Dany Vyt
email: dany.vyt@univ-rennes1.fr

Magali Jara
email: magali.jara@univ-nantes.fr

Olivier Mevel

The impact of digital convenience in omni-channel retailing: a consumer-based approach

Keywords: Click and collect, Convenience, Digital shopping, Omni-channel, Retailing, Structural Equation Modeling

While click and collect (C&C) is a growing omni-channel grocery shopping model spreading out in Europe and in the US, little attention has been paid to the design of convenience measure in this setting is under researched. In particular the role of the digital feature and its impact on consumer response. We explore the impact of C&C on consumer response through the customer's perception, from his digital to his physical trip. This paper studies customers' behaviors toward their usual retailer and their relationship with them toward the theory of services and more precisely the Service dominant logic (S-D-L). Cconsumers response is analyzed through the prism of convenience, especially by transposing usual measures: access, functional, process, relational to the C&C setting and providing a new one: digital convenience. The conceptual model has been tested empirically on a sample of 1078 consumers and responses are analyzed and decomposed by using Path-PLS structural equation modeling. Our evidence also suggests, that in a whole, each feature of convenience positively influence consumer response with different intensity levels. These findings provide specific recommendations for each C&C system. Thus, functional convenience has the strongest contribution of the model and explains 31.4% of customer response. Further segmented approaches of the causal model prove that fulfillment of C&C has a moderating effect on the relationship between convenience and consumer response. Access convenience remains a prerequisite for C&C in a whole, but somewhat surprisingly our results make evidence that it has a negative impact in a drive-in system. We show that digital convenience is clearly discriminant according the type of C&C.

Introduction

With the introduction of the Internet into the customer buying process, retailers are evolving from a single brick and mortar strategy, based on a physical network of points of sales, to a click and mortar system. This complementarity of channels increases shopper satisfaction [START_REF] Milioti | Modelling consumers 'acceptance for the click and collect service[END_REF][START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF], leading to loyalty to the brand and thus generating additional sales [START_REF] Dinner | Driving online and offline sales: The crosschannel effects of traditional, online display, and paid search advertising[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF].

Retailers now propose the option to buy online and pick up in store (BOPS) [START_REF] Gao | Omnichannel retail Operations with Buy Online and Pick-up in Store[END_REF], also named drive [START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF], click and pickup stores (Maltese et al., 2021;[START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF], click&pick [START_REF] Marcucci | Bricks or clicks? Consumer channel choice and its transport and environmental implications for the grocery market in Norway[END_REF], or still grocery pick up [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF]. In line with Gielens et al. (2020), we consider the global term "Click and Collect" (C&C) to define this online selling proposition. C&C is a natural continuation of the evolution of sales formats. It reduces the functional constraint of food consumption [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF][START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF] and is part of timesaving strategy [START_REF] Mallapragada | Exploring the effects of "what "(product) and "where" (website) characteristics on online shopping behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Bjorgen | E-groceries: sustainable last mile distribution in city planning[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. By maximizing the speed and ease of shopping, C&C creates the basis for a lasting customer relationship, since consumers want to decrease shopping time [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF]. C&C represents a key driver in a multichannel retailing strategy [START_REF] Lewis | Drivers and technology-related obstacles in moving to multichannel retailing[END_REF].

C&C enables retailers to increase and develop their customer base, especially more valuable multi-channel shoppers [START_REF] Dinner | Driving online and offline sales: The crosschannel effects of traditional, online display, and paid search advertising[END_REF]. Moreover, it positively impacts online spending at the retailer and total grocery spending through larger baskets and/or extra shopping trips [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF]. Over the last twenty years, this channel has continued to develop to such an extent that today more than 80% of the leading retailers globally offer C&C service. 1The current pandemic has accelerated the development of C&C by traditional grocery retailers, especially for Sainsbury's, Target or Kroger, and it has stimulated the implementation of C&C among small local merchants. This topic has drawn the interest of scholars in the field of decision sciences and operations research but little research has been led on the digital shopper trip in this omnichannel context [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF][START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF].

In C&C, maximizing the retailer's margin rate will depend directly on a customer service rate that is built, both in the front-office, on the relevance of a digital marketing mix and, in the back-office, on minimizing the system costs resulting from the management of the logistics mix. Consequently, the challenge of deploying an operational management of relevant C&C services is to understand the level of service demanded by the ubiquitous shopper and therefore to determine the variables that create C&C value and that are likely to predict the customer's recommendation behavior. Consequently, through our research, we studied, from both a physical and a digital point of view, the impact of this channel on consumer response.

While changeover costs are relatively low for the ubiquitous shopper, who can move from a channel or a retailer to another at different stages of the transaction, one question remains open: what are the most important factors explaining the positive response of consumers towards the C&C system? The existing literature mostly discusses the concept of convenience in the context of traditional retail channels [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF]Bergadaa and Del Bucchia, 2009;[START_REF] Labbé-Pinlon | Impact de la proximité d'un magasin sur la fidélité des clients : Le cas des magasins d'enseignes alimentaires de proximité[END_REF][START_REF] Gahinet | Proximity and time in convenience store patronage: Kairos more than chronos[END_REF] and thus there is a need to bridge the gap for the online shopping and especially C&C. Little attention has been paid to the design of convenience measure in a C&C setting [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF][START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF]) and in particular the role of the digital variables in convenience and its impact on the consumer response. Therefore, this study is based on the customer's view of the C&C channel in its entirety, from the placing of the order and the navigation on the website to the item pick up. Consumer response will be analyzed through the prism of convenience. Convenience means the capacity of the retailer to offer convenient shopping, i.e maximizing the speed and the ease of shopping [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF]. We transpose usual convenience measures: access, functional, process, relational to the C&C setting and provide a new one: digital convenience. In other words, this research aims at defining convenience in a C&C retailing context and identifying which are the most important features. Based on a conceptual model and an operational survey model, we answer the two following research questions: Does convenience positively influence the consumer response towards the C&C system? What features of convenience are the most important for consumers?

Previous researches focused on a review of convenience from consumer studies [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]), theoretical approach (Bergadaa and Del Bucchia, 2009) or an analysis using retailer data [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF]. They offered only a fragmented consideration of the features of convenience [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF], group all the attributes of convenience into a single theoretical concept [START_REF] Yuen | The determinants of customers' intention to use smart lockers for last-mile deliveries[END_REF] or do not integrate the three types of C&C [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF][START_REF] Milioti | Modelling consumers 'acceptance for the click and collect service[END_REF][START_REF] Marcucci | Bricks or clicks? Consumer channel choice and its transport and environmental implications for the grocery market in Norway[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. A consumer-based approach of the three alternative fulfillment types is currently lacking and this paper intends to fill the gap. The study focuses on C&C from the consumer's point of view in order to ensure the differentiation of the retailers and to propose a unique value that satisfies needs other than functional ones.

To answer those research questions, a conceptual model has been empirically built (from a literature review and experts' interviews) and then tested on a sample of 1078 consumers. PLS structural equation modeling is used and provides specific recommendations. This quantitative research focuses on the grocery C&C consumers and their positive response towards the retailer. Using this unique data set covering the eight French largest grocery retailer's rollouts of the three C&C order fulfillment types in a large number of local markets, we found that C&C in a whole access, functional, process, relational and digital convenience positively influence consumer response. Thus, functional convenience has the strongest contribution of the model and explains 31.4% of customer response. Further segmented approaches of the causal model prove that type of C&C has a moderating effect on the relationship between convenience and consumer response. We make evidence that digital convenience is clearly discriminant according the type of C&C, whereas access convenience does not always have a strong contribution and worse can be negative scored. These findings have significant implications for omnichannel retailers and provide specific recommendations for each C&C system.

Literature review

Academic research is providing a growing body of literature on this topic. Thus, [START_REF] Cai | Omni-channel management in the new retailing era: A systematic review and future research agenda[END_REF] propose a comprehensive state of the art in "omni-channel management". Based on Citation Network Analysis, their work reports on 192 papers published in the retailing literature. Those authors classify the papers into seven research domains. Given our research problem for the value chain in the omni-channel context, this study is part of what the authors call the omnichannel strategy.

