Yann Béliard

Trades Councils are prominent actors in all general histories of the labour movement. The foundation of the Trades Union Congress (TUC) in 1868 owed a lot to

rather than face a strike. The closed shop became the rule, helping those unions as well as the HTC to thrive. However, because in June the HTC had not opposed the interference, from the outside, of Havelock Wilson's National Seamen and Firemen's Union (NSFU), the HSU's leader J.B. Butcher, who feared such competition, declared that "the so-called Trades and Labour Council (had) ceased to be what its name implies" (Hull News, 6 July 1889). He withdrew his union from the Council -a secession that would have long-lasting consequences. In spite of that amputation the Council prospered. From 5,000 members in 1889 it rose to 20,000 in 1891, with a strong proportion of dockers on the EC. A couple of craft unions left, but the HTC was reinforced by the arrival of several newly organised sections of workers, such as tramwaymen, shop assistants and gas workers. In 1890, with support from the HTC, anarcho-communist cabinetmaker Gustav Schmidt -also known as Gus Smith -led a strike in the furnishing trades which ended in concessions over pay and conditions, and allowed the HTC to integrate within its ranks numerous workers of German and Polish origin (Béliard 2010a). Smith, who in the 1880s had set up the German-speaking Freiheit Club in the margins of the local labour movement, became one of the pillars of the HTC -in May 1890 he organised the first ever demonstration in Hull in favour of the eight hour day.

Those glory days of growth and unity came to an end in 1893 -a year that transformed the HTC in depth.

The Shipping Federation, formed by British ship owners in 1890 as a tool to crush the dockers' and seamen's New Unions, blackmailed Wilson into abandoning the closed shop scheme. On 4 April he locked out all the men who refused to swap their union card for the Federation Ticket. On 19 May the dockers resumed work under deteriorated conditions, with their union virtually destroyed. As opposed to the isolationist HSU, the HTC had been supportive, paying out the £12,000 it had received from all over the country to the dockers and their families. It was also in the name of the HTC that Smith invited hundreds of dockers' wives to take the streets. But the lesson was tough for those who had hoped that a moderate HTC could play a mediating role in the dispute. The fact that the Liberals had chosen Maddison as their candidate for Central Hull in 1892 had not stopped Wilson from attacking the dockers, nor had it stopped the Liberal government from sending troops to protect the strike-breakers. In the months that followed, the HTC lost most of its unskilled members. Its efforts to turn the local working-class into a force to be reckoned with had come to a spectacular halt. The 1893 defeat in Hull was part of a more general swing of the pendulum, during which employers took back the concessions they had been constrained to make in 1888-1890. The HTC's disintegration was no local exception but a 'collateral damage' 8 .

to 1904: "Progressive Alliance" or working-class solidarity?

Turning its back on the 1893 disaster, what was left of the HTC decided that the best strategy to defend the cause of labour was to avoid direct confrontation with the employers in the industrial arena, and concentrate all efforts on the electoral field. Workplace issues were not abandoned but strikes were declared outmoded, and conciliation encouraged. With the DWRGWU wiped out and the HSU fully committed not to collaborate with the rest of the labour movement -so as to preserve its special relationship with the Wilsons -the HTC gave up the ambition of organising the port's labourers. In the aftermath of 1893, Transformed into a "yellow stronghold", Hull became a favourite recruiting ground for the Shipping Federation when it needed to break a strike in Glasgow or Hamburg, as well as for the National Free Labour Association (NFLA). A couple of lightning strikes in 1900 allowed the DWRGLU to revive by pulling together one third of the 10,000 men employed on the docks. But they remained discriminated compared to "Ticket men", and stayed aloof from the HTC.

In spite of the gap now separating the bulk of maritime workers from the HTC, it was born again thanks to the progress of trade-union organisation in areas that were peripheral to the port economy, in shipbuilding and above all in the building industry. As early as 1891, the carpenters, joiners, masons and bricklayers had founded a Hull Building Trades Council of their own, a sort of "Council within the Council" that was only affected marginally by the 1893 fiasco. In 1899 the boom in housing created the ideal situation for a victorious strike. It gave them a prominent role inside the HTC, which was reconstructed around that nucleus: in 1898, it claimed to be the second largest Trades Council in the United Kingdom, and the one with the greatest number of representatives on public bodies -including School Boards and Boards of Guardians. In 1905, half the members of the EC belonged to the building 8

The closed shop was not reinstated in the port of Hull until the 1960s. trades, while neither the dockers nor the seamen were represented. In that period of renaissance, however, the HTC came under the ideological influence of the Liberals as it had never before.

In the mid-1890s, realising that the HTC was a force that would not disappear but might be tamed, the Liberals invited its eight town councillors to form a "Progressive Alliance" with them. The proposal was accepted and the newly formed "Progressive Party" secured a majority on the City Council from 1898 to 1902. Under the leadership of Lord Mayor Alfred Gelder, the Lib-Lab alliance -a tandem where the labour element played second fiddle -implemented a policy at odds with old style laissez-faire liberalism, based on the development of public services [START_REF] Gillett | The History of Hull[END_REF]. It was during those years that printer F.W. Booth, the editor of the HTC's official organ, the Monthly Labour Journal (henceforth the MLJ), started to publish a weekly column on labour topics in the Hull Times under the pen name "Peter Progress", a pseudonym symbolical of that era of municipal reform and civic faith. The MLJ itself replaced the symbols of class pride on its cover -a stonecutter and his tools -with a Viking longship merely symbolising the locality. In 1897, when Hull was made a City on the occasion of Queen Victoria's Jubilee, as well as in 1902, when Edward VII's accession to the throne was feted, the HTC did not utter the slightest discordant note. Between 1895 and 1905, it even gave up its May Day celebrations.

However strong numerically, the HTC had almost become a labour branch of the Liberal Party. The values defended in the HTC's year books -which praised "the honest citizen worker" as opposed to "idlers and loafers", and advocated dialogue with the employers rather than the "obsolete and barbarous" strike weapon -also testify to what might be called its "Progressive subordination" [START_REF] Béliard | The Lib-Lab Roots of New Labour[END_REF]. Kind words for the Liberal entrepreneurs and politicians who had crushed the dockers, open disdain for the poorest sections of the proletariat: the HTC had clearly lost both the will and the possibility to re-connect with Hull's casual masses.

However, a minority inside the HTC was unsatisfied with the Lib-Lab partnership and, from 1893 onwards, gathered under the flag of the Independent Labour Party (ILP). In 1893, the ILP secured two seats on the Town Council, which it retained until 1899. In 1895, Keir Hardie's followers dared present a candidate in West Hull against Wilson himself: docker Tom MacCarthy. He did not attract more than 6 637 voters, but his 17.4% represented an honourable result. His defiant campaign -led without endorsement from the HTC, though the HTC did support Maddison's Liberal candidacy in Central Hullhad at least sent the message that there was an alternative to deference. In 1896, a young carpenter named Alfred Gould went so far as to present the EC with a motion stating that only independent labour candidates should be backed. It was defeated by 67 votes to 25, illustrating the solidity of the Lib-Lab current, as well as the growing weight of the ILP -that same year, another ILPer, George Belt, was elected Deputy Chairman of the HTC, after a campaign stressing the necessity to reach out to the atomised port workers. The ILP voice lost ground in the Gelder years -which coincided with the Boer War and its kaki atmosphere. Yet the Taff Vale judgement in 1901 gave credibility to Gould's advocacy of unity around class independence rather than with the Liberals. His insistence was rewarded in 1902 when the HTC agreed to send two delegates to the Labour Representation Committee (LRC)'s conference in Birmingham. A page was about to be turned.

1905-1910: the ILP as engine and cement

Contrary to Brown's claims, the independent labour group on the City Council was formed in 1905 -not 1911 -and socialists did play an important role in the life of the HTC in the years preceding the Great War. In March 1905 seven out of the nine City Councillors affiliated to the HTC signed a text proclaiming their refusal of any links with the Liberal and Conservative Parties, thereby dissolving the Progressive Party. In December 1905, contacted behind the curtains by both the Conservatives and the Liberals to stand in the next general election under their colours, Gould gave publicity to his refusal of those deals -making any return to past compromises impossible [START_REF] Béliard | Les proto-travaillistes et l'argent des conservateurs: du scandale Hyndman-Champion (1885) à l'affaire Alfred Gould[END_REF]. The passing from one era to another was symbolised by Millington's death on 9 December 1905 -he was one of the two HTC Councillors who had refused to cross the bridge. The Lib-Lab sensibility, however, survived, embodied by former secretaries of the HTC, Watson Boyes and T.G. Hall -both vilified by Gould as "Renegade Labour" though they belonged, like him, to the building trades. Soon the Labour Group on the City Council took root, with never fewer than five representatives. Even Booth, a Lib-Lab at heart, ended up embracing the independence turn. Year in year out the Labour Group promoted working-class interests in matters great and small -as many Trades Councils did in the years following the 1906 electoral breakthrough of the LRC and the founding of the Parliamentary Labour Party (PLP).

Though the ILP did not succeed in bringing representatives of the dockers and seamen back into the HTC, it made a point of addressing their preoccupations. In June 1905 a demonstration was organised in favour of "the Right to Work" -a similar initiative in 1884 had been rejected by the HTC as too socialist. The ILP-led HTC campaigned successfully for Hull Corporation to keep control of the telephone system; open a hygienically suitable public abattoir; cut the price of tram fares; and provide schoolchildren with free meals. It also insisted that the Corporation should sign no contracts with employers that underpaid their workers, and that municipal employees should receive fair pay. In 1909, the Council became affiliated to the National Committee to Promote the Break-Up of the Poor Law. This did not stop the Labour Group from campaigning in the Guardians' elections -with results that were in constant progress from 1905 to the war. Gould's fellows also inspired a victorious campaign against the privatisation of passageways by the Northern Eastern Railway Company (NER). HTC members were invited to reclaim the streets and address the general public, for example on May Days, which became a must, allowing thousands of workers -skilled or unskilled, enfranchised or not -to express not only their attachment to their comrades abroad but also their determination to take their affairs into their own hands at home. Though the ILP favoured electoral over industrial means, the HTC was more supportive of workplace struggles than it had been for years. In 1907 it brought moral and material support to five hundred women on strike at a tin factory -the first female strike in the history of Hull. The HTC also spoke out in favour of a series of work stoppages on the railways -the all grades movement that developed between 1906 and 1910and in the shipyards -in 1906, 1908 and 1910. Gould disapproved of open collaboration with business, condemning labour leaders who were too friendly with famous union-busters or who sat on chambers of commerce side by side with renowned exploiters.

