Virginie Svenningsen
email: virginie.svenningsen@mines-paristech.fr

Eva Boxenbaum

Davide Ravasi

Sub-theme 71: Hybrid Organizations, Tensions and Institutional Environments How individuals cope with institutional complexity in organizations: a case study in the energy transition

Keywords: Institutional complexity, multiple institutional logics, hybrid organizations, energy transition

The present article examines how employees cope with an organizational setting that is institutionally complex. The empirical setting is a French energy corporation that simultaneously pursues a logic of science and a logic of market through multiple research partnerships with public and private actors engaged in the energy transition.

We draw on the literature on institutional logics and hybrid organizations to examine how employees of this French energy corporation deal with this institutionally complex environment. Our findings point to three strategies that individuals use to cope with institutional complexity in their organizational setting: aggregating, selective coupling and compartmentalizing. Each individual uses only one strategy.

The findings further suggest three psychological factors that seem to explain which of these strategies a given individual adopts for coping with institutional complexity: tolerance for ambiguity, preference for holism, and preference for reductionism. We integrate these findings into a two-dimensional model. These findings contribute to illuminating how individuals cope with institutional complexity in their organizational setting, an insight that can help shed light on why organizations respond somewhat differently to the same institutionally complex field.

ORGANIZATIONS: A CASE STUDY IN THE ENERGY TRANSITION

The rise of societal dissatisfaction with how organizations and governments address societal and environmental challenges [START_REF] Haigh | Hybrid Organizations: Origins, Strategies, Impacts, and Implications[END_REF] are stimulating the emergence of new organizational forms and new complex partnerships. Various types of alliances are developing, notably between large generalist corporations, academics and specialized entrepreneurial starts-up with valuable knowledge and high reputation in a given market segment. These inter-firm cooperation structures are complex and often embedded in various institutional arrangements [START_REF] Parkhe | Strategic Alliance Structuring: a game theoretic & transaction cost examination of Interfirm cooperation[END_REF]. Research on institutional complexity has revealed the tensions that some organizations experience as they are exposed to multiple and potentially conflicting logics and demands. These tensions can lead to internal conflicts [START_REF] Glynn | When Cymbals Become Symbols-Conflict Over Organizational Identity Within a Symphony Orchestra[END_REF] and instability if the organization does not manage to strike a balance between the institutional logics at play [START_REF] Battilana | Building Sustainable Hybrid Organizations: the Case of Commercial Microfinance Organizations[END_REF].

Institutional logics refer to socially constructed and integrated sets of "assumptions, values, beliefs and rules" [START_REF] Thornton | Institutional Logics[END_REF]) that give actors "organizing principles" for prescribing legitimate ends and selecting "the means by which those ends are achieved" [START_REF] Friedland | Bringing society back in: Symbols, practices, and institutional contradictions[END_REF]. Institutional complexity arises when organizations face simultaneous pressures from multiple institutional logics. While institutional logics may seem to be imposed on organizations, recent studies suggest that individuals can apprehend and interpret them somewhat differently [START_REF] Creed | Being the change-Resolving institutional contradiction through identity work[END_REF]. At a micro-level, individuals may engage creatively with institutional logics [START_REF] Voronov | Institutional complexity and logic engagement-An investigation of Ontario fine wine[END_REF] in order to resolve any institutional contradictions that they perceive. Recent research also emphasizes differences in people's capacity to apprehend and resolve institutional contradictions [START_REF] Voronov | Did You Notice That?" Theorizing Differences in the Capacity to Apprehend Institutional Contradictions[END_REF].

Our inquiry addresses two related questions: 1) Which strategies do individuals adopt to cope with institutional complexity in their organizational setting?

and 2) which psychological characteristics explain their individual preferences for a particular strategy? To answer these questions, we conducted an empirical study of a French energy corporation, whose employees engage in an on-going research partnership with a US energy corporation, a public R&D lab, a private R&D lab and a private/public lab. All these organizations are active in the area of renewable energy, i.e., engaged in the energy transition. Our study investigates how managers and employees of the French energy corporation cope with the multiple challenges they experience in working with the other organizations, or organizational units, within this complex institutional context.

The findings of this study points to the existence of three strategies that individuals adopt to cope with institutional complexity: aggregating, selective coupling, and compartmentalizing. Each individual adopts a single strategy. We further identify three psychological, or cognitive-affective, characteristics that seem to explain which strategy a given individual chooses: tolerance for ambiguity, preference for reductionism, and preference for holism. We propose that these findings can shed new light on why organizations respond somewhat differently to the same institutional complexity in their environment.

The paper is structured as follows. First we review the literatures on institutional logics and hybrid organizations. We then present our case study and methodology, as well as our key findings. The paper concludes with a discussion of how our findings contribute to the literature on institutional complexity and hybrid organizations.

ORGANIZATIONAL RESPONSES TO INSTITUTIONAL COMPLEXITY

Institutional Logics

Research on institutional logics has shown that multiple logics often compete with one another [START_REF] Thornton | The Rise of the Corporation in a Craft Industry -Conflict and Conformity in Institutional Logics[END_REF]. It also demonstrates that previously incompatible logics can coexist, co-evolve [START_REF] Dunn | Institutional Logics and Institutional Pluralism-The Contestation of Care and Science Logics in Medical Education, 1967-2005[END_REF] and sometimes even converge [START_REF] York | Converging Winds: Logic Hybridization in the Colorado Wind Energy Field[END_REF]. It is widely recognized, however, that organizations experience difficulties when they simultaneously face, and embrace, multiple institutional logics.

In examining how organizations deal with the presence of multiple logics, researchers have primarily looked at organization-level responses to conflicting institutional demands. In so doing, they seem to have overlooked the individual level.

In fact, "institutions are not inert categories of meaning; rather they are populated with people whose social interactions suffuse institutions with local force and significance" [START_REF] Hallett | Inhabited institutions: Social interactions and organizational forms in Gouldner's Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy[END_REF]. More recent research points to how individual actors engage institutional logics in the course of their organizational practice [START_REF] Lounsbury | Institutional Logics in Action In[END_REF], and how they deal with institutional complexity and confronting demands [START_REF] Pache | When Worlds Collide: the Internal Dynamics of Organizational Responses to Conflicting Institutional Demands[END_REF]. Research also highlights the institutional contradictions that social actors experience in their work setting [START_REF] Bjerregaard | Managing Unstable Institutional Contradictions: The Work of Becoming[END_REF] and points to how individuals pro-actively exercise a great deal of agency in their everyday organizational encounter with multiple logics [START_REF] Mcpherson | Logics in Action: Managing Institutional Complexity in a Drug Court[END_REF].

A recent call invites researchers to investigate how individuals construct the relationality of logics in practice [START_REF] Smets | Reconstructing institutional complexity in practice: A relational model of institutional work and complexity[END_REF]. One suggestion in the existing literature is that all individual actors respond similarly to the same multiple logics and that they do so through selective coupling [START_REF] Pache | When Worlds Collide: the Internal Dynamics of Organizational Responses to Conflicting Institutional Demands[END_REF]. Another suggestion is that individual responses fall into different categories [START_REF] Voronov | Did You Notice That?" Theorizing Differences in the Capacity to Apprehend Institutional Contradictions[END_REF]. This latter finding echoes insights from identity theory suggesting that individuals adopt one of the following strategies to deal with institutional complexity in their organizational setting: compartmentalization, deletion, integration, and aggregation [START_REF] Pratt | Classifying Managerial Responses to Multiple Organization Identities[END_REF]. Our study aims to extend this line of work by integrating insights from the identity literature into the literature on institutional complexity. We further identify some psychological, or cognitive-affective, characteristics that may explain why a given individual adopts a particular strategy to cope with institutional complexity. We argue that this individual-level insight can help us better understand why organizations respond differently to the same institutional complexity.

Hybrid Organizations

Defined as organizations that incorporate elements from different institutional logics [START_REF] Battilana | Building Sustainable Hybrid Organizations: the Case of Commercial Microfinance Organizations[END_REF], hybrids place equal emphasis on their commongood mission and their financial performance [START_REF] Boyd | Hybrid Organizations: New Business Models for Environmental Leadership[END_REF]. As such, they blur the distinction between profit and non-profits entities. Some hybrids, such as social hybrids for example, seem ideal organizational forms [START_REF] Battilana | In Search of the Hybrid Ideal[END_REF]), yet they are by nature arenas of contradiction [START_REF] Pache | Inside the Hybrid Organization: Selecting Coupling as response to Competing Institutional Logics[END_REF] and present multiple challenges for organizational members. First, their unique form can foster difficulties either in their legal structure, in their financing or in their legitimacy as perceived by customers and beneficiaries. Additionally, they often need to serve two or three masters at the same time [START_REF] Haigh | Hybrid organizations: The Next Chapter of Sustainable Business[END_REF]. As they serve simultaneously a societal logic, such as helping the poor, and a banking logic to fulfill fiduciary obligations [START_REF] Battilana | Building Sustainable Hybrid Organizations: the Case of Commercial Microfinance Organizations[END_REF], hybrids tend to face conflicting external demands, competing internal claims, and ambiguity [START_REF] Pache | Inside the Hybrid Organization: Selecting Coupling as response to Competing Institutional Logics[END_REF].