C&C system: a new service to create value

Mass retailing was built on cost leadership, and then developed through quality, deadlines, and innovation in its processes today, additional services appear as business activities likely to create more value. Online shopping represents a strategic tool for retailers since physical and virtual retail channels can be integrated to create value for multi-channel consumers [START_REF] Oh | Consumer value co-creation in a hybrid commerce service delivery system[END_REF]). E-services provide additional value and the quality of e-service offerings improve consumer response, such as loyalty and purchase intentions [START_REF] Yu | Product delivery service provider selection and customer satisfaction in the era of internet of things: A Chinese e-retailer's perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Foo | What's Up Omni? The Relationship between omni-channel supply Chain and logistics service quality influencing online purchasing behaviour[END_REF][START_REF] Olsson | Customer expectations of unattended grocery delivery services: mapping forms and determinants[END_REF], can enhance online customer satisfaction [START_REF] Chang | The relationship among e-service quality, value, satisfaction and loyalty in online shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Rita | The impact of e-service quality and customer satisfaction on customer behavior in online shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Ali | Determinants of customer satisfaction in online grocery shopping[END_REF] and consumer trust [START_REF] Rita | The impact of e-service quality and customer satisfaction on customer behavior in online shopping[END_REF]. It positively impacts demand [START_REF] Xu | The impact of e-service offerings on the demand of online customers[END_REF][START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF]Milioti et al., 2021;[START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF] and enhances consumer experience [START_REF] Hickman | An omnichannel approach to retailing: demystifying and identifying the factors influencing an omnichannel experience[END_REF][START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF][START_REF] Gasparin | Challenging the" integration imperative": A customer perspective on omnichannel journeys[END_REF].

The C&C system is part of this new multi-channel offer of the networks and stems from the idea by ''Buy online and pick up in-store'' (BOPS). C&C means the provision of more or less automatic technical support for a consumer who recognizes a value of use [START_REF] Jara | Measuring customers benefits of click and collect[END_REF], in particular the control of the management of his purchase time [START_REF] Colla | E-commerce: Exploring the critical success factors[END_REF][START_REF] Mallapragada | Exploring the effects of "what "(product) and "where" (website) characteristics on online shopping behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Jara | Measuring customers benefits of click and collect[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF][START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF] while freeing himself from the tiresome purchases in the physical store. This system is composed of a two-step process. The consumer visits a retail website to browse, buy and pay for selected products and then he drives to the store or to any place where products can be picked up. C&C is a hybrid retail format, there is no complete dematerialization such as in home-delivery model since it requires the customer to travel to a pickup point [START_REF] De Magalhães | Analysis of critical factors affecting the final decision-making for online grocery shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. In spite of recent research that made evidence of the willingness to pay for it [START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF]Milioti et al., 2021;[START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF], in France C&C is a free service whatever the type of C&C fulfillment. Adopting free shipping increases the probability of choosing e-grocery [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF].

A pickup point can be either located close to a store or isolated from any store in the same chain. As mentioned previously, C&C concept consists of three different models (Table 1). In the first system, named the drive-in [START_REF] Jara | Measuring customers benefits of click and collect[END_REF] or the near-store type [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF], customers use the Internet to order and pay for their products and drive to the store where the orders are picked up at least two hours after they've been ordered. Order picking operates from stores that have the products at hand. This means setting up a storage and order preparation warehouse close to an existing point of sale. Based on a digitized front office, this channel has the particularity of requiring the implementation of an omnichannel approach that is completely controlled and synchronized between the merchandising of the assortment and the availability of stock. The logistical dimension (availability of the product at the time of the order, the expected time to receive the order, etc.) of these service remains fundamental [START_REF] Mac Carthy | Best performance frontiers for buy online pickup in store order fulfilment[END_REF]Saha and Bhattachrya, 2021). The idea is to offer a C&C service from an existing store, that is why the number of Store Keeping Units (SKUs) is so important since the proposed assortment corresponds to that of the physical store. In the second case, named instore picking, C&C is integrated within a hypermarket or a supermarket; orders are prepared within the store. This model represents the most important part of the C&C system development, because it is easy to implement but it constraints the store to maintain a basestock level that is optimal [START_REF] Saha | Buy online and pick up in-store: Implications for the store inventory[END_REF]. In terms of logistics, it belongs to a centralized distribution network with a click & collect option [START_REF] Melkonyan | Sustainability assessment of last-mile logistics and distribution strategies: the case of local food networks[END_REF]. In France, in September 2021, 1721 hypermarkets and 2097 supermarkets have either one of these two models.2 In the last case, called drive-out [START_REF] Jara | Measuring customers benefits of click and collect[END_REF], stand-alone [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF] or drive solos (Hubner et al., 2016;[START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF]), there is no physical store, but only warehouses often located near the main roads at the exit of the cities serving as collecting points. Regarding their concentration in the suburbs, drive-out mainly target car-owing periurban residents [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF].

With C&C e-retailers aim at creating, thanks to digital, a new interaction with the consumer, a different meeting point and service experience by allowing the choice and multiplication of product access points [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Jara | Measuring customers benefits of click and collect[END_REF]. In the case of the proposed C&C service, the product/service couple is deeply intertwined and the customer, who rarely buys a product without considering the services that accompany it, now expects a set of key service functions from his retailer [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Jara | Measuring customers benefits of click and collect[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF][START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. The retailer is therefore led to develop more and more complementary services associated with the C&C while measuring its service rate as closely as possible in relation to its marketing promises and the expectations raised among its customers. The right mix of marketing and logistics depends on the final service rate recognized by the retailer's customers when they use the C&C channel.

2.2.C&C: last mile fulfillment is at stake

Digitalization of food purchasing puts logistics at the heart of retailers' strategies [START_REF] Bjorgen | E-groceries: sustainable last mile distribution in city planning[END_REF] and to take advantage of e-grocery opportunities, retailers should rethink logistics activities in a whole [START_REF] De Magalhães | Analysis of critical factors affecting the final decision-making for online grocery shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Lagorio | Food and grocery retail logistics issues: a systematic literature review[END_REF]. But food retail sector is very complex in terms of supply chain and logistics management. Online everyday consumers goods raise many implications in terms of logistics on the one hand and mobility on the other [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. Indeed, regarding fast-moving consumer goods (FMCG), logistics management must consider several specificities and characteristics of C&C that are not found in other sectors (furniture, publishing, textiles, etc.) [START_REF] Hübner | Last mile fulfilment and distribution in omni-channel grocery retailing: A strategic planning framework?[END_REF][START_REF] Wollenburg | From bricks-and-mortar to bricks-andclicks: Logistics networks in omni-channel grocery retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]: the frequency and regularity of purchases, the number of products purchased, as well as their diversity (food products, cleaning products, hygiene products, etc.). Furthermore, regarding the perishable character of food items, spoilage is an important cost driver [START_REF] Siawsolit | Offsetting omnichannel grocery fulfillment cost through advance ordering of perishables[END_REF]. Thus, management of an omnichannel grocery supply chain encounters many complex features by avoiding stock-outs, picking locations, specializing and warehouse locations [START_REF] Melacini | E-fulfilment and distribution in omnichannel retailing: a systematic literature review[END_REF][START_REF] Xu | Examining customer channel selection intention in the omni-channel retail environment[END_REF][START_REF] Huang | Impact of buy-online-and-return-in-store service on omnichannel retailing: A supply chain competitive perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Bijmolta | Challenges at the marketing-operations interface in omni-channel retail environments[END_REF][START_REF] De Magalhães | Analysis of critical factors affecting the final decision-making for online grocery shopping[END_REF]. This business model underlines the importance given to the logistics dimension throughout the digital and physical consumer trip and the need for the retailer to manage a crucial interface, source of differentiation: the marketing/logistics interface. Through a Norwegian study, [START_REF] Bjorgen | E-groceries: sustainable last mile distribution in city planning[END_REF] made evidence that e-grocery and online shopping modify and reduce physical grocery trips, since most of the time, collection at C&C pick point is fitted into existing trips [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. Through a survey among approximately 600 French households to study the impact of digitalization on shopping travel behaviors, [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF] proved that among the most C&C frequent customers, 47% spend more than 40% of the everyday consumers' goods budget in C&C. Given this new mobility, delivery patterns and transportation planning in e-grocery retailing should be in a whole redefined in a more efficient way. Recent logistics literature examines all logistics subsystems of a retail chain and make evidence that, at a time of digitalization of grocery purchases, delivery pattern could be source of important cost savings (Hotzapfel et al., 2016;[START_REF] Olsson | Framework of last mile logistics research: a systematic review of the literature[END_REF][START_REF] Lagorio | Food and grocery retail logistics issues: a systematic literature review[END_REF].

