Carole Lespes
email: 01.carolelespes1@gmail.com

Thibault Lachenal
email: 01.thibault.lachenal@cnrs.fr

Armelle Gardeisen
email: 01.armelle.gardeisen@cnrs.fr

Jean Gascó

New perspectives on Late Bronze Age lagoon sites in the South of France revealed by animal exploitation at the La Motte I site (Hérault

Keywords: Late Bronze Age, French Mediterranean, culling profile, herd management, lagoons

At the present time, only a few Late Bronze Age sites in the French Mediterranean have yielded faunal data. The newly excavated site of La Motte I (Hérault, France) is exceptionally well preserved owing to its underwater context. The discovery of large quantities of pottery, a wattle and some wooden poles allowed the site to be dated to the Late Bronze Age IIIb (900-775 BC). The zooarchaeological analysis of the mammalian remains has made it possible to identify the nature of butchery operations at the site. Culling profiles show herd management practices during this period and bring to light specific dietary practices. These data reveal meat procurement behaviour in this Bronze Age Mediterranean population, highlighting regular meat acquisition from domestic livestock.

Highlights:

• Zooarchaeological analysis of an exceptionally well-preserved Late Bronze Age lagoon occupation in Mediterranean southern France.

• Food production is strongly oriented towards land-based resources despite the proximity of the lagoon and the sea.

• Meat consumption of this Late Bronze Age Mediterranean population was mainly composed of young domestic animals.

Introduction

The Bronze Age and the beginning of the Iron Age in France are the subject of a recent overview [START_REF] Carozza | L'habitat et l'occupation des sols à l'âge du Bronze et au début du premier âge du Fer[END_REF]. This evaluation of French data for the Late Bronze Age indicates a hierarchical organisation, linked to elite status. There is clear evidence for the expansion of fortified settlements, located at strategic locations such as confluence points or on rocky outcrops. While housing data and archaeological evidence (ceramics, metal tools, structures) are available, zooarchaeological analyses are still comparatively rare. Indeed, faunal data in Languedoc at the end of the Bronze Age (Final Bronze IIIb) are extremely scant. Most of the zooarchaeological studies for Languedoc deal with earlier periods or different contexts, such as Castelvielh Cave for the Final Bronze IIIa [START_REF] Gardeisen | La grotte I de Castelvielh à Sainte-Anastasie (Gard)[END_REF] or Les Courtinals settlement for the Final Bronze II and IIIa [START_REF] Poulain | L'habitat du Bronze final des Courtinals à Mourèze (Hérault)[END_REF]. For the Final Bronze IIIb, they mainly consist of simple faunal lists accompanied by basic interpretation [START_REF] Columeau | La faune des gisements lagunaires (Bronze Final-I er Age du Fer), l'occupation des gisements lagunaires du Bronze final au Ier Age du Fer[END_REF][START_REF] Columeau | Alimentation carnée en Gaule du Sud: (VIIe s. av. J.-C.-XIVe s.)[END_REF]. However, rescue archaeology has sparked new interest in this period among researchers for the Mediterranean region of France. Moreover, the French Mediterranean context differs slightly from Late Bronze Age continental sites, both in terms of chronology (Table 1) and culture, as it is influenced by the proximity of Iberia and Italy, and presents specific local characteristics [START_REF] Garcia | Dynamiques culturelles de l'âge du Bronze et de l'âge du fer dans le sud-est de la Gaule[END_REF][START_REF] Gascó | Au terme de l'Age du bronze en Languedoc occidental (France), Le Bronze final IIIa[END_REF][START_REF] Lachenal | Chronologie de l'âge du Bronze en Provence[END_REF][START_REF] Py | Les Gaulois du Midi, de la fin de l'Âge du Bronze à la conquête romaine[END_REF]. The present zooarchaeological analysis provides new perspectives on the way of life of these Mediterranean populations. Geomorphological studies show that the housing site of La Motte I was located on the edge of a former lagoon (Devillers et al., forthcoming), suggesting that it was mainly organized around maritime resources. However, this study shows that terrestrial resources appear to supply important staple foods for these inhabitants. It is clear that such specific types of sites must be compared to previously studied sites [START_REF] Columeau | La faune des gisements lagunaires (Bronze Final-I er Age du Fer), l'occupation des gisements lagunaires du Bronze final au Ier Age du Fer[END_REF] in Languedoc and in the North of France, such as Boulancourt (Seine-et-Marne) and sites in Aisne [START_REF] Auxiette | La faune des établissements ruraux du Bronze final au Hallstatt final/La Tène ancienne dans la vallée de l'Aisne[END_REF]Bălăşescu et al., 2008;[START_REF] Carozza | L'habitat et l'occupation des sols à l'âge du Bronze et au début du premier âge du Fer[END_REF]. These sites date from the Late Bronze Age and should reveal whether there are similarities in meat consumption between southern and northern France.