Tensions in hybrid organizations may relate to identity issues. For instance, members of a natural food cooperative seemed to subscribe to a common identity, yet "Natura struggled continually to balance the demands of cooperative process with capitalist production; the duality of idealism-pragmatism was inherent in its hybrid identity" [START_REF] Ashforth | Functions of Dysfunction: Managing the Dynamics of of an Organizational Duality in a Natural Food Cooperative[END_REF]. Other types of identity duality have been shown to provoke inter-groups conflicts and risks of mission drifts. The study of the Atlanta Symphony Orchestra [START_REF] Glynn | When Cymbals Become Symbols-Conflict Over Organizational Identity Within a Symphony Orchestra[END_REF] revealed that the dual character of its identity (economic utility and normative ideology) came into conflict during a strike.

The case of two micro-finance organizations [START_REF] Battilana | Building Sustainable Hybrid Organizations: the Case of Commercial Microfinance Organizations[END_REF] showed the difficulties involved in maintaining the multiple identities of those hybrid organizations and to simultaneously balance social and economic duality, without mission drifts.

Various strategies for sustaining hybrids have been suggested, such as decoupling, compromising, combining competing effects or selective coupling [START_REF] Pache | Inside the Hybrid Organization: Selecting Coupling as response to Competing Institutional Logics[END_REF]. Managerial suggestions include the creation and maintenance of space of negotiation at the various employee levels [START_REF] Battilana | Harnessing Productive Tensions in Hybrid Organizations -The case of Work Integration Social Enterprises[END_REF], the consideration of hiring [START_REF] Mael | Loyal from Day One -Biodata, Organizational Identification, and Turnover among Newcomers[END_REF] and socializing policies [START_REF] Battilana | Building Sustainable Hybrid Organizations: the Case of Commercial Microfinance Organizations[END_REF]. However, there are insufficient studies on the daily operations of hybrids, which is unfortunate in as much as we need to improve our understanding of their sustainability over time. The present work aims to address this gap.

METHODS: CASE SELECTION, DATA COLLECTION AND ANALYSIS

The study builds on the empirical case study in a strategic partnership within the renewable energy sector. The study involved four months of intervention work, conducted within the organizational unit of a fairly recent R&D division within a large French multinational corporation operating in the renewable energy sector. The organizational unit studied (called French energy corporation) is specialized in photovoltaic (PV) energy and has developed a complex sets of research collaborations to interact with its collaborators, which involve a Private R&D Lab, which also is working with many industrials, a purely academic and public R&D lab in France and hear individuals talk about how they interpret their complex work environment, which challenges they perceive, and how they cope with them. Except one interview, which could not get recorded and was subsequently removed from the sample, all interviews were recorded, transcribed and coded.

After transcription of interviews, the first author proceeded to do an open coding of the data. As data analysis progressed, we began iterating with the literature and retained for in-depth data analysis an analytical framework on institutional complexity, informed by institutional logics. As we proceeded with the data analysis, we identified different strategies that actors adopted. We hence searched for literature analyzing individual strategies for dealing with complexity. First, we turned to identity theory from where we borrowed some strategies on how organizational members deal with multiple identities. Secondly, since two distinct logics emerged from the data, we turned to the literature on hybrid organizations. This literature sheds light on how individuals deal with dual logics. We deemed this literature to be relevant for our case, even if it is not per se a hybrid organization in as much as it does not have its own legal form.

Using this theoretical framework, the first author engaged in focused coding with a triple objective of identifying how each individual apprehended the various aspects of the collaboration, which strategie(s) each individual preferred and which cognitive-affective factors explained those strategies. We did this analysis by ongoing iteration between the data and the literature and by proceeding to a first level coding and a second level coding. Through these coding procedures we identified the existence of two logics, and three individual strategies for navigating institutional complexity. Once these three strategies were identified, we looked into which dimensions could explain that people working in the same organization would use different strategies to apprehend the same organizational setting. Once again, we iterated between data and the literature to identify second level coding.

Eventually, we looked for patterns in the relations between the type of individual strategies and cognitive-affective factors that seem to underpin individual choice of strategy for coping with institutional complexity in their organizational setting.

HOW INDIVIDUALS COPE WITH DUAL INSTITUTIONAL LOGICS

In this section, we present the main findings pertaining to how individual perceive and interpret their institutionally complex environment in an effort to cope with the challenges of an organizational setting informed by two institutional logics.

The Presence of Two Institutional Logics

Three distinct themes characterize individuals' perception of their institutionally complex environment: perceived freedom, time horizon, and meansends. Each theme expresses itself in the form of a dichotomy between two distinct logics that individuals perceive: a scientific logic and a market logic (see Table 1).

The first theme refers to the level of freedom that individuals perceive in the organizational environment. The R&D Labs offer an organizational environment that fosters creativity and autonomy, which seems well adapted to exploration type of research. This work environment is governed by a scientific logic. In contrast, the US energy corporation enforces much more control and pressure in the organizational environment, which fits with operational type of research and more routine tasks, such as exploitation or development type of research. This latter orientation reflects a market logic.

The second theme refers to individual's perception of time horizon for their work. There is a clear distinction in the organization between a short term research orientation, implying a sense of urgency, and a longer term research orientation that allows for more time to deeply investigate a topic, regardless of the time horizon. The longer term perception expresses a scientific logic and is most prevalent in the R&D labs and to a certain degree in the French energy corporation. The shorter term horizon reflects a market logic and is most predominant in the US energy corporation.

The third and last theme refers the means and the ends that individuals perceive as salient for the organization. They make a distinction between a type of research that targets publications as the end, the means of which are low-cost research and scientific methods, and another type of research that pursues patents as the end and privilege means such as KPI, financial ration, and empirical methods. While the former means-end relationships reflect a scientific logic and are predominant in Labs, the latter reflects the market logic and predominant in the US energy corporation.

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Taken together, two institutional logics seems to characterize the organizational environment including its multiple partnerships. On the one hand, individuals perceive the existence of a scientific logic associated with freedom, a longer time horizon, and the pursuit of publications through low-cost, exploration type of research. On the other hand, individuals perceive a market logic, characterized by less freedom, a shorter time horizon, and the pursuit of patents through production and development type of research.

Individual Strategies for Coping with Institutional Complexity

Individuals need to cope with institutional complexity when they work in this complex organizational environment, composed of dual institutional logics. As could be expected, navigating through a complex institutional environment with dual logics does not appear obvious. Individuals need to make efforts to understand and act appropriately in this complexity. Table II outlines the various strategies that individuals mobilize to apprehend their institutionally complex environment.

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Insert Table II about here (Individuals' strategies for coping with institutional complexity)

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Aggregating.

One first strategy consists in finding connections between the multiple elements of the organizational collaboration. Instead of experiencing confusion and lack of sense, some individuals explain how working with one of the partners helps them make sense of their work while working with another partner helps them gain an identity.

Although the complexity of the collaboration creates confusion and struggle, some actors experience their relationships towards the multiple collaboration parts as quite simple and straight-forward. When using this first strategy, individuals search for arguments that allow them to connect various pieces of the collaboration. They find justifications for these complementarities, such as one collaboration bringing nutriments to another. Interactions, links and collaborative words characterize this strategy. Through this strategy, individuals succeed in making sense of the partnership as a whole, and the various members are considered part of a global team.

We use the concept of aggregating strategy to characterize this type of individual apprehension of their complex organizational environment. It occurs when members focus on identifying relationships and synergies within their environment, in order to link all organizational parts, find complementarities and make sense of it as a whole. Sub-organizational differences are only interesting to the extent that they allow for those links, which in turn help individuals apprehend their complex setting.

This process is facilitated by interactions.

Selective coupling.

Another strategy consists in identifying connections that are unique to each parts of the organizational collaboration. When using this strategy, actors apprehend and focus on the distinctiveness of each sub-group. Although each sub-group's specificities are perceived as salient, they overlap to some extent. Cognitive efforts are required to use this strategy to apprehend the institutionally complex environment since each actor creates unique relationships between two distinct entities. Individuals must sometimes interpret the role of each sub-group in order to manage a coupling between them.

