Gordon Pennycook
email: gordon.pennycook@yale.edu

Wim De Neys

Jonathan B T St

Evans

Keith E Stanovich

Valerie A Thompson

The Mythical Dual-Process Typology

Keywords: dual process theory, intuition, reflection, analytic thinking

The Mythical Dual-Process Typology "The central premise of the 'two types' framework has to do with alignment, or the degree to which the attributes within each category co-occur." -Melnikoff and Bargh [START_REF] Melnikoff | The mythical number two[END_REF] (p. 2) Melnikoff and Bargh [START_REF] Melnikoff | The mythical number two[END_REF] offer a challenge to what they term the dual-process typology (see Box 1): Specifically, the idea that cognitive processing is either unintentional, uncontrollable, unconscious, and efficient (Type 1) or intentional, controllable, conscious, and inefficient (Type 2). The authors argue that no one has ever tested this proposition and they provide examples of thoughts that do not abide by the proposed featural configuration of the typology (e.g., that processing might be unconscious but also intentional). These examples, it is argued, invalidate the common "two-types framework" and the authors conclude that distinguishing between two types of processes is "systematically thwarting scientific progress" (abstract). However, the authors make a critical error that undermines this conclusion: One need not assert alignment among a set of features to argue that one specific feature can be justified as a dual-process dichotomy.

Melnikoff and Bargh [START_REF] Melnikoff | The mythical number two[END_REF] rightfully trace the origins of dual-process theories (DPT) to a series of seminal papers in the mid-1970s and the critique of DPT to the late 1980s and 1990sspecifically, the critique of versions of DPT that viewed it as two long lists of features that were always aligned. Where Melnikoff and Bargh go awry is in ignoring the last 15 years of work on DPT in which various theorists [START_REF] Bago | Fast logic?: Examining the time course assumption of dual process theory[END_REF][START_REF] De Neys | Dual process theory 2[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate[END_REF][START_REF] Newman | Rule-Based Reasoning Is Fast and Belief-Based Reasoning Can Be Slow: Challenging Current Explanations of Belief-Bias and Base-Rate Neglect[END_REF][START_REF] Pennycook | What makes us think? A three-stage dual-process model of analytic engagement[END_REF][START_REF] Stanovich | Defining features versus incidental correlates of Type 1 and Type 2 processing[END_REF] have refined and fleshed out the implications of the original 1970s papers. The recent theoretical advances of the last 15 years have long ago left behind the "list of features" view.

Importantly, DPT advocates such as Evans and Stanovich [START_REF] Evans | Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate[END_REF] have explicitly argued against assuming an alignment of the numerous characteristics that have been assigned to socalled "Type 1" and "Type 2" processes over the years (see also: [START_REF] Stanovich | The complexity of developmental predictions from dual process models[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Dual process theories of deductive reasoning: facts and fallacies[END_REF]). Instead, they distinguish between defining featuresthose that are used to define the two types distinctionand typical correlatesthose that various researchers have associated with the two types distinction.

Rather than acknowledging these developments, Melnikoff and Bargh [START_REF] Melnikoff | The mythical number two[END_REF] challenge an outdated "list of features" view of DPT (i.e., the dual-process "typology"). Melnikoff and Bargh also argue that the fallacy where Type 1 processing is necessarily bad/error prone and Type 2 processing is necessarily good/rational is "central to numerous dual-process theories" (p. 3). However, this fallacy has also been strongly challenged by dual-process theorists [START_REF] Evans | Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate[END_REF][START_REF] Stanovich | The complexity of developmental predictions from dual process models[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Dual process theories of deductive reasoning: facts and fallacies[END_REF]. Indeed, it has recently been argued in the context of a dual-process model that Type 2 processing may come in the form of either rationalization (i.e., motivated reasoning), which perpetuates bias in typical decision making tasks, and cognitive decoupling, which overrides and corrects bias [START_REF] Pennycook | What makes us think? A three-stage dual-process model of analytic engagement[END_REF]. In fact, Morewedge and Kahneman [START_REF] Morewedge | Associative processes in intuitive judgment[END_REF], who the authors cite as advocating for the good/bad fallacy, note in their conclusion that: "in many situations, [System 1] automatically, quickly and effortlessly generates a skilled response to current challenges", thus undermining the idea that the good/bad fallacy is central to their dual-process account (p. 439).

Although Melnikoff and Bargh mention Evans and Stanovich's [START_REF] Evans | Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate[END_REF] concept of typical correlates, they do not mention the central concept of defining features. They instead pursue the side issue of encouraging scepticism about the claim that some features are correlated until more empirical evidence is available. Whilst we concur that some dual-process theorists assume a correlation among non-definitional features (e.g., that autonomous Type 1 processing is typically faster than non-autonomous Type 2 processing) and that theoretical claims should be tested empirically, this issue is nonetheless irrelevant to the central thesis that Melnikoff and Bargh setup and knock-down: That some set of Type 1 and Type 2 features are aligned and that this is a central premise of the "two types framework". This is not a necessary requirement of DPT (which could be based on a single dichotomy), the authors do not substantiate their typology claim with regards to any specific examples, and they ignore recent research that has directly refuted this "list of features" view. They thus present their arguments as addressing the foundation of DPT, when, in fact, is it largely irrelevant to most current views [see 3].

In 2013, Evans and Stanovich argued that: "in general, these critiques (of DPT) are problematic because they attack not any particular theory but rather a class of theories, effectively treating all dual-process and dual-system theories alike" (p. 224). This is true of Melnikoff and Bargh, who not only attack a class of theories instead of any specific DPT, they aim their critique at a set of assumptions that contemporary theorists have explicitly refuted.

Box 1. Glossary

Dual-process typology: A term introduced by Melnikoff and Bargh [START_REF] Melnikoff | The mythical number two[END_REF] to represent the idea that cognitive processes can be sorted into two types with aligned characteristics: 1) Type 1 processes which are unintentional, uncontrollable, unconscious, and efficient; 2) Type 2 processes which are intentional, controllable, conscious, and inefficient.

Dual-process theory:

A class of theories in which two fundamentally different types of cognitive processes are distinguished. [START_REF] Evans | Dual-process theories of higher cognition: Advancing the debate[END_REF], defining features are a single characteristic or set of characteristics that distinguish between Type 1 and Type 2 processes. For example, some theorists have focused on autonomy as a defining feature of Type 1 processes (i.e., processing is either mandatory given the presence of triggering conditions -Type 1or not mandatory -Type 2) [START_REF] Pennycook | A perspective on the theoretical foundation of dual-process models[END_REF][START_REF] Thompson | Why It Matters: The Implications of Autonomous Processes for Dual Process Theories--Commentary on Evans & Stanovich[END_REF].

Defining features: Introduced by Evans and Stanovich

Typical correlates: Also introduced by Evans and Stanovich, typical correlates are the various characteristics that have been associated with Type 1 and Type 2 processes (e.g., intentionality, controllability, consciousness, and efficiency) but that do not define the distinction for a given dual-process theory.


Messaouda Boumaraf
email: boumaraf.messa@gmail.com

Fatiha Merazka
email: fmerazka@usthb.dz

Robust and Secure Speech Based on Elliptic Curve Cryptography for WB G.722.2

Keywords: Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC), Speech Encryption and Decryption, EMBSD, AMR-WB G.722.2

Elliptic Curve Cryptographic (ECC) systems are now increasingly used in protocols using public key cryptography, as it allows to significantly reduce the size of the keys used compared to other cryptographic systems such as RSA (Ron Rivest, Adi Shamir and Leonad Adelman). ECC is based on Elliptic Curve (EC) theory, for creating faster, smaller, and more efficient cryptographic schemes. This paper presents an encryption scheme for AMR-WB ITU-T G.722.2 speech based on ECC for securing transmitted speech signals. The implementation of ECC is carried out by transforming the coded speech into an affine point on the elliptic curve, over a finite field. The proposed cryptosystem is evaluated by including waveform and spectrogram analysis, Enhanced Modified Bark Spectral Distortion (EMBSD) and Wideband Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality (WB-PESQ) for objective testing and Mean Opinion Score (MOS) for its subjective counterpart in order to confirm the efficiency of our proposed method in terms of security and privacy.

Introduction

Cryptography is a crucial field in information security as it allows for secure communication, regardless of its essence, such as video, image, audio sound in particular speech through open networks like the internet.

