Juliette Capdevielle

David Colonge

Contributions and limitations of a technomorphometric approach for cleavers: the case of Lanne-Darré (Hautes-Pyrénées)

Keywords: Lower Palaeolithic, lithic technology, cleavers, Lanne-Darré, structural analysis, geometric morphometry, angle measurements

published or not. The documents may come

Introduction

The debitage of large flakes used as blanks of characteristic macro-tools may have played an important role in the technical changes specific to Lower Palaeolithic industries [START_REF] Isaac | Studies of Early Culture in East Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF][START_REF] Mourre | Émergence et évolution de la prédétermination au Paléolithique, in: Normes Techniques et Pratiques Sociales : "De La Simplicité Des Outillages Pré-et Protohistoriques[END_REF]Mourre andColonge, 2007, 2010;[START_REF] Sharon | Large flake Acheulian[END_REF][START_REF] Sharon | The emergence of the Acheulian in Europe -A look from the east. Quaternary International, The Acheulean in Europe: origins[END_REF]. One of the resulting tools, in particular, makes an interesting research topic when attempting to clarify the variability of European Middle Pleistocene technical systems: the cleaver. In Europe, the cleaver is predominantly represented in the Iberian Acheulean industries, correlating to MIS 9 to 7, and is concentrated in the south-west of the Continent, throughout the Iberian peninsula up to the southern Aquitaine Basin [START_REF] Santonja | The Acheulian of Western Europe. Axe Age: Acheulian tool-making from quarry to discard[END_REF][START_REF] Mourre | Et si l'Acheuléen méridional n'était pas là où on l'attendait ?[END_REF][START_REF] Oosterbeek | The earliest Pleistocene archaeological sites in western Iberia: Present evidence and research prospects[END_REF][START_REF] Jarry | Les groupes humains du Pléistocène moyen et supérieur en Midi toulousain : contextes, ressources et comportements entre Massif Central et Pyrénées[END_REF][START_REF] Turq | The first human occupations in southwestern France: A revised summary twenty years after the Abbeville/Saint Riquier colloquium[END_REF][START_REF] Santonja | Mid-Pleistocene Acheulean industrial complex in the Iberian Peninsula[END_REF][START_REF] Mosquera | From Atapuerca to Europe: Tracing the earliest peopling of Europe. Quaternary International, East meets West: First settlements and human evolution in[END_REF][START_REF] Colonge | Paléolithique ancien et Paléolithique moyen ancien dans le piémont pyrénéen occidental : relations entre chaînes opératoires, continuités et ruptures[END_REF][START_REF] Gallotti | The Lower/early Middle Pleistocene small débitage productions in Western Europe: New data from Isernia La Pineta t.3c (Upper Volturno Basin, Italy). Quaternary International, Correlations of Quaternary Fluvial, Eolian, Deltaic and Marine Sequences[END_REF][START_REF] Rubio-Jara | Large flake Acheulean in the middle of Tagus basin (Spain): Middle stretch of the river Tagus valley and lower stretches of the rivers Jarama and Manzanares valleys[END_REF][START_REF] Santonja | The coexistence of Acheulean and Ancient Middle Palaeolithic techno-complexes in the Middle Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula. Quaternary International, The Acheulean in Europe: origins[END_REF]. In contrast, the Early Palaeolithic industries of the north and east Continent have an almost total absence of cleavers and other macro-tools on flakes [START_REF] Sharon | Large flake Acheulian[END_REF][START_REF] Tuffreau | Les premières industries lithiques dans le nord de la France, reflet des premiers peuplements dans une région de haute latitude. État des connaissances[END_REF][START_REF] Ravon | Originalité et développement du Paléolithique inférieur à l'extrémité occidentale de l'Eurasie : le Colombanien de Menez-Dregan (Plouhinec, Finistère)[END_REF][START_REF] Ravon | Early human occupations at the westernmost tip of Eurasia: The lithic industries from Menez-Dregan I (Plouhinec, Finistère, France)[END_REF][START_REF] Moncel | The Early Acheulian of north-western Europe[END_REF]Moncel et al., , 2018;;[START_REF] Moncel | From 800 to 500 ka in Western Europe. The Oldest Evidence of Acheuleans in Their Technological, Chronological, and Geographical Framework[END_REF]. The question of the impact of available raw materials on the ability to produce large flakes and related tools has been ongoing for decades [START_REF] Isaac | Studies of Early Culture in East Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Villa | Matières premières et provinces culturelles dans l'Acheuléen français[END_REF]Roche and Texier, 1990;[START_REF] Santonja | The Acheulian of Western Europe. Axe Age: Acheulian tool-making from quarry to discard[END_REF][START_REF] Sharon | The impact of raw material on Acheulian large flake production[END_REF]. The resources needed to produce them are indeed generally grained and tenacious; nevertheless, the multiplicity of coarse-grained stones exploited by industries containing cleavers is undeniable, and the availability of these raw materials in certain regions does not necessarily correlate with the presence of this tool type. Environmental constraints may still have played a limiting role in these productions, however [START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF].

The cleaver's cultural involvement

The definition of the cleaver has been the subject of numerous debates since its identification in the 1950s [START_REF] Tixier | Le hachereau dans l'Acheuléen nord-africain -Notes typologiques[END_REF], creating scientific competition between different technotypologies [START_REF] Bleicher | Découverte d'armes préhistoriques à Tlemcen[END_REF][START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF][START_REF] Deschamps | La diversité culturelle au Paléolithique moyen récent: le Vasconien et sa signification au sein des faciès moustériens[END_REF]. From these, we shall retain the two main definitions: that of Jacques Tixier (op. cit.), who defined it as a tool made on a flake that must contain a transversal cutting edge directly taken from the blank's debitage, with retouched lateral and base parts; and that of François Bordes, who described it as a bifacial piece with a shaped transversal edge (1961). If the presence of a transversal cutting edge is a converging point, the fundamental discordance between these two schools of thought lies in the technical nature of this edge, with both expressing divergent views of the technocultural meaning of the cleaver. This debate is part of a wider polemic on the diversity of this period's technical systems, more fully developed in V. Mourre's doctoral thesis (2003, tome 1). Indeed, it is only the definition of Tixier that makes it possible to clearly identify a technical phenomenon through the production of the cleaver, which requires the anticipation of technical gestures, a mental representation of the method applied and therefore the mastery of a specific conceptual scheme (Roche and Tixier, 1990). The resulting technotypology [START_REF] Tixier | Le hachereau dans l'Acheuléen nord-africain -Notes typologiques[END_REF][START_REF] Balout | L'Acheuléen de Ternifine (Algérie), gisement de l'Atlanthrope[END_REF], enhanced by J. Zuate y Zuber (in [START_REF] Alimen | L'évolution de l'Acheuléen au Sahara nord-occidental : Saoura, Ougarta, Tabelbala[END_REF], distinguishes six types of cleavers according to the predetermination level of the transversal cutting edge (number and organization of predetermined removals), as well as the importance and specificity of the preparation of the core (methods of debitage) correlated to the intensity of the arrangement of the other edges (Fig. 1). Tixier's approach, therefore, makes it possible to specify the diversity of the cleaver's production mode and to seek potential technical links between different industries of the European Early Palaeolithic.