We use the concept of selective coupling to describe this strategy that some individuals use to apprehend their complex environment. It consists in individuals combining the two logics by complying selectively with demands from each one and by adopting different links, practices and attitudes depending on the norms and demands of each sub-group. They use this strategy not just for coping with complexity, but also as a chosen strategy for managing incompatibilities in the organization more generally. While this strategy may require more cognitive efforts than the previous one, it enables individuals to make sense of the institutional complexity in their organizational environment without developing a buffer between the different organizational units and the two institutional logics.

Compartmentalizing.

The distinctiveness between different organizational sub-groups is also salient in the last individual strategy observed, but in this case individuals do not interpret their respective roles in a way to create any meaningful links between them. Instead, the solution they find for coping with the incompatibility between the two institutional logics is to create buffers between two sub-groups. This last strategy requires significant cognitive efforts and also seems less satisfying.

We refer to this strategy as compartmentalizing strategy. Individuals use this strategy when they choose to preserve the multiple logics but to separate them clearly from each other without any particular link between them. They do so by establishing a buffer between them. They do not seek any synergy between them but aim to lower the risks of tension between organizational sub-groups by keeping them separated.

Not only have we identified three individual strategies for coping with institutional complexity in the organizational environment, but our results also show that each individual adopts only one strategy for coping with institutional complexity.

Table III presents the analytical support for this finding. Among the 18 employees interviewed, 8 adopted an aggregating strategy, another 8 chose a selective coupling strategy, and only 2 engaged in a compartmentalizing strategy.

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Insert Table III about here (Strategies adopted by individuals)

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Psychological Factors Underpinning Individuals' Perception of Complexity

We now turn to the psychological factors that underpin individuals' choice of strategy for coping with institutional complexity. Table IV presents an overview of the findings.

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Insert Table IV about here (Psychological factors underpinning individuals' complexity perception).

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Our data analysis points to two psychological components that can be characterized collectively as "high tolerance for ambiguity". On the one hand, individuals describe an environment where things do not necessary happen the way they are officially announced. Surprisingly, the apprehension of this situation does not seem to require much cognitive efforts of individuals. Individuals seem to accept readily that communication is often tacit, unofficial, suggestive, and even secret. The capacity to be discrete and diplomatic, and to assert influence through lobbying is frequently suggested as a useful way to deal with this situation. On the other hand, individuals express that they are acutely aware of, and ready to accept, uncertainty as an important feature of their work setting. They talk about things often not being clear, planned, or even foreseen, characteristics that they attribute to the nature of R&D activities, as well as to the on-going construction of the multi-partnership collaboration.

Another key category emerging from the data relates to how individuals apprehend institutional complexity. Individuals seem to cope with the strong presence of dual logics in their work space through one of two cognitive-affective preferences.

The first one is reductionism, defined as "analyzing and describing a complex phenomenon in terms of its simple or fundamental constituents" (oxforddictionaries:

http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/reductionism). We refer to this category, which combines two first order codes, as "Preference for reductionism".

The other one is holism, which is "characterized by the belief that the parts of something are intimately interconnected and explicable only by reference to the whole" (oxforddictionaries: http://www.oxforddictionaries.com/definition/english/holistic). The category of "Preference of holism" is built by combining three first-order codes.

Preference for reduction expresses itself as a clear perception of the distinctiveness that characterize each organization (or organizational unit) in the partnerships, each one reflecting either a science logic or a market logic. Individuals who have a preference for reductionism also talk about the distinctiveness of their own personal and professional positioning, such as personal legitimacy, professional identity, contribution, and recognition. Finally, many of them express that they perceive the dual logics to be very present in their work environment and they clearly articulate the distinctions between them, notably the different norms and values that they convey.

Preference for holism takes the form of personal cognitive characteristics that individuals deem important for coping with the complex work environment, such as adaptability, opportunity, constructiveness, flexibility, an "up to us", capacity to sort things, and a positive mindset. Individuals preferring holism also talk about relational factors that they consider critical for being able to deal with complexity. This dimension is both cognitive (people, relationships, interactions, links, discussions, communication, talk, curiosity) and affective (friendships, trust). People highlight the importance of interaction between actors for sharing many things and for building trust. In addition, some individuals highlight "anchors" or positive myths as important tools for justifying, or making sense of, their work. These "anchors" can be related to their mission (e.g., working on the future of renewable/ green energy) or to their shared professional identity (e.g., high expertise, worldwide leaders in their field, high intellectual capacities). These common denominators help them find affective reasons for dealing with the challenges of complexity. These various components all emphasize the complex work setting as "one whole", i.e., as composed of many interrelated components.

Relations Between Individual Strategies and Psychological Characteristics

We have identified three distinct individual strategies for coping with complexity and three psychological characteristics that are salient for an individual's choice of strategy. These psychological characteristics pertain to how individuals apprehend their environment. We now turn to a pattern between these two dimensions of our findings. Our analysis suggests that actors with high tolerance for ambiguity and a preference for reductionism tend to adopt a selective coupling strategy for dealing with their complex environment. Actors with high tolerance for ambiguity but with a preference for holism tend to adopt instead an aggregating strategy. Lastly, those individuals (in this case only two) who have low tolerance for ambiguity tend to adopt a compartmentalizing strategy for dealing with complexity. These findings are reproduced in table IV.

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From these findings, we propose a classification scheme of how individuals cope with multiple logics. This classification scheme, which is depicted in Figure 2, represents our core proposition about how and why individuals cope differently with dual logics. compartmentalization, deletion, integration, and aggregation [START_REF] Pratt | Classifying Managerial Responses to Multiple Organization Identities[END_REF].

Managerial responses have also been studied empirically, for example in community hospitals [START_REF] Fiol | Managing intractable identity conflicts[END_REF]. Although studies of organizational responses to institutional complexity generally adopt the organization as the unit of analysis, some studies examine this topic through an analysis of interpersonal dynamics [START_REF] Sluss | Relational Identity and Identification: Defining ourselves through Work Relationships[END_REF]. Institutional complexity expresses itself in intergroup and intragroup processes [START_REF] Ashforth | Functions of Dysfunction: Managing the Dynamics of of an Organizational Duality in a Natural Food Cooperative[END_REF], sometimes provoking intra-organizational conflicts. Such conflicts have arisen, for instance, within a philharmonic orchestra, where organizational members simultaneously face an artistic logic and an economic logic [START_REF] Glynn | When Cymbals Become Symbols-Conflict Over Organizational Identity Within a Symphony Orchestra[END_REF]. While these studies analyze organizational micro-processes, they fall short of addressing potential divergence in how individuals respond to the same institutional complexity. This short-coming, which we addressed in this paper, matters to the literature on institutional complexity in as much as differences in individual responses sheds light on why organizations in the same institutionally complex field respond somewhat differently to identical institutional pressures.

Our study examined how individuals in an organization cope with dual pressure from the science logic and the market logic. The findings showed that all organizational members, employees as well as managers, make cognitive-affective efforts to cope with these dual logics in a way that avoids intra-organizational conflicts. The effort varies with the type of individual response they adopt. When adopting an aggregating strategy, individuals link various aspects of their complex organization by focusing on complementarities between different parts. When adopting a selective coupling strategy, individuals perceive more differences within their institutional complex environment and make more cognitive-affective efforts to deal with these differences. They interpret each part in a way that allows flexible and multiple connections among different parts of the organization. In so doing, they do not need a buffer for dealing with the complex setting. In contrast, individuals who adopt an aggregating strategy need buffers. This response requires much higher cognitive-affective efforts for dealing with institutional complexity. Our findings show that organizational members react differently, and display different levels of cognitive-affective efforts, in coping with institutional complexity. We recognize that it may be surprising that only few individuals display significant cognitive-affective efforts in their attempt to cope with their complex environment. One could argue that they have been sufficiently exposed to this institutionally complex environment to find sense in it, or alternatively to leave this work environment. However, small numbers (only two out of eighteen employees adopted an compartmentalizing strategy) may also be at fault. Studying a more recent organization and collecting a larger data set could be interesting for future research.

Existing literature on organizational identity can perhaps help us understand how members resolve contradictions that arise from competing institutional pressures.

The hybrid organization of a rural cooperative embodied elements of both "business" and "family" identities [START_REF] Foreman | Members' Identification with multiple-identity Organizations[END_REF], prompting organizational members to embrace competing goals. Another response is to focus on a single identity of the hybrid organization, thereby running the risk of derailing some of the intended organizational outcomes [START_REF] Anteby | Focusing on Lone Trees in the Forest -Members' experiences of Multiple Identity Organization[END_REF]. Other research highlights the potentially positive aspects of a multi-identity organization, rather than the challenges it presents. A hybrid organization can allow for the resurrection of a collective identity (Howard-Grenville, Metzger, & Meyer, 2012) and increase members' ability to deal with complexity [START_REF] Shipilov | Relational Pluralism Within and Between Organizations[END_REF]. However, little attention has been devoted to studying differences in how individuals cope with complexity, including the question of why such differences occur. Our research findings offer a first step toward addressing this gap. Future research may build on our findings to examine additional patterns among individuals who adopt respectively a holistic and a reductionist approach, or who engage with a holographic versus an ideographic form of organizational identity [START_REF] Albert | Organizational Identity Research in Organizational Behavior[END_REF].