Cryptography can be divided into two major categories, symmetric-key cryptography [START_REF] Khrisat | Simple, Qualities, Efficient, and Secure Method to Encrypt Voice Signal[END_REF][START_REF] Mua'ad | Simple, Efficient, Highly Secure, and Multiple Purposed Method on Data Cryptography[END_REF][START_REF] Kulkarni | A robust encryption method for speech data hiding in digital images for optimized security[END_REF] and asymmetric-key cryptography [START_REF] Ambika | Secure Speech Communication-A Review[END_REF][START_REF] Mohammed | Performance Evaluation of RSA, ElGamal, and Paillier Partial Homomorphic Encryption Algorithms[END_REF]. In symmetric-key cryptography, a single key is shared and used for both encryption and decryption However, in asymmetric-key cryptography a pair of keys is involved: a public key to encrypt data and a private key to decrypt data. Symmetric encryption is simple and fast, but its main problem is the fact that the two communicating parties must exchange the key in a secure way. AES (Advanced Encryption Standard), DES (Data Encryption Standard), IDES (international data encryption Algorithm), and 3DES are familiar examples of symmetric-key cryptography [START_REF] Van Der Elst | Platform for Multi-User Channel-Based Encryption of Speech Communication with AES on 2.45 GHz[END_REF][START_REF] Mua | A DUAL APPROACH TO DIGITAL AUDIO SIGNAL CRYPTOGRAPHY[END_REF][START_REF] Al-Hazaimeh | Chaotic based multimedia encryption: a survey for network and internet security[END_REF][START_REF] Mokhnache | A Combined Chaotic System for Speech Encryption[END_REF][START_REF] Patil | A comprehensive evaluation of cryptographic algorithms: DES, 3DES, AES, RSA and Blowfish[END_REF]. Asymmetric-key cryptography is more secure given that keys can be shared via an unsecure channel. RSA, Digital Signature Standard (DSS) and Diffie-Hellman exchange methods are well-known examples [START_REF] Abouelkheir | Enhancement of Speech Encryption/Decryption Process Using RSA Algorithm Variants[END_REF][START_REF] Okonkwo | Performance analysis of RSA algorithm for audio data security in communication networks[END_REF][START_REF] Intila | A study of public key 'e'in RSA algorithm[END_REF][START_REF] Al-Ghamdi | Improve the security for voice cryptography in the RSA algorithm[END_REF].

Today, researchers envision replacing the symmetric and asymmetric encryption by Elliptic Curve Cryptographic (ECC) public key encryption [START_REF] Guruprakash | EC-ElGamal and Genetic algorithm-based enhancement for lightweight scalable blockchain in IoT domain[END_REF][START_REF] Lara-Nino | Elliptic curve lightweight cryptography: A survey[END_REF][START_REF] Vagle | A gentle introduction to elliptic curve cryptography[END_REF][START_REF] Deepthi | Implementation and analysis of stream ciphers based on the elliptic curves[END_REF][START_REF] Priyanka | Speech Data Encryption and Decryption Using Elliptic Curve Cryptography[END_REF][START_REF] Hureib | Enhancing medical data security via combining elliptic curve cryptography and image steganography[END_REF][START_REF] Subashri | Real time implementation of Elliptic Curve Cryptography over a open source VoIP server[END_REF], because it provides the same level of security as the widely used RSA but with reduced key size. In 1985, Koblitz and Miller proposed the use of elliptic curves in public key cryptography [START_REF] Miller | Use of elliptic curves in cryptography[END_REF]. In [START_REF] Jasra | Mapping Images Over Elliptic Curve For Encryption[END_REF],the authors present the emergence of Elliptic curve cryptography as a preferred cryptographic scheme using minimal computational resources is quite discernible. Its extension to the domain of image encryption using various mapping techniques has been analyzed in this paper. The efficiency of an encryption scheme based on ECC shall depend upon the appropriateness of mapping technique used to map pixels onto the Elliptic curve. In [START_REF] Khoirom | Audio encryption using ameliorated ElGamal public key encryption over finite field[END_REF] authors presents the ECC for public key exchange and Digital signature operation. ElGamal PKE suffers from data expansion problem and extra computation for embedding integer represented message to specific coordinate satisfying the elliptic curve. The improved version solves the problem associated with ElGamal PKE with a good execution speed for a public key encryption scheme. The analysis results, the strength of ECDLP and the improvement made with ElGamal PKE make the proposed method a strong and reliable public key audio encryption scheme.

Given that the security of ECC encryption is more secure than that of traditional approaches, we propose in this paper a secure speech communication approach based on elliptic curve cryptography for WB G.722.2. The general process of the proposed cryptosystem architecture involving both encryption and decryption is illustrated below in Fig. 1.

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. In section 2, The description of the AMR-WB G.722.2 standard is introduced. Section 3 gives a very brief description of the ECC technique, which has a direct relation with our contribution. Simulations and interpretations are presented in section 4. Finally, the conclusion is provided in section 5. 3

Elliptic Curve Cryptography

The ECC method was proposed in the mid-'80s by Victor Miller of IBM and Neal Koblitz of the University of Washington [START_REF] Miller | Use of elliptic curves in cryptography[END_REF]. Generally, on R, the elliptic curves E will be considered as the set of pairs (x, y) defined over a field F (p) that satisfy a specific mathematical equation known as the Weierstrass normal form given as follows:

: = + + ( ) (1)
Where and are real elements of that satisfy (2), is a large prime number, and the set ( , ) ∈ . Each choice of numbers a and b yields a different elliptic curve, and with the requirement that the discriminant is non-zero. . . An elliptic curve is cubic depending on the value of elliptic curves are symmetric about the

(a) : = -
The points on curve form an generator of primitive element everyone uses to compute other points on the curve ellipse formula [START_REF] Khrisat | Simple, Qualities, Efficient, and Secure Method to Encrypt Voice Signal[END_REF] with elliptic curve defined over a finite field has a finite number of points, which is d noted as . However, the number of points in a group represents the group. (2) may assume different shapes on the plane, seen and verified, also known as the on elliptic curve that that satisfy the . 4. So, an elliptic curve defined over a finite field has a finite number of points, which is deorder of the Because of the particularity of the elliptic curve encryption algorithm, there are several operations are involved such as; point addition, point doubling, point subtraction and scalar point multiplication [START_REF] Jasra | Mapping Images Over Elliptic Curve For Encryption[END_REF].

Several phases are involved in ECC to secure speech communications and encrypt transmitted coded speech. These phases are used and listed as follows: Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol, ECC encryption algorithm and ECC decryption algorithm.

Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol

The Diffie-Hellman key exchange protocol well-known ECDH (Elliptic Curve Diffie-Hellman) agrees on a secret key between two parties communicating over an insecure channel. The ECDH algorithm describes the process. To encrypt a speech data user ( ) and user ( ) must: 1) Choose an elliptic curve ( , ).

2) Take an affine point ( , ) with large order ( must be a large prime number and a divisor of , where is the number of points of elliptic) that lies on the curve.

ECC encryption algorithm

Before encryption process, the coded speech data S is mapped into a point on elliptic curve. For encryption, user ( ) encrypt in cipher speech using formula (3). Then, the point will be sent over network to the user ( ).

= ( , ) = { , + } (3)

ECC decryption algorithm

After receiving the information , user ( ) perform decryption to compute using formula (4).

= -

So, the receiver gets the same point , that should be decoded to coded speech.

Encryption Simulation

In order to design an ECC encryption system, several experiments are carried out to test the ECC encryption efficiency of the presented wideband speech cryptosystem. The proposed cryptosystem is applied to different G.722.2 speech samples with different sizes. The analysis of the proposed scheme' performance is performed by including waveform display, spectrogram display, EMBSD [START_REF] Yang | Enhanced Modified Bark Spectral Distortion (EMBSD): An Objective Speech Quality Measurement Based on Audible Distortion and Cognition Model[END_REF] and WB-PESQ [START_REF] Itu-T Rec | Wideband extension to recommendation P.862 for the assessment of wideband telephone networks and speech codecs[END_REF] for objective quality assessment and MOS [START_REF]Mean opinion score (MOS) terminology Recommendation[END_REF] for subjective.

In the experiments, we focus on the quality of encrypted and decrypted speech signals. Before encryption, we represent the original and decoded speech signals as shown in Fig. 5 and Fig. 6 respectively in both time and frequency domains. The waveforms representation (Fig. 5-a and Fig. 6-a) and the spectrograms display (Fig. 5 The speech file extracted from TIMIT database [START_REF]Timit Speech Corpus[END_REF] is coded in different modes using AMR-WB G.722.2 CS-ACELP. The resulting bit streams are encrypted by the ECC technique. Fig. 7-a shows the ECC encrypted speech decrypted and decoded with an incorrect security keys and its Spectrogram (see Fig. 7-b). We can see from these figures that the encrypted speech signals are similar to white noise, which signifies the unintelligibility of the encrypted speech signal. However, the decoded and decrypted speech with a correct security key (see Fig. 8-a) and its spectrogram (see Fig. The EMBSD tool gives the comparison between two speech files, it indicates a 0 value for two identical speech files and a greater value as the distortion increases. Fig. 9 shows the EMBSD values of the AMR-WB codec in mode 2 as well as the decrypted speech files with a correct security key; that are near zero and indicate their good quality. However, the values of speeches decrypted with an incorrect security key are significantly larger than zero, proving the efficiency of the encryption schemes. During the steps involved in implementation, the ECDH generation of public and private keys is proven to be safe and secure. In wireless communication, and more specifically, in speech encryption, the obtained results show the effectiveness, in terms of security and confidentiality of speech data, at the expense of a doubled speech file size resulted at the point mapping step of EC.

