L K Sahu

Érie Thouret

Herman G Smit

Climatology of tropospheric ozone and water vapour over Chennai: a study based on MOZAIC measurements over India

Keywords: rain, Chennai, transport, marine, troposphere, tropical, ozone, fire

Climatology of tropospheric ozone (O 3 ) and water vapour (H 2 O) over a metro city of Chennai in southern India has been presented based on the Measurements of OZ one and water vapour by Airbus I n-service AirCraft (MOZAIC) data during 1996-2001. The seasonal trends in mixing ratio of O 3 are discussed in view of annual changes in the transport pattern, rainfall, and its relationship with ambient H 2 O. The vertical distributions of both O 3 and H 2 O show large seasonal variations. The observed high mixing ratios of O 3 in winter and spring months can be attributed to long-range transport of pollutants by the northwesterly winds associated with winter monsoon circulation. The lowest mixing ratio of 15 ppbv of O 3 from July to September coincides with the summer monsoon circulation over Indian subcontinent. The surface level mixing ratio of O 3 was observed to be below 30 ppbv throughout the year. On the other hand, monthly rainfall and vertical distributions of H 2 O show just opposite seasonal variations to that of O 3 mixing ratio. Chennai is a coastal city; therefore, the seasonal change in surface wind flow causes large variability in H 2 O concentrations of 6-30 g/kg in the lower troposphere. More or less similar annual patterns of mixing ratios of O 3 and H 2 O are repeated during different years of 1996-1998, except for some small-scale differences. High level of O 3 mixing ratio, particularly during the early winter months of year 1997, seems unusual as we do not see such trends for other year of measurements over Chennai. The case studies of profiles of O 3 , relative humidity (RH), and temperature in view of long-range transport over Chennai during the different seasons have been also discussed. Significant enhancements in tropospheric O 3 were observed over Chennai due to transport of air from forest fire regions of Indonesia during October 1997.

Introduction

Tropospheric ozone (O 3 ) plays a key role in the chemistry of the atmosphere, with effects on both the environment and Earth's climate. In the troposphere, photolysis of O 3 initiates the oxidation process through the formation of hydroxyl radicals (OH). Ozone, because of its strong absorption band centred at 9.6 µm, also plays an important role in global warming, particularly in the upper troposphere [START_REF] Forster | Radiative forcing and temperature trends from stratospheric ozone changes[END_REF][START_REF] Gauss | Radiative forcing in the 21st century due to ozone changes in the troposphere and the lower stratosphere[END_REF]. The photochemical reactions are dominated by the cycles of O 3 and water vapour (H 2 O) in the tropical region, which receives intense solar radiation. H 2 Oi sa l s oa greenhouse gas [START_REF] Ramanathan | Trace gas trends and their potential role in climate change[END_REF][START_REF] Wigley | Relative contributions of different trace gases to the greenhouse effect[END_REF].

Tropospheric O 3 levels have increased since preindustrial times (1860), particularly in the Northern Hemisphere (NH) [START_REF] Oltmans | Trends of ozone in the troposphere[END_REF]. It is estimated that O 3 has contributed +0.35 W/m 2 to the radiative forcing since 1860, compared with +1.66 W/m 2 from the CO 2 [START_REF] Forster | Changes in atmospheric constituents and in radiative forcing[END_REF]. Tropical region is a large contributor to the global O 3 budget. Moreover, it plays a key role in controlling the chemistry and climate of the tropical troposphere. Human activities increase O 3 concentration in the troposphere through emissions from fossil fuel combustion and biomass burning [START_REF] Crutzen | Biomass burning as a source of atmospheric gases CO, H 2 ,N 2 O, CH 3 Cl and COS[END_REF][START_REF] Logan | Tropospheric chemistry: a global perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Crutzen | Atmospheric chemistry[END_REF].

The tropical continental boundary layer (CBL) is an important source region for photochemical production of O 3 . In tropics, biomass burning and fossil fuel combustion generate large amount of precursors such as CO, methane (CH 4 ), and non-methane hydrocarbons (NMHCs) [START_REF] Houghton | Climate Change 1995: The Science of Climate Change[END_REF][START_REF] Kirchhoff | Increasing concentrations of CO and O 3 -rising deforestation rates and increasing tropospheric carbon monoxide and ozone in Amazonia[END_REF]. Therefore, vertical variations of O 3 reflect the heterogeneity of this region, arising from O 3 precursor sources (biomass burning), sinks (photolysis, photochemistry), and convective processes [START_REF] Chatfield | Sulfur dioxide in remote oceanic air: cloud transport of reactive precursors[END_REF][START_REF] Liu | Ozone production in the rural troposphere and implications for regional and global ozone distributions[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | Observation of nearzero ozone concentrations in the upper troposphere at mid-latitudes[END_REF]. Lateral transport from a source in the upper troposphere or perhaps the lower stratosphere, or O 3 and its precursors from a photochemically very active source region have also been observed to play important role in the distributions. An important factor in transport studies is the lifetime of O 3 . Ozone is photodissociated by short-wave solar radiation (<340 nm) into electronically excited O( 1 D) atoms and with H 2 O to form OH radicals. Thus, the lifetime of O 3 is basically determined by the amount of H 2 Oa n ds o l a r radiation. The lifetime of O 3 increases from 2 to 5 days in the moist tropical marine boundary layer (MBL) to approximately 90 days in the free troposphere [START_REF] Fishman | Identification of widespread pollution in the Southern Hemisphere deduced from satellite analyses[END_REF]. Thus, once O 3 is lifted from the boundary layer it can be transported far away from its source regions.

Typical vertical distributions of O 3 in the tropics exhibit a minimum at the surface, a maximum at ∼6.5 km, another minimum at 11.2 km, and a subsequent increase towards the tropopause [START_REF] Folkins | Tropical ozone as an indicator of deep convection[END_REF]. The major factors that determine the vertical variation of O 3 are in situ production/destruction, deep convective outflow, vertical advection, shallow convection, eddy exchange with the lowermost stratosphere, convective downdrafts, and vertical mixing near the tropical tropopause associated with convective overshooting [START_REF] Sherwood | A model for transport across the tropical tropopause[END_REF] and Kelvin waves [START_REF] Fujiwara | Stratosphere-troposphere exchange of ozone associated with the equatorial Kelvin wave as observed with ozonesondes and rawinsondes[END_REF].

The detailed characteristics of O 3 in the tropical troposphere remain unresolved because of a lack of comprehensive observations. The number of ozonesonde stations in the northern tropics is limited [START_REF] Logan | An analysis of ozonesonde data for the troposphere: recommendations for testing 3-D models, and development of a gridded climatology for tropospheric ozone[END_REF], although Hilo, Kuala Lumpur, Surinam, Benin [START_REF] Thouret | An overview of two years of ozone soundings over Cotonou as part of AMMA[END_REF], and Costa Rica have all participated in SHADOZ [START_REF] Thompson | The 1998-2000 SHADOZ (Southern Hemisphere Additional Ozonesondes) tropical ozone climatology. 2. Tropospheric variability and the zonal wave-one[END_REF]http://croc.gsfc.nasa.gov/ shadoz). The main objective of this work is to study the tropospheric O 3 profile in view of annual changes in the transport pattern and also its relationship with H 2 Obased on the Measurements of OZ one and H 2 Ob yAirbus I nservice AirCraft (MOZAIC) data over Chennai, India. We have also presented the case studies to investigate the impact of long-range transport in the vertical distributions of O 3 and H 2 O over Chennai.

Overview of MOZAIC program and measurements over India

The MOZAIC program was initiated in 1993 by European scientists, aircraft manufacturers, and airlines to collect experimental data. Ozone and H 2 O sensors were installed on board five long-range commercial aircrafts (Airbus A340's) of four participating airlines. The MOZAIC project, in operation since August 1994, is a European Union (EU) supported project for the automatic measurements of O 3 and water vapour on board AIRBUS A340 aircraft on scheduled flights. MOZAIC is sponsored by major European airlines: Air France (one aircraft), Austrian Airlines (one aircraft), Lufthansa (two aircrafts), and Sabena/Air France (one aircraft).

The ozone analyser is a dual-beam ultraviolet (UV) absorption instrument (Thermo-Electron Model 49-103), which has a detection limit of 2 ppbv. Uncertainties in the measurements are estimated to be ±(2 pbbv +2%), although actual performance is better (Thouret et al., 1998a(Thouret et al., , 1998b)). The response time of the instrument is 4 s, which translates into a vertical resolution of 30 m. Full details of calibration procedures and mounting in the aircraft are also given by Thouret et al. (1998b). Relative humidity (RH) and temperature are measured with a capacitive sensor (Humicap-H) and a platinum resistance sensor (PT100), respectively. The Humicapcapacitor together with the PT100 resistor is mounted at the top of an axis-symmetric body, which is especially designed for installation in an appropriate housing.

MOZAIC data combined with meteorological data are being used to (1) establish a quasi-global climatology of the large-scale distributions of O 3 and H 2 Oi n the troposphere; (2) establish the vertical and temporal distributions of O 3 and H 2 O at various locations (airports) over the continents; (3) investigate the seasonal and geographical variations in relation to their natural and anthropogenic sources, stratosphere-troposphere exchange (STE), horizontal and vertical air circulation; and (4) to validate chemistry and transport models [START_REF] Marenco | Measurement of ozone and water vapor by Airbus in-service aircraft: the MOZAIC air-borne program, an overview[END_REF]. Measurements taken during both take off and landing of the aircraft have been used as vertical profile data over the airports. To supplement some gaps in MOZAIC database during August or July months, we have used the Indian Metrological Department (IMD) data measured at Trivandrum (as this site also represents similar climatology as over Chennai). The MOZAIC vertical profiles of O 3 ,H 2 O and meteorological parameters over the Indian subcontinent consist of measurements at three airports of metropolitan cities, namely Chennai (Madras) (12.99 °N, 80.15 °E), Delhi (28.56 In this study, we have discussed the distributions of O 3 and H 2 O over Chennai.

