Cindy G Grappe

Cindy Lombart

Didier Louis

Fabien Durif

"Not tested on animals": How consumers react to cruelty-free cosmetics proposed by manufacturers and retailers?

Keywords: Animal welfare, cruelty-free, cosmetics, theory of planned behaviour, credibility, marketing claims

"Not tested on animals": How consumers react to cruelty-free cosmetics proposed by manufacturers and retailers?

Introduction

It is now obvious that consumers are increasingly aware of animal welfare in their daily choices. This tendency is observable all over the world. In the United States, 84% of citizens pay importance to better living conditions for animals (1). In Canada, 47% consider "very important" that companies treat animals humanly (2). In the European Union, 82% believe that it is important to protect the welfare of farmed animals and that these animals should be better protected than they are currently (3). The World Organization for Animal Health defines animal welfare as the physical and mental state of an animal, in relation to the conditions in which it lives and dies (4).

To guarantee animal welfare, the food industry offers consumers a plethora of claims and labels [START_REF] Schröder | Consumer value conflicts surrounding ethical food purchase decisions: A focus on animal welfare[END_REF]. This move has been closely followed by efforts in the hygiene and cosmetics sphere [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF]. A good amount of manufacturers move towards the adoption of "cruelty-free" or "not tested on animals" claims. Indeed, these messages appear as the major acquisition vector for 57% of Americans when selecting a cosmetic product (5). Retailers also commit to defend the animal cause, even if this pattern is more observable in the food industry.

Meanwhile, governments tend to a reduction, if not a ban of tests on animals [START_REF] Sreedhar | Ban of cosmetic testing on animals: A brief overview[END_REF]. In 2020, 39 countries (including the entirety of the European Union) have already adopted laws banishing these tests in the cosmetics area. The rest of the world does not oblige nor forbid them (e.g., in Canada and in most US states). Animal testing is only legally required in China, whether a Chinese or a foreign brand wishes to market its products in mainland China. This can lead consumers to question the essence of their purchases. For example, a brand can be qualified as "cruelty-free" if it sells its products in the UE, but if it also distributes them in mainland China, some clients might stop considering it as crueltyfree.

Prior research on cosmetics and personal care products suggested that certain values may influence formation of consumers' attitude and behaviour by encouraging them to look for products that will satisfy their values [START_REF] Grunert | Values, environmental attitudes, and buying of organic foods[END_REF]. For instance, health, environmental and appearance concerns may explain attitude towards buying organic cosmetics [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF]. Regarding cruelty-free cosmetics, they benefit very high attitudinal and behavioural evaluations, and concerns for animal rights and animal well-being may play a central role in these preferences [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF].

However, prior studies on cruelty-free cosmetics lack reliable and sufficient explanation of the attitude and purchase intention towards products that have not been tested on animals [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF]. Consequently, the objective of this research is to investigate the impact of the "not tested on animals" claim on consumers' attitude and behavioural intention towards a cosmetic product through [START_REF] Ajzen | From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior[END_REF] Theory of Planned Behaviour (TPB). The latter has been enriched by internal psychological (individuals' concerns with animal welfare and personal appearance) and external (general credibility of cosmetic products claims, credibility of the "not tested on animals" claim and attitude towards this claim) variables, as suggested by previous research on cosmetics [START_REF] Marcoux | Appearance, cosmetics, and body art in adolescents[END_REF][START_REF] Hamzaoui-Essoussi | Decision making process of community organic food consumers: An exploratory study[END_REF] and their claims [START_REF] Wansink | Front-label health claims: When less is more[END_REF][START_REF] Binninger | Perception of naturalness of food packaging and its role in consumer product evaluation[END_REF].

While altruistic and egoistic values have rarely been put together as explanatory cues of attitudinal formation of cosmetics preferences [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF], this research will consider both concerns for animal welfare and personal appearance as potential and plausible influences in the development of positive attitude towards cruelty-free cosmetics [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF]. Moreover, prior studies in this field of research did not investigate the difference of consumer attitude formation towards cruelty-free products compared to conventional personal care [START_REF] Schuitema | Green consumerism: The influence of product attributes and values on purchasing intentions[END_REF]. Consequently, this research will show that the construction of attitude towards cruelty-free products differs from conventional cosmetics. It will apprehend attitudinal development through a cognitive progression where beliefs define attitude, leading to the delineation of intention, which guides behaviour [START_REF] Ajzen | The theory of planned behavior[END_REF]. It will develop a linear model explaining attitude and purchase intention of cruelty-free personal care products based on credibility granted to claims used on cosmetics labels and ads in general as well as to cruelty-free claims credibility, leading to attitude towards the "not tested on animal" claim.

From a theoretical point of view, this research complements the founding work of Ajzen on prediction of an individual's intention to engage in a behaviour with variables both internal and external to the psychology of the consumer (e.g., individuals' concerns with animal welfare and personal appearance, and perceived credibility of claims and associated products). It also illustrates the differences in consumers' attitude and purchasing behaviour formation for cruelty-free products compared to conventional cosmetics. From a managerial point of view, this research will point out the educational responsibility of brands to consumers to promote transparency, fluency and understanding ability regarding labels and messages, notably the "not tested on animals" claim. Brands should also reach for official, independent, third-party certifications and labelling systems to be perceived by consumers as more socially responsible.

The remainder of the article is organized as follows. First, a literature review on animal welfare and labelling referring to the "cruelty-free" notion is proposed. Then, the applied theoretical framework, the posited hypotheses and the research model are discussed. The executed data collection, the conducted experiment and the measurement scales used are described. Lastly, the results, their theoretical and managerial contributions as well as the limits of the research are considered. Future research avenues are also proposed.

Claims and labels about animal welfare

Animal welfare

Animal welfare has benefited from a lot of researchers' attention, but principally in the food industry. They pointed out that consumers were dissatisfied with breeding and animal wellbeing standards (e.g., [START_REF] Fernqvist | Credence and the effect on consumer liking of food-A review[END_REF][START_REF] Ortega | Demand for farm animal welfare and producer implications: Results from a field experiment in Michigan[END_REF]. Consumers require brands that go beyond these norms (Te [START_REF] Velde | Dealing with ambivalence: Farmers' and consumers' perceptions of animal welfare in livestock breeding[END_REF] such as giving access to "natural" living conditions, ensuring the health of the animals, respecting their biological functions [START_REF] Spooner | Attitudes of Canadian citizens toward farm animal welfare: A qualitative study[END_REF] or prioritizing small family-scaled farming [START_REF] Gracia | Consumer preferences for food labeling: What ranks first?[END_REF].