The turning of the Lib-Lab page did not put an end to the priority given by the HTC to the institutional fields, on the contrary. Emancipation from the Liberals meant that independent representation for labour was to be sought on every possible occasion. On 18 April 1906 Gould chaired the founding meeting of the Hull Branch of the Women's Labour League (WLL), which had just been set up as a female counterpart of the ILP and in which his wife and daughter were both involved. The HTC did not run any candidates in the 1906 election but, in a by-election on 29 November 1907, it supported James Holmes, a leader of the Amalgamated Society of Railway Servants (ASRS). Securing 29 per cent of the votes, he was not far behind the Conservative and the Liberal candidates -35 and 36 per cent respectively. After that the Labour Party's progress in Hull slowed down -it was unable to run any candidates in the 1910 general elections. But a continued presence of HTC delegates on the Town Council, School Boards and Boards of Guardians was preserved.

Though Gould did not call himself a socialist, the combative spirit he breathed into the HTC made it a more welcoming place for men with radical views, a case in point bring Smith, who returned to the EC's fortnightly meetings. In 1907, no longer rejecting the supposed extremism of the socialists, the HTC successfully resisted a ban the City Council wanted to impose on the outdoor gatherings of the Social-Democratic Federation (SDF) and the ILP. In 1910 Smith even convinced a majority of the HTC that it should be open to representatives of "all Labour and Socialist bodies", not just to trade-union delegateswhich allowed socialists such as Fabian doctor Joseph Nelson and pawnbroker Ernest Gaunt to step inside (Hull Times, 29 January 1910). Exchanges with the expanding socialist milieu also worked the other way round: many HTC delegates -for example Walter Litchfield, the president of the Hull co-operative movement -participated in two socialist circles, the Hull Socialist Club and the Clarion Fellowship Club.

The HTC was thus transformed into a very broad church. In 1908 it gave a precious hand to the Labour Party's second congress. "Men who do not wear the red tie of Socialism at their work adopt it on such occasions (…). Women too, in their dress and milliners, found a lace for the red of revolution" (Hull Daily Mail, 20 January 1908). The congress boosted the HTC's prestige, as did a smaller event it was involved in in 1909 -a "socialist crusade" launched by three Congregationalist preachers.

That apparent unanimity does not mean that the HTC's figureheads agreed on the foundations and purpose of its unity. For Smith, the HTC was to develop into an instrument for the seizing of power by the working-class and the establishment of socialism. But the ILPists had something different in mind.

Gould's conceptions are summed up in his interventions at the TUC, where he represented the Hull Carpenters and Joiners without interruption until the war. He contested the very legitimacy of the TUC and its Parliamentary Committee, arguing that a body uniting the Labour Party and the trade-unions would be more efficient. Such an organisation would not only expel officials standing as Conservative or Liberal candidates; it would also re-establish Trades Councils in their rightful place -the TUC had excluded them in 1895, for fear of internal contestation (Clinton, 1977: 96) 9 . The balance of forces between Smith's and Gould's visions was made clear in July 1910, when Smith was the only delegate on the EC to support a public meeting organised by the DWRGWU, the others being too afraid of the "adverse criticism" that the main speaker, Tom Mann, would surely inflict to the Labour Party (Hull Times, 16 July 1910). Evidently, though Gould and Booth tolerated Smith's eccentricities, they had no intention of abandoning the parliamentary path for that of "direct actionism" recommended in America by the Industrial Workers of the World (IWW) and in France by the CGT. By 1910, the ILP's views had the upper hand inside the HTC but that domination was problematic. Was the official foundation of a Hull Labour Party in 1910 not about to make the HTC redundant? How could the HTC claim to speak for the local working-class at large when its ties with the wharfs, quays and warehouses were so loose? The zenith of ILP activism in 1907-1908 was also the peak of strike-breaking activity for Hull's "yellow battalion".

1910-1914: the revolutionary challenge to labourism

Between 1911 and 1914 British society was shaken by an unprecedented strike wave which has gone down in history as the Great Labour Unrest. Like in 1888-1891, but an a vaster scale, the most exploited fraction of the working-class revolted for better wages, shorter hours, and the recognition of their unions.

Those claims were not revolutionary per se, but the employers were so reluctant to satisfy them that the workers had to resort to unusually radical means to obtain concessions. Among miners and railwaymen, among dockers, seamen and "factory girls", the means advocated by Tom Mann's syndicalist currentdirect action, solidarity strikes, sabotage -found many echoes. Because the hopes initially placed in the PLP were leaving place to the feeling that it was too indulgent towards the Liberal government, because the old unions' bargaining methods were not allowing the workers to obtain their share of the nation's wealth, the country was seized by a striking fever that challenged both the ruling classes and the organised labour movement. Whereas in Liverpool the Trades Council formed the backbone of the Joint Committee that provided leadership for the general transport strike of August 1911, it was side-tracked in Hull when the unskilled took action. Yet in spite of the absence of syndicalist agitators (Booker, 1979;[START_REF] Lloyd | The Influence of Syndicalism in the Dock Strikes of 1911 in Hull and Manchester (and Salford)[END_REF], the rebellious mood penetrated the ranks of the HTC, provoking or revealing an ideological rift that was bigger than the Lib-Lab vs ILP gap of the 1894-1904 decade.

In February 1911 the railwaymen's strike sparked a heated debate in the MLJ, with one voice praising their "successful warfare" (A. Lockwood, "ILP notes", MLJ 206, Feb. 1911) and another deploring their 9

The need for a trade-union body that would be less exclusive than the TUC had been felt since the early 1870s and indirectly gave birth to the Irish TUC in 1894 and the Scottish one in 1897.

"violent, clumsy methods" (A. Grainger, "Some Labour Movements", MLJ 209, May 1911). Lockwood, a leftist inside the ILP, saw the strike as evidence that "United we stand and win; divided we fall and lose", and that time was ripe for a nationalisation of the railways. Grainger, on the other hand, insisted that "a revolution (…) in England it is out of place." And he attacked the radicals with vigour: "I have been told that industrial unionism and one or two outlandish "isms" have obtained a slight footing in the city(…). We must recognize that every enthusiastic worker devoting his energies to such movements is a valuable worker, lost to our own cause, working against us (…). We must have unity in our class to secure a majority of votes at the elections", he concluded, his eyes fixed on the Commons, expressing what was then the dominant feeling inside the HTC.

In the strike that paralysed the port of Hull from 14 June to 2 July, the only part played by the HTC was that of financial supporter -the Relief Fund paid out a total of £562 to the strikers. But the HTC failed to act as a mediator -a position occupied more efficiently by GR Askwith for the Board of Trade. The Joint Strike Committee was led by two men who had no links with the HTC, John Bell for the NSFU and John Burn for the NUDL 10 . Booth praised Askwith, Bell and Burn for their efforts to appease the strikers' anger, while denigrating the latter's lack of discipline (MLJ 212, Aug. 1911). The Council was more effective in its mediating operations during a more localised strike at Reckitt's, in support of hundreds of women workers 11 . But for all its suspicion towards the strike wave, the HTC had to admit, in its Annual Report for 1911 (MLJ 218, Feb. 1912), that it had benefited from "the great spirit of labour unrest".

Eleven new trade-union branches had jumped onboard, the Jewish tailors and tailoresses and, more importantly, the NSFU and the NUDL, now stronger in Hull than their rivals -respectively the HSU and the DWRGLU 12 .

In 1912, the Lockwood-Grainger duel was re-enacted and pushed further with an argument between Higgins and a certain A.G. Shackles that lasted for months. Under the title "These Strikes Should Cease" (MLJ 218, Feb 1912), Shackles argued that "the day of strike as a weapon of the working class is, or should be, over. It is a useless way of attempting to improve our conditions". He also accused Mann's "Don't Shoot" pamphlet of being detrimental to democracy. Higgins, who was calling for a centralisation of all working-class forces to give the strike movement a clearer direction, replied no less sharply: "Plenty of good food, shorter wing hours, a decent education of the right kind -all of which we have not got -are just as essential in the making of a democracy as is the right to vote. (…) The function of the Socialist is to destroy all bad law and destroy the State that makes and upholds it, and substitute in its place a Cooperative Commonwealth" (MLJ 221, May 1912). 10 Both unions belonged to the National Transport Workers' Federation (NTWF), a unitary body set up in November 1910 to coordinate the efforts of the biggest unions in the sector.

11

The HTC's concern for the female proletariat was materialised by a column in the MLJ entitled "Women's Corner", which resonates with Anna Clark's chapter: "Of servant girls' troubles, there seems no end. The recent whisper of a strike among them vanished with the passing of the Coronation holiday, which, doubtless, most of them got. Indeed, the alpha and the omega of a domestic servant's grievances seem to be the question of out-of-doors liberty" (MLJ 211, July 1911).

12 Annual Reports (MLJ 231, Feb. 1913;MLJ 242, Feb. 1914) underlined the increase of the number of societies affiliated to the HTC, resulting from victorious disputes in smaller companies led by workers hitherto unorganised.