In terms of logistics, one of the major innovations of C&C consists of relieving the customer of in-store picking activities while leaving him in charge of the last mile [START_REF] Punakivi | Solving the last mile issue: Reception box and delivery box[END_REF][START_REF] Picot-Coupey | Grocery shopping and Internet: Exploring French consumers' perceptions of the "hypermarket" and "cybermarket" formats[END_REF][START_REF] Colla | E-commerce: Exploring the critical success factors[END_REF][START_REF] Wollenburg | From bricks-and-mortar to bricks-andclicks: Logistics networks in omni-channel grocery retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Vakulenko | Service innovation in e-commerce last mile delivery: mapping the e-customer journey[END_REF][START_REF] Lim | Configuring last-mile in business-to-consumer E-retailing[END_REF]Gielens et al., 2020;[START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. Allowing the consumer to pick up the grocery makes e-retailers more competitive and sustainable [START_REF] Bjorgen | E-groceries: sustainable last mile distribution in city planning[END_REF]. C&C is then seen as an environmentally friendly distribution scheme (Miloti et al., 2021). Last mile logistics research represents an emerging and increasing area of research and concentrates three out four articles within the past five years [START_REF] Olsson | Framework of last mile logistics research: a systematic review of the literature[END_REF]. In spite of a growing interest from scholars and practitioners, the logistical challenges of the C&C business model are under researched. This literature is still diversified and fragmented [START_REF] Olsson | Framework of last mile logistics research: a systematic review of the literature[END_REF][START_REF] Lagorio | Food and grocery retail logistics issues: a systematic literature review[END_REF]. [START_REF] Olsson | Framework of last mile logistics research: a systematic review of the literature[END_REF] made an in-depth logistics literature review of 137 articles in order to propose a completed and detailed framework and provide a holistic overview. They have emphasized that last mile fulfillment is underrepresented in the literature and called for call for filling the gap by leading research to address customer requirements. As mentioned by [START_REF] Marcucci | Bricks or clicks? Consumer channel choice and its transport and environmental implications for the grocery market in Norway[END_REF] supply chain planning needs understanding consumer's demand. Thus, our study contributes to current knowledge of consumers' attitudes and preferences towards three different C&C models from a logistics and marketing point of view.

Theoretical background and hypotheses development

Traditional theories, especially in marketing, focused on physical products as the core of the exchange. In usual marketing assumptions, the retailer targets the consumer and the relationship between the two actors is centered on the product: this is the Good-Dominant Logic (GDL). Retailers are henceforth limited to the logistics function of distribution, which consists of merely making a product available. In this framework, only the retailer creates and produces value, while consumers are perceived as value destroyers.

Technological innovations and the development of information, combined with the emergence of omnichannel modes of consumer patterns lead to innovative retail channels [START_REF] Chopra | How omni-channel can be the future of retailing[END_REF][START_REF] Quach | Service integration in omnichannel retailing and its impact on customer experience[END_REF][START_REF] Trenz | Disentangling the impact of omni channel integration on consumer behavior in integrated sales channels[END_REF][START_REF] Gasparin | Challenging the" integration imperative": A customer perspective on omnichannel journeys[END_REF]. In these new exchange practices, the customer becomes a key player. The continuous digitalization of retailing leads to inter connected retailers and consumers. These technological advancements offer a new retailer consumer-interaction [START_REF] Zhang | E-commerce in agri-food sector: a systematic literature review based on service-dominant logic[END_REF] and drive the shift from GDL to Service-Dominant Logic [START_REF] Hartwig | The journey from goods-dominant logic to servicedominant logic: a case study with a global technology manufacturer[END_REF]. Grocery retailers must respond to the demands of today's ubiquitous consumers who want to decrease shopping time. They are enriching their value proposition and becoming service providers. Vargo and Lush (2004;[START_REF] Vargo | Service-dominant logic: Reactions, reflections and refinements[END_REF]2008) first made evidence that retailers have moved from a transactional approach to a relational approach with their customers. They have established the foundations of the S-D L theory (Vargo and Lush, 2004;[START_REF] Vargo | Service-dominant logic: Reactions, reflections and refinements[END_REF]2008). This theory goes further than a product-centric approach to refocus on the service during the exchange between a retailer and its consumer. SDL theory overcomes the institutional frameworks to consider the service as the basis of the exchange [START_REF] Wibowo | 17 years of servicedominant logic: Vargo and Lusch's contributions[END_REF]. In the SDL theory, customers become an operant resource that is co-creator of value. This modern conceptualization of value co-creation it is widely used in the literature [START_REF] Zhang | E-commerce in agri-food sector: a systematic literature review based on service-dominant logic[END_REF]. Indeed, recent researches [START_REF] Wibowo | 17 years of servicedominant logic: Vargo and Lusch's contributions[END_REF]Zhang and Berghall,2021) have analyzed SDL in academic papers through the last two decades and support the development of co-creation of value between consumers and firms. SDL has an expanded influence on research streams. Through an in-depth literature analysis [START_REF] Wibowo | 17 years of servicedominant logic: Vargo and Lusch's contributions[END_REF] related the institutionalization of the SDL in the marketing scholar papers.

The SDL theory provides a relevant framework for assessing the impact of C&C in a retail setting since the consumer becomes a partner who co-produces with the retailer in order to increase the value of the exchange. So, SDL theory is used to study the process through which value is created and delivered to consumers [START_REF] Zhang | E-commerce in agri-food sector: a systematic literature review based on service-dominant logic[END_REF]. It empowers consumers and recognizes that value is created with and by the customer (Vargo and Lush, 2010) and that a service is a reciprocal relationship between customer and retailer [START_REF] Vorre Hansens | Value co-creation in service marketing: A critical (re)view[END_REF]. This theory defines a service as a specific process, bringing a customer and a supplier face to face during a phase of ordering, production and consumption, qualified as a service relationship. During the interactions between the retailer's offer and the ubiquitous shopper, experiential value is developed. Service management is therefore encouraged to pay special attention to these interactions and to focus on customer and relationship-oriented service (Vargo and Lush, 2004).

The service relationship in the grocery C&C setting is then defined as the producing of a dual process, digital and physical, without autonomous existence, bringing a customer and a retailer face to face during a phase of solicitation, then simultaneous production and consumption of a food service by the customer. Value co-creation only exists if the consumer is involved throughout the value creation process. This is the very principle of C&C, which implies the co-production of a service, i.e a close temporal interweaving between the consumption and production of the service delivered at the same time. C&C reverses the usual codes of the relationship between the retailer and the consumer and rethinks the co-production of services.

This study analyzes the perceived value of the customer trip from the retailer's digital universe to the service at the collecting point in terms of the services offered. Indeed, the consumer expects to be offered a set of services throughout the online purchasing process (from the ease of use of the website to the control of the logistical dimensions by the retailer). Hence, the objective of this research is to study how whole access, functional, process, relational and digital convenience can influence consumer response.

Access convenience

Marketing and economic theory recognize the role of geographic proximity in store visit frequentation. Since [START_REF] Reilly | The law of retail gravitation[END_REF], gravity models have been based on the idea that store attractiveness is an inverse proportion of the distance between the consumer and the store. In other words, the closer the consumer is geographically to the store, the shorter the distance to get there, the more he will frequent it.

In a retail context, the geographical proximity between the retailer and the consumer is a prerequisite in the relationship of loyalty to a store [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF]Bergadaa and Del Bucchia, 2009;[START_REF] Labbé-Pinlon | Impact de la proximité d'un magasin sur la fidélité des clients : Le cas des magasins d'enseignes alimentaires de proximité[END_REF][START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Gahinet | Proximity and time in convenience store patronage: Kairos more than chronos[END_REF]. It describes the speed and ease for customers to reach a retailer (Seiders et al., 2000, Bergadaa andDel Bucchia,2009) or still the time to, at and from a pickup station in a C&C context [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF]. Since consumers consolidate tasks to minimize shopping trips, a store's geographical proximity is one condition of the access convenience whatever the place of departure (home or office). The C&C pickup point is embedded in the existing patterns [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF], and is not a dedicated trip. It overcomes the attribute "time travel" which measures the time a consumer spends for a round-trip from home to pick up point [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF]. Access convenience is more global than geographical proximity. It measures a retailer's ability to be present in the consumer's living environment [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF]Bergadaa and Del Bucchia, 2009) and in high traffic areas [START_REF] Capo | Le concept de proximité comme source de différenciation : proposition d'une grille de lecture des positionnements voulus des distributeurs français[END_REF]. Access convenience is all the more important since this study is in a multi-channel context and that the very essence of C&C is to capture a flow of customers and to meet the new consumer mobility requirements [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. It gathers the ease of road access and the geographical proximity. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H1. Access convenience positively influences the consumer's response in a C&C context