Datation B.C Southern French chronology

French chronology

German chronology

British

Lagoon complexes in the Gulf of Lion (Fig. 1) offered an attractive area for Bronze Age populations. Indeed, lagoons are convenient locations, with a variety of readily available food resources and nearby cultivable land. The first excavations of such sites began in 1940 at the Bages-Sigean lagoon [START_REF] Guy | La station du Roc de Conilhac[END_REF]. Interest in them was subsequently revived after the discovery of protohistoric settlements in the Lez Delta, such as Port Ariane in Lattes, Hérault (Daveau, 2007). Local archaeologists discovered several sites (Fig. 1) on the edge of the Or Lagoon [START_REF] Arnal | Les ports lagunaires de la région de Montpellier[END_REF][START_REF] Dedet | L'Occupation des rivages de l'étang de Mauguio (Hérault) au Bronze Final et au premier Age du Fer, sondages et sauvetages programmés[END_REF][START_REF] Prades | Les terramares melgoriens[END_REF], in the Thau Lagoon [START_REF] Courtin | Recherches Archéologiques sous-marines[END_REF][START_REF] Leroy | Temps et espaces culturels du 6ème au 2ème millénaire en France du Sud. Actes des 4ème Rencontres Méridionales de Préhistoire Récente, Nîmes[END_REF] and in Vendres [START_REF] Carozza | Les habitats du Bronze final de Portal Vielh à Vendres (Hérault)[END_REF]. The Or Lagoon sites were first considered to be transient sites, on herd transhumance routes [START_REF] Py | Culture, économie et société protohistoriques dans la région nîmoise[END_REF]. In other words, it was thought that local populations lived near the coast in summer with their herds and moved with them during the wet season to highaltitude sites in mountainous areas. But this hypothesis has since been challenged by recent paleobotanical studies [START_REF] Bouby | L'agriculture dans le bassin du Rhône du Bronze final à l'Antiquité. Agrobiodiversité, économie, cultures[END_REF] and the Portal-Vielh excavations [START_REF] Carozza | Les habitats du Bronze final de Portal Vielh à Vendres (Hérault)[END_REF], which show that these lagoon habitats were used year-round. La Motte I is situated in the South of France near the town of Agde (Fig. 1). The underwater site is currently submerged in the Hérault River and was discovered by the IBIS diving association in 2002.

Site presentation

During the first excavations in 2004, a hoard consisting of an almost complete set of feminine finery was discovered [START_REF] Moyat | Découverte d'un habitat et d'un dépôt métallique non funéraire du VIII e s. av. J.-C. dans le lit de l'Hérault à Agde, sur le site de La Motte[END_REF][START_REF] Verger | Le dépôt de bronzes du site fluvial de La Motte à Agde (Hérault)[END_REF]. Surveys were then conducted by J. Gascó and T. Lachenal in 2011 and are still ongoing [START_REF] Gascó | Une occupation lagunaire palafittique aux IX e -VIII e s. a.C.: La Motte (Agde) au fond du fleuve Hérault[END_REF]. A planimetric survey and excavations were carried out by divers at two different sites on either side of the river bed and cover 3,000 m² (Fig. 2). This housing site was originally located on the edge of a former lagoon (Devillers et al., forthcoming), which has since been filled with sediments from the Hérault. The remains are immersed under five metres of water and, as a result, are exceptionally well preserved. The large quantity of organic remains in the sediments allows for a precise reconstruction of the evolution of the paleoenvironment and human activities. Ten wooden poles were radiocarbon dated and gave dates ranging from the ninth to eighth centuries B.C. [START_REF] Gascó | Une occupation lagunaire palafittique aux IX e -VIII e s. a.C.: La Motte (Agde) au fond du fleuve Hérault[END_REF]. These dates are consistent with the analysis of pottery [START_REF] Lachenal | La Motte (Agde, Hérault), Habitat immergé du Bronze final[END_REF] corresponding to the Late Bronze Age (ninth to early eighth centuries) and linked to the establishment of the Mailhac I culture in Languedoc [START_REF] Gailledrat | Le Traversant à Mailhac (Aude): un établissement de plaine du Bronze final IIIb et du premier âge du Fer[END_REF][START_REF] Janin | Mailhac et le premier Âge du fer en Europe occidentale, Hommage à Odette et Jean Taffanel. Actes du colloque international de Carcassonne, 17-20 septembre[END_REF][START_REF] Louis | Le premier Âge du Fer languedocien, Les habitats. I[END_REF]. The site also presents riverbank structures, comprising imported basalt rocks and wattle, demonstrating the reinforcement of the banks and the delimitation of an inhabited zone. The hypothesis of a semi-nomadic way of life for these lagoon populations [START_REF] Py | Culture, économie et société protohistoriques dans la région nîmoise[END_REF] has been challenged by recent discoveries. Therefore, the question of permanent settlement at La Motte I remains open. Nevertheless, the excavated levels in which the faunal remains were discovered are primarily waste deposits in the vicinity of the dwelling area and are close to the riverbank structures. In addition, the carpological analysis [START_REF] Bouby | Premiers résultats carpologiques et entomologiques sur le site subaquatique Bronze final de la Motte (Agde, Hérault)[END_REF] revealed that the population living at the site was actively involved in agricultural production and practised herd stalling. These factors suggest perennial settlement for the La Motte I site. The analysis of the faunal remains from La Motte I should therefore be expected to confirm these initial results.

Materials and methods

Faunal bones and teeth were collected from all excavation areas in different stratigraphic units and in 2m x 2m squares (Sector 1, 2, 3 and 4; Fig. 2). Three samples were collected for the carpological study in the D26 sounding (SU 4,15 and 18) and in the wattle zone. These samples were sieved but no faunal remains were found. As the entire sequence of stratigraphic units was dated to the end of the Bronze Age, all the faunal remains were analysed (Table A in the appendices) and recorded by stratigraphic unit and square in the Syslat© database.