In 1913-1914 the rampant social agitation fuelled the conversation between reformists and revolutionaries. The MLJ opened its pages to new contributors, all members of the British Socialist Party (BSP) formed in 1911 by the coming together of the Social-Democratic Party (SDP) and of radicalised ILPers. Shackles could still voice his disapproval of the general strike and justify the repression suffered by Sylvia Pankhurst -according to him "the arch-conspirator of all and the most deadly danger to the State" (MLJ 233, May 1913). But his gradualist strand was outnumbered. Though Booth was still the editor, most editorials now came from the left-wing. Two young BSPers, Will Grainger and Cornelius Shearsmith, were particularly loquacious. Grainger denounced the schemes for compulsory arbitration in industrial disputes that many trade-union officials cherished: "The Right to Strike (…) remains the strongest weapon in the armoury of militant labour. (…) Until we have a revolution in British politics, Parliament will do no more than register the industrial changes that have taken place out of its walls" ("The Last Straw", MLJ 237, Sep. 1913). In "The New Rebellion" (MLJ 241, Jan. 1914), he went further still in his criticism of trade-unions: "These have grown old and ceased to be effective, become indeed part of the established order of our society. We are just beginning to feel the impulse of a new spirit of revolt which shall supersede the older methods. (…) Sympathetic action must displace the sectional strike, and national and international organisation must supersede the present sectional and often overlapping organisations". They should instead, he argued, fight for "the entire control of industry by the workers".

As for Shearsmith, he was the chief supporter in Hull of the Dublin dockers' prolonged strike, organising Jim Larkin's visit hand in hand with the local branch of the Daily Herald League. Extremely critical of the TUC's passivity ("A Disgraceful Congress", MLJ 241, Jan. 1914), he championed what he called "greater unionism": "If there is one question concerning Trade Unionism which, more than any other, should be settled by the rank and file rather than by the leaders, it is the question of general policy" ("The question of method", MLJ 243, Mar. 1914). He contended that "the real battlefield of Labour (was) not at Westminster, but in the workshop and in the factory, in the mine and in the mill" (MLJ 240, Feb. 1914), that the target of any trade-unionist should be the organising of the 15 million "unorganised" workerswhich in Hull implied associating the port labourers much more closely to the HTC. So in many ways it seemed as if unity on a more radical basis, like in 1905, had triumphed. A symbol of that leftward move, veteran Smith was allowed in 1912, for the very first time, to sign two editorials for the MLJ.

On the eve of the war, competing unities

But the breakthrough of the rebels on the printed page did not reflect the emergence of a clear majority inside the HTC, nor was it a synonym of tangible influence over Hull's working-class. Even though Smith and Shearsmith were now in a position to set the tone of the HTC's public interventions, their impact on proletarian opinion was limited. For all his prestige, Smith was already a figure of the past and, aged 59, he died on 23 June 1913. Shearsmith, though the chairman of a fast-growing and highly feminised branch of the National Union of Clerks, also lacked connections with the waterfront, and died on 1 July 1914, at the age of 29. Between 1910 and 1914, the HTC failed to retrieve its role as prime coordinator of the maritime labourers, as the organisations they were now more directly in contact were the rising national unions like the NSFU and the NUDL. The change of scale in industrial disputes since the early 1870s meant that the HTC was somehow dwarfed, as the fights now opposed gigantic national and international protagonists.

The NUDL, though nominally affiliated to the HTC, hardly needed it to deal with its own business. By January 1913, it had grown from 1,000 to 8,000 members, and coexisted peacefully with the DWRGLU's 2,000 members. The monthly it published from January 1912 onwards, the Humberside Transport Workers' Gazette, soon reached the impressive circulation of 10,000 copies , and its pricehalf a penny -made it more accessible than the MLJ. Its motto, "United We Stand, Divided We Fall", made its philosophy explicit: "the casual workers in Hull", once treated as "the scum of the earth", were now determined to defend their rights by using "industrial solidarity" instead of "sectional solidarity". In September 1911 Burn even got involved in struggles outside of his official remit, creating NUDL branches among tailors, oil millers and women workers -intervening on grounds once reserved to the HTC. If possible, the NSFU, also officially attached to the HTC, was even more reluctant to play the inter-sectional game. Bell, who felt little solidarity with the local labour movement, was happy enough so long as his branches grew and employers agreed to treat him as their privileged partner. Once the 1911 strike was over, he neglected relationships with the dockers' representatives to the point of being insulting 13 . As Burn and Bell made no mystery of their allergy to socialism and syndicalism, they had fewer reasons still to connect with the Council when it turned red 14 .

Another reason why the victory of the revolutionary tendency should be qualified is that it was only able to occupy more space inside the HTC because the more moderate elements were focusing their efforts on the consolidation of an alternative network, that of the Labour Party. In the mid-1890s the HTC had hosted, as a minority group, the first advocates of independent labour representation. After 1905, those men had secured a majority on the EC, turning the HTC into a body whose priority was the orchestration of electoral campaigns. In 1910 however, with the advent of a Hull Labour Party, the body created by the HTC emancipated itself from its creator, and started to act as an autonomous being, following an agenda of its own. From then on, it monopolised the labour movement's electoral activities, leaving the HTC in charge of the industrial front -a front where it could not compete with the NUDL or the NSFU. In the municipal election of November 1913, the six working-class candidates were officially supported by the HTC, the ILP and WLL branches, as well as by several unions. But the first name on the list, 13 His indifference to the general interests of workers was made clearer still after the war, when he ran in the general election of December 1918 as "the seamen's candidate", against the Labour Party one.

14

The NUDL and the NSFU's indifference to the HTC can be compared to the attitude of miners' trade-unions towards Trades Councils. In locations like Durham where they formed such a large part of the working-class, they saw very little point in paying allegiance to a smaller body. Thanks to Lewis Mates for that insight.

significantly, was now the Hull Labour Party. A sign of the times was the launching, in April 1913, of a new paper: The Dawn. Hull's Labour Monthly, A Review of Local Government and Politics. The editorialist was Gould himself, the man who had led the HTC in the years 1905-1910 but who had now practically ceased to write for its MLJ. With a circulation of around 15,000 copies, The Dawn provided Hull workers, for only one shilling per year, with news on both electoral and industrial affairs -in obvious competition with the MLJ. Though no ILPer dared to declare the HTC dead, the Labour Party's superiority was formulated in the boldest terms: "A Trades Council candidate speaks for and includes only those connected with the Trades Council, but a Labour candidate speaks for and includes all those who labour. A mighty difference. One idea is parochial; the other universal. One is narrow and stunted; the other broad and deep. One is a decaying and sectional idea; the other is full of life and promise, and a communal idea. One is for the responsibility of a section and an obligation to it only; the other is for the responsibility of a community, and an obligation to the community" (MLJ 207, Mar. 1911). Even May Day, once a Trades Council preserve, was now co-organised.

Two events sponsored by the HTC in spring 1914 illustrate how limited its leftward turn was. One was a meeting held on 29 March to welcome two South African trade-unionists deported by their government for their participation in railway and mining strikes [START_REF] Béliard | Imperial Internationalism? Hull Labour's Support for South African Trade-Unionism on the Eve of the Great War[END_REF]. Gould, not Shearsmith, acted as chairman and praised the men for their refusal to see "the conditions of the white man" reduced to "the level of that of coloured or Chinese labour". He also presented the Boer farmers who had repressed the strikers as "dirty and disreputable" (The Dawn, May 1914). Such was the point of view -at odds with the internationalist standpoint of the young guard -that was offered on that evening to Hull workers as the HTC's authorised interpretation (MLJ 246, June 1914). On 15 April, Gould presided over a seamen's meeting concerning the employment of Chinese sailors on British vessels [START_REF] Béliard | Le syndicat des gens de mer contre le Péril Jaune : les ressorts d'une campagne oubliée (Royaume-Uni, printemps 1914)[END_REF]). Adhering to the NSFU's "yellow peril" thesis, he embraced its call for the exclusion of all coloured workers from British ships -once again demonstrating that Grainger, Shearsmith and their likes had not succeeded in making their antiracist understanding of class solidarity the dominant one. As Booth wrote in his obituary for Shearsmith, not unkindly but realistically: "his views for the re-organisation of society (…) did not find general favour" (Hull Daily Mail, 2 July 1914). This sheds cruel light on Smith's hopes that the HTC could be transformed into instruments for the overthrowing of capitalism. Like Mann who defended a "boring from within" strategy, Smith believed neither in constructing a revolutionary party from scratch nor in creating new unions outside of the existing ones. Instead he thought militants should work inside them so as to bring about their amalgamation, federation and radicalisation -precisely what he tried to do inside the HTC. He also claimed that the Labour Party coupled "Trades Unionism with Revolutionary Socialism" and that, combining co-operation with labour representation inside local and national institutions, it could be a tool for radical change (MLJ 220, April 1912). But those judgements were proved over-optimistic when the war broke out. In February 1914, the MLJ had wished its readers "a Happy and Prosperous New Year, (…) one of uninterrupted progress". But progress was interrupted in September 1914, when the HTC, walking in the TUC and Labour Party's footsteps, accepted the "social truce" and embraced the war effort in the name of national unity. Antiwar declarations were relinquished, and the HTC accepted to see its role reduced to a strictly humanitarian one. The old guard was back in control.

Conclusion

This study of the HTC from its foundation in 1872 to August 1914 is an invitation to reflect upon the history of Trades Councils more generally. It illuminates their role in the growth of class-consciousness over that period, the possibilities they offered to foster a kind of proletarian unity different from the one elaborated in the parliamentary milieu, as well as the obstacles that the left-wingers had to face in their attempts to build the type of unity they dreamt of. Clinton argued that, between the 1880s and 1926, "the councils became instruments for all those with ideas that emphasised the need for working-class solidarity, and for those who wanted to see a working-class movement that was more democratic, less bureaucratic, and concerned with political questions beyond the mere winning of elections" (Clinton, 1977: 81). The Hull scenario, to a certain extent, confirms that analysis, and the sense that Trades Council activists often displayed more imagination, initiative and firmness than national leaders. The inter-war history of the HTC, marked by a renewed conflict between moderates and radicals -this time grouped around the Communist Party of Great Britain and the Minority Movement -points in the same direction.