The literature on hybrid organizations has shed some light on organizational responses to institutional complexity resulting from an organization embracing conflicting logics. This literature highlights the need for "hybrid organizing" through policies such as hiring and socializing [START_REF] Battilana | Building Sustainable Hybrid Organizations: the Case of Commercial Microfinance Organizations[END_REF] and the creation of spaces for negotiation and interaction that allow members to discuss the trade-offs they face [START_REF] Pache | Inside the Hybrid Organization: Selecting Coupling as response to Competing Institutional Logics[END_REF]. A hybrid organization may also leverage the existence of multiple institutional logics and pressures for various purposes [START_REF] Santos | Making Hybrids Work: Aligning Business Models and Organizational Design for Social Enterprises[END_REF]. Recent research on micro-level strategies further analyzes how organizational members cope with the complexity of their hybrid organization.

This line of work highlights the positive effects resulting from efforts to combine logics, such as new market opportunities [START_REF] Dalpiaz | Combining Logics to Transform Organizational Agency: Blending Industry and Art at Alessi[END_REF].

Although this line of research analyzes organizational micro-processes, including the role of individuals, they do not examine how cognitive-affective characteristics of individuals may influence their individual response to the same institutionally complex environment.

The results of our research point to two cognitive-affective factors that partially explain individual responses to institutional complexity. Our findings suggest that actors with a low tolerance for ambiguity will tend to adopt a compartmentalizing strategy for coping with institutional complexity. In contrast, individuals with a high tolerance for ambiguity are more likely to adopt one of two alternative strategies for coping with institutional complexity: individuals with a preference for holism are apparently drawn to adopt an aggregating strategy, while those who prefer reductionism tend to embrace a selective coupling strategy. In highlighting individuals' cognitive-affective characteristics as a potential explanatory variable, our study contributes to shedding light on why organizations sometimes respond differently to the same institutional complexity. We did not consider other explanatory factors, such as the structural position of individuals and their past professional experience, but we recognize that they may also influence on individual responses to the institutional complexity they encounter in their organizational setting.

We encourage future research to address a wider set of explanatory variables at the individual level.

Our findings also contribute to the emergent stream of research on emotions within institutional theory. Organizational and institutionalist scholars have traditionally paid little attention to the cognitive-affective characteristics that underpin the efforts of organizational members to cope with the institutional complexity they encounter in their organizational environment. However, it is increasingly evident that work at the intersection of emotions and institutions can help improve our understanding of the processes that intertwine people and institutions with one another [START_REF] Voronov | The heart of institutions: Emotional competence and institutional actorhood[END_REF]. Recent literature recognizes the importance of addressing the psychological mindset of individuals, including emotions, for better understanding the organizational dynamics related to institutional complexity [START_REF] Voronov | Integrating Emotions into the Analysis of Institutional Work[END_REF]. To advance this research agenda, we have identified three strategies that individuals adopt to cope with institutional complexity, and the corresponding cognitive-affective dispositions that guide their choice of strategy.

Our work also contributes to the emerging stream of research on how actors exercise agency in their everyday use of logics [START_REF] Mcpherson | Logics in Action: Managing Institutional Complexity in a Drug Court[END_REF]. Our research results extend previous work on how organizational actors apprehend logics that are instantiated in organizations [START_REF] Besharov | The Relational Ecology of Identification: How Organizational Identification Emerges When Individuals Hold Divergent Values[END_REF]. Our analysis shed light on differences in individuals' capacity to apprehend institutional contradictions and in their preferences for how to cope with these contradictions. This work contributes to an inhabited view of institutions [START_REF] Hallett | Inhabited institutions: Social interactions and organizational forms in Gouldner's Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy[END_REF]) and provides valuable new input to the debate on embedded agency, which is a topic of great concern for institutional scholars (Battilana & D'Aunno, 2009;Thornton et al., 2012).

CONCLUSION

The notion of organizational and individual responses to institutional complexity has become fundamental to our understanding of institutional instability and change [START_REF] Smets | Reconstructing institutional complexity in practice: A relational model of institutional work and complexity[END_REF]. However, little is known about how individual members of organizations cope with institutional complexity [START_REF] Mcpherson | Logics in Action: Managing Institutional Complexity in a Drug Court[END_REF] and which psychological factors influence these responses [START_REF] Voronov | Did You Notice That?" Theorizing Differences in the Capacity to Apprehend Institutional Contradictions[END_REF]. Our objective in this article has been to demonstrate that individuals exposed to the same institutional complexity use different strategies to cope with institutional complexity and to identify some of the cognitive-affective characteristics that explain their preferences for a particular strategy. Our work helps extend the literatures on inhabited institutions [START_REF] Hallett | Inhabited institutions: Social interactions and organizational forms in Gouldner's Patterns of Industrial Bureaucracy[END_REF] and hybrid organizations by means of an enhanced understanding of micro-processes at the individual level of analysis.

TABLES

Table I: Individuals' perception of dual institutional logics

Second-order categories

First-order categories Representative quotes from interviews -"Research in public labs is more interested in publications" (S) -"In research, financial investments are limited, it costs nothing" (D) -"One should not measure R&D with economic criteria -it does not make sense, as R&D does not produce, hence no revenue, they are not relevant" (G) -"US energy corporation has a work method very "production" oriented, that I sometimes consider more empirical then scientific"

-"There is this pressure with US energy corporation to deliver on short term" (B) -"US energy corporation is an area with much more controls" (I) -"The work that is proposed here does not require a PhD, it is development" (E)

-"They (US energy corporation) are in the urgency of a production logic" (X) -"US energy corporation is very much focused on shorter term view and they lack somehow longer term view" (B)

-"Research with private companies is more interested in patent" (S) -"(There are) KPI and process in the US energy corporation use because the maturity of their research is much higher" (S) -"Research in industry is usually very linked the business: how much shall we get in return? Usually there is a tough financial pressure, including pressure from ratio" (D) -"US energy corporation has the bad tendency (because of short term production focus) to go ahead even if that have not understood the root of a problem" (E) -"US energy corporation has a work method very "production" oriented, that I sometimes consider more empirical then scientific" (S) The focus is to identify complementarities between the various aspects of the partnership, without need to create specific links between the sub-groups. This process can be facilitated by the creation of mediating myths or beliefs, helping giving sense to apparent identity incompatibility.

-"Research collaboration with the public labs gives us nutriments to feed the work with "US energy corporation".

-"Working with "Public R&D Lab" and their more "naïve" academic community, gives us a balance to "US energy corporation", which might help managing better the pressure from it".

-"We (at "Public R&D Lab") are more research while "US energy corporation" need to sell something at the end: this is where we complement each other. They are more short term while we have the choice and the need to do the effort of positioning ourserves on medium term: this is the strategy but also the reality".

-"We complement each other, with different skills but I do not see this as an issue".

-"We are exploring good options for the future, while "US energy corporation" maintains the control on short term and the factory, but of course you cannot decouple the long term from the short term research -we are on the 'far end' while they are on the 'close end' we work in very close collaboration with "French energy corporation".

-"Overall, we are a global team, that helps each other, as each of us brings his/her brick".

Selective coupling

At individual level, we use the concept of selective coupling when members combine the logics by complying selectively with demands from each one. They will adopt this approach not just for coping with complexity, but as a chosen strategy for managing incompatibilities. Members may adopt different links, practices and attitudes depending on each sub-group norms and demands -but without buffer as in -"The fact of being in this division gives us more flexibility then in other "French energy corporation" branches; we benefit from it while also benefiting from being part of a large group such as "French energy corporation".

-"The complexity and ambiguious aspect of our collaborative partnerships works fine for me! You need to adapt, not talk the same way to the various stakeholders. Those elements can create confusion for some people, but for me, they are motivating!"

-"I like to work with "Public R&D Lab" academics: they have theoretical knowledge which helps me a lot, and for them, their knowledge is useless if not applied -I develop process that works fine and you, your theory I need it! Unfortunately, people sometimes would like more -I think there is a way to endorse the roles which is not facilitating the whole constitution, and I feel like this is a general problem".

-"It is like two different worlds of doing research touching each other".

compartmentalizing.

-"We can very well be the firewall between "US energy corporation" and the external world; "there are very few people with a global view on the entire process".

