Wook-Geun Shin

Jose Ramos-Mendez

Ngoc Hoang Tran

Shogo Okada

Yann Perrot

Carmen Villagrasa

Sebastien Incerti

Ngoc Hoang

Geant4-DNA simulation of the pre-chemical stage of water radiolysis and its impact on initial radiochemical yields

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The mechanistic simulation of biological effects induced by ionizing radiation at the subcellular and DNA scales is a scientific challenge. Such an approach could lead to a better understanding of carcinogenesis at low doses and to the development of more accurate risk models [START_REF] Mullenders | Assessing cancer risks of low-dose radiation[END_REF]. Numerous Monte Carlo track structure (MCTS) codes have been developed so far to predict DNA damage induction. Among them, Geant4-DNA [START_REF] Bernal | Track structure modeling in liquid water: A review of the Geant4-DNA very low energy extension of the Geant4 Monte Carlo simulation toolkit[END_REF][START_REF] Incerti | Comparison of GEANT4 very low energy cross section models with experimental data in water[END_REF][START_REF] Incerti | The Geant4-DNA project[END_REF][START_REF] Incerti | Geant4-DNA example applications for track structure simulations in liquid water: a report from the Geant4-DNA Project[END_REF], PARTRAC [START_REF] Kreipl | Time-and space-resolved Monte Carlo study of water radiolysis for photon, electron and ion irradiation[END_REF], TRACs (TRACELE and TRACPRO) [START_REF] Cobut | Monte Carlo simulation of fast electron and proton tracks in liquid water-I. Physical and physicochemical aspects[END_REF], and others (see comprehensive reviews in [START_REF] Nikjoo | Track-structure codes in radiation research[END_REF][START_REF] El Naqa | Monte Carlo role in radiobiological modelling of radiotherapy outcomes[END_REF][START_REF] Nikjoo | Radiation track, DNA damage and response-a review[END_REF]), can predict both direct and indirect damage, from physical interactions and water radiolysis products, respectively. At the subcellular scale, it is reported that the contribution of indirect damages becomes more important than that of direct damage below a linear energy transfer (LET) of 300 keV/μm. [START_REF] Hirayama | Contributions of direct and indirect actions in cell killing by high-LET radiations[END_REF]. Therefore, a careful modeling of water radiolysis in the cellular medium (liquid water in these codes) is essential.

The "pre-chemical" stage of water radiolysis links the "physical" and "chemical" stages and determines the initial radiochemical yields, called G-values, which are the number of molecular species normalized per 100 eV of deposited energy. During the pre-chemical stage, the excited and ionized water molecules, H2O * and H2O + , are dissociated into molecular species according to the pre-chemical model. To date, it is unfortunately almost impossible to experimentally probe the prechemical stage on the femtosecond scale. Therefore, it is still common in radiochemical studies to adjust the pre-chemical parameters to match the simulated radiochemical yields to the experimental data, due to the lack of a complete mechanistic understanding of the pre-chemical processes. For example, PARTRAC uses the pre-chemical model of TRACs with modifications of the dissociation scheme and probabilities to reproduce the experimental yields of chemical species. On the other hand, the pre-chemical model of Geant4-DNA (version 10.7) is derived from PARTRAC without any adjustment, but additional physico-chemical processes such as electron attachment and electron-hole recombination are added. These additional processes, indeed more realistic, induce a significant disagreement which makes it difficult to match the experimental data for radiolysis of water.

Thus, in this study, we propose to revise the pre-chemical dissociation scheme and probabilities of the 10.7 version of Geant4-DNA to improve the agreement with the experimental and simulated G-values found in the literature, as a function of time and LET. [START_REF] Burns | Radiation chemistry of high-temperature (300-410 deg) water[END_REF] instead of that of Taube [START_REF] Taube | Photochemical reactions of ozone in solution[END_REF] (which considers dissociation into H2O2) in order to obtain better agreement with experimental data.