The complete collection consists of 1,321 mammal, bird, shellfish and fish remains. The shellfish and fish remains are not analysed in this study as they will be studied in detail by other specialists. The taxonomic and anatomical determination was carried out using the reference faunal sampling at the ASM laboratory of the University of Montpellier 3 (CNRS, UMR 5140).

The differential diagnosis between Capra hircus and Ovis aries teeth [START_REF] Balasse | Distinguishing sheep and goats using dental morphology and stable carbon isotopes in C 4 grassland environments[END_REF][START_REF] Halstead | Sorting the Sheep from the Goats: Morphological Distinctions between the Mandibles and Mandibular Teeth of Adult Ovis and Capra[END_REF][START_REF] Helmer | Discrimination des genres Ovis et Capra à l'aide des prémolaires inférieures 3 et 4 et interprétation des âges d'abattage : l'exemple de Dikili Tash (Grèce)[END_REF][START_REF] Payne | Morphological distinctions between the mandibular teeth of young sheep, Ovis, and goats, Capra[END_REF] has been contested (Zeder and Pillar, 2010) but a recent study [START_REF] Gillis | An assessment of morphological criteria for discriminating sheep and goat mandibles on a large prehistoric archaeological assemblage (Kerma, Sudan)[END_REF] highlighted the reliability of the combination of several criteria. As the bones are well preserved at La Motte I, most mandibular and maxillary bones contain whole dental series, which facilitated differentiation between sheep and goats. With the post-cranial data, a primary distinction was made based on morphological criteria (Boessneck, 1969, Zeder and[START_REF] Zeder | Assessing the reliability of criteria used to identify postcranial bones in sheep, Ovis, and goats, Capra[END_REF] and confirmed by discriminant analysis [START_REF] Salvagno | A morphometric system to distinguish sheep and goat postcranial bones[END_REF]. The distinction between rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus) and hares (Lepus europaeus) was made using specific morphological criteria [START_REF] Callou | Diagnose différentielle des principaux éléments squelettiques du lapin (genre oryctolagus) et du lièvre (genre lepus) en Europe occidentale. Fiches d'ostéologie animale pour l'archéologie[END_REF].

The quantification of faunal remains is expressed by the Number of Identified Specimens (NISP), which includes taxonomically and anatomically identified bones and teeth, and the Minimum Number of Individuals combination (MNIc). The NMIc takes into account species, element frequency, pairing, ageing and sex. The complete dental series on the mandible and maxillary and isolated teeth were used to calculate the MNIc index, taking into account eruption sequence and wear. The age at death (AtD) was defined for large bovids using the most accurate method [START_REF] Legge | Excavations at Grimes Graves Norfolk 1972-1976, Fascicule 4: Animals, Environment and the Bronze Age Economy[END_REF][START_REF] Gillis | Neonatal Mortality, Young Calf Slaughter and Milk Production during the Early Neolithic of North Western Mediterranean[END_REF], in order to be as precise as possible. The use-wear code method was applied to Caprinae [START_REF] Payne | Reference codes for wear states in the mandibular cheek teeth of sheep and goats[END_REF]. To estimate the AtD value of suids, we used a method based on ranking codes [START_REF] Grant | The Use of Tooth Wear as a Guide to the Age of Domestic Ungulates, in: Ageing and Sexing Animal Bones from Archaeological Sites[END_REF][START_REF] Lemoine | A new system for computing dentition-based age profiles in Sus scrofa[END_REF].

Culling profiles were calculated in accordance with the recommendations of Brochier, who elaborated a statistically correct method that allows for accurate interpretation [START_REF] Brochier | The use and abuse of culling profiles in recent zooarchaeological studies: Some methodological comments on" frequency correction" and its consequences[END_REF].

Insofar as possible, age analysis was based on bone epiphyseal fusion [START_REF] Zeder | A New System for Computing Long-Bone Fusion Age Profiles in Sus Scrofa[END_REF] for Suidae, [START_REF] Reitz | Zooarchaeology[END_REF]. [START_REF] Von Den Driesch | A guide to the measurement of animal bones from archaeological sites[END_REF] were performed on all bones and teeth whenever possible in order to distinguish between Ovis aries and Capra hircus, Bos Taurus and Bos primigenius, and to estimate the withers height of the animals. The body size of animals was investigated using reference coefficients for Caprinae [START_REF] Teichert | Osteometrische Untersuchungen zur Berechnung der Widerristöhe bei Schafen[END_REF], Bovidae [START_REF] Matolcsi | Historische Erforschung der Köpergrösse des aufgrund ungaririschen Knöchen material[END_REF] and Equidae [START_REF] Kiesewalter | Skelettmessungen an Pferden als Beitrag zur theoretischen Grundlage der Beurteilungslehre des Pferdes[END_REF], to provide a view of the domestic herd present in this region at the end of the Bronze Age.

Standard biometrics (Von den

Skeletal representation is divided into four categories: cranial remains include the skull, mandible and jaw, the axial skeleton is composed of vertebrae and ribs, the limbs include the forelimbs (scapula, humerus, radius and ulna) and hindlimbs (coxal, femur, tibia and fibula) and finally the feet include carpals, tarsals, metapodials and phalanxes. The following indices were used in this study in order to determine whether anatomical parts were differentially deposited [START_REF] Lyman | Quantitative Paleozoology[END_REF][START_REF] Poplin | A propos du Nombre de Restes et du Nombre d'individus dans les échantillons d'ossements[END_REF]): MNE: Minimum Number of Elements (i.e. a humerus) tallied after virtual reassembly taking into account pairing, ageing and the sex of all bone remains for a species.

