Catarina S Mateus

Laurent Beaulaton

J Bochechas

S Bruxelas

F Cobo

A Franco

D J Nachón

B R Quintella

Camille Rosa

Thibault Rougier

Habitat recovery

come

INTRODUCTION

In the last decades there have been great advances in the knowledge and awareness of the threats to and requirements of migratory species, like lampreys and shads. In several countries a number of sites important for the conservation of these species have been identified, several habitat recovery actions were conducted, and there is a growing effort to involve and inform the general public on necessary conservation actions.

The main threats to these species are similar across river basins and across countries, even though there are some cases where a certain impact is more critical in a given basin or country. In general, impacts affecting the freshwater phase of the life cycle (larval development, migration and spawning) are critical. Pollution, habitat destruction, dams and other engineering works, exploitation by humans and climate change have been identified as the main threats affecting lampreys (reviewed in [START_REF] Maitland | Conservation of Native Lampreys[END_REF] and shads [START_REF] Baglinière | The allis shad (Alosa alosa): biology, ecology, range, and status of populations[END_REF]. Anthropogenic pressures have led to a drastic restriction and fragmentation of the distribution area of migratory species and to the placement of these species on the red list of threatened species.

Most lamprey and shad species are evaluated at a global scale by the IUCN red list of threatened species (www.iucnredlist.org), but at a national level this is not consistently done between countries. Below we present the conservation status (IUCN categories) of lampreys (sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus, river lamprey Lampetra fluviatilis and brook lamprey Lampetra planeri) in 2012 in the countries where such information exists (Table 4.1; from [START_REF] Mateus | Lampreys of the Iberian Peninsula: distribution, population status and conservation[END_REF], and the conservation status of shads (allis shad Alosa alosa and twaite shad Alosa fallax) in 2003 (Table 4.2 to Table 4.4; from [START_REF] Aprahamian | Biology, status, and conservation of the anadromous Atlantic twaite shad, Alosa fallax fallax (Lacépède 1803)[END_REF][START_REF] Baglinière | The allis shad (Alosa alosa): biology, ecology, range, and status of populations[END_REF]. For lampreys, the information on the conservation status, even though rather complete, sometimes does not follow the IUCN categories, and some countries tend to adopt alternative categories that have limited comparability due to the lack of sub-criteria and standardization across countries or regions.

As for the legislation, there are a number of international directives protecting these species. In Europe the two important pieces of legislation are the Bern Convention and the Habitats Directive. The requirement for member states to establish Special Areas of Conservation (SACs) is the most important practical element affecting species in the Habitats Directive. In addition to protection at the EU level, some species are also given protection at a more local level in some countries (reviewed in [START_REF] Maitland | Conservation of Native Lampreys[END_REF]. In addition, these species are protected by the following legislation: OSPAR (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic), HELCOM (Baltic Marine

HABITAT RECOVERY AND RELATED CONSERVATION EFFORTS

Environment Protection Commission), Bonn Convention (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals) and UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea).

4.2

HABITAT DIRECTIVE IMPLEMENTATION

The EU Habitats Directive (1992) is the main piece of legislation protecting wildlife across Europe. It is built around two pillars: the Natura 2000 network of protected sites, and the strict system of species protection. At present, all the 28 countries in Europe that are members of the EU are co-signers to the EU Habitats Directive. The presence/absence information was statistically analyzed, together with several environmental predictors selected a priori, generating a predictive model that explains the distribution (i.e., probability of occurrence) of Lampetra sp. in Portugal [START_REF] Ferreira | Influence of macrohabitat preferences on the distribution of European brook and river lampreys: implications for conservation and management[END_REF]. Using the distribution model output, a map with the probability of occurrence of Lampetra sp. in Portugal was generated and stretches of rivers were delimited with different conservation priorities (Figure 4 So far Portugal has designated 12 Sites of Community Importance (SCI) under the Habitats Directive, which include in their objectives the protection of the following species of lampreys and shads, and their habitats (Table 4.4).

Concerning A. alosa the following map (Figure 4.3,Table 4.5) represents the geographic distribution of the species (green squares) and the SCI (yellow) which include in their objectives the protection of A. alosa. Concerning lampreys, the situation of sea lamprey is similar to the shads (Figure 4.5; Table 4.7). The species Lampetra planeri actually represent a complex of cryptic species, each having smaller geographic ranges than L. planeri, and consequently, greater vulnerability to extinction. Table 4.8 represents the sites designated for L. planeri (which also include the areas of occurrence of the new described species). The geographic distribution of L. planeri is poorly covered by Natura 2000 sites (Figure 4.7), and this is of particular concern as we are in reality dealing with a complex of four different species, some of them without any real and legal protection of the habitat. In 1999, 1177ha / 240km of river (50% and 41% respectively) were recorded as having good accessibility.

By 2012 these values had improved markedly (Table 4.9; Figure 4.8b) with over half of habitat area having good accessibility. These changes are the result of significant improvements in shad access in the lower-middle Usk.

Prospects for Further Improvements

Although the improvements described above are welcome, a significant proportion of potentially suitable habitat in 2012 is still inaccessible or poorly accessible and does not represent favourable conservation status. Two proposed schemes to improve shad access have been proposed: one to amend the drawoff arrangement at Llyn Brianne (River Tywi) so that the water temperature reflects ambient, and two small schemes to ease shad access past bridge footings in the Usk. The potential effect of these are summarised in Figure 4.9. This shows that, if all schemes are implemented, about 2/3 of habitat area and length would have good shad accessibility.

The remaining inaccessible river sections would all be on the Severn, due to various barriers to migration in England. At present, Diglis Weir on the Severn and Powic Weir on the Teme, both near

Worcester, are complete barriers to migration [START_REF] Aprahamian | Shad conservation in England and Wales[END_REF]. The process of designating SACs for fish species was undertaken by NPWS in consultation with IFI. As shads and lamprey species had not received significant investigation prior to the Habitats Directive, the process of SAC designation for these species was based on a combination of expert opinion from aquatic scientists, anecdotal information from commercial fishermen in estuaries and other sources. There was significant synergy, in designating, with decision-making on salmon SACs e.g. rivers were designated for all three lamprey species; river channels and tributaries designated for salmon were commonly also designated for all three lamprey species; estuaries and main stem channels in known or traditional shad waters were also designated for lamprey in view of the diadromous nature of species.

The shad SACs were designated for twaite shad, only, as there were no demonstrated allis shad spawning sites in Ireland. The SACs are situated in the southeast (Figure 4.10) and consist of estuarine waters where populations have been observed spawning, were taken in commercial salmon netting as by-catch, or have been taken in leisure angling. The estuaries are similar in character in being long (by Irish standards i.e. 20 -40 km), linear expanses of water where a significant column of water is retained at all tidal stages. Information on occurrence of both shad species, and of hybrids, was compiled by [START_REF] King | Aspects of anadromous Allis shad (Alosa alosa Linnaeus) and Twaite shad (Alosa fallax Lacepede) biology in four Irish Special Areas of Conservation (SACs): status, spawning indications and implications for conservation designation[END_REF]. The presence of adult twaite, allis and twaite x allis shad has been confirmed in all of the SAC estuaries [START_REF] King | Aspects of anadromous Allis shad (Alosa alosa Linnaeus) and Twaite shad (Alosa fallax Lacepede) biology in four Irish Special Areas of Conservation (SACs): status, spawning indications and implications for conservation designation[END_REF]. Anadromous shads in Irish waters do not appear to travel beyond the upper tidal limit to spawn -in general. There is an artificial barrier to passage (large weir) at the tidal limit on the Barrow SAC but no such barriers occur on the other SACs. Isolated Allis and Twaite shad have been found in freshwater up to 25 km beyond the tidal limit in the Slaney and Munster Blackwater SACs [START_REF] King | The status and distribution of lamprey and shad in the Slaney and Munster Blackwater SACs[END_REF]. Anecdotal reports of shads being angled on the River Liffey in Dublin city in the mid-1960s come from two independent sources. However, the estuary of the River Liffey in Dublin is short and the upstream freshwater habitat is inaccessible due to anthropogenic barrier.

Individual specimens of Twaite shad have been taken in each of the last three years in the estuary of the R. Boyne, north of Dublin. This catchment has a linear estuary and access into several kilometers of freshwater for spawning. The upper estuarine reaches have habitat comparable to the SAC estuaries where spawning does occur. In Northern Ireland, individual Allis shad have been found in the upper tidal waters of the Foyle estuary, upriver of Derry city, and immediately downstream of a large weir at Sion Mills, circa 5 km upstream of the tidal limit. The catchment area upstream of Sion Mills is very extensive and a minimum of 50 km of channel length would be available to migrating allis or twaite shad if these were able to ascend the Sion Mills barrier.

In all of the Irish water referred above, improvement in fish passage facilities could permit a spatial, and hence genetic, separation of allis and twaite shad in the same catchment. It is envisaged that an additional 25 km of channel would be available for spawning in each river. It would be imperative that the upstream channel provide suitable spawning habitat including extensive areas of fast-flowing shallows over cobble and gravel as well as pool areas and backwaters [START_REF] Maitland | Ecology of the Allis and Twaite shad[END_REF].

Such terrain is present in the Rivers Nore, Suir, Slaney and Blackwater whereas dredging and navigation weirs on the riverine River Barrow render its freshwater areas unsuitable as spawning habitat. In Northern Ireland, access into freshwater areas upstream of the barrier at Sion Millls would provide access to large areas of highly suitable shad spawning waters. The addressing of such obstructions may be required under both Water Framework Directive and Habitats Directive. The discrimination of brook and river lamprey is problematic for Ireland, as for other EU member states -discrimination being easy in the adult stage but not possible in the field for larvae of the two types.

River lamprey adults have been captured in scientific sureys on the Irish east-coast estuaries and in the large Shannon estuary. However, the absence of records of river lamprey adults from the major catchments of the west (Corrib) and north-west (Moy) has led to these catchments not being listed as SACs for this species.