-"Once a month I have a meeting on my PhD status with a guy from "Public R&D Lab" and my boss in our team; there she participates, suggest ideas on what we could do and gives us news ideas. But on the private projects she is working on with "US energy corporation", she does not say anything because of confidentiality. But this is not a problem; it would not be normal if information would flow everywhere"

-"I suppose that people who want to have the overview and do a bit of everything, those would prefer to work on long terms things".

-"When working with "US energy corporation", it is very structured; each have their job and do not need to look aside".

-"It is politically correct to say that we should according to the official strategy, be working on exploration but this is not the case. But it is easy to understand: it a discourse that our managers like but in real life in it different".

Compartmentalizing

At individual level, we refer to the concept of compartmentalizing when members choose to preserve the multiple logics but to separate them from each other. They do so, by establishing a level of buffering that does not exist in aggregating where multiple logics exist also, but they are linked to one another without buffer. They do not seek any synergy but lower the risks of tension between multiples by keeping them separated.

-"We are working in very compartmented areas and sometimes I am afraid that I may loose a bit what is going on if I am not taking care of my own academic training".

-"The only interest of "Public/ Private R&D Lab" is to have our own private lab where we can develop our things in peace, just like "US energy corporation" does. This could also reduce a level of uncertainty "US energy corporation" may have towards us".

-"Working on projects involving "US energy corporation" AND "Public R&D Lab" is very difficult. If any link to "Public R&D Lab" is needed, I prefer to have it done through a PhD student, who himself, will not have contact with "US energy corporation".

-"If someone is asking me about a specific problem, then we hide it within a larger problematic; this is how we sometimes manage to communicate with colleagues outside the "US energy corporation" projects I work on".

-"French energy corporation" is our Co, but we cannot really comment in our daily work with "US energy corporation", because everybody at "Private R&D Lab" is looking at what we are doing".

-"(I prefer to only work on private projects with "US energy corporation), hence I do not work with "Public R&D lab" anymore".

-"I was offered to work on "Public/ Private R&D Lab" (long term, few partners) project but for me it is too far from "US energy corporation" (exclusitivity, confidentiality)". --"I do not discuss with anyone outside of the project (with "US energy corporation"); it helps to apply strictly their rules".

Table III: Strategies adopted by individuals Table IV: Psychological factors underpinning individuals' complexity perception.

Secondorder categories

First-order categories

Representative quotes from interviews

High tolerance for ambiguity

Secret, unofficial, discrete, diplomatic, lobbying, influence, tacit -"We do this on a secret mode"; "We have done this but it was unofficial" (B).

-"My message to the outside world about our strategy is credible because I believe in it but it does not mean that in practice, this is what we do" (C)

-"(In this environment), you also need to be discrete and diplomatic" (X).

-"Our role between the various "US energy corporation" and "French energy corporation" teams are not defined by contract because it is that

Individuals Aggregating compartmentalzing Selective5Coupling A X B X C X D X E X G X I X J X K X L X M X N X O X S X T X X X Y X Z X 185individuals 8 2 8
Suggest, unforeseen, unplanned, under construction, gap, not so clear complex, it is lobbying and influence" (E)

-"I am not sure this is very official, formally but it is tacit" (C)

-"Uncertainty is of course the nature of R&D, this is the case everywhere" (B)

-"I asked my boss for clarification about "where are we going to" and the question "sense making", I ask question but I wait for answers, so I suggest them..." (F).

-"There are necessary surprises, things unforeseen, unplanned where you start (a new partnership). (…) Structure are in movements and keeps evolving, adapting; there is always a level of uncertainty: this structure is clearly still under construction" (M).

-"This is not quite clear how all of this works" (I)

-"One uncertainty is the gap between what the management tell they want and what we do in reality; but I think we understand why: it is a question of time" (T).

-"French energy corporation" strategy is quite general, not so clear. However, we ("US energy corporation", "French energy corporation") prepare details plans together and then yes, I find sense in the strategy" (Z).

Preference for reductionism

Sub-organisational specificities

-"The academics partners like "Public R&D Lab", their motivation is to publish a paper, whereas our motivation is more patents. (…) Research (in labs) needs more freedom and flexibility (then here). (…)

We do not have the same way of functioning as in the other branches" (A).

-"We have different expertise then in the rest of the group, because we work on a specific field" (B).

-"I like to work with "Public R&D Lab" academics: they have theoretical knowledge which helps me a lot, and for them, their knowledge is useless if not applied -I develop process that work fine and you, your theory I need it! (…) I do not see how "US energy corporation" and "Public/Private R&D Lab" will work together with completely different ways of working" (J).

-"When working with "US energy corporation", it is very structured; each have their job and do not need to look aside" (N).

-"Our division is completely different from what "French energy corporation" is doing; the problem is that it is a small branch so job evolution opportunities are very limited" (O).

Personal legitimacy, professional identity, contribution and recognition

-"With "US energy corporation" also, there is an intellectual specificity, more on the reflexivity mode then operational mode" (A).

-"We find it difficult to catch "US energy corporation" interest" "Sometimes we feel like they treat us as delivering some sort of service work" (B).

-"A strong motivation factor is to see that what we are working on a R&D team is making its way to production: this is a motivation factor, that your work is of value because it gets sold" (B).

-"My role is to be the bridge between "Public R&D Lab" and "French energy corporation"; also to interact with new academic PhD student at "Public R&D Lab" (N).

-"It has been a little difficult for me; because I am a technician, it was very difficult to have information about solar" (O).

-"We are doing engineer work although colleagues here have worked in academics with a PhD, but we are engineer and "US energy corporation" is the same; they never call themselves for scientists" (L).

-"We had to regain legitimacy, when we started working with "US energy corporation" (…) but eventually working with "US energy corporation" gives us more credibility in our field" (I)

Preference for holism

Adaptability, opportunity, constructive, flexibility, "up to us", sort things from another, positive People, friendships,

-"Skills needed in this job are to be able to adapt to the various stakeholders and to know where you are, as you are between many different stakeholders!" (X)

-"With "Public/Private R&D Lab", it is unclear why we did it, so we try to find the best way to use it -it is like an opportunity that was imposed on us, but it can be something positive and constructive".

-"We can bring more on longer term research, if we manage to convince them; usually we manage to convince them we are more here to bring ideas, open new things and new ways for them to do things. (…) It is also up to us, when they want short term results, to say "no" or may be at least "yes but": we have to hang in there! (…) Skills needed? Flexibility and capacity to adapt: we do a bit of everything… and not becoming schizophrenic!" (M).

-"I have a high capacity to adapt" (J).

-"I do not get frustrated, I manage to sort out things from one another. Yes we work more for "US energy corporation" but there are advantages of having a working contract rather then with a "French energy corporation" (T).

-"Working with "US energy corporation" has been an opportunity for me. (…) It has been easy for me to adapt and see quick results: it has been positive" (Z).

-"When you start a partnership, you start with a modest agenda to allow stakeholders to get to know each other, establish trust relationship"(D). -"I discuss with the various teams about all info I have. (…) Despite different organizational cultures, the rule for things to go well is: meeting one another, talking together as much as possible so people create a link that is not just contractual" (E).

-"A key conditions for successful partnerships is the establishment of a high communication level, mutual trust and a space for managing conflicts; time has nothing to do with it" (G).

-"Attending a seminar at "French energy corporation" HQ is not just about the seminar but also the people. (…) I am a very curious person; I am the typical person who when I ask to understand, I need to know! I am not getting frustrated because I am asking, I do not like to not understand" (K).

-"I not only work on "US energy corporation" project but also on European research project: this allows me to keep the link with "Public R&D Lab". (…) If I feel frustrated, then we can talk between us, as they are things we have in common: there is a good team spirit and a group mind".

-"With "US energy corporation" we used to get minimum information (…) it took time to build trust but now it goes much better. (…) There are many collaborations between "US energy corporation", "Public R&D Lab", "Private R&D Lab" and shared projects so I interact a lot with all of them; I work with adorable people and I build many friendships; we do not need "crazy researchers" only on their microscope, but people with human skills, not only R&D skills; the most important for me is not so much the sector I work in but the people I work with -that it works well between us" (T).

-"A key motivation factor is to have a good relationship with the people around you. (…) Language capacities are key. (…) (In terms of skills), it is important to have someone you can trust (due to confidentially) then just someone with the correct (technical) background. (…) I need to find the balance with not forgetting my old colleagues, so sometimes I go for lunch with "French energy corporation" people and sometimes with "Private R&D Lab" people" (Z).

-"Our common denominator, whether here in "Public R&D lab" or also at "US energy corporation" is really to work for the future of renewable energy. Between "Public R&D Lab", "US energy corporation" and the "French energy corporation" team, our tasks and jobs are different, but the concept of renewable energy is something we all share" (M).