Materials and methods

Pre-chemical models

H • + • OH 25.35 - - 25.35 H2 + O( 1 D) a 3.25 H2+2 • OH c 15 H2+2 • OH c 15 H2+2 • OH c 3.25 H2+H2O2 d 2H • + O( 3 P) b 3.9 - - 3
The dissociation of H2O * after electron-hole recombination is accounted for in both TRACs and Geant4-DNA. For this process, an empirical dissociation channel was proposed by Rowe et al. [START_REF] Rowe | The yield of oxygen and hydrogen atoms through dissociative recombination of H2O+ ions with electrons[END_REF], in which it is reported that the fraction of the H • + • OH dissociation channel is 55% of the species produced. However, the 10.7 version of Geant4-DNA directly uses this value without reducing it by considering the relaxation probability. Therefore, we corrected the dissociation probabilities of electron-hole recombination taking into account those of relaxation probability, for example 35.75% for H • + • OH channel (55%×65%) [START_REF] Cobut | Monte Carlo simulation of fast electron and proton tracks in liquid water-I. Physical and physicochemical aspects[END_REF], for consistency with the original paper by Rowe et al. [START_REF] Rowe | The yield of oxygen and hydrogen atoms through dissociative recombination of H2O+ ions with electrons[END_REF].

In summary, this study includes Auger-generated H2O 2+ dissociation, dissociation channel modifications for B 1 A1 excitation, and the electron-hole recombination process.

Simulation configuration

The public version of Geant4-DNA (version 10.7) and the recently implemented independent reaction times (IRT) technique (available in the example "chem6") [START_REF] Ramos-Mendez | Independent reaction times method in Geant4-DNA: implementation and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Shin | Development and application of the Geant4-DNA toolkit for the simulation of radiobiological effects at the sub-cellular scale[END_REF] are used in this study to simulate G-values for incident electrons, protons and alpha particles. The simulation configurations and physics settings validated in our previous water radiolysis study [START_REF] Shin | Development of a new Geant4-DNA electron elastic scattering model for liquid-phase water using the ELSEPA code[END_REF][START_REF] Shin | Evaluation of the influence of physical and chemical parameters on water radiolysis simulations under MeV electron irradiation using Geant4-DNA[END_REF][START_REF] Karamitros | Diffusion-controlled reactions modeling in Geant4-DNA[END_REF][START_REF] Ramos-Mendez | Monte Carlo simulation of chemistry following radiolysis with TOPAS-nBio[END_REF] are used, namely the G4EmDNAPhysics_option2 physics constructor with the ELSEPA electron elastic scattering model and the Meesungnoen electron thermalization model. For radiolysis simulation, we choose the G4EmDNAChemistry_option3 chemistry constructor, which uses the same chemistry parameters as RITRACKS from Elliot's work [START_REF] Elliot | Rate constants and G-values for the simulation of the radiolysis of light water over the range 0-300 deg[END_REF][START_REF] Plante | Considerations for the independent reaction times and step-by-step methods for radiation chemistry simulations[END_REF], and the proposed modification of the pre-chemical parameters presented in this work.