Qsp: This is the number of given elements in a complete skeleton for a species. It can vary according to age (i.e. number of teeth) and species.

MAU: Minimum Animal Unit. This is the frequency of skeletal MNE for a given species.

MAU=MNE/Qsp

%MAU: This is the normalized MAU calculated from the highest MAU corresponding to 100%. %MAU=100xMAU/MAUmax PS: The percentage of survivorship is calculated for each element and can be applied to the anatomical region (cranial, axial, limb and foot) and to the entire skeleton using the MAU and MNIc.

PS=100xMNE/MNIcxQsp

Bone surface modifications were studied in order to identify their causes and to characterize their impact on bone assembly. The cortical surface of all remains was analysed macroscopically and some specimens were inspected microscopically with a Leica stereomicroscope. The orientation and location of marks on the bone were recorded. The marks were then separated into five categories (Fig. 3): notches associated with large tools forming a large triangular depression; slicing, generally made with a cleaver, exposing a sharp section of the bone; scratches, created by knives and forming fine notches on the cortical surface; cortical removal, made either by cleavers or knives and characterized by a longitudinal removal of the cortical surface of the bone; and finally, sawing, recognizable by the irregularity of the section's surface caused by the saw. Non-anthropogenic post-depositional marks were also investigated and classified into the following categories: root marks, gnawing by carnivores and rodents, and edaphic marks.

All faunal remains were registered in the Syslat© database [START_REF] Py | SYSLAT 3.1. Système d'Information Archéologique[END_REF][START_REF] Gardeisen | Exploitation des prélèvements et fichiers de spécialités[END_REF].

Results

Taxon diversity

5 The faunal assemblage of La Motte I is composed of 1,321 remains (total of identified and unidentified faunal remains), including 685 identified bones and teeth (NISP). They belong to fourteen species: cattle (Bos taurus), sheep (Ovis aries), goats (Capra hircus), pigs or wild boars (Sus scrofa), horses (Equus caballus), dogs (Canis lupus familiaris), deer (Cervus elaphus), aurochs (Bos primigenius), rabbits (Oryctolagus cuniculus), turtles, birds, shellfish and fish (Table 2 Among the species present at La Motte I, the domestic triad (Bos taurus, Ovis aries/Capra hircus, Sus scrofa) prevails. Livestock is mainly composed of goats and sheep, which is common in Mediterranean areas [START_REF] Gardeisen | La grotte I de Castelvielh à Sainte-Anastasie (Gard)[END_REF][START_REF] Columeau | La faune des gisements lagunaires (Bronze Final-I er Age du Fer), l'occupation des gisements lagunaires du Bronze final au Ier Age du Fer[END_REF]; followed by cattle and pigs. Horses and dogs are less frequent. Deer is the most hunted wild species, represented by faunal remains mainly composed of bones (only three fragments of antler have been found), followed by rabbit and aurochs (Bos primigenius). Some sporadic remains of the European pond terrapin (Emys orbicularis), cormorant (Phalacrocorax sp.), wild goose (Anser sp.), sea bream (Sparus aurata) and other unidentified wild birds have also been recorded. [START_REF] Columeau | La faune des gisements lagunaires (Bronze Final-I er Age du Fer), l'occupation des gisements lagunaires du Bronze final au Ier Age du Fer[END_REF][START_REF] Forest | ), Construction deltaïque et utilisation d'une zone humide lors des derniers six millénaires[END_REF][START_REF] Gardeisen | La grotte I de Castelvielh à Sainte-Anastasie (Gard)[END_REF][START_REF] Poulain | L'habitat du Bronze final des Courtinals à Mourèze (Hérault)[END_REF][START_REF] Auxiette | La faune des établissements ruraux du Bronze final au Hallstatt final/La Tène ancienne dans la vallée de l'Aisne[END_REF].

It is generally accepted that evidence of pig farming generally increased in France at the end of the Bronze Age [START_REF] Forest | l'Homme et l'animal dans les sociétés méditerranéennes. 4 ème journée d'études du Centre de Recherches Historiques sur les Sociétés Méditerranéennes[END_REF][START_REF] Auxiette | La faune des établissements ruraux du Bronze final au Hallstatt final/La Tène ancienne dans la vallée de l'Aisne[END_REF], with Sus scrofa forming more than 20% of the NISP, which is not the case at La Motte. Pig farming developed considerably (more than 30% of the NISP) in many

French continental plains (Fig. 4), but not in Mediterranean sites where husbandry practices seemed to focus more on goats or cattle. For example, in the vicinity of the Mauguio pond [START_REF] Columeau | La faune des gisements lagunaires (Bronze Final-I er Age du Fer), l'occupation des gisements lagunaires du Bronze final au Ier Age du Fer[END_REF], caprines predominate, followed by pigs and cattle. In Port-Ariane (Hérault, France), cattle are clearly predominant, which is counter to the classic Mediterranean pattern [START_REF] Forest | ), Construction deltaïque et utilisation d'une zone humide lors des derniers six millénaires[END_REF], usually dominated by caprines (mainly sheep and to a lesser degree, goats), then cattle, pigs (about 20% of the faunal assemblage) and deer (about 10%).