Seasonal transport pattern over Chennai

Chennai metropolitan area extends over 1180 sq km and has a population of more than 8.5 million. Rapid increase in urbanization with vehicle congestion has increased on the roads of Chennai. As a result of this, gaseous pollutants are continuously increasing in the ambient air of Chennai city [START_REF] Senthilnathan | Measurements of urban ambient air quality of Chennai city[END_REF]. The daily rainfall data measured by the IMD for years 1996-2001 are plotted in Figure 1. Chennai is a coastal city and very often influenced by the transport of maritime air due to land see breeze circulation. The northeast (NE) monsoon period from October to December is the principal rainy season, whereas the southwest (SW) monsoon from June to September is the secondary rainy season for this place. In the lower troposphere, the seasonal change in the wind flow pattern over Southeast Asia is mainly associated with the onset and withdrawal of monsoon circulations [START_REF] Asnani | Climatology of the tropics[END_REF]. The summer monsoon circulation is generally visualized as large-scale convergence of mass and moisture over the Indian subcontinent in the lower levels, while a strong upper level divergence aloft. Surface heating during summer favours enhanced convection over land, which is fuelled by moist inflow at low levels. We have used the National Centre for Environmental Prediction (NCEP) data to derive the wind streamline flow over India and surrounding marine regions. Figure 2 shows the mean wind streamline plots during the winter months of January-March (JFM) at four different pressure levels of 925, 700, 400, and 250 mb during 1996-2001. In the winter season, wind flow at 700 mb is from NE, while in the upper troposphere (see plot at 250 mb) westerly wind flow prevails over Chennai. In the summer monsoon season from July to September (JAS) months, the wind streamlines at 925 mb show the SW flow, while in the upper troposphere the flow is easterly over Chennai (Figure 3). In the middle troposphere, the wind patterns show large seasonal variations over Chennai.

Seasonal variations in O 3 over Chennai during 1996-1998

Monthly mean profiles of O 3 and H 2 O during 1996

We have calculated the monthly mean of MOZAIC profile data to study the seasonal variations of O 3 (ppbv) and H 2 O (g/kg) in the troposphere (0-8 km). Figure 4 shows the vertical distributions over Chennai for year 1996. It can be very clearly seen that profiles of both O 3 and H 2 O show large seasonal variability. The mixing ratio of O 3 near surface is always below 30 ppbv throughout the year. In a good agreement to this result, the mean surface O 3 mixing ratio of ∼10-25 ppbv was observed at an urban site of Chennai during year 2006 [START_REF] Pulikesi | Surface ozone measurements at urban coastal site Chennai, in India[END_REF]. During the winter months, mixing In this period of summer monsoon circulation, vertical distributions of O 3 show steady increasing trend with height as the mixing ratios were 10-15, 10-20, 20-30 and 30-40 ppbv between the altitudes of 0-2, 2-4, 4-6 and 6-8 km, respectively. On the other hand, the seasonal variability in H 2 O concentration of 6-30 g/kg was observed in the lower troposphere over Chennai.

Chennai is a metro city of India where anthropogenic emissions of precursors of O 3 are continuous throughout the year. As expected for a typical urban site, the diurnal variations of ozone at Chennai exhibit elevated mixing ratio during daytime with low values at night [START_REF] Pulikesi | Surface ozone measurements at urban coastal site Chennai, in India[END_REF]. Therefore, O 3 mixing ratios near the surface were always low as the MOZAIC profile measurements were always taken during the night hours. In the spring months (April and May), observed high concentrations of O 3 in the lower and mid-troposphere could be due to the long-range transport of pollutants from the continental region of Asia [START_REF] Hastenrath | Climate and Circulation in the Tropics[END_REF][START_REF] Lal | Impact of transport from the surrounding continental regions on the distributions of ozone and related trace gases over the Bay of Bengal during February 2003[END_REF].

On the other hand, the observed low mean concentration of ∼15 ppbv over Chennai is due to advection of cleaner air from the Indian Ocean during June to September. This is the period when frequency and amount of rainfall are highest at Chennai due to the influence of summer monsoon circulation. In a good agreement with this observation, the mixing ratios of O 3 were observed to be in the range of 10-20 ppbv over the southern region of Bay of Bengal during the summer monsoon campaign [START_REF] Sahu | Distributions of O 3 ,C Oa n d hydrocarbons over the Bay of Bengal: study to assess the role of transport from southern India and marine regions during Sep-Oct 2002[END_REF]. To investigate how the rainfall I. Space-based observations from Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT) [START_REF] Kar | Evidence of vertical transport of carbon monoxide from Measurements of Pollution in the Troposphere (MOPITT)[END_REF], the Microwave Limb Sounder (MLS) [START_REF] Jiang | Connecting surface emissions, convective uplifting, and longrange transport of carbon monoxide in the upper troposphere: new observations from the Aura Microwave Limb Sounder[END_REF][START_REF] Park | Transport above the Asian summer monsoon anticyclone inferred from Aura Microwave Limb Sounder tracers[END_REF], the Atmospheric Composition Experiment (ACE) [START_REF] Park | Chemical isolation in the Asian monsoon anticyclone observed in Atmospheric Chemistry Experiment (ACE-FTS) data[END_REF], and the Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS) [START_REF] Randel | Deep convective influence on the Asian summer monsoon anticyclone and associated tracer variability observed with Atmospheric Infrared Sounder (AIRS)[END_REF]) also show how deep convection associated with the summer monsoon lofts boundary layer air with low O 3 and high H 2 O from Asia into the upper troposphere [START_REF] Gettelman | Impact of monsoon circulations on the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere[END_REF]. This pattern occurs also over Nairobi, a continental site that is located in a meteorological regime more akin to the Indian Ocean than central or southern Africa [START_REF] Chatfield | Convective lofting links Indian Ocean air pollution to paradoxical South Atlantic ozone maxima[END_REF][START_REF] Chatfield | Mechanisms for the intraseasonal variability of tropospheric ozone during the Indian winter monsoon[END_REF]. to November, the rainfall data exhibit increasing trend, while mixing ratio of O 3 increases and it becomes ∼45 ppbv in October month. The increasing trend in O 3 mixing ratio, particularly during the early winter months of year 1997, seems to be an unusual feature as we do not see such trends for both the years of 1996 and 1998 (Figure 5(a) and (c)). If we see the daily rainfall pattern during the late monsoon and early winter months, from August to mid-October, year 1997 seems to have influenced by spells of dry weather than those in other years of 1996-2001 (Figure 1). Interestingly, for the same period of year 1997 the mixing ratios of O 3 in middle and upper troposphere over Chennai were higher than those in 1996 and 1998. The year 1997 corresponds to El Niño events when convective activity becomes low in Indonesia, in this region, extensive forest fire activities were reported due to sparse precipitation (Fujiwara et al., anomaly. We found that the long transport of O 3 -rich air from extensive biomass burning regions of Indonesia during year 1997 yielded this feature (case study is presented in Section 5.).

Case studies of O 3 profiles over Chennai

At any particular location, there can be large day-to-day variability in the vertical distributions of O 3 and meteorological parameters. The magnitude of variability can change significantly with altitude, sometimes exhibiting marked stratification, with a single or multiple peaks, and other times exhibiting a uniform profile and absence of structures.

Each O 3 profile is a unique response to photochemical and dynamic processes. Therefore, study of profiles in terms of its structure, particularly the magnitude and altitudes of maxima and minima, and vertical gradient should provide the insights about the underlying processes. Traditionally, mean profiles averaged by season or year together with some measure of variability about these means have been analysed [START_REF] Kirchhoff | Ozone climatology at Natal, Brazil, from in situ ozonesonde data[END_REF][START_REF] Diab | Vertical ozone distribution over southern Africa and adjacent oceans during SA-FARI92[END_REF][START_REF] Fortuin | An ozone climatology based on ozonesonde and satellite measurement[END_REF]Thouret et al., 1998b;[START_REF] Logan | An analysis of ozonesonde data for the troposphere: recommendations for testing 3-D models, and development of a gridded climatology for tropospheric ozone[END_REF][START_REF] Thompson | The 1998-2000 SHADOZ (Southern Hemisphere Additional Ozonesondes) tropical ozone climatology. 2. Tropospheric variability and the zonal wave-one[END_REF]. On the other hand, case studies have been widely used to gain an understanding of the underlying atmospheric processes. Examples of studies focusing on dynamic processes, particularly STE, include [START_REF] Merrill | Meteorological analysis of tropospheric ozone profiles at Bermuda[END_REF], [START_REF] Cooper | The influence of springtime weather systems on vertical ozone distributions over three North American sites[END_REF], [START_REF] Folkins | A barrier to vertical mixing at 14 km in the tropics: evidence from ozonesondes and aircraft measurements[END_REF], [START_REF] Ramdriambelo | A case study of extreme tropospheric ozone contamination in the tropics using in-situ, satellite and meteorological data[END_REF], [START_REF] Zachariasse | Influence of stratospheric tropospheric exchange on tropospheric ozone over the tropical Indian Ocean during the winter monsoon[END_REF], [START_REF] Scott | Wave breaking and mixing at the sub-tropical tropopause[END_REF], and [START_REF] Kim | The stratospheretroposphere exchange of ozone and aerosols over Korea[END_REF]. Others in which strong photochemical forcing was targeted include [START_REF] Fujiwara | Tropospheric ozone enhancements during the Indonesian forest fire events in 1994 and in 1997 as revealed by ground-based observations[END_REF] and [START_REF] Longo | Correlation between smoke and tropospheric ozone concentration in Cuiaba during Smoke, Clouds, and Radiation-Brazil (SCAR-B)[END_REF]. The drawback of case study analysis is that, whilst an understanding of process is gained, there is little contribution to our knowledge of the frequency of events or their relative importance in the overall budget of O 3 .