Computational and experimental data sets presented by [START_REF] Buxton | Nanosecond pulse radiolysis of aqueous solution containing oproton and hydroxyl radical scavengers[END_REF][START_REF] Wolff | Picosecond pulse radiolysis. IV. Yield of the solvated electron at 30 picoseconds[END_REF][START_REF] Draganić | Formation of primary reducing yields (Geaq-and GH2) in the radiolysis of aqueous solutions of some positive ions[END_REF][START_REF] Burns | Nanosecond proton pulse radiolysis of aqueous solutions[END_REF][START_REF] Sumiyoshi | The yield of hydrated electrons at 30 picoseconds[END_REF][START_REF] Laverne | Scavenger and time dependences of radicals and molecular products in the electron radiolysis of water: examination of experiments and models[END_REF][START_REF] Belloni | Ionizing radiation-liquid interactions: a comparative study of polar liquids[END_REF][START_REF] Elliot | Temperature dependence of g values for H2O and D2O irradiated with low linear energy transfer radiation[END_REF][START_REF] Tomita | Monte Carlo simulation of physicochemical processes of liquid water radiolysis[END_REF][START_REF] Pimblott | Stochastic simulation of the electron radiolysis of water and aqueous solutions[END_REF][START_REF] Bartels | Spur decay of the solvated electron in picosecond radiolysis measured with time-correlated absorption spectroscopy[END_REF][START_REF] Jay-Gerin | A new estimate of the OH radical yield at early times in the radiolysis of liquid water[END_REF][START_REF] Laverne | OH radicals and oxidizing products in the gamma radiolysis of water[END_REF][START_REF] Muroya | A re-evaluation of the initial yield of the hydrated electron in the picosecond time range[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Time-dependent yield of the hydrated electron and the hydroxyl radical in D2O: a picosecond pulse radiolysis study[END_REF] are used for comparison with the simulated G-values as a function of time. For G-values as a function of LET, computational and experimental data obtained by [START_REF] Ramos-Mendez | Monte Carlo simulation of chemistry following radiolysis with TOPAS-nBio[END_REF][START_REF] Schwarz | Radiolysis of neutral water by cyclotron produced deuterons and helium ions[END_REF][START_REF] Naleway | Theoretical analysis of the LET dependence of transient yields observed in pulse radiolysis with ion beams[END_REF][START_REF] Burns | Effect of radiation type in water radiolysis[END_REF][START_REF] Wasselin-Trupin | Hydrogen peroxide yields in water radiolysis by high-energy ion beams at constant LET[END_REF][START_REF] Anderson | Molecular product and free radical yields in the decomposition of water by protons, deuterons, and helium ions[END_REF][START_REF] Pastina | Hydrogen peroxide production in the radiolysis of water with heavy ions[END_REF] are compared with the results. It should be noted that most of the experimental data are measured under arbitrary control of the solvent concentration, whereas the simulations are performed for pure liquid water. We first present in Figure 1 the simulated radiochemical yields as a function of time, using Geant4-DNA 10.7 (blue and cyan curves) and the improved pre-chemical stage proposed in this work (red and magenta curves). The LET values of all calculated and measured references are between 0.186 -0.314 keV/μm. Thus, only the results for 80 keV and 1 MeV electrons, whose LET values are 0.61 and 0.16 keV/μm, respectively, are shown in Figure 1.

Results and discussion

G-values as a function of time

The G-values are not much affected by the LET changes in the low LET region, for example, between the 0.16 and 0.61 keV/μm curves. Thus, we can conclude that the variation observed in the experimental data comes mainly from the different experimental setups. The red and magenta curves have lower G-values for • OH radicals, H2O2, H2, and OH -than the blue and cyan curves.

The G-values of these species calculated in this study are closer to recent experimental data such as those of Wang et al. [START_REF] Wang | Time-dependent yield of the hydrated electron and the hydroxyl radical in D2O: a picosecond pulse radiolysis study[END_REF] (dashed line, for • OH and eaq -), measured at the shortest time after irradiation (7 ps), within the experimental uncertainty.

For H2 molecules, the initial G-value with the new pre-chemical parameters is 0.16 molecules/100 eV at 1 ps. This value is closer to the experimental estimate of Schwarz et al. [START_REF] Schwarz | Applications of the spur diffusion model to the radiation chemistry of aqueous solutions[END_REF] reported at 0.15 molecules/100 eV (shown as the initial value of LaVerne and Pimblott [START_REF] Laverne | Scavenger and time dependences of radicals and molecular products in the electron radiolysis of water: examination of experiments and models[END_REF]).

We observed that the differences between both values on • OH and H • radicals saturate at a late time. However, up to 5 ns (which is the proposed time limit of the damage simulation in Geant4-DNA [START_REF] Sakata | Fully integrated Monte Carlo simulation for evaluating radiation induced DNA damage and subsequent repair using Geant4-DNA[END_REF]), the G-values of • OH radical (which are mainly responsible for indirect DNA damage)

decrease and the two models differ by up to 5%.

G-values as a function of LET

Conclusion

In this study, the pre-chemical stage of Geant4-DNA is evaluated by comparing it with the TRACs MCTS codes. The Geant4-DNA dissociation scheme is then revised to improve agreement with experimental and computational G-values as a function of time and LET found in the literature.

The new dissociation scheme including B 1 A1 excitation and the electron-hole recombination process directly influences the G-values of • OH, H2, and H • species. Our results are close to recent experimental data, especially for • OH and H2O2 generated by • OH+ • OH reactions. This adjustment could reduce the Geant4-DNA simulated indirect DNA damage yields, which were relatively higher than experimental data [START_REF] Shin | Development and application of the Geant4-DNA toolkit for the simulation of radiobiological effects at the sub-cellular scale[END_REF]; this will be the subject of another study. The new pre-chemical model presented in this work will be soon released in Geant4-DNA as an alternative option.

