app. Finally, the originality of this study consists in showing the reassurance effect of a mobile app in a pandemic context. Indeed, even the majority of people does not have installed the StopCovid app, results show that they are greatly reassured by the launch of the mobile app. The indirect information given by the government to the people is that "we are doing something to fight the pandemic". This information seems to be enough in reassuring people.

Practical contributions

The StopCovid app, launched after the first wave of the virus, was considered less appealing than its second version, TousAntiCovid1 (2.5 downloads of StopCovid vs. 10 million downloads of TousAntiCovid). However, even the second version of the app has met with limited success. According to our results, we argue that the success of this type of mobile app depends on its usefulness and risks.

Therefore, governments should demonstrate the app's usefulness more clearly and reassure people about any risks. Furthermore, we suggest that one way to increase number of downloads is to communicate how the app will help people fight the virus and look forward to a better future. Finally, this study highlights the fact that it is crucial, in a pandemic context, to reassure people by concrete actions like the launch of the StopCovid app. Indeed, people will not first keep in mind the efficiency of the mobile app but the information that the government is doing the best to stop the pandemic.

Limitations and implications for research

We conducted this study during the first wave of the COVID-19 pandemic, when the virus was not as well-known as it was at the beginning of 2021. We did not consider people's levels of fear, because we were not comparing two periods. Therefore, our results reflect a sample in which a large number of people had not yet installed the app, such that its perceived value could be specific to that period.

Further research should investigate whether the evolution of the virus has moderated perceptions of the app's value and more specifically whether it can still positively affect trust in the future, trust in the government, and well-being. Our work shows that in health contexts, people are less concerned with privacy; it would be interesting to know whether it is the context, or the government source of the app, better explains this lack of concern.

Conclusion

Our study investigates the role of a government-issued, mobile tracing app in a pandemic context. It

shows that this kind of tool can help reassure people by giving them hope, building their trust in the government, and making them feel the government is doing its best to end the pandemic. In a context in which some groups have lost faith in government, our results show that mobile apps such as StopCovid can help people regain their trust in government and the future. We offer our work as a novel view on the role of mobile tracing apps in a pandemic context.

Bibliography

Xu

  Accordingly, we propose: H1. (a) Utility and (b) status benefits of the StopCovid app positively influence its perceived value. H2. (a) Privacy, (b) intrusiveness, and (c) risk costs of the StopCovid app negatively influence its perceived value.

H10.

  Compared with those who have not personally experienced COVID-19 symptoms, whose friends/families have not experienced COVID-19 symptoms, and who have not felt anxious during the pandemic, those who personally have experienced COVID-19 symptoms, whose families/friends have experienced COVID-19 symptoms, and who have felt anxious during the pandemic perceive the value of the StopCovid app as greater.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Theoretical model

, S., Li, W., Zhang, W., & Cho, J. (2021). The Dynamics of Social Support and Affective Well-being Before and During COVID: An Experience Sampling Study. Computers in Human Behavior, 106776. Su, Y., Lee, D. K. L., Xiao, X., Li, W., & Shu, W. (2021). Who endorses conspiracy theories? A moderated mediation model of Chinese and international social media use, media skepticism, need for cognition, and COVID-19 conspiracy theory endorsement in China. Computers in Human Behavior, 120, 106760.

Choudrie, J., Banerjee, S., Kotecha, K., Walambe, R., Karende, H., & Ameta, J.

(

2021). Machine learning techniques and older adults processing of online information and misinformation: A covid 19 study. Computers in Human Behavior, 119, 106716.

Table 1 .

 1 Characteristics of the sample

	Gender	Female: 47.58%
		Male: 52.42%
	Age	18 to 34: 30.75%
		35 to 54: 34.26%
		55 to 64: 14.89%
		65+: 20.10%
	Education	Other: 1%
		BTEC: 13.43%
		A level: 20.94%
		Undergraduate
		-BTEC higher national diploma: 24.81%
		-Bachelor: 17.19%
		Graduate
		-Master's: 16.34%
		-Doctorate: 6.05%
	Installation of	Yes: 13.19%
	StopCovid mobile	No: 86.81%
	app

Table 2 .

 2 Measurement model

	Items

Notes: α = Cronbach's Alpha ; CR = Composite Reliability ; AVE= Average Variance Extracted

Table 3 .

 3

	Bootstrapping path coefficients
		M	SD	t-value	p-value H	Sig.
	Utility -> Perceived Value	.360	.048	7.475	.000	H1a	***
	Status -> Perceived Value	.227	.044	5.142	.000	H1b	***
	Privacy -> Perceived Value	-.096	.037	2.590	.005	H2a	*
	Intrusiveness -> Perceived Value	-.107	.040	2.689	.004	H2b	*
	Risk -> Perceived Value	-.276	.056	4.958	.000	H2c	***
	Perceived Value -> Trust in Government	.868	.015	59.399	.000	H3	***
	Perceived Value -> Well-being	.787	.018	43.481	.000	H4	***

Notes: M = mean; H = hypothesis; SD = standard deviation. *Significant at .05. ** Significant at .01. *** Significant at .001.

Table 4 .

 4 Multi-group comparison test results

		Various Moderators			Trust in Media			Trust in Government		Health
		Gender	Age	Mobile	Gov.	Mass	Alternative Social	YouTube	Gov.	Gov.	Heterodox	Personal		Feelings
				App		Media		Media		Efficiency	Council	scientists	Covid-19	Friend/Family	during
													Symptoms	Covid-19	Covid
														Symptoms
	Intrusiveness -> Perceived Value	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.
	Perceived Value -> Trust in Government	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.
	Perceived Value -> Trust in the Future	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.
	Perceived Value -> Well-being	ns.	sig.	sig.	sig.	sig.	sig.		ns.	sig.	sig.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.
	Perceived Value -> Word of Mouth	sig.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.
	Privacy -> Perceived Value	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.
	Risk -> Perceived Value	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	sig.
	Status -> Perceived Value	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.
	Trust in Government -> Word of Mouth	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.
	Trust in the Future -> Word of Mouth	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.
	Utility -> Perceived Value	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.
	Well-being -> Word of Mouth	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	sig.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.	ns.

English translation: "All Against Covid."