How to capture this cleaver's individuality?

However, technological bias alone cannot define the individuality of a tool or be reliably interpreted in terms of possible technocultural links, unless the contribution of all possible determinisms is assessed. The cultural value of the cleaver must be questioned according to several reading grids. An important point to address in this regard is the tool's place within the mental templates of human groups. In particular, the objectives behind their production should be kept in mind, as a complement to any technical information [START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF][START_REF] Nicoud | Le paradoxe acheuléen[END_REF][START_REF] Herzlinger | Expert cognition in the production sequence of Acheulian cleavers at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel: A lithic and cognitive analysis[END_REF].

Morphometric approaches in lithic technology were developed precisely with this in mind, considering the relationship between form and function as a point of attack in understanding the functional place of artefacts.

The stylistic and functional variability of handaxes was at the heart of initial research [START_REF] Alimen | Etude statistique de bifaces acheuléens. Essai d'Archéométrie[END_REF][START_REF] Bordes | Typologie du Paléolithique ancien et moyen[END_REF][START_REF] Roe | The British Lower and Middle Palaeolithic: Some Problems, Methods of Study and Preliminary Results[END_REF][START_REF] Crompton | Allometry and multidimensional form in Acheulean bifaces from Kilombe, Kenya[END_REF], particularly contour analysis [START_REF] Gero | Analysis of Artifact Shape Using Fourier Series in Closed Form[END_REF][START_REF] Dibble | A New Method for Describing and Analyzing Artifact Shape[END_REF][START_REF] Saragusti | Quantitative Analysis of the Symmetry of Artefacts: Lower Paleolithic Handaxes[END_REF][START_REF] Saragusti | Quantitative analysis of shape attributes based on contours and section profiles in artifact analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Iovita | Ontogenetic scaling and lithic systematics: method and application[END_REF][START_REF] Borel | Formes et fonctions au sein des industries lithiques de la fin du Pléistocène et du début de l'Holocène en Asie du Sud-Est : un nouvel apport à la compréhension des comportements humains[END_REF]. However, while the general shape of a lithic object can in some cases inform the knapper's objectives [START_REF] Grosman | Morphological Analysis of Nahal Zihor Handaxes: A Chronological Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Gowlett | The Vital Sense of Proportion: Transformation, Golden Section, and 1:2 Preference in Acheulean Bifaces[END_REF][START_REF] Iovita | The handaxe reloaded: A morphometric reassessment of Acheulian and Middle Paleolithic handaxes[END_REF][START_REF] Herzlinger | AGMT3-D: A software for 3-D landmarks-based geometric morphometric shape analysis of archaeological artifacts[END_REF], the study of particularly representative areas is still often preferred [START_REF] Mester | Le site Paléolithique moyen d'Erd (Hongrie) : Nouvelles données sur les chaînes opératoires et résultats morpho-fonctionnels de la production[END_REF][START_REF] Lycett | A comparative 3D geometric morphometric analysis of Victoria West cores: implications for the origins of Levallois technology[END_REF][START_REF] Archer | Quantifying differences in hominin flaking technologies with 3D shape analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Li | Characterizing the shape of Large Cutting Tools from the Baise Basin (South China) using a 3D geometric morphometric approach[END_REF]. And while the standardization of certain parts of the tool does not always correlate with the homogeneity of its general morphometry [START_REF] Porraz | Les soucoupes de l'Observatoire (Principauté de Monaco) : contribution à l'étude du phénomène des grands éclats au Paléolithique ancien[END_REF], the development of digital technology has greatly improved the reliability and objectivity of morphometric studies [START_REF] Grosman | On the application of 3-D scanning technology for the documentation and typology of lithic artifacts[END_REF][START_REF] Shipton | Flake scar density and handaxe reduction intensity[END_REF][START_REF] Grosman | Reaching the Point of No Return: The Computational Revolution in Archaeology[END_REF][START_REF] Delpiano | Techno-functional and 3D shape analysis applied for investigating the variability of backed tools in the Late Middle Paleolithic of Central Europe[END_REF]Garcia-Medrano et al., 2020;[START_REF] Li | Characterizing the shape of Large Cutting Tools from the Baise Basin (South China) using a 3D geometric morphometric approach[END_REF].

Furthermore, the Techno-Morpho-Functional (TMF) approach, which appeared in the 1990s, combined the observation of forms and production modes and was able to characterize the functional objectives behind technical gestures [START_REF] Lepot | Approche techno-fonctionnelle de l'outillage lithique moustérien : Essai de classification des parties actives en termes d'efficacité technique[END_REF][START_REF] Brenet | Analyse du façonnage de pièces bifaciales : une méthode appliquée à deux sites acheuléens de Dordogne, Cantalouette et Manestrugeas[END_REF][START_REF] Boëda | Technogenèse de systèmes de production lithique au Paléolithique inférieur et moyen en Europe occidentale et au Proche Orient[END_REF][START_REF] Soriano | Outillage bifacial et outillage sur éclat au paléolithique ancien et moyen : coexistence et interaction[END_REF][START_REF] Nicoud | Le paradoxe acheuléen[END_REF][START_REF] Viallet | Potentiel fonctionnel des outils bifaciaux au Pléistocène moyen en contexte méditerranéen. Analyse de la structure et des macro-traces des outils bifaciaux de la Caune de l'Arago[END_REF][START_REF] Rocca | Depuis l'Est ? Nouvelles perspectives sur les premières dynamiques de peuplement en Europe[END_REF]. The focus of this approach was not on the function of the pieces but on their functional potential.

The determination of possible functional entities is made through the characterization of areas with technical, morphological and morphometrical convergences: the Techno-Functional Units (TFU), defined by Boëda as "a set of elements and/or technical characters coexisting in a synergy of effects" (1997). The tool is divided into several subparts, according to the type of action that their volumetric properties make it possible to envisage:

Transformative Contact (TC) with the work material to be transformed, Receptive Contact (RC) or energy transmitter, and Prehensive Contact (PC) [START_REF] Lepot | Approche techno-fonctionnelle de l'outillage lithique moustérien : Essai de classification des parties actives en termes d'efficacité technique[END_REF][START_REF] Boëda | Technogenèse de systèmes de production lithique au Paléolithique inférieur et moyen en Europe occidentale et au Proche Orient[END_REF][START_REF] Viallet | Potentiel fonctionnel des outils bifaciaux au Pléistocène moyen en contexte méditerranéen. Analyse de la structure et des macro-traces des outils bifaciaux de la Caune de l'Arago[END_REF]. This new way of approaching lithic objects, also known as the "structural approach" [START_REF] Nicoud | Le paradoxe acheuléen[END_REF], offers a greater flexibility of application and can be adapted to each individual problem.