Yet what this chapter shows is also how difficult it was to overcome at the local level the divisions and handicaps that existed at a broader, national or even international level. During the Great Unrest, Mann highlighted the need for a National Federation of Trades Councils that would replace the formal and inefficient unity embodied by the TUC with a real, more efficacious one. That federation would be a stepping stone towards the indispensable One Big Union, and hopefully become the backbone of a revolutionised society. But it was not established until 1922 and failed to dislodge the TUC as the chief unifier. As Clinton observed quite rightly, the paradox is that "the changes the Trades Councils themselves recommended in the direction of centralisation and unification of effort within the trade union movement (…) acted against the amplification of their own role" (Clinton, 1977: 5-6).

The failure of the Councils of Action -bodies often closely linked to the Trades Councils -to subvert the TUC's General Council in the 1926 general strike, though it did initiate a period of decline for the Trades Councils, was not the final word [START_REF] Burns | The general strike, May 1926: trades councils in action[END_REF]. With ups and downs they survived, in spite of the suspicion they inspired in high places, in spite of the dissolution of the London Trades Council in 1974.

The actions led by the Hull Trades Council over the most recent decades and up to the present day continue to testify to the workers' need for unity at the grassroots, and for a policy more daring than the TUC's "new realism" -as illustrated by the Hull Trades Council's un wavering support for workers in local and national disputes, including the miners in 1984-1985 and the Liverpool dockers in the 1990s.

Today, the Trades Councils have been renamed "Trade Union Councils", and there are 148 of them around the country. Whether the TUC is as supportive of them as it claims in its website, time will tell (TUC 2016). But the diverging visions of labour unity that competed for influence inside the HTC between 1872 and 1914 have a strangely familiar ring, and echo many of our contemporary preoccupations.

the initiative of the London Trades Council Wilson chose to sign a closed shop agreement with the local representatives of Ben Tillett's Dock, Wharf, Riverside and General Labourers' Union (DWRGLU),


Sabah Al-Fedaghi
email: salfedaghi@yahoo.com

Conceptual Modeling Founded on the Stoic Ontology: Reality with Dynamic Existence and Static Subsistence

Keywords: conceptual modeling, Stoicism, reality, lekta, static versus dynamic specification ------

According to the software engineering community, the acknowledgement is growing that a theory of software development is needed to integrate the currently myriad popular methodologies, some of which are based on opposing perspectives. Conceptual modeling (CM) can contribute to such a theory. CM defines fundamental concepts to create representations of reality to achieve ontologically sound software behavior that is characterized by truthfulness to reality and conceptual clarity. In this context, CM is founded on theories about the world that serve to represent a given domain. Ontologies have made their way into CM as tools in requirements analysis, implementation specification, and software architecture. Currently, the primary role of ontology has been its use as a domain knowledge source rather than its classical concerns about being and existence. However, modeling succeeds by facilitating and representing reality. We achieve a firm understanding of the modeled domain though comprehending the being and existence of its elements. This paper involves building a direct connection between reality and CM by establishing mapping between reality and modeling thinging machines (TMs). Specifically, Stoic ontology serves to define the existence of TM things and actions in reality. Such a development would benefit CM in addition to demonstrating that classical concepts in philosophy can be applied to modern fields of study. The TM model includes static and dynamic specifications. The dynamic level involves timebased events that can be mapped to reality. The problem concerns the nature of a time-less static description, which provides regions where the actions in events take place; without them, the dynamic description collapses. The Stoics came up with a brilliant move: the assumed reality to be a broader category than being. Reality is made of things that exist and things that subsist. This idea retains the commonsensical notion that both objects and concepts are in some sense real. In this case, the dynamic TM description is in existence, whereas the static, mapped portion of the dynamic description is in subsistence. We apply such ontology to a contract workflow example. The result seems to open a new avenue of CM that may enhance the theoretical foundation for software and system development.

I. INTRODUCTION

According to Kirk and MacDonell [START_REF] Kirk | An ontological analysis of a proposed theory for software development[END_REF], acknowledgement within the software engineering community is growing that a theory of software development is needed to integrate the myriad currently popular methodologies, some of which are based on opposing perspectives. Philosophical foundations and premises in software engineering are not yet well understood [START_REF] Northover | Towards a philosophy of software development: 40 years after the birth of software engineering[END_REF]. In recent times, an exploration of such foundations has occurred in search of a deeper understanding of the discipline [START_REF] Northover | Towards a philosophy of software development: 40 years after the birth of software engineering[END_REF]. This article aims to apply the classical Stoic ontology to the conceptual model, called thinging machine (TM), which has been developed to represent reality at a high level of abstraction. According to Dieste et al. [START_REF] Dieste | Conceptual modelling in software engineering and knowledge engineering: Concepts, techniques and trends[END_REF], -Conceptual modelling is a crucial software development activity for both software engineering and knowledge engineering.‖ One of the implications of the word engineering indicates an approach that is theory-approved [START_REF] Osis | Theory driven modeling as the core of software development[END_REF]. Some experts opine that software is built in a primitive way and that the role of modeling as a treatment for the weakness of software engineering has become more important [START_REF] Osis | Theory driven modeling as the core of software development[END_REF]. In this context, conceptual modeling (CM) can contribute to such a theory of software development through defining fundamental concepts to create representations of reality and achieve ontologically sound software behavior that is characterized by truthfulness to reality and conceptual clarity [START_REF] Kirk | An ontological analysis of a proposed theory for software development[END_REF]. Conceptual models should be based on theories about the world using ontology as a foundation, which builds on the assumption that ontology can help to improve the understanding of the way the world is constituted [START_REF] Wand | An ontological analysis of the relationship construct in conceptual modeling[END_REF]. The term ontology has become a key word within modern computer science. According to Wand and Weber [START_REF] Wand | Reflection: Ontology in information systems[END_REF], the state of -our Information Systems will be only as good as our ontologies.‖ Ontology in CM is the key focus of this paper to describe systems and develop a better understanding to capture and represent -conceptual schemas‖ [START_REF] Wand | Reflection: Ontology in information systems[END_REF] of domains [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF].

Wand and Weber [START_REF] Wand | Reflection: Ontology in information systems[END_REF] pointed out that some ontologies created in computer science -are not always rooted in a sound foundation of more fundamental constructs like things and properties.‖ According to Fonseca [START_REF] Fonseca | The double role of ontologies in information science research[END_REF], philosophical study of ontology may help us find ways to build good ontologies. Evermann and Wand [START_REF] Evermann | Ontology-based object-oriented domain modelling: Fundamental concepts[END_REF] noted the calls in computer science ontology literature for returning to the philosophical meaning of ontology. However, philosophy has different branches that have different assumptions about the world and the ways we understand it. As introduced by Greek philosophers, ontology P a g e | 2 is concerned with reality and the being and becoming of reality, its possibility and its actuality, its modes of existence and behavior, and the categories of reality, such as substance, space and time, relation, causality, and purpose [START_REF] Coffey | Ontology or the Theory of Being, Project Gutenberg[END_REF]. According to Coffey [START_REF] Coffey | Ontology or the Theory of Being, Project Gutenberg[END_REF], -In the domain of Ontology there are many scholastic theories and discussions which are commonly regarded as … merely historical.‖

The primary role of ontology within software engineering has been its use as a domain knowledge source for human interpretation and understanding. However, its classical concerns are claims about the nature of being, where being also has an abstract sense when we speak of -the being or reality of things.‖ It may be used in -a collective sense to indicate the sum total of all that is or can be-all reality‖ [START_REF] Coffey | Ontology or the Theory of Being, Project Gutenberg[END_REF].

A. Paper Subject: Like Bunge's Ontology

The current dominant approach to describing a software system is the use of object-oriented techniques, for which several software modeling methods and languages have been proposed such as the object-oriented Unified Modeling Language (UML). Despite its origins in programming, UML has been extended for use as a conceptual modeling language to represent the involved domain. The suitability of UML for modeling -real-world‖ phenomena has been questioned. It is proposed to assign real-world semantics to UML constructs by mapping these constructs to the ontology of Mario Bunge [START_REF] Li | Ontological semantics for the use of UML in conceptual modeling[END_REF]. Bunge's ontology views the world as made of things that possess properties. Properties are known via attributes, which are characteristics people assigned to things [START_REF] Jonsson | Phenomenological ontology guided conceptual modeling for model driven information systems[END_REF]. For Bunge, ontology must recognize, analyze, and interrelate concepts to produce a unified picture of reality [START_REF] Maurice | What is metascientific ontology?[END_REF].

In this paper, we map real-world semantics to TM modeling, which are then used to build conceptual models. Reality is represented based on Stoic ontology. In the present study, we introduce significant aspects of importance in such ontology. Such a project would benefit CM in addition to demonstrating that classical concepts in philosophy can be applied to modern fields of study.

B. Illustration: TM Modeling with Stoic Ontology

Even though the TM model (sample recent paper [START_REF] Al-Fedaghi | Modeling system events and negative events using thinging machines based on Lupascian logic[END_REF] and old paper [START_REF] Al-Fedaghi | Typification-based ethics for artificial agents[END_REF]) is still to be reviewed in the next section, in this subsection we need a simple example that illustrates the need for ontology in such a model. According to Hayes [START_REF] Hayes | Formal Unifying Standards for the Representation of Spatiotemporal Knowledge‖, A report on ARLADA Task 02TA4-SP1-RT1 Formalisms for Spatio-Temporal Reasoning[END_REF], much has been written about various views on how best to describe time and change. Several schools of thought have emerged, including the use of temporal modalities, a basic ontological distinction between things and processes and the situation calculus. These views seem to be inconsistent with one another, and the ontological frameworks derived from them are usually thought of as incompatible. Hayes [START_REF] Hayes | Formal Unifying Standards for the Representation of Spatiotemporal Knowledge‖, A report on ARLADA Task 02TA4-SP1-RT1 Formalisms for Spatio-Temporal Reasoning[END_REF] gave a simple assertion involving time, such as, Bill was taller than his father and his aunt last year, and considered ways to represent the content of such an assertion.