In this study, we first describe the observed features in O 3 along with RH and temperature in the troposphere and then back trajectory analysis will be discussed to explain the features associated with the transport of different air masses. The isentropic 7-day back trajectories were Such low levels of O 3 in the middle and upper troposphere are frequently observed in the tropical marine air [START_REF] Fujiwara | Seasonal variation of tropospheric ozone in Indonesia revealed by 5-year ground-based observations[END_REF]. For this day of observation, the back trajectory plots calculated at three different altitudes of 2, 4 and 8 km are shown in Figure 11(a). All these trajectories over Chennai were tracked to have originated in the MBL of southern Indian Ocean. Back day analysis of the trajectories suggests that the air masses were confined within the MBL and were convectively uplifted (up to 8 km) just hours before their measurements over Chennai [see lower panel of Figure 11(a)]. Owing to deep convection of marine air, the entire troposphere is well mixed resulting in very low mixing ratios of O 3 and very high RH values over Chennai for this day of observation. In the monsoon season, due to wet or rainy weather, RH is typically associated with low levels of O 3 provided by less intense photochemical production [START_REF] Lelieveld | Influences of cloud photochemical processes on tropospheric ozone[END_REF]. In addition, the chemical loss due to following set of reactions [START_REF] Parrish | Background ozone and anthropogenic ozone enhancement at Niwot Ridge, Colorado[END_REF]) could also play a major role.

O 3 + hν ---→ O( 1 D) + O 2 (λ < 320 nm)( 1) O( 1 D) + H 2 O ---→ 2OH
(2)

HO 2 + O 3 ---→ OH + 2O 2 (3)
Similarly, low values of O 3 mixing ratios over the Indian Ocean have been reported due to lifting of ozonepoor MBL air by convective cells of the Inter Tropical Convergence Zone (ITCZ) [START_REF] Laat | Tropospheric ozone distribution over the Indian Ocean during spring 1995 evaluated with a chemistry-climate model[END_REF][START_REF] Taupin | Tropospheric ozone above the southwestern Indian Ocean is strongly linked to dynamical conditions prevailing in the tropics[END_REF][START_REF] Chatfield | Convective lofting links Indian Ocean air pollution to paradoxical South Atlantic ozone maxima[END_REF]. In support to the observations, the biomass burning activities over Indian subcontinent were also lowest during the July 1997.

17 October 1997

For 17 October 1997, vertical profiles of O 3 ,R H ,a n d temperature showing large variability over Chennai are plotted in Figure 10(b). This day of MOZAIC measurements have been chosen as a representative for the transition period from summer to winter monsoon circulations over the Indian subcontinent. The mixing ratio of O 3 is ∼10 ppbv near the surface, which increases linearly with height in the lower troposphere (0-5 km), while profile of RH exhibits very high RH of ∼90%. At higher altitudes, mixing ratio of O 3 increases sharply from ∼45 ppbv at 5.5 km to ∼82 ppbv at 7 km. On the other hand, RH shows just opposite trend as it decreases from 90% at 5.5 km to 30% at 7 km. The peak in O 3 mixing ratio of 82 ppbv coincides with a minimum in RH of 10% between 7 and 8.5 km of altitudes. However, this profile over Chennai appears to be unusual, as we have not noticed such enhancements in O 3 profiles during October and November months of other years.

Figure 11(b) shows back trajectory plots at altitudes 2.5, 5 and 9 km over Chennai for this day of measurements. The back trajectory arriving at 2.5 km of altitude originated over Thailand about 5 days before the observations. Subsequently, the air mass travelled through the MBL (which is a sink of O 3 ) of Bay of Bengal before reaching over Chennai. On the other hand, the sources of back trajectories calculated at 5 and 9 km of altitudes were located in the lower troposphere over Indonesia. It has been well known that during the October-December months of year 1997, there were extensive forest fire activities over Indonesia as also shown in Figure 11(b). Therefore, transport of O 3 and its precursors from Indonesia could have impacted the measurements over Chennai. The year of 1997 corresponds to El Niño events when convective activity becomes low in Indonesia. In this region, it is likely that pronounced enhancements of tropospheric O 3 associated with extensive forest fires due to sparse precipitation may take place [START_REF] Fujiwara | Tropospheric ozone enhancements during the Indonesian forest fire events in 1994 and in 1997 as revealed by ground-based observations[END_REF]. [START_REF] Chan | Characteristics of biomass burning emission sources, transport, and chemical speciation in enhanced springtime tropospheric ozone profile over Hong Kong[END_REF] have reported the substantial enhancements in O 3 mixing ratio over many parts of tropical Southeast Asia and the subtropical south China region including Hong Kong in mid-autumn and early winter (October-December) of 1997, when many forest fires occurred in the Indonesian region. Therefore, O 3 enhancements were caused by the large-scale outflows of O 3 and other pollutants from the fire active regions of Indonesia, which were related to the abnormal meteorological conditions associated with the strong El Niño phenomenon. The spread of O 3 plume, extended as far as India, was also detected by satellites observation of the Earth Probe-Total Ozone Mapping Spectrometer (EP/TOMS) during intense fire (August-November 1997) over Indonesia [START_REF] Thompson | Tropical tropospheric ozone and biomass burning[END_REF]. The global importance of emissions from Indonesian peat fires is well established [START_REF] Herman | Global distribution of UV-absorbing aerosols from Nimbus 7/TOMS data[END_REF][START_REF] Thompson | Tropical tropospheric ozone and biomass burning[END_REF][START_REF] Cochrane | Fire science for rainforests[END_REF]

02 January 2001

For 02 January 2001 of measurements, the vertical profiles of O 3 , RH, and temperature over Chennai are shown in Figure 10(c). This day of MOZAIC profiles have been chosen to represent the winter season measurements over Chennai. In the lower troposphere (0-5 km), mixing ratio of O 3 fluctuates between 20 and 30 ppbv, while corresponding RH profile shows decreasing trend with fluctuations between 40 and 90%. Interestingly, we can see several small-scale stratified layers in the profiles of both O 3 and RH, which are just opposite in phase. In the middle troposphere, a layer (5-7.5 km) of enhanced O 3 (∼40 ppbv) was observed when mixing ratio increased from ∼25 to 65 ppbv. On the other hand, RH profile exhibits just opposite variation and observed to be lowest of ∼10% when O 3 mixing ratio was highest. In the upper troposphere, mixing ratios of O 3 decreases with height while RH increases as their values were ∼20 ppbv and 60%, respectively at 10 km of altitude. [START_REF] Newell | Ubiquity of quasi-horizontal layers in the troposphere[END_REF] found that approximately 20% of the troposphere is stratified and that layers are sometimes as thin as a few hundred metres [START_REF] Thouret | General characteristics of tropospheric trace constituent layers observed in the MOZAIC program[END_REF].

To investigate the factors causing stratifications in both profiles of O 3 and RH, the back trajectories calculated at the three different altitudes of 3, 6 and 9 km over Chennai are plotted in Figure 11(c). Air parcels arriving at 3 and 9 km of altitudes were originated in the free troposphere over the oceanic regions of Indian Ocean and Bay of Bengal and do not show any influence of continental air mass. In the tropics, maritime free tropospheric air mass is characterized by low O 3 and high RH due to lifting of ozone-poor MBL air by convective cells of the ITCZ [START_REF] Laat | Tropospheric ozone distribution over the Indian Ocean during spring 1995 evaluated with a chemistry-climate model[END_REF][START_REF] Taupin | Tropospheric ozone above the southwestern Indian Ocean is strongly linked to dynamical conditions prevailing in the tropics[END_REF]. Further, additional depletion of O 3 in clouds might have also caused the observed low and high RH in their respective profiles [START_REF] Kley | Observations of near-zero ozone concentrations over the convective Pacific: effects on air chemistry[END_REF]. On the other hand, trajectory arriving at 6 km of altitude shows continental influence as it originated over extensive biomass burning regions of west and central Africa (Ghana and Nigeria). The combination of high O 3 and low RH might be due to convectively lifted CBL air that has subsided over Chennai [START_REF] Zachariasse | Influence of stratospheric tropospheric exchange on tropospheric ozone over the tropical Indian Ocean during the winter monsoon[END_REF]. January is the month characterized by the more intense fire activity in west central Africa, where emissions of pollutants including the precursors of O 3 are large [START_REF] Eva | Fires and land-cover change in the tropics: a remote sensing analysis at the landscape scale[END_REF].

A field campaign named EXPeriment for RE gional Sources and Sinks of Oxidants (EXPRESSO) was designed to investigate the O 3 formation in the tropical troposphere above central Africa and to consider the impact of biomass burning processes on the global atmosphere in the November month 1996 [START_REF] Marion | Ozone production efficiency in savanna and forest areas during EXPRESSO experiment[END_REF]. During this campaign period, which corresponds to an intense burning activity, the ozone production efficiency (OPE) ranging from 6.3 to 14.8 was estimated in the plumes. Satellite observations have shown high levels of tropospheric O 3 over large areas above the western African continent [START_REF] Fishman | The distribution of tropospheric ozone determined from satellite data[END_REF].

