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Introduction

Introduction

Ercüment Çelik, Christian Ersche, Wiebke Keim and Veronika Wöhrer

The term 'circulation', prevalent in various medical, economic and technical fields for a long time, has arrived rather recently in the domain of sociology of science and knowledge and in science history. Used in the seventeenth and eighteenth centuries by physiologists and alchemists when referring to the circulation of blood and matter, and by hygienists of the eighteenth century when talking about circulation of air, the term entered the field of the social in liberal economics as well as in Marx's theory referring to the circulation of capital. In their analysis of industrial modernity, the social sciences broadened the use of the circulation concept, soon referring not only to capital but likewise to raw material, humans and ideas (Sarasin and Kilcher 2011: 7).

From the 1990s onwards, the social sciences have multiplied usages of the term of circulation -circulation of data, signs and symbols, of practices, images and discourses -to the point that circulation 'has become a diffuse catch-word for all sorts of processualities and transfers at different levels' (Sarasin and Kilcher 2011: 8). It also 'forms a recurrent, though non-theorized, concept in the history of science' (Raj 2006: 225-6). The present volume provides efforts at conceptualization, empirical studies of international circulation of knowledge within the social sciences, and it asks what kind of social science knowledge is produced in circulation. The purpose of this introduction is to position this volume within recent and ongoing debates in the concerned fields of scholarly activity. 1 1 We observed that different disciplinary and language backgrounds shape the making and reception of 'important' or 'key' texts in this discussion, too: while against a background informed by Anglo-American and cultural studies it is especially Edward Said's Traveling Theory (1983) that is perceived as the 'first' important text, in French-speaking and sociology-dominated contexts it is rather Pierre Bourdieu's 'Les conditions sociales de la circulation internationale des idées ' (2002). In science and technology studies Bruno Latour's concept of 'immutable mobiles', developed in his work Science in Action (1987), as well as the concept of 'boundary object' [START_REF] Star | Institutional Ecology, "Translations" and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology, 1907-1939[END_REF]; further developed (especially historical) studies about knowledge circulation, a systematic conceptualization of the circulation of academic knowledge is still missing.

If circulation per se is not a new phenomenon, what appears to be recent is the growth, or at least the growing perception, of South-North as well as South-South circulation within the international social sciences. We use these broad geographical categories as a shortcut: what is meant -and the various contributions in this volume address the issue through different terminological choices -is the issue of circulation between and across places that occupy different and often unequal positions within the international scholarly community. Existing research on knowledge circulation often concentrates on activities inside the North Atlantic world (see for instance the references and examples provided in [START_REF] Secord | Knowledge in Transit: Halifax Keynote Address[END_REF]) and do not adequately address the particular challenges arising from hierarchies and inequalities within the social for knowledge circulation in the social sciences in Rodríguez Medina 2013) is repeatedly used to think about knowledge that travels. sciences for international circulation of knowledge. The so-called 'rise of the South' in international relations and the global economy, accompanied by considerable increases in the research and higher education sectors in the more affluent emerging countries (China, India, Brazil, Turkey, etc.;see Royal Society 2011), is certainly one of the reasons why issues of international circulation and knowledge production are on the agenda today. Changes in circulation patterns within the social sciences as well as in perceptions thereof are also related to their institutionally fostered internationalization, here in particular in sociology, 2 through the creation of international scholarly associations, conferences and publications. 3 There had been early forms of international exchange within sociology from as early as 1893, with René Worms' foundation of the Institut International de Sociologie in Paris and the launch of the Revue internationale de sociologie. These platforms mobilized considerable participation from European and US-American social sciences. Truly international social science organizations -in the sense of representing a large variety of national associations and research communitieshowever, emerged only after 1945 under the auspices of UNESCO [START_REF] Heilbron | Toward a Transnational History of the Social Sciences[END_REF]): alongside the international associations in anthropology, political science, economics and legal science and psychology that were created between 1948 and 1951, the International Sociological Association (ISA) was founded in 1949.

Similarly to the other international social science associations, the ISA developed from representing a small number of national associations from Western Europe and North America to an association with global representation: national associations 2 The main focus of this introduction and of this edited collection is on sociology as an academic discipline. Similar debates are taking place within neighbouring disciplines -for international relations see, for example, Acharya 2010 or Tickner and Waever 2009; for anthropology see, for example, Cardoso de Oliveira 2000, Krotz 1997 or Restrepo and Escobar 2005. 3 For a broader debate around 'denationalization' of science, see [START_REF] Crawford | The Nationalization and Denationalization of the Sciences: An Introductory Essay[END_REF] from several Eastern European countries joined in the late 1950s; and throughout the 1960s and 1970s associate members from Latin America and Asia joined.

Decolonization led to increasing participation from countries of the global South, and after 1989 the former Soviet-influenced regions joined wholesale [START_REF] Heilbron | Toward a Transnational History of the Social Sciences[END_REF]). These international scholarly associations have increased international encounters and exchange through activities of their research groups and committees and through organizing regular world congresses as well as through launching periodical publications with an emphasis on geographical representativity and international debate: 'By incorporating an increasing number of scholars and scholarly societies, who came from an ever widening circle of countries, international organizations contributed to the denationalization of the social sciences, providing an important institutional framework for establishing transnational connections' (Heilbron et al. 2008: 151). Simultaneously, in the post-1945 period, institutional arrangements for student mobility, visiting professorships and research missions have largely developed that increasingly include persons from Asia, Africa and Latin America: it is estimated that between the 1960s and the 1990s, around one million students and scholars have moved from these countries to Western centres [START_REF] Jeanpierre | The International Migration of Social Scientists[END_REF]. Resulting from this institutionally supported increase in international encounters, various debates have developed within the scholarly community.

The first debate centres around tensions that arise between diversification of local, national or regional voices and traditions within sociology, sometimes accompanied by debates around the fragmentation as opposed to the unity of sociology as a discipline.

The integration of diversity within sociology had already become an important The region is not simply a convenient grouping of nations but important in its own right since the challenges facing sociologists crystallize around a region's shared history and geopolitics. Moreover, the region is the natural stepping stone from the national to the global level, especially important for the many countries with a weakly developed sociology (Burawoy et al. 2010: ix).