-"Who are we? Well, I think about both "French energy corporation" & "US energy corporation". I think: I am a part of a team working the highest efficient solar cells in the world. (…) We are a team part of a big company, working on its green aspect" (Z).

-"We ("US energy corporation" & "French energy corporation") all have the same goals: to be leader with high efficiency and low costs"" (Y).

-"Our population is made almost entirely of doctors, with the same education; with the same professional family -quite an homogeneous population with high intellectual and human levels" (A).

  a smaller US corporation that is a worldwide leader in PV technology and mainly focused, long term, on PV cells production (called US Energy corporation). French energy corporation acquired 66 percent of the shares of US energy corporation in 2011. Over the last three years, a new PV institute (Public/Private R&D Lab) was being created between French energy corporation, Public R&D Lab and several other academics and industrials organizations. Public/Private R&D Lab will be fully operational in 2017. Employees analyzed in this work belong to the R&D branch of the French energy corporation, which has multiple research contracts with other research organizations. The actors of this study interact daily with four other organizations: the US private energy corporation, the Public R&D lab, the Private R&D lab and the Private/Public R&D lab. Each of those has their own means, norms and objectives.This case was selected because it represents high institutional complexity. As such, this study aims to understand how individuals in an organization cope with this highly complex environment.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Organizational composition of R&D partnerships in energy transition

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Classification scheme of individual strategies for coping with institutional complexity

Table II :

 II Individual strategies for coping with institutional complexity

	Individual strategies	Definition	Representative quotes from interviews
	Aggregating At individual level, we use
		the concept of aggregating
		when members link or
		attempt to link all sub
		organizational parts. Their
		strategy is to identify
		relationships and synergies.


Yassine Rhazali
email: rhazali.yassine@hotmail.fr

Youssef Hadi
email: hadiyoussef@gmail.com

Abdelaziz Mouloudi
email: mouloudi_aziz@hotmail.com

Criteria Based Evaluation for Transforming CIM to PIM

Keywords: MDA, computer model, CIM, PIM, business process modeling, model transformation

come

Introduction

MDE (Model Driven Engineering) [START_REF] Schmidt | COVER FEATURE Model Driven Engineering[END_REF] is an alternative approach which aims at the development of information systems, based on the creation of source models and transforming them to multiple levels of abstraction until we automatically get a code. Its objective is to automate the process of software development that the specialists follow manually. MDE is a general approach that can be seen as a family of approaches, where MDA (Model Driven Architecture) [1] supported by OMG, is presented as the most interesting and the most common variant. MDA has the same principle as MDE, but it provides its own characteristics defined in three levels of abstraction, defines some requirements to be respected, and also recommends the use of some standards.

The first level of MDA is the CIM (Computation Independent Model) presented as models used by business managers and business analysts to describe the business process. The second level is the PIM (Platform Independent Model) which allows defining the models used by analysts and the software designers to realize an independent analysis and a conception of the developed software. The third level is the PSM (Platform Specific Model) which is considered as models of code used by software developers. These models are believed to contain all the information needed to operating an execution platform and used by software developers. The code is not a model of MDA, but it is the final result of the MDA process.

Transformations between different levels of MDA [1] begin by CIM-to-PIM transformation, which allows building PIM models from CIM models. The goal is to reword information contained in CIM models inside PIM models, which ensures that business information are not disappeared throughout MDE [START_REF] Schmidt | COVER FEATURE Model Driven Engineering[END_REF] process. Then, transformation from PIM models toward PSM models allows adding in PIM a set of technical information related to a target platform.

In practice, automatic transformation begins from PIM to PSM. However, our ultimate aim is to make the CIM a productive level, and a basis for building PIM through an automatic transformation. The goal is that business models do not remain only simple documents of communication between business experts and software designers.

In this paper, we provide a review of several CIM to PIM transformation approaches, and present a criteria-based evaluation. The results can be used for evaluating and comparing CIM to PIM transformation approaches.

We based on paper [START_REF] Yue | A Systematic Review of Transformation Approaches between User Requirements and Analysis Models[END_REF] to create conceptual framework and deducting valuation criteria from it. Then, a criteria based-evaluation [START_REF] Bousetta | A methodology for CIM Modeling and its Transformation to PIM[END_REF], [START_REF] Kriouile | CIM to PIM Transformation: A criteria Based Evaluation[END_REF], [START_REF] Sharifi | CIM to PIM Transformation: An Analytical Survey[END_REF] used to compare transformation approaches from CIM to PIM. Our Criteria Based Evaluation is compound of static model who present common concepts of transformation from CIM to PIM, taxonomies of CIM and PIM, and transformation method.

Static model: According OMG [1], the CIM level represented by business process models. Then, the PIM level based on one or more analysis and design models. Finally, transformation rules allow shifting from a business process model towards a model of analysis and design. Taxonomy of CIM: Computation Independent Model (CIM) means that this model does not contain information related to the computer science. This level show real-world in business processes model. We divide the models of PIM level according to the three classical modeling views includes functional, static, and dynamic view. A rules collection transforms the source model towards the target model. However, source model derived from source meta-model, and target model derived from target meta-model. Transformation rules are established by using human language, programming language, algorithm, or model transformation language like ATL and QVT.


Christophe Rigaud
email: christophe.rigaud@univ-lr.fr

Thanh-Nam Le
email: thanhnam.le@univ-lr.fr

J.-C Burie
email: jcburie@univ-lr.fr

J.-M Ogier
email: jmogier@univ-lr.fr

Shoya Ishimaru
email: ishimaru@m.cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp

Motoi Iwata
email: iwata@cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp

Koichi Kise
email: kise@cs.osakafu-u.ac.jp

Semi-automatic Text and Graphics Extraction of Manga using Eye Tracking Information

The popularity of storing, distributing and reading comic books electronically has made the task of comics analysis an interesting research problem. Different work have been carried out aiming at understanding their layout structure and the graphic content. However the results are still far from universally applicable, largely due to the huge variety in expression styles and page arrangement, especially in manga (Japanese comics). In this paper, we propose a comic image analysis approach using eye-tracking data recorded during manga reading sessions. As humans are extremely capable of interpreting the structured drawing content, and show different reading behaviors based on the nature of the content, their eye movements follow distinguishable patterns over text or graphic regions. Therefore, eye gaze data can add rich information to the understanding of the manga content. Experimental results show that the fixations and saccades indeed form consistent patterns among readers, and can be used for manga textual and graphical analysis.

I. INTRODUCTION

Eye movements are generally considered by research communities as an important indication of human visual attention during their interaction with media such as images or videos. Early studies on recording and analyzing human eye movements date back to decades ago, and originally most attempts were to improve the accuracy of eye-tracking devices, and to invent less intrusive methods [START_REF] Mohamed | A history of eye gaze tracking[END_REF]. Nowadays, eye-tracking technique has reach a quite mature state where one can easily develop a system on his own, and thanks to its ubiquitous applications, a lot of manufacturers have developed a wide range of consumer products in industrial scale. These devices are getting more and more affordable and will probably be integrated to a large number of reading devices, in order to capture eye movements and provide additional functions.

Since eye-tracking data can be analyzed to provide many fascinating insights about reading activity, such as in [START_REF] Kunze | The wordometerestimating the number of words read using document image retrieval and mobile eye tracking[END_REF]- [START_REF] Kunze | I know what you are reading: recognition of document types using mobile eye tracking[END_REF], it can be applied to understand the behavior of readers on comic books reading. Manga (Japanese comic art) has long become popular world-wide and represent a cultural trait as well as an important industry. Manga, or comics in general, is the art of telling stories through a sequence of arranged pictures (panels). The panels normally consist of text and graphic elements: backgrounds, characters, speech balloons, visual effects, drawn texts, etc. The graphic is mainly in black and white and gray shades depicted by halftoning dots. Fig. 1. Example of a heat map on average saccade path of 25 readers. Blue to orange hues (lower to higher temperature) correspond to rare to frequent paths taken by the readers. Manga content credits: [START_REF] Hara | Kingdom chapter 175 -Riboku[END_REF].

Manga is often composed in a much more realistic and free style compared to Western comics, and is challenging to create. Besides immense drawing skill, it requires the experience to compose the layout of elements, to effectively convey the story and "secure control of the readers attention and dictate the sequence in which the reader will follow the narrative" [START_REF] Eisner | Comics and Sequential Art: Principles and Practices from the Legendary Cartoonist (Will Eisner Instructional Books[END_REF]. Unlike motion picture, the story line is presented spatially rather than temporally. Each single panel is a frozen moment, carefully captured and set at its "right" place. Manga artists control the flow of reader's attention via placement of elements, to lead the reader smoothly through the pages (e.g. the speech balloons can be easily associated with its corresponding subjects and read in the correct order). The general rule to follow the pages in manga is to read from right to left, from top to bottom, line by line, following the "reverse-Z" shape. However in practice, it is not always the case. The configuration of the page, the size and the shape of the panels can be so different from a certain page to the next one, and some decisions are purely artistic choice, although there are certain conventions in manga design.