The specific case of Lanne-Darré

For this study, we chose the case of Lanne-Darré [START_REF] Colonge | Le gisement acheuléen de Lanne-Darré (Uglas, Haute-Garonne) et perspectives régionales dans le sud-ouest de l'Europe[END_REF]Colonge et al., 2012a[START_REF] Colonge | Paléolithique ancien et Paléolithique moyen ancien dans le piémont pyrénéen occidental : relations entre chaînes opératoires, continuités et ruptures[END_REF],

which is an open-air site located in the Pyrenean Piedmont in south-western France. Although no absolute dating has been achieved, the technotypological trends of the industry suggest an attribution to the Iberian Acheulean, with a large amount of macro-tools almost exclusively on flakes, dominated by bifacial pieces and cleavers. It constitutes an important reference for the industries attesting to Acheulean traditions with Iberian tendencies in south-western France [START_REF] Mourre | Et si l'Acheuléen méridional n'était pas là où on l'attendait ?[END_REF]Colonge et al., 2012a and2014). Among the important references of this ensemble, the Duclos site excavated in 2008 presents a relatively reliable chronostratigraphic context: a date of 169 +/-19 ka was notably obtained by thermoluminescence suggesting that this type of industry would have lasted later in this region than in the Iberian Peninsula (Colonge et al., 2012b and2014;[START_REF] Hernandez | Premiers éléments de datation des industries du Pléistocène moyen (Acheuléen -Paléolithique moyen ancien) de la région pyrénéo-garonnaise : une approche géochronologique pluri-méthodes (TL, OSL et TT-OSL) des sites de Duclos et Romentères[END_REF]. In contrast to the majority of the sites in south-western Europe [START_REF] Santonja | The Acheulian of Western Europe. Axe Age: Acheulian tool-making from quarry to discard[END_REF][START_REF] Santonja | The coexistence of Acheulean and Ancient Middle Palaeolithic techno-complexes in the Middle Pleistocene of the Iberian Peninsula. Quaternary International, The Acheulean in Europe: origins[END_REF][START_REF] Capdevielle | Analyse technotypologique des hachereaux et autres macro-outils à tranchant transversal de Menez-Dregan I (Plouhinec, Finistère)[END_REF], the Lanne-Darré cleavers show a greater diversity in their degree of predetermination, making them a particularly suitable corpus for our study [START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF][START_REF] Colonge | Le gisement acheuléen de Lanne-Darré (Uglas, Haute-Garonne) et perspectives régionales dans le sud-ouest de l'Europe[END_REF].

The site is located on an important Mio-Pliocene detritic cone containing only one archaeological level. Here, lithic remains are mixed with natural coarse fraction in solifluction slides, dating from the LGM (last glacial maximum), and are covered by nearly 1.30 m of removed aeolian sandy silts. The entire stratigraphy is affected by a Late Glacial pedogenesis that reaches the Mio-Pliocene substrate. The assemblage consists of about 3100 artefacts from 100 m² excavated between 1997 and 2003. The deposit has been strongly impacted by taphonomical processes linked to solifluction: elements less than 2 cm are uncommonly rare and remains are worn. However, a technotypological study of macro-tools remains relevant because they have not been impacted by granulometric sorting. This series was mostly focused on flake production, 84% (including 2.5% cores), with 8% untransformed elements and 8% macro-tools. The debitage was primarily small-and medium-sized flakes with only 5.5% of large calibre ones (including 2.2% cores), which are almost exclusively macro-tool blanks (Tab. 1). This category was divided mostly between handaxes and cleavers, about 4% each, supplemented by several large undefined retouched flakes. The raw materials consisted of more than 99% blue-grey metaquartzites, mainly from the local environment and within a radius of 0 to 2 km from the site. Only some of these came from the Neste River, 7 to 8 km to the south-east, with some flints indicating procurement from around 50 to 100 km.

The blue-grey metaquartzites can only be distinguished by their (neo)cortex: some have been affected by a strong chemical alteration to the cortex typical of the Mio-Pliocene deposits; a second group shows this same cortex thinned by several hydric processes; others have a true brown fluviatile neocortex, polished by rounding in local rivers saturated with ferrous oxides [START_REF] Colonge | Le gisement acheuléen de Lanne-Darré (Uglas, Haute-Garonne) et perspectives régionales dans le sud-ouest de l'Europe[END_REF]Colonge et al., 2012a). A sample of 47 cleavers -representing almost half of the whole category -was isolated from the material excavated over the last three years, 2001 to 2003. This assemblage is representative of both the whole assemblage and the site, as the cleavers came from all the different areas excavated and is therefore sufficient to address the present, primarily methodological, study.

A targeted study on cleavers to test analytical procedures

As mentioned in previous studies [START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF][START_REF] Nicoud | Le paradoxe acheuléen[END_REF][START_REF] Herzlinger | Expert cognition in the production sequence of Acheulian cleavers at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel: A lithic and cognitive analysis[END_REF], morphometric analysis of the cleaver's transversal cutting edge, considered as its main transformative part, could help to better define its role. The functional convergence of this part of the tool has already been assumed following the study of hundreds of European and African cleavers, all with a low degree of variation in the mean values of its angle [START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF]. Moreover, separate investigations into this tool suggest that the invariable shape of its cutting edge, resulting directly from the debitage of the blank, may best reflect the knapper's original intentions [START_REF] Nicoud | Le paradoxe acheuléen[END_REF][START_REF] Herzlinger | Expert cognition in the production sequence of Acheulian cleavers at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel: A lithic and cognitive analysis[END_REF]. The TFUs of the cleaver would be therefore "integrated" [START_REF] Nicoud | Le paradoxe acheuléen[END_REF], with the specific morphology of the transversal edge being the main objective of the knapper and the functional condition of the tool [START_REF] Herzlinger | Expert cognition in the production sequence of Acheulian cleavers at Gesher Benot Ya'aqov, Israel: A lithic and cognitive analysis[END_REF]. According to this point of view, the cleaver offers a unique conceptual reality. Nevertheless, all the edges of the cleaver, whether the result of debitage, previous removals or retouching action, must be considered as constituent parts of the artefact. Here, the choice of the cleaver as a unique object of study, as well as the small size of the corpus, made it possible to explore a multitude of analytical processes.

