Simone Bircher
email: simone.bircher@cesbio.cnes.fr

Stephen Razafindratsima

François Demontoux

Mie Andreasen

Johanna Vuollet

Kimmo Rautiainen

François Jonard

Lutz Weihermüller

Philippe Richaume

Arnaud Mialon

J.-P Wigneron

Y H Kerr

Soil moisture and dielectric constant measurements of organic soils in the higher northern latitudes in support of the SMOS mission

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out on samples collected in Denmark, Finland, Scotland and Siberia. Here, focus is on the presentation of the material, applied methods and first results that show consistent trends, in agreement with other studies using TDR sensors. The observed dielectric constants of the organic substrate at a given water content are decreased compared to sandy mineral soils due to high water binding capabilities of the former. The current ongoing data analyses including the derivation of organic calibration functions shall be presented at the symposium.

I -INTRODUCTION

Organic-rich soils are typical for the circumpolar northern cold climate zone (boreal forest/tundra). Due to aboveaverage rising temperatures in the higher northern latitudes, a large amount of these important carbon sinks might be released, possibly causing a significant positive feedback on global warming (e.g. [START_REF] Stokstad | Defrosting the carbon freezer of the north[END_REF]). Hydrology plays a key role, but the overall response of these soils remains currently highly uncertain. Thus, there is a strong need to Fourth International Symposium on Soil Water Measurement using Capacitance, Impedance and Time Domain Transmission (TDT), July 16 to 18, 2014, McGill University, Quebec, Canada monitor hydrologic states and water redistribution processes in these regions.

The only means to acquire such observations at high temporal resolution and with complete spatial coverage are by spaceborne remote sensing techniques. The European Space Agency's (ESA) Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission [START_REF] Kerr | Soil moisture retrieval from space: The Soil Moisture and Ocean Salinity (SMOS) mission[END_REF]) carries the first space-borne passive L-band microwave (1.4 GHz) radiometer on board. It acquires global brightness temperatures (TB) from which surface soil moisture is retrieved, taking advantage of the very large difference between the dielectric constant (also referred to as relative permittivity, ε) of dry soil and liquid water. The retrieval algorithm is based on the inversion of the L-band Microwave Emission of the Biosphere (L-MEB) radiative transfer model [START_REF] Wigneron | L-band microwave emission of the biosphere (L-MEB) model: Description and calibration against experimental data sets over crop fields[END_REF]) using tuning parameters derived from study sites in dry and warm temperate climate zones In order to improve our understanding of L-band emission of organic soil surface layers and thus, enhance the quality of SMOS soil moisture data in the higher northern latitudes, the ESA project "SMOSHiLat" has been initiated (http://due.esrin.esa.int/stse/projects/stse_project.php?id=179). Its aim is to adapt and calibrate the L-MEB model for organic soils encountered in Northern regions and test it in the SMOS soil moisture prototype retrieval algorithm in view of its implementation in the operational one. In a first step, a database is created including measured and modelled key parameters of the radiative transfer chain from Northern study sites, i.e. L-band TBs and soil dielectric constants, in situ soil moisture, temperature and soil characteristics. In this context, an important issue is soil moisture sensor calibration for organic-rich material to relate the acquired sensor response (a function of ε) to soil moisture. While several studies have investigated the influence of organic matter content on the Time Domain Reflectometry (TDR) sensors (e.g. [START_REF] Topp | Electromagnetic determination of soil water content: measurement in coaxial transmission lines[END_REF][START_REF] Schaap | TDR calibration of organic forest floor media[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Time domain reflectometry measurement principles and applications[END_REF][START_REF] Vaz | Evaulation of standard calibration functions for eight electromagentic soil moisture sensors[END_REF], such analyses are sparse for impedance and capacitance sensors, though the latter are widely used due to their significantly lower costs. Therefore, two sensors, Delta-T ThetaProbe ML2x (impedance) and Decagon 5TE (capacitance) 1 , are being calibrated for variable organic matter content using both field and lab measurements from mainly two study sites in Northern Finland and Denmark. While these sensors measure at 100 and 70 MHz, respectively, dielectric constant measurements are also being carried out at the L-band frequency using two 1 Mention of manufacturers is for the convenience of the reader only and implies no endorsement on the part of the authors complementary approaches (rectangular wave-guide and resonant cavity techniques).

In this paper, the sensor calibration and L-band dielectric constant measurements are presented and discussed. As analyses are still ongoing, here focus is on the presentation of the study sites, material and applied methods. Some preliminary results are shown and an outlook is given on the work that will be presented during the symposium.