In order to encourage improved practices, some consumers declared to be ready to spend more (e.g., from 19 to 23% according to [START_REF] Gracia | Valuing an EU animal welfare label using experimental auctions[END_REF]. Animal welfare has indeed a purchase leveraging effect for organic products [START_REF] Honkanen | Ethical values and motives driving organic food choice[END_REF][START_REF] Zander | Consumer preferences for additional ethical attributes of organic food[END_REF][START_REF] Akaichi | Could animal welfare claims and nutritional information boost the demand for organic meat? Evidence from nonhypothetical experimental auctions[END_REF] and stands for quality and food well-being [START_REF] Binninger | Perception of naturalness of food packaging and its role in consumer product evaluation[END_REF]. However, a lack of knowledge subsists concerning animal welfare [START_REF] Schröder | Consumer value conflicts surrounding ethical food purchase decisions: A focus on animal welfare[END_REF][START_REF] Spooner | Attitudes of Canadian citizens toward farm animal welfare: A qualitative study[END_REF]. The concept is recurrently confused with organic, local perceptions [START_REF] Dahlhausen | Value of labeling credence attributescommon structures and individual preferences[END_REF], good taste, health, pleasing sensations [START_REF] Van Riemsdijk | Marketing animal-friendly products: Addressing the consumer social dilemma with reinforcement positioning strategies[END_REF] and naturality [START_REF] Borkfelt | Closer to nature? A critical discussion of the marketing of "ethical" animal products[END_REF].

Claims and labels

In the personal care area, few researchers reflected upon the question of animal welfare [START_REF] Liobikienė | Theory of planned behavior approach to understand the green purchasing behavior in the EU: A cross-cultural study[END_REF][START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF]. However, brands offer consumers a myriad of labels (e.g., logos with bunnies) and claims, including negatively framed messages (e.g., "cruelty-free," "not tested on animals"), shedding light on the absence of dangerous or controversial ingredients or processes because of a public opprobrium [START_REF] Darke | The defensive consumer: Advertising deception, defensive processing, and distrust[END_REF]. This aims to transform consumers' emotional response into an actual act of purchasing [START_REF] Li | Why do people like natural? Instrumental and ideational bases for the naturalness preference[END_REF]. Animal-friendly claims and labels elevate brands' perceptions [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF]. For instance, [START_REF] Lancendorfer | Animals in advertising: Love dogs? Love the ad![END_REF] proved that a simple iconography depicting a dog led consumers to have a positive brand image. Labels and claims referring to the "cruelty-free" idea often call on emotional pondering, the same way do products playing with pastoral visuals [START_REF] Amos | Natural' labeling and consumers' sentimental pastoral notion[END_REF] or even with cuteness appeals via a graphic dynamic [START_REF] Wang | Getting consumers to recycle NOW! When and why cuteness appeals influence prosocial and sustainable behavior[END_REF]). Yet, they may fail to provide tangible proofs [START_REF] Carlson | A content analysis of environmental advertising claims: A matrix method approach[END_REF]. Some consumers are easily affected by animal-friendly claims and associated labels [START_REF] Honkanen | Ethical values and motives driving organic food choice[END_REF]. The wording "cruelty-free" has been proved to be a "call-for-action" term. It acts as a powerful heuristic in consuming choices, and proves to be a purchasing vector especially when egoistic attributes (price, familiarity, knowledge) are fulfilled [START_REF] Schuitema | Green consumerism: The influence of product attributes and values on purchasing intentions[END_REF]. In general, consumers find these "negatively framed" messages substantiated, instructive and important [START_REF] Newburger | Cosmeceuticals: Myths and misconceptions[END_REF]. This is supported by established typology of cosmetics [START_REF] Fowler | Analyzing deceptiveness of cosmetics claims in fashion ads[END_REF]. Allegations referring to the absence of tests conducted on animals (e.g., "not tested on animals") are largely considered as acceptable from a semantic standpoint, and thus easily decryptable by consumers. These messages as well as associated labels (e.g., logos with bunnies) hit an almost unanimous recognition rate [START_REF] Ormandy | Public attitudes toward animal research: A review[END_REF].

Theoretical framework, hypotheses and research model

Theory of planned behaviour

To grasp consumers' attitude and behaviour towards the purchase of products with a "not tested on animals" claim, the TPB [START_REF] Ajzen | From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior[END_REF] has been favoured. In this research, the universally understood claim "not tested on animals" [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF] has been preferred to the "cruelty-free" wording. Although more popular in the industry, more often do consumers perceive it as vague [START_REF] Hastak | Deception by implication: A typology of truthful but misleading advertising and labeling claims[END_REF]. The TBP is largely recognized as a valuable tool to shed light on deciding factors of purchase intention in the cosmetic and hygiene area for organic cosmetics [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF], green skincare [START_REF] Hsu | Exploring purchase intention of green skincare products using the theory of planned behavior: Testing the moderating effects of country of origin and price sensitivity[END_REF] or even conventional products [START_REF] Lu | Consumer knowledge, brand image, openness to experience and involvement: A case in cosmetic consumption[END_REF]. Although prior research has covered the understanding of some cosmetic claim trends, it is void of interest towards cruelty-free products.

The TPB explains the adoption or non-adoption intention of a behaviour through the attitude held towards this behaviour, perceived behavioural control and subjective norms.

This model allows the study of the influence of consumers' attitude on their behavioural intention as well as the influence of normative beliefs, subjective norms, and perceived behavioural control. Moreover, Ajzen's original model has been supplemented with both internal psychological (individuals' concerns with animal welfare and personal appearance) and external (general credibility of cosmetic products claims, credibility of the "not tested on animals" claim and attitude towards this claim) variables. These variables, suggested by previous research on cosmetics [START_REF] Marcoux | Appearance, cosmetics, and body art in adolescents[END_REF][START_REF] Hamzaoui-Essoussi | Decision making process of community organic food consumers: An exploratory study[END_REF] and their claims [START_REF] Wansink | Front-label health claims: When less is more[END_REF][START_REF] Binninger | Perception of naturalness of food packaging and its role in consumer product evaluation[END_REF], will improve the understanding of consumers' attitude and purchase behaviour.