The current study aims to see if different ways of combining technologic and morphometric observations can help to clarify the identity of these objects: We propose to test different ways of applying technomorphometric analyses to the specific case of the cleaver, with a view to establishing the most suitable methodology possible.2 A multi-scalar and evolutionary method

In order to test several possibilities in the search for relationships between technical and morphological or morphometrical properties, two scales of analysis were carried out. Firstly, the entire cleaver was observed for potential links between overall shape and technical choices. The study then targeted specific parts of the tool separately, with a view to conducting structural analysis in line with the TMF approach. The technical groups defined according to these two levels of analysis were thus confronted at the expense of their morphometric and/or morphologic characteristics.

Methods

Overall shape analysis

Initially, the raw material and technical criteria were noted to determine qualitative groups of cleavers: type and percentage (on the superior face) of natural surfaces; type of flake-blank ((neo)cortical, Kombewa, undetermined); debitage direction of the flake-blank (taken from the superior face along the morphological axis of the piece); technotypes sensu J. Tixier / J. Zuate y Zuber [START_REF] Tixier | Le hachereau dans l'Acheuléen nord-africain -Notes typologiques[END_REF][START_REF] Balout | L'Acheuléen de Ternifine (Algérie), gisement de l'Atlanthrope[END_REF]; Zuate y Zuber in Alimen 1978; Fig. 1). In addition, 3D models were made using an EinScan SP scanner and EinScan-S software, simplified and homogenized with the Meshlab software, in order to access morphometric and shape information.

Figure 1: J. Tixier's cleaver types (1959). Type VI was created later [START_REF] Balout | L'Acheuléen de Ternifine (Algérie), gisement de l'Atlanthrope[END_REF] and types 3b, 3c, 4b and 6b were defined by J. Zuate y Zuber (in [START_REF] Alimen | L'évolution de l'Acheuléen au Sahara nord-occidental : Saoura, Ougarta, Tabelbala[END_REF] Traditional morphometric measurements were then collected: length (along the morphological axis), width (perpendicular to the morphological axis), thickness, and mass. These data, except for mass, were extracted from the 3D models with AGMT-3D software [START_REF] Herzlinger | AGMT3-D: A software for 3-D landmarks-based geometric morphometric shape analysis of archaeological artifacts[END_REF]. The tools were objectively positioned through their symmetrical axis by digital processes and then manually according to specific qualitative aspects, such as the transversal edge being localized at the top [START_REF] Dauvois | Précis de dessin dynamique et structural des industries lithiques préhistoriques[END_REF][START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF] or the position of the ventral face on the flake-blank. Comparisons between the previously determined raw material and technical groups of cleavers were carried out with non-parametric statistical analyses generated by R and Past software. The Mann-Whitney U test [START_REF] Mann | On a Test of Whether one of Two Random Variables is Stochastically Larger than the Other[END_REF]) with a significance level (α) of 0.05 was used to confirm the graphical results. The Shapiro-Wilk test [START_REF] Shapiro | An Analysis of Variance Test for Normality (Complete Samples)[END_REF]) with a significance level (α) of 0.05 allowed us to check distribution normality, which made it possible to statistically verify the over-representation of certain dimensional classes. Indeed, a set of measurements that are not normally distributed implies that not all the factors influencing them have had the same impact: at least one factor, potentially a deliberate choice by the knapper, thus dominated the others [START_REF] Chenorkian | Pratique archéologique statistique et graphique, Méthodes et techniques[END_REF][START_REF] Poinsot | Statistiques pour statophobes[END_REF].

In contrast, shape variability between these qualitative groups of cleavers was analyzed using a geometric morphometry approach with AGMT-3D software (Herzlinger and Grosman, op-cit.). Type III semilandmarks, as defined by [START_REF] Bookstein | Morphometric Tools for Landmark Data: Geometry and Biology[END_REF][START_REF] Lycett | A comparative 3D geometric morphometric analysis of Victoria West cores: implications for the origins of Levallois technology[END_REF]Métairies, 2014;[START_REF] Pelletier | Evolution morphométrique et biogéographie des léporidés dans les environnements méditerranéens au Pléistocène : implications socio-économiques pour les sociétés humaines[END_REF], were positioned in a 50/50 grid, adapted to each tool's dimensions and projected onto their 3D surfaces (Herzlinger and Grosman, op. cit.). The semilandmark coordinates were initially linked to the objects position, size, and orientation.

Generalized Procrustes Analysis (GPA) [START_REF] Rohlf | Extensions of the Procrustes Method for the Optimal Superimposition of Landmarks[END_REF]Bookstein, op. cit.) excludes these parameters by superimposing the models through translation, scaling, and rotation. The new coordinates inform only about shape (Pelletier, op. cit.). Principal Component Analysis (PCA) from Procruste coordinates enabled us to grasp the localization and intensity of shape variations and the morphological variability inside the whole sample and between groups (Métairies, op. cit.; [START_REF] Doyon | La variabilité technologique et morphométrique des pointes de projectile aurignaciennes en matière osseuse : implications cognitives, sociales et environnementales[END_REF]Herzlinger and Grosman, op. cit.;Pelletier, op. cit.;Garcia-Medrano et al., 2020). The Mann-Whitney U test was applied to check the statistical reliability of the results (Herzlinger and Grosman, op. cit.).

Structural analysis

Structural analysis was undertaken on the peripheral edges of the cleaver, as well as its particular transversal edge. While this part of the study integrates the TMF approach, as it fully follows its main procedures and ideas, some variations in possible interpretations were allowed. Contrary to the classical TMF approach, no interpretation of the functional potential of the edges was established: the notions of TC, RC and PC were considered too hypothetical, a fortiori for this type of tool. Indeed, in the case of edged tools with a particularly open angle, the inference between active transformative, receptive and prehensive parts is delicate [START_REF] Viallet | Potentiel fonctionnel des outils bifaciaux au Pléistocène moyen en contexte méditerranéen. Analyse de la structure et des macro-traces des outils bifaciaux de la Caune de l'Arago[END_REF]. Moreover, a purely productive or functional purpose cannot be certified with removal negatives that may also reflect a flake production objective. The present study only aimed to assemble pieces that had a similar functional and/or productive potential and which could thus have occupied a similar place in the artefact panel of past societies. In this respect, TFUs, within the classical TMF approach, were considered here as "structural parts" of the artefacts, with the cleavers being sorted into "technico-structural" groups, as they only concern the structural organization without any functional or production interpretation.

First, the areas with technical continuity, called Technical Units (TUs), were individualized by technological analysis. Their chronological position towards the blank's debitage was especially noted to define technotypes.