The domestic herd of La Motte I is dominated by caprines in terms of NISP and MNIc, and more precisely by goats, with suid livestock coming in third position after cattle. The importance of goats rather than sheep seems to be an original feature of this site. Indeed, at other sites, such as Castelvielh (Gard) or Les Courtinals (Hérault), sheep are the best represented taxon. But this slight difference should be interpreted with caution, as these two sites are dated respectively to the Final Bronze IIIa and Final Bronze II-IIIa and correspond to different types of occupations (cave and hilltop settlement). This first approach shows that the faunal remains represent classic Late Bronze Age Mediterranean animal husbandry. A group of people settled in a developed settlement with a communal herd sustaining their needs mainly composed of caprines and bovids, followed by suids, with some horses and dogs.

Body size

Only a few complete bones were available for each taxon for this analysis. Withers height was estimated for caprines on one radius, one metacarpal and two astragalii, for Bos taurus (one radius, two metacarpals and two metatarsals) and for Equus caballus (one femur), (Table 3). The results gave a range of 46.1-56.3 cm for caprines, 103.6-115.6 cm for cattle, and the single whole horse femur gave a height of 136.7 cm. These results can be compared with those of Boulancourt (Seine-et-Marne), Port-Ariane (Hérault) and Castelvielh (Gard). For size estimates at Boulancourt, a single whole metatarsal of Bos taurus gave a height estimate of 108.5 cm; a range of 51.8-63.5 cm is given for goats and no data are available for horses. In Port-Ariane, the measurements of a bovine metacarpal and an equine metatarsal indicate an estimated size of 117 and 125 cm, respectively.

Caprine bones could not be measured. In Castelvielh, the size of the sheep is between 54 and 60 cm.

Despite the small number of measurements and estimates, a trend towards a smaller size for goats and cattle is visible while the La Motte I horse seems larger than horses at the other sites (Table 4).

But this comparison is unreliable because the distinction between Equus asinus and Equus caballus

has not been made at other sites. For wild species, three tarsal elements were identified as Bos primigenius on account of their large size. All of the aurochs remains are incomplete, but measurements on a fragmented aurochs astragalus (Bos primigenius) reveal that the La Motte I specimen is probably a huge male, similar to the largest European Pleistocene specimens [START_REF] Wright | The history of the European aurochs (Bos primigenius) from the Middle Pleistocene to its extinction: an archaeological investigation of its evolution, morphological variability and response to human exploitation[END_REF] and larger than Holocene specimens [START_REF] Helmer | Un site Mésolithique de chasse à l'aurochs (La Montagne, Sénas, Bouches-du-Rhône)[END_REF]Kysely, 2008;[START_REF] Wright | Geographical variation in the size and shape of the European aurochs (Bos primigenius)[END_REF][START_REF] Wright | The history of the European aurochs (Bos primigenius) from the Middle Pleistocene to its extinction: an archaeological investigation of its evolution, morphological variability and response to human exploitation[END_REF].

Species

Measurements of this aurochs astragalus were compared with other data from Pleistocene and Holocene sites and clearly show the remarkable height of this animal (Fig. 5). This suggests that the environment at that time was conducive to the presence of an aurochs of remarkable size. This is also confirmed by the carpological analysis [START_REF] Bouby | Premiers résultats carpologiques et entomologiques sur le site subaquatique Bronze final de la Motte (Agde, Hérault)[END_REF], which shows the presence of a green

oak forest and open spaces with heaths and junipers. It also suggests that the size of domestic animals is more related to domestication and selection effects than environmental conditions.

Skeletal representation

The anatomical profile of the bone assemblage is characterized by the abundance of cranial and limb remains, followed by axial and foot elements (Fig. 6). The same trend is observed for the triad taxa.

As far as possible, ribs and vertebrae were identified to the taxon, but a determination bias (underestimation) should be taken into account for this category. Indeed, when skeletal representation is viewed as a percentage of the total number of faunal remains (anatomically determined but not taxonomically determined), the foot is still rare but the axial category seems better represented. However, this can be explained by the high fragmentation of costal elements. In addition, this under-representation can be explained in part by the high impact of carnivores on bones (20% of the total assemblage shows signs of gnawing). The analysis of skeletal representation reveals no major differences between domestic and wild species. The foot category for pigs is rare. The skeletal representation of deer shows that limb bones outweigh those of the skull and the foot category is well represented in comparison to the axial category. As deer are wild hunted animals, we can assume that the carcass would have been processed differently to domestic species. Taponomic bias could play a major role in this particular skeletal distribution, as small parts may have been moved away by the river current. But this hypothesis is challenged by the presence of rabbit bones and rare sea bream jawbones. Underwater a b excavation conditions can also generate biases and although the diving excavators were experienced, it was complicated to take samples for sieving under these conditions. This could impact the representativeness of very small fish remains, but this is not the case for mammalian remains.

Therefore, it is more likely that this particular skeletal representation is due to anthropogenic selection, with limbs reflecting culinary waste and cranial remains being rejected after removing edible parts (as evidenced by some anthropogenic marks at the junction of the jaws). The scarcity of axial and appendicular parts of the skeleton could mean that inedible parts of the animal were discarded elsewhere.

Mortality profiles

Mortality profiles were only calculated for teeth, taking into account the stage of wear and dental eruption.