Perceived behavioural control, subjective norms, attitude and purchase intention

Attitude towards a behaviour denotes "the level of favourable or unfavourable evaluation of a certain behaviour" [START_REF] Ajzen | The theory of planned behavior[END_REF]. Consumers' attitude often acts as mediator in the link between their values and their behaviour [START_REF] Shim | The hierarchical influence of personal values on mall shopping attitute and behavior[END_REF] and the more a person has a positive attitude towards the adoption of a behaviour, the more he will be prone to adopt it [START_REF] Ajzen | From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior[END_REF]. As far as the cosmetic and personal hygiene industry is concerned, it has been shown that attitude positively influences purchase intention of an organic cosmetic product [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF], of green skincare [START_REF] Hsu | Exploring purchase intention of green skincare products using the theory of planned behavior: Testing the moderating effects of country of origin and price sensitivity[END_REF], of free from parabens cosmetics [START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF] and even conventional hygiene products [START_REF] Lu | Consumer knowledge, brand image, openness to experience and involvement: A case in cosmetic consumption[END_REF]. Considering these previous works, this research posits the following hypothesis:

H1: Consumers' attitude towards a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product has a positive influence on their purchase intention of this product.

Behavioural control is "the perceived easiness or difficulty in adopting a behaviour."

The more a person perceives a high level of personal control, the more he tends to reveal high behavioural intention relating to the adoption of a given behaviour [START_REF] Ajzen | The theory of planned behavior[END_REF]. Previous research has used different variables pertaining to situational factors when delineating perceived control of cosmetics buying such as price [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF], confidence and time [START_REF] Hsu | Exploring purchase intention of green skincare products using the theory of planned behavior: Testing the moderating effects of country of origin and price sensitivity[END_REF], and convenience [START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF]. However, an important part of labeled products choice making lacks thorough insight: level of involvement and trust brought by comprehension [START_REF] Petty | Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change[END_REF][START_REF] Chaiken | Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context[END_REF]. A high level of involvement in the buying decision positively influences messages' efficacy.

Strategies based on logic and sound demonstrations are the most efficient and influent concerning purchase behaviour, especially when a consumer's level of involvement is high, and conversely, one with low levels of involvement will use peripheral signals and heuristics [START_REF] Chaiken | Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context[END_REF]. Some have tested such variables in cosmetics [START_REF] Lu | Consumer knowledge, brand image, openness to experience and involvement: A case in cosmetic consumption[END_REF] or green products buying contexts [START_REF] Liobikienė | Theory of planned behavior approach to understand the green purchasing behavior in the EU: A cross-cultural study[END_REF]. In this research, perceived behavioural control is thus envisioned as the level of reading and of comprehension of labels and tags of cosmetic products [START_REF] Roe | The impact of health claims on consumer search and product evaluation outcomes: Results from FDA experimental data[END_REF], as well as the interest in reading deciphering them [START_REF] Petty | Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change[END_REF][START_REF] Hsu | Exploring purchase intention of green skincare products using the theory of planned behavior: Testing the moderating effects of country of origin and price sensitivity[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Ajzen | The theory of planned behavior[END_REF], it should positively affect attitude and purchase intention of cruelty-free cosmetic products even if few studies apprehend perceived behavioural control as inducing both positive attitude and behavioural intentiononly the latter has been scrutinized [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF]. Accordingly, we hypothesize that:

H2: Perceived behavioural control has a positive influence on consumers' attitude towards a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product (a) and their purchase intention of this product (b).

Finally, subjective norms reflect peer influence and characterize "the perceived social pressure in the adoption or non-adoption of a behaviour" [START_REF] Ajzen | The theory of planned behavior[END_REF]. Peer pressure and the desire to be positively perceived by others have been proved as a valid influence of purchase intention of organic [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF], free from parabens [START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF], green [START_REF] Hsu | Exploring purchase intention of green skincare products using the theory of planned behavior: Testing the moderating effects of country of origin and price sensitivity[END_REF], and conventional cosmetic products [START_REF] Lu | Consumer knowledge, brand image, openness to experience and involvement: A case in cosmetic consumption[END_REF]. Indeed, psychosocial perspectives are significant reasons for positive attitude and purchase intention of cosmetic products [START_REF] Hillhouse | Modeling tanning salon behavioral tendencies using appearance motivation, self-monitoring and the theory of planned behavior[END_REF]. Still, previous research has mainly only grasped subjective norms influence on behavioural intention and rarely on attitude as well. However, we offer the following hypothesis:

H3: Subjective norms have a positive influence on consumers' attitude towards a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product (a) and their purchase intention of this product (b).

Personal concerns with animal welfare and appearance

In order to sharpen the understanding of attitude and purchase behaviour towards cosmetics displaying claims, and especially the "not tested on animals" allegation, it has been considered appropriate to include variables reflecting personal interests. Indeed, if consumers purchase cosmetic products for hygiene purposes, they also do so to modify their appearance [START_REF] Marcoux | Appearance, cosmetics, and body art in adolescents[END_REF] or/and because they aspire to be eco-friendly and respect animal welfare [START_REF] Hamzaoui-Essoussi | Decision making process of community organic food consumers: An exploratory study[END_REF].

Literature has often classified these motivations into two major categories: "egoistic" concerns, based on individualism, appearance and personal health, and "altruistic" concerns, referring to the protection of the environment or of animals [START_REF] Padel | Exploring the gap between attitudes and behaviour[END_REF]. Researchers have validated the influence of such values on attitude towards cosmetics, specifically health concerns when choosing organic or natural products [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF], appearance consciousness and hedonism, materialism, selfidentity and self-transcendence for free from cosmetics or environmental concerns and conservation values for organic, eco-friendly beauty products [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF]. However, none focuses on a value system effect on intention.

In regard to cruelty-free personal hygiene products, Sheehan and Lee (2014) have preliminarily posited, by means of a qualitative research, that support of animal rights is positively correlated with both attitude and purchase intention of cruelty-free brands. Consequently, preoccupations about animal welfare [START_REF] Honkanen | Ethical values and motives driving organic food choice[END_REF][START_REF] Nisbet | The nature relatedness scale: Linking individuals' connection with nature to environmental concern and behavior[END_REF] and personal appearance [START_REF] Todd | The aesthetic turn in green marketing: Environmental consumer ethics of natural personal care products[END_REF] have been incorporated in our research model. We consider that these psychological variables, internal to consumers' personal beliefs, can have an influence on their appreciation and behaviour. According to [START_REF] Fishbein | An investigation of the relationships between beliefs about an object and the attitude toward that object[END_REF], beliefs influence the adoption intention of a behaviour as well as the adoption in itself. Thus, we posit the following hypotheses:

H4: Concerns pertaining to animal welfare have a positive influence on consumers' attitude towards a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product (a) and their purchase intention of this product (b). H5: Concerns pertaining to personal appearance have a positive influence on consumers' attitude towards a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product (a) and their purchase intention of this product (b).