Internationalization of the Social Sciences: Asia-Latin America-Middle East-Africa-Eurasia, edited by Michael Kuhn and Doris Weidemann (2010b), is arranged in a similar way. Here as well, the editors (2010: 18) argue that 'the fact that book chapters largely address national science communities mirrors the national context and constitution of social science communities'. It is striking that both these works contain no specific section on North America. Kuhn and Weideman's book leaves out Western Europe as well. This represents a more or less explicit critique of the dominance of the North Atlantic social sciences, for as Burawoy (Burawoy et al. 2010: x) argues, 'It is the nature of our unequal world, in sociology and beyond, that North America is always present'.

Another publication in this list is The ISA Handbook of Diverse Sociological Traditions, edited by Sujata Patel (2010), which has its origin in a conference that was organized by the ISA for representatives of national sociological associations in Miami in 2005. Also addressing issues of Northern dominance and Southern struggle for autonomy, this book, however, also contains chapters on developments in North American and European sociologies and focuses more on the contradictory relationship between universalism and diversity. This collection, which has some overlaps with the volumes edited by Burawoy et al. with regard to its authors, claims to present 'diverse but universal voices that structure sociological thinking' and to elaborate 'the unique characteristics of the national and/or regional sociologies that need to be taken into account in discussing international sociology in the globalizing world' (Patel 2010: ix).

These three edited volumes address topics similar to this book. They are not to be seen as handbooks of national sociologies but as attempts to connect the national/regional and the global. In this sense they do not only present valuable insights into a wide range of diverse scientific traditions but also contain certain aspects of knowledge circulation. However, the division into national social sciences that are each related to the 'international' social sciences -mainly meaning American or Western European -separately confronts them with difficulties in recognizing diverging patterns of knowledge circulation and distribution. Furthermore, due to their structuring along the lines of nationally based research communities, these contributions are unable to adequately address the position that knowledge does not only circulate, but is also produced in circulation. This limitation to the national level is precisely what we wish to avoid in this book. Therefore, the structure of this volume is not organized along national or regional lines but along topics of knowledge circulation and scientific cooperation. Hence, unlike the above-mentioned works, authors of this volume were invited to engage in a dialogue with each other.

Related to internationalization and to a tension of diversity versus homogenization according to a dominant model of sociology is a second corpus of studies that conceptualize and empirically analyse global hierarchies, inequalities and power differentials within the international scholarly community. Drawing on the seminal works of Syed Hussein [START_REF] Alatas | The Captive Mind and Creative Development[END_REF], Syed Farid [START_REF] Alatas | The Study of the Social Sciences in Developing Countries: Towards an Adequate Conceptualisation of Relevance[END_REF]2003), Frederick H. [START_REF] Gareau | The Multinational Version of Social Science with Emphasis upon the Discipline of Sociology[END_REF], Paulin J. [START_REF] Hountondji | Scientific Dependence in Africa Today[END_REF] 2001/02) and Xavier Polanco (1990a;[START_REF] Polanco | Une science-monde: la mondialisation de la science européenne et la création de traditions scientifiques locales[END_REF] as well as on empirical studies around science and technology in the continents of the South and their patterns of international exchange (Arvanitis and Gaillard 1992;[START_REF] Arunachalam | Peripherality in Science: What should be Done to Help Peripheral Science get Assimilated into Mainstream Science?[END_REF][START_REF] Gaillard | La naissance difficile des communautés scientifiques[END_REF]Waast 1996 and2003), Wiebke Keim has argued for a centre-periphery approach in order to address the hierarchies and inequalities in the global constitution of sociology [START_REF] Keim | Vermessene Disziplin: Zum konterhegemonialen Potential afrikanischer und lateinamerikanischer Soziologien[END_REF][START_REF] Keim | Social sciences Internationally -the Problem of Marginalisation and its Consequences for the Discipline of Sociology[END_REF]2010). In 2010, UNESCO asked the International Social Science Council (ISSC) to publish a World Social Science Report (IISC 2010).

Even though many of the chapters in this report deal with the social sciences in certain countries or regions as well, the structure of the book differs: the sections are structured according to main issues of current social sciences, such as disciplinary boundaries, knowledge dissemination or the relation to policymakers. Furthermore, there are three sections explicitly directed to hierarchies and inequalities in international knowledge production and circulation: 'Unequal Capacities', 'Uneven Internationalization' and 'Homogenizing or Pluralizing Social Sciences'. In these sections, structural and topical issues (like, for example, funding, resources, publication patterns, etc.) are addressed on an international and comparative level.

They describe the continuing, in some respects even increasing dominance of US-American and (West) European knowledge production [START_REF] Frenken | The Globalization of Research Collaboration[END_REF][START_REF] Gingras | Where are the Social Sciences Produced?[END_REF]. Many facts and figures about the circulation of knowledge are given here. However, theoretical concepts of circulation, dialogue, entanglement or other approaches to address the functioning of the social sciences on a global scale are not elaborated in this report. Similarly, the epistemic effects of the stated North Atlantic domination are hardly problematized. This literature addressing the question of diversity as well as the material and power differentials within the discipline already indicates that the internationalization of the social sciences, induced through increasing circulation of people, materials and ideas, has had theoretical consequences and effects. In a reflection on current epistemological challenges in sociology, Jean-Michel Berthelot argued that 'the articulation between national sociologies and the common corpus of the discipline is not taken for granted anymore but has become a problematic link'. He recognizes that 'behind political denunciations of hegemony, a direct or indirect questioning of the very pretension of sociology to elaborate a universal discourse can take shape' (Berthelot 1998: 2-3, translation by authors). This indicates a first theoretical effect.

Within the international scholarly community, different knowledge systems, heterogeneity of voices and of sometimes radical visions have come into focus. A variety of claims for theoretical alternatives has led to the fundamental questioning of the universality of social sciences that Berthelot stated.

Firstly, Eurocentrism was criticized in a variety of academic discourses.