Hayes [START_REF] Hayes | Formal Unifying Standards for the Representation of Spatiotemporal Knowledge‖, A report on ARLADA Task 02TA4-SP1-RT1 Formalisms for Spatio-Temporal Reasoning[END_REF] presented several solutions, including the following two logical descriptions.

(Taller(Bill, father(Bill)) & Taller(Bill, aunt(Bill))) AT t in LastYear

This can be understood as meaning, -At any time in last year, it would have been true to say that Bill was taller than his father and his aunt.‖ 2. For all t in LastYear, Taller(Bill, father(Bill), t) & Taller(Bill, aunt(Bill), t) The situation assumes that the -things‖ in the situation being described are unchanging (i.e., they are continuants), but may have changing properties.

Because our purpose is to explain the problem through a modest example, we will simplify, without loss of generality, the assertion from Bill was taller than his father and his aunt last year to Bill was taller than his father last year. Fig. 1 shows the static representation of Some person is taller than another person. The create action of person 1 and 2 (pink numbers 1 and 2) indicates the two persons potentially exist. These persons have heights (3 and 4). Each height has a value (5 and 6). The relationship taller [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF] exists between the heights of the two persons. Taller takes the values and processes them (8, 9 and 10); that is, compares them to create the result of comparison, say, value 1 > value 2.

To construct the dynamic model, we need to introduce the notion of a TM event. Like objects, events may be viewed as just the -content‖ of some portion of space-time [START_REF] Guarino | Events, their names, and their synchronic structure‖[END_REF]. Kim [START_REF] Kim | Events as property exemplifications[END_REF] identified an event as a triple (object, property, and time). Events in TM modeling involve injecting time in a region of the static model. Fig. 2 shows the event The two values are compared. Note that the region in Fig. 2 is a subdiagram of the diagram in Fig. 1. For simplicity sake, all events will be represented by their regions. The relationship between Bill and his father has been established. Fig. 4 shows the sequence of these events, called the behavior model. Figs. 3 and4 express that There exist Bill and his father who have height measurements that indicate that Bill is taller than his father. All events are assumed to have occurred last year in the indicated chronology.

Note that the static model in Fig. 1 does not display entities (e.g., John) persistence or events (e.g., comparison) appearance in time. Fig. 4 shows the entities and events in their order of appearance and extensions (non-specious thickness), where -the past and future subsist, the present ‗exists'‖ [START_REF] Sellars | Aiôn and Chronos: Deleuze and the stoic theory of time, Collapse[END_REF]. First, John's father exists and his height and its value appear, and then John and his attributes appear. Next, a comparison is executed to recognize the relationship. Time slots in the figure are not necessarily equal. As will be discussed later, entities and their attributes are viewed as extended things in the TM dynamic model.

Fig. 5 shows the system of static and dynamic TM levels. The static level includes all regions (of events, past, present, and future). In classical philosophical language, it embeds all past, present, and future regions in a branching structure of alternative possibilities. The dynamic level includes the progress of the execution of events in terms of sequence of presents (as referred to in the structure of metaphysical views of time). For example, present 1 requires that E 1 , …, E 6 be currently realizable (existing) for present 2 to become reality. The blue lines in Fig. 5 indicate extended events (e.g., John appears in present 1 and exists in present 2, present 3, present 4, etc. Fig. 6 illustrates the timing of different events. As illustrated in this example, TM modeling involves two levels that are characterized by staticity and dynamics. Staticity refers to a static model that represents the world of potentialities outside time where everything is present simultaneously. According to Finton [START_REF] Finton | BEING and nothingness: The ontology of the void, Kennethharperfinton.me[END_REF], -Potentiality is not something that exists. It has no definite time and occupies no space. In this case, potentiality is the invisible seed of something that can possibly exist.‖

The dynamic model represents the world of actuality in time where events do not necessarily happen simultaneously. Time is a thing that creates, processes, releases, transfers, and/or receives other things. The two TM models share regions (sub-thinging machines). TM staticity and dynamics are applied not only to things but also to actions, thus we have static (potential) actions in the static TM model and events (actual actions) in the dynamic TM model. TM staticity clearly includes universal TM things that describe common features or relationships, Plato's -ideas‖ or -forms,‖ sets, numbers and other static categories [START_REF] Øhrstrøm | What has happened to ontology[END_REF]. A static model displays an atemporal diagrammatic description. Decomposing the static model into subdiagrams forms the regions of temporal events.

With this introductory understanding of TM modeling, we can state the problem of concern in this paper.

C. Problem: Fitting the TM Model to Reality

Modeling has its roots in the study of real-world problems. Thus, using a conceptual model in such a context requires an ontology that provides a framework for the way problems should be understood and addressed, as well as the way to define the -reality of the model‖ (i.e., how the model fits reality). The definition of reality assists in deciding how to find something to which the model can be applied in reality. In modeling, ontology concerns -articulating the nature and structure of the world‖ [START_REF] Wand | On the ontological expressiveness of information systems analysis and design grammars[END_REF].

However, how do we achieve a firm understanding of the modeled domain without comprehending the being and existence of its elements (e.g., entities and relationships)? This paper aims to build a direct bond between reality and conceptual models by defining a way to map reality using the TM model.

Note that the crucial analysis step of TM modeling involves the move from staticity to dynamism (e.g., Fig. 1 and Fig. 3 in the previous example). The dynamic level involves time-based TM events that can be mapped to reality. We can claim that the dynamic model reflects reality (i.e., reality can be described by this model). This claim of modeling reality provides a -sense of reality.‖ The problem is concerned with the reality of the time-less (conceptual) static description that provides the events' regions; without them, the dynamic description collapses.

D. Solution: Stoic Ontology

It has been suggested that the Stoic ontology should be conceived as a reaction against Platonism. Platonism is the view that an abstract object that does not exist in space or time and is therefore entirely nonphysical and nonmental [START_REF] Balaguer | Platonism in metaphysics[END_REF]. The central claim of Stoic ontology is that only bodies exist [START_REF] Sellars | Stoic ontology and Plato's sophist[END_REF]. Plato assumes that for something to be a thing, it must have -being‖ (i.e., existence). He suggests that existence is marked by the capacity to act or be acted upon. Stoics must either admit that concepts do not exist or that they are made of matter. Stoics agree that everything that exists is made of stuff and can act or be acted upon. [START_REF] Pigliucci | Stoic ontology 101: -The difference between reality and existence[END_REF].

And here comes the stroke of genius: reality is assumed to be a broader category than being. That broader category is made of two sub-categories: things that exist and things that -subsist.‖ This is a brilliant move, because it retains the commonsensical notion that both physical objects and concepts are in some sense -real,‖ but makes explicit exactly what this means: bodies are real and they exist, concepts are real and they subsist.

Which explains why bodies, but not concepts, are made of stuff and can act or be acted upon. [START_REF] Pigliucci | Stoic ontology 101: -The difference between reality and existence[END_REF] Accordingly, reality consists of both existing and subsisting things.

In this paper, we propose that TM modeling reflects reality where the dynamic model specifies what exist and that the part of the static model mappable to the dynamic level describes what subsists. Time -translates‖ or maps static things and actions into actuality and the non-mappable things in the static level designate things that do not exist or subsist, such as unicorns and -Plato's transcendent forms‖ [START_REF] Johnson | On the surface: The Deleuze-Stoicism encounter[END_REF]. The static model mappable to the dynamic level will be called in this paper the mappable model, description, or specification.

Consider the assertion dinosaurs exist, which is a topic in a philosophical controversy that denies and affirms it [START_REF] Savitt | Being and becoming in modern physics[END_REF]: Those who endorse the claim understand the verb exist to be tenseless, and those who deny it take exist to be a present tense verb. Fig. 7 shows the TM modeling solution based on the Stoic ontology where reality is assumed to consist of two subcategories: things that exist and things that subsist. Fig. 8 shows a non-mappable thing that neither subsists nor exists.

E. Paper Structure

This paper is structured as follows. The next section gives a brief description of the TM model with a new contribution. Section 3 is a sample of use of ontologies to provide a blueprint of the space to capture semantics from domain. The section includes a proposed contract workflow model using a contract ontology knowledge base. In Section 4, we explore some of the notions in the Stoic ontology, including traffic as a subsisting thing and lekta (what gets said).

II. THING MACHINE (TM) MODEL

In the TM model, entities are conceptualized as thimacs (things/machines). A thimac represents a type of -state of affairs,‖ similar to Minsky's frames [START_REF] Hayes | The logic of frames: Frame conceptions and text understanding[END_REF]. As mentioned in the previous section, the TM modeling has two levels of specification: -A static model that represents static things and static actions. The five specific static actions are create, process, release, transfer, and release. -A dynamic model that includes a static model subdiagram (called a region) and time, leading to the construction of events (i.e., the realization of static entities and actions).

Time is an important element in such a view. Note that time is incorporeal in Stoic physics. Only existing things (corporeal things) can causally interact as agents or patients. According to Greene [START_REF] Greene | The Imperfect Present: Stoic Physics of Time[END_REF], Stoic time is -a dimension of bodies that contains (but is not identified with or a property of) the motions of bodies. Time is still a something, despite not being a corporeal something [italics added].‖ In TM modeling, staticity refers to a static model that represents the world of potentialities outside time where everything is present simultaneously. The dynamic model represents the world of actuality in time where events do not necessarily happen simultaneously. Time is a thimac (i.e., a thing that creates, processes, releases, transfers, and/or receives).