Therefore, the major advantages of ECC lie in its simplicity and high security, with the disadvantage of increased file size. To meet this challenge and as future directions, a hybrid cryptosystem combining ECC method for generating security keys with conventional symmetric encryption standards such as AES (Advanced Encryption standard) to encrypt and decrypt the speech data is proposed.

Fig.

  Fig.1. Diagram block of our proposed scheme cryptosystem

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig.2. The structure of the frame of the AMR-WB codec in mode 8[START_REF] Boumaraf | Secure speech coding communication using hyperchaotic key generators for AMR-WB codec[END_REF]

Fig. 4 .Fig. 3 .

 43 Fig.4. Set of po

3 )

 3 Each user generates their public/private key pair:  User keys generation:Select the private key ( < ), using the base point to calculate the public key = * .  User keys generation:Select the private key ( < ), using the base point to calculate the public key = = { , } // key pair for = { , } // key pair for // send the public key to over an insecure channel; = { , , , } // send the public key to over an insecure channel; = { , , , } Compute the shared key = * * }

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig.5. (a) Original speech (b) Its spectrogram

Fig. 7 .Fig. 8 .

 78 Fig.7. (a) Decoded decrypted speech with an incorrect security keys (b) its Spectrogram

Fig. 9 .

 9 Fig.9. EMBSD values of G.722.2 codec used in mode 2 and of decrypted speeches with a correct / an incorrect key

Fig. 10 .

 10 Fig.10. WB-PESQ values of G.722.2 codec used in mode 2 and of decrypted speeches with a correct / an incorrect key Fig.11. MOS scores of G.722.2 codec used in mode 2 and of decrypted speeches with a correct / an incorrect key

  WB bitrates are 6.60, 8.85, 12.65, 14.25, 15.85, 18.25, 19.85, 23.05 and 23.85 kbps corresponding to encoded blocks of 132, 177, 253, 285, 317, 365, 397, 461 and 477 bits which are represented by modes 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 and 8 respec-

	2		The AMR-WB G.722.2 codec
	The G.722.2 AMR-WB standard is used as an internet wideband speech audio encod-
	er for VoIP applications with an audio band of 50 -7000 Hz instead of narrowband
	speech coders wire line quality of 300-3400 Hz. The increased bandwidth improves
	intelligibility and audio quality resulting in an improved speech quality in 3GPP LTE
	network.
	The AMR-Sub-frame 1			Sub-frame 2			Sub-frame 3			Sub-frame 4
	Header	VAD-flag	ISP	Pitch delay	LTP-filtering	Algebraic code	Gain	HB-energy	Pitch delay	LTP-filtering	Algebraic code	Gain	HB-energy	Pitch delay	LTP-filtering	Algebraic code	Gain	HB-energy	Pitch delay	LTP-filtering	Algebraic code	Gain	HB-energy
	3 1 46 9 1 88 7 4 6 1 88 7 4 9 1 88 7 4 6 1 88 7 4
										Total bits: 477 bits
							G.722.2 Coder				ECC Encryption
			Original speech																IP Network
							G.722.2 Decoder				ECC Decryption
			Synthetic speech
						1. Diagram block of our proposed scheme cryptosystem

tively. The bitrates may be changed at any 20 ms frame boundary and the sampling rate is 16 000 samples/s. G.722.2 utilizes an integrated Voice Activity Detector (VAD); includes a packet loss concealment algorithm, support Discontinuous Transmission (DTX) and Comfort Noise Generation (CNG) features for increased efficiency

[START_REF]Wideband coding of speech at around 16 kbps using Adaptive Multi-RateWideband (AMR-WB)[END_REF]

.

The AMR-WB G722.2 includes six parameters to represent speech. Fig.

2

shows the structure of the frame to encoded blocks of 477 bits (23.85 kbps).


Martin Henseler
email: martin.henseler@univ-lehavre.fr

The AGREE-model

Keywords: integrated model, economic model, agriculture, environment, assessment model JEL classification: C610, Q11, Q15, Q200, Q300, Q400, Q500

The AGREE model is an integrated framework to quantitatively analyse the impacts of changes in the economy and policy on AGriculture, Resources, Environment and Energy. While covering the four domains, the model framework is kept as simple as possible to reduce the complexities to a maximum. As a flexible framework, the application to different study cases and extensions by other models is possible. The model's simplicity and flexibility require a careful analysis of the results. The model provides relative values instead of absolute values, ranges instead of levels, and considers sensitivity analysis for relevant scenarios and model parameters. Thus, insecurities from a simple model are systematically covered. The AGREE-model is a "light" version of an integrated assessment model being used for the first and fast analysis of economic shocks and policy changes. This paper presents the conceptual framework of the AGREE model.

Introduction

Two extremely dry growing seasons in Northern Europe within five years (2018,2022), reforms of environmental and agricultural market policies in 2021, Covid19-pandemic (in 2020) and the Russo-Ukrainian-War (since early 2022) --all these events created distortions in markets for cereals, oilseeds, fertilisers and energy and impact agricultural production and the interlinked sectors. The roles of the agricultural sector are known: its relevance for the supply of food, fibre and energy; its interlinkages to other economic sectors, its role as a major user of land and other natural resources and its role in environmental negative and positive impacts. However, the interlinkages of sectors within this nexus are complex, and the reaction of the economic system facing economic shocks or policies is difficult to quantify.

Since the Club of Rome introduced in the 1970s the concept of sustainable growth, interdisciplinary and integrated research has gained increasing relevance as an approach to investigating economic and environmental systems in a holistic and interlinked way. Researchers use integrated assessment and interdisciplinary models to address research questions on sustainable growth, production, resource usage, environmental pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, and economic and climatic change impacts.

The AGREE (AGriculture, Resources, Environment and Energy) model represents an agricultural sector model framework to address research questions on the nexus between agriculture, (natural) resources, energy and environment.

Integrated economic and interdisciplinary assessment models have been developed to address questions on environmental, resource and sustainable growth topics. GLOBIOM (Global Biosphere Management Model) is a partial-equilibrium model representing land use-based activities of agriculture, forestry and bioenergy sectors. It is applied to analyse the land-use competition between the sector under global change and policy scenarios. The model covers represent the land-use world-wide and simulates the impact on the production of food, forest fibre, and bioenergy [START_REF] Havlík | GLOBIOM documentation[END_REF]IIASA, 2022aIIASA, , 2022b)). The IEEM platform (Integrated Economic-Environmental Modeling Platform), is a recursive dynamic computable general equilibrium model. The focus of research topics is for the medium and long-run analysis of public policies and investments and the interaction between the economy and the environment. The regional focus is Latin America [START_REF] Banerjee | Evaluating synergies and tradeoffs in achieving the SDGs of zero hunger and clean water and sanitation: An application of the IEEM Platform to Guatemala[END_REF][START_REF] Banerjee | The Integrated Economic-Environmental Modeling (IEEM) Platform: IEEM Platform technical guides: IEEM mathematical statement[END_REF]. CAPRI (Common Agricultural Policy Regionalised Impact) Modelling System consists of different economic models, like regional Partial Equilibrium and Computable General Equilibrium models. CAPRI is applied to analyse the impact of agricultural policies and global change on the agricultural sector and linked sectors. The regional focus is Europe (CAPRI Network, 2022a[START_REF] Howitt | Positive Mathematical Programming[END_REF]. The interdisciplinary model framework of the project CC-LandStraD (Climate Change -Land Use Strategies) links 10 economic and scientific models to analyse land-based mitigation measures under global scenarios and their impact on agriculture, forestry, settlement, water and soil. The model framework is developed for Germany [START_REF] Baum | Modellgestützte Wirkungsanalysen ausgewählter Maßnahmen und Strategien[END_REF].

The presented models are only a few selected examples of integrated or interdisciplinary models. Most of these models are used in policy support and research projects. Therefore, the list of scientific articles based on these models is long. Furthermore, some of these models have long development history and are developed and maintained in institutions (research centres) which are linked to policymakers. Therefore, most of these sophisticated assessment models are developed as consistent with economic indicators relevant to policymakers. A stakeholder-oriented development also allows for experts' based validation of the models and their results.

With the AGREE model, we aim at developing an integrated model covering the aspects of agricultural and interlinked sectors as simple and flexible as possible. The model should be: (i) flexible to apply to different study cases, (ii) flexible to vertical and horizontal linkages and extensions and (iii) simple to be described and understood Section 2 presents as methodology the conceptual idea of the AGREE model. Section 3 presents and discusses as results the outcomes we expect from this model. Section 4 concludes on the potential and the caveats and sketches the way forward.

Methodology

Integrated AGREE model

Figure 1 represents a schematic overview of the AGREE model with the sectors of agriculture, resources, energy and environment. The centre of the AGREE model is an agricultural supply model representing the production of crops and animals and the generation of agricultural income. The agricultural supply model considers the linkage to natural resource stocks either by the demand for production factors (e.g., soil, water) or by external effects, like resource usage conflicts and pollution (e.g., forestry, fishery). While agricultural production uses energy, it has become relevant as an energy supplier. Agriculture produces feedstock for energetic usage either by growing raw material (e.g. energy crops) or by recycling (e.g., manure for biogas production). Furthermore, the agricultural sector also produces energy (e.g., biogas, wind-farms). The impacts of agricultural production on the environment are positive and negative. While the positive impacts are often overlooked (services for landscaping and retaining biodiversity), the negative externalities are gaining increasing attention by society and policy maker (e.g., emission of greenhouse gases and water pollution). Using the AGREE-model for simulating economic shocks and/or policy measures allows for creating information on agricultural production, income and the impact on resources, energy and the environment.