In future work, the dissociation of H2O + cation [START_REF] Montenegro | Evaporation, fission and auto-dissociation of doubly charged water[END_REF] will be improved and multi-ionized water molecules [START_REF] Meesungnoen | High-LET radiolysis of liquid water with 1H+, 4He2+, 12C6+, and 20Ne9+ ions: effects of multiple ionization[END_REF] will be added based on recent literature for the accurate modeling of pre-chemical stage.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. The time evolution of G-values for incident electrons calculated with the modifications proposed in this work (red and magenta curves) and by the 10.7 version of Geant4-DNA (blue and cyan curves), compared to the measured and calculated yields. For Wang et al. (2018), the fit data are shown.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. The G-values at the end of the chemical stage (1 μs) as a function of LET for incident electrons, protons and alphas (open coloured circles), compared with measured and calculated yields.

Table 1 .

 1 Dissociation scheme and associated probability for each channel used in this work, and available in Geant4-DNA, PARTRAC and TRACs MCTS codes. Values in italic indicate changes compared to Geant4-DNA 10.7[START_REF] Karamitros | Modeling radiation chemistry in the Geant4 toolkit[END_REF].

				Probability (%)
			Channel	This work	Geant4-DNA [12]	PARTRAC [6]	TRACs [7]
		H2O +	H3O + + • OH	100	100	100	100
	Ionization	Auger effect H2O 2+	2H3O + + H2O2	100	-	-	100
		A 1 B1	H • + • OH H2O	65 35	65 35	65 35	65 35
			H3O + + • OH + eaq -50	55	55	50
	Excitation	B 1 A1

  2+induced by the Auger process is newly implemented in Geant4-DNA. The excited water molecule (H2O * ) is dissociated according to the five excited states. The A 1 B1 state represents the excitation of the 5 th electronic layer (1b1→4a1), while the B 1 A1 state corresponds to the excitation of the 4 th layer (3a1→4a1), and the other states represent Rydberg series and diffusion bands.As shown in Table1, Geant4-DNA uses the pre-chemical model of PARTRAC to describe the dissociation scheme after excitation, and considers two additional processes (after electron capture) that are not considered by PARTRAC: electron attachment and electron-hole recombination. Thus, in this study, we applied the B 1 A1 dissociation channel proposed by TRACs[START_REF] Cobut | Monte Carlo simulation of fast electron and proton tracks in liquid water-I. Physical and physicochemical aspects[END_REF]. Note that the different atomic oxygen states ( 1 D or 3 P) are considered as different species in the water radiolysis simulation, and we decided to use the more recent dissociation channel of O( 1 D) into two hydroxyl radicals proposed byBurns et al.

							.9
			H2O	17.5	30	30	17.5
		Rydberg,	H3O + + • OH + eaq -50	50	50	-
		Diffusion	H • + • OH	-	-	-	-
		bands	H2O	50	50	50	-
		Electron
		attachment	OH -+ • OH + H2	100	100	-	100
		H2O -
	Electron		H • + • OH	35.75	55	-	35.75
	capture	Electron-hole recombination	H2 + O( 1 D)	13.65 H2+2 • OH c	15 H2+2 • OH c	-	13.65 H2+H2O2 d
		H2O *	2H • + O( 3 P)	15.6	-	-	15.6
			H2O	35 e	30	-	35 e

a Oxygen atom in the singlet D state. b Oxygen atom in the triplet P state. c O( 1 D) + H2O → 2 • OH from Burns et al., 1981 [13]. d O( 1 D) + H2O → H2O2 from Taube, 1956 [14]. e Same relaxing probability for B 1 A1 excitation except auto-ionization.

The dissociation scheme of ionized water molecules (H2O + ) is clearly established

[START_REF] Thomsen | Two-photon dissociation and ionization of liquid water studied by femtosecond transient absorption spectroscopy[END_REF]

, • OH and H3O + , regardless of the ionization level. Furthermore, in this work, the dissociation of H2O


Sémiotiques de l'archive

 2013). Indeed, in this digital age, we are living in a "recording society" (Ferraris, 2013): any

Introduction

Texte intégral

This issue of Signata aims to address the question of the archive from a semiotic and semio-pragmatic perspective. By "semiotics", we do not mean a single discipline, but rather a plurality of approaches by which to question meaning, forms, and values within the historical, sociological, philosophical, linguistic, media, and artistic disciplines. The aim of this issue is thus the constitution of a cartography that embraces the different approaches that, in the archival field, can elicit reflections pertaining to meaning.