Catchment-wide surveys of larval lamprey status, including identification of sea lamprey larvae, was commissioned by the NPWS in the 2003 -2007 period covering all of the SAC catchments [START_REF] King | The status and distribution of lamprey and shad in the Slaney and Munster Blackwater SACs[END_REF][START_REF] King | The status and distribution of lamprey in the River Barrow SAC[END_REF][START_REF] O'connor | A survey of juvenile lamprey populations in the Moy catchment[END_REF][START_REF] O'connor | A baseline survey of juvenile lamprey populations in the River Feale catchment[END_REF][START_REF] O'connor | A survey of juvenile lamprey populations in the Boyne catchment[END_REF][START_REF] O'connor | A survey of juvenile lamprey populations in the Corrib and Suir catchments[END_REF]

PROTECTION AND FISHERIES REGULATION

In Europe, lampreys and shads are protected by several directives. In addition to the Habitats Directive of 1992, the Bern Convention is another important piece of legislation. Also, the following legislation, concerning both freshwaters and the marine environment, includes both shads and lampreys.

1) Bern Convention (Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats)

-The Bern Convention is a binding international legal instrument in the field of nature conservation, covering most of the natural heritage of the European continent and extends to some States of Africa. It aims to conserve wild flora and fauna and their natural habitats, as well as to promote European co-operation in this field.

2) Water Framework Directive (Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 23 October 2000 establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy) -European Water Policy has undergone a thorough restructuring process, and a new Water Framework Directive adopted in 2000 will be the operational tool, setting the objectives for water protection for the future.

3) European Red List -The European Red List is a review of the conservation status of c. 6,000 European species (mammals, reptiles, amphibians, freshwater fishes, butterflies, dragonflies, and selected groups of beetles, molluscs, and vascular plants) according to IUCN regional Red Listing guidelines. It identifies those species that are threatened with extinction at the European level -so that appropriate conservation action can be taken to improve their status. 7) UNCLOS (United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea) -The http://www.un.org/Depts/los/convention_agreements/texts/unclos/closindx.htm. This lays down a comprehensive regime of law and order in the world's oceans and seas establishing rules governing all uses of the oceans and their resources. It enshrines the notion that all problems of ocean space are closely interrelated and need to be addressed as a whole.

Fisheries regulations in Portugal

There are three different legal frameworks concerning fisheries in Portugal that apply in different geographic areas:

1) Marine fisheries regulations that are applicable in the areas under maritime authority, that include some downstream parts of rivers and estuaries (Decreto Regulamentar n.º 43/87, 17 th July); 2) River Minho is under maritime authority but has a special regulation due the fact that it is a border river with Spain (Decreto n.º 8/2008, 9 th April); 3) Inland waters fisheries regulations applying to all waters outside the areas under maritime authority (Lei n.º 2097, 6 th June 1959 and Decreto n.º 44623, 10 th of October 1962).

Inland waters fisheries

There is a regular and important commercial fishing activity in inland waters directed to migratory fish species like Petromyzon marinus, Alosa alosa and A. fallax. The species of genus Lampetra are not target species for commercial or recreational fisheries.

In addition to the general rules included in the law concerning inland waters fisheries, special areas for commercial fisheries (ZPP -Zonas de Pesca Profissional) of migratory species (mainly sea-lamprey and shads) were created where special restrictions apply. These special areas (ZPP) are located in the main rivers of the geographic distribution of these species and are marked in yellow on the map below (Figure 4.16).

These areas have regulations issued by decree (Table 4.10), but each year notices are published with specific rules. The specific rules that can be adapted every year are, in general terms, the following:

1. Number of fishing permits;

2. Authorized number of fish caught by fisherman, per species;

3. Fishing season, per species;

4. Authorized fishing methods and fishing gear.

Internal non maritime waters

As said in each zone of internal non maritime waters, namely in the north where fishing for diadromous fishes is relevant, there are specific regulations establishing the characteristics of the gears that can be used to fish lampreys and shads and fishing season. In http://www.dgrm.min-agricultura.pt/xportal/xmain?xpid=dgrm it is possible to access the different regulations and fishing season when it is fixed.

In internal non maritime areas it is not possible to increase the number of vessels licensed and there are no new licenses to use trammel nets for lampreys and shads. So, the tendency will be for a reduction in the number of vessels allowed to fish these species. Minimum landing sizes established by Portaria nº 27/2001 are: lampreys -35 cm and shads -30 cm.

In the international River Minho, an Edital is published each year with the rules for the next year, including minimum landing size, fishing season and gears that can be used.

In the ocean drift trammel nets are not allowed and catches directed to the species concerned are not frequent, with the exception of allis shads, that show important landings, especially during fish aggregations before they enter the rivers. So, the regulation applied in the sea for shads should be changed in accordance to this new evidence.

In addition, fishing for lampreys and shads is not allowed in recreational fisheries (Portaria nº 14/2014, 23th January).

4.3.2

Fisheries regulations in NW Spain

Specific rules for P. marinus to management-control of the commercial fisheries are, in general terms, the following:

Fishway in River Mondego, Portugal

The Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam is a 6.20 m high gate weir built in the River Mondego mainly for industrial, water supply, agricultural and flood control purposes. Since its construction, this structure blocked the migration of several commercially and ecologically important species, including the sea lamprey, the allis and the twaite shad, limiting the distribution of these and other diadromous and potamodromous fish species inhabiting the Mondego river basin. In 2011, a vertical-slot type fishway (Figure 4.17), managed by the Portuguese Environment Agency (APA), was built to restore river connectivity and, since then, its efficiency for the target species is being evaluated using several methodologies, namely visual counts, bio-telemetry (radio, physiological electromyogram-EMG, PIT Tags), electrofishing surveys and enquiries to the local commercial fishermen. Results from the first three years of post-construction monitoring indicate that the fishway actually increased the available area for diadromous species in the River Mondego. Visual counts revealed that, in 2013, 1407204 fish successfully negotiated the infra-structure (ca. 900000 in the upstream direction). These included several autochthonous species, namely, P. marinus, Alosa sp., A. anguilla, Salmo trutta, Luciobarbus bocagei, Pseudochondrostoma polylepis, Liza ramada.

During the 2013 spawning season 8333 lampreys used the fishway, and in 2014 this number increased to nearly 22000 lampreys. A statistical model developed with this data clearly shows that the weir discharges significantly influence the migratory behavior in the vicinity of the fishway, limiting its efficiency during high discharge periods. About 7500 Alosa sp. specimens used the fishway in the 2013 spawning season, whereas only 3406 individuals used this infrastructure in 2014 [START_REF] Almeida | Programa de monitorização da passagem para peixes do Açude-Ponte de Coimbra[END_REF].

Electrofishing campaigns conducted before and after fishway construction detected a sixteen-fold increase, between 2012 and 2014, in the relative abundance of sea lamprey larvae upstream of the weir. Within the project, almost 50 local fishermen were contacted, from a total of 93 individual licences, and around 20% of the commercial fishermen are actively providing their capture data, but efforts are continuously being made to increase this number. Studies for monitoring the fishway efficiency also include the use of a PIT-tag antenna system installed at the infrastructure, and the use of electromyogram transmitters (EMG) to analyze high definition data concerning sea lamprey behavior and muscular effort during fishway negotiation [START_REF] Almeida | Programa de monitorização da passagem para peixes do Açude-Ponte de Coimbra[END_REF]. Results from this study can help to improve the success of the Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam fishway in restoring migratory fish populations in the River Mondego and are being promoted as what is considered to be a reference approach to other similar structures spread along Portuguese rivers.

4.4.2

Habitat restoration for diadromous fish in River Mondego, Portugal

The conservation of diadromous fish populations depends upon the implementation of management actions that are spatially representative of these species ecological needs. Because freshwater, estuarine and coastal habitats are administratively linked to different Portuguese governmental agencies, often belonging to different ministries, the application of an integrated management plan is particularly difficult, especially when it involves changes in fisheries regulations, rehabilitation of habitats and poaching eradication (i.e., coordination between supervising bodies). Portuguese Environment Agency (APA), the Mora Freshwater Aquarium (FM), the Foundation of the Faculty of Sciences of the University of Lisbon (FFCUL), the Portuguese Sea and Atmosphere Institute (IPMA), the Energies from Portugal (EDP), the Portuguese Fisheries Authority (DGRM), the Portuguese Institute for Nature Conservation and Forests (ICNF), the Sea Lamprey Brotherhood, and the municipalities of Penacova, Vila Nova de Poiares and Coimbra.

The project Habitat restoration for diadromous fish in River Mondego

The main goal of the project is the implementation of an integrated management approach that will ensure the compatibility between the conservation of the diadromous fish, and all the other water uses in this watershed, namely, hydroelectricity production, water supply, commercial fisheries and different recreational purposes (e.g., recreational fisheries and aquatic sports like kayaking). This project was boosted by the recent construction (i.e. 2011) of the fish passage at the Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam (see above), which enabled the migratory fish to surmount this impassable dam built in 1981. The main action of this project involves building nature-like fish passage facilities in five weirs, one of which is located downstream of Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam, and the remaining four located upstream (Figure 4.18 and 4.19), including the complete removal of one of the weirs. At the same time, it is also within the project objectives to contribute to a sustainable fishery of sea lamprey, allis and twaite shad by introducing a management scheme that links the administrative governmental agencies responsible for fisheries regulations in estuaries (DGRM) and freshwater stretches (ICNF) with fishermen's, with the concomitance and advice of research institutions working with diadromous species. This project also intends to increase the public awareness concerning the conservation of diadromous fish, as well as the reduction of illegal fishing in River Mondego.