Credibility and attitude towards the « not tested on animals » claim

Ajzen's original model has also been enriched with external variables to the consumer's psychology envisioned as a linear model explaining attitude and purchase intention of crueltyfree cosmetic products. This is substantiated by the exploration of the level of credibility granted to claims used in personal care in general and to the "not tested on animals" message specifically. Indeed, the credibility of a given message is considered as a key factor in its own understanding [START_REF] Heesacker | Field dependence and attitude change: Source credibility can alter persuasion by affecting message-relevant thinking[END_REF].

Several factors are likely to influence beliefs accorded to claims, comprising familiarity with the product or the brand. For instance, prior knowledge of a claim helps to simplify the information and can lead to a fairer interpretation. [START_REF] Mackenzie | An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context[END_REF] have tested and validated the fact that perceived credibility of ads in general positively influenced credibility of a particular advertising stimulus on a given exposition occasion as well as consumers' attitude towards this stimulus. A person not believing in the veracity of a message will be less likely to adopt a positive attitude towards the product displaying it and to embrace any kind of buying intention. This reasoning could be extrapolated to cosmetic claims and, most specifically, to those referring to the lack of animal testing. Therefore, we hypothesize that:

H6: General credibility of cosmetic products claims has a positive influence on credibility of the "not tested on animals" claim (a) and consumers' attitude towards this claim (b).

For a label or a claim to be efficient and plausible, it is critical that it rapidly translates into a personal relevant interest for the consumer, whether pertaining to his health, the quality of the product or cost-effectiveness [START_REF] Binninger | Perception of naturalness of food packaging and its role in consumer product evaluation[END_REF]. Since short and simple claims are considered as more persuasive cues during purchase decision, it is because they often refer to a particular attribute and not to the product in its entirety. Moreover, more concise and straightforward claims reach out to all consumers whether they are concerned and interested in the message or not [START_REF] Wansink | Front-label health claims: When less is more[END_REF]. [START_REF] Holbrook | Beyond attitude structure: Toward the informational determinants of attitude[END_REF] has also shown that perceived credibility of a given message significantly contributes to the prediction of an attitude towards a claim. Furthermore, a message credibility has a direct and significant positive impact on attitude towards this message [START_REF] Choi | Antecedents and consequences of web advertising credibility: A study of consumer response to banner ads[END_REF]. Consequently, we propose the following hypothesis: H7: Credibility of the "not tested on animals" claim has a positive influence on consumers' attitude towards this claim.

Lastly, several studies indicated that consumers' attitude towards a particular ad has a positive and significant influence on their attitude towards the brand [START_REF] Goldsmith | The impact of corporate credibility and celebrity credibility on consumer reaction to advertisements and brands[END_REF][START_REF] Choi | Antecedents and consequences of web advertising credibility: A study of consumer response to banner ads[END_REF]. Indeed, ad perception and favourable or unfavourable attitude have a direct effect on attitude towards the brand related to the ad [START_REF] Mackenzie | An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context[END_REF]. Building upon this analogy, we conjecture that: H8: Consumers' attitude towards the claim "not tested on animals" has a positive influence on their attitude towards the product displaying this claim. [insert Figure 1 around here]

Methodology

Data collection

A cosmetics and personal hygiene brand in Quebec, Canada allowed us to use its social network to post a link with our questionnaire. We asked the brand's customers to answer questions on cosmetic/personal care products and their habits. With the help of a filter question on their purchasing and consumption habits of cosmetics and personal care, only users of this product category were allowed to answer the questionnaire. 450 actual buyers and consumers of cosmetic/personal care products were integrated in our research (response rate: 94%).

The respondents' average age in our sample is 30.6 years old and most are women (82.6%), which corresponds to the brand's target. 50.7% are single and 48.5% common-law or married. Both groups are homogeneous in terms of sex (χ²=1.113; p-value=0.291), age (χ²=0.127; p-value=0.722) and status (χ²=2.277; p-value=0.685). Table 1 presents the respondents' socio-psychographic characteristics of the experimental groups formed.

[insert Table 1 around here]

Experimental design

A between-subjects design has been used. The 450 participants of our research were randomly assigned to either a manipulation group (n=226) or a control group (n=224). When answering our questionnaire, the participants of the manipulation group (n=226) had to consider a shampoo bottle with the claim "not tested on animals" added on it, whereas the participants of the control group (n=224) had to reflect on the same product, but without any claim on the bottle.

A shampoo bottle had been chosen for its suitability for all kinds of consumers, indiscriminately of sex, age or other characteristics. The penetration rate of hair products is high worldwide (i.e., more than 80% in North America). The same shampoo bottle, without reference to any brand to avoid introducing bias into the judgment of the cosmetic product proposed, was submitted to the respondents of the control group and manipulation group, except that the bottle of the manipulation group had the claim "not tested on animals" added on it.

Measurement scales

Attitude towards the cosmetic product was measured by three items adapted from the brand attitude measurement scale of [START_REF] Lombart | Consumer satisfaction and loyalty: Two main consequences of retailer personality[END_REF]. Consumer purchase intention of the cosmetic product was measured by four items taken from the behavioural-intentions battery proposed by [START_REF] Zeithaml | The behavioral consequences of service quality[END_REF]. Subjective norms and perceived behavioural control were measured respectively by three and two items adapted from the scales of Redondo [START_REF] Redondo Palomo | The influence of social and environmental labels on purchasing: An information and systematic-heuristic processing approach[END_REF] that measure these two variables towards green skincare products. Consumers' concerns with animal welfare were measured by three items taken from the scale of [START_REF] Herzog | Gender, sex role orientation, and attitudes toward animals[END_REF] developed to measure consumer attitudes towards the use of animals. Consumers' concerns with personal appearance were measured by four items taken from the appearance schemas inventory proposed by [START_REF] Cash | Development of the Appearance Schemas Inventory: A new cognitive body-image assessment[END_REF].