The process-oriented programming model

The agricultural supply model as the centre of the AGREE-model will be based on the positive mathematical programming (PMP) approach according [START_REF] Howitt | Positive Mathematical Programming[END_REF] and [START_REF] Röhm | Integrating Agri-Environmental Programs into Regional Production Models: An Extension of Positive Mathematical Programming[END_REF] and [START_REF] Röhm | Analyse der Produktions-und Einkommenseffekte von Agrarumweltprogrammen unter Verwendung einer weiterentwickelten Form der Positiven Quadratischen Programmierung[END_REF]. The model is a process analytical non-linear oriented to different elements of applied agricultural supply models PMP models and represents a synthesis of elements of existing models.

Vertical and horizontal extension

While the integrated AGREE-model represents bases on an agricultural supply model horizontal and vertical extensions can be developed. Horizontal extensions complement the sector level of the AGREE-model by complementary economic, social science or scientific models (e.g., agricultural market models, forestry sector models). As vertical extension the economic sector level can be extended by macro-or microeconomic models. With vertical extensions the AGREE-model can function as top-down (or bottom-up) model chain, e.g., by linking the models in a soft way [START_REF] Britz | Automated model linkages: the example of CAPRI[END_REF]. Table 2 presents the AGREE model framework and the model extensions. 3 Results and discussion

Applied regional case studies for first shot assessments

By keeping the complexity of the AGREE model as low as possible and the database access, AGREE-model represents a "light" version of a larger complex and sophisticated integrated assessment model. AGREE-model can be used for the first and fast analysis of economic shocks and policy changes. With reduced complexity, the AGREE-model might reach a lower degree of in-depth analysis than the complex and sophisticated models. The established models are often expert-validated results and are recognised by stakeholders. For the AGREEmodel we consider the limitation in the analysis of the model results:

 The AGREE-model provides primarily relative results (e.g., as shares, per cent change, or percentage points change). Therefore, results on absolute measures need to be considered carefully and as supplementary.  The AGREE-model provides results in terms of ranges instead of defined levels.  The AGREE-model results are accompanied by sensitivity analysis for relevant parameters.

Keeping the AGREE model simple and flexible requires permanent development. Therefore, we already know with starting the development, that the AGREE-model will never reach its final state. It will rather remain under development, in line with [START_REF] Lemelin | What do CGE models have to say about fiscal reform?[END_REF] statement "CGE (and other) models are useful to contribute insights to the policy debate on fiscal reform, while leaving some room for improvementno model is perfect, no model is complete. It would be fair to say that every model should be considered as a work in progress" (Lemelin and Savard, 2022: 771).

Application in interdisciplinary context on nexus topics

If focusing on the economic level (e.g., the macro, sector, micro) or as a holistic approach, many research questions require interdisciplinary analysis. This applies particularly for research topics on sustainable growth and development. Many research institutions provide analytical data, which are easily accessible. The intuitions often use in-house assessment models for analysis at different economic scales. Of course, analysis requires model specification, calibration and model linking. With each study, this process will need to be done new. Thus, the AGREE-model development will build upon previous existing models but will often start from scratch for each new research question in the new study region. This approach can be found for computable general equilibrium (CGE) modelling, where the CGE standard models are used as a template and are customised to particular study regions and research questions.

Conclusion

In this paper, we present the idea and the concept of the AGREE-model. The AGREE-model aims at covering different aspects of the nexus between agriculture, resources, energy and the environment. It aims to be kept simple in its model design and flexible for horizontal and vertical extensions by sector and macro-and microeconomic models. It also aims at flexibility to the study regions. The simplicity and flexibility require particular presentation and analysis of the results to consider the uncertainties of results, creating a lower degree of sophistication.

The AGREE-model is still an idea described in this concept paper. Many models have been developed based on similar concepts with comparable objectives. Then the models were developed and applied in research or policy support. Either the model development stopped (e.g., after finished research projects or PhD thesis), or the development continued, and the models became sophisticated applied simulation models. The value-added of the conceptual idea presented here can be only evaluated once an AGREE-model will have been developed and applied to a research question. Development on the AGREE-model's prototype started in summer 2022. The model will represent the nexus for the French Normandy region, as a model called "AGREE-Normandy".

This paper presents the AGREE model in its earliest stage of development which needs to be developed and operationalised. However, in its early stage of development, it is already clear that the AGREE-model will never be perfectly finalised and stay in a model version as a work in progress [START_REF] Lemelin | What do CGE models have to say about fiscal reform?[END_REF].

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1 Schematic presentation of the AGREE model

Table 1

 1 Table 1 presents the different models and referenced studies Overview of applied PMP models serving as orientation for the development of AGREE model

	Model name	Project name	Reference
	ACRE-Danube	GLOWA-Danube b	Winter (2005), Wirsig et al.
			(2007), Wirsig (2009)
	ACRE-Neckar	RIVERTWIN c	Henseler et al. (2009)
	ACRE-BadenWuertemberg Agro-economic policy analysis with the	Henseler (2011)
	ACRE-SouthernGermany	regional production model ACRE -A case
		study for Baden-Wuerttemberg
	RAUMIS model a	RAUMIS96, CC-LandstraD, SynaKlim a	Henrichsmeyer et al. (1996),
			Henseler and Dechow,
			(2014), Röder et al. (2015),
			Henseler et al. (2015)
	Tarim-Model	Multiple Policy Instruments for Sustainable	Feike and Henseler (2017)
		Water Management in
		Crop Production -A Modeling Study for the
		Chinese Aksu-Tarim Region

(a) For the RAUMIS model only selected projects and references are presented. Numerous applications in research projects and as policy decision support tool have created a long list of academic articles and technical reports. (b) Project homepage: http://www.glowadanube.de/de/home/home.php (c) https://cordis.europa.eu/project/id/505401/reporting.

Table 2

 2 The AGREE model with different levels and extensions

	Economic level	Spatial/organisational level	AGREE-	Horizontal	Vertical
			model type	extension	extension
	Macro-economic	World region, national			CGE model
	level
	Sector-level	National, regional	AGREE-	Complementary
			model	sector models
	Microeconomic-	Individual			Microeconomic
	level				models

Table 3

 3 Comparison between established integrated/interdisciplinary models and the AGREE-model

		Existing models	AGREE
	Development history	long term	Short term
	Database	high-quality data / raw data often	accessible base data
		not accessible
	Stakeholder orientation	stakeholder oriented	no primary stakeholder orientation
	Consistency framework	respected	not binding
	Degree of complexity	high	low
	Regional focus	fixed to defined study region	flexible
	Extensions linkages	Fixed to developed modules	flexible
	Stand-alone model	available and specified	requires often: new specification
			and calibration for new regions
			and research questions


Kourosh Barzegar
email: kouroshbarzegars@gmail.com

Investigating Distribution Pattern and Problems Associated with Use of Cohesive Devices in Persuasive Essays of Ph.D. Students Majoring in TEFL

Keywords:

The present study aimed at investigating the distribution pattern and problems in relation with the use of cohesive devices in the persuasive essays of Iranian graduate students majoring in TEFL at Shiraz Azad University based on the Halliday and Hasan's (1976) framework on cohesion in texts. In order to meet the objectives of the study thirty essays were collected from twenty-five females and five males. Firstly, the analysis will be conducted by estimating the average frequency of cohesive ties in all essays. This examination indicate that students used a variety of cohesive ties. The most frequent tie used was lexical cohesion (81.17 items per 100 words), followed by reference (12.8) and conjunction ties (6.6). The problems with the use of cohesive devices were also investigated as graduate students had some difficulties in employing cohesive ties appropriately or effectively. The analysis also includes the comparative study in which essays gathered from participants were compared with an essay written by a native writer. This examination did not provide conclusive results; however, some interesting findings were reported. The result showed that participants were not equipped well with all types of cohesive devices. Moreover, students tended to use simple sentences rather than compound and or complex sentences.

Introduction

A text is a basic unit of meaning in language, and cohesion is considered to be a property of text and may take various forms in different texts; thus, cohesion is the sets of meaning relations that is general to all classes of text (Halliday and Hasan, 1976). In the discipline of text linguistics, one of the most important matters is cohesion. It plays a crucial part in the text analysis, and it is necessary to give a precise definition of it. Numerous linguists proposed a definition of cohesion.

For example, Bamberg stated that cohesion describes a linguistic system that extends through the text and binds together larger chunks of discourse, in addition to forming smaller discourse units [START_REF] Palmer | Coherence and cohesion in the English language classroom: the use of lexical reiteration and pronominalisation[END_REF]. Additionally, Markel provided a definition of cohesion as it elevates a random collection of sentences to the status of a text, and in the process imparts meaning, insight, and purpose to those sentences. He claimed that without cohesion, the text can hardly be said to exist at all, for cohesion provides the textual means for initiating comprehension and sense (Markel ,1984).