26 April 2001

Vertical profiles of O 3 , RH, and temperature measured on 26 April 2001 have been shown in Figure 10(d). Typical for the distribution in spring season, profiles of both O 3 and RH show large variations resembling laminar structure over Chennai. The mixing ratio of O 3 is below 10 ppbv, while RH varies from 40 to 80% in the boundary layer. Above the boundary layer, the mixing ratio of O 3 increases rapidly to 50-75 ppbv and remain elevated up to 3.5 km of altitude, while reverse to O 3 profile RH value is down to ∼10% in this layer. In the mid-troposphere, between 3.5 and 4.5 km of altitudes, O 3 decreases to 20 ppbv and RH increases to 70% simultaneously. Similar to layer observed just above the boundary layer, mixing ratio of O 3 shoots to the elevated values of 60-70 ppbv while RH becomes extremely low (below 5%) between 5 and 7 km of altitudes. A layer with O 3 of about 35 ppbv and RH of 15% was observed between 7 and 9 km of altitudes. In the upper troposphere, mixing ratio of O 3 is ∼20 ppbv and RH is relatively high of 40% between 9 and 11 km of altitudes.

We have calculated the back trajectories at various altitudes for this day of measurements; however, trajectories only at 3.0, 4.5 and 8 km of altitudes are shown in Figure 11(d). In previous case study, we have explained that the enhancements in O 3 mixing ratio in the free troposphere over Chennai are mainly due to the long-range transport of fire plumes from Africa. However, in the present case study the observed low mixing ratio of O 3 and high RH near the surface is due to strong temperature inversion (Figure 11(d)), hence O 3 -rich free tropospheric air does not enter into the boundary layer. The trajectory at 3 km over Chennai, which corresponds to the elevated O 3 of ∼80 ppbv, was originated over the central Africa and passed through Arabian Peninsula and northwest India. April is the end of fire season over central Africa [START_REF] Eva | Fires and land-cover change in the tropics: a remote sensing analysis at the landscape scale[END_REF]; however, apart from biomass burning other anthropogenic pollutants could be transported from continents of India and Arabian Peninsula. [START_REF] Diab | Classification of tropospheric ozone profiles based on MOZAIC aircraft data[END_REF] have also reported that the forest fire emissions over the central Africa are responsible for the low to mid-tropospheric enhancements in the spring season. Trajectory at 4.5 km originated in the upper troposphere over the Atlantic Ocean and passes through the marine region of Bay of Bengal, resulting in low O 3 and high RH over Chennai. This could have resulted in the dilution of a high O 3 layer as there are two layers with similar levels of O 3 and RH lying just below and above to this layer of lower O 3 mixing ratio. Trajectories arriving in the upper troposphere at 9 km and higher altitudes were originated over the southeast of Indian Ocean and could have transported the O 3 -poor and wet air masses over Chennai. While moderately low O 3 of 35 ppbv and high RH (40%) at 8 km was due to the transport of mixed air from Arabian Sea and continental region of central India. This transport could be due to the presence of easterly jet, which is characterized by O 3 -poor and wet layer at 9-14 km over the tropics [START_REF] Fujiwara | Upper-tropospheric inversion and easterly jet in the tropics[END_REF].

Conclusions

Climatology of tropospheric ozone and water vapour over a metro city of Chennai in southern India has been presented based on the MOZAIC data during 1996-2001. We have also used the NCEP wind data and HYSPLIT back trajectory calculation to explain the transport and origin of various air masses. Chennai is a coastal city where NE monsoon period from October to December is the principal rainy season, whereas the SW monsoon from June to September is the secondary rainy season. The vertical distributions of both O 3 and H 2 O show large seasonal variations for each year of measurements from 1996 to 1998. In the late winter and spring months, the observed high values of 60-80 ppbv of O 3 mixing ratio in the middle troposphere over Chennai were attributed to the long-range transport of pollutants form continents of Africa and Arabian Peninsula by the northwesterly winds. On the other hand, low O 3 mixing ratios of ∼15 ppbv were observed during the JAS months, which coincide with the summer monsoon circulation over Indian subcontinent. On the other hand, monthly rainfall and vertical distributions of H 2 O show just opposite seasonal variations to O 3 mixing ratio. The onset of summer monsoon circulation associated with rainfall and convective clouds coincides with the decline in mixing ratio of O 3 . While from August to December, the monthly rainfall data exhibit increasing trend, but O 3 was almost constant, this insensitivity of O 3 mixing ratio was due to the balance between the transport of pollutants and photochemical sink of O 3 . For year 1997, rather elevated but increasing trend in O 3 mixing during the early winter months seems to be an unusual feature as we do not see such trends for both the years of 1996 and 1998 of MOZAIC measurements over Chennai.

We have also selected some MOZAIC measurements for case studies of O 3 , RH and temperature to investigate the impacts of long-range transport and special climatologically events. As a representative for the summer monsoon measurements, the profiles on 25 July 1997 exhibit low O 3 values of ∼15 ppbv and high RH in the troposphere due to the deep convection of marine air over Chennai. The measurements on 17 October 1997 have been chosen as a representative for the transition period from summer to winter monsoon circulations over the Indian subcontinent. This day of O 3 profile exhibits strong enhancements from ∼45 ppbv at 5.5 km to ∼82 ppbv at 7 km over Chennai due to transport from extensive forest fire region of Indonesia during year 1997, which corresponds to El Niño events. This is for the first time we report the enhancements of O 3 over India caused by the extensive fires over Indonesia. On 02 January 2001, typical for winter monsoon, the vertical profiles of O 3 and RH show several small-scale stratified layers that are just opposite in phase. Typical for the distribution in spring season, profiles on 26 April 2001 show large variations of both O 3 and RH resembling laminar structure over Chennai.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Daily rainfall variations measured at Chennai for different years during 1996-2001 period [data taken from Indian Meteorological Department (IMD)].

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Mean wind fields (NCEP data) at four different pressure levels during winter (January, February, and March) of 1996-2001 period over continental and surrounding marine regions of India ( * symbol shows the location of Chennai). Colour bar represents the magnitude of wind speed. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/joc

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Mean wind fields (NCEP data) at four different pressure levels during summer (July, August, and September) of 1996-2001 period over continental and surrounding marine regions of India. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/joc

  might have linked with the seasonality in O 3 distributions, the monthly mean tropospheric mixing ratio of O 3 and rainfall recorded per month over Chennai are plotted in Figure 5. Annual variations of O 3 and rainfall show just opposite trends for year 1996 (Figure 5(a)). The rainfall was lowest from January to June months (year 1996 was an exception), while mixing ratio of O 3 was elevated at 35-60 ppbv during this period of measurements over Chennai. The onset of summer monsoon circulation (cleaner marine air), usually associated with rainfall and convective clouds, coincides with the decline in mixing ratio of O 3 from ∼60 to 25 ppbv in upper troposphere

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Monthly mean contour plots of (a) ozone and (b) water vapour representing the annual variations over Chennai during 1996. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/joc

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Monthly mean tropospheric (0-3 and 3-8 km of altitudes) ozone, water vapour, and rainfall per month over Chennai for 1996-1998 period (a-c). This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/joc

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. Monthly mean contour plots of (a) ozone and (b) water vapour representing the annual variations over Chennai during 1997. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/joc

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. Monthly mean contour plots of (a) ozone and (b) water vapour representing the annual variations over Chennai during 1998. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/joc

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. Monthly mean contour plots of (a) ozone and (b) water vapour representing the annual variations over Chennai during 1996-1998. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/joc

Figure 11 .

 11 Figure 11. The 7-day back trajectory plots indicating the source and transport history of air masses at different altitudes for four selected dates of observation over Chennai (a-d). The monthly fire count data (filled circle in red) indicate the activities of biomass burning over the different continents. This figure is available in colour online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/joc

°N, 77.11 °E), and Mumbai (Bombay) (19.09 °N, 72.87 °E).

Table I

 I

	Month	Year 1996	Year 1997	Year 1996-1998
		O 3 (ppbv)	H 2 O (g/kg)	O 3 (ppbv)	H 2 O (g/kg)	O 3 (ppbv)	H 2 O (g/kg)
	January	32.8	3.5	45.7	3.0	39.3	4.4
	February	41.8	4.5	45.6	2.6	41.5	5.0
	March	41.8	9.8	47.0	3.7	43.2	7.9
	April	43.5	14.2	41.7	2.9	43.4	9.6
	May	50.6	7.1	51.4	6.7	50.0	8.4
	June	48.4	8.3	46.4	10.4	47.6	10.9
	July	37.3	8.5	28.4	9.1	32.4	10.6
	August	19.7	8.2	30.0	9.0	21.0	10.1
	September	23.3	7.2	32.3	10.9	27.5	11.0
	October	18.3	9.6	45.8	8.1	30.8	10.8
	November	25.2	8.7	38.8	7.5	30.0	9.7
	December	29.2	3.7	42.1	4.0	36.3	4.8
	4.2. Monthly mean profiles of O 3 and H 2 O during
	1997 and 1998
	Figure 6 shows the seasonal variations of tropospheric
	O 3 and H

. Mean mixing ratios of O 3 and H 2 O between 0 and 10 km of altitudes over Chennai during

1996-1998. 2

O over Chennai for year 1997. Generally, the seasonal pattern of mixing ratio of O 3 is similar to that observed during 1996. The major factors such as emissions of O 3 precursors from biomass burning sources and pattern of transport controlling the distribution of O 3 in the troposphere may change significantly from year

Acknowledgements

The authors acknowledge for their strong support the European Commission, Airbus, CNRS-France, FZJ-Germany, and the airlines (Lufthansa, Air France, Austrian, and former Sabena who carry free of charge the MOZAIC instrumentation since 1994). We are thankful to the IMD, Government of India for providing us the rainfall data. The ATSR World Fire Atlas data have been taken from Ionia products of European Space Agency.