Functional convenience

In a C&C context, functional convenience represents a search for efficiency and time saving for consumers (Bergadaa and Del Bucchia, 2009). It has a utilitarian value and encompasses all the dimensions that allow consumers to save shopping time. It includes search convenience (ease and speed for a customer to identify and select products), as well as possession convenience (ease and speed for a customer to obtain desired products) emphasized by [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF]. In other words, it represents the possibility for the consumer to have a large choice of products so that he does not need to visit other stores [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF] and do all the daily shopping [START_REF] Labbé-Pinlon | Impact de la proximité d'un magasin sur la fidélité des clients : Le cas des magasins d'enseignes alimentaires de proximité[END_REF]. The choice of the product range is so important that [START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF] have demonstrated in an Italian context the C&C consumers' willingness to pay to benefit for a wider range of product. One of the complex and fundamental issues in online shopping concerns the balance between the broad assortment presented by digital shopping models and the additional logistical costs generated by the depth of the assortment [START_REF] Cho | Creating customer repurchase intention in Internet retailing: the effects of multiple service events and product type[END_REF][START_REF] Nguyen | Consumer behavior and order fulfilment in online retailing: a systematic review[END_REF]Sousa and Amorin, 2018;Bijmolt et al., 2021). Such a compromise is all the more complex to achieve since, in C&C context, the objective is to seek similarity in the assortments offered, regardless of the channel used, while allowing consumers to easily navigate between the different existing touch points [START_REF] Verhoef | Multichannel customer management: understanding the research-shopper phenomenon[END_REF][START_REF] Wollenburg | From bricks-and-mortar to bricks-andclicks: Logistics networks in omni-channel grocery retailing[END_REF]. Width and depth of assortment are, therefore, important dimensions of this convenience [START_REF] Capo | Le concept de proximité comme source de différenciation : proposition d'une grille de lecture des positionnements voulus des distributeurs français[END_REF] as well as efficient checkouts, internal layout, ease for the consumer to find the desired product and promotions with a minimal amount of effort (Bergadaa and Del Bucchia, 2009;[START_REF] Gahinet | Proximity and time in convenience store patronage: Kairos more than chronos[END_REF] and the facilities offered, such as the time range [START_REF] Capo | Le concept de proximité comme source de différenciation : proposition d'une grille de lecture des positionnements voulus des distributeurs français[END_REF] or lead time: i.e time elapsing between order placement and order delivery [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF][START_REF] Marcucci | Bricks or clicks? Consumer channel choice and its transport and environmental implications for the grocery market in Norway[END_REF]. With regard to these criteria, it is imperative that the management of the logistics mix considers the level of service required by the end customer in terms of product availability at the time of the order [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF] but also the time it takes to receive the digital order within an acceptable time frame. Ultimately, logistics performance must be an integral part of the transaction in the case of online sales [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF][START_REF] Rupinder | Omnichannel battle between Amazon and Walmart: is the focus on delivery the best strategy?[END_REF].

Ease of identifying products online is defined by [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF] as search convenience. These authors state that whatever fulfillment order retailers are put in place, C&C must deliver this type of convenience. C&Cs should, therefore, offer a complete assortment to satisfy functional benefits and to ensure repeat purchases [START_REF] Fernie | Retail logistics in the UK: Past, present and future[END_REF]. This purchase convenience includes assortment [START_REF] Rupinder | Omnichannel battle between Amazon and Walmart: is the focus on delivery the best strategy?[END_REF]. Functional convenience is all the more important since in a leisure society, e-shoppers want to decrease shopping time. They prefer online shopping due to convenience and timesaving [START_REF] Mallapragada | Exploring the effects of "what "(product) and "where" (website) characteristics on online shopping behavior[END_REF]). Thus, the most important motivation for using food e-grocery is to save time [START_REF] Bjorgen | E-groceries: sustainable last mile distribution in city planning[END_REF], henceforth, C&C is part of time-saving strategy [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. This is specially verified for especially increasingly task oriented consumers and dual-career households, constrained by work and children [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF] who represent a large part of the C&C users. Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed:

H2. Functional convenience positively influences the consumer's response in a C&C context

Relational convenience

In the online shopping era, the absence of sensorial information, especially for purchasing fresh produce (e.g. fruit, vegetables, meat or fish) explains the lower growth of e-commerce in grocery compared to intangible goods such as tourism for example [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. The absence of physical contact with items is identified by [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF] as one of the most important disadvantages of purchasing grocery online. So, the real challenge for omni-channel retailers consists in compensating for the absence of a point of sale and responding to the need for touch [START_REF] Duarte | Need-for-touch and online purchase propensity: A comparative study of Portuguese and Chinese consumers[END_REF] by allowing an exchange with the staff in contact and availability of assistance through telephone or online representatives [START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF]. In line with Service-Dominant-Logic theory, on which the theoretical background of this research is based, employees are considered as operant resources and participle to the value co-creation process (Vargo and Lush, 2006). In the same vein, consumers permit retailers to emphasize relationality (Vargo and Lush, 2004;[START_REF] Hartwig | The journey from goods-dominant logic to servicedominant logic: a case study with a global technology manufacturer[END_REF]. Staff in contact represents an important source of information often only available in brick and mortar stores [START_REF] Lee | Personality determinants of need for interaction with a retail employee and its impact on self-service technology (SST) usage intentions[END_REF][START_REF] Aw | Searching online and buying offline: Understanding the role of channel, consumer, and product related factors in determining webrooming intention[END_REF]. In the C&C setting, relational convenience describes the direct relationship between the e-shopper and the personnel in contact at the point of sale or the pick-up station (Bergadaa and Del Bucchia, 2009). It reflects the feeling of trust and attachment between the brand and the consumers via the staff [START_REF] Capo | Le concept de proximité comme source de différenciation : proposition d'une grille de lecture des positionnements voulus des distributeurs français[END_REF]. Retailers are aware that the reception of the customer by the staff on the pickup station is an essential variable [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Henriquez | L'adoption d'un Drive par le client : une approche interactionniste par la socialisation organisationnelle et le rôle du personnel en contact[END_REF] and, therefore, develop new customization tools in the pickup station. Relational convenience defines the exchange, the focus on advice, the friendly link between the shoppers and the staff and that can influence the building of trust and can be evaluated through variables such as the friendly ambiance of the store [START_REF] Labbé-Pinlon | Impact de la proximité d'un magasin sur la fidélité des clients : Le cas des magasins d'enseignes alimentaires de proximité[END_REF], staff availability [START_REF] Labbé-Pinlon | Impact de la proximité d'un magasin sur la fidélité des clients : Le cas des magasins d'enseignes alimentaires de proximité[END_REF][START_REF] Gahinet | Proximity and time in convenience store patronage: Kairos more than chronos[END_REF]. Relational convenience brings an immaterial dimension to the concept of convenience. Uncertainty about outcomes in online shopping expands the additional need for physical contact with salesperson [START_REF] Aw | Searching online and buying offline: Understanding the role of channel, consumer, and product related factors in determining webrooming intention[END_REF]. Hence, we offer the following hypothesis:

H3. Relational convenience positively influences the consumer's response in a C&C context

Process convenience

In the case of e-commerce, the retailer must compensate for the absence of in-store visits by allowing the consumer to appropriate the act of purchase as much as possible [START_REF] Aw | Searching online and buying offline: Understanding the role of channel, consumer, and product related factors in determining webrooming intention[END_REF], a fortiori for fast-moving consumer goods purchases. They should develop product range; i.e a product selection with respect to offline-grocery options [START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF]. Online shoppers must receive what they ordered based on the display and description provided on the website and the status of products ordered should be respected [START_REF] Blut | E-service quality: a meta-analytic review[END_REF][START_REF] Blut | Es-service quality: development of a hierarchical model[END_REF]. These are conditions for an efficient and effective online shopping [START_REF] Zeithaml | Service quality delivery through websites: a critical review of extant knowledge[END_REF][START_REF] Blut | Es-service quality: development of a hierarchical model[END_REF][START_REF] Rita | The impact of e-service quality and customer satisfaction on customer behavior in online shopping[END_REF][START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF]. It represents one dimension of e-quality, namely fulfillment. In the online context, the link between fulfillment and customer e-loyalty has been demonstrated in previous literature. Process convenience adopts dimensions of fulfillment as defined by e-service quality theory, namely: timeless of delivery, order accuracy and delivery conditions [START_REF] Zeithaml | Service quality delivery through websites: a critical review of extant knowledge[END_REF][START_REF] Blut | Es-service quality: development of a hierarchical model[END_REF][START_REF] Kaya | The moderating role of website familiarity in the relationship between e-service quality, e-satisfaction and e-loyalty[END_REF][START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF]; time window i.e expected time of arrival range [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF][START_REF] Marcucci | Bricks or clicks? Consumer channel choice and its transport and environmental implications for the grocery market in Norway[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF]Milioti et al., 2021). Value consistency of delivery time is an important delivery characteristic that positively impacts the intention to use C&C (Milioti et al., 2021). It represents the extent to which retailers 'promises about item availability is fulfilled. It is a critical dimension that e-retailers must beef-up to enhance customer satisfaction and repurchases [START_REF] Kaya | The moderating role of website familiarity in the relationship between e-service quality, e-satisfaction and e-loyalty[END_REF][START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF]. In line with these arguments, we formulate the following hypothesis: H4. Process convenience positively influences the consumer's response in a C&C context

Digital convenience

The features of usual convenience should be redefined in order to incorporate characteristics of electronic retailing to existing definitions and should include a digital dimension. Due to the digitalization of shopping, the ubiquitous consumer can feel close to the retailer without being close in a physical space [START_REF] Craig | Does closeness in virtual space complement urban space?[END_REF], and online shopping features often merge with offline characteristics. Therefore, the ubiquitous shoppers associate the design of online shops to the quality of the store and the products (Aquila-Natale and Iglesias-Pradas, 2020). The retailer's website is intended as a service element and compensates for the absence of a physical store and should require usual e-service quality features, a fortiori since there is no intense service relationship with the contact staff in this new channel [START_REF] Aw | Searching online and buying offline: Understanding the role of channel, consumer, and product related factors in determining webrooming intention[END_REF].