Introduction https://journals.openedition.org/signata/3275 1 sur 9 07/06/2021 15:39 digital production will be automatically archived (Mayer-Schönberger, 2009), and many of our daily practices are traceable in the form of digital data [START_REF] Merzeau | Du signe à la trace. L'information sur mesure[END_REF].

If the role of digital culture seems obvious, it is all the more clear that the latter only gives new vigour to a trend which has been in place for several decades already. According to Pierre Nora, "the whole of society lives in the conservative religion and in archival productivism" (Nora ed., 1984). The massive digitization of originally nondigital archives and documents has directed the attention of society and of scholars towards institutional and academic practices that aim to make accessible data that was once condemned to be consulted in a less efficient manner [START_REF] Jeanneret | Critique de la trivialité. Les médiations de la communication[END_REF]. Digitization thus seems to concretize an orientation already underway since the era of technical reproducibility: the physical proliferation of reproductions across a multitude of media. Archiving is certainly an imperative of "digital culture" (Doueihi, 2008): technically, in the digital environment, any live broadcast involves the downloading of a saved file, as opposed to what occurs in the analog environment (thus Charles de Gaulle's June 18 appeal was broadcast but not recorded; in analog media, one broadcasts and only then records), which proves the importance of the notion of archiving in the world of digital media (Ernst, 2013). Nevertheless, the onset of the age of the all-archive had already made inroads at the beginning of the twentieth century, when the era of technical reproducibility ensured the accessibility and potential impact of any cultural production [START_REF] Davallon | Le Don du patrimoine[END_REF][START_REF] Heinich | La Fabrique du patrimoine. De la cathédrale à la petite cuillère[END_REF]. Thus, what seems to be at the heart of the technical developments that accompanied the emergence of digital technology and that renewed the patrimonial trends of society is undoubtedly not conservation, but rather the transmissibility of contents-recording being rather a means to achieve this, as one preserves in order to be able to transmit what one would otherwise risk losing. The dimension of conservation is consubstantial with transmission in the very definition of heritage (Treleani, 2017). Preservation is moreover subject to the uncertainty linked to the durability of new storage media: digital media, which is one of the least durable media from a technical standpoint (the demagnetization of hard disks entailing a potential loss of data within the span of a few years), allows nevertheless for more efficient accessibility.

The practices of digitization are thus forms of technical reproduction, and as such, they aim at accessibility on the one hand and involve re-editorialization on the other (Badir and Baetens eds., 2004). In other words, they feed a dynamic of repetition and differentiation, of revival and renewal of what is called "content" and how it circulates among other contents (Treleani, 2014;Stockinger, 2015;Colas-Blaise and Tore eds., 2021). One of the raisons d'être of the (trans)discipline called the "Digital Humanities" (Mounier, 2010), for example, seems to be based as much on the resources of the available documents as on the digital computations and visualizations they may be subjected to. A certain number of visualizations aim to present themselves as real analyses of archived collections, images, and films, thereby producing new cultural objects (see the case of Lev Manovich's Media Visualization: Manovich, 2001, 2015and 2020;[START_REF] Dondero | The Language of Images. The Forms and the Forces[END_REF].

Faced with such issues, a semiotic approach can be enlightening. Studying the archive involves approaching a field with multiple materialities and practices (devices and interfaces, formatting and reading practices, visualizations and referencing) and with stabilizing procedures and values (conservation and collection on the one hand, attachment to the "original" and to "heritage", on the other). The archive is based on a paradoxical semiology (a "mythology"): preservation and access. Preserving and making accessible is always redefining, rethinking, and remaking. Each operation inherent to it is indeed a re-semiotization: selection and valorization on the one hand, re-framing and re-editorialization on the other, that is to say, inter-semiotic translation, re-mediation,

"Concepts and criticisms"

and re-enunciation [START_REF] Day | Indexing it all. The Subject in the Age of Documentation, Information and Data[END_REF]Colas-Blaise and Tore eds., 2021). We may simply think of the recent and insufficiently questioned cult of the restored and patrimonialized film, "finally" made accessible in its "best version", which is often called a "director's cut"the latter being actually a "myth" (Marie and Thomas eds., 2008), the version supposedly found and restored being in fact a new version of the film.