Cattle

The combination of lower and upper teeth (N = 92) was used to calculate mortality profiles. AtD results reflect a strong slaughter peak between 1-2 years (Fig. 7) and subtle peaks at 0-1 months and 2-4 years. This could reflect multiple practices: killing calves for tender meat, slaughtering prime adults for maximum meat yields and slaughtering retired lactating females and old males for herd management [START_REF] Gillis | Neonatal Mortality, Young Calf Slaughter and Milk Production during the Early Neolithic of North Western Mediterranean[END_REF]. In this case, we cannot confidently identify dairy farming [START_REF] Greenfield | A reconsideration of the secondary products revolution in southeastern Europe: on the origins and use of domestic animals for milk, wool, and traction in the central Balkans[END_REF][START_REF] Greenfield | Go(a)t milk?' New perspectives on the zooarchaeological evidence for the earliest intensification of dairying in south eastern Europe[END_REF][START_REF] Helmer | The development of the exploitation of products from Capra and Ovis (meat, milk and fleece) from the PPNB to the Early Bronze in the northern Near East (8700 to 2000 BC cal.)[END_REF][START_REF] Payne | Kill-off Patterns in Sheep and Goats: The Mandibles from Asvan Kale[END_REF].

Caprines

For sheep and goats, the culling profile peaks between 6 months and 1 year, followed by a slight peak at 1-2 years (N=229, Fig. 7). This depicts an emphasis on tender meat [START_REF] Helmer | La gestion des cheptels de caprinés au Néolithique dans le Midi de la France[END_REF][START_REF] Payne | Kill-off Patterns in Sheep and Goats: The Mandibles from Asvan Kale[END_REF]. However, traces of slaughtering of older adults are also visible in this histogram. Again, this implies that animals were culled post-lactation or for wool farming.

Suids

Young pigs (N=60) were slaughtered mainly between 10 and 12 months of age (Fig. 7). This may reflect a preference for tender, high-quality meat. Culling older pigs (aged 1 to 4 years) can be interpreted as a quest for maximum meat yields and the killing of pigs over 4 years of age can occur after fattening or at the end of reproductive functions.

The three mortality profiles correspond to a "tender meat" profile. The age limit for older cull animals (9 years for cattle, 6 years for caprines and 8 years for Suidae) may indicate their use for secondary production and herd birth-rate management, in order to always have a large number of young individuals available.

Taphonomic alterations

The underwater environment of the site caused specific polishing of the cortical surface of the bones.

Almost all the remains are light brown to dark brown. The entire assemblage (1,321 faunal remains) was observed for taphonomic alterations. Most of the bones underwent superficial dissolution due to the fluvial context. Some of them present specific marks made by seaweed and small marine bivalves. Carnivores caused a number of changes in the bone surface as 20% of the total assemblage shows gnawing by carnivores. This indicates that culinary waste was accessible to commensal species and that landfill of the remains was slow. Burnt remains are easily distinguishable from natural Five categories of anthropogenic cutting marks were observed on cortical bone surfaces. These highlight the stages of carcass processing such as disarticulation, removal of horns and feet, skinning and cutting meat, among others [START_REF] Gardeisen | Découpe et consommation de viande au début du IV e siècle avant notre ère. Quelques éléments de boucherie gauloise[END_REF]. These observations demonstrate some slight differences between the consumed species. Indeed, butchery techniques vary with the size of the animal: for large mammals such as cattle and deer, large tools such as meat cleavers or saws are preferred, while knives are used for medium-sized mammals such as caprines or suids. Cut marks are mainly located on limbs (48%), or on the diaphysis just below the joint surface, suggesting disarticulation and meat removal [START_REF] Lyman | Archaeofaunas and butchery studies: a taphonomic perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Lyman | Vertebrate Taphonomy[END_REF][START_REF] Soulier | Let the cutmarks speak! Experimental butchery to reconstruct carcass processing[END_REF]. The only common butchery technique to all four species is observed on lumbar vertebrae (slicing or notching),

indicating the separation of the hindquarters. For large mammals (cattle and deer), marks on the cervical vertebrae indicate dissociation of the head. Scratches on carpals and tarsals show disarticulation of the feet and possibly skinning. The deer is the only animal with a longitudinal cut mark on the scapula, probably to remove the meat. Most of the time, cattle and caprines had their horns and antlers cut off, probably for artisanal purposes, although there is no real evidence of this.

This can also be interpreted as a phase of skinning. The disarticulation of the femur-tibia connection is observed for all animals except cattle, but the latter are only represented by one entire femur. This reveals that the hind legs were generally separated into two parts for consumption. The heads of cattle show different treatment compared to other species. Analysis of the cut marks plausibly demonstrates the removal of the tongue, jaws and muzzle. Ruminants present similarities such as the removal of the ligament of the scapula and humerus, probably in order to isolate the joints. The cutting of ribs and the removal of meat from ribs and thoracic vertebrae are present on all three taxa. Thin crossed scratches situated along the caudal rim of a caprine scapula seem to indicate onsite consumption.

A single scratch was observed on a rabbit coxal, suggesting the consumption of rabbit meat. The astragalus of Bos primigenius also shows cut marks and suggests that this animal was hunted. There is no evidence of of horse meat consumption. However, a third phalanx presents some cut marks on the sole, which could indicate the recovery of the hoof, perhaps for artisanal purposes. Scratches were observed on a dog coxal and a dog mandible shows cortical removal at its base (Fig. 9).