Through the impulse of the simultaneously emerging postcolonial studies and critiques of coloniality of power [START_REF] Quijano | Coloniality of Power and Eurocentrism in Latin America[END_REF] and knowledge (Lander 2003;2004), critiques of modernity [START_REF] Dussel | World-System and "Trans"-Modernity[END_REF]2003;[START_REF] Frank | ReOrient: Global Economy in the Asian Age[END_REF]) and modernization theory [START_REF] Knöbl | Spielräume der Modernisierung: Das Ende der Eindeutigkeit[END_REF], critiques of the disciplinary structure of the social sciences [START_REF] Mafeje | Anthropology in Post-Independence Africa: End of an Era and the Problem of Self-Definition[END_REF][START_REF] Said | L'orientalisme -l'Orient créé par l'Occident[END_REF]Wallerstein et al. 1996) and calls for provincializing Europe [START_REF] Chakrabarty | Provincializing Europe: Postcolonial Thought and Historical Difference[END_REF], the debate has highlighted the fundamental problem of the Eurocentrism of much of supposedly general social theory. This has also led to attempts at rewriting the history of sociology, questioning the formation of the sociological canon as well as acknowledging in particular the entanglements of early sociology with colonialism (see, for example, [START_REF] Connell | Northern Theory: The Political Geography of General Social Theory[END_REF][START_REF] Steinmetz | Decolonizing German Theory: An Introduction[END_REF][START_REF] Zimmerman | Decolonizing Weber[END_REF]).

The anthology Decolonizing European Sociology: Transdisciplinary Approaches, edited by Encarnación Gutiérrez Rodríguez, Manuela Boatcă and Sérgio Costa (2010), represents a consistent attempt to rethink Eurocentric sociology. Not unlike the present volume, it is structured by topics and gathers ideas and concepts for 'connected sociologies' [START_REF] Bhambra | Sociology after Postcolonialism: Provincialized Cosmopolitanisms and Connected Sociologies[END_REF] or 'a post-colonial sociology' [START_REF] Boatcă | Postcolonial Sociology: A Research Agenda[END_REF]). These are elaborated as possible ways to go further in the direction of a 'decolonized' sociology. However, this book differs from Rodríguez et al. in as far as contributions to this volume provide more empirical data about globally circulating knowledge and accordingly come closer to some of the subchapters in the ISSC report.

A second claim is made in a growing corpus of literature which demands recognition of the knowledge produced in the so-called South and its relevance for the social science disciplines as such. As an active response to Eurocentrism, this literature, which is highly relevant for the debates addressed in this volume, appears multi-voiced in accordance with the multiplicity of places whence it emerges. It attempts to demonstrate and justify the existence of alternative knowledges on society and their productiveness for social theorizing. At times, this literature puts forward radical imaginations that display the rise of theory and intellectual engagements from the South and call for radical change in the Euro-American social sciences. The following should give a brief overview and orientation over past and ongoing debates.

Indigenization of knowledge can be seen as one of the earlier debates in this regard. Akinsola [START_REF] Akiwowo | Contributions to the Sociology of Knowledge from an African Oral Poetry[END_REF] Hence, it is for him an epistemic intervention, rather than 'doing sociology in the vernacular'.

In the tradition inaugurated by Akiwowo's indigenization project, namely the use of oral texts for the generation of sociology, Ari Sitas has moved a step further.

Voices that Reason -Theoretical Parables (2004) contains a series of parables, created on the basis of and presented in the form of popular stories, current in the oral cultures of the KwaZulu-Natal region. These parables were used to provoke and animate discussion in university as well as community seminars, in order to discover the perspectives of ordinary people on their lived realities. After this first part follow Sitas's theoretical interpretations through the parables and through the discussion they provoked. Here the author aspires at nothing less than a sociology that is 'universally comprehensible but arrogantly local … neither pre-modern, modern nor post-modern.

It could be all of them at once and at once communally accessible' (Sitas 2004: 23).

The books' contents are manifold, take on general sociological assumptions, discuss and contradict different theoretical approaches and propose their own concepts. The idea for the parables project was born out of Sitas's activities as a political and cultural activist: 'We have been convinced that the "researched" is different from a piece of chalk … The "researched" talked back, argued, resisted the classifications and pointed out that the researcher, professor sir or madam, was also part of the field …' (Sitas 2004: 41; see also the paragraph below on social relevance).

In similar terminology as the call for indigenization, following the Mecca Conference on Education held in 1977, Muslim scholars have argued for islamization of knowledge in all domains, including the social sciences. The aim would be to produce a more autonomous and self-reliant scholarly community that is able to produce liberating forms of social knowledge on the basis of Islam and the Quran.

Islamized social science is thought of as a contribution to overcoming the legacies of colonialism in terms of social life and social thought (see the most important, diverging propositions by [START_REF] Al-Attas | Islam and Secularism[END_REF][START_REF] Al-Attas | Prolegomena to the Metaphysics of Islam: An Exposition of the Fundamental Elements of the Worldview of Islam[END_REF]also al-Faruqi in AbūSulaymān 1995). S. F. Alatas, in his book Alternative Discourses in Asian Social Science.

Responses to Eurocentrism (2006), documented various critiques of the social sciences in Asia, including Orientalism, Eurocentrism, the captive mind, academic imperialism and academic dependency, and critically assessed the prescriptions for alternative discourses that have emerged from these critiques, including a critical assessment of the islamization of knowledge debate. Alatas (2006: 12) acknowledged that these critiques generated pleas for alternative and more liberating discourses, for decolonized knowledge, autonomous social science traditions, and indigenized social sciences. He argued, however, that these calls for alternative themselves were often problematic with regard to four main issues: '(a) the opposition between nativist and autonomous social science (b) the need for a proper conceptualization of relevance, (c) the impact of the relationship between discourse and power on alternative discourses, (d) and teaching the social sciences along the lines of the requirements of alternative discourses' (Alatas 2006: 13). These problems were contextualized within the historical and continuing dominance of one particular civilizational source of knowledge (that is, the Western) over Asian social scientific discourses. The significance of Alatas's contribution lies in his suggestion that 'the reconstruction of the social sciences must simultaneously involve conceptual pluralisations in the context of the dismantling of the current global division of labour in the social sciences' (Alatas 2006: 17). In addition, he offered a political programme to democratize knowledge production and distribution by recognizing the historical distinctiveness of Asian experiences and contributions to the social sciences. Different from the nativist positions, Alatas (2006: 194) posited what he termed 'autonomous social science', 'which does not wish to discard Western social science, but instead open up the possibilities for local, national and regional philosophies, epistemologies, and histories to become bases of knowledge'. (A summary of the discussions of alternative concepts and indigenization of knowledge in sociology can also be found in Gurminder Bhambra's contribution in Part 4.)