The credibility of claims displayed on cosmetic products in general was measured by three items adapted from the general advertising credibility scale proposed by [START_REF] Mackenzie | An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context[END_REF]. The credibility of the studied claim was assessed through four items adapted from the perceived credibility of a quality label developed by [START_REF] Moussa | The perceived credibility of quality labels: A scale validation with refinement[END_REF]. The attitude towards the "not tested on animals" claim was measured by four items adapted from the scale introduced by Maheswaran and Meyers- [START_REF] Maheswaran | The influence of message framing and issue involvement[END_REF] to determine consumers' attitude towards the adoption of an advocated behaviour. Both groups answered to all our questionnaire's items, except to those related to the presence of claims on cosmetic products (in general or the one studied) for the control set. The items used in this study are available in table 2.

Data analysis

In this research, we used partial least squares structural equation modelling (PLS-SEM) and a bootstrap procedure with 5,000 replications [START_REF] Tenenhaus | PLS path modeling[END_REF], to analyse our data. We used PLS-SEM (with the software XLSTAT 2020), referred to as variance-based, instead of covariance-based structural equation modelling (CB-SEM) [START_REF] Hair | A primer on partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM)[END_REF], for two main reasons stressed by [START_REF] Hair | An assessment of the use of partial least squares structural equation modeling in marketing research[END_REF][START_REF] Hair | Partial least squares structural equation modeling (PLS-SEM): An emerging tool in business research[END_REF] in their meta-analyses on the use of PLS-SEM in marketing research. PLS-SEM does not require the variables to follow a multivariate normal distribution. Computed Mardia's coefficient is superior to |3| in this research. PLS-SEM allows working with small samples. The sample sizes are equal to 224 and 226 for the two groups considered in this research (control and manipulation respectively) with a mean of 211.29 in the marketing field. PLS-SEM also allows working with models that include a large number of latent variables; indeed, our research model contains nine variables with an average number of 7.94 in the marketing field.

First, the measurement models were tested. Confirmatory factor analyses examined the unidimensional factor structure of the measurement scales used. Their reliabilities (Cronbach's alpha [START_REF] Cronbach | Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests[END_REF]) and Jöreskog's rhô (Jöreskog, 1971) coefficients) as well as their convergent (average variance extracted (AVE); [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error[END_REF] and discriminant (heterotrait-monotrait (HTMT) method; [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] validities were also assessed. Then, the structural models were tested. We followed the recommendation of [START_REF] Hair | When to use and how to report the results of PLS-SEM[END_REF] to report our results. To test the mediating effects postulated, the procedure advocated by [START_REF] Cepeda | Mediation analyses in partial least squares structural equation modeling: Guidelines and empirical examples[END_REF], specifically developed for PLS-SEM, was used. The significance of a direct effect (c') and an indirect effect (a×b) were estimated.

Results

Test of the measurement models

Confirmatory factor analyses established the unidimensional factor structure of the measurement scales used. The loadings, that are greater than 0.5 and statistically significant at the 1% level, are satisfactory (Table 2). Then, Cronbach's alpha [START_REF] Cronbach | Coefficient alpha and the internal structure of tests[END_REF]) and Jöreskog's rhô (Jöreskog, 1971) coefficients indicated the reliability of the measurement scales used. The coefficients calculated are above the threshold of 0.7 and thus satisfactory (Table 3). Lastly, the approach advocated by [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating structural equation models with unobservable variables and measurement error[END_REF] established the convergent validity of the measurement scales used. The AVE are above the threshold of 0.5 (see Table 3). The discriminant validity of the measurement scales used was established through the HTMT method, as recommended by [START_REF] Henseler | A new criterion for assessing discriminant validity in variance-based structural equation modeling[END_REF] for variance-based SEM. The values in table 4 are below the 0.85 threshold.

[insert Tables 2, 3 and 4 around here] Test of the structural models

The SEM method enables to estimate complex models with many variables and structural paths. Linear independent-dependent relationships between several variables are examined in a path model. The structural model path coefficients (PC) for the relationships between the variables are thus derived from estimating a series of regression equations. The path coefficients have standardized values approximately between -1 and +1. Estimated path coefficients close to +1 represent strong positive relationships (and vice versa for negative values) that are usually statistically significant. The closer the estimated coefficients are to 0, the weaker are the relationships that are usually not statistically significant. Whether a coefficient is significant depends on its t value. When a t value is larger than a critical value, researchers can conclude that the coefficient is statistically significant at a certain error probability, i.e., significance level (i.e., a t value greater than |2.575/1.96| indicate that the path coefficient is significant at the 1/5 % level). The examination of the values of the path coefficients and their significance level in table 5 indicates the causal relationships between the different variables considered.

Hereafter, we present the results related to the manipulation group (n=226) (Figure 2), with the claim "not tested on animals" on the cosmetic product.

Firstly, the credibility of claims on cosmetic products in general has a positive and significant impact on consumers' attitude towards this claim (PC=0.373; t=3.792; p<0.01). Hypothesis H6b is supported by our data. The credibility of the studied claim has also positive and significant impact on consumers' attitude towards this claim, but to a lesser extent (PC=0.230; t=2.365; p<0.05). Hypothesis H7 is validated. By contrast, the credibility of claims on cosmetic products in general does not have a significant impact on the credibility of the studied claim (PC=0.179; non-significant (ns)). Hypothesis H6a is not supported by our data. In this research, the impact of the credibility of claims displayed on cosmetic products in general on consumers' attitude towards the studied claim (i.e., "not tested on animals") is direct. It is not mediated, partially or fully, by the credibility of the studied claim, as MacKenzie and Lutz's (1989) seminal work might have suggested.

In essence, the credibility of claims on cosmetic products in general and the credibility of the studied claim (i.e., "not tested on animals") explain 21.3% of consumers' attitude towards this claim.

Secondly, consumers' attitude towards the "not tested on animals" claim has a positive and significant impact on their attitude towards the cosmetic product with this claim (PC=0.356; t=3.747; p<0.01). Hypothesis H8 is supported by our data. Subjective norms have also a positive and significant impact on consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals" (PC=0.387; t=3.852; p<0.01). Hypothesis H3a is validated. Although it can be assumed that shampoo is a product used in a private, intimate setting, the sample's young age could eventually lead to a group purchase context and explain these results. Finally, consumers' concerns with animal welfare have a positive and significant impact on consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals" (PC=0.314; t=3.343; p<0.01). Hypothesis H4a is supported by our data. Similarly, consumers' concerns with personal appearance (PC=0.281; t=3.330; p<0.01) have also a positive and significant impact on consumers' attitude towards a cosmetic product displaying the claim "not tested on animals". Hypothesis H5a is validated. Our study confirms the founding work of [START_REF] Todd | The aesthetic turn in green marketing: Environmental consumer ethics of natural personal care products[END_REF]. By contrast, perceived behavioural control does not have an impact on consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals" (PC=0.001; ns). Hypothesis H2a is not supported by our data.