4.4.3

Fish passage in Ireland

Inland Fisheries Ireland (IFI), as the state fisheries agency, is conscious of the importance of barriers to fish passage and the relevance of the Habitats Directive (for diadromous Annex II species e.g. salmon, sea and river lamprey; twaite and allis shads). IFI has identified the need for a geo-referenced national inventory of barriers and has developed a standard protocol for field data gathering directly onto ruggedized lap-top computers. In the light of an initial catchment survey in the Nore catchment, where up to 500 barriers were field-surveyed [START_REF] Gargan | Comparison of field-and GIS-based assessments of barriers to Atlantic salmon migration: a case study in the Nore Catchment, Republic of Ireland[END_REF] it is evident that a complete national picture may take some time to compile. A two-tier survey method is proposed, the first being a basic survey of barrier location, image capture and basic dimensions onto lap-tops for database storage. The second tier involves use of the SNIFFER barrier porosity tool. This is a substantially-more detailed procedure. At present, IFI has commenced surveys of the major barriers to migratory fish passage in the main-stem SAC rivers using SNIFFER. In addition, where artificial barriers are to be removed or modified it is proposed to undertake a SNIFFER survey prior to removal as well as subsequently, in similar water conditions.

The experience in regard to sea lamprey in Ireland is that the species arrives at a time of likely low flow conditions, is impeded by the first major barrier to passage in the channels it enters and that a concentration of spawning effort is observed downstream of major barriers to passage (see Gargan et al. 2011). Telemetry studies have shown that sea lamprey will explore at a barrier in an attempt to pass upstream. Failure to ascend led to some fish migrating downstream and entering other tributary channels [START_REF] Almeida | Movement of radio-tagged anadromous sea lamprey during the spawning migration in the River Mondego (Portugal)[END_REF]. Similar findings were observed in telemetry studies in the River Mulkear (Rooney et al. in press) during an EU LIFE-funded project entitled Restoration of the Lr. Shannon SAC for Sea lamprey, Atlantic salmon and European otter (MulkearLIFE project LIFE07 NAT/IRL/000342) (http://mulkearlife.com/). That project was developed to address conservation management issues relating to otter, Atlantic salmon and sea lamprey within the Lower River Shannon SAC. Substantial annual spawning effort by sea lamprey took place downstream of the first barrier to passage on the River Mulkear and a catchment-wide ammocoete survey located only two specimens of sea lampreyone downstream of this barrier and one in the lower reaches of the catchment (http://www.fisheriesireland.ie/fisheries-research-1/390-habitats-directive-report-2012-1/file).

Two barrier modification strategies were undertaken -one on each of the two significant barriers to sea lamprey passage in the lower reaches of the River Mulkear. One used a plastic sheeting moulded to the form of egg-boxes which was bolted to stainless steel sheeting attached to part of the face of the first weir (Figure 4.20). The vertical structures on the mould provided a baffle for sea lamprey, creating areas of reduced velocity as well as an opportunity to flex themselves against these structures in swimming upstream. Direct visual observation during hours of darkness, the time of maximum passage attempts, showed a preference by the sea lamprey for the textured plastic sheeting as an ascent route. The second strategy, employed at the second major weir located approximately 2 km upstream of the first, initially proposed the construction of a 'rock ramp' -a re-design of reduced gradient with a natural channel bed of stone -to be installed across part of the weir (Figure 4.21). In the end, an alternative was agreed and the weir was breached, in part. This permitted an unimpeded upstream passage for sea The intermediate closed fishing season defined at the peak of the sea lamprey and shads spawning migration is being implemented in the River Mondego since 2012. The proper evaluation of this management measure is not easy because it depends on the count of the fish that move through the Açude-ponte dam fishway in relation to the open and close fishing periods. The efficiency of the fishway for sea lampreys and shads is strongly influenced by the flow released by the Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam, increasing substantially with lower flows approximately below 50 m 3 s -1 [START_REF] Cardoso | Monitorização da passagem para peixes do açude-ponte em Coimbra: otimização da metodologia de contagem[END_REF]. This variability of efficiency with flow makes difficult a direct comparison between the closure of the fishing at the peak of the spawning migration and the number of animals that successfully move through the commercial fisheries area located at the lower stretch of the River Mondego (assessed by the number of lampreys that used the Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam fishway during the subsequent days).

A sea lamprey takes, on average, approximately 5 days to cover the 45 km stretch between the River Mondego mouth and the Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam [START_REF] Almeida | The migratory behaviour of the sea lamprey Petromyzon marinus L., observed by acoustic telemetry in River Mondego (Portugal)[END_REF]. In Figure 4.23, a relation between the number of sea lampreys that were counted moving through the fishway, the flow released by Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam, and the open-close fishing season is presented. About 5000 sea lampreys moved through the fishway between 28 th February and 3 rd March 2014. The closed fishing season started on the 24th of February and extended to the 5 th of March, so 4 days after this fishing hiatus the number of sea lampreys moving through the fishway started to increase considerably. A peak of movements was detected on the 2 nd of March (2779 sea lampreys counted at the fishway), exactly 7days after the beginning of the intermediary close fishing season. We prefer to use a precautionary approach when interpreting these results, by not associating this peak of animals counted at the fishway only with the interruption of the fishing season, because this higher frequency of movements at the fishway was also detected during a period where the flow decreased considerably, increasing the fishway efficiency particularly in what concerns it's attractability [START_REF] Cardoso | Monitorização da passagem para peixes do açude-ponte em Coimbra: otimização da metodologia de contagem[END_REF].

For shads, a peak of movements was detected 19 days after the beginning of the closed fishing season for these species (10 days between 22 April and 1 May). For these species we have no information concerning the amount of time needed to cover the 45 km stretch since they enter the Mondego Estuary until Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam . Nevertheless, 68% (2314) of the shads that move through the fishway did it during only 2 consecutive days (10 and 11 of May). To unequivocally relate this peak of animals that used the fishway with the management of fisheries (i.e., intermediate close fishing period), perform downstream additional information on the migratory behaviour (i.e. travel speed) needs to be gathered.

4.5.2

Restocking of allis shad in the Rhine river system

Allis shad was originally found in almost all of Europe's Atlantic tributaries, including the Rhine, which at the beginning of the 20th century, held one of the most important allis shad populations in the species' northern distribution range. Within 30 years, however, this population had collapsed due to overfishing, increased river pollution, destruction of spawning grounds and barriers to migration such as dams and weirs. Two LIFE projects have been undertaken to recover this species in the Rhine, one in the period 2008-2010 and the other from 2011 until 2015. The first project, entitled The re-introduction of allis shad (Alosa alosa) in the Rhine System (LIFE06 NAT/D/000005), involving partners and contributors from three Rhine-bordering countries -Germany, France and the Netherlands, developed a breeding programme in south-west France, where the species is still found naturally, and then planned and carried out the transportation of larvae from France to Germany and the restocking of the Rhine river system. Over the three breeding seasons covered by the project, the LIFE team caught a total of 644 spawning shad through fish lifts at two sites on the Garonne and Dordogne rivers in France. The allis shad were treated with hormones to speed up spawning and the fertilised eggs kept in breeding tanks.

The emerging fry swam into hatchery tanks where they were fed with brine shrimps (Artemia spp.), which were also reared in tanks. The first restocking of the Rhine occurred in June 2008 and repeated and expanded over the following two years. In total, some 4.8 million larvae were released. In the autumns of 2010 and 2011, a total of 30 juveniles were caught in the lower Rhine near the German/Dutch border, representing the first allis shad to be caught there for more than 50 years. The young fish were successfully migrating downstream, and their marking confirmed they had been released by the project and their size showed them to be developing healthily and appropriately at age 3-4 months. Increasing numbers of adults in the upper Rhine and tributary rivers as well as repeated proof of naturally-reproducing young shads in 2013 and 2014 indicate that the possibility of a selfsustaining and growing population of allis shad in the Rhine system seems very promising [START_REF] Silva | LIFE and freshwater fish[END_REF].

The second LIFE project entitled Conservation and restoration of the Allis shad in the Gironde and Rhine watersheds (LIFE09 NAT/DE/000008) is now underway, aiming to continue and to optimise the Rhine restocking measures started under the earlier project -adding an estimated 1.5-2 million larvae per year -and to identify the reasons behind the unexpected collapse of the Gironde stocks. One of the project objectives is the transfer of aquaculture techniques from France to Germany and the development of techniques to maintain an ex-situ stock in Germany. As part of these activities, a pilot ex-situ facility has been established in Aßlar in Germany. It is hoped that the further development of captive rearing and breeding techniques will eventually enable fewer shad to be removed from French rivers and to include fish returning to the Rhine system in the ex-situ stock in the future. The project is also re-examining the design of existing fish pass facilities for European allis shad, especially in France, in the light of the latest knowledge and improvements coming from the United States -where numbers of returning shads have been significantly enhanced after modernisation of the fish passes [START_REF] Silva | LIFE and freshwater fish[END_REF]. Recently, on the World Fish Migration Day (on the 24 th May 2014), the Hydrobiology Station "Encoro do Con" organized an informative talk on the biology of migratory fish in the Hydrobiology Station "Encoro do Con" (Vilagarcía de Arousa, Pontevedra, Spain). In the same building an exhibition of posters and pictures about the life cycles of migratory species and their ecological requirements was also installed, as well as sampling material used for the study of these species. Finally a painting workshop for primary school children was also held (Figure 4.29).

Public awareness activities in Ireland

In the World Fish Migration Day, Inland Fisheries Ireland (IFI) organized a seminar on the topic of fish passage issues. They had guest speakers from Belgium and Northern Ireland as well as from Ireland. Dr. Jan Breine of INBO, Belgium, spoke on recovery of water quality in the Schelde and the re-appearance of twaite shad in large numbers. He also addressed issues with barriers as they relate to the shads and also to river lamprey populations.

Mr. Jake Gibson of Northern Ireland Environment Agency (NIEA) spoke on the issue of barriers and how they can impact adversely on the ecological condition of waters through preventing fish species, that should be present naturally, from being present in the water. His colleague Mr. Patrick Murphy presented a case-history of a small sub-catchment of Lough Neagh, where a rapid assessment technique identified over 500 barriers, with culverts a major problem in channels of low Stream Order and weirs a major issue in higher Stream Order channels.

Site visits were organized to see weirs and barriers presenting problems, and those where structural solutions had been implemented, in the Suir and the Nore catchments (Figure 4.30).