Most recent studies confirm that website quality has a positive effect on the flow experience [START_REF] Mohammadi | Online Shopping for Sporting Goods: The Role of Flow, E-Satisfaction, and E-Loyalty[END_REF] and represents a strong competitive advantage [START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF]. Thus, in a multichannel setting, retailers should pay attention to user-friendliness of web-portal [START_REF] Agnihotri | Can brick and mortar retailers successfully become multichannel retailers[END_REF] and facilitate efficiency i.e ease and speed of navigation [START_REF] Verhoef | Multichannel customer management: understanding the research-shopper phenomenon[END_REF][START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF] to increase online search convenience [START_REF] Aw | Searching online and buying offline: Understanding the role of channel, consumer, and product related factors in determining webrooming intention[END_REF]. Information quality and service conveniences are drivers of consumer value in a hybrid commerce service-delivery system [START_REF] Oh | Consumer value co-creation in a hybrid commerce service delivery system[END_REF]). That's why C&C must meet the needs and requirements of the consumer in terms of ease of use offered by the website (design, quality of information, ergonomics, augmented reality, etc.) [START_REF] Jara | Measuring customers benefits of click and collect[END_REF]Gielsen et al., 2020;[START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF]. E-retailing is a technology-driven business [START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF], henceforth the design and the ergonomics of the website must have a high level of quality to play a key role in the click and collect's success [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF]. The customer, therefore, wants a permanent and quality digital exchange during the time of his order from the point of entry into the distributor's network to the final delivery point (Gieslens et al., 2020). Digital convenience meets the convenience possession and information on stock described by [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF], the possibility to check the use-by date to ensure freshness [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. It includes all elements of the C&C consumer's experience on the website including speed and ease of navigation, product description or still merchandise availability, site aesthetics, personalization through histories and ways of shopping [START_REF] Zeithaml | Service quality delivery through websites: a critical review of extant knowledge[END_REF]. Thus, we hypothesize:

H5. Digital convenience positively influences the consumer's response in a C&C context

Research design

Data collection and sample

The field of the study is in France, the birth nation of C&C. This new channel continues to develop and by 2020 represented a market of more than 9.9 billion in France 3 . A literature review about convenience in C&C is used to develop the survey instrument revealing each latent variable in this study. Given the new features of this channel and the parsimony of the existing literature, we wanted to complete the state of the art with an exploratory approach. To do so, the research process was led in two times mixing two methodological approaches: the first time is related to a qualitative research consisting in interviewing French grocery pickup managers and clicks and collect network managers. The objective of those experts' interviews was to specify more the framework of our research (given by the literature review at first) and to reveal specific dimensions that we will call: latent variables. Hence, in a second time, contents from previous interviews have been added to literature review. This two-steps methodology allowed to adapt the five latent variables to the new channel C&C and build a new information collecting tool. The finalized survey questionnaire included five sections of questions associated with the corresponding five latent variables in this study. These sections focused on access, functional, process, relational and digital convenience.

The questionnaire was administrated face-to-face with 1,078 consumers at the exit of hypermarkets, supermarkets and convenience stores in order to capture the largest possible sample. Among this data base, we counted 444 non-users of click and collect. Among the 634 click and collect users, there were 628 usable responses: 70% were female versus 30% male.

In addition, the database was composed mainly of families, since 69.90% of the households surveyed are composed of more than three people (see Table 2). Our sample is composed of eight major grocery retailers and covers rollout of the three C&C order fulfillment types: drive-in, drive-out and in-store picking (see Table3). Casino and Cora retailers only develop one type of C&C, in this case in-store picking. Chronodrive proposes only drive-out with 55 solitary stations all over France. The distribution of retailers within the sample reflects the heterogeneity of French retailers in the C&C market. In France, Leclerc Drive dominates the C&C market with a market share of 48% in 2020,4 that is why this retailer is over-represented in our database and accounts for 56.15% of the respondents.

Measurements

Whatever the C&C model used, the perceived value of the service relationship will depend on all the interactions that the consumer encounters, from his search for a C&C and his connection to the retailer's website to the service at the pickup point. Thus, the consumer expects to be offered a set of services throughout his online shopping process: from the ease of use of the website to the mastery of the logistic dimensions.) This is why our items concern each of the main steps during which the interactions between the retailer and the consumer are strong: a pre-transaction step (the pre-experience of online shopping), a transaction step and a posttransaction step (the post-experience of online shopping) (De Magalhães, 2021 ). Then, based on our experts' interviews (grocery pickup managers and network managers) and previous literature in retailing and omnichannel, we build a questionnaire which measures access, functional, relational, process and digital dimensions. Table 4 presents all measures included in this research.

Consumer Response

RESPON1 RESPON2

Recommendations to others Patronize the C&C of the frequent store [START_REF] Zeithaml | The behavioral consequences of service quality[END_REF] Chen and Quester (2009) [START_REF] Gahinet | Proximity and time in convenience store patronage: Kairos more than chronos[END_REF] C&C is a complement to shopping in physical stores (Hotzapfel et al., 2016;[START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. In the case of multi-frequentation of points of sale, behavioral loyalty is not sufficient to explain consumer response [START_REF] Jacoby | Brand Loyalty Measurement and Management[END_REF]. C&C as a purchase channel is, therefore, more captive than traditional channels [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF] for which customers multiply the alternatives between a main store and occasional ones. For this reason, consumer response items combine behavioral measures, that are frequency and intention measures. The scale for future behavioral intentions and frequency were developed following the existing theoretical conceptualizations and empirical studies. The respondent was surveyed about his future behavioral intentions through one of the four items in [START_REF] Zeithaml | The behavioral consequences of service quality[END_REF]: the recommendation of the C&C. The conceptual model tested, after the purification procedure is presented in Figure 1.

Data analysis

It could be interesting to deepen more specific relations within the model to understand better consumer response and provide precise managerial recommendations. As such, we posed the questions as follows: Within each convenience dimension, which variable positively influences consumer response? Which variable has the most important impact on consumer response? The first steps consist in testing the validation of variables of the causal model. More specifically, their reliability and the convergent validity are tested. Note that all variables within the model are reflective. Regarding reflective constructs (latent variables), the adopted procedure followed the one that was proposed concerning the reliability and convergent validity of the latent constructs [START_REF] Churchill | A paradigm for developing better measures of marketing constructs[END_REF]. Confirmatory analyses were led through Xlstat PLSPM software based on the PLEASURE technology (partial least squares structural relationship estimation) supporting the PLS path modeling. Reflective variables (related to logistics and marketing dimensions) are assessed through different statements. The questionnaire was operationalized through a metric scale (ten-point satisfaction scale) required for future statistical treatments (Churchill and Iacobucci, 2005).

5-Results

Measurement model

This concerns the validation of reflective variables of the causal model. More specifically, their reliability and convergent are tested. Figure 1 presents the model.

Reliability, convergent validity of reflective variables

The reliability of reflective construct measures is usually assessed by Cronbach's alpha, which measures the internal consistency between different measurement items. The more strongly the measurement items are correlated with each other, the higher the Cronbach's alpha leading to the demonstration of the reliability of the measurement scale. Since the correlation between the measurement items is sought to validate the construct, the latter must obviously be reflective and unidimensional. Another indicator, Jöreskog's Rhô, is often used in addition. The interest of this indicator is to integrate the error term into the calculation of internal consistency [START_REF] Jöreskog | A general method for analysis of covariance structure[END_REF].