Fundamentally, consumers' attitude towards the "not tested on animals" claim, subjective norms and consumers' concerns with animal welfare and personal appearance explain 42.6% of consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals". According to computed path coefficients, the impacts of these four variables on consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals" seem similar.

Thirdly, consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals" has a positive and significant impact on their purchase intention of this product (PC=0.406; t=5.202; p<0.01). Hypothesis H1 is validated. This finding is consistent with previous conclusions relating to conventional hygiene products [START_REF] Lu | Consumer knowledge, brand image, openness to experience and involvement: A case in cosmetic consumption[END_REF], green skincare [START_REF] Hsu | Exploring purchase intention of green skincare products using the theory of planned behavior: Testing the moderating effects of country of origin and price sensitivity[END_REF], organic cosmetics [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF] or free-from parabens personal care products [START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF] while broadening them to cruelty-free cosmetics. Subjective norms have also a positive and significant impact on consumers' purchase intention of a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product (PC=0.360; t=4.253; p<0.01). This finding supports hypotheses H3b while confirming and extending to cruelty-free cosmetics the previous relations formulated in the works of [START_REF] Lu | Consumer knowledge, brand image, openness to experience and involvement: A case in cosmetic consumption[END_REF] on conventional and green cosmetics, [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF] and [START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF] on organic personal care products, and [START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF] on free-from parabens products. Finally, consumers' concerns with animal welfare have a positive and significant impact on consumers' purchase intention of a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product (PC=0.260; t=3.663 p<0.01), supporting hypotheses H4b.

Conversely, consumers' concerns with personal appearance does not have an impact on consumers' purchase intention of this cosmetic product (PC=-0.028; ns), rejecting hypothesis H5b. This impact is fully mediated by consumer attitude. This significant mediating effect has been confirmed by the procedure developed by the [START_REF] Cepeda | Mediation analyses in partial least squares structural equation modeling: Guidelines and empirical examples[END_REF]. Preoccupations regarding personal appearance, as suggested by [START_REF] Marcoux | Appearance, cosmetics, and body art in adolescents[END_REF] for conventional cosmetics, have only an indirect impact in our study, mediated by the concept of attitude. Similarly, perceived behavioural control does not have a significant impact on consumers' purchase intention of a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product (PC=-0.029; ns). Hypotheses H2b is not supported by our data. Recall that in this research, perceived behavioural control was envisioned as the level of reading and comprehension of labels and tags of cosmetic and personal care products [START_REF] Roe | The impact of health claims on consumer search and product evaluation outcomes: Results from FDA experimental data[END_REF], as well as the interest in deciphering them [START_REF] Petty | Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change[END_REF][START_REF] Hsu | Exploring purchase intention of green skincare products using the theory of planned behavior: Testing the moderating effects of country of origin and price sensitivity[END_REF]. Low levels of involvement could explain this outcome [START_REF] Petty | Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change[END_REF][START_REF] Chaiken | Heuristic and systematic information processing within and beyond the persuasion context[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Anderson | Applying the theories of reasoned action and planned behavior to athlete training adherence behavior[END_REF] and [START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF], consumers' involvement level in their choice of cosmetic and hygiene products is oftentimes low.

Essentially, consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals", subjective norms and consumers' concerns with animal welfare explain 63.2% of consumers' purchase intention of a "not tested on animals" cosmetic product. According to computed path coefficients, consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals" and subjective norms have the strongest impacts. The impact of consumers' concerns with animal welfare is significant but seems less important.

For the control group (n=224) (Figure 3), the analyses performed indicate that subjective norms have a strong positive and significant impact on consumers' attitude towards the claim-free conventional cosmetic product (PC=0.748; t=10.969 p<0.01) and on their purchase intention of this product (PC=0.596;t=6.184;p<0.01). Then, to a lesser extent, consumers' attitude towards the cosmetic product without a specific claim has a positive and significant impact (PC=0.289; t=2.862; p<0.01) on their intention to buy it. The model tested explains 62.9% of consumers' attitude towards the claim-free conventional cosmetic product and 62.1% of their purchase intention of this product.

[insert Table 5 around here] [insert Figures 2 and 3 around here]

Discussion

The research's main goal was to explain attitude and behaviour towards cruelty-free products, compared to conventional products, through the theory of planned behaviour [START_REF] Ajzen | From intentions to actions: A theory of planned behavior[END_REF], enriched with external variables to the consumer's psychology such as credibility and attitude towards the "not tested on animals" claim, both linked to the brand's manipulation of the claim, as well as variables internal to the reasoning process, in our case, concerns with animal welfare and personal appearance.

Firstly, our study illustrates that when consumers disclose a positive perception of credibility of cosmetics claims in general and specifically the "not tested on animals" one, their attitude towards the cosmetic product with this claim will increase. This research thus confirms and extends to cosmetic claims and, most specifically, to those referring to the lack of animal testing, the founding work of [START_REF] Mackenzie | An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context[END_REF] who indicated that perceived credibility of ads in general positively influenced credibility of a particular advertising stimulus on a given exposition occasion as well as consumers' attitude towards this stimulus. Similarly, it confirms and extends to personal care labelling, and most specifically to the claim "not tested on animals", the works of [START_REF] Holbrook | Beyond attitude structure: Toward the informational determinants of attitude[END_REF] and [START_REF] Choi | Antecedents and consequences of web advertising credibility: A study of consumer response to banner ads[END_REF]. These authors highlighted that perceived credibility of a given message has a direct and significant positive impact on attitude towards this message. Further, our results establish an alikeness between a claim and a product in the relationship between attitude towards a stimulus (i.e., an ad) and the positive attitude towards the related brand it creates, as illustrated by [START_REF] Goldsmith | The impact of corporate credibility and celebrity credibility on consumer reaction to advertisements and brands[END_REF].

Our results also indicate that when consumers unveil psychosocial internal values for animal well-being and personal appearance, it will have a positive impact on their attitude towards a cosmetic product with a cruelty-free message, and subsequently on their purchase intention (directly or mediated by attitude.) This research thus quantitatively confirms Sheehan and Lee's (2014) preliminary conclusions about cruelty-free personal care products supporting that endorsing animal rights is positively correlated with both attitude and purchase intention of cruelty-free brands. In essence, consumers have the intention to purchase "not tested on animals" cosmetics because of concerns pertaining to animal welfare, as suggested by [START_REF] Hamzaoui-Essoussi | Decision making process of community organic food consumers: An exploratory study[END_REF]. Preoccupations regarding personal appearance, as suggested by [START_REF] Marcoux | Appearance, cosmetics, and body art in adolescents[END_REF] for conventional cosmetics, have only an indirect impact in our study, mediated by the concept of attitude.