A few scholars have suggested an orientation towards the South, beyond Eurocentrism, in order to develop a 'social science on a world scale'. Raewyn Connell's book Southern Theory (2007) presented the case for a new 'world social science' -one that is inclusive of many voices -by arguing for a more democratic global recognition of social theory from societies outside the dominant European and North American metropole. Connell showed how social theory from the world periphery has power and relevance for understanding our changing world and how this tremendous resource has been disregarded by mainstream social science.

Regarding her particular focus on sociology, Connell targeted the sociological canon and argued that in the making of a new sociology on a world scale, 'we have to get beyond the mythologized version of the history of sociology that still haunts our textbooks and our journals ' (2010: 40). In her concern with the role Southern perspectives should have in a globally connected system of knowledge, [START_REF] Connell | Southern Theory. The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science[END_REF]2010) envisioned a last stage that refers to a social science on a world scale, which is based on a mutual learning process without metropolitan hegemony.

Others have argued that original thinking in peripheral social science communities is likely to emerge out of socially relevant domains of scholarly activity and out of engaged research practice that favours a dialectics of theory and practice.

Instead of searching for original theories that mark a wholesale departure from existing sociology, it is worthwhile looking more closely at those scholarly communities that are active, productive and creative in spite of their rather marginal international position. [START_REF] Burawoy | Southern Windmill: The Life and Work of Edward Webster[END_REF] stressed the importance of the interconnectedness of the academic and public life of Southern scholars. In his tribute to Edward Webster, Burawoy (2010: 2) argued that 'the expansion of Southern sociology depends on the dialectic of political and sociological imagination' which 'is rarely found in the North with its entrenched division of sociological labour' (2010: 5). Burawoy (2010: 19-23) also distinguished between 'Sociology in the South', 'Sociology of the South' and 'Sociology for the South'. Sociology in the South is simply Northern sociology, presented as a universal sociology, transferred to the South. Sociology of the South develops through a particular engagement of Southern scholars with the Northern theory, in which they particularize, expand and reject the Northern theory. They also develop new theories through their deep engagement with the local. Particularizing and even expanding Northern theory is a necessary step in the development of Sociology for the South -'a sociology which is not content with a particular sociology of the South, but makes its own move toward universality. It is a theory that binds the South to an emergent counter-hegemony that presents the interests of the South as the interests of all' (Burawoy 2010: 22).

Burawoy's argument largely overlaps with Keim's on the emergence of counter-hegemonic currents in international sociology [START_REF] Keim | Vermessene Disziplin: Zum konterhegemonialen Potential afrikanischer und lateinamerikanischer Soziologien[END_REF]2011). Her developmental approach, illustrated through the example of the historical development of the South African labour studies community, argues that dependency on imported approaches is likely to be overcome when sociology addresses relevant social issues in exchange with extra-university actors. This ensures not only the establishment of a solid empirical basis, but also the taking over of responsibility for research results that do not only appear in form of academic publications but serve as an orientation for social and political action. The orientation towards the supposed global centres of scholarly activity loses importance as alternative arenas of activity and exchange take centre stage. Socially relevant sociology attracts junior staff, thus enabling the collective development of future generations of scholars and of an autonomous tradition in the long term. The limitations of imported approaches become evident and lead to conceptual and theoretical adaptations and innovations that are relevant for the discipline as a whole, thus enabling the international integration of the scholarly community on a more equal footing.

The call for 'learning from the periphery' often has provoking connotations, such as [START_REF] Burawoy | South Africanizing US Sociology[END_REF] argument of 'South Africanizing US Sociology', and Jean Comaroff and John Comaroff's (2012) recent book Theory from the South that attempts to demonstrate how Euro-America is evolving toward Africa. Burawoy's argument rests on the fact that South African sociology had become inseparable from the struggle against apartheid and is characterized by a deep engagement with public issues of the communities in which it is embedded. Burawoy is convinced that we could learn from the periphery in terms of thinking about the meaning of public sociology on our own home terrain. [START_REF] Comaroff | Paradigm)[END_REF] state that as many nation states of the Northern hemisphere experience increasing fiscal meltdown, state privatization, corruption, ethnic conflict and other crisis, it seems as though they are evolving Southward. More importantly, they quote the call of the Ministry of Higher Education and Training in South Africa for social theory and critical skills, in which it is underlined that South Africans should not only be consumers but should become active producers of social theory. This call comes at a time when political classes across the North are evincing disturbingly anti-intellectual, anti-critical tendencies.

Hence, 'if, indeed, rather south-like conditions have become the "grim new Normal" in Euro-America, there is clearly a need there too for a return to Theory. Perhaps this is a respect in which Euro-America ought to evolve more rapidly toward Africa' (Comaroff and Comaroff 2012: 48).

The above-mentioned scholars have contributed to the recognition of Southern scholars as active producers of knowledge at wider scales and underlined the importance of building counter-hegemony in international knowledge production and circulation. However, it should be further debated whether a move from counterhegemony towards non-hegemonic forms of knowledge circulation is possible and what this would mean for a social science on a world scale (Çelik 2012). Furthermore, the idea of 'learning from the periphery' importantly gives reference to the knowledge produced in the South and highlights its relevance in the North. Nevertheless, there is still a need to analyse the processes and initiatives of 'learning across the periphery' (Çelik forthcoming), which can be seen as a main aspect of academic South-South cooperation.