Semiotics, a discipline traditionally used namely for studying the field of media, is strongly concerned with the link established between the accessibility of documents and their handling by a particular medium. The mediatization of archives is indeed "reenunciation". It can also be approached from the perspective of its semiotic performativity: archiving consists less in observing what has been than in generating what one wishes to do. It even involves discarding at least as much as it does preserving, because to select is ipso facto to lose what one has filtered out [START_REF] Landwehr | Die anwesende Abwesenheit der Vergangenheit[END_REF]. The question thus arises as to what are the conditions of felicity of such performativity? And what are the enunciative pragmatics on which archiving depends?

Moreover, if we conceive of the digital archive as forming a particular link between materiality and temporality, two other questions of great interest to current semiotics emerge. First, regarding materiality (the "substances of expression" in structural semiotics): how can we relevantly and rigorously link material devices with signifying writings? Secondly, regarding temporality ("diachrony"): how can we triangulate devices, forms, and temporalities? But also: what kind of requirements does such a triangulation involve? Are they epistemic, deontological or even political, or rather a complex entanglement of all of these?

In any case, it seems that the most useful concepts for describing the requirements of the archive and of archiving practices are "reliability" (cf. philological necessity: Rastier, 2013) and "authenticity" (cf. putting digitization into question: [START_REF] Bachimont | Patrimoine et numérique[END_REF][START_REF] Fickers | Update für die Hermeneutik. Geschichtswissenschaft auf dem Weg zur digitalen Forensik?[END_REF]. No doubt, we could, more profoundly, also add "persuasiveness": should archiving not be accompanied by a meta-narrative allowing us to believe in its own propriety? And should we not go even further, by noting the "power" and the "duty" of the archive, namely its fundamentally political and ethical scope [START_REF] Foucault | L'Archéologie du savoir[END_REF][START_REF] Farge | Le Goût de l'archive[END_REF][START_REF] Derrida | Mal d'archive[END_REF]? In any case, one cannot raise the issue of the uses of archives without raising the issue of the practice represented by archival constitution. And this is a situation complicated by digital technology, once again, because, in the digital environment, doing is already archiving.

The first section of the dossier establishes conceptual benchmarks that make it possible to grasp the issues pertaining to archives from a semiotic point of view. The "meaning of archives" is then approached from a phenomenological and linguistic perspective. Modifying Pomian's neologism, semiophore, Bruno Bachimont analyzes the role of heritage objects as mnemophores, carriers of memory. Material evidence, works, and information, according to Bachimont, are objects that enable a relation to the past, and which participate in different forms of institution of meaning. Now, at the moment a reference to the past is made through the consultation of a mnemophore, a phenomenological tension arises between the adherence to the past such as it is presented by the object and the influence of the subject's subjectivity, which entails anachronism. But it is historical empathy that should be privileged and psychological anachronism avoided. Now, traditionally, such empathy rested upon a critical distance which served as the bedrock of the three pillars of archival science's deontology: integrity, authenticity, and reliability. According to Bachimont, this memorial "Performances of the archive" functioning has been destabilized by the digitalization of mnemophores. Digital technology calls authenticity into question because its capabilities in terms of technical reproduction lead to a questioning of the material integrity of the mnemophore's medium and at the same time to an abolition of the critical distance by immersive devices that claim to offer a first-person memorial experience. These challenges are ultimately issues inherent to documentary memory and to historical consciousness. However, digital technology reconfigures them in an unprecedented way. Ultimately, Bachimont proves that the digital age is simply casting a new light on the archival discipline and to the challenges traditionally raised by archives.

More generally, one might ask: from the perspective of ordinary language, what is an "archive"? Marie-Anne Chabin examines the meaning of the word and its different uses over time. She also analyzes the role of the word "archiving", which designates the practice that leads to the production of archives and which therefore constitutes a prerequisite. Thus, she creates a cartography of meanings, noting the presence of a plethora of media, domains, and contents that are called archives without there being a true common denominator between their characteristics. In the end, the only thing that these elements seem to have in common is the relationship they have with the person who deals with them: an archive is what is considered to be an archive, with the intention of making it a piece of memory, a reference for an action, etc. Gradually, there has been a transition from a strict meaning of the term "archive", used to designate objects and archived administrative documents, towards a dynamic sense by virtue of which what serves as an archive is that which we preserve in view of a specific purpose. Chabin thus notes the progressive tendency to prefer the term "archiving" to "archive", which designates the activity that makes objects into archives.