MAIN DIFFICULTIES

Even though there has been great effort to restore habitat connectivity and preserve lamprey and shad species, there are still a number of difficulties encountered by researchers, namely: i) Lack of political and public awareness;

ii) Lack of coordination between administrative organs, between different parts of the river basins and between river, estuarine and marine jurisdictions;

Table 4. 1 .

 1 Petromyzon marinus and Lampetra spp. 2001 International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Red List categories for countries where information exists across their natural range. In Italy, P. marinus and L. fluviatilis are often classified as Regionally Extinct, but these species still reproduce at least in the River Magra (Bianco and Delmastro 2011). In Slovenia, P. marinus is present in the Adriatic river basin (Povž 2002). In Lithuania, L. fluviatilis and L. planeri are common, not being included in the Red data book (T. Virbickas and R. Repecka personal communication). RE: Regionally Extinct; CR: Critically Endangered; EN: Endangered; VU: Vulnerable; n/t: not threatened; LC: Least Concern; DD: Data Deficient; NE: Not Evaluated. Other categories are R: Rare; NT: Near Threatened; LR: Lower Risk; NA: not applicable; X: species occurrence not confirmed; -: no data available/not included in the Red data book (from Mateus et al. 2012). Updated conservation data in Ireland classifies sea lamprey as Near Threatened [A2c, B1ab(iii)], and river and brook lampreys as Least Concern (King et al. 2011). Table 4.2. Conservation status of allis shad (Alosa alosa) by country in the Eastern Atlantic Ocean and Western Mediterranean Sea according to IUCN (1994) criteria (from Baglinière et al. 2003). Updated conservation data in Ireland classifies allis shad as Data Deficient (King et al. 2011). Table 4.3. Conservation status of twaite shad (Alosa fallax) by country according to IUCN (1994) criteria (from Aprahamian et al. 2003).

For

  Lampetra sp. in Portugal, a National Conservation Plan was implemented that included a comprehensive sampling survey to identify presence or absence of ammocoetes throughout Portuguese watersheds (Figure4.1). The main objective of this plan was to gather the necessary information to properly designate SACs for this genus in Portugal.

Figure 4 . 1 .

 41 Figure 4.1. Distribution of the sampling sites (N = 401) in Portugal.

  .2). Rivers classified with the highest level of conservation priority were considered to be proposed as SACs, under the Natura 2000 Networking Programme. Those are the following: Inha river (Douro basin); Mangas stream (Esmoriz basin); Negro river, Vouga river, Águeda-Alfusqueiro rivers, Cértima river, Levira river (Vouga basin); Mortágua stream, Criz river, Ançã stream, Ceira river, Corvo stream, Anços river (Mondego basin); Leça stream (Lis basin); S. Pedro stream (Small independent streams of Oeste); Nabão river, Torto river, Ulme stream, Muge stream, Longomel stream, Erra stream, Sorraia river, Divôr river, Almansor river (Tejo basin); Marateca stream, S. Martinho stream, Barranco Brejo Largo stream, S. Domingos stream (Sado basin) (Ferreira et al. 2013).

Figure 4 . 2 .

 42 Figure 4.2. Definition of areas to be proposed as SACs for Lampetra sp. in Portugal. a) distribution of Lampetra sp. probability of occurrence in Portugal. Data predicted with a 1 km2 spatial resolution from a BRT model, using the species presence/absence data as the response variable and geomorphological and climatic environmental variables as predictors, b) map of priority of conservation of Lampetra sp. in Portugal, where water stretches included in the highest priority conservation level were set to be proposed as SAC under the European Natura 2000 ecological network of protected areas (from Ferreira et al. 2013).

Figure 4 . 3 .

 43 Figure 4.3. Geographic distribution and the SCI (yellow) designated to protect A. alosa.

Figure 4 . 4 .

 44 Figure 4.4. Geographic distribution and the SCI (yellow) designated to protect A. fallax.

Figure 4 . 5 .

 45 Figure 4.5. Geographic distribution and the SCI (yellow) designated to protect P. marinus.

Figure 4 . 6 .

 46 Figure 4.6. Geographic distribution and the SCI (yellow) designated to protect L. fluviatilis.

Figure 4 . 7 .

 47 Figure 4.7. Geographic distribution and the SCI (yellow) designated to protect L. planeri.

  Figure 4.8. (a-b) Proportions of habitat area accessible and (c-d) Proportion of habitat length accessible to shad in 1999 and 2012. Green = Good access; yellow = poor access; black = inaccessible.

  Figure 4.9. Predicted proportion of (a) habitat area and (b) habitat length accessible to shad if planned fish accessibility schemes are implemented. Green = Currently good access; green stippled = good access if Llyn Brianne scheme is implemented; green stripes = good access if Usk schemes are implemented; yellow = poor or better access if Usk schemes are implemented; black = inaccessible. Together, these changes are estimated to represent an improvement of about 22% in river area and 25% river length with good access for shad.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.10. Special Areas of Conservation for twaite shad in Ireland.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.11. Special Areas of Conservation for lampreys in Ireland.

  4) OSPAR (Convention for the Protection of the Marine Environment of the North-East Atlantic) -The OSPAR Convention is the current legal instrument guiding international cooperation on the protection of the marine environment of the North-East Atlantic. Work under the Convention is managed by the OSPAR Commission, made up of representatives of the Governments of 15 Contracting Parties and the European Commission, representing the European Union.5) HELCOM (Baltic Marine Environment Protection Commission)-HELCOM is the governing body of the Convention on the Protection of the Marine Environment of the Baltic Sea Area, the http://helcom.fi/about-us/convention. The Contracting Parties are Denmark, Estonia, the European Union, Finland, Germany, Latvia, Lithuania, Poland, Russia and Sweden. HELCOM was established about four decades ago to protect the marine environment of the Baltic Sea from all sources of pollution through intergovernmental cooperation.6) Bonn Convention or CMS (Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of WildAnimals) -As an environmental treaty under the aegis of the United Nations Environment Programme, CMS provides a global platform for the conservation and sustainable use of migratory animals and their habitats. CMS brings together the States through which migratory animals pass, the Range States, and lays the legal foundation for internationally coordinated conservation measures throughout a migratory range.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.16. Special areas for commercial fisheries (ZPP -Zonas de Pesca Profissional) (yellow) in Portugal.

1.

  Restricted to specific sections in the river Ulla and Minho basins 2. Fishing period 3. Limited number of boats-fishermen 4. Type and number of gears. Specific conservation measures (direct conservation efforts) for A. fallax and A. alosa are related to fishing management-control: 1. Restricted to specific sections in the Ulla and Minho rivers 2. Fishing period 3. Limited number of boats-fishermen 4. Type and number of gears, hooks.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.17. Fishway in Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam, River Mondego, Portugal. a) and b) lateral and upside views; c) lampreys passing through the window of the monitoring room (Photos: Pedro R. Almeida).

   is coordinated by the University of Évora with the technical-scientific advice of MARE -Marine and Environmental Sciences Center, and it was funded by the Ministry of Agriculture and Sea, and co-founded by the European Fisheries Fund through PROMAR 2007-13. The project has 11 institutional partners, namely the

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.18. Two of the weirs located upstream of Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam that are being modified in order to build nature-like fish passages: a) Penacova and b) Louredo weirs (Photos: Pedro R. Almeida).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.20. Plastic sheeting moulded to the form of egg-boxes placed in Annacotty weir, River Mulkear.

  lamprey and Atlantic salmon, a re-creation of the natural flow pattern in line with Water Framework Directive, and a retention of portion of the architectural heritage of the cut-stone weir. There was an extensive use of spawning habitat in the upstream reaches of the Mulkear catchment in 2014 in a summer of low flow conditions following completion of the two modifications to passage. The use of rock ramps for fish passage is also being implemented at other anthropogenic barriers in Irish rivers where this strategy is considered suitable. The impetus comes primarily in the context of Atlantic salmon conservation but the rock-ramp strategy is one that is suited to both salmon and sea lamprey.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.21. Rock ramps installed in a) Abbeyfeale, Feale catchment. Feale is a salmon and sea lamprey catchment under Habitats Directive, and b) King's River, Nore catchment.

  Public awareness activities in PortugalWorld Fish Migration Day: Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam fishway, River Mondego, PortugalThe Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam fishway is regularly visited by the public since 2014 and represents a good example of raising awareness in the general public of issues associated with the conservation of endangered migratory fish. On the 24 th May 2014, the World Fish Migration Day, several activities were implemented in the Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam fishway. These included visits to the fishway, to the monitoring room and interaction of the public with the researchers, who presented the work developed in this infrastructure with demonstration of the methodological techniques used to monitor fishways in general, but Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam fishway in particular (Figure4.24).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.24. World Fish Migration Day activities in the fishway of Açude-Ponte Coimbra dam, River Mondego, Portugal. (Photos: Catarina Mateus).

  Public awareness activities in SpainThe Hydrobiology Station "Encoro do Con", of the University of Santiago de Compostela, has conducted several events on migratory species. In 2012, within the framework of the European project MIGRANET of the Interreg IV B SUDOE (South-West Europe) Territorial Cooperation Programme (SOE2/P2/E288), two volunteer days were carried out: one in the River Ulla on July 24, 2012 and another in the River Umia on July 27, 2012(Figure 4.27). Also within the framework of this project, an exhibition entitled "Os peixes migradores de Galicia" was established in the Municipal Auditorium of Valga (Padrón, Coruña, Spain), from 8 to 23 November 2012(Figure 4.28).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.27. Activities in a) River Ulla, Spain, on July 24 of 2012 and b) River Umia, Spain, on July 27 of 2012.

Figure

  Figure 4.28. Exhibition entitled "Os peixes migradores de Galicia" (Migratory fish of Galicia) in the Municipal Auditorium of Valga (Padrón, Coruña, Spain).