Phenomena affecting the ridges was also documented: spontaneous, recent, taphonomical or macro removals, fractures, etc. Except for fractured or naturally flattened edges, morphological and morphometrical criteria were documented [START_REF] Lepot | Approche techno-fonctionnelle de l'outillage lithique moustérien : Essai de classification des parties actives en termes d'efficacité technique[END_REF][START_REF] Nicoud | Le paradoxe acheuléen[END_REF][START_REF] Viallet | Potentiel fonctionnel des outils bifaciaux au Pléistocène moyen en contexte méditerranéen. Analyse de la structure et des macro-traces des outils bifaciaux de la Caune de l'Arago[END_REF][START_REF] Rocca | Depuis l'Est ? Nouvelles perspectives sur les premières dynamiques de peuplement en Europe[END_REF]. Frontal and sagittal delineations were analyzed according to two different degrees: a large scale for deviations greater than 10 mm, and a thin scale for deviations between 2 and 10 mm. The section was determined by deviations that exceeded 5 mm across the height of the TU. Height and width were measured manually on the 3D models using Meshlab software. The average angle was calculated with Artefact-3D software, which scans the TU's surface according to several heights from their intersection, after a process limiting the impact of irregularities [START_REF] Grosman | On the application of 3-D scanning technology for the documentation and typology of lithic artifacts[END_REF][START_REF] Grosman | Archaeology in Three Dimensions: Computer-Based Methods in Archaeological Research[END_REF][START_REF] Grosman | Reaching the Point of No Return: The Computational Revolution in Archaeology[END_REF]Valletta et al., 2020a, b). The analyzed area corresponds to all the 3D apexes that appear in the cylinder of radius h, whose axis is located between two points along the intersection line. This h-value was determined manually and corresponds to the maximal height considered for each angle measurement. The two points chosen as the extremities were also picked for each angle acquisition. The software permitted the same process with a combination of several segments for non-linear ridges (Valletta et al., 2020a and b). Here, h is 5, 10 and 20 mm, towards several precision levels (Fig. 2).

Results

Global shape and production links

All the cleavers are made from metaquartzites. The only differentiation is the nature of their (neo)cortex (cf.

introduction): most present a thinned cortex, followed by pieces with a strong cortex, a fluvial neocortex and without natural surface. The flake-blank is mostly (neo)cortical, mainly in low proportions and knapped from various directions. Four technotypes of cleavers sensu Tixier/Zuate y Zuber were determined (Fig. 1): type 0, with an unprepared edge at the intersection of (neo)cortical surface and the flake-blank ventral face; type 1, with a pre-determined cutting edge due to a single removal; type 2, with several negatives of removals prior to the debitage of the blank; type 6, made on a Kombewa flake. Most of them are related to type II and 0 (Fig. 3). In terms of morphometry, the lower length, width, weight, and volume classes are overrepresented (Fig. 4). This was confirmed by the Shapiro-Wilk test results with p-values less than 0.05 or 0.01, which exclude a normal distribution for all these variables except thickness (Tab. 2). The volume was globally elongated and flat (Fig. 45). Comparing morphometrical variables between the raw material and the technical groups of cleavers, it appears that the nature and percentage of (neo)cortical surfaces, the type of blank, the debitage direction of the blank, and the technotype sensu Tixier/Zuate y Zuber do not have a significant impact on size and mass (Fig. 6). The altered cortex 0,055 0,002 0,358 0,332 0,104 0,262 0,351 0,041 0,358 0,262 0,004 0,126 >0,05 <0,01 0,040 thinned cortex 0,038 0,713 0,371 0,526 0,114 0,616 0,024 0,483 0,010 >0,05 neocortex 0,126 0,919 0,475 0,279 >0,05 p-value < 0,01: rejected hypothesis / significant difference p-value < 0,05: rejected hypothesis / significant difference p-value > 0,05: verified hypothesis / unsignificant difference H0 = all data belong to a common population 75-100 0 0,208 0,678 0,426 0,307 0,364 0,762 0,854 0,894 0,578 0,521 0,298 0,894 0,539 0,791 0,358 0,450 >0,05 >0,05 >0,05 >0,05 0-25 0,578 0,817 0,811 0,792 0,331 0,562 0,151 0,817 0,517 0,364 0,817 0,865 >0,05 >0,05 >0,05 25-50 0,759 0,505 0,298 0,564 0,198 0,399 0,297 0,450 >0,05 >0,05 50-75 0,942 0,714 0,421 0,714 >0,05 VI type 0 0,119 0,484 0,603 0,009 0,194 0,571 0,813 0,149 0,813 0,098 0,587 0,603 <0,01 >0,05 >0,05 type I 0,183 0,312 0,125 0,194 0,433 0,885 0,061 0,312 0,010 <0,01 type II 0,474 0,517 0,260 0,609 >0,05

Table 7: Mann-Whitney U test results, realized on principal measurements of cleaver groups depending on their type after J. Tixier/J. Zuate y Zuber

Edge shape and production links

The technological study individualized 247 TUs from the sample (Fig. 9), with a superior face mainly retouched or coming from removals prior to the blank's debitage, and an inferior face mostly constituted of the flakeblank's ventral surface or retouched. Five ridge technotypes were identified: anterior to the debitage; coming from the debitage (unretouched and unprepared, with a natural superior face); prepared before the debitage (unretouched, with one or several scars on the superior face testifying to prior removals); retouched (with one or several scars from actions posterior to the blank's production, at least on one face); indeterminate (with scars whose chronological position relating to the blank's debitage cannot be determined). They were mostly blunt and one-third presented taphonomical or macro removals. Frontal and sagittal delineations were mainly sinuous in thin observation and straight in broad observation. The section varied without particular tendency (Fig. 10). The Shapiro-Wilk test results invalidated the hypothesis of a normal distribution for both height and width (p-value<0.01): the smaller measurement ranks were overrepresented and high values were marginal.

Similar results were obtained for the average angle at h=20 mm, with rank measurements between 35 and 45° being overrepresented (Fig. 11). Moreover, average angles tended to decrease when the h-value increased (Tab. 8). Links were perceptible between the TUs' morphology and their production modes: section was mainly convex or plane for those coming from the debitage or anterior, and mainly irregular when retouched; delineations were mostly straight or curved for those arising from the debitage or anterior to it, and mostly sinuous or irregular when retouched (Tab. 9). Likewise, taphonomical or macro removals were identified on 66% of the TUs directly debited and on 58% of TUs prepared before debitage, against less than 21% for the rest. Links between ridge morphometry and technotypes also appeared, confirmed by the Mann-Whitney U test: TUs coming from the debitage and anterior to it were higher on both faces than retouched (p-value<0.01 for superior face height; p-value<0.05 for inferior face height) or undetermined (p-value<0.01 for both faces);