Finally, in addition to substantiating the impact of external (situational) and internal (individual) variables to the consumer's psychology, this research also shed light on consumers' willingness to consider others' opinion, measured through Ajzen's subjective norms. This study thus enriches previous research as the latter has mainly considered the influence of subjective norms on behavioural intention and rarely on attitude [START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF][START_REF] Hsu | Exploring purchase intention of green skincare products using the theory of planned behavior: Testing the moderating effects of country of origin and price sensitivity[END_REF][START_REF] Lu | Consumer knowledge, brand image, openness to experience and involvement: A case in cosmetic consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Photcharoen | Modelling Theory of Planned Behavior on health concern and health knowledge toward purchase intention on organic products[END_REF]. This research also reveals that consumer evaluation of cruelty-free vs. conventional cosmetic products differs in terms of social and personal values. Thus, it supplements prior studies on cosmetic products as the difference of consumer attitude formation towards cruelty-free products compared to conventional cosmetic products has not been examined [START_REF] Schuitema | Green consumerism: The influence of product attributes and values on purchasing intentions[END_REF].

Theoretical implications

Initially, this research highlights the difference of consumer attitude and buying behaviour formation when encountering cruelty-free products compared to conventional cosmetics. While consumer attitude and purchase intention are only based on subjective norms (i.e., peers' opinions) for personal care free from logos or credence claims, their constructions are far more complex as far as cruelty-free products are concerned. It aligns with the literature that underperforms in explaining attitude and behaviour towards general cosmetics [START_REF] Lu | Consumer knowledge, brand image, openness to experience and involvement: A case in cosmetic consumption[END_REF].

In addition, this work supplements Ajzen's original model with internal psychological (individuals' concerns with animal welfare and personal appearance) and external (general credibility of cosmetic products claims, credibility of the "not tested on animals" claim and attitude towards this claim) variables. These variables, as suggested by previous research on cosmetics [START_REF] Marcoux | Appearance, cosmetics, and body art in adolescents[END_REF][START_REF] Hamzaoui-Essoussi | Decision making process of community organic food consumers: An exploratory study[END_REF] and their claims [START_REF] Wansink | Front-label health claims: When less is more[END_REF][START_REF] Binninger | Perception of naturalness of food packaging and its role in consumer product evaluation[END_REF], improve the understanding of consumer attitude and purchase behaviour patterns. Consistent with previous research, our study supports the idea that certain value systems are explanatory factors of attitude in the cosmetics area [START_REF] Grunert | Values, environmental attitudes, and buying of organic foods[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Consumer purchase intention for organic personal care products[END_REF][START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF], and that altruistic and egoistic considerations are not necessarily at odds. Alongside this system, credibility granted to cosmetics claims plays a substantial role in attitudinal development [START_REF] Mackenzie | An empirical examination of the structural antecedents of attitude toward the ad in an advertising pretesting context[END_REF], proving that message manipulation and situational circumstances can indirectly influence purchase intention and potentially behaviour of cruelty-free personal care. Even though subjective norms also explain a significant part of attitude and buying intention of claim-free cosmetics, importance given to the animal cause, positive attitude towards the "not tested on animals" claim and credibility given to the latest also delineate attitude towards cruelty-free products, on top of peer opinion. Seeking others' acceptance reveals a certain social pressure in the consumption of cruelty-free cosmetic products [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF][START_REF] Schuitema | Green consumerism: The influence of product attributes and values on purchasing intentions[END_REF]. Alternatively, our results could suggest that pursuing consumerism promoting animal welfare is also based on feelings of morality as dictated by the social group (Th gersen and lander, 2003).

Lastly, this study points out that behavioural control, or consistency in reading and the level of understanding labels and claims, has no impact whatsoever on choice of our tested products, unveiling a lack of consumer knowledge pertaining to the meaning of claims and graphic labels used by the industry [START_REF] Hansen | Understanding consumer purchase of free-of cosmetics: A value-driven TRA approach[END_REF]. According to the theory of information economics, we can hypothesize that consumers are imperfectly informed about properties, claims, labels and ingredients of a cosmetic product [START_REF] Ford | Consumer skepticism of advertising claims: Testing hypotheses from economics of information[END_REF]. Since personal care is a fast-moving consumer good, it seldom reflects high involvement levels from consumers [START_REF] Shamsher | Relationship of demographic characteristics with purchasing decision involvement: A study on FMCG laundry soaps[END_REF]. Consequently, when involvement levels are low, consumers oftentimes use peripherical signals and heuristics, which cruelty-free claims have proved to be [START_REF] Petty | Communication and persuasion: Central and peripheral routes to attitude change[END_REF][START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF].

Managerial and public policy implications

First, our results point to a strong need for companies' education duty related to the significance and transparency of their messages as a consequence of the lack of client recognition and understanding ability regarding claims and existing communication on labels. This is all the more preoccupying as certain "conventional" brands are establishing themselves in the natural and animal well-being market (e.g., by offering vegan formulations) while still testing their products on laboratory animals in places where law compels it or does not forbid testing, creating a double standard that becomes difficult to apprehend from the consumer's point of view. The use of credence claims leads consumers to encounter hardship and hazard when judging the veracity and authenticity of messages and to mix different information pertaining to animal welfare (i.e., vegan (referring to the absence of animal products) vs. cruelty-free (referring to the lack of testing on animals)). However, some brands and retailers have surpassed the "label only" concept by adopting a branding strategy fully integrative of their vision and their attachment to animal welfare (e.g., The Body Shop). Another pertinent strategy, as suggested by previous research, is to collaborate with relevant stakeholders, such as animal-interest organizations, in order to gain additional trust on the product in general [START_REF] Schuitema | Green consumerism: The influence of product attributes and values on purchasing intentions[END_REF].