The reliability tests of the measurement scale reveal that it is unidimensional when only the first eigenvalue of the block is greater than 1 and when Cronbach's alpha and Dillon-Goldstein's Rhô are greater than 0.7 [START_REF] Tenenhaus | PLS path modelling[END_REF]; Table 5 presents those tests. The test of convergent validity is assessed in two stages: first, by examining the communalities of each manifest variable with its latent variable (intra communality) and secondly, by examining the AVE (Average Variance Extracted) calculated on the latent variable. Systematically a bootstrap procedure (of 500 resamples) is carried out in order to verify that each of the each of the communalities (intra) is significantly different from the value 0 and greater than 0.5 [START_REF] Tenenhaus | PLS path modelling[END_REF]. The bootstrap provides 95% confidence intervals for each of the communities (confidence intervals set at 95%). As soon as the value 0 does not belong to the proposed interval and the lower bound of the interval proposes a value greater than 0.5, the (intra) communality can be considered as acceptable. The value of 0.5 is the minimum recommended threshold for accepting both the communality of the manifest variable and the AVE of the latent variable [START_REF] Fornell | Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error[END_REF]. Table 6 presents those statistical indicators.

Structural model

The model is validated because statistical indicators exceed the recommended threshold [START_REF] Fornell | Structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error[END_REF][START_REF] Chin | Issue and opinion on structural equation[END_REF][START_REF] Tenenhaus | PLS path modelling[END_REF] presented in Table 6.

Variations in type of C&C

It seems to be relevant to deepen previous results by identifying precisely which C&C system could maximize the value and those that dilute it (Table 7).

Discussion

The impact of convenience on consumer response

The results from our structural equation model support hypotheses 1 to 5. The causal model is expressed as follow:

Consumer's response = 31.4% functional convenience + 25.1% process convenience + 17.3% relational convenience + 9.4% access convenience + 2.5% digital convenience.

This model allows us to determine the value-creating variables and their respective weights: we note that two variables stand out as significant explanations for C&C recommendation behavior (56.5% for these two variables): functional convenience and process convenience.

Functional convenience has the strongest contribution of the model. It explains 31.4% of customer response. This result reinforces the idea that C&C consumers use this channel primarily for its functionality, efficiency and time saving as hypothesized by previous researches [START_REF] Colla | E-commerce: Exploring the critical success factors[END_REF][START_REF] Mallapragada | Exploring the effects of "what "(product) and "where" (website) characteristics on online shopping behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Jara | Measuring customers benefits of click and collect[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF][START_REF] Bjorgen | E-groceries: sustainable last mile distribution in city planning[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. Furthermore, the preponderant role of functional convenience in the consumers' response confirms the importance of the C&C product range [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF][START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF], lead time i.e duration between the order and its availability [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF]. These results are in line with previous literature and confirm that C&C is part of a time-saving strategy [START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF] and value consistency time is an important delivery characteristic (Miloti et al., 2021). Process convenience is the second largest factor explaining 21.5% of the customer response. This strengthens the argument that consumers are particularly sensitive to variables such as choice of several weights for fresh products, suitable packaging, status of products ordered and adequate choice of replacement in case of stock-out. Last mile logistics is therefore critical because it is responsible for the supply of goods to the customers. Furthermore, this result confirms those of previous research since collecting the product at a convenient time window positively impacts the intention to use C&C [START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF]Miloti et al., 2021).

The role of relational convenience (17.3%) makes evident that this immaterial dimension which describes the relationship between the shopper and the staff in contact is particularly important in this dematerialized channel. Relational convenience refers to the participation of the staff in the production of the company's value. The role of relational convenience confirms the shift from Goods-dominant logic to service-dominant logic [START_REF] Hartwig | The journey from goods-dominant logic to servicedominant logic: a case study with a global technology manufacturer[END_REF] and the role of personal in contact in the value creation for the retailer [START_REF] Wibowo | 17 years of servicedominant logic: Vargo and Lusch's contributions[END_REF] Somewhat surprisingly our results confirm the positive impact of access convenience on consumer response but with a relatively small contribution of 9.4%. This result moderates the impact of geographical proximity, i.e the speed and ease for customers to reach the C&C on the other. While access convenience is a prerequisite for the success of traditional retailers [START_REF] Cliquet | Les modèles gravitaires et leur évolution[END_REF]; C&C users finally pay little attention to it. This result is all the more surprising since C&C targets a flow-through clientele, and is fitted into existing trips [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF].

Digital convenience represents the obligation by the retailer to propose a very functional website. It explains 2.5% of consumer response. The retailer's website is intended as a service element and compensates for the absence of a physical store; however, it explains 2.5% of consumer response.

These results include C&C as a distribution channel as a whole and confirm that e-grocery should implement an appropriate selling proposition in line with customers' preferences [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF]. They reinforce the idea that e-service quality positively impacts customer response, in particular satisfaction and repurchase intentions [START_REF] Blut | E-service quality: a meta-analytic review[END_REF]. However, the different C&C fulfillment are very different; hence, it may be interesting to deepen it by testing more detailed hypotheses.

The role of convenience depending on the C&C fulfillment order

Gielsens et al. ( 2020) made evidence that alternative C&C type influences shopper convenience needs. We also test if customer response varies according to the C&C system. Results reveal differences between the three C&C systems (see appendix 1).

Drive-out system

Consumer' response in drive out = 33.5% process convenience + 29.9% functional convenience + 17% relational convenience + 14.1% access convenience -8.7% digital convenience.

Drive-out users are particularly sensitive to convenience processes (33.5% of consumer response), i.e choice of several weights for fresh products, suitable packaging and status of products ordered, among other things. They also have a very pragmatic approach to this channel since functional convenience explains 29.9% of consumer response. More precisely, the weight of the convenience function emphasizes in particular that retailers should guarantee the availability of the product, in the right place (the importance of location) and at the right time (the importance of time) because the consumer chooses this channel to reduce the number of non-value-added tasks [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF][START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF], Giselens et al., 2020, Maltese et al., 2021;[START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF][START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF]).

Located at the exit of large urban areas, or close to industrial zones, on the home-work axis drive-out C&Cs represent transit businesses. They adapt to the increasing mobility of consumers to a clientele on the move, wishing to optimize their round-trips [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. Although access convenience remains an important selection tool, it was the last positive contribution to consumer response with a score of 14.1%. It strengthens grocery retail logistics and last mile issue between a distribution center and warehouse as a challenging area [START_REF] Lagorio | Food and grocery retail logistics issues: a systematic literature review[END_REF]. These results show that the implementation of a drive-out C&C system must respect one of the conditions of success of a traditional implementation, namely the principle of interception or how to appeal to customers.

Although C&C is driven by shopping digitalization [START_REF] Maltese | Grocery or @grocery: a stated preference investigation in Rome and Milan[END_REF][START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF], drive-out users are not attracted by the digital interface of retailers. Digital convenience plays a negative role in customer response (-8.7%). Our results make evidence that drive-out system does not fit into the previous literature which holds that e-retailing is a technology driven business and digital convenience positively influence C&C performance (Gieslens et al., 2020;[START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF]. Services offered online (order confirmation by e-mail, shopping lists, list of favorite products), the description of the products as well as the quality, ease and speed of navigation score negatively in consumer's response. It means that drive-out users are particularly dissatisfied with the current selling proposition. Perhaps customers perceive this kind of system as an additional and free service -an extension of the selling proposition of the hypermarket.

Drive-in system

Consumer' response in drive-in= 26.9% functional convenience + 21.6% digital convenience + 21.5% relational convenience + 15.1% process convenience -5.9% access convenience.

In the drive-in system, functional convenience explains 26.9% of consumer response and thus represents the largest contribution. Consumers are above all looking for a relevant assortment of products (in terms of width and depth) as well as the functional aspects at the collecting point. They have a utilitarian value of this channel and are looking for time saving. These results raise questions about the cannibalization phenomena between the drive-in and the brick-andmortar store. [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF] show that shoppers with high collection convenience needs spend less at the retailer's physical outlets.

Digital convenience and relational explains, respectively 21.6% and 21.5% of customer response. Contrary to the precedent type, drive-in system users are sensitive to retailers' websites, including variables such as image quality product description, speed of navigation or the ease of navigation. It is therefore not surprising to see that drive-in channel is essentially characterized by two fundamental elements: the design of the website as a creative interface for the front-office customer trip, and the software as the essential content for the mobilization and synchronization of customer databases, product availability, and the coordination of order management and preparation. Relationship with staff at the collecting point is particularly important for these users, and consequently the importance given to contact personnel in the service relationship. In this type of C&C, the pick-up station is attached to an existing store; it is probably for this reason that access convenience recorded a negative contribution. The negative influence of access convenience questions previous research that the geographical proximity is a prerequisite to a positive consumer response [START_REF] Reilly | The law of retail gravitation[END_REF][START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF][START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Gahinet | Proximity and time in convenience store patronage: Kairos more than chronos[END_REF][START_REF] Pernot | Internet shopping for everyday consumer goods: an examination of the purchasing and travel practices of click and pickup outlet customers[END_REF]. In terms of logistics, this result supports the idea that this drive-in C&C model has limited business opportunities despite a possible increase in customers [START_REF] Melkonyan | Sustainability assessment of last-mile logistics and distribution strategies: the case of local food networks[END_REF].