TUs coming just from the debitage showed more acute angles than retouched (p-value<0.01), indeterminate (p-value<0.01 except for the average angle with h=5 mm) and anterior (p-value<0.01 except for the average angle with h=5 mm). The angle classes of directly debited ridges were mostly concentrated between 30 and 45° where there was preparation before the debitage, and between 20 and 80° in the absence of preparation . Furthermore, as confirmed by the Shapiro-Wilk test, only TU angles coming from the debitage, with or without preparation, were not shared according to a normal distribution (p-value<0.01

for the average angle with h=20 mm of directly debited TUs and for all average angles of the TUs debited with preparation; p-value<0.05 for the average angle with h=10 mm of the directly debited TUs) (Tab. 12). anterior 0,536 0,105 0,004 0,002 0,000 0,000 0,025 0,006 0,023 0,105 0,026 0,178 debited 0,007 0,000 0,000 0,407 0,000 0,000 0,288 0,460 0,110 debited with preparation 0,000 0,004 0,000 0,000 0,567 0,570 retouched 0,694 0,523 0,235 p-value < 0,01: rejected hypothesis / significant difference p-value < 0,05: rejected hypothesis / significant difference p-value > 0,05: verified hypothesis / unsignificant difference H0 = all data belong to a common population anterior 0,071 0,000 0,396 0,576 0,001 0,000 0,404 0,780 0,000 0,000 0,151 0,183 debited 0,041 0,000 0,163 0,386 0,000 0,002 0,966 0,000 0,001 debited with preparation 0,000 0,000 0,006 0,000 0,000 0,000 retouched 0,031 0,121 0,981 The most relevant morphological and morphometrical criteria for determining the structural parts of artefacts are sections, delineations, and average angles for h=10 mm. Height and width are not discriminant, highly variable or without significant tendency: average angles for h=5 mm showed less marked tendencies related to technotypes, and average angles for h=20 mm were more often impacted by irregularities on the measured surfaces. Five principal edge morphotypes were thus identified, whose morphological and morphometrical characteristics are the consequence of technical actions realized during different stages of production: these perceptible links between morphotypes and technical characteristics make it possible to identify different types of structural parts (Fig. 14).

Figure 14: Edge morphotypes identified and their potential modes of production, allowing for structural parts characterization

Technico-structural groups

The structural parts identified in the sample were mostly related to the 3-R (retouched irregular thread with obtuse angle), 2-DP (debited/cut with preparation), 2-D (cut without preparation, regular thread with acute angle), 1-R (retouched regular thread with acute angle) or 3-I (indeterminate irregular thread with obtuse angle) types. Their organizations highlight four principal technico-structural groups sharing the essential transversal edge related to 2-D or 2-DP part types (Fig. 1516).

Technico-structural group 1 (n=20), cleavers with flattened base

Edges from the debitage with a regular thread and angles between 27 and 52° (2-DP, 2-D) are opposed to a flat cortical or retouched edge (5-A, 5-R). The lateral edges have been shaped by retouches or undetermined removals: structural parts with an irregular section and delineations and angles between 52 and 94° (3-R, 3-I) for half the cases, or with similar angles but regular delineations (1-R, 1-I) for the rest, are occasionally accompanied by other structural part types. These cleavers are related to types 0 (n=7), I (n=2), II (n=10)

and VI (n=1) sensu Tixier/Zuate y Zuber.

Technico-structural group 2 (n=13), cleavers with angular circumference

The entire periphery consists of ridges with angles exceeding 50°, except for the transversal edge which has a regular section and delineations, and an angle between 29 and 53° (2-D, 2-DP). For half the cases, the structural parts with an obtuse angle on the circumference were exclusively retouched, with irregular In fact, the degree of a blank's modification is usually low and the involvement of external factors in its shape are difficult to determinethis is the case at Lanne-Darré where no significant link was revealed between technical choices and global measures or geometric configuration.

On the other hand, structural analyses, which considers each edge as a potential independent functional or productional entity and their interrelations on each tool, enabled interpretations that could not be reached otherwise. Nevertheless, the present study shows that many obstacles still need to be overcome for this level of analysis. Delineation, whether frontal or sagittal, presents different results when observing deviations between 2 and 10 mm or greater than 10 mm. In the same way, intersection surface morphology, which defines the section, is strongly related to the extent of analyzed areas. Some metric criteria are also subject to significant constrains, beyond measurement challenges, evidenced by the recurring relationship between the average angle and height analysis. In addition, angle variations between some different ridge technotypes appeared less significant for the smallest height (h=5 mm) than for the others (h=10 and 20 mm). Even if an angle measured on large surfaces is more accurate, irregularities are also more numerous. Ridge height is a precious indicator of their functional potential [START_REF] Soressi | Le Moustérien de tradition acheuléenne du sud-ouest de la France : discussion sur la signification du faciès à partir de l'étude comparée de quatre sites : Pech-de-l'Azé I[END_REF][START_REF] Viallet | Potentiel fonctionnel des outils bifaciaux au Pléistocène moyen en contexte méditerranéen. Analyse de la structure et des macro-traces des outils bifaciaux de la Caune de l'Arago[END_REF], but it is also tricky to objectify because it is often calculated from an arbitrary technical or morphological continuity. Finally, the nature of taphonomical or macro removals that can modify the ridges is complex to identify.

Within the different analytical processes considered, only the technico-structural analysis seems to establish links between the technicomorphometric properties of cleavers and production intentions. Nevertheless, this method must be applied to other series of cleavers from European Middle Pleistocene in order to refine the chosen criteria, culminating in the study of other industry parts to precise the place of cleavers alongside associated artefacts.

Technico-structural diversity versus J. Tixier's typology

The systematic transversal cutting edge that defines cleavers sensu Tixier/Zuate y Zuber already reveals a shared production concept. In this sense, the fact that TUs resulting from the blank's debitage present more taphonomical or macro removals than the other edges could indicate a specific status -further taphonomic analysis is essential to exclude accidental or natural phenomena. Furthermore, the angle distribution of the Similarly, neither their principal dimensions nor their geometrical configurations present any links with Tixier's types. This paradox points to a possible weakness in the way cleavers are classified in both cases: on one hand, Tixier's classification appears incomplete, based on the only area considered as transformative, the transversal cutting edge; on the other hand, the rigidity of the technico-structural characterization criteria used here could be reduced in order not to multiply technico-structural classes, and details on the methods of the blank's debitage could be given more consideration. What is certain is that the technico-structural groups highlighted provide a new insight into the possible diversity of this tool's configuration by focusing on its whole perimeter.