At this time, though, it is necessary to focus on the most popular view on cohesion that is Halliday and Hasan's, and the main source of information about cohesion will be taken from Cohesion in English (1976). Halliday and Hasan proposed in Cohesion in English a precise definition of this concept. In their view cohesion refers to the range of possibilities that exist for linking something with what has gone before (1976). Also, they claimed that cohesion is part of the system of a language and define the cohesion as a semantic concept that regards meaning relations in the text.

Halliday and Hasan distinguish two types of cohesive relations: the one expressed through grammar and the other through lexis. The former is called grammatical cohesion, and the linking ties are in terms of reference, ellipsis, and substitution. The latter is called lexical cohesion, and the cohesive features included in this category are reiteration and collocations. The conjunctive relations are considered to be on the borderline being grammatical and lexical (Halliday and Hasan, 1976). This section will describe and exemplify the various cohesive links proposed by Halliday and Hasan, with the examples taken from The Corpus of Contemporary American English (COCA) and The British National Corpus (BNC).

Effectively writing different types of essays has become critical to academic success. In the writing classes it is demanded from students to show skills in writing in the foreign language.

A National Conference on Innovations in English Language Teaching, Learning and Assessment 9-10 February, 2015, Shiraz Islamic Azad University, Iran Even though EFL graduate students have been learning English for years, it is estimated that writing in a foreign language still can cause some obstacles, namely some students fail to recognize and appropriately use the conventions and features of academic written prose by producing vague and confusing essays with an improper structure or by writing essays that are too personally involved (Hinkiel 2004).

The purpose of this study is to investigate the distribution pattern of using cohesive devices in persuasive essays written by graduate students majoring in TEFL based on the Halliday and Hasan's (1976) framework. Additionally, the study is trying to find out whether the participants overuse or underuse cohesive devices in their essays, and the subjects use the devices appropriately or not. Finally, the persuasive essays composed by Iranian students will be compared with natives' to find that to what extent the essays differ in using cohesive devices.

Literature Review

Writing is a complex skill. It requires the writer to demonstrate a variety of structural forms. It involves the ability to use specific rhetorical structures or explicit cohesive devices, especially in academic essays. It requires the writer to use variety of grammatical structures and sets of linguistic features that serve differing functions in academic genres. Also, academic writing is characterized by formality that entails frequent nominalizations, parallel structures, or sentential organization [START_REF] Wennerstrom | Discourse analysis in the language classroom[END_REF][START_REF]Cohesion and the social construction of meaning in the essays of Filipino College Students Writing in L2 English[END_REF].

Arabs made a lot of research in relation with essay writing. In a series of publications, [START_REF] Koch | Repetition in discourse: Cohesion and persuasion in Arabic argumentative prose[END_REF]Koch ( , 1983a[START_REF] Koch | Parataxis in Arabic: Modification as a model for persuasion[END_REF]Koch ( , 1983cKoch ( , 1984;;Johnstone, 1986Johnstone, , 1990Johnstone, , 1991) ) claimed that the rhetorical structure of Arabic is highly paratactic. In other words, an Arabic text proceeds horizontally rather than vertically, in which ideas of equal importance for an argument are chained together (Johnstone, 1990). Koch also claimed that presentation and repetition of ideas rather than logical argumentation was the sole strategy of Arabic persuasive discourse. In this sense, Koch's description of Arabic was almost identical to that of Kaplan's (1966) US political discourse. [START_REF] Liu | Cohesive features in argumentative writing produced by Chinese undergraduates[END_REF] pointed out that cohesion and coherence were both crucial textual elements and were recognized as features of good writing. Also, they suggested that some empirical studies indicate that cohesion was of great value in any type of writing and both L1 and L2 learners of English encounter difficulties in using cohesive devices in their writing (Liu and Braine 2000). They conducted an investigation on Chinese students of EFL and their argumentative writing. They conclude that this discovery points to the fact of an important relationship between the number of cohesive devices used and the quality of the argumentative writing created by the Chinese undergraduates [START_REF] Liu | Cohesive features in argumentative writing produced by Chinese undergraduates[END_REF].

Many research studies on cohesion in EFL students' essay writing conclude by mentioning some teaching implications. As was stated before, there seems to be a need for raising the awareness of cohesive ties in EFL writing instruction to have more effective and coherent EFL essays. Some researchers on cohesion, such as [START_REF] Zhou | Application of English cohesion theory in the teaching of writing to Chinese graduate students[END_REF], [START_REF] Meisuo | Cohesive features in the expository writing of undergraduates in two Chinese Universities[END_REF], Oleteju (2006) believed that explicit teaching of cohesive devices was helpful in improving cohesion in EFL compositions. Also Hinkle stated that teachers need to work to expand learners' accessible repertoire of grammatical structures and lexis because all these features played a crucial role in non-native speakers' ability to construct cohesive (and coherent) academic essays (Hinkle, 2001). Zhou's study revealed a gap between good and bad compositions as regards conjunctive links and reiteration, and the formal instruction in grammatical and lexical cohesion was effective in improving students' skills in using these links appropriately [START_REF] Zhou | Application of English cohesion theory in the teaching of writing to Chinese graduate students[END_REF].

Research questions

Based on the already-stated aims and the topic under discussion, the following research questions were formulated:

1-Is there a significant difference between graduate students and native's essays in using cohesive devices? Thus, it can be inferred that the participants were homogenized.

Materials

Three main materials were drawn upon in order for the relevant data to be collected and the research questions to be answered:

1.Gathered essays: The data for this thesis was collected from graduate students majoring in TEFL at Shiraz Azad University.

2.IELTS task2 writing band descriptor: The IELTS 9-band scoring system is used to measure and report scores in a consistent manner (See Appendix A).

3.Sample essay written by a native: The persuasive essays composed by Iranian students will be compared with natives' to find that to what extent the essays differ in using cohesive devices (See Appendix B).

To this end, Analysis of the essays for cohesion was first performed by identifying and then counting cohesive ties in accordance with the well-developed taxonomy of cohesive devices provided in Halliday and Hasan (1976). Following that model of analysis, the ties were appropriately classified and shown in charts.

The mode of essays was the same as all the students were required to write a persuasive essay.

Conditions of the essay writing were the same for participants. All essays were written without notes or dictionaries. The quantitative analysis of the charts in the investigation of cohesive A National Conference on Innovations in English Language Teaching, Learning and Assessment 9-10 February, 2015, Shiraz Islamic Azad University, Iran devices was prepared to find out whether any significant difference is in quantity of using cohesive devices in participants' compositions. Finally, a comparison between Iranian graduate students' persuasive essays and natives' is going to be drawn.

Results

The average frequency of reference, conjunction, and lexical ties per 100 words in essays written by graduate students majoring in TEFL at SAU and an essay written by a native are shown in this The analysis revealed that participants used numerous cohesive devices, with the lexical cohesion ties being the most predominant. The analysis of total conjunction ties used in the essays written by graduate students at Shiraz Azad University shows that they were somehow not able to use various links to organize their arguments and provide counterarguments. They applied simple sentences in their essays frequently. The number of full stops per one hundred words in participants' essays was seven. On the contrary, the native writer employed more conjunctions so that he could use more compound or complex sentences in his essay. The number of full stops per one hundred words in this essay was four. The analysis of the reference ties use shows that participants were conscious of using various types of reference in their persuasive essays. The analysis of Ellipses and substitution ties use indicates that participants in THIS investigation hardly ever used this category of ties in their essays. To some extent, It sheds some light why the participants employed lexical ties more, especially repetition ones.

Discussion and Conclusion

The present study was conducted to investigate distribution pattern and problems in relation with the use of cohesive devices in the persuasive essays of Iranian graduate students majoring in TEFL at Shiraz Azad University based on the Halliday and Hasan's (1976) framework on cohesion in texts. The material for investigation was gathered from Shiraz Azad University in 2014, and the essays written by graduate students majoring in TEFL were put under scrutiny as regards the use of cohesive devices and the frequency of the cohesive ties. This investigation used an essay written by a native writer, so that the essays could be compared and any problems connected with the use of cohesive ties, especially if the participants overused or underused the cohesive ties in their essays, were detected. The main reason for choosing the investigation of the use of cohesive devices in essays written by graduate students was the curiosity how the concept of cohesion is understood and used in the EFL academic writing. It could be applicable by categorizing the types of cohesive ties employed by participants in tables. The ties were detected and counted. Then, the frequency of each was shown in the tables.

Afterwards, an essay written by a native writer was analyzed, and the frequency of cohesive devices used there was drawn in a table. Finally, the frequency of each category of ties in two groups of essays was compared and the study managed to detect to what extent the essays differ.

A National Conference on Innovations in English Language Teaching, Learning and Assessment 9-10 February, 2015, Shiraz Islamic Azad University, Iran

It would be important to mention that the number of each cohesive tie was counted in every 100 words in the essays. The most frequent device that was used by participants was lexical cohesion.

The total number of lexical ties used in participants' essays was 81.17 per 100 words in average.