A historical outline 2. Word-based approaches => Words are stored as such in the speaker's mind, no decomposition is needed (Item-and-Process, Word-and-Paradigm, OT output-based derivations, lexematic morphology (Fradin 1993, Bonami et al. 2018)) => As Aronoff (1976, 2018) noted, words such as permit, omit, commit, submit share √mit (from Latin mittere 'send'), but have no common meaning. Similarly, are nature, nation, natural reducible to √nat ? Blueberry, blackberry strawberry, cranberry => *staw and *cran are not attested in isolation, with no specific meaning, hence the label 'cranberry morphemes' first used by Bloomfield (1933).

Morphology: A historical outline

• Within Generative Grammar, much of the territory of morphology is absorbed by other components of grammar, namely syntax and phonology.

• Syntax deals with the internal structure of morphemes and their distribution.

• Phonology deals with the realization of morphemes (allomorphy). • In Classical Transformational Grammar (Chomsky 1955), there was no explicit approach to word structure, though one of the levels posited in the structure of natural languages was labelled M level.

• At the M level, linguistic objects are represented as complexes of morphemes.

• The distribution of these objects is governed by the syntax: e.g. the English auxiliaries have and be were introduced in phrase structure by transformational rules in combination with past tense marker -ed, and progressive maker -ing (Affix Hopping).

Morphology: A historical outline

• Words (morphemes) are introduced into sentences directly by transformational rules at the Phrase level (see also Chomsky 1957)

• In other words, morphemes are the terminal nodes of Phrase markers.

• Chomsky (1965) introduced two main changes with regard to the place of morphemes or lexical items:

The morpheme and other basic concepts

• The word is not a relevant unit for morphological analysis:

• A word can be as short as a vowel or a syllable, and as long as a sentence • Tashlhiyt Berber: /tssfrħttnt/ t-ss-frħ-t-t-n-t 2s-caus-be happy-2s-3Cl.Obj-PL-FM 'you made them (FM) happy'

• Classical Arabic /raːsaltuhunna/ raːsal-tu-hu-nna correspond.Perf.Reciprocal-1sg-CL3object-PL.FM 'I corresponded with them (FM)'

• In a "bottom-up" approach to morphological structure, a word may consist of a root (Lmorpheme, also called free morpheme) combined with affixes (F-morphemes, also called bound morphemes). • L-morphemes belong to an open list of items, as opposed to F-morphemes.

The morpheme and other basic concepts

• Antidisestablishmentarianism is one of the longest words in the English dictionary.

• Speakers know that this word is complex, decomposable into several morphemes (polymorphemic):

anti-as in anti-constitutional, anti-aging dis-as in disconnect, dislike, disable establish = root, lexical free morpheme that contributes the basic meaning.

-ment (nominal suffix) also found in parliament, excitement, refinement -arian (nominal and adjectival suffix) as in grammarian, phonetician, vegetarian, humanitarian -ism (noun-forming suffix) as in tourism, capitalism.

Pref1+pref2+ROOT+suff1+suff2+suff3

The morpheme and other basic concepts

Pref1+pref2+ROOT+suff1+suff2+suff3

• The root contributes the basic meaning.

• The affixes modify the meaning of the root.

• 4 types of affixes:

• a prefix precedes the root • a suffix follows the root • an infix appears in root-internal position • a circumfix is an affix that is prefixed and suffixed at the same time.

The morpheme and other basic concepts

• Each speaker of English knows that some words are simplex, some others are decomposable into smaller pieces (morphemes).

• Their knowledge also involves the morphotactics, i.e. restrictions on the combination and the ordering of morphemes:

*dis-anti-establish… *establish-anti-ment *ment-dis-establish, etc.

• Linguists aim to explicitly and formally characterize the intuitive knowledge that speakers have about their native language, including morphological knowledge.

The morpheme and other basic concepts

• A word may consist of one or more morphemes that can stand alone in a language.

• A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has a (phonological) form and a meaning.

• Bloomfield (1933): a morpheme is 'the minimal meaningful element'.

• Association between form and meaning => Saussurian definition of a minimal sign: Signifiant (sound form): [kʰaet] Signifié (meaning): 🐈⬛ {a small four-legged domesticated mammal that is carnivorous and has soft fur, claws, and whiskers}

• Depending on the theoretical framework, morphemes may be surface-true (concrete) or abstract, contentful or empty (zero morphemes).

The morpheme and other basic concepts

• A morpheme may have different realizations (exponents), called allomorphs.

• The allomorphs can be phonologically conditioned, that is their context of realization is phonologically determined: The morpheme and other basic concepts • Suppletion, lexically determined, refers to words that are phonologically unrelated though they share the same basic meaning:

English: go ~ went Arabic: ʔimraʔa 'woman' ~ nisaːʔ 'women'

The morpheme and other basic concepts

• Another type of allomorphy that is not phonologically conditioned is the one found in German plural nouns.

• The allomorph selection is conditioned by the presence of another morpheme:

• Any count noun suffixed by -heit or -keit forms its plural by -en suffixation (e.g. schwachheiten 'weaknesses', flüssigkeit-en 'fluids') • Stems ending in a vowel + /t/ select one of the plural suffixes -e, -er or -en (e.g. streit-e 'quarrels', zeit-en 'times', kraut-er 'plants').

The morpheme and other basic concepts

• In English, certain verbs form their nouns by suffixation of -ion or -tion:

• act / act-ion, cite / cit-ation, affiliate / affiliat-ion

• Some adjectives are formed by suffixing -ible or -able, other use -ic:

• audible, defensible, reversible / taxable, payable, probable / terrific, mechanic, linguistic.

• In some works, allomorphy is restricted to alternations that cannot be explained by a phonological rule (Lieber 1982, Mathews 1991).

• Reducing allomorphy is a desirable outcome of any morphological analysis.

• Split the following English words into morphemes: • PV = preverbal marker is often a vowel (i-, u-, e-, a-).

• Agreement pronoun marks subject, direct or indirect object.

• Version originates from the Georgian grammatical tradition (meaning 'change'). It is one of the inflectional categories of a verb, along with TAM, person, number and other categories. receive, deceive, perceive, and conceive share the root ceive, which never occurs by itself.

• In Semitic languages, semantically related words are described as sharing a common root that consists entirely of consonants. • Associated with vowels and affixes to specific templates, they form words (Root-and-Pattern morphology, McCarthy 1979, 1981):

E.g. In Classical Arabic root ktb 'write' associated with the vocalic melody i-a to the template CVCVVC derives the form kitaːb 'book' kaːtib 'writer' is derived by associating the same root with the inverse melody a-i to the template CVVCVC.

Basic concepts

Compounding

• Complex words my consist of either one root + affixes or independent words (generally two), called compounds. • Many languages form new words by concatenating two words (or stems).

• Not always easy to identify a sequence of words as a compound.

• In English, spelling may help: some compounds contain a dash big-headed, blue-eyed, go-ahead, producer-director, space-time Some other are written as one words: blackboard, blueprint, greenhouse Others as two word: safety car, seat belt, apple pie, White House • Stress often helps identifying a word as a compound in English: stress falls on the first, left-hand part of the compound: e.g. greenhouse/green house, blackbird/ black bird.

Basic concepts

• Modification is another test that allows identifying a compound.

• A genuine compound cannot be modified by insertion of a word between its members: e.g. an apple pie / *an apple delicious pie

• Compounds can be made of combination of two nouns (apple pie), two adjectives (icy cold), adj+noun (greenhouse), noun+adj (sky blue), verb+noun (pick pocket), verb+verb (stir fry).

• Compounds are headed by one of the bases (often base 2). Their category (verb, noun or adjective) is determined by the category of the head (exceptions: blueeyed, short-legged, etc.)

Basic concepts

Lieber 2021: 98

Basic concepts

Basic concepts

• Reduplication is a morphological process that repeats all or part of a word in order to convey some meaning or function. • Most accounts for reduplication are prosodic (syllable-, foot-or mora-based).

Basic concepts

• Substruction (disfixation): removal of segments or features from the base form.

• Bloomfield (1933) analyzed French adjectives as an instance of segment substruction:

[blɑʃ] [blɑ] 'white' [gʁɑd] [grɑ] 'tall' [pətit]
[pəti] 'short' Other types of (morpho)phonological rules • Velar softening is blocked in monomorphemic context.

• A morpheme-specific process: -ing does not trigger palatalization (panicking, logging). ✧ In (a), /-t/ is an object clitic pronoun, preceded by the 1PERS.SG marker /ʁ/. ✧ in (b), the FM gender brings an additional -t resulting in a geminated cons.

Verb + Object Clitic PF a. zˤrˤi-ʁ-t see-1SG-CL.OBJ [zˤrˤiʁt] 'I saw him' b. zˤrˤi-ʁ-t-t see-1SG-CL.OBJ-FM [zˤrˤiʁtt]
'I saw her' identity avoidance at the right edge ✧FM /-t/ is added in (d) resulting in 3 identical consonants, in addition to a sibilant consonant, which breaks up the cluster.

✧[tt] in (c)

Verb + Object Clitic PF

c. t-zˤrˤi-t-t 2SG-see-2SG-CL.OBJ [tzˤrˤitt] 'you saw him' d. t-zˤrˤi-t-s-t-t 2SG-see-2SG-EP-CL.OBJ-FM [tzˤrˤitstt] 'you saw her' e. t-zˤrˤi-t-t-n-t 2SG-see-2SG-CL.OBJ-PL-FM [tzˤrˤittnt] 'you saw them (FM)'
identity avoidance at the left edge ✧ CL.OBJ, PL and FM markers move to the left, attracted by the negative marker /ur/. ✧2SG marker is a 'CIRCUMFIX'.