Figure

  Figure 4.29. Workshop for children of primary school, held in the Hydrobiology Station "Encoro do Con", Vilagarcía de Arousa, Pontevedra, Spain.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.30. Delegates from Northern Ireland and Belgium with Irish hosts at rock ramp fish pass in River Nore, Kilkenny, during World Fish Migration Day events, May 2014.

Figure

  Figure 4.31. World Fish Migration Day events (on the 24th May 2014) in the framework of the Mulkear LIFE project.

  iii) Lack of declarations by commercial fishermen in waters, or false declarations; iv) Lack of knowledge on habitat requirements and hydromorphology of each basin; v) Low or lack of efficiency of fishways (attractiveness, improve and adjust monitoring, improve hydraulic conditions) (Figure 4.32).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4.32. Example of two inoperable fishways in river Vouga, a Portuguese river basin where both lampreys and shads occur (Photos: Carlos Alexandre).

Table 4 .4. Species of lampreys and shads included in the Habitats Directive in Portugal.

 4

	Species code	Species name
	1102	Alosa alosa
	1103	Alosa fallax
	1095	Petromyzon marinus
	1099	Lampetra fluviatilis
	1096	Lampetra planeri

Table 4 .5. Natura 2000 sites designated under the Habitats Directive in Portugal for A. alosa.

 4

Table 4

 4

.6).

Table 4 .6. Natura 2000 sites designated under the Habitats Directive in Portugal for A. fallax.

 4

Table 4 .7. Natura 2000 sites designated under the Habitats Directive in Portugal for P. marinus.

 4

Table 4 .8. Natura 2000 sites designated under the Habitats Directive in Portugal for L. planeri.

 4

Table 4 .9. Area and length of river in the different shad accessibility categories in 1999 and 2012.

 4

		Area (ha)	Length (km)
		2012	1999	2012	1999
	Good Access	1298 (56%)	1177 (50%)	265 (54%)	240 (41%)
	Poor Access	212 (9%)	343 (15%)	96 (10%)	108 (16%)
	Inaccessible	802 (35%)	843 (36%)	228 (36%)	241 (39%)

12. Conservation status of Alosa alosa at the European level for the 2007-2012 period, reported by Member States (available at http://bd.eionet.europa.eu/article17/reports2012/). Green=Favourable; yellow=Unfavourable-Inadequate; red=Unfavourable-Bad; grey=Unknown. Figure 4.13. Conservation status of Alosa fallax at the European level for the 2007-2012 period, reported by Member States (available at http://bd.eionet.europa.eu/article17/reports2012/). Green=Favourable; yellow=Unfavourable-Inadequate; red=Unfavourable-Bad; grey=Unknown. Figure 4.14. Conservation status of Lampetra fluviatilis at the European level for the 2007-2012 period, reported by Member States (available at http://bd.eionet.europa.eu/article17/reports2012/). Green=Favourable; yellow=Unfavourable-Inadequate; red=Unfavourable-Bad; grey=Unknown. Figure 4.15. Conservation status of Petromyzon marinus at the European level for the 2007-2012 period, reported by Member States (available at http://bd.eionet.europa.eu/article17/reports2012/). Green=Favourable; yellow=Unfavourable-Inadequate; red=Unfavourable-Bad; grey=Unknown.

  . A further series of catchments, non-SAC, have been surveyed by IFI in the 2009 -2013 period. This entire series of data permitted IFI to report, under Article 17 of Habitats Directive, to the EU in 2013 -the report covering the national territory, as required, i.e. both SAC and non-SAC catchments. Conservation status of lampreys and shads in Europe for the period 2007-2012 Shads and lampreys are listed in EU Habitat Directive. Article 11 of the Habitats Directive requires

	In the reporting period 2013 -2018, IFI has commenced to re-survey the large lamprey SAC catchments
	with a view to examining 'trends' in population distribution, density and structure, as required by Article
	17 of the Directive.
	4.2.4
	4.3

Member States to monitor the habitats and species listed in the annexes (habitats in the Annex I and species in the Annexes II, IV and V), and Article 17 requires a report to be sent to the European Commission every 6 years following an agreed format. The core of the 'Article 17' report is assessment of conservation status of the habitats and species targeted by the directive. The assessment is made based on information on status and trends of species populations or habitats and on information on main pressures and threats. We present available data reported for the period 2007-2012 (http://bd.eionet.europa.eu/ article17/reports2012/) in Figure

4

.12 to Figure

4

.15. This should inform about the distribution of the species throughout Europe as well as their conservation status. Figure 4.

Table 4 .10. Commercial Fishing Areas -ZPP (Zonas de Pesca Profissional) in Portugal.

 4

	ZPP

Activities in Aquamuseum, River Minho, Portugal

In River Minho, "Aquamuseu do Rio Minho" has been developing in the last 10 years several activities for the general public and to the local fishermen, including migratory species events (Figures 4.25


Elodie Valette
email: <elodie.valette@cirad.fr><francky158@yahoo.fr><marieceline1978@yahoo.fr>

Jean Pierre Chery

Marta M Debolini
email: <martadebolini@gmail.com>

Judicaël Azodjilande

Marie Francois

Mohammed El Amrani

Élodie Valette

Jean-Pierre Ch Ery
email: <jean-pierre.chery@teledetection.fr>

Marie Franc ¸ois

Mohamed El Amrani
email: <elamrani.mohamed66@gmail.com>

Chéry Jp

El Amrani

Urbanisation en périphérie de Meknès (Maroc) et devenir des terres agricoles. L'exemple de la coopérative agraire Naïji

Keywords: agriculture urbaine, Maroc, politiques foncie `res, urbanisation, usage du sol e ´conomie et de ´veloppement rural, territoire, foncier, politique agricole et alimentaire land policy, land use, Morocco, urban agriculture, urbanization. Subjects: economy and rural development, territory, land use, agricultural and food production policy

Urbanisation en périphérie de Meknès (Maroc) et devenir des terres agricoles : l'exemple de la coopérative agraire Naïji L es enjeux de pre ´servation des terres agricoles sont particulie `rement vifs sur la rive sud de la Me ´diterrane ´e, ou `les espaces agricoles et forestiers les plus productifs sont situe ´s au sein d'espaces de plaine favorables a `l'urbanisation [START_REF] Paillard | Agrimonde : Scénarios et défis pour nourrir le monde en 2050[END_REF]. Ces terres agricoles constituent ainsi des re ´serves foncie `res pour la croissance urbaine [START_REF] Jouve | Les agricultures périurbaines méditerranéennes à l'épreuve de la multifonctionnalité : comment fournir aux villes une nourriture et des paysages de qualité ?[END_REF] et les pe ´riphe ´ries des grandes villes apparaissent comme les fronts d'urbanisation les plus dynamiques [START_REF] Cattedra | Les grands projets urbains à la conquête des périphéries[END_REF]. Le Maroc, au sein du Maghreb, est le pays ou `le monde rural et l'agriculture occupent la place la plus importante [START_REF] Hervieu | Mutations et défis pour l'agriculture au Maghreb[END_REF], avec 33 % de l'emploi en 2006 (FAOSTAT). Ce pays s'efforce de pre ´server ce qui est pre ´sente ´comme une force en me ˆme temps qu'un ferment de l'identite ńationale, dans un contexte marque ṕar une urbanisation croissante comme dans nombre de pays du Sud. Le rythme de croissance urbaine, s'il a connu un infle ´chissement au cours des dernie `res anne ´es, est estime á `2,1 % pour la pe ´riode 1994-2004 et la part de la population urbaine a 60 % en 2009. Ainsi, le territoire a e ´te ḿarque ´par une extension des villes, et notamment des grandes me ´tropoles comme Casablanca, depuis les anne ´es 1960. En re ´ponse a `une demande croissante de logements, le processus de croissance urbaine, qu'il proce `de de constructions le ´gales ou ille ´gales, s'est accru et la concurrence entre pe ´rime `tres urbains et espaces agricoles s'est exacerbe ´e. Le rythme d'artificialisation des terres est relativement e ´leve ´1, la superficie totale des terres agricoles consomme ´es par l'urbanisation e ´tant e ´value ´e a `l'horizon 2025 a `pre `s de 90 000 hectares, avec un rythme moyen d'environ 4 500 hectares par an (INAU, 2005). Ainsi, l'action du gouvernement marocain semble s'inscrire dans une difficile contradiction, observable dans d'autres contextes nationaux, au Nord comme au Sud [START_REF] Elloumi | Régulation foncière et protection des terres agricoles en Méditerranée[END_REF]. D'une part, l'agriculture est de ´finie comme priorite ´nationale, de longue date, et le gouvernement s'efforce de soutenir et prote ´ger l'activite ´agricole, ce dont te ´moigne notamment le Plan Maroc Vert (PMV), nouvelle strate ´gie agricole lance ´e en 2008 (ministe `re de l' Agriculture, 2008 ;[START_REF] Akesbi | Une nouvelle stratégie pour l'agriculture marocaine : le «Plan Maroc Vert[END_REF]. D'autre part, une autre priorite ´nationale, celle du logement, particulie `rement mise en avant depuis le de ´but des anne ´es 2000 conduit a `la mise en place de dispositifs en faveur de l'urbanisation des pe ´riphe ´ries des villes, au de ´triment des terres agricoles. L'objectif de cet article est de s'interroger sur l'impact sur les terres agricoles des politiques publiques de libe ´ration du foncier et d'analyser leurs effets en pe ´riphe ´rie urbaine a travers l'exemple de Mekne `s. Cette agglome ´ration de 599 555 habitants en 2004 a une population estime ´e aujourd'hui a `pre `s de 750 000 habitants. Situe ´e au nord-est du pays, Mekne `s pre ´sente un inte ´re ˆt particulier pour l'e ´tude : elle est d'abord conside ´re ´e comme l'un des principaux po ˆles agricoles du Maroc. Elle a par ailleurs connu un e ´talement urbain marque ´pendant les dernie `res anne ´es. Pour cela, nous montrons dans une premie `re partie les re ´sultats d'une analyse diachronique de l'usage du sol a `Mekne `s, afin de de ´gager les principales formes et dynamiques de l'urbanisation affectant les terres agricoles. Dans une deuxie `me partie, nous centrons l'analyse sur le devenir des terres collectives des coope ´ratives de la re ´forme agraire, issues de la redistribution du patrimoine foncier re ´cupe ´re ´a `l'Inde ´pendance (Korachi Taleb, 1998). Bien que celles-ci, et notamment celles qui sont situe ´es a proximite ´de la ville aient longtemps constitue ´un frein a `l'urbanisation, du fait de leur statut collectif, celles-ci sont depuis 2005 touche ´es par de fortes transformations foncie `res a `la faveur de l'application de la loi dite de la mainleve ´e, permettant aux agriculteurs be ´ne ´ficiaires des terres des coope ´ratives de devenir proprie ´taires en melk, proprie ´te ´prive ´e de droit musulman. S'inscrivant dans le droit-fil des pre ´conisations des institutions internationales et des principaux bailleurs de fonds, reposant sur la conviction d'un lien de causalite ´direct entre accession a `la proprie ´te ´prive ´e, intensification agricole et de ´veloppement [START_REF] Chauveau | Sociétés agraires, urbanisation et question foncière. Une exception africaine ?[END_REF], ce dispositif a e ´te ḿis en place dans le contexte d'une politique e ´conomique libe ´rale pour favoriser les investissements et l'intensification agricoles, face au constat d'un certain immobilisme des syste `mes de production et des pratiques agricoles dans le contexte des coope ´ratives. Il a certes favorise ´la transformation de certains syste `mes de production, mais aussi la vente et l'achat de terres, et contribue aujourd'hui au mitage de l'espace rural pe ´riphe ´rique. L'exemple des transformations de l'usage du sol dans la coope ´rative de Naı ¨ji, commune rurale de Majjate, permet de rendre compte de ces dynamiques de concurrences d'usage du sol et de l'impact de la pression urbaine sur les strate ´gies des agriculteurs. Ces changements et leur analyse font l'objet de la troisie `me partie de cette e ´tude.