Evaluation of existing attempts to provide theoretical alternatives vary considerably -from the enthusiasm about 'declarations of independence'5 and opportunities and the will to transform the discipline through radical and original alternatives to frustrations about mere radical rhetoric devoid of substantive meaning for the advancement of the discipline as a whole. 6 The expectation that non-Eurocentric forms of social science knowledge should be coined, the question how this could happen and what international cooperative arrangements would be needed persist or even increase in our days. Contributions to this volume argue that the debate could gain from having a closer look at the experience with alternative forms of cooperation, especially those enabling and fostering South-South collaboration. The above-mentioned calls for alternatives also remain, most of the time, at a very abstract level of criticizing general social theory and proposing rather abstract solutions. What remains to be done is to highlight concrete examples of certain sociological questions, of given travelling theories and concepts, of precise theoretical issues discussed in various cases of international exchange. This volume seeks to provide such empirical examples. It argues furthermore that social science knowledge produced in circulation (that is, through continuous international exchange) could indeed look different from established mainstream social science (see in particular Part 3). All contributions insist, however, that these more internationally oriented perspectives cannot ignore the fact that massive material and power differentials persist within the international scholarly community and that these continue to affect the knowledge produced.

If we take recent debates within sociology seriously, the theoretical effects of increasing internationalization would ultimately require rethinking the constitution and epistemological foundations of our discipline (see Part 4). Here, visions vary considerably: from replacing the 'North' by the 'South' as the leading front of humanity [START_REF] Comaroff | Paradigm)[END_REF] to arguing for more global dialogue and mutual learning [START_REF] Connell | Southern Theory. The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science[END_REF]; from decentring or multi-centring sociology (Gutiérrez Rodriguez et al. 2010;[START_REF] Connell | Sociology for the Whole World[END_REF]) to a multiversal vision [START_REF] Kuhn | Facing a Scientific Multiversalism: Dynamics of International Social Science Knowledge Accumulations in the Era of Globalization[END_REF]; from connected sociologies (Bhambra 2010 and in this volume) to the idea of a kaleidoscopic dialectics (Rehbein 2010 and in this volume) to the radical vision of turning the question onto its head: not multiple sociologies but multiple worlds (Savransky 2012 and in this volume).

The contribution of this book lies in bringing together several visions and projects for rethinking the social sciences that are currently standing beside each other with only few mutual references. We thus have invited outstanding authors who have contributed to the debate to engage in an exchange of visions that makes them specify their concepts and thus contributes to developing them further. As contributors to this debate are located on all five continents, we are bringing together concepts developed in different regions, contexts and language areas. We hope that the readers will find in this book the quality of knowledge produced in circulation.

The book is organized in four parts, each headed by a topic that is further Mary E. John, looking at the case example of Indian feminist studies, suggests the use of the term 'postnational' instead of more common terms like 'global' or 'postcolonial' as a marker of the present time. The most constructive function of speaking of the postnational, so she concludes, lies in showing how current research is shaped by developments within and beyond the nation state. In his study on the reception of Luhmann's theory in Hispanic America, Leandro Rodríguez Medina illustrates how the (re)shaping of an academic field involved researchers of three generations that engaged with Luhmann's theory very differently. By this he shows the interaction of the micro and the macro level in the practice of centre-periphery relations. Nicolas Guilhot uses the historical example of the emergence of 'international relations' as a social science discipline to illustrate how certain issues fall outside the established models of international circulation of ideas since they are connected to social conditions and ideological formations that do not necessarily correspond to the unit of a national scientific field. Wiebke Keim in her contribution then synthesizes recent debates that have led to the abandonment of the diffusionist model as the only form of knowledge circulation in the history of science. Following the different strands of this debate and referring to empirically observable circulations within a rather short timespan and in clearly delimited spaces, she develops three types of configurations of international circulation of knowledge.

The second part is designed with the intention of developing a further step in the understanding of 'learning from the periphery' by laying the focus on the cases of 'learning across the periphery'. While presenting the social science networks and cooperation developed across the South, the contributions in this part lead us to rethink the dimensions of dialogue between the South and North. They also aim to go beyond an abstract idea of South-South cooperation, and therefore present concrete examples of this kind. In his contribution on the networks of peripheral intellectuals from 1920 to 1940, Eduardo Devés-Valdés refreshes our memory regarding some episodes of intellectual relations among different peripheral regions. In a unique attempt to map the most outstanding intellectual networks in seven intellectual milieus of the peripheral regions, building on earlier historical works on the matter, he helps us to better understand the circulation of ideas, the existence of a peripheral consciousness, and the constitution of a movement of peripheral intellectualities of global reach. The contributions from Teresa Valdés and Edward Webster introduce more recent cases and put the idea of South-South cooperation on the ground. Valdés overviews the links between social movements and production of knowledge on gender and sexualities in Latin America, and explains how these efforts reach out to a wider scale. She explores how the South-South academic cooperation in this field finds its initiators and leadership among academics and activists in different countries.

Valdés not only discusses these initiatives in three research networks and projects, but also informs us about the challenges and lessons learned through these experiences. In his assessment of a South-South research network focusing on work, livelihood strategies and social insecurity in India, Brazil and South Africa, Webster deepens our understanding of the context of a South-South comparison. He shows how knowledge and policy innovations are now travelling in three directions, from North to South, from South to North, and between Southern countries. The importance of his contribution includes identifying concepts such as livelihood strategies rather than decent work, self-employed proletarians rather than informal work, informal security regime rather than welfare state regime, neo-development state rather than social democratic state. Theoretical implications of all these attempts in this part are yet to be debated.