With such a complex and rather free-style layout arrangement, the available methods in analyzing manga page content still prove to be inefficient in various cases. Our work in this paper is based on the premise that eye-tracking the readers yield much more semantic information than the "bottomup" methods alone can provide. One contribution is that the additional information allows "online" analysis of manga in particular, which embraces top-down underlying semantic cues (Fig. 1). In this study, we perform eye-tracking on different readers on a set of manga images. All readers have some basic background of reading manga, so the flow from panel to panel is expected to be consistent. The eye-tracking patterns show that the first hint is to actually follow is the speech balloon arrangement, then the right-left, top-down rule. The viewers' attention is indeed guided to follow a certain flow, not only in pages but also inside each panel. This offers information to semi-automatically order panels or speech balloons. We also propose to highlight the benefits of eye gaze position for extracting elements from manga page images, as well as investigate the challenging problem of manga character retrieval by analyzing the fixations and saccades. Another contribution is the potential application of knowledge-driven analysis of manga content, where algorithms that can compute top-down semantic cues via eye gaze data, can interact with bottomup information to infer new information, and to understand progressively the content of the page, or support manga artists in designing task.

In the next section, we review content extraction method related to manga image analysis along with eye gaze information. Section III details the proposed system from eye gaze movement acquisition to graphics retrieval. Section IV presents the experiments that we performed to validate the proposed method. Finally, Section V and VI discuss and conclude this work respectively.

II. RELATED WORK

Manga analysis concerns several fields of research, from layout analysis to text extraction, graphics recognition and also text/graphics association. We first review eye gaze information for document analysis, and then address text and manga character extraction as they are the most important information in such images.

A. Eye gaze information

Eye gaze information is widely used for recognizing human's activity including cognitive tasks like reading [START_REF] Bulling | Eye movement analysis for activity recognition[END_REF] [START_REF] Ishimaru | Smart eyewear for interaction and activity recognition[END_REF]. In the field of document analysis, eye gaze is one of the best features to investigate the content of document from the view of human's reading behavior. For example, important parts of document for many readers can be distinguished by readingskimming detection proposed by Biedert et al. [START_REF] Biedert | A robust realtime reading-skimming classifier[END_REF]. The total number of words and words per minute of a certain reader and the difficult to understand words can be also detected by using eye-tracking devices [START_REF] Kunze | The wordometerestimating the number of words read using document image retrieval and mobile eye tracking[END_REF], [START_REF] Okoso | Towards extraction of subjective reading incomprehension: Analysis of eye gaze features[END_REF]. Although lots of work investigate eye gaze with reading documents, there are few researches which involve manga images. Kunze et al. have proposed to classify five document types (novel, manga, magazine, newspaper, textbook) by using eye gaze from mobile eye tracker [START_REF] Kunze | I know what you are reading: recognition of document types using mobile eye tracking[END_REF]. Our research follows the path yet we focus on more detail part in manga analysis. We recognize readers' eye gaze information on different types of content in a manga page (e.g. on text, comic character, and background) and use this information for the analysis of manga layout.

B. Manga image analysis

Manga image analysis is a quite recent and challenging field of research that attracts more and more attention according to the growing demand of the mobile manga reading market. Text and graphics analysis was studied for decades on different document images including newspaper, administrative documents, checks and graphical documents such as maps and engineering drawings [START_REF] Nagy | Twenty years of document image analysis in pami[END_REF]. More recently, manga image analysis has been investigated with the generalization of mobile devices for reading activities. Manga images have a very specific layout that guides the reader through the story. The early approaches developed toward layout analysis concerned the reading order of the panels [START_REF] Guérin | Ontologies and spatial relations applied to comic books reading[END_REF], [START_REF] Li | Automatic comic page segmentation based on polygon detection[END_REF].

Text analysis in manga images opens up several interesting applications such as image compression [START_REF] Su | Recognizing text elements for svg comic compression and its novel applications[END_REF] and content retargeting to different mobile reading devices [START_REF] Matsui | Interactive Manga retargeting[END_REF]. Despite the growing interest, text extraction from manga image remains a challenging problem because mangas are a mixture of text, graphics and graphic sounds with strong relationships [START_REF] Ghorbel | Text extraction from comic books[END_REF]. The efficiency of combining text and speech balloon features to extract both of them has been highlighted recently [START_REF] Rigaud | Text-independent speech balloon segmentation for comics and manga[END_REF]. The benefits of using eye-tracker for text extraction has already been demonstrated as in [START_REF] Kunze | The wordometerestimating the number of words read using document image retrieval and mobile eye tracking[END_REF], [START_REF] Clavelli | Modelling task-dependent eye guidance to objects in pictures[END_REF]. Few work about comic character extraction have been published until now. Recently, we improved Sun's method to fit character retrieval for manga [START_REF] Sun | Similar partial copy recognition for line drawings using concentric multi-region histograms of oriented gradients[END_REF]. We demonstrated that few manually labeled data can make the detection more robust against various postures and facial expression [START_REF] Iwata | A study to achieve manga character retrieval method for manga images[END_REF]. We recently demonstrate that speech balloon and tail detection allow manga character region of interest extraction and character-to-speech association [START_REF] Rigaud | Knowledge-driven understanding of images in comic books[END_REF], [START_REF] Rigaud | Speech balloon and speaker association for comics and manga understanding[END_REF].

III. PROPOSED APPROACH

The proposed approach consists in eye gaze data acquisition, filtering and analysis. These three steps are detailed in the following subsections.

A. Eye gaze data processing

Human's eye movements are classified into fixations and saccades. A fixation is an attention on a single location of the vision, a saccade is a quick jump between two fixations [START_REF] Bulling | Eye movement analysis for activity recognition[END_REF]. We detect fixations and saccades from raw eye gaze data as shown in Fig. 2 and3. The radius of each circle correspond to the fixation duration and the line between two circles represents a saccade. Noises of the eye tracking device are also filtered in this process. The fixation-saccade detecting algorithm is based on Buscher's approach [START_REF] Buscher | Eye movements as implicit relevance feedback[END_REF]. Fig. 4 shows the process of the algorithm. First, a new minimum fixation is detected if 4 consecutive points are in a rectangle of T h 1 pixels (e.g. p 1 , p 2 , p 3 and p 4 in Fig. 4). Four consecutive points from 42Hz represents human's minimum fixation duration (80-100ms). If the length of a side of the rectangle including the next gaze point is smaller than T h 2 pixels, we include it and make the rectangle bigger. Yet if the position of gaze point is outside of rectangle with T h 2 pixels, we remove the point as a noise (e.g. p 5 and p 8 in Fig. 4). If 3 consecutive points are out of the rectangle (e.g. p 8 , p 9 and p 10 in Fig. 4), we start to detect the next minimum fixation from the first point which is outside the rectangle (e.g. p 8 in Fig. 4). Finally, we combine gaze points in each rectangle and store the center of mass as the coordinate of the fixation and duration between the time stamp of first to last point in the rectangle.

In order to enhance visualization of multiple reader eye gaze behaviors, we calculate the average of data of multiple readers and generate two kinds of heat map. The first heat map corresponds to the distribution of saccades. We draw saccade path as a line whose width is 30 pixel and overlay multiple readers' paths on one image. An example with 25 readers is presented in Fig. 1.

B. Fixation and saccade analysis

Filtered eye gaze data contain eye fixation positions and duration. We would like to use them for text ad "important" graphic region extractions (e.g. manga characters).

1) Text region extraction: For text regions, our brain requires much more effort to recognize, understand, and process the information, compare to understanding graphic regions in general (text in not natural). Therefore, fixation duration analysis is relevant for text region extraction, especially when the fixations are spatially close and the duration is significantly longer. We propose to combine position and duration of fixation points in order to extract text regions from the images. The combination is done by using a Gaussian distribution centered on each fixation. The distribution parameters are the fixation coordinate (µ) and a factor of duration as standard deviation (σ). The duration factor σ is computed from a distance in pixel N multiplied by the fixation duration. The distance N has been set to 4% of the image size which roughly correspond to the size of a text line into a speech balloon of manga (chosen by experiments). All the distributions are then summed and the important overlap between spatially close distribution makes them easily distinguishable on a heat map view for instance (Fig. 5a). Then we extract text regions using a connected component analysis on a binary segmentation of the distributions (Fig. 5b). The threshold used for the binary segmentation was fixed to 50% of the total distribution value range in order to extract the user's main fixation regions only. Note that the extracted text regions roughly correspond to speech balloon regions.