Discussion

It is generally accepted that at the end of the Bronze Age, the notion of territorial concentration revolves around fortified settlements, which are potentially the seat of a local elite [START_REF] Brun | L'entité « Rhin-Suisse-France orientale »: nature et évolution[END_REF][START_REF] Brun | L'organisation de l'espace dans la vallée de l'Aisne pendant l'Âge du bronze[END_REF][START_REF] Pautreau | Cimetières villageois, villages, nécropoles sanctuaires de la fin du Bronze au Premier Âge du fer dans le Centre-Ouest de la France[END_REF]. However, the present zooarchaeological study implies that the lifestyle of the inhabitants on the Languedoc coast seemed quite similar to that of the elites. They ate tender meat and herd management focused on producing young animals, as at the elite site of Boulancourt (Seine-et-Marne, France). Indeed, the mass slaughter of young animals is not a longterm solution for herd management and shows that the inhabitants of La Motte had a comfortable way of life. This is also evidenced by the rich feminine bronze set recovered during the early excavations of the lagoon site, attesting to the presence of a local elite. La Motte I therefore seems to be a much more important site than previously thought, with a high standard of living and families probably belonging to a local elite.

Unfortunately, faunal data from Late Bronze Age breeding sites are lacking in France (especially in Languedoc), most often due to the scarcity of remains (less than 100 remains per site in general).

This makes it difficult to interpret mortality profiles, for example. The results from La Motte I could be compared with those of lagoon sites around the Or Lagoon [START_REF] Columeau | La faune des gisements lagunaires (Bronze Final-I er Age du Fer), l'occupation des gisements lagunaires du Bronze final au Ier Age du Fer[END_REF] but no in-depth faunal analyses are available for the latter. Age at death categories only include three groups in Columeau's analysis: very young, young and adult individuals. According to his study, caprines and pigs predominate in the young category, and cattle in the adult category as a percentage of MNIs.

However, these results should be considered with caution as there is no subadult class and no explanation of the methods used for ageing. For other rural sites in northern France, some compiled analyses [START_REF] Auxiette | La faune des établissements ruraux du Bronze final au Hallstatt final/La Tène ancienne dans la vallée de l'Aisne[END_REF] show an emphasis on pig farming, which is not the case here. But we cannot deduce with certainty whether this is due to cultural, environmental or social differences.

The second point is that, despite the presence of the lagoon at the edge of the settlement site, fish remains are rare on the site. This may be due to the lack of systematic sieving for very small fish bones but some medium-sized fish remains were recovered, such as sea bream. Agropastoral activities therefore seem to supply significant subsistence resources. Carpological and entomological analyses [START_REF] Bouby | Premiers résultats carpologiques et entomologiques sur le site subaquatique Bronze final de la Motte (Agde, Hérault)[END_REF] of the organic layers of the site backed up this general interpretation.

They revealed numerous carbonized seeds and leaf remains, as well as plant residues interpreted as animal litter and two species of insects (Aglenus brunneus and Platytomus tibialis), linked to livestock stalls and the accumulation of old manure. Meanwhile, fishing is evidenced by a bronze hook adapted to fishing for large predators. This suggests that large fish remains should have been recovered, but they have only been found in small quantities at La Motte I. It can therefore be assumed that the population fished at sea and ate shellfish, but that this was not the main activity of the settlement. La Motte I was not a fishery.

As far as large animal hunting practices are concerned, they do not appear to have been vital for subsistence, but were perhaps linked to proving the value and strength of hunters. Although only three aurochs remains have been recovered on the site so far, the height of the hunted animal implies that this was a difficult mission. It can be also assumed that it was killed for security reasons, as the exceptional size of the animal would have represented a danger for the community living there. As regards small game hunting, the scarcity of rabbit remains does not allow us to draw a definite conclusion. Only one coxal shows signs of meat removal. There are also some bird remains, but no anthropogenic marks have been observed on bird bones. In addition, the presence of the cormorant, which is a species living in the aquatic environment, may be coincidental here. All the hunted species could potentially live near the settlement: deer could be present in the nearby riparian forest and rabbits in the surrounding salt marshes. It can therefore be assumed that hunting was opportunistic.

Conclusion

The results of this zooarchaeological analysis depict a faunal spectrum dominated by the domestic triad (cattle, pigs and caprines), with significant hunting activity (deer and lagomorphs). Butchery activities are attested by bone remains presenting anthropogenic cut marks. This is supported by the trend in culling profiles highlighting a preference for quality and tender meat consumption. This type of herd management requires a privileged social environment. Minor canine meat consumption is also noteworthy. Thus, although halieutic resources such as sea shells and fish were found on the site, it appears that the livelihood strategies of the Late Bronze Age population of La Motte I included animal husbandry and the consumption of a large amount of meat despite the proximity of the lagoon. The present faunal study shows a preference for the consumption of tender meat, while the presence of the female bronze set suggests that this lagoon settlement enjoyed priviledged status.

This indicates that -at least in some cases -lagoon sites could be important and influential areas and not merely satellite sites of fortified hilltop settlements.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Geographical location of the archaeological site of La Motte I (CAD, T.Lachenal), modified.

Fig 2 (

 2 Fig 2 (in colour): Map of the excavation of La Motte I in the Hérault River with detailed view of the wattle (CAD, T. Lachenal), modified.

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Anthropogenic modifications to bone surface. a: slicing (cutting); b: cortical removal b; c: notches; d: sawing; e: scratches.

Tab 2 :

 2 Quantification of the faunal assemblage recovered from the La Motte I site. Number of Identified Specimens (NISP) and Minimum Number of Individuals combination (MNIc). *Although the ichthyofaunal remains will soon be analysed by a specialist, rare Sparus aurata remains have already been determined.