Only thimacs that can embed time are realizable (exist) at the dynamic level. Thus, for example, a -square circle‖ is a static thimac that cannot be injected with time to exist in the dynamic model, and neither can it subsist because it is not mappable to the dynamic level. Static thimacs have unique names; if two static thimacs have the same name, then they are injected with different time slots to be realizable at the dynamic level. Contradictory thimacs (regions) occupy the static level, described in philosophy as an -inconsistent multiplicity,‖ but only consistent regions are realized at the TM dynamic level. Subsisting contradictories exist one at a time (e.g., if p and ⌐p subsist, then if dynamic modeling is applied, either p or ⌐p exists). The TM universe is populated by things that exist/subsist at one or two levels of being.

A thimac has a dual mode of being: the machine side and the thing side. The machine has the (potential) actions shown in Fig. 9. The sense of -machinery‖ originates in the TM actions indicating that everything that creates, processes, and moves (i.e., releases, transfers, and receives) other things is a machine. Simultaneously, what a machine creates, processes (changes), releases, transfers, and/or receives is a thing. In this view, the -world‖ is a totality of thimacs.

A. The Machine

In Stoic ontology, a -body‖ is anything that can act or be acted upon. It is the mark of existence. This is a TM dynamic thimac. A thimac is a machine that creates, processes, releases, transfers, and/or receives; simultaneously, it is a thing that can be created, processed, released, transferred, and/or received.

TM actions shown in Fig. 9 can be described as follows.

Arrive: A thing moves to a machine. In Stoic ontology, motion exists along the temporal dimension and -the length of a motionor its durationcan be measured by how much of this temporal dimension the motion covers. One motion has a longer duration than another just in case it covers more of the temporal dimension‖ [START_REF] Greene | The Imperfect Present: Stoic Physics of Time[END_REF]. In TM modeling, not only is time the dimension in which motion exists, but it is also the dimension in which actions (create, process, release, transfer, and receive) exist. Accept: A thing enters the machine. For simplification, we assume that arriving things are accepted; therefore, we can combine the arrive and accept stages into the receive. Release: A thing is ready for transfer outside the machine. Process: A thing is changed, handled, and examined, but no new thing results. Transfer: A thing is input into or output from a machine. Create: A new thing -becoming‖ (is found/manifested) is realized from the moment it arises (emergence) in a thimac. Simultaneously, it also refers to the -existence‖ of a thing, especially where we want to emphasize persistence in time as illustrated next.

Additionally, the TM model includes a triggering mechanism (denoted by a dashed arrow in this article's figures), which initiates a (nonsequential) flow from one machine to another. Multiple machines can interact with each other through the movement of things or through triggering. Triggering is a transformation from the movement of one thing to the movement of an another thing. The TM -space‖ is a structure of thimacs that forms regions of events (to be defined later). Note that for simplicity's sake, we may omit create in some diagrams, assuming the box representing the thimac implies its existence (in the TM model).

B. Two Level of Representation and Lupascian Logic

The TM model is different from similar notions that are currently used in the literature. Note that the TM approach takes the side of philosophers (e.g., Whitehead), who conceive of objects as things that extend across time. Objects and events are things of the same kind [START_REF] Casati | Events[END_REF]. The TM model differs from such an ontological approach by introducing the notion of thimac as a thing and machine extended in time.

TM modeling is based on distinguishing two worlds: potentialities, described in terms of static actions (do not embed time), and actualities (dynamics), represented by (temporal) events. This implies the activation of an event and its negative event can be defined as an alteration between the static level and the dynamic level. Instead of -process‖ versus -stop process,‖ we have event (which includes the region to the dynamic level) versus -revert to static process,‖ which returns the region of event to the static level. We take this method of eliminating negativity from the philosopher Stéphane Lupasco. According to Brenner [START_REF] Brenner | Logic and consciousness: Consciousness as process: A new logical perspective[END_REF], every element e (an event in TM modeling; i.e., a thimac that contains a region plus time) is always associated with a non-e (a static thimac in TM modeling), such that the actualization of one entails the potentialization of the other and vice versa, -without either ever disappearing completely‖ [START_REF] Brenner | Logic and consciousness: Consciousness as process: A new logical perspective[END_REF]. Additional illustration of this topic can be found in Al-Fedaghi [START_REF] Al-Fedaghi | Modeling system events and negative events using thinging machines based on Lupascian logic[END_REF]. The next section in this paper includes an example of negative events that are represented according to Lupascian logic.

In Lupascian logic, a negative event is a return to potentiality from being an event. After the event telephone call ends with the negative event there is no telephone call (hanging up the telephone), the caller, the receiver of the call, the telephone, etc., still exist, but they have returned to the non-eventness state. negative events come in several types, but representing them in TM modeling is a topic for a future paper. Note that the Stoics' ontology allows continuous passage from corporeal to incorporeal and back again.

C. Events

According to Salles [START_REF] Salles | Two classic problems in the Stoic theory of time[END_REF], Stoics would distinguish between two kinds of events: those consisting in -qualitative‖ exemplification and those consisting in a -dispositional‖ one. For example, my coffee is hot would be the exemplification of my coffee having the property of being hot, which is a qualitative state of my coffee because it is explained by the presence in my coffee of heat, which is a quality. Fig. 10 shows the corresponding static and dynamic models in TM modeling. Simply put, the figures indicate I as an existing thing have coffee that is hot. However, the event consisting of my walking, the exemplification by me having the property of walking, does not consist of a qualitative exemplification, but in a dispositional one because it is not explained by the presence in me of some supposed quality of walkingness; rather, it is simply explained by my being disposed in a certain way [START_REF] Salles | Two classic problems in the Stoic theory of time[END_REF]. Fig. 11 shows the corresponding TM dynamic and behavior models. The static model can easily be extracted from the dynamic model. Accordingly, it seems that the specific notion of event is different from the Stoic notion of event. Such a topic needs to be further researched in the future.

III. TM EXAMPLE: CONTRACT WORKFLOW MODEL

According to Kabilan [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF], systems rely upon ontologies to provide a blueprint of the space to capture semantics from domains, standard terms, and vocabularies. Kabilan [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF] proposed a contract workflow model to visualize a contract as containing prescriptive directions for the execution of business activities or tasks that would in turn fulfill the obligations expressed in the contract.

The model is derived from a given business contract instance, using a contract ontology knowledge base.

Using BPMN notations, the user is required to represent the performance of events as tasks, and the individual obligation-performance diagram as two business processes, using swim lanes. In the case of a secondary obligation, all the related activities may be modeled as subprocesses using the BPMN. Fig. 12 shows the resultant BPMN model.

...

Transfer Receive Process

Walk

E 1 E 2 E 3 E 1 E 3 E 2 P a g e | 7
Events are modeled as entity types, which, according to Kabilan [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF], allow us to model behavioral aspects of a domain. Events are things that happen. Accordingly, Fig. 12 includes both the static and dynamic specification of the system. Fig. 13 shows the static TM model. First, the buyer creates an order (pink number 1) and sends it to the seller (2 and 3) where it is processed (4). If the order is accepted (5) (Kabilan [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF] did not include rejection, hence we do the same), then -An acknowledgement is sent to the buyer [START_REF] Wand | Reflection: Ontology in information systems[END_REF].

-Acceptance triggers the process of creating the ordered product [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF]. -Acceptance triggers the process of transport arrangement [START_REF] Fonseca | The double role of ontologies in information science research[END_REF]. Eventually, the product (9) and transport arrangement [START_REF] Coffey | Ontology or the Theory of Being, Project Gutenberg[END_REF] are sent to the delivery department to be processed [START_REF] Li | Ontological semantics for the use of UML in conceptual modeling[END_REF]. This process results in sending [START_REF] Jonsson | Phenomenological ontology guided conceptual modeling for model driven information systems[END_REF] the product to the buyer [START_REF] Maurice | What is metascientific ontology?[END_REF]. The buyer processes ( 14) the product to decide whether to accept [START_REF] Pigliucci | Stoic ontology 101: -The difference between reality and existence[END_REF] or reject [START_REF] Hayes | Formal Unifying Standards for the Representation of Spatiotemporal Knowledge‖, A report on ARLADA Task 02TA4-SP1-RT1 Formalisms for Spatio-Temporal Reasoning[END_REF] it. Accepting the product [START_REF] Al-Fedaghi | Typification-based ethics for artificial agents[END_REF] and receiving an invoice from the seller (17 and 18) trigger the buyer to send payment to the seller (19 and 20).

Note that the horizontal thick bar ( 21) is used to simplify the diagram by indicating that both conditions are necessary to send the payment. If the product is rejected [START_REF] Hayes | Formal Unifying Standards for the Representation of Spatiotemporal Knowledge‖, A report on ARLADA Task 02TA4-SP1-RT1 Formalisms for Spatio-Temporal Reasoning[END_REF], then a demand for remedy is sent to the seller (22 and 23). The demand triggers the seller to send compensation to the buyer (24 and 25). In case of cancelation (26 and 27), then upon receiving the cancelation, the seller's process is [START_REF] Hayes | The logic of frames: Frame conceptions and text understanding[END_REF] as follows:

-The process of transport arrangement of the product is stopped [START_REF] Evermann | Ontology-based object-oriented domain modelling: Fundamental concepts[END_REF]. This is a negative action as indicated by the diamond-head arrow [START_REF] Casati | Events[END_REF]. -A response to the cancelation is sent to the buyer (31 and 32). Accordingly, the buyer sends a cancelation fee (33 and 34).