  issue throughout the 1980s. The edited volume Globalization, Knowledge and Society: Readings from International Sociology (Albrow and King 1990) represents these early debates within the ISA in a collection of journal articles published in International Sociology. The volume shows that the issue of fragmentation of the discipline into incompatible voices as opposed to unitary and universalist claims was already at stake in those years (see below the paragraph on the indigenization debate, published in this journal) -it remains unresolved and debated until today. More recently, several publications have tried to address the topic of a 'global social science' 4 by introducing different scientific traditions in mostly nationally or regionally defined research communities. Facing an Unequal World: Challenges for a Global Sociology, edited by Michael Burawoy, Mau-kuei Chang and Michelle Fei-yu Hsieh (2010), is the outcome of an ISA conference of national sociological associations held in Taipei in 2009. Its three volumes each correspond to specific regions and most of the chapters to single countries. This order of chapters is well chosen, for as Burawoy states in the preface,

  is closely identified with the development of an African 'indigenous sociology'. His case study on Yoruba oral poetry suggested new principles and concepts for doing sociology in African languages. In his response to Akiwowo, A. Akin Makinde (1988) also raised several issues on the possibility of an African sociological tradition. O.B. Lawuyi and Olufemi Taiwo (1990) contributed to the clarification of concepts for conducting sociology in Yoruba. Jìmí Adesina (2002) acknowledged Akiwowo's studies as the most persistent effort, in sociology, at engaging with the narratives of local ontological discourses, and using these to raise a distinctly African voice; but suggested realizing the epistemic potentials in sourcing from indigenous knowledge systems. Rather than doing or creating 'indigenous sociology', Adesina argued for a global sociology that takes on board the idiographic narratives of other cultures and peoples within the global community of sociologists.

  Çelik, Ercüment; Ersche, Christian: Keim, Wiebke; Wöhrer, Veronika (2014): Introduction. In: Keim, Wiebke et al. (éd.): Global knowledge in the social sciences. Made in circulation. Farnham: Ashgate, p. 1-19

  elaborated in the three or four succeeding chapters. The first part introduces suggestions for dealing with current challenges of time, space and concepts of circulation. Most of the contributions follow an empirical example to illustrate these challenges and elaborate on theoretical consequences. To counterbalance the current North Atlantic domination of many academic networks and cooperations, we intend to have a closer look at social science networks in the South. Accordingly, the second part presents historical and recent initiatives of cooperation across the South. The third part introduces alternative social science perspectives from the South: the current sociological canon, dominant historicizing of the discipline and commonly accepted rules for producing knowledge are questioned and new visions for knowledge production are developed. In the fourth part rearrangements of the social sciences after critiques of Eurocentrism and postcolonial studies are discussed at an epistemological level: the epistemic consequences of a re-ordering of sociology on a global scale are elaborated and evaluated. The first part of the book presents new conceptualizations of circulation of social science knowledge that challenge the established categories of time and space.

  The contributions in the third part deal with the question of what alternative ways of doing sociology on a global scale could look like. Ari Sitas uses the metaphor of playing music to illustrate three different models to deal with the current hegemonic canon in sociology. Besides 'reduction' and 'mimicry', which both render invisible values and insights that do not match with dominant ways of reasoning, he suggests 'bricolage': he argues for improvization, and for the use of metaphors and theoretical parables to create, preserve and disseminate knowledge beyond local canons. Sumangala Damodaran elaborates on the relation of art and social movements that have taken place in non-metropolitan contexts. She argues that these experiences are often either ignored or seen as historical particularities. Instead, scholarship from India, South East Asia, South Africa or Latin America indicates that these movements are interwoven with metropolitan movements, finding new responses to challenges faced also in metropolitan contexts and posing new concerns and questions. Raewyn Connell and Nour Dados try to give an example of how sociology could be conducted when looking beyond the North American and (Western) European-based canon. In their contribution they put the focus on theories about and developments of neoliberalism developed in the global South to get a more adequate picture of neoliberal changes, which affect global relations and societies in all continents. The fourth part is concerned with epistemological questions that arise with the critique of North Atlantic domination in the social sciences. Boike Rehbein and Gurminder Bhambra present conflicting approaches that aim at an epistemological rearrangement of sociology. Rehbein argues that we are no longer in a postcolonial situation where the dominant and the dominated stand against one another as homogenous blocks. As a model for doing social science in today's multicentric world he therefore introduces the concept of a 'kaleidoscopic dialectic' which is a concept of mutual learning that should be combined with a critique of symbolic violence. Gurminder Bhambra instead argues for a postcolonial global sociology in which the concepts, categories and paradigms of sociological thinking, which are closely connected to a Eurocentric historiography, are called into question. She sees a need to rethink sociology in the light of a new historical understanding. Both these approaches are then taken up by Martin Savransky in his illustration of the challenges involved in moving toward a global social science. He proposes an understanding of knowledge as an inventive practice that claims modes of thought and respective modes of existence to be inseparable. A global social science, he argues therefore, has to go beyond a mere epistemological rearrangement toward an engagement with the cosmopolitics of knowledge. Instead of posing the question of how to find sense in the truths of others from our point of view we should engage in the question of how realities are brought into existence and transformed, what causes us to relate differently to the worlds we inhabit, and how to live together.

We observe a tendency among the authors to replace 'international' by 'global'. This shift in terminology and its implications remains to be discussed.

As voiced, among others, at the 1st Congress of the African Sociological Association, held inGrahamstown-iRhini, South Africa, 15-18 July 2007.

For a critical appraisal of the indigenization debate, see[START_REF] Adésínà | Sociology and Yoruba Studies: Epistemic Intervention or Doing Sociology in the "Vernacular"?[END_REF][START_REF] Keim | Jenseits von Afrika -Auseinandersetzungen um den Hegemonialanspruch der "Internationalen Soziologie[END_REF]; for a critique of the islamization of knowledge debate, see[START_REF] Abaza | Debates on Islam and Knowledge in Malaysia and Egypt: Shifting Worlds[END_REF], Edipoğlu 2008; for a critique of 'Southern Theory', see[START_REF] Arjomand | Southern Theory: An Illusion: Review of Raewyn Connell, Southern Theory. The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science[END_REF]. For an overall critical appreciation of the debate, see Sitas 2004. More optimistic, but also more abstract appraisals can be read in[START_REF] Connell | Southern Theory. The Global Dynamics of Knowledge in Social Science[END_REF][START_REF] Rehbein | Critical Theory after the Rise of the Global South[END_REF]