Consommation des terres agricoles à Meknès : analyse satellitaire et dynamiques spatiales

Le constat d'une consommation des terres agricoles situe ´es en pe ´riphe ´rie urbaine se heurte souvent a `une incapacite ´a `quantifier et a `qualifier la forme de ce changement d'usage du sol. L'e ´tude mene ´e a `Mekne `s a ainsi ne ´cessite ´en premier lieu un diagnostic quantitatif. Le travail a consiste ´en la re ´alisation d'une cartographie par te ´le ´de ´tection de l'occupation et de l'utilisation du sol de la zone de Mekne `s a `deux dates (2001 et 2011), suivie d'une analyse de l'e ´volution spatiale de l'occupation du sol entre ces deux dates. La te ´le ´de ´tection est une me ´thodologie performante pour l'analyse des dynamiques spatiales de changements d'usage de sol, qu'il s'agisse de la de ´tection des dynamiques agricoles (Martı ´nez et Mollicone, 2012) ou de l'e ´valuation spatiale des conversions des sols agricoles/urbains [START_REF] Dupuy | An objectbased image analysis method for monitoring land conversion by artificial sprawl use of rapideye and irs data[END_REF]. En outre, le recours a des images satellitaires s'est ave ´re ṕarticulie `rement adapte ´dans ce cas d'e ´tude ou `les informations spatialise ´es disponibles sur le terrain sont peu nombreuses et non exhaustives. Le choix des images a releve ´de plusieurs options me ´thodologiques. En premier lieu, le choix de la de ´cennie 2001-2011 permet d'aborder des changements re ´cents et lie ´s a `l'introduction de dispositifs re ´glementaires ayant un impact sur les formes et l'ampleur de l'urbanisation, tels la de ´rogation ou la re ´forme de la mainleve ´e, conside ´re ´s plus loin. D'autre part, cette pe ´riode permet de disposer d'images a `haute et tre `s haute re ´solutions spatiales, assurant une qualification plus aise ´e des types d'occupation du sol, une ve ´rification sur le terrain permettant de valider la dernie `re anne ´e. Les variations phe ´nologiques et les changements intersaisonniers ont e ´te ´pris en compte par le choix de deux images par anne ´e retenue. Enfin, l'utilisation des deux modes d'acquisition des images pour une me ˆme date a e ´te ´privile ´gie ´e : mode panchromatique, adapte ´a `la description des formes spatiales gra ˆce a `la fine re ´solution disponible, et mode multispectral, adapte ´a `la description des types et natures des surfaces. D'autres crite `res ont e ´te ´enfin conside ´re ´s pour chaque sce `ne : faible couverture de nuage, angle d'acquisition et ge ´ore ´fe ´rencement. Le traitement et la classification des images ont e ´te ´re ´alise ´s selon la me ´thode de la classification oriente ´e objet, me ´thode conside ´re ´e comme la plus adapte ´e pour l'analyse satellitaire de territoires complexes comme les territoires pe ´riurbains [START_REF] Forster | Mapping urban and peri-urban agriculture using high spatial resolution satellite data[END_REF]. Les informations recueillies ont e ´te ´comple ´te ´es par des donne ´es SIG 2 (limites administratives, re ´seau routier, hydrographie) issues de bases open source. Enfin, une validation des re ´sultats a e ´te ´effectue ´e selon une se ´rie de 260 points de contro ˆle acquis sur le terrain par releve ´s GPS 3 , validation montrant un niveau e ´leve ´de pre ´cision globale (91 %). Cette validation a permis de produire la carte des usages du sol pour 2011 (figure 1). L'analyse des changements, a `partir des deux cartes d'usage de sol avec la classification simplifie ´e (figure 2 2 SIG : syste `me d'information ge ´ographique.

Ressorts législatifs de l'urbanisation des terres agricoles à Meknès

La croissance urbaine de Mekne `s s'ope `re ainsi au de ´triment de terres agricoles re ´pute ´es fertiles dans cette plaine du Saı ¨s. Diffe ´rents e ´le ´ments permettent de mettre en perspective les donne ´es pre ´sente ´es dans cette premie `re partie : ils ont trait au contexte re ´glementaire relatif a `l'urbanisme, ainsi qu'a `la structure et a `la spe ´cificite ´du foncier agricole marocain et meknassi. En premier lieu, la pre ´servation des terres agricoles vis-a `-vis de l'urbanisation n'est pas la pre ´occupation premie `re des politiques publiques marocaines. Ancienne, la crise du logement se prolonge au de ´but du XXI e sie `cle : le besoin en logements est mal couvert, notamment pour les populations a `faibles revenus. L'exode rural, bien que moins intense que post-Inde ´pendance, est e ´value ´a 106 000 personnes par an entre 1994 et 2004 (Recensement ge ´ne ´ral de la population, 2004). Les projets de re ´sorption des bidonvilles et quartiers clandestins lance ´s au de ´but des anne ´es 1980 sont revenus sur le devant de la sce `ne a `la faveur des politiques de lutte contre la pauvrete ínstaure ´es depuis 1998 (Le [START_REF] Tellier | Regards croisés sur les politiques d'habitat social au Maghreb : Algérie, Maroc, Tunisie[END_REF]. La construction de logements sociaux est devenue l'une des priorite ´s nationales. La mise a `disposition de terres agricoles pour l'urbanisation se justifie ainsi, me ˆme si les ope ´rations de relogement engage ´es tendent de fait a masquer la re ´cupe ´ration de terrains a haute valeur foncie `re et certaines pratiques spe ´culatives de la part des autorite ´s locales [START_REF] Navez-Bouchanine | Les chemins tortueux de l'expérience démocratique marocaine à 542[END_REF]. Dans ce contexte peu favorable, le maintien de terres agricoles demeure toutefois une pre ´occupation majeure. Le soutien et le de ´veloppement de l'agriculture constituent l'un des autres piliers des politiques publiques marocaines [START_REF] Hervieu | Mutations et défis pour l'agriculture au Maghreb[END_REF]. La consommation ou l'artificialisation des terres agricoles, bien que peu quantifie ´es [START_REF] Crts | Évaluation de l'impact de l'urbanisation sur les terres agricoles[END_REF]INAU, 2005), est pointe ´e comme un proble `me re ´el et le devenir de terres fertiles dans un contexte de retour en force de la question de la se ´curite ´alimentaire est sujet a `inquie ´tude (Abouhani, 1996 ;[START_REF] Abis | L'impact de la politique d'urbanisation poursuivie au Maroc sur l'espace agricole[END_REF]. Un ensemble de lois et re `glements lie ´s a `l'urbanisme inte `grent ainsi la pre ´servation des terres agricoles. A l'e ´chelle nationale, la loi 12/90 relative a `l'urbanisme stipule la ne ´cessite ´de « pre ´servation de terres agricoles et des Il planifie l'extension urbaine dans des limites pre ´cises et oriente l'urbanisation vers les zones agricoles les moins productives. L'urbanisation pe ´riphe ´rique observe ´e se de ´veloppe notamment dans 12 zones d'urbanisation nouvelles (ZUN) ouvertes a `l'urbanisation sur 1 303 hectares de terrains publics ou collectifs en vue de la construction de programmes de logements sociaux. Dans la pratique cependant, la construction de logements sur des terrains non aedificandi est courante. Cette urbanisation n'est d'ailleurs pas seulement le fait de constructions non re ´glementaires, ce que nous de ´taillons plus loin. Dans le me ˆme temps, la relative rarete du foncier disponible pour l'urbanisation, en raison de l'importance des statuts fonciers collectifs (35,4 %), accroı ˆt la pression sur les terres melk et tend a `renforcer un processus de spe ´culation bien connu en pe ´riphe ´rie urbaine [START_REF] Elloumi | Bouleversements fonciers en Méditerranée: Des agricultures sous le choc de l'urbanisation et des privatisations[END_REF]. La recherche de terres pour l'urbanisation s'est ainsi ope ´re ´e dans un contexte de forte contrainte foncie `re, contexte libe ´re ´a `la faveur de deux lois : la de ´rogation (1999) et la mainleve ´e (2005). Voulant dynamiser le marche ´foncier pour re ´aliser les objectifs de de ´veloppement e ´conomique et de construction de logements sociaux, la loi de la de ´rogation aux lois 12-90 et 25-90 qui re ´gissent l'occupation des sols au Maroc traduit la volonte ´du gouverne-ment de promouvoir l'investissement en acce ´le ´rant les proce ´dures relatives a `l'attribution de permis de construire. Elle vise plus clairement a de ´bloquer les dossiers « en souffrance », le plus souvent, a `cause de l'incompatibilite ´avec les dispositions des documents d'urbanisme. Elle permet ainsi la construction de logements en pe ´riphe ´rie urbaine dans des contextes re `glementaires pourtant initialement de ´favorables. Nombre d'acteurs locaux, implique ´s dans les de ´cisions d'urbanisme et membres des commissions de de ´rogation, font partie du jeu de spe ´culation foncie `re. A `Mekne `s, comme ailleurs au Maroc, l'usage de la de ´rogation, loin d'e ˆtre exceptionnel, est devenue la re `gle, « moyen re ´gulateur des infractions urbanistiques » (Agence urbaine Mekne `s, 2005). Si la de ´rogation a permis de de ´bloquer des projets d'investissement, ses effets ne ´gatifs sont nombreux. D'une part, chaque projet de de ´rogation e ´tant e ´tudie ´de manie `re isole ´e, on constate une forme de mitage de l'espace rural pe ´riphe