On the contrary, the native writer used less lexical ties in his/her essay, 63.63 per 100 words.

Moreover, the investigation revealed that graduate students underused ellipses and substitution ties in their essays in comparison with the essay written by a native. The average number of ellipses/substitution ties employed in participants' essays was 0.1 which showed unexpected result. It should be illustrated that the use of cohesive devices differed greatly from individual to individual, and any consistent conclusions were hard to reach. However, some interesting findings are worth pointing out. Sadly, there were 6.06 ellipses/substitution ties detected in the essay written by the native writer in every 100 words. This indicates that graduate students underused this category in their productions. Also, the investigation revealed that students indeed had troubles in using conjunction ties by underusing some devices. Participants made simple sentences more than was expected. On the contrary, the native writer employed different variety of conjunctions to lessen the number of simple sentences in his/her persuasive essay. Thus, the hypothesis that graduate students were equipped with a wide range of lexical or grammatical forms to express the meanings in the essays was not confirmed. However, there is some hopeful point in graduate students' essays which was reference. The investigation couldn't find any significant difference in using this category between these two groups of essays. Thus, it can be inferred that participants are well equipped.

To sum up, graduate students are not equipped thoroughly with all types of cohesive devices, despite the fact that they own a respectful size of active vocabulary. 9-10 February, 2015, Shiraz Islamic Azad University, Iran

Figure1

  Figure1The average frequency of reference, conjunction, and lexical ties per 100 words in essays written by graduate students majoring in TEFL at SAU and an essay written by a native

  Essay written by a native)

  Pardis site. At first, the population of the study was a cluster sampling incorporating fifty graduate students. They were at the advanced level of English and were considered homogenized based on the university criteria, i.e. Entrance examination. The sample group consisted of thirty Persian students, twenty five females and five males, and had a common cultural background.Additionally, the essays gathered from the participants were scored based on band descriptors

	A National Conference on Innovations in English Language Teaching, Learning and Assessment
	9-10 February, 2015, Shiraz Islamic Azad University, Iran
	Method
	Participants
	Participants in this study were graduate students majoring in TEFL at Shiraz Azad University,
	2-Do graduate students majoring in TEFL underuse or overuse cohesive devices in their
	persuasive essays in relation with natives?

(public version) developed by IELTS organization (http://www.ielts.org, 2014). The level of performance of each participant was attained. The average score of essays in This study was 6.5.

  National Conference on Innovations in English Language Teaching, Learning and Assessment 9-10 February, 2015, Shiraz Islamic Azad University, Iran

	A National Conference on Innovations in English Language Teaching, Learning and Assessment
		9-10 February, 2015, Shiraz Islamic Azad University, Iran
		adequately clearly explain	these may be	for the reader	punctuation is often
		highlights key the purpose of the	inaccurate or
		features/ bullet letter; the	repetitive
		points but details tone may be
		may be irrelevant, inappropriate
		inappropriate or • may confuse
		inaccurate key
	5	• generally features/bullet	•resents information	• uses a limited range of	• uses only a limited
		addresses the points with detail;	with some	vocabulary, but this is	range of structures
		task; the format parts	organisation but there	minimally	• attempts complex
		may be may be unclear,	may	adequate for the task	sentences but these
		inappropriate in irrelevant,	be a lack of overall	• may make noticeable	tend to be less
		places repetitive or	progression	errors in spelling and/or	accurate than simple
		• (A) recounts inaccurate	• makes inadequate,	word	sentences
		detail	inaccurate or over-use	formation that may	• may make frequent
		mechanically	of cohesive	cause some difficulty for	grammatical errors and
		with no clear	devices	the reader	punctuation
		overview;	• may be repetitive		may be faulty; errors
		there may be no	because of lack of		can cause some
		data to support	referencing and		difficulty for the
		the description	substitution		reader
		• (GT) may
		present a purpose
		for the letter that
		is unclear at
		times; the tone
		may be variable
		and sometimes
		inappropriate
		• presents, but
		inadequately			• uses a mix of simple
		covers, key			and complex sentence
		features/ bullet			forms
		points; there may			• makes some errors in
		be a tendency to			grammar and
		focus on details			punctuation but they
	4	• attempts to	•presents information	• uses only basic	rarely reduce • uses only a very
		address the task	and ideas but these are	vocabulary which may	communication limited range of
		but does not	not arranged	be used repetitively	structures with only
		cover all key	coherently and there is	formation, but or which may be	rare
		features/bullet	no clear progression	they do not impede inappropriate for the task	use of subordinate
		points; the format	in the	communication • has limited control of	clauses
		may be	response	word formation and/or	• some structures are
		inappropriate	• uses some basic	spelling;	accurate but errors
		• (GT) fails to	cohesive devices but	• errors may cause strain	predominate, and

A

Watching television is an experience shared by most adults and children. It is cheap, appealing, and within the reach of the general public. In this way, TV has become an important mass media around the world.

Sadly, this resource isn't used in a way that people could get the best possible benefits from it. The purpose of this essay is to persuade the reader that people shouldn't watch too much television because the content of many TV programs is not educational; it makes people waste time that could be used in more beneficial activities; and it negatively affects people's mental development.

The first reason why people shouldn't watch too much television is because the content of many TV programs is not educational. Nowadays, we can see movies, series, and shows that present scenes of violence, sex, and drugs. This has established wrong concepts among the audience that influence them into having a negative behavior. Moreover, the impact this tendency has on children is worse because they grow up with the idea of a world where women must be slender and blonde to stand out, where problems can only be solved with money and violence, and where wars are inevitable.

The second reason why people shouldn't watch too much television is because it makes people waste time that could be used in more beneficial activities. The time we spend watching TV could be applied to useful activities like exercise, reading, interacting with friends and family, activities that are a crucial for a healthy lifestyle.

The third reason why people shouldn't watch too much television is because it negatively affects people's mental development. According to several scientific studies, watching TV for prolonged periods of time has a negative effect over the intellectual development of children and leads to deterioration of the mental capacity in older people by causing both attention and memory problems in the long term.

In conclusion, people shouldn't watch too much television because the content of many TV programs is not educational; it makes people waste time that could be used in more beneficial activities; and it affects people's mental development. However, this doesn't mean that we should ban TV, but if we are going to watch it, we should do it with moderation. Television is a resource that we should learn to use through the right selection of programs by taking an active and critical attitude towards it.

http://eslbee.com April 21, 2014


Sebastien Massart

Juan José Lopez

Michelle Heck

Quentin Chesnais

Victor Golyaev

Amandine Velt

Camille Rustenholz

Maxime Verdier

How do multiple host plants and virus species challenge aphid molecular machinery?

Recommendation

. Indeed, virus infection can alter plant biochemistry through the emission of volatile organic compounds and plant tissue content modification. These alterations can further impact the interactions between plants and aphids. However, although it is a well-known phenomenon, very few studies have explored the consequences of plant virus infection on the gene expression of aphids to understand better the aphid's manipulation by the plant virus. In this context, the recommended study [2] reports a comprehensive transcriptomic analysis of the genes expressed by one aphid species, Myzus persicae, a vector of several plant viruses, when feeding on plants. Michelle Heck underlined how significant this study is for comprehending the molecular bases of aphid-vector manipulation by plant viruses (see below).

Interestingly, the study design has integrated several factors that might influence the gene expression of M. persicae when feeding on the plant. Indeed, the authors investigated the effect of two plant species (Arabidopsis thaliana and Camelia sativa) and two virus species [turnip yellows virus (TuYV) and cauliflower mosaic virus (CaMV)].

I have analysed them carfelly. Before recommending the publication, there are still few additional comments and suggestions that arose from reading your responses.

Kind regards, Sébastien Massart

Ln21: Instead of "genetic basis", a most appropriate term would be related to transcriptome or gene expression

We prefer to keep « genetic bases » because it is more general than « transcriptome changes" COMMENT: Genetics is the study of heredity, and more broadly of genes/genomes. Here, the impact is on the gene transcription (maybe there might be an epigenetic effect although it is not the focus of this study). Sensu lato, the sentence is understandable, sensu stricto it might not be the most appropriate term (but I welcome any reference to publications using this term for transcriptomic if maintained) Ln210: why 4 genes (how did you decide this number and not 10) ?

We believe that statistically there is no difference whether you test 4 or 10 out of thousands of genes.

COMMENT: indeed, I agree, it is always difficult to define the number of genes (and 10 was given as an example among others) and there is no "standard" recommendation. To back up and give strength to the selection of 4 genes, could you add one or two references of publication having confirmed the differential expression by RT-qPCR on similar number of genes ? Ln 213-215: please give one (or several) references for it We do not believe that a reference is necessary to explain our reasoning. PCR is an exponential amplification process, meaning at each 'ct' (amplification cycle) the number of molecules is doubled (ct0=1, ct1=2, ct2=4, ct3=8, ct4=16,…., ct10=1024, ct11=2048, ct12=4096,…), and consequently its sensitivity increases but its power of discrimination between two values (accuracy) decreases! This means that at low ct values the method can discriminate between small changes (for example between 3 = ct2 and 8 = ct3), but at higher ct values it cannot (for example between 2048, 2060 and 3000 = all ct11)! COMMENT: there is a misunderstanding, the request for reference corresponded to cases where the RT-PCR did not confirmed the differential expression because of its properties. It was not linked to the exponential properties of PCR themselves. Figure 1b: M2 has been excluded because it did not clustered with M1 and M3 but it is important to see where it cluster actually (is it close to the virus infected datasets ?) as M1 and M3 are quite divergent on PC2 also.