Implications of the structural variability of the Lanne-Darré cleavers

In Europe, most of the cleavers are of J. Tixier's type 0 although other types are also represented [START_REF] Capdevielle | Analyse technotypologique des hachereaux et autres macro-outils à tranchant transversal de Menez-Dregan I (Plouhinec, Finistère)[END_REF]. This is the case for the El Sartalejo (Santonja et Villa, 1990[START_REF] Mourre | Émergence et évolution de la prédétermination au Paléolithique, in: Normes Techniques et Pratiques Sociales : "De La Simplicité Des Outillages Pré-et Protohistoriques[END_REF], Pinedo (Querol et Santonja, 1980;[START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF] and Porto Maior (Méndez-Quintas et al., 2018) sites in the Iberian Peninsula, and for Lanne-Darré in south-western France. Within the Iberian Acheulean industries at the north of the Pyrenean, Duclos cleavers (n=22) are exclusively Tixier's type 0, and a series of tools from surface collections have also yielded numerous cleavers in the region, such as Géry or Campsas, but this time attributed to Tixier's types 0, I, and II [START_REF] Tavoso | Le paléolithique inférieur et moyen du Haut-Languedoc: gisements des terrasses alluviales du Tarn, du Dadou, de l'Agout, du Sor et du Fresquel[END_REF][START_REF] Jaubert | L'Acheuléen dans le bassin de la Garonne (région Midi-Pyrénées) : Etat de la question et implications[END_REF][START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF][START_REF] Jarry | Les groupes humains du Pléistocène moyen et supérieur en Midi toulousain : contextes, ressources et comportements entre Massif Central et Pyrénées[END_REF]. Tixier raised the question of the chronological scope of his typology: according to him, type 0 would represent the least "evolved" type and therefore the oldest, since the technical and conceptual investment in its development is more limited than for the other types ( 1956). This perception was later refuted: "the representation of the different types does not seem to have any implication in terms of degree of evolution or chronology" [START_REF] Mourre | Implications culturelles de la technologie des hachereaux[END_REF]. A certain evolution in the degree of predetermination is, however, highlighted by Mourre, who analyzed the relationships between the direction of the blank debitage and those of the removals predetermining the transversal edge, which tend to come closer with time.

The present preliminary study has already revealed that the place of the cleaver within the mental schemes of human groups cannot be reduced to purely the production of the transversal edge. If this does not call into question the importance of the cleaver as a technico-cultural marker, the potential diversity of the conceptual realities of this tool within the industries in which it appears leads us to better qualify its meaning. With this in mind, a technico-structural approach adapted to the study of the cleaver, or more broadly to the large tools on flakes characteristic of the Iberian Acheulean industries, need to be carried out on other collections in a wider geographical area, in order to provide new knowledge about the variability of this tool within the region's series and even across the entire south-west Continent and through time.

Conclusion

This article has tested several different ways of approaching the technicomorphometry of the cleaver, retaining the structural analysis as the most adapted to the issues addressed, even though it still needs to be refined. It is a first step towards a better understanding of the status of large tools which are prevalent in many Western

European Middle Pleistocene lithic industries. If gaps still remain, regarding their place in technical systems and mental templates, the contribution of an adapted technico-structural analysis attests its relevance.

The analytical tool proposed aims to approach the identity of the artefact differently, without trying to create a new typology. Indeed, any technico-structural groups that could emerge from a larger-scale study are not intended to replace that of Tixier, but rather to provide additional information about the cleaver: an object which remains misunderstood. Clearly, this would only make sense if the study of these objects were later reintegrated into the study of the whole industries from which they originated, or at least into their macro-tool set and large blank production.

Nevertheless, the technotypology of cleavers that is considered as one of the strongest is revealing a circular reasoning in the case of the issues raised in this study. These reflections also encourage us to maintain ongoing exploration into our methodological paradigms, in order to avoid this kind of phenomenon: it will be indispensable when considering the countless subtleties inherent in all lithic industries and the implications that they underlie.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Morphological and morphometrical TU criteria

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Quantity of cleavers according to qualitative criteria

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Elongation and flattening cleaver modules

Mann-

  Whitney U test results confirm this: p-values greater than 0.01 or 0.05 for most combinations of these criteria indicate that the differences between these groups, according to the morphometric variables tested, are not statistically significant (Tab. 3-7). Only a few differences observed in the graphical results and median values were statistically reliable: cleavers made on quartzite with a fluvial neocortex (152x94x40 mm, 569 g) are smaller than those with an altered cortex (158x105x51 mm, 772 g) (p-value<0.05 for length and mass, <0.01 for thickness) or thinned cortex (142x96x45 mm, 674g) (p-value<0.05 for length and mass); cleavers made on undetermined flakes (125x92x41 mm, 451 g) are smaller than those made on (neo)cortical ones (145x98x47 mm, 611g) (p-value<0.05 for length, thickness and mass); type 1 cleavers are smaller in width (84mm) than type 0 (102 mm) (p-value<0.01 mm). However, the small number of fluvial neocortex pieces (n=3), including those made on Kombewa flakes (n=4) and those of type I (n=4) and VI (n=4), did not allow most of these differences to be considered accurately.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Boxplot of cleaver measurements according to qualitative criteria (red points: individual data; thick line: median; box: 1 st and 3 rd quartiles; whiskers: 1 st and 9 th deciles)

Figure 7 :Figure 8 :

 78 Figure7: Shapes of hypothetical figures with a zero score on all PCs, except 1 and 2, where they have been given an extreme positive/negative score. Colour coding represents the most variable landmarks on that PC[START_REF] Herzlinger | AGMT3-D: A software for 3-D landmarks-based geometric morphometric shape analysis of archaeological artifacts[END_REF]

Figure 9 :

 9 Figure 9: Diacritical drawings of cleavers and TU identification

Figure 12 :

 12 Figure 12: Histogram of TU angles depending on their technotype

  delineations and an angle between 50 and 89° (3-R). The other half result from an undermined action, despite a similar morphology (3-I). The 3-R structural part type is associated with regular delineated edges (1-A, 1-D, 1-I, 2-R), or with a more acute angle, between 25 and 41° (4-R, 4-I), always when they are adjacent to the 2-D or 2-DP edge. These cleavers are related to type 0 (n=5), I (n=1) and II (n=7) sensu Tixier/Zuate y Zuber.Technico-structural group 3 (n=8), cleavers with a flattened lateral edgeEdges from the debitage that have a regular thread and an angle between 25 and 52° (2-D, 2-DP) are accompanied by an adjacent flattened edge sub-parallel to the tool's morphological axis. It is often cortical, though sometimes is retouched or created by an accidental Siret fracture during debitage (5-A, 5-R, 5-D). The structural parts constituting the rest of the circumference, opposed to the 2-D or 2-DP type and to the flattened lateral one, are mainly retouched with an angle between 54 and 90° (3-R, 1-R), sometimes presenting a similar morphology but resulting from the debitage (1-D) or from a prior action (1-A). These cleavers are related to type 0 (n=5), I (n=1) and II (n=2) sensu Tixier/Zuate y Zuber.Technico-structural group 4 (n=6), cleavers with double transversal cutting extremitiesThe two cutting edges face each other, sub-perpendicular to the cleaver's morphological axis. At least one of them is directly cut, almost always with prior preparation, with regular delineations and a section and cutting angle between 31 and 50° (2-DP); the rest result from debitage (2-DP), undetermined actions (2-I, 4-I) or retouch (2-R, 4-R). Between these extremities, the post-debitage edges have an irregular thread and angles between 51 and 94° (3-R), accompanied by edges created by anterior or undetermined actions with an obtuse angle and regular delineations (1-A, 1-I) or resulting from an undetermined stage of production creating similar morphologies (3-I). These cleavers correspond to types 0 (n=1), II (n=3) and VI (n=2) sensu Tixier/Zuate y Zuber.