2) Graphics extraction: Graphics region can be decomposed into two categories: the foreground containing most of the focus attention of the story, and the background which is more for illustration purpose. In this paper we focus on foreground content extraction which is relevant in the context of manga understanding. As introduced in Section II-B, offline image analysis still quite weak at extracting graphics in manga because their appearance change a lot within the pages, titles and even more between different titles from different artists (e.g. deformation, occlusion, perspective, scale change). Online analysis has the advantage of providing the watched regions encoded as saccades map (Fig. 6a).

Saccades are deduced from jumps between to fixations as introduced in Section III-A. They do not correspond to well delimited graphics in the image but overlap part of the foreground regions in each panel. Sometimes, there is also short fixations on the graphics (Fig. 3). The human brain don't necessarily need a fixation to understand the "content". He can "catch" (or understand) the meaning of the picture also instantaneously. A saccade has the advantage to pass through important graphic regions chosen by the reader to understand the story but at the end it is only a 1D segment which is not easily convertible as a 2D region corresponding to a graphic region in the image. Note that we manually enlarged the saccade segment in order to obtain a 2D region representative of the main foreground elements that have been visualized by the reader (Fig. 6b). The enlargement is even more accurate when computed from several user's saccade paths (Section IV-B2). Nevertheless, saccade segments are not passing only through important foreground regions. They are also sometimes overlapping text and page background regions. We propose to remove these two information by combining the previously computed text regions (online) and the inverse of panel extraction results (offline).

Panel extraction algorithms aim to segment panel from image background (usually white). In our case, we are interested by extraction the background region which is simply the inverted output of panel extraction (Fig. 7). As introduced in Section II-B, several panel extractor algorithms have been proposed, we use our latest contribution but any of them could be used [START_REF] Rigaud | Knowledge-driven understanding of images in comic books[END_REF]. This panel extractor is based on dark connected component topology analysis (panels are not included in other elements). Finally, from the original saccade path we remove text and background regions to isolate the most watched graphic regions (Fig. 8).

IV. EXPERIMENTS

In this section we introduce the experimental setup and then we evaluate the proposed text and graphic detection methods.

A. Experimental setup

The eye gaze data are recorded while the manga pages are being viewed on the screen by the participants, the setup is shown as in Fig. 9. We use Tobii eyeX1 , an inexpensive eye tracking device from Tobii Technology, at sampling rate of 42Hz. The device only requires a short calibration for each user, and allows them to move their head freely in front of the screen, although users are requested to try to keep a fixed distance to the screen to attain the best accuracy. The tracker operates based on corneal reflection technique: multiple infrared diodes, invisible to the human eyes, are used to create a reflection on the cornea, these reflections are then captured by the tracker's sensors and used to model the eyes in three dimensions and to calculate the gaze point. We asked 25 participants of both genders, from different ages (14 to 45 year old) and nationalities (French, Tunisian, Pakistani, Cambodian, Colombian, Indonesian, Vietnamese, Japanese). All the participants were asked to read the same chapter from a famous Japanese manga [START_REF] Hara | Kingdom chapter 175 -Riboku[END_REF]. We choose to let users stay on each image as long as they need because each participant has different speed of reading/understanding, or behavior, or what we call "manga literacy". The readers are guided to advance through the images by pressing on the keyboard. This may sometimes leads to outlier points where the eyes move out of the screen to seek the key, but those points can be filtered out quite easily. The image set is a whole chapter in the title, containing 20 pages in total, presented as double pages which resulted in 10 images in total. It contains 139 speech balloons and 124 main manga character instances. The resolution of each image is 1683x1200 pixels. Since the participants have different native languages, two versions were available for choosing (English and French) in order to provide the best natural reading experience. Fig. 9 shows the overview of experiment setup. According to the image size, we set thresholds for fixation-saccade detection T h 1 and T h 2 as 50 and 80 pixels respectively. Note that the way of detecting the eyes, calculating the gaze position, the calibrating and the environment can all affect the accuracy of the eye tracker.

B. Evaluation

We compared the proposed online text and graphic detection methods to offline methods used for speech balloon and manga character extraction.Note that we performed the experiment, for each image, on the average results of all the participants in order to reduce the impact of participant variability such as gender, culture, age, unusual reading direction etc. (Fig. 1). The comparison between extraction regions and ground truth region were performed at object level such as the PASCAL VOC challenge [START_REF] Everingham | The pascal visual object classes (voc) challenge[END_REF]. In this challenge, the detection were assigned to ground truth objects and judged to be true or false positives by measuring bounding box overlap. To be considered a correct detection, the overlap ratio a 0 between the predicted bounding box B p and the ground truth bounding box B gt must exceed 0.5 (Formula 1). The predicted objects were considered true positives T P if a 0 > 0.5 or false positives F P (prediction errors).

a 0 = area(B p ∩ B gt ) area(B p ∪ B gt ) (1)
Detected regions were assigned to ground truth objects according to maximum overlap criterion. Multiple detection of the same object in an image were considered false detection. The number of T P , F P and false negative (missed elements) F N was used to compute the recall R and the precision P of each of the methods using Formula 2 and 3. We also computed the F-measure F for each result.

R =

T P T P + F N

(2)

P = T P T P + F P (3)
1) Text regions: We evaluated the proposed text regions extractor to a state of the art offline method proposed by our team [START_REF] Rigaud | Text-independent speech balloon segmentation for comics and manga[END_REF] which is able to extract speech balloon if they contain text-like elements (e.g. similar height, aligned, centered). Note that we did not compare to a text line extraction method because fixation and saccades analysis provides regions that are more similar to speech balloon than text lines. Speech balloon extraction performance are presented Table I. The best recall concerns the offline method because the presented online method misses speech balloons that contain few text and thus require a very short fixation to be extracted compared to usual balloons. However, the proposed method has an excellent precision because it is based on user's eye movement which is highly reliable.

2) Graphics regions: We compared the proposed graphics extraction method to a state of the art method able to extract manga character faces [START_REF] Iwata | A study to achieve manga character retrieval method for manga images[END_REF]. We chose this method because it is the most similar to our proposal which also focus on character faces (highly viewed by the reader). Results are presented Table II for a 0 = 0.2 in order to accept more partial faces as correct. The comparison between the offline method and the proposed method are quite interesting. Even through we relaxed the overlap criterion which means that the faces may only be detected at 20% of their total surface, the recall is very good. This verifies that the eye movements are really reliable to localize main manga faces or character parts because it is passing over most of them. However, the precision of the proposed method is lower than the offline method because saccade paths are continuous and thus overlap other regions as well.

V. DISCUSSION

The presented method relies on fixation and duration computed from eye gaze movements. Although a calibration step was performed for each reader before the recording, an offset may appear if the reader changes position while reading. We were not able to measure this offset which may shift fixation positions but not duration. This first work has been performed on a small set of manga images to validate the use of eye gaze information for online image analysis with Latin script. It could easily be extended to Franco-Belgium and American comics. The proposed method requires users to read the image which could be a constraint of the system. However, this could be done withing the editorial process where the author could invite some people to first read his work.

VI. CONCLUSION

In this paper we presented a semi-automatic extraction methods for text and graphics regions. The proposed method is based on eye gaze fixation and saccade analysis and works best when several readers are involved into the data acquisition. This is a preliminary work but it opens up several new ways of research. In the future will would like to link text to graphic regions in order to retrieve the associations between speech text and speaking characters. More generally, topdown knowledge-driven analysis could benefit from eye gaze data to interact more precisely with bottom-up information. Another use of this online method could be crowd-based groundtruthing.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Non filtered raw eye gaze data from eye tracking device.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Filtered output representing fixations (circles) and saccades (lines).

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Fixation and saccade detection process from eye gaze points. Two fixations and one saccade are computed from twelve non-filtered gaze points.

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Fixation heat map and corresponding region. Image credits: [6].

  Fig.6. Saccade heat map and corresponding region. Image credits:[START_REF] Hara | Kingdom chapter 175 -Riboku[END_REF].

Fig. 7 .Fig. 8 .

 78 Fig. 7. Image background extraction process. Image credits: [6].

Fig. 9 .

 9 Fig. 9. Data recording setting with Tobii eyeX fixed under the top screen.

TABLE I SPEECH

 I BALLOON SEGMENTATION PERFORMANCE IN PERCENT.

	Method	R	P	F 1
	Rigaud [16] 74.10 60.95 66.88
	Proposed	68.84 95.95 80.17

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ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work was mainly supported by the University of La Rochelle (France) and the bilateral program Sakura between Campus France (PHC) and the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS). It was also supported in part by JST CREST, JSPS Kakenhi, Grant Number 25240028 and 15K12172 from Japan. We are grateful to all authors and publishers of comics and manga from eBDtheque and Kingdom datasets for allowing us to use their works.