The section "Concepts and criticisms" concludes with Laurent Le Forestier's contribution, which presents a set of "reflections on the history of the concept of film editing in the era of digital archives". Cinema is taken to be the field in which the discipline of history, the practice of archives, and semiotic questioning intersect. The object of study is film editing and montage: an object that is thought and defined in a manner which varies according to the historical corpus. Le Forestier thus points to the methodological problem of not only dealing with a set of technical phenomena (editing practices), which are linked to a historical concept (what is meant by "editing"), but of studying these phenomena through digitized historical documents, where such a link is overall inaccessible. Because digital archives, Le Forestier explains, are in any case partial and biased: they neglect important aspects when one wants to understand historical links and adopt perspectives that are not those of a conceptual history.

Masson and Olesen note the gap, in the access to audiovisual databases, between the means of such access, which are mainly textual, and the contents, which belong to a domain that is often difficult to convert exclusively into verbal language. They propose the use of a technique to overcome the aporia of verbal access to audiovisual contents: "sampling". Their contribution presents an experimentation using this method: The Sensory Moving Image Archive (SEMIA). This project allows the user to explore a database through the characteristics of visual objects, rather than searching for elements through existing labels and categorizations. The interface thus makes it possible to visualize relationships between discrete objects (i.e. fragments of audiovisual content) based on their common visual characteristics. This makes it possible to show links with other contents having similar or highly different characteristics. The text aims

"Institutions and gestures of the archive"

to evaluate the consequences of this reconstitution of the archive through the use of visual descriptors that renew the way objects and archives acquire meaning. Such transformations change the conditions of meaning of objects not only because of their "sampling", but also because visual analysis reorients the framework of meaningmaking along a sensory rather than linguistic axis. The authors then rely on the notion of serendipity as a mode of exploration of digitized databases.

D'Armenio's text also addresses the media component of objects and discusses how to enhance the diversification of formats of visual and audiovisual productions through computerized analyses of archived corpora. To achieve this objective, the author carries out a review of Benveniste's theory of enunciation while referring to the proposals of theorists of the relationship between language and technique such as Leroi-Gourhan and Latour. Thus, D'Armenio raises important methodological considerations regarding the materials and substances of languages from the point of view of their formation and stabilization in statements. But the author does not limit himself to analyzing the substances of languages (a question which semiotics has long neglected): he also takes into consideration the processes of abstraction and virtualization operated by the digitalization of documents. He thus sets out to contrast media formats and digital formats. The former integrates, through utterances, the tools, spatio-temporal frameworks, and practices of production, whereas the latter qualify the necessary mediation between the physical devices of production, the encoding, and the discursive dimension of the documents. In this work on the formats of the objects, a very fine analysis is accomplished on the stratified temporalities of audiovisual documents which integrate archived excerpts.

Julien Thiburce and Biagio Ursi's paper deals with the exploitation and exploration practices of spoken French language databases. In particular, they tackle the case of the CLAPI database (Corpus de Langue Parlée en Interaction), which represents the resource of reference for research in interactional linguistics. The authors analyze the path extending from the recording of ordinary and professional situations (work meetings in different settings, interactions in places of business, guided tours, meals with family and friends, medical consultations, private and professional phone calls) to their implementation and exploitation as data in digital environments, including their appropriation in natural situations. Thiburce and Ursi also consider the redefinition and reframing of this linguistic material in the CLAPI-FLE didactic application, created to meet the demands and needs of both FLE teachers and learners, which implies not only a disciplinary crossing, from interactional linguistics to language didactics, but also the formation of a bridge between the field of scientific research and educational practices. The corpora that are made available are syncretic: the recorded interactions are available alongside their transcriptions (which also take into consideration the hesitations, pauses, and bodily gestures of the participants); each corpus is presented through a freeze frame, so that learners can picture the environment of the documented interaction in relation to the future environments of their daily experiences.