We added a PCA graph showing the three Camelina mock samples in a Supplementary figure .   COMMENT: thanks for the update of information but this new graph in SupMat is somehow redundant with Figure 2. I would suggest to add also M2 in the figure 2 (and delete the supplementary figure) so the reader can directly observe its position while stating clearly in the legend that is has further not be taken into account. For example, you can use light green for it. It completes the discussion of the results in the text further on.

Ln 259: only 8 categories are mentioned but do they compare to the 11 or 25 or any other for Arabidopsis (it is not clear for me if these 8 can also be considered as top 25 enriched or not), please clarify

The Top 25 GO analysis identified only 8 (for TuYV) and 3 (for CaMV) significantly enriched GOs in Camelina. None of the 8 GO specific for aphids on infected Camelina were found for infected Arabidopsis. The paragraph was rewritten and we hope it is clearer now: "A different picture was found for Myzus on virusinfected Camelina (Figure 2c). In the case of TuYV infection, only 8 categories (2 BP, 3 CC and 3 MF) were identified by GO Top 25 analysis as being significantly enriched. Three of them (Figure 2d) were also identified in aphids from CaMV-infected Camelina, but none of them in aphids from infected Arabidopsis. The enriched processes included chitin-related processes (chitin binding, MF; chitin metabolic processes, BP; structural constituent of cuticle, MF), transcription (transcription factor complex, CC), oxidation reduction (oxidoreductase activity, MF) and plasma membrane-related processes (homophilic cell adhesion via plasma membrane, BP; plasma membrane, CC; extracellular region, CC). Although none of these GOs figured among the Arabidopsis Top 25 GO, there were three GO categories (related to oxidation/reduction and plasma membrane processes) that were similar to GOs identified in aphids fed on Arabidopsis."

COMMENT: thanks, it clarifies indeed, could you simply state the meaning of the abbreviation (BP,CC…) when they appear for the first time in the paragraph Ln 337: Why this homolog analysis is described/carried out here and not for upregulated genes ? Actually, we used the same reasoning for up-and down-regulated genes, but for the upregulated ones we found no homologs. For more clarity, the explicative paragraph was moved to the beginning of the section and reads now like this: "We extracted in this analysis genes differentially up-or downregulated under all conditions. In the case of downregulated but not of upregulated genes, we found some genes homologs where one homolog was downregulated for one virus and another one for the other virus (Table 1). For example, we identified two potentially secreted homologous cathepsin B-like proteases (g8486 for aphids infesting TuYV-infected plants and g24532 for aphids infesting CaMV-infected plants). These homologs were included in the analysis. The rationale was that one specific host or infection condition might deregulate a specific gene but that the overall effect on plant aphid interactions might be the same or very similar for both genes (in this case the two cathepsin Bs might have a similar role as saliva effectors)."

COMMENT: reorganization of first sentence suggested: "This analysis was carried out on genes differentially up-or downregulated under all conditions. No homolog was identified for up-regulated genes. In the case of downregulated genes, we found some genes homologs where one homolog was downregulated for one virus and another one for the other virus (Table 1)."

Evaluation round #1

DOI or URL of the preprint: https://doi.org/10.1101/2022.07.18.500449

Version of the preprint: 3

Author's Reply, 30 Nov 2022

Download author's replyDownload tracked changes file

Decision by Sebastien Massart, posted 21 Nov 2022, validated 22 Nov 2022

Dear Authors, After careful reading of your preprint by both reveiwers and myself, we would like to communicate that your preprint is a valuable scientific work that merits revisions before being recommended.

The comments and suggestions of the reviewers are in attachment to this message and I am sharing with you my own observations. Please check the use of past tense throughout the text. Ln 183: adding one (or several) publications where EF1 has been used -Ln 183: indicating that the primers of the targeted genes are also listed in this table (in the table, please add also full name of the selected genes in addition to their internal reference) -Bioinformatic analyses: could you specify which parameters have been used for each step (with only the software, there is not enough information to reproduce the analysis). Done for STAR (default parameters) but not the other ones ? -Ln 210: how were the 4 genes selected ? Please state the selection criteria to understand why these genes and how they are relevant for validating the RNA-Seq data generated -Ln210: to which process/pathway belong these 4 genes ? -Ln210: why 4 genes (how did you decide this number and not 10 for example ) ? -Ln 213-215: please give one (or several) references for it -Figure 1b: M2 has been excluded because it did not clustered with M1 and M3 but it is important to see where it cluster actually (is it close to the virus infected datasets ?) as M1 and M3 are quite divergent on PC2 also.

-Ln 229-232: there are twice more aphids DEG on Arabidopsis than on Camelina but were there similar number of sequenced genes in total (genes with mapped reads) ? -Ln 245: "Aphid processes" might not be the most appropriate term -> metabolic pathway ? pathway ? -Ln 259: only 8 categories are mentioned but do they compare to the 11 or 25 or any other for Arabidopsis (it is not clear for me if these 8 can also be considered as top 25 enriched or not), please clarify -Ln269-270: precise that it is the feeding on virus-infected Arabidopsis that has impact on aphids gene expression (it is obvious but it is more precise) -Ln275: the sentence is confusing as it seems that the modifications have occurred in plant host while you are analysing the aphid. Please check for proper wording here but also in other locations of the text.

-Ln 278: Arabidopsis OR camelina Discussion -As the discussion is very well structured between the different cases, a global figure of the results based on the same structure would be welcome in result section (Venn diagram ?). The idea is to be able to observe the number of genes that are DEG in each case, only depending on plant or on virus… So all the qualitative information provided in the discussion can be view quantitatively in a single graph -Ln 293: might be more appropriate to avoid using "We". The same comment can be applied for the other parts of the document -Ln 297: or by one host species -Ln 304-305: might not be useful as it somehow repeats previous paragraph -Ln 337: Why this homolog analysis is described/carried out here and not for upregulated genes ? -Ln 398: "DEGs deregulated" it is a repetition, if they are DEG, they are deregulated -Ln 463-465: "Since for Arabidopsis the total number of such aphid DEGs was 380, we applied a cut-off of logFC (fold changes) > 0.5 for upregulated genes and < -0.5 for downregulated genes to limit the number to 90 genes.". How did you manage the possibility that one of the DEG eliminated for Arabidopsis was an homolog of the 22 Camelina gene ? This is in link with comment on Ln 337: how did you manage homologues globally ? -Ln 484: which kind of experiment would be needed ? Why only stating this sentence for this specific case and not for the other ones ? Maybe just let (or extend) last sentence in the conclusion (Ln 592-594)

Reviewed by Juan José Lopez Moya, 30 Sep 2022

The manuscript by Chesnais and co-authors is a well written and interesting account of the findings after comparison of transcriptomes of Myzus persicae aphids that were feeding on two different plant species (Arabidopsis thaliana and Camellina sativa), and under two conditions: uninfected or infected with either TuYV or CaMV, two taxonomically very different viruses (polerovirus and caulimovirus). These two viruses diverged in mode of transmission (circulative and non-circulative), among many other differences, but the focus of the work deals with the relationship of virus-vector-plant in each pathosystem considered. The design of the experiment allows multiple comparisons to identify responses in the same insect vector species after feeding on the two different plant host species, and also the responses when the different viruses were or were not infecting the plant hosts. The study is rather complete, and provides novel information that can be valuable to understand the system, including the complexities of the ecology of two pathogenic viruses transmitted by the same insect vector to two different host plants.

Despite this general good impression, some components of the article might be modified in order to clarify the message and enhance the accuracy of the scientific contents. In particular the title could be more precise if some of the particular details of the study are mentioned, in its current form it is too general. Perhaps it would be advisable to mention the only aphid species being considered, and avoid to focus excesively in the "mode of transmission" of the two viruses when many other important differences (starting with genome composition, distribution in plant tissues and so on) could have a potential impact in the host plants and indirectly on the infesting insects. Indeed, the broadness of the work is much better explained in the abstract, where the suggestion about alterations with possible conducive effects depending on the transmission mode are less strong that the title with the statement "are shaped". In other words, in my opinion the possible correlation between the observed responses and the mode of transmission is insufficiently supported by data coming from only two divergent viruses. Softening that idea instead of going too far will not reduce the impact of the results, but can help to make the general message more credible by readers.

Regarding the contents of the manuscript, the introduction is rather comprehensive, providing a clear picture of the antecedents about manipulative strategies, and the interest of exploring potential mechanisms of action. The opportunity and interest of the study is fully justified.

Also the methods are sufficiently well described.