Neg+ Object Clitic +Vb PF f. ur-t t-zˤrˤi-t NEG-OBJ 2SG-see-2SG [urttzˤrˤit] 'you didn't see him' g. ur-t-t-i t-zˤrˤi-t NEG-OBJ-FM-EP 2SG-see-2SG [urttitzˤrˤit] 'you didn't see her' h. ur-t-n-t t-zˤrˤi-t- NEG.OBJ-PL-FM 2SG-see-2SG [urtnttzˤrˤit] 'you didn't see them (FM)'

Identity avoidance

o In phonology, the Obligatory Contour Principle (OCP) has been the natural way of addressing melodic identity.

o A structural constraint that prohibits adjacent identical elements at the melodic level (McCarthy 1986: 208, see also Leben 1973, Goldsmith 1976, Odden 1986, Yip 1988).

o Active either within the lexicon or in the course of derivation.

o OCP extended to morphology.

Identity avoidance

o Avoidance of identity in morphology takes several forms (Yip 1998: 220):

a. Other types of (morpho)phonological rules Other types of (morpho)phonological rules

• Semi-vocalization blocked, Berber: The context in which high vowels cease to alternate with glides is when a morpheme boundary occurs between the stem and the enclitic.

Verb Dative

a. gru "pick up" gru-j-as "pick to him/her" xlu "destroy" xlu-j-as "destroy for him/her" kru "rent" kru-j-as "rent him/her" zru "delouse" zru-j-as "delouse him/her" b.

bri "crush" bri-j-as "crush for him/her" sti "sort" sti-j-as "chose for him/her" fsi "untie" fsi-j-as "untie him/her" zˤlˤi "isolate" zˤlˤi-j-as "put aside for him/her"

Distributed Morphology

• Halle & Marantz (1994) • The Vocabulary Item (VI) is the basic unit of Morphology in DM.

• Equivalent to the morpheme or the lexical item in other theories.

• VI has semantic, syntactic and morphological features that are computed within syntactic structure. • VI also has phonological content (features) that is added once the syntactic computation is done (Late insertion). • The phonological properties contribute to the spell-out operation (pronunciation).

Distributed Morphology

• VIs have 3 properties in DM:

• Syntactic structure all the way down: Words are built by means of syntactic operations (Merge, Move, Copy) achieved within a hierarchical structure whose terminal nodes host Vis. • Late insertion: VI are inserted into the terminal nodes of the structure later after syntactic operations. • The terminal nodes of syntactic structure contain semantic and syntactic features but no phonological feature. • VIs are inserted into the terminal nodes if their semantic and syntactic features match all those or a subset of those contained in the terminal nodes. • Underspecification: in order for a VI to be inserted into a terminal node, it has to contain a subset of the syntactic and semantic feature of the terminal node.

Distributed Morphology

• In DM, syntax manipulates "morphemes", made of semantic and syntactic features, with no phonological content.

• In DM, morphemes refer to feature complexes (e.g.

[+pl] as a morpheme for number).

• In the PF component, the operation of VI provides the morpheme with phonological content.

• A Vocabulary Item has the following schema:

• Morpheme ⟺ signal + context of insertion OR signal ⟺ context of insertion • E.g., VIs for English plural: [+PL] ⟺ -s (=/z/) {√dog} [+PL] ⟺ -en {√ox, √child} [+PL] ⟺ ø {√foot, √mouse} • "
The plural morpheme [+Pl] has the Vocabulary Item [+pl] ⟺ /z/ applied to it, such that it receives the phonological form /z/" (Embick 2016: 278).

Distributed Morphology

• Based on the examples below, provide the VI for Past Tense in English.

• leave

• keep • feel • live • reach • work • hit • beat • sing

Distributed Morphology

• The VI for Past Tense in English?

• Allomorphy in DM

• Two types of allomorphy in DM: suppletive allomorphy and morphophonological allomorphy (Harley & Noyer 1999).

• Suppletive allomorphy occurs in the forms that are not phonologically related.

• Suppletive forms stand for different Vocabulary Items that compete for insertion in a terminal node: e.g. English go / went, bad / worse.

• Dutch plurals suffixes -en and -s:

• Nouns can be marked for plural by suffixation of either -en or -s

Distributed Morphology

• Words, boundaries, cycles and and derivation by phase:

• A long-standing issues in morphology and phonology relates to phonological processes that fail to occur when they come up against a certain type of boundaries.

• Structuralist phonologists drew a distinction between phonemes as basic units of phonological analysis and juncture phonemes as carriers of grammatical information in phonology (cf. Kager 1962, Lehiste 1965).

• Generative phonologists resorted to similar objects, including classical SPE types of diacritics and prosodic constituents as means by which phonologically relevant domains are delimited.

• Phonological cycles, levels or strata are also used to account for such non automatic processes (Mascaro1976, Kiparsky 1982, 1985, Mohanan 1982, Bermudez-Otero 2011).

• Chomsky's (2001,2008) Phase Theory offered a new approach at the interface between syntax and phonology.

Distributed Morphology

• According to the author, vP and CP correspond to phases, within which lexical material is inserted and constituents may move up to higher syntactic positions.

• Generalizing from vP, proponents of DM claim that any category-forming projection uniformly defines a phase within which the phonological and semantic properties of words are interpreted (see [START_REF] Marantz | Words. Ms[END_REF][START_REF] Marantz | Phases and words[END_REF].

Derivation by Phase

• Relying on the proposal that category-forming heads define a phase, Marvin (2002) addressed among other phenomena the opacity characterizing schwa-insertion in words like meter [mi:tər], metering [mi:təriŋ], and metric [mεtrik].

• The adjectival suffix -ic which prevents schwa from appearing in metric is spelled out in the same phase as /metr/.

• The gerund suffix -ing is added later in the syntactic structure, once /metr/ is spelled out with schwa.

• The Phase Impenetrability Condition (Chomsky 2001) allows explaining why a previously spelledout schwa resists deletion.

• See Marvin (2013) for a phase-based account of stress assignment in English.

Derivation by Phase

• Unlike phonological cycles that may appear as ad hoc stipulations and which lack external evidence, phases have independent morpho-syntactic motivation, outside the realm of phonology.

• Derivation by phase allows specific chunks to be spelled-out, leading to a grammar whose computation is much simpler in terms of memory load and processing.

• A phase-based account for glide-high vowel alternations in Berber is possible:

gru 'pick up' agraw 'assembly' bri 'crush' abraj 'crushed seeds' grujas 'pick to him/her' brijas 'crush for him/her'

• The high vocoids of verbs like gru and bri are spelled out inside the vP phase as vowels before the dative enclitic /-as/ is added.

• The phase domain is rendered opaque to further operations, including the suffixation of the dative enclitic, whose initial vowel cannot recover the phonological identity of the verb's final segment, hence j-epenthesis.

Derivation by Phase

Haitian Creole

Number in MA nouns

• The facts just discussed suggest that not all MA plurals are located in the same syntactic position

• broken and sound plurals must reside in distinct syntactic positions.

• In line with recent work on number and plurality (Lowenstamm 2008, Fassi Fehri 2012, Kramer 2012), we argue that:

-Sound plurals in MA are associated with the standard Num projection.

-Broken plurals are associated lower in the structure with the n projection Number in MA nouns

[+ pl] [+ F] nP n [+ pl] √ d Q lQ o o NumP Num [+ pl] -at nP n √ d Q lQ dˤloʕ dˤəlʕat

Number in MA nouns

Templatic Morphology

• Word derivation in "templatic" languages makes extensive use of nonconcatenative operations (Root-and-Pattern Morphology). • Templates refer to fixed sequences of consonantal and vocalic positions, arranged in a specific way so that they convey grammatical information (e.g. verb conjugation types "forms", aspect (perf vs. imperf), nominal forms, etc.) • Classical Arabic (along with Hebrew) is probably the best known templatic language. • Well before McCarthy's work (1979McCarthy's work ( , 1981)), which argues for the morphological role of the skeletal tier in Classical Arabic verb conjugation, linguists of the Middle Ages such as Sibawayh used faʕal 'to do' as a template model for derivation. • The novelty with McCarthy is the way he extends the proposal of autosegmental phonology (Goldsmith 1976, Leben 1973) to Classical Arabic verbal conjugation.

• Classical Arabic katab 'he wrote' / kaːtab 'he corresponded' / nkasar 'it broke'

Templatic Morphology

• Guerssel & Lowenstamm (1990) and Lowenstamm (2003) proposed to reduce the number of templates that the verbal forms use to a single template, composed of four CV units:

• The template consists of strictly alternating C and V positions, referring to the Strict CV approach to syllable structure (Lowenstamm 1996, Scheer 2004).

• The template is made of two components: the italicized syllable is a derivational site that serves as the morphological head of the form, and the boxed syllables constitute the complement of the head.

• These components are filled one after the other by means of two operations:

(1) root formation

(2) verb derivation

C V C V C V C V

Templatic Morphology

-The derivational site allows C2 to geminate in Form II in and V1 to lengthen in Form III.

-Reminiscent of the templatic approach to word formation is the nature and the status of the root morpheme in Arabic.

Templatic Morphology

• Standard theories claim that words in Semitic (by extension Afroasiatic) are decomposed into consonantal roots combined with other morphological units (cf. among others McCarthy 1979, Prunet et al. 2000, Frost et al. 2000).