In-store picking system Consumer' response in picking system = 34.3% functional convenience + 29.2% relational convenience + 18.2% process convenience + 4.6% access convenience-5.3% digital convenience.

In this system, there is no warehouse dedicated to C&C and order is prepared in store from products on shelves. As in the drive-in system, within the in-store picking C&C functional convenience has a strong explicative power (34.3%). In line with previous research [START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF], results show that consumers are therefore sensitive to all the criteria that constitute functional convenience: with and depth of assortment, promotions. We also note that the important weight given to this variable reinforces the importance of the time factor: C&C must be accessible and be a source of time savings for activities considered as no added value [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF]Giselens et al., 2020). In-store picking users aim at decreasing shopping time; they are sensitive due to convenience and time-savings. Relational convenience explains 29.2% of consumer response. In other words, in an in-store picking C&C, consumers are waiting for contact and exchanges with the staff. They have a high need for interaction. Given their respective weight in the consumer response, access convenience and digital convenience are less important in the eyes of the shopper because they are not perceived as variables that are sources of differentiation. Therefore, they appear to be variables that any retailer must offer as a minimum [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF].

Convenience characteristics affect consumer response differently depending on the type of C&C (see Table 8). So, for example, access convenience which explains over 14% of consumer response in a drive-out C&C. has a negative impact in a drive-in C&C. Based on Figure 2, digital convenience is clearly discriminant in the C&C system. Relational convenience plays an important and positive role in customer response for all of the three systems. In line with previous studies [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF], all fulfillment order types do not respond in the same way to the access convenience. Drive-out C&C is an easy-to reach location and makes it easy for shopper to travel to at and from a pick-up location. They represent substitute for urban locations.

Theoretical and managerial implications

Theoretical implications

Our study has a major theoretical implication since it extends the theory of services through examining consumer response in a C&C retail setting. In doing so, we recognize that grocery C&C is a specific service to the retailer whose role is to produce the service at the time and place where a demand exists. Our results validate the work of [START_REF] Vargo | Evolving for a new dominant logic for marketing[END_REF][START_REF] Vargo | Service-dominant logic: Reactions, reflections and refinements[END_REF], 2008, 2010) on the theory of Service-Dominant Logic (SDL) which questions the product as the basis of exchange in favor of the services it provides. In doing so, we expand the S-D-L theory to the omnichannel setting. In short, in the case of C&C the product/service pair is deeply intertwined and the customer expects a set of key service functions from his retailer. Our results present an application of the SDL theory to retailing and more precisely to C&C. Our findings are consistent with classic theory service texts that places service at the heart of the exchange between the retailer and the consumer. Although functional convenience shows a strong contribution to the consumer response and demonstrates the importance of the assortment and the product whatever the type of C&C, retailer can no longer be assimilated to a mere product seller. The reinforcement of services, in particular through the development of information on the product, or still on out of stock, shopping lists or expense tracking (digital convenience), the choice of several weights, suitable packaging or adequate choice of replacement in case of stock-out (process convenience), tips for use and relationship with staff (relational convenience) contribute to the enrichment of the relationship. We contribute by adding a new field of application and demonstrate that C&C reinforces the positioning of retailers as service providers.

This study also examines how C&C affects consumer response through the prism of convenience including a multidimensional approach of convenience. From an academic point of view, this study has primarily enabled the identification of five features of convenience in a C&C context: functional, process, relational, access and digital. It extends the scope of convenience from traditional grocery retailer to online environment. We find that during each stage of the purchase from the retailer website to the collecting point consumers are expecting services from retailers. This paper contributes to building the necessary theoretical framework of the C&C channel. It enables one to understand how retailers can improve the value creation of their new service. Extant research has focused on a synthesis of international consumer studies [START_REF] Seiders | Attention, retailers! How convenient is your convenience strategy?[END_REF] theoretical approach of convenience (Bergadaa and Del Bucchia, 2009.); and traditional brick and mortar channels [START_REF] Gahinet | Proximity and time in convenience store patronage: Kairos more than chronos[END_REF]. Studies on the role of convenience in a C&C setting and do not integrate the three types of C&C [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF] and use retailer data [START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF]. Furthermore, they and offered only a fragmented consideration of the features of convenience [START_REF] Vyt | Grocery pickup creation of value: Customers' benefits vs. spatial dimension[END_REF][START_REF] Gielsens | Navigation the last mile: The demand effects of click-and-collect order fulfillment[END_REF][START_REF] Mevel | New societal expectations and services relationships in food supermarket: the case of drive-in and home delivery[END_REF]. We contribute by demonstrating the need to understand each C&C system as an autonomous entity and not to aggregate the results of the C&C as a whole. Finally, this study is a unique study based on a consumer approach that analyses the influence of convenience in a C& C setting for each C&C fulfillment and consequently contributes to extant C&C behavioral studies.

The results of this study also confirm that the C&C selling proposition can be considered as a complementary service to the retailer. In line with previous research [START_REF] Kalia | E-service quality and e-retailers: attribute-based multi-dimensional scaling[END_REF] we make evidence that e-services are perceived as an extension of the retailer's brand and propose a better understanding of the phenomenon of brand extension by identifying the image transfers between the brand and the C&C. Thus, this study could construct an initial theoretical framework for the image of the C&C.

Managerial implications

The proposed analysis offers meaningful managerial implications all the more that e-grocery market share can be further increased by taking customers' preference into consideration [START_REF] Gatta | E-groceries: a channel choice analysis in shangai[END_REF]. Our study focuses on five features of convenience in a C&C retail setting: access, functional, relational, process and digital. The most influential convenience features in terms of consumer responses are functional, process and relational convenience.

Customers attach great importance to the functional convenience that brings together material variables such as assortment width and depth promotional offers and access to promotions.

Furthermore, this functional convenience allows customers to better manage their time: possibility of ordering a product at the last-minute waiting time and ease of identification at the pick-up station, time range, session times proposed duration between the order and its availability. [START_REF] Gahinet | Proximity and time in convenience store patronage: Kairos more than chronos[END_REF] describe this qualitative dimension of time as a Kairos dimension of time convenience which increases consumer response. The process convenience notably through the availability and the adequate choice of replacement in case of stock-out is also a key factor in the global evolution of any digital formula. The control of stock levels is therefore essential especially in the commercial C&C system. These logistics dimensions linked to functional and process convenience highlight the fact that the level of service is built both on the relevance of marketing mix and on the minimization of costs resulting from the logistics mix. Our results confirm the importance of the logistic dimension (availability of products. proposed assortments. opening hours. etc.) in e-commerce through the importance given to the functional convenience to explain the recommendation behavior of the C&C. whatever the retained model. Indeed, the logistics dimensions (possibility of ordering a product at the last minute. duration between the order and its availability. delivery characteristics. etc.) in the world of e-commerce appear to be fundamental in retaining the consumer in reassuring him in meeting his need for immediacy. This is also confirmed for C&C. Thus, the proposed assortment and the availability of products appear as important criteria in the perception of the quality of the logistic service in the framework of e-commerce. More precisely, the consumer using a C&C service proposed by a food retailer wants to be offered an assortment corresponding to his recurrent purchases of food products. The C&C assortment must be defined from the most purchased references even if the consumer also wishes to buy fewer regular products. However, the logistics requirements (stock management. order preparation. etc.) increase with the breadth and depth of the range offered generating additional costs for retailers. However, retailers cannot pass on these additional costs to the consumers of this service which is intrinsically free. The financial management of the C&C must thus be different according to the type of fulfillment order, the drive-in and the in-store picking generating consequently constraints and stronger logistic costs.

The value expected by the consumer is correlated to the fluidity of the purchase path, which becomes the key factor in the combination of the different digital and physical channels offered. Retailers have the obligation to propose a very functional and convenient website. Consumers want to find week after week the products corresponding to their daily purchases in order to optimize them hence the importance of shopping lists. Retailers should propose an organized, structured and coherent site content that meets the needs of consumers especially immediacy. A C&C website should facilitate the consumer's purchase and. in fact, present as many filters and menus as necessary (speed and ease of navigation) highlight lots of logistics information (product replacement proposal. information on out of stock. financial (expense tracking) and merchandising (image quality and product description). However, although it is a positive impact, digital convenience has little effect on consumer response. This is undoubtedly an obvious prerequisite for consumers. A C&C is a service whose front office is digital and interactive involving a permanent exchange between the retailer's website and the customer during the ordering phase. The C&C's front office is complex because it requires a synchronization of the merchandising of the assortment with essentially the logistics in the back office whose objective is to deliver the order when it is picked up under conditions of accessibility; this synchronization must ensure the quality of service sought by the customer. More precisely, the service rate is built both in the front office on the relevance of a digital marketing mix (brand image. assortment. price) and on the minimization in the back office of the costs resulting from the management of the logistics mix.