Ricardo Souza De Lima Junior
email: ricardolima@rede.ulbra.br

Samuel Agostinho Ferreira

Newton Silva De Lima

DEVELOPMENT OF A CALIBRATION TOOL FOR INCUBATORS FOR NEONATAL PATIENTS IN THE CITY OF MANAUS (BRAZIL, 2022)

Keywords: NBR 17025, temperature, humidity, noise

In neonatology, the vulnerability of prematurely born patients is high and for this reason they require special care to ensure the evolution of the clinical picture. Thus, the use of neonatal incubators is primordial for the maintenance of their lives, considering that they create an ideal environment, thus enabling the self-regulation of body heat. However, their use must respect principles that ensure their functionality, for this the Brazilian Technical Standard NBR 15943-2011 determines the guidelines to be adopted by health establishments regarding the management of their technologies, because through these programs it is possible to ensure the reliability of the use of this equipment. To this end, the performance of calibration tests is a mandatory factor, since this procedure certifies the veracity of the parameters offered by this equipment during its use. This procedure is done by performing a set of standardized steps with the help of an analyzer built to perform specific functions, certifying the usability of the equipment through the analysis and comparison of acquired data. However, the calibration instruments available in the market are expensive and sometimes their availability is low, which can compromise the execution of this type of service in hospitals. Thus, in this work, we will approach the development of a low cost calibration instrument capable of measuring temperature, humidity and noise, using affordable materials and with accuracy values within the acceptable parameters of variation for the calibration of such equipment standardized by NBR IEC 60601-2-19.

Introduction

In neonatology, the importance of caring for prematurely born patients is essential, because in this period their vulnerability is high and the health of these individuals can be compromised by biological and environmental risks. Moreover, this type of patient has difficulty in body regulation and may lose heat through evaporation, radiation, convection and conduction (MINISTRY OF HEALTH, 2011).

Thus, it is necessary to define strategies that minimize the impacts caused by this condition.

The use of hospital medical equipment for the treatment of patients is widespread in society in general. Its role is essential for the patient's evolution, considering that sometimes it performs functions that cannot be performed by human beings. Thus, the use of neonatal incubators is indispensable for the treatment of neonate patients, as their main function is to provide the newborn with a thermo-neutral environment by controlling the temperature and relative humidity of the air, in order to ensure the minimal production of body heat by the patient [START_REF] Iaione | Desenvolvimento de um Equipamento Eletrônico para o Ensaio de Incubadoras Infantis. Dissertação[END_REF].

However, the use of this equipment must respect principles to ensure the reliability of the supplied parameters. For this, hospitals must have a management of the technologies present in their technological park to ensure the traceability, quality, efficacy, effectiveness, safety and performance, as stated by the National Health Surveillance Agency (2010).

Thus, given the need to obtain consistent results and check whether the information provided by a hospital medical device is cohesive, the calibration tests are of paramount importance to provide the proper functioning of such equipment.

Moreover, calibration ensures the quality and credibility of patient care.

According to the International Metrology Vocabulary (2012), the definition of calibration is a set of steps that establishes, under specified conditions, a relationship between the values and measurement uncertainties provided by standards, using this information to establish a relationship in order to obtain measurement results from an indication.

In Brazil, the NBR IEC 60601-2-19 standard deals with the general provisions for the performance and operation of neonatal incubators and determines that this equipment must undergo periodic maintenance, stressing the importance of performing annually or whenever necessary calibration tests and electrical safety analysis. To perform these services, equipment called analyzers are used, whose purpose is to perform specific activities according to the purpose of the equipment submitted to the procedures.

Currently, the analyzers present in the market are imported and have a high price, making it difficult to purchase them; moreover, their cost-benefit ratio is low, since these analyzers have outdated technology and complex operation.

As a result of the covid-19 pandemic and the increase in the production of electronic equipment, silicon (ore used in the production of semiconductor components and indispensable for making electronic boards) became scarce.

Because of this, the creation of alternative devices using accessible technologies has become widespread. With this, it was observed that neonatal incubators provide physical quantities that can be measured by low-cost sensors on the market.

Based on this principle, followed by the question: "is it possible to create a calibration instrument for neonatal incubators using affordable resources available on the market?", this paper was developed based on the following objective: To develop a low-cost calibration device for measuring physical quantities provided by an incubator for neonatal patients, which is able to perform the sensing and statistical treatment of the data collected from the equipment:

• Measuring physical quantities such as: temperature, humidity and noise;

• To be low cost, easy to handle, and reliable;

• Being able to perform the statistical treatment of the collected parameters;

• Issue detailed reports and reports of the parameters provided by the equipment being measured.

Therefore, the development of a calibration instrument using accessible and low cost resources is not new, especially for incubators, however, with the technologies present in the market and the accessibility of these items, the evolution of the devices has been facilitated, integrating new ways of performing already consolidated tasks in a simplified, efficient and effective manner. Throughout this article, the construction of the proposed device and its integration with new technologies will be described. This project was submitted to the Research Ethics Committee of CEULM/ULBRA, through Platform Brazil (CONEP).

Materials and Methods

The project was developed in three stages, arranged as follows: planning, construction and assembly of the prototype, and functional tests and direct comparisons of the results.

Planning

During the planning stage, the physical quantities provided by the equipment to be tested were taken into consideration. Thus, it was observed that neonatal incubators, in general, have as their main functions the control of temperature, humidity and oxygen. However, due to the hot air circulation system generated by the resistance, a characteristic noise inside the incubator that needs to be measured is noticeable, since the Brazilian standard NBR IEC 60601-2-19:2014 "Electromedical equipment -Particular requirements for basic safety and essential performance of incubators for newborns" establishes that the maximum sound level inside incubators in normal operation mode should be 60.0 dB. Therefore, the construction of the calibration procedure was focused on the parameters found in this type of equipment, with the exception of oxygen. Thus, the sensors to be used to build the prototype were selected to measure temperature, humidity and noise.