• Alternative theories hold that whole words are stored in the lexicon and that they are derived from other words (cf. among others Hammond 1988, Ratcliffe 1987, Ussishkin 1999and Dell & Elmedlaoui 1992).

• Various attempts to define the root in Afroasiatic languages:

-What is a root made of? -What is its role in word formation processes?

The consonantal root

• In Indo-European languages, the root corresponds to the smallest meaningful lexical unit that a set of items share.

• Roots are assumed to contain both consonants and vowels: e.g. reason, reasoning, reasonable share {reason} receive, deceive, perceive, conceive share {ceive} cranberry, huckleberry / blueberry, strawberry

The consonantal root

• {ceive}, {cran} and {huckle} are bound roots that can neither be assigned a specific meaning nor function as independent words (see Aronoff 1976, Spencer 1991).

• In Semitic languages, semantically and morphologically related words are traditionally described as sharing a common root that consists entirely of consonants, combined with other morphemes.

• In Classical Arabic, katab 'he wrote', kattab 'he made write', ka:tab 'he corresponded', ka:tib 'writer' and maktab 'office' share the root {ktb}. • In Modern Hebrew, tasmir 'handout', méser 'message', masar 'pass on' and mimsar 'relay' share the three consonants {msr}.

The consonantal root

• In Berber, krz 'plough', ikrz 'he ploughed', amkraz 'ploughman', and tayrza 'ploughing' the root {k,r,z}.

• dl 'cover', addal 'scarf', imdl 'lid' and amdlu 'cloud' share the root {dl}.

• This leads to the assumption that the lexicon of the Afroasiatic languages consists mainly of consonantal roots (Greenberg 1955, Diakonoff 1970).

• Associated with templates, they allow deriving various verbal and nominal forms.

The consonantal root

• Further evidence for the existence of the consonantal root is found in word games and language impairment:

• Word games Classical Arabic: kattab > battak, kabbat, tabbak… (McCarthy 1981(McCarthy : 379, 1991:12) :12) Moroccan Arabic: walu / lawu 'nothing', raʒəl / ʒarəl 'man' (Berjaoui 1997) Tashlhiyt Berber: skr 'do' > tissakrjukr / iksud 'he is afraid' > tikkasdjusd.

• Language impairment (Prunet et al. 2000, Idrissi et al. 2008) ʔiħ-t-imaːl > ʔiħtilaːm 'probability', ma-sbaħ > ma-ħbas 'swimming pool'

The consonantal root

• Alternative theories, couched for the most part within the Optimality Theoretic framework (Prince & Smolensky 1993), reject the consonantal root and instead suggest that words are derived from other words "surface-based derivations" (Bat-El 1994, Ussishkin 1999, Bensoukas 2001).

• See also stem and word-based theories other than OT (Hammond 1988, Ratcliffe 1997, and Dell & Elmedlaoui 1992).

• The consonantal root is an abstract morpheme, which never surfaces as such (i.e. without vowels).

• In Tashlhiyt Berber, root consonants can surface without any vowel (e.g. skr 'do', lkm 'arrive', krf 'tie').

The consonantal root

• Learnability issues: Complex and abstract systems are commonly considered difficult to learn, since they require more decisions from the learner (Dresher 1999).

• Learners face difficulties using the consonantal root in word formation; words make the learning process easier (Bat-El 2003:45).

• The consonantal root fails to account for prosodic transfer:

Hebrew: flirt / flirtet, faks / fikses (Bat-El 1994, Ussishkin 1999). Classical Arabic: miljuːn (sg) / malaːjiːn (pl) 'million' ʒundub (sg) / ʒanaːdib 'grasshopper'

The consonantal root

The consonantal root

• Languages games: evidence for the root as an abstract unit of morphological analysis in Tashlhiyt Berber.

• Two secret languages used by women in Tashlhiyt Berber: a. Taqjmit (Lahrouchi & Ségéral 2009), Isouktane south-west Morocco b. Tagnawt (data from Douchaïna 1996Douchaïna , 1998)), Tiznit south-west Morocco.

• Users of these languages have access to abstract levels of representation.

The consonantal root

• Users are able to extract only root consonants from words and use them as an input to derivation.

• Affixes and vowels are dropped.

• The morphological operations used to disguise words are captured as the direct result of the association of a consonantal root to a fixed-shape template (made of a sequence of CV units, Strict CV model (Lowenstamm 1996, Scheer 2004)). The consonantal root

The consonantal root

• Only the consonantal material of Tashlhiyt forms is kept in the disguised forms.

• The vocalic material is replaced in the disguised forms by a default vocalism : I A U (Taqjmit), A (Tagnawt).

• Affixes : aj-is prefixed and -wa-inserted in all Tagnawt forms ti-and -ju-in all Taqjmit forms

• In case the root contains less than three consonants, the lacking material is supplied by epenthetic t in Tagnawt, i in both Tagnawt and Taqjmit.

Templatic competition (Lahrouchi 2013, 2018)

• Competition is not to be understood as in Distributed Morphology. It holds between phonological forms (exponents) for insertion in a specific templatic position.

• It is not the number of features the items contain and the extent to which they match the features specified in the terminal nodes that determine the inserted item (Subset Principle in DM, Halle 1997)

• Rather, it is the hierarchical structure of the syntactic nodes and the place where the templatic position is located that determine which of the competing items is realized.

• When two exponents compete for the same templatic position, the exponent generated lower in the structure blocks the realization of the upper one.

Templatic competition

• In Tashlhiyt Berber, gender t-and CS w-compete for the same position in the template. Templatic competition

Free

• Only one empty C slot is available in the word initial position.

• Gender t-connects to this empty C slot before CS u-is added, yielding a feminine form from which CS u-is absent.

Prosodic Morphology

• Minimality condition: defined in terms of the authentic units of prosody.

• The minimum size corresponds to a bisyllabic or bimoraic foot the Minimal Word, (McCarthy & Prince 1995: 321). • Foot binarity: Feet are maximally binary at the syllabic or moraic level.

• Syllables are either light or heavy.

• Trochaic feet are head-initial (HL), iambic ones are head-final (LH).

• Quantitative systems (languages) make extensive use of prosodic categories:

• 3 types of quantitative systems:

i. Feet may be syllabic or moraic ii. Feet are only syllabic iii. Feet are only moraic

In Mokilese, a Micronesian language spoken in the Caroline Islands (Pacific Ocean), the progressive aspect of the verb is formed by prefixation of a heavy CVC σ (= 2μ).

Prosodic Morphology

Prefixation of a heavy σ CVV (= 2μ).

OT: Markedness & Faithfulness

Principles vs. Parameters (Chomsky 1981)

• The central claim is that languages share a fixed set of universal properties (principles) a specification of a limited number of universal binary choices (parameters).

• In syntax, constituents are universally headed (principle), but languages may differ on the position of the head element (left or right-headed). • In phonology, syllables universally have onsets (principle), but in some languages a syllable may not have an onset (parametric setting).

• Universal principles can only be universal if they are never violated in any language.

• Markedness embodies universality in a 'soft' way, in that linguistic structures can be either marked or unmarked. Unmarked structures are crosslinguistically preferred and found in all grammars.

OT: Markedness & Faithfulness

Markedness vs. Faithfulness

• Markedness plays a central role in Optimality Theory (Prince & Smolensky 1993).

• OT defines UG as a set of universal constraints. "At the heart of Optimality Theory lies the idea that language, and in fact every grammar, is a system of conflicting forces" (Kager 2004: 4).

• The constraints are ranked and violable.

• Grammars differ in their ranking of the constraints.

• Two types of conflicting constraints: Markedness and Faithfulness.

• OT is a theory of the language human capacity, rather than a theory of phonology or morphology.

OT: Markedness & Faithfulness

Components of the OT Grammar • Lexicon: contains lexical representations (or underlying forms) of morphemes, which form the input to: • Generator: generates output candidates for some input and submits them to: • Evaluator: the set of ranked constraints, which evaluates output candidates as to their harmonic values, and selects the optimal candidate.

• The Grammar (GEN) generates and evaluates an infinite set of output candidates.

• The optimal candidate is selected as the actual output. • The optimal output candidate is the one that incurs the least serious violations of constraints (harmonic candidate). • Constraints are ranked, languages differs in their hierarchical ranking. • The violation of certain constraints can be fatal to the derivation.

OT: Markedness & Faithfulness

• Markedness constraints require that output candidates meet some criteria of structural well-formedness.

• Examples of Markedness constraints: • Faithfulness constraints require that outputs preserve the properties of their basic, lexical forms (inputs).

OT: Markedness & Faithfulness

• Faithfulness constraints require that outputs preserve the properties of their basic, lexical forms (inputs).

• Examples of faithfulness constraints a. The output must preserve all segments present in the input b. The output must preserve the linear order of segments in the input c. Output segments must have counterparts in the input.

• The derivation (evaluation) and selection of the optimal candidate with regard to the number of constraint it violates are presented in a TABLEAU.

• Most languages lack nasal vowels. Their grammar involve the following computation: *V NAS : Vowels must not be nasal.

*V ORAL N: Before a tautosyllabic nasal, vowels must not be oral.

IDENT-IO(nasal): Correspondent segments in input and output have identical values for the feaure [nasal].

OT: Markedness & Faithfulness

• OT constraints can be phonological or morphological (prosodic) in nature:

• Phonological relating to segments features and syllables.

• Morpho(phonological) relating to prosodic constituents as well as the alignment (left or right alignment) of segments or affixes within specific domains (root, stem, prosodic word).

McCarthy (2006: 309): "Alignment constraints relevant to the prosody-morphology interface as well.