´rique. D'autre part, le nombre important de projets de ´roge ´s tend a `affaiblir la le ´gitimite ´des documents d'urbanisme re ´duits a `de simples documents consultatifs. Malgre ´la circulaire de 2010 visant a `privile ´gier les projets de logement social, la dynamique de de ´rogation reste forte a `Mekne `s ou `103 projets ont e ´te ´soumis pour examen en 2011. Le logement social semble constituer aujourd'hui une opportunite ´et une justification pour les promoteurs prive ´s afin de construire des logements autres que sociaux et une manie `re de le ´gitimer leurs projets immobiliers. En second lieu, la volonte ´du gouvernement marocain de stimuler l'investissement agricole s'est traduite par une libe ´ration du foncier agricole des coope ´ratives de la re ´forme agraire. Mise en place pour favoriser l'intensification agricole face au constat d'un certain immobilisme de ces coope ´ratives, cette loi de la mainleve ´e a eu un impact notable pour la ville de Mekne `s et sa pe ´riphe ´rie, ou `32 coope ´ratives couvrent une superficie totale de pre `s de 14 979 hectares et une surface agricole utile (SAU) potentielle de 14 010 hectares (figure 3). Ce dispositif a produit des effets non souhaite ´s, en favorisant notamment la vente et l'achat massif de terrains.

Sur les terres en coope ´ratives agricoles localise ´es dans les dix communes de la zone d'e ´tude (repre ´sentant en 2008 environ 8 772 hectares), l'analyse des changements d'occupation du sol concerne 6 691 hectares : en dix ans (2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011), les surfaces agricoles et les sols nus associe ´s sont passe ´es de 99 a `98,2 % de la superficie totale de ces coope ´ratives, tandis que les espaces urbanise ´s passaient de 29 a `85 hectares. La coope ´rative de Sidi Slimane Moul Kifane, au sud-est du terrain militaire de Mekne `s, repre ´sente le tiers de ces changements ; elle rejoint ainsi la coope ´rative agricole de Naı ¨ji comme coope ´rative a `l'emprise urbanise ´e notable. De ´rogation et mainleve ´e ont permis la libe ´ration acce ´le ´re ´e de terres agricoles pour l'urbanisation. Ces dispositifs ont e ´te ´saisis principalement par les acteurs de la promotion urbaine, dans une dynamique de construction de ´passant les besoins en logement identifie ´s pour Mekne `s (Observatoire re ´gional de l'habitat, 2008). La pression sur les terres agricoles situe ´es en pe ´riphe ´rie urbaine de ´coulant de cette libe ´ration du foncier, et le prix e ´leve du foncier a `ba ˆtir ont occasionne de nombreuses transformations de l'activite ´agricole en pe ´riphe ´rie de Mekne `s : vente certes, mais e ´galement transformation des syste `mes de production dans une perspective d'attente, ou encore modification des pratiques afin de mieux re ´sister aux e ´volutions. Selon nos observations, fonde ´es sur les prix de ´clare ´s par les agriculteurs, le prix pratique ´lors de cessions de terres de la re ´forme agraire situe ´es dans l'imme ´diate pe ´riphe ´rie de Mekne `s varie entre 150 et 300 dirhams (DH ; 100 DH = 8.9429 euros) le me `tre carre ´. Dans des coope ´ratives plus e ´loigne ´es, comme Sakia Hamra, les prix varient entre 40 et 60 DH. Mais la distance au centre n'est pas le seul crite `re : pour Niya, e ´loigne ´e du centre urbain mais situe ´e a `proximite ´de la route principale, d'activite ´s industrielles et du centre de Boufekrane, les prix varient entre 250 et 300 DH. Pour mieux rendre compte des strate ´gies diffe ´rencie ´es d'acteurs agricoles face au changement impose ´par l'urbain, nous nous inte ´ressons a `une coope ´rative agraire situe ´e a `l'imme ´diate pe ´riphe ´rie sudouest de Mekne `s, dans la commune rurale de Majjate.

Mainlevée et stratégies foncières des agriculteurs dans la coopérative de Naïji, commune rurale de Majjate

La coope ´rative Naı ¨ji (figure 3) permet d'e ´voquer les strate ´gies foncie `res des agriculteurs. La coope ´rative regroupe 39 attributaires, dans deux zones : la zone principale et le sous-centre, qui correspond a `la zone industrielle de la commune de Majjate. Sur la partie principale de la coope ´rative, sur 31 lots d'une superficie moyenne de 10 hectares, 7 ne sont pas encore vendus, et 5 sont vacants. Cinq agriculteurs maintiennent une activite ´agricole alors que deux sont en arre ˆt d'exploitation dans l'attente d'une cession des terres. Chaque attributaire a ne ´gocie índividuellement avec le ou les promoteurs, sans que la coope ´rative ne serve d'interlocuteur collectif dans les discussions pre ´alables a `la vente. Les strate ´gies des agriculteurs te ´moignent d'une prise en compte du marche foncier en pe ´riphe ´rie urbaine [START_REF] Laraki | L'agriculture urbaine et les enjeux du changement des statuts fonciers[END_REF] et d'un positionnement vis-a `-vis de ce marche ´. La croissance urbaine est perc ¸ue comme une menace directe porte ´e sur l'activite ´agricole, en me ˆme temps qu'une opportunite ´re ´elle d'accroı ˆtre le revenu, faible pour la plupart des agriculteurs, par le biais de la vente des terres pluto ˆt que par le changement des pratiques agricoles. Une analyse des strate ´gies des 31 attributaires montre toutefois la diversite ´des motivations a `la vente ou au maintien (figure 4). Une large majorite des attributaires a opte ´pour la vente de leurs terres suite a `leur melkisation. Si la vente peut e ˆtre motive ´e par le profit (agriculteurs pauvres, activite ´a `faible rendement ; agriculteurs a ˆge ´s, he ´ritiers nombreux ou non motive ´s par l'agriculture ; agriculteurs se ´duits par la rente e ´leve ´e possible), et e ˆtre synonyme de sortie de l'agriculture, elle peut e ´galement s'inscrire dans une volonte ´d'investissement dans l'agriculture, sur place ou ailleurs (rachat de terres meilleures, d'une plus vaste superficie, plus loin, associant un investissement dans le mate ´riel et l'irrigation). Le maintien, concernant ici cinq agriculteurs seulement, regroupe lui-me ˆme deux types de strate ´gies : volonte ´de conserver l'activite ´agricole, se limitant ici a `un seul attributaire, ou strate ´gie spe ´culative d'attente, ou `l'activite ´agricole se concentre sur des cultures maraı ˆche `res ou ce ´re ´alie `res. Ce type de strate ´gie peut me ˆme se de ´cliner en un fractionnement de la vente en deux phases afin de maximiser le profit, permettant ainsi, pour le cas du lot 7 de cette coope ´rative, de voir le prix de vente a `l'hectare passer de 1,6 a `3 millions de dirhams. Les strate ´gies observe ´es dans le cas de cette coope ´rative ne nous ont pas permis de rencontrer des cas de vente partielle, associe ´e a `des investissements (achat de mate ´riel agricole) et des innovations techniques (irrigation par goutte a `goutte) permettant d'ame ´liorer rendements et revenus sur les terres restantes. Dans ces cas, le maintien en agriculture, qu'il soit partiel ou total, s'inscrit dans une strate ´gie d'intensification de la production sur la partie restante des terres et va de pair avec un changement de production agricole, en lien avec les aides accorde ´es par le PMV. Les adaptations des syste `mes de production au changement introduit par l'avance ´e du front urbain sont, dans le cas de cette coope ´rative, inexistantes. La question se pose ainsi de la durabilite ´de cette agriculture. Agriculture urbaine ? Il apparaı ˆt qu'il s'agit davantage d'une agriculture proche de l'urbain, prise dans les jeux de spe ´culation foncie `re et de concurrence d'usages usuels. La consommation des terres agricoles pe ´riurbaines est perc ¸ue comme logique, bien que regrettable par les agriculteurs, tandis que les acteurs de la gestion urbaine, utilisant les dispositifs re ´glementaires a `leur disposition, mettent en avant les besoins (re ´els ou fictifs) de foncier pour la construction de logements, comme cela a pu e ˆtre observe ´ailleurs [START_REF] Jouve | Le foncier, une ressource territoriale difficile à construire en périurbain[END_REF].