Regarding the long Results and Discussion section, it is very well structured in sub-sections with descriptive titles. In a first sub-section the quality of the data is addressed, and in this regard it will be interesting to inform about the origin (in case it is possible) of the 15% and 19% of reads not matching with aphid genome (see p. 6, l. 207-208). Also the reason to eliminate one of the replicates corresponding to mock-Camellina might require a better explanation (p. 7, l. 224 to 227). Since the same experimental setup was used in a recent work by the same team (as declared on p. 15, l. 576; reference Chesnais et al 2022a, which appears incomplete in the bibliography but it is accessible in bioarxiv), it would be interesting to know if the discarded aphid sample corresponded also to a divergent (or not) plant sample: would it be possible to track the origin of each one of the biological replicates in both works, and derive information about the out layer? An additional explanation will be adequate here.

The rest of the sections are very well organized and structured to deliver a clear message. It is particularly valuable the discussion of the findings under different comparative perspectives, which allows a rational and well structured follow up of the results and their implications.

Only a few minor points might require attention to clarify some aspects of the discussions intercalated with the descriptions of results:

-For instance, the final sentence in p. 7, l. 242 appears to give similar or less importance to the virus species than to the transmission mode, which is again uncertain in my opinion; indeed, this is better expressed later (p. 8, l. 291), and even also providing examples (p. 10, l. 365).

-Another minor terminological aspect that deserves clarification to avoid confussion is the naming of pancreatic lipase-related like protein (p. 12, l. 447), considering the absence of pancreas in insects.

-The interesting discussion about calcium-binding products (p. 13, l. 516) requires to better identify if the suggested targets are in the plant or the insect. Do authors propose a delivery of the proteins from the vector to the plant, or another mechanism to exert influence in the host? This result is unclear with the actual wording of the sentences, and how it might affect the proposed hypotheses in the last part of the paragraph.

Tables could benefit by a further edition. In tables 1, 2, 3 and 4 separation of lanes are unclear, with more gene names (column 4) than functional categories (column 1). Apparently, sometimes more than one gene can be included in a given category, but it is not clear to which one. This can be solved by grouping categories and using horizontal separation lines.

Figures are fine, and perhaps the supplemental ones could be incorporated to the main text (no need to separate them, since they illustrate some aspects of the results).

To summarize, the manuscript has many strenghts derived from a good experimental design, generating results that can shed light into poorly addressed aspects of the virus-vector-host relationships. The work incorporates a good analysis of the data, and it is noteworthy the organization of the results into sections that really facilitates the reading.

Concerning weaknesses, no major flaws are found, and most of the aspects mentioned above that need attention could be easily solved in a revised version.

Reviewed by Michelle Heck, 09 Nov 2022

The authors present very nice work looking at the transcriptomics response of aphids to encountering plant infection with two different viruses that have unique transmission modes on two different host plants. The study is a significant contribution to the field because very little is known about the molecular mechanisms of aphid-vector manipulation by plant viruses. An understanding of the molecular pathways involved in aphidvirus interaction are necessary for the development of new biological control tactics that block or reduce transmission within a crop. Globally, Myzus persicae is one of the most prolific vectors for plant viruses, transmitting more than 100 known plant viruses in a range of economically important crops.

I have a few comments for the authors to consider in their revised version. 2. Unless I missed it, none of the observed transcriptome changes were more than 2-fold different, up or down. This is extremely interesting to see such a muted effect on the aphid transcriptome! I have a few thoughts on this.

A. Using whole insects (in contrast to excised guts or salivary glands) masks larger gene expression changes that occur at the tissue specific level where the viruses would normally directly interact with aphid cells. This first hypothesis could be argued against to some extent in part because these viruses do not replicate in aphid cells and because a prior study using PEMV and the pea aphid showed a similar muted effect on gene expression changes in the aphid gut (Brault et al. 2010). But on the contrary, it is definitely possible to have under-estimated the changes you observed because whole insects were used in this study and not excised tissues. A study from our lab on the Asian citrus psyllid, Diaphorina citri, showed that the transcriptomic profiles of each insect organ was unique and even more different than the effect of the phloem colonizing citrus greening pathogen (Mann et al. 2022 https://academic.oup.com/gigascience/article/doi/10.1093/gigascience/giac035/6575386). Thus, when we pool insects, we lose the tissue-level resolution for individual genes and this is undoubtedly going to have a major impact on data interpretation. B. The second hypothesis for the observed muted effect on the aphid transcriptome could be that interactions between aphids and infected plants are occurring at the metabolite or protein level, and not transcriptional. Their finding supports the idea that physiological changes in the aphid in response to viral infection are plastic and transcriptional regulation is not a major component to the molecular mechanisms of how aphids respond to viral infection. Both of these ideas could party explain the results shown here. How might these possibilities influence the design of follow-up functional studies? The very last paragraph of the paper nicely introduces the next step in the research and this might be a good place to include some of this speculation/discussion.

3. More details are required in the methods section for the parameters used for DEG analysis, specifically with DESeq2 and SMARTools. 4. I'm wondering if the authors might reconsider their selection of the word "deregulated" to describe differentially abundant transcripts. Aphids encounter virus infected plants in the landscape as a normal part of their ecology. De-regulated would not be the word I would selected to describe transcripts whose abundance changes in response to viral infection. Differentially expressed (but we actually don't know if these are real mRNA expression differences or due to mRNA stability, silencing and so on), differentially abundant, or change in abundance are options the team might consider.

In conclusion, this is a wonderful, insightful, carefully written paper. The authors go to great lengths to discuss their transcriptomic changes in the context of what is known about these genes from other aphid studies and other insects. The changes I suggest are relatively minor and I am looking forward to being able to share this work with my students.

  what do you mean by performance ? -Ln21: proposal of modification: ….vector manipulation caused by the virus. It is the organism that cause the manipulation through its adaptation. Please clarify the exact meaning of the sentence (also for line 39) -Ln21: Instead of "genetic basis", a most appropriate term would be related to transcriptome or gene expression -Ln 26: what is a "player" ? We can guess it is a gene but it can be stated more clearly -Ln 26: proposal of change: "revealed a substantial proportion of commonly deregulated genes, revealing general players in plant-virus-aphid interactions" -> "revealed a substantial proportion of commonly deregulated genes, among which general players in plant-virus-aphid interactions" Material and methods -Overall: please check that all reagents have their proper provider mentioned (for example not stated in lines 167 and 168 for chloroform and isopropanol respectively…) -There is no quality control of the extracted RNA before library preparation ? -Is there a DNAse treatment? -Ln 138: has this clone already been used in other published experiments ? If so, please add reference. If not, what is its origin (The Netherlands? Which year ?) -Ln 140: precise what "form" means ? -Ln 148: could you clarify the link between this protocol and the one described just before for Aphids ? -Ln 165: reminding that aphids are the larvae 5 days old -Ln 165: how were frozen the larvae before storage ? Liquid nitrogen or directly -80°C ? -Ln 172: please refer explicitly to the kit used so tracing back the protocol is possible -Ln 173: the 6 conditions are mentioned for the first time and it is not clear what they are ? Maybe stating them clearly in the section -Ln 180 : you can clarify the recommended protocol as there is only missing the volume of Master Mix and of water -Ln 182: if different temperatures have been used for different primers, please indicate the corresponding temperature in SupTable 2 -

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  Ln 188: number of reads can be trasnfered in results section -Ln 195 to 199: giving percentages can be trasnfered in results section Results -Please clarify the wording used for reads (either 32 million of paired reads of 64 million of reads paired) throughout the text.

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  Ln 486 and 491: could you give the number of Myzus DEG ? -Ln 505: TuYV, being circulative, … what do you mean by delicately ? Is it a usual term for this meaning ? Minor comments: -Ln 18 : document -> have documented -Ln 30: name of genera in italics -Ln 32: name of genus in italics -Ln 33: the first sentence is too long and can be split, please use comma instead of hyphen -Ln 45: delete "for example" -Ln 47: "… of cells of the…" -> "… of cells in the …" -Ln 62: ... on the virus' mode… -Ln 68: adding "through the hemolymph" at the end of the sentence -Ln 100: most work -> most studies (and adapting the verb -without s) -Ln 104-105: deleted "For example" -Ln 108-109: replace hyphens by comma or point -Ln 119: considering other verb than "accomplished" ? -Ln 130-131: past tense for the verb -Ln134: selected instead fo chose ? -Ln 198: do not start a sentence with a number, sentence should be adapted or number written -Ln 269: correct typo -Ln 293: in the following section… -Ln 315: the brackets should be for the reference only -Ln 352: TuYV or CaMV -Ln 360: …conditions is coding for…. -Ln 378: … and, possibly, ….-Ln 510: … here only the subset of XX most strongly deregulated …

1 .

 1 Research has shown that host switching changes the protein and transcript expression levels and subcellular localization of proteins involved in virus transmission (Pinheiro and Wilson et al. 2017). The authors should discuss how rearing the aphids on Chinese cabbage and then transferring to new hosts might result in transcriptomic changes in dependent of viral infection.

Conflict of interest:

The recommender in charge of the evaluation of the article and the reviewers declared that they have no conflict of interest (as defined in the code of conduct of PCI) with the authors or with the content of the article.