Although they make the choice not to go to traditional stores, C&C users give great importance to human and lived dimensions since relational convenience explains 17.3% of consumer response. Relationship with the staff and information from the staff at the pick-up station which is to say immaterial features of convenience are important for consumers in a C&C model. Retailers must therefore be well aware that the reception of the customer by the person in charge of the delivery at the C&C is also an essential moment in the consolidation of the service relationship. This face-to-face meeting is likely to enrich the service relationship and offers the possibility to develop the brand capital of the brand.

The value perceived by the C&C consumer will focus on a few fundamental elements, namely the quality of the logistical responses envisaged by the various retailers. The information system appears to be the essential element for the mobilization and synchronization of customer databases, the availability of products and the coordination of the management and preparation of orders. The quality of the logistical responses envisaged (organization of the warehouse network, stock management, order preparation, location of deliveries, etc.) remains critical to retain the consumer, to reassure him, and to meet his need for immediacy, whatever the C&C used. It must be noted that, this customer trip is becoming more complex with the multiplication of transactional, but also relational and communicational touch points enabled by digital technologies; touch points defined as direct or indirect episodes of interactions of a more or less important duration and of a more or less intense nature.

Conclusions and future studies

Conclusions

In a deflationary context where retailers are currently fighting a price war multi-channel is on the rise and this is clearly driving the continued development of C&C. The development of home delivery is more important in the US and Anglo-Saxon retail sectors than here in France. Because our brands do not currently have the means to finance it and they want to make this new specific C&C asset profitable first. The theory of transaction costs seems to explain the phenomenon perfectly. The increase in the frequency of C&C purchases a specific asset that is being turned into an industrialized service and which is now becoming profitable combined with a decreasing degree of uncertainty in terms of the increase in high-margin orders but also in fixed costs linked to the costly presence of personnel. All of this is being accelerated by the dual influence of the pandemic and technological advances on the sites. Therefore, retailers are slowing down on home delivery because the integration of C&C is costly C&C is growing year after year both in grocery and non-grocery retail field. In France, the number of online shoppers reached 11.74 million in 2020 5 an increase of more than a million in just one year. Grocery retailers are taking advantage of this growth and are developing C&C for pedestrians -thus conquering city centers. Via an empirical study we find that convenience in a specific retail format. C&C. includes five features. They all positively influence consumer response in general. Thus, the C&C service of retailers is backed by remarkable marketing and logistics properties that are relatively dissimilar from the first service formulas developed by retailers that were previously based entirely on the intensive exploitation of a commercial surface in a trade area. Consequently, the challenge of deploying a relevant operational management of services in the context of C&C is to understand the level of service required by the customer and. therefore to determine the value-creating variables likely to predict the customer's recommendation behavior. In the end, in food retailing services are progressively becoming commercial activities that generate margins in a world where the food offer is now a way to generate additional margins in service. The relationship among convenience features was also analyzed. Our study provides an understanding of consumer perception toward C&C retail format and the most influential features of convenience for each type of C&C. We find that access convenience has a positive impact on a picking and a drive-out retail format but a negative effect on a drive-in system. While on a drive-in system, digital convenience has a great influence its impact is negative in the picking and drive-out model.

Future studies

This study has several limitations. First, scales were specified for the C&C format. It could be relevant to further research and create an index of convenience and especially digital convenience to each retail format whether physical or digital. Second, our study only examined food-retailer C&Cs. Future studies can cast a broader business line to collect data on non-food retailers such as sporting goods stores, clothing stores or even household appliance stores that are developing C&C more and more especially since the Covid-19 crisis. Third, our study only targets respondents from France. The exploration of customers from other countries that are developing C&C in the food and non-food retail could be interesting. This study should be conducted in other countries, especially in the US with the development of Walmart grocery pick-up. Fourth, the exploration of the impact of respondent characteristics (e.g. age of respondents, type of households) on consumer response in a C&C context can be worthwhile. At last, future studies can extend our study by comparing the different consumer responses for each channel of the same retailer to study the influence of a channel on convenience.

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1 -Conceptual model

Table 1 -

 1 Alternative types of C&C offered by food retailers

	Characteristics	Drive-in	In-store picking	Drive-out
	Fulfillment order	Pick up station attached	Order grabed in store	Solitary station acting
		to the store		as a collection point
			No warehouse
		Warehouse independent	dedicated to C&C	Warehouse from 2.000
		of the physical store		to 5.000 m²
				independent of the
				physical store and
				geographically remote
	Assortment	8,000 to 10,000 SKUs	Depth and width of the	8,000 to 10,000 SKUs
			physical store

Table 2 -

 2 Demographic characteristics of respondents.

	Variable	Response	All respondents	C.C users
			Percentage	Percentage
	Gender	Female	62.89	70
		Male	37.11	30
	Age	18-29	28.24	22.22
		30-44	40.58	50.72
		45-59	25.89	24.15
		60-74	5.17	2.73
		75 and older	0.09	0.16
	Number of pers. in household	1	14.40	8.81
		2	24.76	19.55
		3	19.30	21.79
		4	24.10	28.84
		5	17.41	20.99

Table 3 -

 3 Characteristics of C&C sample.

	Click and Collect type
	Total

Table 4 -

 4 Measurement

	Variables	Items	Items (measured by satisfaction levels from 1 to	Sources
			10)
	Access	ACC1	Ease of road access	Seiders et al. (2000)
	convenience	ACC2	Geographical proximity	Bergadaa and Del Bucchia (2009)
				Vyt et al. (2017)
				Gahinet and Cliquet (2018)
				Gielens et al. (2020)
				Marucci et al. (2021)
				Mevel et al. (2021)

Table 5 -

 5 Reliability: Cronbach's alpha and Jöreskog's Rhô tests

	Latent variables	Cronbach's alpha	Jöreskog's Rhô	Eigenvalues
	Access convenience	0.755	0.891	1.607
				0.393
	Functional convenience	0.914	0.928	5.995
				1.144
				0.806
				0.659
				0.564
				0.480
				0.383
				0.301
				0.244
				0.214
				0.211
	Relational
	convenience	0.671	0.822	1.831
				0.824
				0.345
	Digital convenience	0.877	0.903	5.305
				1.240
				0.991
				0.743
				0.595
				0.523
				0.514
				0.434
				0.296
				0.195
	Process convenience	0.812	0.866	3.131
				0.999
				0.635
				0.579
				0.389
				0.267
	Consumer Response	0.764	0.894	1.618
				0.382

Table 6 -

 6 Statistical indicators of structural model

	GoF	GoF (Bootstrap) R² -F (194.019) Pr > F : 0.000 AVE
	Absolute = 0.630	0.542
	Relative = 0.980 External model = 0.999 0.973 0.928	0.607 (bootstrap)	0.528
	Internal model = 0.981 0.952
			XLSTAT PLSPM Software
	Bootstrap -500 re-sampling; GoF (Goodness of Fit). AVE (Average of Variance Extracted

Table 7 -

 7 Validation of structural models

		GoF Absolute = 0.	0.479
	Drive-out	Gof Relative = 0.	0.911	R² -F (52.176) Pr > F : 0.000
	system	Gof External model =		0.565 (bootstrap)
		0.	0.988
		Gof Internal model = 0. 0.922
		GoF Absolute = 0.	0.436
	Drive-in	Gof Relative = 0.	0.890	R² -F (46.617) Pr > F : 0.000
	system	Gof External model =		0.501 (bootstrap)
		0.	0.983
		Gof Internal model = 0. 0.906
		GoF Absolute = 0.	0.447
	In-store	Gof Relative = 0.	0.806	R² -F (16.084) Pr > F : 0.000
	picking	Gof External model =		0.519 (bootstrap)
	system	0.	0.976
		Gof Internal model = 0. 0.825
	XLSTAT PLSPM Software

Table 8 -

 8 Synthesis results per C&C modelIn other words, type of C&C has a moderating effect on the relationship between convenience and consumer response as shown in Figure2.

	Convenience feature	Picking	Drive in	Drive out
	Access	4.6	-5.9	14.1
	Functional	34.4	26.9	29.9
	Relational	29.2	21.5	17
	Process	18.2	15.1	33.5
	Digital	-5.3	21.6	-8.7
	Figure 2 Visual synthesis results per C&C model

Source: Ascentialedge; What's next for click and collect? 8 Apr

Source: LSA Expert, September 28th, 2021.

Editions Dauvers, A3Distrib, Nielsen, October 2020.

Source: Editions Dauvers, A3Distrib, Nielsen, October 2020.

Source: Kantar World Panel, May 2021.