Accordingly, the dynamic model is built using the following events as shown in Fig. 14. E 1 : The buyer creates an order and sends it the seller. E 2 : The seller receives the order and processes it. E 3 : The order is accepted. E 4 : An acknowledgment is sent to the buyer. E 5 : The seller makes transport arrangement. E 6 : The seller creates the ordered product. E 7 : The product and transport arrangement are received by the delivery department. E 8 : The product is sent to the buyer. E 9 : The buyer processes the product. E 10 : The buyer accepts the product. E 11 : The buyer rejects the product. E 12 : An invoice is sent to the buyer. E 13 : The buyer sends a payment. E 14 : The buyer demands a remedy. E 15 : The buyer receives compensation. E 16 : The buyer cancels the order. E 17 : The seller sends a cancelation response. E 18 : The buyer sends a payment for cancelation. Additionally, there is the negative event R5: Stoppage of delivery arrangement. Here, we follow Kabilan's [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF] description, which does not discuss what happens in case of cancelation.

Fig. 15 shows the behavior model.

IV. EXPLORATION IN THE STOIC ONTOLOGY

The Stoics divide -what is‖ into three species: things that are corporeal (e.g., body, TM dynamic things), things that are incorporeal (TM mappable static things), and things that neither subsist nor exist [START_REF] Johnson | On the surface: The Deleuze-Stoicism encounter[END_REF]. -All existent things are particulars, and time is the -dimension of motion‖ or -of the world's motion‖ [START_REF] Baltzly | Stoicism[END_REF].

Bodies are malleable and continuous [START_REF] De Harven | The metaphysics of Stoic corporealism[END_REF]. These bodies are viewed as special types of events in the TM dynamic model.

-Immaterial entities such as concepts and mathematical (mappable) things exist as in a derivative mode of reality, call subsistence; these things are nonexistent in that they are not themselves solid bodies, but they are nonetheless something physical because they depend on bodies for their subsistence [START_REF] De Harven | The metaphysics of Stoic corporealism[END_REF].

-

The subsisting things will be viewed as the mappable part of the static TM model. Incorporeal things (mappable things in the static description) depend on what is called -bodies without themselves being bodies,‖ much as the flow of traffic depends on cars without being -nothing‖ but the cars [START_REF] De Harven | How nothing can be something: The Stoic theory of void[END_REF]. Though these entities do not exist in the manner of bodies, they nonetheless have a derivative kind of reality the Stoics term subsistence [START_REF] De Harven | How nothing can be something: The Stoic theory of void[END_REF]. Although they are not (physical) bodies, they are an ineliminable part of the world's objective structure [START_REF] Ju | The Stoic ontology of geometrical limits[END_REF].

A. Example of Incorporeal Things

According to Harven [START_REF] De Harven | The Coherence of Stoic Ontology[END_REF],

The incorporeals can each be understood as body-less: entities that depend on body without themselves being bodies, much like the flow of traffic depends on cars without being reducible to the cars that give rise to it. The flow of traffic is a proper object of thought and discourse-we can say true and false things about it, like that it is slow or fast; and it is objectively available for anyone to think about. In addition, such an entity will pass the Not-Someone test for particularity: the flow of traffic on the Bay Bridge cannot be the same flow of traffic as that on the Golden Gate Bridge. They might both be slow, stop-and-go, smooth, or fast; but just as my car cannot at the same time be on the Bay Bridge and the Golden Gate Bridge, so too the flow of traffic arising from cars on one bridge cannot be the same as that on another bridge. If a certain flow of traffic arises from cars in Athens, then it cannot be in Megara [italics added].

To illustrate traffic, we need to model it. Because it is impractical to model it due to space consideration, we will model a small part of a traffic system. Silvestre and Soares [START_REF] Silvestre | Modeling road traffic signals control using UML and the MARTE profile[END_REF] modeled waiting signal and pedestrian crossing using a UML state machine as shown in Fig. 16. According to Silvestre and Soares [START_REF] Silvestre | Modeling road traffic signals control using UML and the MARTE profile[END_REF], the state machine diagrams are useful in the real-time and embedded domain. They allow the description of a system behavior in terms of states and transitions between these states.

Fig. 17 shows a simplified static TM model of waiting signal and pedestrian crossing. The pedestrian (pink number 1) arrives at the sidewalk (2) to cross the street.

-If the pedestrian light is green (3), then the pedestrian crosses the street (4 and 5). -If the pedestrian light is red (6), then the pedestrian waits [START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF] and presses the button to create a signal ( 8) that flows to the light control (9) to trigger the green light (3).

Figs. 18 and19 show the dynamic and behavior models, respectively. In Fig. 19, the big green and red ellipses denote -bigger‖ events that include the involved set E1 and E4 and set E2 and E4. The event of waiting is extended; that is, it does not end by creating the next event (a signal)

P a g e | 10

Note that the dotted arrow in Fig. 19 indicates that E 5 is to be kept -running‖ (extended) when transferring to the next event. In general, a nonentity TM event finishes when the next event begins, such as the events Compare, Create, and taller (Fig. 6) in the example of Bill was taller than his father last year in the introduction. The point of this example is to model traffic (represented in this simple example by waiting signal and pedestrian crossing). We can claim that traffic demonstrates that an immaterial thing subsists. It is an incorporeal that is captured in the TM static model (Fig. 17). It exists at the dynamic level (Fig. 18) as concrete processes in terms of things and actions.

B. Example 2 of Incorporeals: Lekta

The Stoics postulate four types of incorporeals: sayable (the meanings expressed by acts of speech, which we would call concepts [START_REF] Pigliucci | Stoic ontology 101: -The difference between reality and existence[END_REF]), void (empty space), place, and time [START_REF] Johnson | On the surface: The Deleuze-Stoicism encounter[END_REF]. For the Stoics, only bodies can act and be acted upon: In TM modeling, actions subsist as static actions in a TM or exist as actual action at the dynamic level. The incorporeals include potential TM actions. Subsistence is neither material being nor nothing, but somewhere between both [START_REF] Johnson | On the surface: The Deleuze-Stoicism encounter[END_REF].

The Stoics considered the sayable, (i.e., lekta, or what gets said) as one of the four incorporeals that lack what bodies have, namely the capacity for agency or of being passive receptors of an action [START_REF] Bronowski | What is wrong with lekta? Ancient critics of Stoic logic and language[END_REF]. What we say, or what gets said, is a lekton (the sense or meaning of a linguistic proposition) that is different from the involved utterance or sounds. What gets said is an incorporeal thing (independently present in reality, regardless of the sentences we utter or not), but sounds are corporeal. Uttering and saying are not identical.

Applying the concept to TM modeling, the sound of uttering is the action of issuing sound as a corporeal event at the dynamic level, whereas what is said is the lekta of the incorporeal region of utterance that becomes sound. Consider, again, Hayes's [START_REF] Hayes | Formal Unifying Standards for the Representation of Spatiotemporal Knowledge‖, A report on ARLADA Task 02TA4-SP1-RT1 Formalisms for Spatio-Temporal Reasoning[END_REF] simplified assertion Bill was taller than his father, which was discussed in the introduction, as the sayable. In the context of an utterance, it is modeled as shown in Fig. 20. In the figure, the lekta includes the utterance's static meaning. Fig. 21 shows the dynamic model. The event sound Bill is taller than his father being said expresses the dynamic existence of lekta (i.e., the actual meaning).

V. CONCLUSION

In this paper, we have explored the application of the Stoic ontology to the TM model. A first impression is that the Stoic ontology fits hand-in-glove with the TM model. In this context, the static TM model seems to provide a portrait of -grounds of being‖ or -reality before existence.‖ Such an initial observation is worth further research. This also needs further understanding of differences in assumptions and the ways the Stoic ideas diverge from TM modeling. The topic also needs scrutiny and better knowledge in Stoic ontology to determine the worthiness of this connection with conceptual modeling.

1

 1

Fig. 1

 1 Fig. 1 Static TM model of a person being taller than another.

Fig. 4

 4 Fig.4The behavior model.

E

Fig. 5

 5 Fig. 5 Static and dynamic TM levels.

Fig. 8 Fig. 7 In

 87 Fig.8The third thing in the Stoic ontology neither subsists nor exists.

Fig. 9 .

 9 Fig.9. The thimac as a thing and machine.

Fig. 12

 12 Fig.12The BPMN model (from[START_REF] Kabilan | Ontology for Information Systems (O4IS) Design, Methodology, Conceptualizing, Designing and Representing Domain Ontologies[END_REF]).

Fig. 10 TMFig. 11 TM

 1011 Fig. 10 TM models of My coffee is hot.

Fig. 13

 13 Fig. 13 Static model.

Fig. 19 TM

 19 Fig. 19 TM behaviour model.

Fig. 18

 18 Fig. 18 TM dynamic model.

Fig. 16

 16 Fig.16UML state diagram of pedestrian crossing (from[START_REF] Silvestre | Modeling road traffic signals control using UML and the MARTE profile[END_REF]).

Person 1 Process Height Create Taller Release Transfer Transfer Person 2 Value 2 Create:

		Create	Create
		Value 1	Value 1 >
		Create	value 2
	Create	Release
			Receive
		Transfer
		Create

Height Create 2 3 4 6 5 7 8 9 10 11 Process Region

				P a g e | 3
	Accordingly, Fig. 3 shows the following selected events.
	E 1 : Bill exists.
	E 2 : Bill's father exists.
	E 3 : Bill is described in terms of his height.
	E 4 : Bill's father is described in terms of his height.
	E 5 : Bill's height value is known.
	E 6: The father's height value is known
	E 7 : The two known values are compared.
	E 8 : The comparison resulted in Bill's height > Bill's father
	height.
	E 9 :
	Transfer Time	Event	Create	Process
	Receive
	Process:	Create		Create
	take its course	Release		Release
	Transfer Release	Value 1 Transfer	Transfer Receive	Transfer Value 2
		Fig. 2 The event Two values are compared.

  Static TM model of Bill is taller than his father.