Marie Després-Lonnet and Maryse Rizza analyze the role of curatorial files in the legitimization process of the museum institution. In particular, the article presents the results of an ethnographic survey conducted at the Musée d'Orsay. Curatorial files are the documents that accompany artistic productions in fine arts museums: they are the "Experience of the archive" "places" where the documents produced by various departments are materially gathered. The file is thus both a place of "documentary convergence" and a "source of information". As a result, it is the vehicle for the power struggles that are "played out between the authorities commanded by various parties over the knowledge collected and produced". The analysis of these objects and of the professional practices in the course of which they are mobilized allows us to see how the musealization and the patrimonialization of works are carried out. Després-Lonnet and Rizza take a close look at the materiality of knowledge practices and analyze how the digitization of these documents can influence them.

Andrés Manuel Cárceres Barbosa and Cristina Voto present another example of an archival institution: the Centro Editor de América Latina, which is managed by the National Library of the Argentine Republic. On the one hand, the former is a publisher whose history is inseparable from the political changes of the country (dictatorships and neoliberal shift)-constituting an exemplary case of publishing in Latin America. On the other hand, the National Library, through its initiatives and programs, through its choices and actions in favour of upholding the memory of the Centro Editor, is at the source of a true instance of re-enunciation of the latter's materials. Not only the documents that remain but also those that have disappeared are made significant. Beyond the informative dimension of such documentation, however worthwhile it may be, it also has a more profoundly theoretical and political dimension (what is it to know and actively share the work of the Centro Editor today?) We can thus clearly see that taking institutions and archival gestures for case studies, however committed they may be to the material vicissitudes of history, has a veritable epistemological scope.

Claire Scopsi proposes a reading grid to apprehend a new object that has appeared thanks to the Web and to digital devices: memory collections. These are composite documents, grassroots productions, whose authors are essentially ordinary users rather than institutions. These objects include digital or digitized and editorialized archives relating a fact of the past. Thus, memory collections consist of a psychic dimension, as they are the memory of "something", assume a documentary dimension, as they are inscribed on a medium that archives them, and possess a narrative dimension, as they tell about the past. They take the form of websites or blogs where archives are editorialized and structured. The website Histoires de Ch'tis, where documents and testimonies of life in the Nord-Pas-de-Calais miners' area are collected, and the blog Mémoire des poilus de la Vienne, which commemorates the First World War with the aim of honoring the poilus de la Vienne, are examples of this. Claire Scopsi thus highlights these non-institutional, spontaneous documentary productions, but which could be institutionalized by national collections.

The last section of this issue consists of an article that focuses on the outline of a phenomenology of the experience of archives, caught in its shift "from dust to blue light," as stated in the title. Caroline Muller and Frédéric Clavert propose an update and revival of Arlette Farge's study, Le Goût de l'archive-a key study of what was done in archives a few decades ago. The authors summarize here a collective research that aims to break down what we now do with archives: how we go about it and invest ourselves in them, respectively through "emotions" (to first open up to the archives), through "narratives" (of the practice of archives), and through "gestures" (that construct the archives). The importance of such a phenomenology is, in a way, put forward as a methodological defense against the mechanisms of search engines and algorithms that,

  Semiotics of the archiveMARIA GIULIA DONDERO, ANDREAS FICKERS, GIAN MARIA TORE ET MATTEO TRELEANICet article est une traduction de :Introduction [fr]

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Droits d'auteur MORETTI, Franco (2013), Distant Reading, London/New York, Verso. MOUNIER, P. ( 2010), « Manifeste des Digital Humanities », Journal des anthropologues, 122-123, p. 447-452. DOI: 10.4000/jda.3652. NORA, Pierre (ed., 1984), Les Lieux de mémoire, Paris, Gallimard. RASTIER, François (2013), « La sémiotique des textes du document à l'oeuvre », in V. Frey et M. Treleani (eds.), Vers un nouvel archiviste numérique, Paris, L'Harmattan/ Ina, p. 21-74. STOCKINGER, Peter (2015), « The semiotic turn in digital archives and libraries », Cahiers du numérique 11, 1. DOI: 10.3166/lcn.11.1.57-82. TRELEANI, Matteo (2014), Mémoires audiovisuelles, Presses de l'Université de Montréal. TRELEANI, Matteo (2017), Qu'est-ce que le patrimoine numérique ? Une sémiologie de la circulation des archives, Lormont, Le bord de l'eau.

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