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Comparison of the distribution of the domestic triad in Late Bronze Age sites in France[START_REF] Columeau | La faune des gisements lagunaires (Bronze Final-I er Age du Fer), l'occupation des gisements lagunaires du Bronze final au Ier Age du Fer[END_REF][START_REF] Forest | ), Construction deltaïque et utilisation d'une zone humide lors des derniers six millénaires[END_REF] Gardeisen,

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: Comparison of the measurements (Bd) of the aurochs astragalus (Bos primigenius) at La Motte I with other European sites[START_REF] Wright | The history of the European aurochs (Bos primigenius) from the Middle Pleistocene to its extinction: an archaeological investigation of its evolution, morphological variability and response to human exploitation[END_REF][START_REF] Wright | Geographical variation in the size and shape of the European aurochs (Bos primigenius)[END_REF][START_REF] Helmer | Un site Mésolithique de chasse à l'aurochs (La Montagne, Sénas, Bouches-du-Rhône)[END_REF].

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: a: Skeletal representation per main species in percentage of MAU (Minimal Animal Unit) of the faunal assemblage of La Motte I. b: Skeletal representation of all species taken together as a percentage of total faunal remains of La Motte I.

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Domestic triad culling profile, based on wear stages and dental eruption. Number of cattle teeth: upper=36, lower=56; caprine teeth: upper=74, lower=155; suids teeth: upper=19, lower=41.

Fig 8 (

 8 Fig 8 (in colour): Butchery marks on the skeletons of deer, cattle, pigs and caprines.

Fig. 9 :

 9 Fig. 9: Butchery marks (arrows) visible on bones from La Motte I. a: cortical ablation on canine mandibular base (Canis lupus familiaris), labial view. b: medial view of a sliced astragalus of an aurochs in connection with the cubo-navicular (Bos primigenius). c: Third phalanx of horse (Equus caballus) with medial cut mark (distal view).

  Comparative chronology of the Late Bronze Age and beginnings of the Iron Age in Europe.

		Middle Bronze	Middle Bronze	Bronze
	1400	2	2	C2
	Tab. 1:
					chronology
	650
		Bronze/Iron
	700	Transition	Ancient Hallstatt	C Hallstatt	Early Iron Age
	800	Final Bronze
		IIIb	Final Bronze	Hallstatt
			IIIb	B2/3
	900
		Final Bronze
	1000	IIIa	Final Bronze	Hallstatt	Later Bronze Age
			IIIa	B1
		Final Bronze
	1100	IIb
			Final Bronze	Hallstatt
			IIb	A2
		Final Bronze
	1200	IIa	Final Bronze	Hallstatt
		Final Bronze	IIa	A1	Middle Bronze
		Ib			Age
		Final Bronze	Final Bronze	Bronze
	1300	Ia	I	D

;

  Annexes TableA).

	FAUNAL LIST	NISP	MNIc
	Cattle	Bos taurus	215	49
	Aurochs	Bos primigenius	3	1
	Suid	Sus scrofa	99	40
	Sheep	Ovis aries	26	20
	Goat	Capra hircus	44	31
	Sheep/Goat	Ovis/Capra	183	35
	Horse	Equus caballus	10	6
	Dog	Canis lupus familiaris	16	10
	Deer	Cervus elaphus	55	16
	Rabbit	Oryctolagus cuniculus	24	8
	Pond terrapin	Emys orbicularis	2	2
	Cormorant	Phalacrocorax sp.	3	2
		Birds indet.	3	3
		Carnivore indet.	1	1
		Microfauna	1	1
	Sea bream	Sparus aurata	*	*
		Unidentified	636
	Total	Total	1,321	225

  Withers height estimation in cm for caprines (Ovis/Capra), cattle (Bos taurus) and horses (Equus caballus) at La Motte I.

			173.5			109.8
			163.7			103.6
		metatarsal	205.6 203.3	5.62		115.6 114.3
	Equus caballus	femur	389.6	3.51		136.8
	Tab. 3: Castelvielh	Port-Ariane	Boulancourt	La Motte I	Cougourlude
			BFIIIa	Final Bronze	BFIIIb	BFIIIb	Early Iron Age
	Ovis aries/ Capra hircus	57	x	58	51	57
	Bos taurus		x	113	109	107	111
	Equus sp.		x	125	x	137	107
		Bones	GL	Index	Withers height in cm
		radius	139.7	4		55.9
	Ovis/Capra	metacarpal astragalus	116.3 24 24.6	4.84 19.24		56.3 46.1 47.3
	Bos taurus	radius metacarpal	237.9 173.5	4.3 6.33		102.3 109.8

Tab. 4: Comparison of average withers height for caprines, cattle and equids from the archaeological settlements of Port-Ariane (Hérault), La Motte I (Hérault), Cougourlude (Hérault), Castelvielh (Gard) and Boulancourt (Seine-et-Marne).

Acknowledgements: This research work is supported by a doctoral contract from Doctoral School 60 at Paul-Valéry Montpellier III University and the Labex Archimède "Future Investment" program ANR-11-LABX-0032-01. I wish to thank the reviewers for their constructive advice.

staining, as burn marks are black or grey/white while natural staining colours bones soft brown to dark brown. The number of burnt remains is very low.

Anthropogenic marks

Cutting marks were identified on 10% of the 1,321 faunal remains and 17% of NISP (Fig. 8) on all mammalian species: Bos taurus, Bos primigenius, Sus scrofa, Ovis aries, Capra hircus, Canis lupus familiaris, Oryctolagus cuniculus, Equus caballus and Cervus elaphus.

Declaration of interest: none

Appendices: Table A