	E 1 Taller Create E 9	Bill Height Create Value 1 Create Create E 3 E 5 Fig. 3 Bill's father Create Value 2 Create: Value 1 > value 2 Create Height Create E 2 E 4 E 6 E 8 Process Release Transfer Transfer Transfer Release Receive E 7
					5	E 7	E 8	E 9
				E 4	E 6
	Time slot	T1 T4 T6 T1 T3 T5
	E1	John
	E2	Father
	E3	Height-J
	E4	Height-F
	E5	Value-J
	E6	Value-F
	E7	Compare
	E8	Create
	E9	Taller

Fig. 6 Events sequence and persistence in time.


CONCLUDING REMARKS Emmanuelle Avril and Yann Béliard

Levels of conflict: an integrated approach

What this overview of two centuries of working-class history and organisation has revealed is the permanence of conflicts inside the labour movement, in spite of the abundance of declarations about the value of unity and solidarity. Although the creed 'United we stand, divided we fall' has been shared by trade-unionists, co-operators and socialists alike, printed on the front page of their publications, harboured on their posters and banners ever since they formed their first associations, the consensus every labour activist wished for seems to have been superseded more often than not by the most stubborn of facts: dissensus. If the emancipation of the working-class is the common goal, if building a unitary body seems the logical means to reach that aim, how is it that decade after decade the picture has been one of innumerable groups, frequently disunited, and sometimes even at loggerheads?

The chapters in this volume have collectively sought to provide explanations by offering an exploration of three different levels of conflict. At a first level of analysis, they have addressed intra-organisational tensions, i.e. the tensions specific to this or that group. The third level of tensions that contributors were invited to analyse was that between labour organisations and spontaneous working-class protests, and more recently 'new social movements', where unusual modes of organising may appear. Revisiting the years of the Great Labour Unrest (1910Unrest ( -1914)), Lewis Mates and Yann Béliard have resurrected such confrontations between grassroots protests and 'officialdom'. Anna Clark too, in her chapter on domestic servants, has illuminated the frictions between the initiatives of the 'unorganised' and labour movement headquarters. Such confrontations, under an electoral form, are also observed by Fiona Simpkins in contemporary Scotland through the disaffection of workingclass voters towards Labour.

Ophélie

While these three dimensions of conflict have merged as useful entries into the wider unity-division debate, it has also emerged that the distinction between these three levels was seldom so clear-cut. Although most of the chapters have emphasised the intricacies and complexities of such situations, three of them deserve particular notice in this regard. David Evans's study, for example, built a bridge between the first two levels, showing how the birth of a breakaway union is initially an internal affair, until the break becomes effective and the inner struggle becomes a very public one, between two separate bodies. Fiona Simpkins reconstructed a similar process in the political field with her analysis of Scottish Labour's emancipation from the Westminster 'mother firm'. Another illustration of how the three levels mingle to the point of being inextricable is Emmanuelle Avril's enquiry into the current metamorphosis of the Labour Party. In the fight to expel or maintain Corbyn as the party leader, deciding whether the last word will belong to insiders or outsiders, even distinguishing the former from the latter, is a very complex task. The growing porosity of the boundaries between party and movement today is one more reason, for those who were not convinced yet, to rethink labour politics in the past outside of the usual compartments and straightjackets.

The very recurrence across time of the question of unity and disunity means that the different chapters resonate with each other in ways both unexpected and thought-provoking. If union is desirable, what kind of union should be promoted? In the fight for class independence and social progress, what sort of alliances should be accepted or refused? Be it in the context of an industrialising country or of a 'post-industrial' Britain, working-class people and their associations, in their attempts to better the lot of the labouring majority, have repeatedly had to deal with those core issues -as the case studies brought together in this collection aptly illustrate.

The benefits of eclectic pluralism

A word should be added about two sponsors that financially supported the conference at which most of the chapters collected here were initially presented, and about their conception of research. The Society for the Study of Labour History (SSLH) professes a 'broad church' philosophy which has allowed Marxists and non-Marxists to coexist rather peacefully inside it. One 'school' could not possibly have found a suitable place in the society, and that was the group formed by the most extreme partisans of the post-modern 'linguistic turn', their anti-realist epistemology being ultimately incompatible not only with labour history but with historical enquiry at large. Eclecticism is also a guiding principle of the Labour Movements Groups of the Political Studies Association (PSA), which bring together social historians and political scientists and is still a relative rarity in an academic world where research has tended to be confined to disciplinary silos. Indeed the blending of approaches and methods which lies at the heart of this volume had already been undertaken a decade and a half earlier, in 2001, on the occasion of a conference convened by John Callaghan, Steven Fielding and Steve Ludlam, also in Manchester, with the objective of Interpreting the Labour Party -the title that was given to the book published two years later, with Approaches to Labour Politics and History as its subtitle (Callaghan, Fielding and Ludlam, 2003).

As Neville Kirk has insisted, 'commitment to the cause of labour is not incompatible with historical truth' (Kirk, 2010: 166), and neither political scientists nor experts in industrial relations should be asked to swear that they are ideologically neutral. This collection, precisely because it is written by people who care about the future of the British labour movement, will hopefully appeal not only to academia, but to the general public. Written in the aftermath of the 2008 worldwide banking crisis, at a moment when the prolonged crisis of global capitalism is re-igniting debate about the need for an alternative and the possible role of workers and their organisations in that mutation, as well as in the immediate wake of the 2016 Brexit vote earthquake which revealed the hidden and often actively ignored fault lines and fractures of British society, this collection's ambition is, above all, to contribute to defining the terms of these on-going discussions and to set out new avenues for research so as to renew and an expand the field of British labour studies with a view to widening the audience and academic interest in the field.

The authors of the chapters in the present volume are well aware that they are products of their age, human beings engaged, intellectually if not organisationally, in the political fights of the day -and they are happy to admit that the book was not written from an omniscient perspective, but from a certain window, with all the limits and distortions that this entails.

Like the object under study, we stand united and divided. Indeed, coming from different disciplinary horizons, we are segmented methodologically and have accepted 'eclectic pluralism' as our only code of conduct. Some of us believe the labour movement cannot go forward unless it breaks with the Labour Party's national-reformism and adopts an internationalist and revolutionary brand of socialism, others contend that the Labour Party can be rescued and reconquered for the cause of social progress. Some see the trade-unions or the co-operatives as the gateways to a labour renaissance, others place their hopes in 'new social movements' such as Occupy the City of London.

Yet, if not by our research methods, if not by our political positioning, we do share two essential ideas that make this book a collective work and not a mere juxtaposition of individual chapters. One is the conviction that class remains relevant as an analytical tool: our focus on groups and factions, on organisational matters, does not undermine that centrality but has allowed us, we hope, to offer an integrated and multidisciplinary approach of the labour movement that readers will have found illuminating. When so many have announced that labour studies were 'in terminal decline or already extinct', the chapters presented in this volume have testified on the contrary to their 'capacity for resilience and renewal' (Kirk, 2010: 162).

The other idea uniting us is the belief the labour movement's present difficulties are not the end of the road. Though Selina Todd's recent book The People. The Rise and Fall of the British Working-Class stops in 2010 [START_REF] Todd | The People. The Rise and Fall of the Working Class[END_REF], none of us would bet that the Phoenix will never rise again. It may be that an exaggerated perception of the linearity of labour's ascending movement until the 1950s has led to a parallel overestimation of the irreversibility of its decline since 1980. But the path towards the abolition of exploitation and inequality, or at least towards a fairer society, was always a long and winding road. Remembering past losers and retrieving missed opportunities may therefore be the best way to remind ourselves that the future is unwritten, that another world is possible, because the past too, before it became congealed in the tales of the winners, was once open and unpredictable. Some may consider that the volume, with its neatly circumscribed British scope, is far too Eurocentric in a phase when labour studies are turning global. Yet we take the view that the questions raised here are far from being strictly British: the Labour Party turmoil is inseparable from the international crisis of social-democracy and the declining membership of trade unions is common to most industrialised nations of Western Europe. If we have not indulged into comparative or transnational work, this does not mean that such a broad outlook has not informed our inquiries, nor that they cannot be used for such purposes by specialists of labour around the world. As Richard Price explained in his 2010 article for the Labour History Review, British labour studies could be given a new lease for life by their postcolonial offshoots [START_REF] Price | Histories of Labour and Labour History[END_REF]. It is significant that in a search for 'labour unity' in the British Library online catalogue, two of the first five hits lead to what was once 'the British world': a 2004 issue of the South African Labour Bulletin entitled 'New Unity for Labour?', dealing with the uncertain future of the traditional ANC-CP-COSATU alliance and hegemony in the post-Apartheid age, and a 2005 book called Segmented Labour, United Unions? How Unions in Canada Cope with Increased Diversity). Soon, the same search will surely point to China and India, those new workshops of the world where the working class has been growing in unprecedented proportions and where the international labour movement will plausibly face its greatest challenges in the years to come. Therefore our interrogations about the unity of labour movements and the legitimacy of labour leaders are echoed on all continents, and British specialists of labour should rejoice in that opening of perspectives.

  Siméon's piece concentrated on the divergences inside Robert Owen's Grand National Consolidated Trades Union in the 1830s while Jeremy Tranmer offered his take on the splintering of the CPGB in the late 1980s. Nick Randall and Eric Shaw focused on internal divisions within the Labour Party, the first through a longitudinal study of division within the Parliamentary Labour Party and the second through a study of the unmanageability of the Labour Party under Corbyn. At a second level of analysis, the chapters have explored inter-organisational tensions, i.e. the tensions between different types of organisations. Thus Steven Parfitt's piece unveiled the rivalry that, from the early 1880s to 1900, opposed the British Knights of Labour to New Model Unions on the one hand and New Unions on the other. In the altogether different context of 1944-45, Anastasia Chartomatsidi compared the positions of three political organisations, the Labour Party, the CPGB and the Revolutionary Communist Party (RCP) over Britain's military intervention in Greece; while David Stewart and Anne Beauvallet respectively examined the Labour Party's relationships with the cooperative movement and the teachers' unions.