Second, the stronger a consumer believes a brand or retailer is engaged in sustainable manufacturing or retailing, such as fighting animal testing and promoting animal welfare, through TV spots or in-store digital displays (van Giesen and Leenheer, 2019), with or without underlying proofs and regardless of their interpretation of the claim, the stronger he agrees that this brand or retailer is safer and more socially responsible [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF]. In the same vein, whether retailers pertain to grocery stores or more specialized channels, offering consumers "responsible" products such as cruelty-free cosmetics and personal care would permit them to enhance their ethical image [START_REF] Bezençon | The effect of a sustainable label portfolio on consumer perception of ethicality and retail patronage[END_REF] to the most committed clients in the first place. Subsequently, referencing and putting forward cruelty-free products on shelfs would enable retailers to attract and create a relationship with these proactive consumers in order to develop trust, raise their satisfaction levels and retain them provoking loyalty to all their sales points [START_REF] Lombart | A study of the impact of Corporate Social Responsibility and price image on retailer personality and consumers' reactions (satisfaction, trust and loyalty to the retailer)[END_REF][START_REF] Louis | Impact of a retailer's CSR activities on consumers' loyalty[END_REF].

Third, in terms of public policies, there exist as many regulations as countries. Consequently, no universal formula can be applied. To sum up, in the European Union, animal testing for cosmetics has been banned in 2013 and the use of claims or logos referring to the absence of thereof has been prohibited in 2019 (6) for remedying the proliferation of misleading cruelty-free claims. Brands have thus an education responsibility and should reach for official, independent, third-party certifications and labelling systems (e.g., Leaping Bunny, PETA, CCF Rabbit) that set a universal standard and combat misleading messages. The latest solution should also be envisioned by companies marketing in countries that do not forbid nor require animal testing of cosmetic products, such as the United States or Canada, as they represent the only truthful engagement and assurance for consumers. Brands have a real interest in putting additional efforts in terms of animal well-being given the power of the "not tested on animals" allegation. Indeed, the terms "cruelty-free" and "not tested on animals" are so highly motivating that consumers use it as a valuable heuristic, even with evidence that the terms may be meaningless [START_REF] Sheehan | What's cruel about cruelty free: An exploration of consumers, moral heuristics, and public policy[END_REF]. Also, policymakers in regions where regulation is unclear should at least punish untruthful communication pertaining to animal testing in cosmetic and personal care products.

Limitations and research avenues

To begin with, only behavioural intention has been scrutinized in this research. The study of effective behaviour in a retail context or online could lead future research to refine our results, especially in terms of possible differences between intention and adoption, as observed in the responsible consumption literature pertaining to consumers' contradictions, or "green gap" [START_REF] Elhaffar | Towards closing the attitude-intention-behavior gap in green consumption: A narrative review of the literature and an overview of future research directions[END_REF].

Then, it would be relevant to repeat the experiment with other subjects to reach an age mean and level of education that are more representative of the Quebec (Canada) population, but also in other countries than Canada, with different legislation and regulatory backgrounds. Larger sub-sample sizes would also allow testing of moderation effects, regarding sex [START_REF] Herzog | Gender, sex role orientation, and attitudes toward animals[END_REF] and age [START_REF] Spooner | Attitudes of Canadian citizens toward farm animal welfare: A qualitative study[END_REF]. Further studies could also investigate the respective impacts of the "cruelty-free" and "not tested on animals" claims, and even graphic labels such as homemade bunny logos or official labelling systems, on the enriched model of attitude and purchase intention formation proposed in this research.

Ultimately, additional work could also focus on other external variables such as those linked to the store's environment (merchandising, price, atmosphere, etc.) or to the transactional website's (user experience, price, etc.). This would provide more specific recommendations for retailers and brands. In the same vein, in terms of social influence, it is possible that the apprehension of cosmetic products use in a private sphere could relativize our results. For the purposes of exploring this hypothesis, a group purchase experiment, with or without the presence of accompanying people, could accurately measure the influence of subjective norms for cruelty-free cosmetics in different contexts.

Footnotes

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1 offers a synthesis of the research hypotheses.

Table 1 : Socio-demographic characteristics of the control and manipulation groups

 1 TNS Opinion & Social. (2015). Attitudes of Europeans toward Animal Welfare. Special Eurobarometer 442. (4) World Organisation for Animal Health. (2019). Terrestrial Animal Health Code.(5) Nielsen.(2015). Package this: Beauty consumers favour 'cruelty free' and 'natural' product claims. (6) European Council. (2014). Official Journal of the European Union No L 107(5), 5-9.

	(1) Opinion Research Corporation. (2016). Natural Food Labels Survey. Consumer Reports
	National Research Centre.
	(2) The Hartman Group. (2015). Sustainability practices: Animal welfare. Sustainability -
	Transparency.

Table 2 : Results of confirmatory factor analyses

 2 After looking at this cosmetic product with the claim "not tested on animals", I could, in the near future ...

	Control group	Manipulation group
	(n = 224)		(n = 226)
	Loadings	t	Loadings	t

Note: Student's t test values greater than |2.575| indicate loadings significant at the 1% level (***).

Table 4 : Test of discriminant validity

 4

	Control group (n = 224)		1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.	9.
	1. Credibility of claims on cosmetic products in general
	2. Credibility of the claim
	3. Attitude towards the claim
	4. Attitude towards the cosmetic product					1
	5. Purchase intention of the cosmetic product					0.765	1
	6. Concerns with animal welfare					-0.423	-0.189	1
	7. Concerns with personal appearance					0.046	0.183	0.018	1
	8. Perceived behavioural control					-0.081	-0.044	0.178	0.266	1
	9. Subjective norms					0.789	0.836	-0.220	0.207	-0.120	1
	Manipulation group (n = 226)	1.	2.	3.	4.	5.	6.	7.	8.	9.
	1. Credibility of claims on cosmetic products in general	1
	2. Credibility of the claim	0.123	1
	3. Attitude towards the claim	0.409	0.294	1
	4. Attitude towards the cosmetic product	0.162	0.534	0.572	1
	5. Purchase intention of the cosmetic product	0.361	0.241	0.671	0.702	1
	6. Concerns with animal welfare	0.197	0.091	0.474	0.158	0.509	1
	7. Concerns with personal appearance	0.232	0.173	0.087	0.145	-0.113	0.202	1
	8. Perceived behavioural control	-0.235	-0.096	-0.075	-0.033	-0.019	-0.078	-0.023	1
	9. Subjective norms	0.143	0.197	0.537	0.590	0.725	0.431	0.184	0.038	1

Table 5 : Results of structural equation model

 5 PC = path coefficient. Ns = non-significant. Student's t test values greater than |2.575/1.96| indicate path coefficient significant at the 1/5 % level (***/**).

		Control group			Manipulation group
		(n = 224)			(n = 226)
	PC	t	R 2	PC	t	R 2