Figure 15 :Figure 16 :

 1516 Figure 15: Cleaver drawings with TU morphology and 3D cleaver scans with identification of structural parts; technicostructural groups 1 and 2

  debited ridges does not follow a normal law, which could indicate a knapper's preferential choice, unlike those of the other TU technotypes. Nevertheless, the variability of the other structural parts interrogates the exclusivity of the transversal cutting edge as the tool's unique transformative area. In fact, 2-D, 2-DP, 2-I, 4-I, 2R or 4R edges, located on opposite sides of the transversal cutting edge on cleavers of technico-structural group 4, show the same sharp morphological uniformity. Additionally, the changing organization of the other structural parts, opposite or lateral backs, or even obtuse angular circumferences, may reveal different possible intentions of use, such as gripping or fitting. Consequently, the cleaver might represent a plurality of different conceptual realities, with only its transversal cutting edge being an unchanging structural area. But is this variability, intrinsic to the concept of cleaver production, also linked to the method of blank production as suggested by Tixier's typology?The proposed technico-structural classification differs from Tixier's technotypology, although both are based on technological observations. Indeed, cleavers relating to type 0, I, II and VI sensu Tixier/Zuate y Zuber identified in Lanne-Darré's sample are represented indistinctly within the four technico-structural groups.

Table 1 :

 1 Counts and proportion of technical categories represented in the Lanne-Darré industry

		Nr	%
	Raw pebble	2	0,1
	Hammer stone	7	0,2
	Pebble fragment	13	0,4
	Tested pebble	56	1,8
	Debris	583	18,8
	Flake fragment	1424	46,0
	Flake	586	18,9
	Core fragment	23	0,7
	Core	72	2,3
	Pebble tool	2	0,1
	Bifacial tool draft	17	0,5
	Bifacial tool	102	3,3
	Cleaver	116	3,7
	Undefined heavy-duty tool on great blank	94	3,0
	Total	3097	100

Table 2 :

 2 Cleaver measurements and Shapiro-Wilk test results

Table 3 :

 3 Mann-Whitney U test results, realized on principal measurements of cleaver groups depending on their natural surface type

	Natural surface %

Table 4 :

 4 Mann-Whitney U test results, realized on principal measurements of cleaver groups depending on their natural surface proportion

					Flake-blank type
	variables	length	width	thickness	mass	mean shape
	groups	Kombewa	undetermined	Kombewa	undetermined	Kombewa	undetermined	Kombewa	undetermined	Kombewa	undetermined
	(neo)cortical 0,659 0,011 0,641 0,336 0,288 0,041 0,776 0,011 0,020 >0,05
	Kombewa		0,170		0,163	0,952		0,163		>0,05

Table 5 :

 5 Mann-Whitney U test results, realized on principal measurements of cleaver groups depending on their flakeblank type

	Debitage direction

Table 6 :

 6 Mann-Whitney U test results, realized on principal measurements of cleaver groups depending on their blank debitage direction

	Typology

height width (mm) mean angle sup. face (mm) inf. face (mm) h=5 mm h=10 mm h=20 mm

	median	46	64	56	72	63	55
	minimum	5	7	14	27	21	17
	maximum	163	202	167	120	109	103
	amplitude	158	195	153	93	89	86
	Shapiro-Wilk p-value	4.705e-11	2.415e-06	1.854e-07	0.8338	0.0851	0.00192
	p-value < 0,01: rejected hypothesis / abnormal distribution
	p-value < 0,05: rejected hypothesis / abnormal distribution
	p-value > 0,05: verified hypothesis / normal distribution
	H0 = data are distributed according to a normal law

Table 8 :

 8 TU measurements and Shapiro-Wilk test results

Table 9 :

 9 Quantity and proportion of TUs depending on morphological criteria for each technotype

Table 10 :

 10 Mann-Whitney U test results, realized on principal measurements of TUs technotypological groups

					Technotype
	variables		Angle (h=5 mm)		Angle (h=10 mm)		Angle (h=20 mm)
	groups	debited	debited with	preparation	retouched	indeterminate	debited	debited with	preparation	retouched	indeterminate	debited	debited with preparation	retouched	indeterminate

Table 11 :

 11 Mann-Whitney U test results, realized on mean angles of TUs technotypological groups

			anterior debited	debited with preparation	retouched indeterminate
	superior face height (mm)	79	72	57	35	37
	inferior face height (mm)	32	94	99	50	63
	width (mm)	39	65	58	58	53
	angle (h=5 mm)	(°) Shapiro-Wilk p-value 0.2521 75	62 0.3473	53 0.000142	77 0.539	68 0.1761
	angle (h=10 mm)	(°) Shapiro-Wilk p-value 0.3641 0.02587 76 46	43 1.668e-05	68 0.8527	62 0.7981
	angle (h=20 mm)	(°) Shapiro-Wilk p-value 0.4807 0.0001913 0.0001368 67 39 42	60 0.881	59 0.7492
	p-value < 0,01: rejected hypothesis / abnormal distribution
	p-value < 0,05: rejected hypothesis / abnormal distribution
	p-value > 0,05: verified hypothesis / normal distribution
	H0 = data are distributed according to a normal law

Table 12 :

 12 TU measurements and Shapiro-Wilk test results depending on technotype

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Anne-Lyse Ravon and Vincent Mourre for their supervision of Juliette Capdevielle's Master degree, from which this work results. We would also like to thank the entire teaching staff of the ASE2P Master at the Université of Toulouse Jean-Jaurès, as well as all the members of the TRACES laboratory. Special thanks to Thomas Perrin for his help with the statistical analyses, and to Marianne Deschamps for giving us the opportunity to make 3D scans of the Lanne-Darré cleavers and for training us in the AGMT-3D software, as part of the Fyssen Morph-Axe project. Thanks to Paula García-Medrano and Antoine Muller for their help in choosing the best tool for measuring edge angles, and in using the Artefact-3D software. Thanks to Jill Cucchi for the help with the translation, and to the ChroTAll project for the support. We would also like to thank the two reviewers for their pertinent feedback, which helped to improve the article considerably.