For example, ALIGN (Stem, L; PWd, L) requires that the left edge of a stem coincides with the left edge of a phonological word. »

• Timugon Murut reduplication instanciates another case of Alignment constraints:

• Two constraints are needed: ONSET that requires syllables have an onset and ALIGN(RED, L; Pwd, L) that requires the reduplicative morpheme (RED) be aligned with the left edge of the prosodic word.

ONSET >> ALIGN(RED, L; Pwd, L)

Hypocoristics

French (Nelson 1998) -Truncation: the truncated form contains at most 2 syllables (1 foot).

-Feet are maximally binary at the syllabic level.

-Hypocoristics in French anchor left by default (right-anchor in Elisabeth > Zabeth).

Hypocoristics

Onsets in hypocoristics

• French hypocoristics require their onsets to be weighted in order to meet the minimum size.

• Complex onsets may contribute to weight, provided that their second consonant contains a closure element (Element theory, see Harris 1990, 1994, Backley 2011).

• flo, klo, but never *fre or *kri

• Two types of Obstruent-Liquid clusters: ➢ Obstruent-Rhotic are monopositional (k r , f r ...). ➢ Obstruent-Lateral are bipositional, they contain an empty nucleus which contributes to weight (køl, føl…). ➢ The closure element |ʔ| present in /l/ but not in /r/ requires the consonant to be associated to its own C-slot. Plénat 1982Plénat , 1984Plénat , 1999 The minimal template

• The minimum size template which French hypocoristics display consists of two CV units.

• CVCV is the minimal domain where Proper Government holds (Kaye et al. 1990, Lowenstamm 1996, Scheer 2004).

C V C V | | | f r ɛ d C V C V | | | f l o PG C V C V | | | | ʃ a ʃ a C V C V | | | | m i k a FRENCH C V C V | | | | b i h i C V C V | | | ʕ i ʃ Tashlhiyt Berber C V C V | | | b l q C V C V | | | | ʕ a b d
The minimal template

• The minimum size template which French hypocoristics display consists of two CV units.

• CVCV is the minimal domain where Proper Government holds (Kaye et al. 1990, Lowenstamm 1996, Scheer 2004).

❑ Berber (Lahrouchi 2022)

• Any segment can be syllabic in Tashlhiyt Berber.

• Ungoverned V slots host syllabic consonants. The beginning of the word

C V C V | | | f r ɛ d C V C V | | | f l o PG C V C V | | | | ʃ a ʃ a C V C V | | | | m i k a
The initial CV hypothesis

• In an attempt to rationalize the asymmetry between languages with only sonority-rising clusters at the beginning of the word and languages where initial clusters are made sonority-free, Lowenstamm (1999) argues that each word of a major category is preceded by an empty CV site.

• The site is filled by means of phonological and morphological operations involving licensing condition. Two types languages:

-Type I languages such as English and French where the initial site is always licensed by the following vowel.

-Type II languages such as Maghrebi Arabic and Hebrew where it is not always licensed.

The beginning of the word

• In French, the initial site, always licensed, hosts proclitics

The beginning of the word

• In Hebrew, the initial site is not always licensed, but a uniformity convention allows the initial CV to remain unlicensed throughout the language, even in words beginning with sonority-rising clusters.

The beginning of the word

• In Berber, the initial site hosts prefixes. The licensing status of the site determines the phonological shape of the prefixes. • The variation in the shape of the causative prefix results from the use of the initial site through two distinct operations: spreading and movement The beginning of the word

Verb

  is the result of the concatenation of 2PERS.SG and CL.OBJ.

  leave / left • keep / kept T[Past] ⟺ -t / __ (Inserted in the context of certain roots) • feel / felt • live / lived • reach / reached T[Past] ⟺ -d (the default VI) • work / worked • hit / hit • beat / beat T[Past] ⟺ -Ø / __ (a phonologically empty VI) • sing / sang Distributed Morphology • What are the VI for Past Tense in English? • leave / left • keep / kept T[past] ⟺ -t / __ (Inserted in the context of certain roots) • feel / felt • live / lived • reach / reached T[Past] ⟺ -d (the default VI) • work / worked • hit / hit • beat / beat T[Past] ⟺ -Ø / __ (a phonologically empty VI) • sing / sang -Roots are acategorial. -vP is a verbal projection within which the root √live is categorized as a verb. -v is a category-defining head. --ed is a VI inserted under T for [+Past]

  a. Vowels must not be nasal b. Syllables must not have codas c. Syllables must have onsets d. Obstruents must not be voiced in coda position e. Sonorants must be voiced

Constraintsa.

  ANCHOR LEFTBT: Anchor L(Trunc, Base). The left edge of the truncated form must correspond to the left edge of the base. b. ANCHOR RIGHTBT: Anchor R(Trunc, Base). The right edge of the truncated form must correspond to the right edge of the base. c. CONTIGUITY: The portion of the base standing in correspondence forms a contiguous string, as does the correspondent portion of the truncated form.! (McCarthy &Prince 1994) d. ONSET: *σ[V (Itô 1989) e. NO CODA: *…C] σ f. MAX BT: Every segment of the base form must correspond to a member of the truncated form.

•

  The central function of Version is to semantically mark the participant affectedness or salience (objective, subjective, locative).• Version also defines the conjugation type (perfect, plusperfect) as well as the lexical class of the verb.

	Basic concepts Basic concepts
	• Inflection is generally syntactically determined. It refers to the type of morphological operations that express grammatical distinctions, including Sort the morphemes into inflectional and derivational: • In the Indo-European type of languages, the root is a type of morpheme, considered to be the smallest meaningful lexical unit that a set of items share.
	number, person, gender, noun class, case, tense, aspect, voice, and mood. natural > naturalize > naturalization). sensational longer • Derivation commonly refers to category-changing operations (e.g. nature > deconstructing • It contains both consonants and vowels: driver E.g.,
	• Inflectional suffixes generally follow derivational ones, and precede them when repeatedly offside
	prefixed (outer affixes, as opposed to inner derivational affixes). revitalizations interpretability
	e.g. counterdemonstrations natur-al-iz-ed natur-al-iza-tion-s institutionalization Further readings: Verb . Journal of Language and Linguistic Studies 18/2. Makharoblidze & Leonard (2022). Disentangling Structural Complexity In A (Challenging) Inflectional System: The Georgian uglily funniest
	Gurevich, Olga (2006). Constructional Morphology: The Georgian Version . PhD, UC at Berkeley.

reason, reasoning, and reasonable share the root reason.

  The same morpheme cannot appear twice in the same word.

	Identity avoidance
	o Language-specific, subject to exceptions, optional, interspeaker
	variation.

b. Different but homophonous morphemes cannot appear adjacent in the same word or sentence. c. Homophonous morphemes cannot appear on adjacent words d. The output of reduplication cannot be total identity. o Identity avoidance is achieved through deletion (haplology), insertion, or feature change. o Several proposals: o Morphological haplology vs. vacuous rule application (Stemberger 1981): series > series, species > species (no plural suffix added, no rule applied) o The Repeated Morph Constraint, affix-checking (Menn & MacWhinney 1984): take a word from the lexicon, check if it already contains the affix to be added, and add the affix only if it is not already present.

•

  Competition holds among VIs for insertion. The VI that displays a larger subset of features wins.

	1. The syntactic component
	generates structures by selecting
	and combining morphosyntactic
	features by means of Move,
	Merge, and Copy.
	2. The morphological operations
	(fusion, fission, impovrishment)
	take place.
	3. Only after morphosyntactic
	operations that the phonological
	form, called VI, is inserted
	through a process called Spell-
	out (hence, Late Insertion) +
	semantic interpretation
	(meaning).
	4. Readjustment rules apply if
	necessary.
	e.g. destroy => destruction
	bear => bore, born => birth

•

  In the masculine forms, where gender is unmarked, CS u-shows up.

	Templatic competition Prosodic Morphology
	• McCarthy & Prince 1986, 1995: A universal set of prosodic categories hierarchically structured.
			Prosodic word
			Foot
	MS	FM	Syllable	Prosodic Hierarchy
	a-frux	t-a-frux-t
	u-frux	t-frux-t/ *tufruxt	Mora
	-Categories established outside morphology, used in phonology to account for stress assignment and quantity sensitive systems.
	See also Selkirk 1980, 1984, Nespor & Vogel 1986, among others.

ω Ft σ μ

  (initial) geminates can be moraic in languages such as Turkese and Pattani Malay (seeTopinzi 2008Topinzi , 2010Topinzi , 2011)).• Complex onsets can affect weight in quantitative meter (Ryan 2014).• French hypocoristics (Lahrouchi 2022).

• Counterevidence

•

  , Plénat & Huerta 2006

	Base	Hypo. Weight
	a. ʃaʁlɔt	ʃaʃa	2σ,μ
	mikaɛl	mika
	gabrijɛl	gabi
	b. kristjɑ̃kris	1σ,2μ
	frederik frɛd
	viktwar	vik
	c. florɑ s	flo	1σ,μ
	klod	klo
	Ʒoana	dʒo

•

  When of causative and reciprocal prefixes are combined, only the inner prefix displays quantity alternation.

smmknu 'make lean mutually' snħiʃʃim 'cause (them) shame each other'

• Features rather than morphemes are the terminal nodes of Phrase markers.• Lexical Insertion adds morphemes in syntactic structure, provided that their features are compatible with that of the terminal nodes.

Fall School of linguistics 2023, Ilia State University, TbilisiMohamed Lahrouchi

• The various forms of the verb are obtained in a natural way from the association of a consonantal root with vocalic melodies to prosodic templates(McCarthy 1979(McCarthy , 1981)).