Conclusion

La consommation des terres agricoles en pe ´riphe ´rie de Mekne `s est notable. Au-dela `de la disparition de terres fertiles, l'urbanisation reconfigure les strate ´gies des agriculteurs, dans le cadre d'un marche ´foncier ou `le prix des terrains a `ba ˆtir incite les agriculteurs a `une cession des terres, source d'une rente e ´leve ´e, d'autant plus bienvenue qu'elle vient supplanter des revenus issus de l'agriculture souvent faibles. La durabilite ´de l'agriculture urbaine est compromise par ces pratiques, ignorant leur impact ne ´gatif e ´ventuel sur l'activite ´agricole et le territoire en son ensemble. Pour autant, c'est bien l'absence de re ´gulation foncie `re publique qui est motrice des changements observe ´s [START_REF] Jacobs | L'engrenage de la croissance urbaine: la place de la propriété dans la planification urbaine[END_REF]. L'artificialisation des terres s'ope `re via des dispositifs re ´glementaires nationaux de ´tourne ´s de leur objectif initial : de ´rogation et mainleve ´e, marque ´es d'une orientation politique libe ´rale et utilisant la ressource foncie `re pour stimuler l'investissement, concourent a `un mitage de l'espace pe ´riphe ´rique au me ´pris de documents d'urbanisme e ´labore ´s localement tels le SDAU. Ce dernier, dont on ne peut que constater la faible efficience des mesures de protection des terres agricoles qu'il proposait, est quant a `lui fonde ´sur une « ide ´e duale de pre ´servation de l'agriculture seulement la `ou `elle peut e ˆtre productive, et de son effacement progressif ailleurs au profit d'autres usages » [START_REF] Vianey | L'aménagement communal périurbain : maintenir l'agriculture pour préserver quelle ruralité ?[END_REF], ici re ´sidentiels et industriels. Une gouvernance foncie `re locale, inte ´grant l'agriculture dans les plans d'ame ´nagement urbain et s'assurant de l'efficacite ´des mesures et zonages pre ´conise ´s, fait de ´faut a `Mekne `s. Ce constat renvoie au difficile dialogue entre instances urbaines et agricoles, mais e ´galement au succe `s mitige ´de la mise en place de la de ´centralisation au Maroc [START_REF] Planel | Transformations de l'État et politiques territoriales dans le Maroc contemporain[END_REF]. Ainsi, si l'on peut observer, en Europe mais aussi dans des pays du Sud, l'e ´mergence d'initiatives formelles ou informelles qui concourent a `inte ´grer l'agriculture au de ´veloppement urbain [START_REF] Soulard | Introduction : Innovations et agricultures urbaines durables[END_REF] et a `mettre en avant la multifonctionnalite ´de l'activite ´agricole, ce n'est pas le cas a Mekne `s. L'e ´mergence d'une agriculture inse ´re ´e dans l'urbain, adaptant production et commercialisation a `un marche ´spe ´cifique, ou reconnue dans ses fonctions non productives, est peu perceptible. La demande elle-me ˆme pour le de ´veloppement d'une telle agriculture urbaine est ambigue ¨. Les services agricoles ne reconnaissent pas de spe ´cificite ´aux agricultures urbaines et pe ´riurbaines et se positionnent me ˆme en rejet de l'agriculture intra-urbaine se de ´veloppant dans l'une des trois valle ´es qui sillonnent la ville, agriculture diversifie ´e (maraı ˆchage, arboriculture, e ´levage) mais marginalise ´e et peu inse ´re ´e dans une dynamique de modernisation et de me ´canisation, et conside ´re ´e de ce fait comme une non-agriculture. Certains acteurs de la gestion urbaine pourraient cependant commencer a porter un regard neuf sur l'agriculture urbaine, dans un contexte favorable a la mise en oeuvre d'un de ´veloppement urbain durable, qui occupe une place croissante dans les politiques publiques urbaines marocaines [START_REF] Philifert | La construction d'une politique de développement urbain durable au Maroc : principes, traductions et contradictions[END_REF]. A `Mekne `s, la prise de conscience, par l'Agence urbaine en pre-mier lieu, du ro ˆle potentiel de l'agriculture au sein de l'espace urbain a ainsi mene ´a `une re ´flexion sur l'ame ´nagement possible de l'une des valle ´es intra-urbaines en re ´fe ´rence aux mode `les de trame verte promus en Europe et particulie `rement en France, et s'inspirant par ailleurs des mode `les de parcs multifonctionnels incluant l'agriculture [START_REF] Duvernoy | Une agriculture multifonctionnelle dans le projet urbain: quelle reconnaissance, quelle gouvernance[END_REF]. Ce changement de regard porte ´sur l'agriculture urbaine et pe ´riurbaine, pre ´alable ne ´cessaire a `un changement des pratiques, n'en est cependant qu'au stade d'e ´bauche : le rapport diagnostic pre ´alable a `l'e ´laboration du nouveau SDAU de Mekne `s re ´alise ´en 2012 ne mentionne ainsi ni l'agriculture urbaine ni ce projet paysager prometteur porte ´un temps par l'Agence urbaine. &

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Occupation du sol en 2011 dans la commune de Meknès et les communes périphériques.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Land use in 2011 in Meknes and peripheral municipalities.

3

  GPS : Global Positioning System. 4 L'emprise des images satellitaires, centre ´e sur la ville de Mekne `s, ne se superpose pas exactement avec les unite ´s territoriales utilise ´es dans la suite de l'e ´tude. L'occupation du sol a donc e ´te ´e ´tudie ´e seulement dans les dix communes de l'agglome ´ration de Mekne `s, dont deux sont en partie couvertes par cette information.Une analyse plus qualitative sur les formes spatiales des changements a e ´te ´e ´galement effectue ´e. Une analyse radiale a permis d'e ´tablir des gradients d'e ´volution de surfaces construites selon la distance depuis le centre-ville de Mekne `s et des gradients d'e ´volution de surfaces agricoles. Entre les deux dates, les terres agricoles sont consomme ´es pour l'urbanisation de manie `re tre `s contraste ´e selon les communes, pour lesquelles la position relative au centre de Mekne `s est un facteur e ´videmment tre `s fort : en dix ans, c'est la commune de Ouislane qui a eu le transfert des terres agricoles vers l'urbain le plus e ´leve ´(26,1 %), suivie de Mekne `s (22 %), Boufekrane (10,4 %) et Toulal (7 %). Hormis Boufekrane, qui apparaı ˆt comme un centre urbain en relais vers le sud, sur la marge de la zone intercommunale, les deux communes de Ouislane et Toulal supportent une grande partie de la pression de l'urbanisation sur l'agriculture. Les autres communes, a `superficie plus grande et plus pe ´riphe ´riques sont moins touche ´es : Dar Oum Soltan et Dkhissa, au nord, voient peut e ˆtre leur situation d'accessibilite ´plus difficile, en contrebas de l'escarpement de Mekne `s, jouer un ro ˆle de frein dans l'urbanisation (a `part la partie sud-est de Dhkissa, proche de Ouislane), tandis que Majjate et Sidi Slimane Moul Kifane, sur la plaine du Saı ¨s, n'ont que l'autoroute comme frein a `l'expansion urbaine. Concernant l'e ´volution des formes de croissance du ba ˆti, une analyse de la typologie texturale du ba ˆti montre que 20 % des nouvelles constructions en 2011 peuvent e ˆtre conside ´re ´s comme relevant d'une densification du tissu urbain existant, par « infiltration » dans les interstices disponibles. La tre `s grande majorite (80 %) de la progression du ba ˆti est ainsi caracte ´rise ´e par une extension pe ´riphe ´rique.

  c) CNES 2010-2011, ANCFCC Réalisation : J. Azodjilande, J.-P. Chéry

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Évolution de l'espace bâti entre 2001 et 2011 et principaux axes de l'urbanisation.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Artificial surface changes (2001-2011) and the main orientations of urbanization.

  zones forestie `res lors de la de ´termination par le Sche ´ma Directeur d'Ame´nagement Urbain (SDAU) des zones nouvelles d'urbanisation ». Pour cela, les commissions d'e ´laboration des SDAU ainsi que celles re ´alisant ulte´rieurement les Plans d'Ame ´nagement et sie ´geant pour l'attribution des permis de construire ou de lotir comprennent obligatoirement un repre ´sentant du ministe `re de l'Agriculture a `travers un agent de la Direction provinciale de l'agriculture (DPA) ou de l'Office re ´gional de mise en valeur agricole Tableau 1. Changement d'usage du sol et évolution des surfaces entre les années 2001 et 2011.

  Figure 3. Localisation des coopératives agricoles et état de l'urbanisation en 2011.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Location of agricultural cooperatives and status of urbanization in 2011.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Stratégies foncières des attributaires de la coopérative de Naïji.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Land strategies of farmers of the Naïji cooperative.

Table 1 .

 1 Land use changes and surface evolution(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011).Usage du sol 2001 (ha) Surfaces agricoles Espaces urbanisés Végétation naturelle Sols nus Non classé Total

	Usage du sol 2011 (ha)

Pour une mise en perspective, notons qu'en France, la surface d'artificialisation des terres a ùsage agricole e ´tait, entre

et 2009, de 93 000 hectares par an en moyenne (ministe `re de l'Agriculture, Agreste Primeur, 2010).

Cah Agric, vol. 22, n8 6, novembre-de ´cembre 2013

Le statut foncier guich correspond a `des terres appartenant a `l'E ´tat ayant e ´te ´attribue ´es en jouissance perpe ´tuelle, par les sultans du Maroc, a `certaines tribus, en re ´compense de services militaires rendus.

Remerciements

Cette recherche a e ´te ´finance ´e par l'Agence nationale de la recherche (ANR) via le projet DAUME n˚ANR-2010-STRA-007-01. Les donne ´es sont issues d'entretiens re ´alise ´s en 2011 et 2012 aupre `s des services de la DPA de Mekne `s, de l'agence urbaine de Mekne `s, et d'agents du Centre de travaux agricoles, e ´manation locale du ministe `re de l'Agriculture, de Majjate, ainsi qu'aupre `s de 30 agriculteurs attributaires de la coope ´rative Naı ¨ji.