The prototype construction was focused on the use of accessible and low-cost tools, aiming to guarantee the same reliability in relation to the equipment already on the market. That said, the operating principle of the instrument developed was divided into stages, structured as follows: sensing, processing, treatment, and reporting.

Sensing

The sensing stage will be performed through the use of sensors that will acquire the data provided by the measured equipment:

Temperature and humidity sensor DHT22:

Processing

For the processing of this data acquired by the sensing stage we used a programmable board called ESP 32, which has the possibility of integrating its functionality via wifi and currently has high accuracy compared to competing embedded. This data will be sent to the MATLAB platform through an MQTT server located in a domain that also belongs to mathworks, via internet connection. Source: Datasheet ESP-Wroom-32, 2020.

Server Mqtt -ThingSpeak

Treatment

The treatment of the data provided by the ESP 32 will be processed by a firmware developed in the Matlab platform, which will be responsible for the integration of the user interface and statistical treatment of the collected data. In this way, the operator will be able to visualize the execution of the procedure.

Report

At the end of the calibration procedure, a report will be developed to show the events observed during the calibration test, thus classifying the equipment's suitability for use. In addition, it will contain information related to the identification of the equipment, customer, and service provider, thus constituting a standardized report that can be traced later. Source: Authors, 2022.

Building and assembling the prototype

The prototype assembly was divided into two parts where the firmware was developed to perform the programming, control, and distribution of the data, and the hardware, responsible for the acquisition and processing of the obtained data.

The hardware consists of a logic board responsible for processing the data obtained through sensors that will be strategically positioned inside the incubator.

The processing of this data is performed by programming based on some internal conversion calculations of the board used. The ESP-32 was chosen because of its resolution in receiving data that is more accurate than other competitors, thus avoiding a percentage of error when collecting these data from the physical environment.

Therefore, the data collected during the measurement will be forwarded to a MQTT server, which will only have the function of allocating and making available the data provided by the ESP. The data will be statistically treated by Matlab software.

To build the application responsible for the interface and data processing, the app designer was used, MATLAB's graphical customization tool, which allowed the construction of a customized interface according to the needs of the calibration procedures. The graphical interface was built in a simplified way aiming at an easy understanding for those who operate it, thus allowing the initialization of the calibration procedure steps, which can be executed according to the predefined programming in the equipment under test. With this, the information collected by the hardware will be processed by a statistical calculation, where the standard deviation, measurement uncertainty and k factor will be verified, in order to make sure that the equipment's operation is within what is expected for its error margin, thus ensuring its suitability for use.

The calibration test will be divided according to the programming of the temperature in the incubator designed to be collected every 5 min at a frequency of three times for each sample. The temperatures used in the programming are: 30°C, 35°C, and 39°C.

Functional tests and direct comparisons of results

During this step, it was necessary to perform a series of tests to ensure the full operation of the flowchart already established (sensing, processing, treatment and reporting), where the verification of the operation of the sensors was performed as well as the veracity of the measured values, the ESP connection with the wifi network and sending packets to the MQTT server, after this verification and from there the data could already be monitored. The next test was the connection to the MATLAB platform and the integration of the obtained values with the statistical treatment code to be visualized via the user interface application. Therefore, after ensuring the full operation of the system, the calibration tests could be performed.

Initially in the prototyping phase, it was necessary to build an environment where it would be possible to simulate an incubator, so an adiabatic environment was built with cardboard box material for the casing, Styrofoam for thermal insulation, and reflective tape to ensure that the internal environment was as isolated as possible from the external environment, where we could have a fixed temperature value to be verified the variation of the sensor. However, during the execution of the tests, inconsistencies were observed in the values offered for measurement, indicating variation in the values obtained.

Thus, there was the need to perform the tests with consistent values so that the validation of the developed analyzer's operation could be concluded. For this, the

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Process flowchart.

FigureFigure 3 :

 3 Figure 2: DHT22 sensor.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Interface ThingSpeak.

Figure

  Figure 5: ESP-32 Module.

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: Interface App Designer.

Fanem

  IT-158/TS neonatal transport incubator provided by the clinical engineering of the Balbina Mestrinho State Maternity was used. This equipment in question is out of circulation due to compromised structures, thus not being used by the medical staff of this hospital unit. During the calibration test, a device to check temperature and humidity called Thermohygrometer was used to help compare the values obtained by the analyzer, thus making it possible to check the linearity and accuracy of the data obtained. Then, the calibration test was performed for 24 hours in order to check the full operation of the equipment under test. During the verification it was possible to notice a variation in the values shown in the incubator in relation to the values measured by the analyzer and the thermohygrometer, thus indicating the need for intervention in the equipment measured, through corrective maintenance. The data obtained by the analyzer and the hygrometer were similar throughout the procedure, presenting minimal variations between 0.10°C and 0.20°C. Simulation in Incubator A (temperature parameters) Graph 1. 24h data -Temperature.After the simulation of the calibration test was completed, a Wavelet (Wavelet Graph) was performed with the data obtained, so that it is possible to highlight the consistency of the measurements during the procedure.Graph 2. Temperature -Wavelet TransformFinal ConsiderationsDuring this article, the development of a calibration instrument for neonatal incubators was presented, which had as objectives the creation of a low cost and simplified usability analyzer that would ensure the same quality and safety as the equipment already on the market. As shown in the results, the developed instrument has the ability to accurately measure measurable physical quantities such as humidity, temperature and noise, and is able to perform statistical treatments with the data collected by it, ensuring the reliability of the parameters delivered by the equipment under test. In addition, the MATLAB platform enabled the integration of new resources, which allowed communication via the internet, not requiring the connection of cables for data transmission, being sent via MQTT server.The development of calibration instruments for neonatal incubators is not a new subject and it is possible to find several projects with the same objective, however, with technological advances it is possible to integrate new technologies present in the market, thus bringing innovation to this type of procedure. The results obtained during the testing phase open possibilities for changes in the way that the collection of this data is carried out for the expected purpose, in order to speed up the existing process, with currently available technology. Therefore, the performance obtained during the testing phase proved satisfactory, considering that the proposed objectives were met.