II -STUDY SITES

An overview over the study locations is given in Figure 1. This experiment includes primarily the two main SMOSHiLat test sites in Finland (Finnish Meteorological Institute, FMI), and Denmark (Hydrologic Observatory, HOBE). The FMI's Arctic Research Centre is situated in Sodankylä in the boreal (coniferous forest) zone of Northern Finland. The prevailing soil type is podsol of mainly very sandy texture and overlying organic surface layers. Samples were collected from a heathland area within a forest clearing as well as under spruce. At both locations, a Decagon 5TE soil moisture and soil temperature station with sensors at 5, 10, 20, 40, and 80 cm depths, respectively, is placed. In Denmark, the selected HOBE test site is situated within the Gludsted spruce plantation in the Skjern River Catchment. Soil samples were mainly collected in the forested parts and to a small amount in a heathland area. The naturally occurring soil type is again podsol of coarse sandy texture with pronounced organic surface layers. Several soil moisture and soil temperature stations are distributed in the forest, including Decagon 5TE sensors at 5, 25 and 55 cm depths of the mineral soil as well as in the organic surface layer. Furthermore, organic samples were collected in two peatlands on the Island Islay in Western Scotland, GB, (Centre d'Etudes Spatiales de la Biosphère, Toulouse), and on the West Siberian Plain, Russia, from a tundra area and a bog as well as a forest farther south (Laboratoire d'Etudes en Géophysique et Océanographie Spatiales, Toulouse).

III -MATERIAL AND METHODS

III -A -Soil Moisture Calibration

Calibration of the electromagnetic sensors, Delta-T ThetaProbe ML2x (impedance) and Decagon 5TE (capacitance), is being carried out. The ThetaProbe ML2x is a soil moisture sensor with four 6-cm long rods building an array whose impedance varies with a medium's water content (Delta-T Devices Ltd., 1999). The voltage output is proportional to the soil's dielectric constant and related to water content using the manufacturer's calibration curves for mineral and organic substrates. The probe has been widely evaluated and some calibration functions for organic material were derived (see [START_REF] Vaz | Evaulation of standard calibration functions for eight electromagentic soil moisture sensors[END_REF]. The Decagon ECH2O 5TE uses the capacitance method to measure around three 5.2 cm long prongs (Decagon Devices Inc., 2014). From the raw sensor output the dielectric constant is estimated dividing by 50. By default, the Topp equation for mineral soils ( 1980) is used to calculate soil moisture.

Thus far, calibration for organic material has only been conducted by [START_REF] Vaz | Evaulation of standard calibration functions for eight electromagentic soil moisture sensors[END_REF] for a plant potting mix.

Curves for natural organic soils are lacking. The dielectric constants observed by 5TE sensors and ThetaProbes correspond mainly to the real part (ε'), but as the measurements are sensitive to the imaginary part (ε'') to some extent (e.g. [START_REF] Blonquist | Standardizing Characterization of Electromagnetic Water Content Sensors: Part 2. Evaluation of Seven Sensing Systems[END_REF], the term "apparent dielectric constant" (ε a ) is used.

Most calibration measurements on different mineral and organic soil horizons were conducted at the Finish and Danish sites in the lab. At the HOBE forest site a field experiment was also carried out in order to validate the lab approach. To avoid increasing water content underestimation towards the dry end due to shrinkage effects of the organic matter (e.g. [START_REF] Schaap | TDR calibration of organic forest floor media[END_REF] the material was previously saturated. Subsequently, it was allowed to undergo a natural dry down in order to consider the changing volume during the sampling process. In case of lab calibration, saturated bulk densities were estimated in the field and the collected material packed accordingly in large buckets. In the center of each bucket one 5TE sensor was installed horizontally with the blade in vertical direction to avoid ponding of water. These measurements were logged continuously, while ThetaProbe readings and gravimetric samples were taken sporadically. The latter were oven-dried at 105 ºC during 24 hours and at 85 ºC during 48 hours for the mineral and organic material, respectively. The chosen organic drying temperature was estimated as the point around which mass loss due to charring balanced the effects of residual water due to the strong water binding capabilities of organic matter (O' Kelly, 2004). The estimated gravimetric water content was converted into the volumetric. Texture and organic content data were obtained using standard procedures. At the Finish sites and the Danish forest site, calibration samples were taken close to 5TE network stations at the respective sensor depths. The field experiment took place at one of the latter. Three Decagon 5TE sensors were installed in the organic horizon and logged permanently. The soil was saturated and during the dry-down ThetaProbe readings and gravimetric samples kept being taken. These field data include some further 5TE-ThetaProbe-gravimetric sample couples available from organic layers around other network stations within the plantation.

In order to increase the number of calibration points and thus, the scope of validity, some additional measurements were added: Few data were acquired during a radiometer experiment for which purpose a large soil patch (organic and A-horizon) from heathland within the Gludsted plantation was transported to the Research Center Jülich, Germany [START_REF] Jonard | Electromagnetic characterization of organic-rich soils at the microwave L-band with ground-penetrating radar, radiometry and laboratory measurements[END_REF]. Furthermore, some ThetaProbe measurements together with gravimetric sampling were taken from the Scottish and Siberian samples in the lab.

An Overview of all calibration samples and their characteristics is given in Table 1. Layers with soil organic matter content (SOM) greater than around 34 % (e.g. [START_REF] Zanella | European Humus Forms Reference Base[END_REF]) are considered organic horizons. Dry bulk densities range from 0.05-0.4 and 1.0-1.5 g/cm3 for the organic and mineral samples, respectively. Sand fractions always constitute more than 80 % of the total soil mass. Couples of sensor output and sample volumetric water content of all data are plotted for the two sensor types in order to evaluate the manufacturer's calibration curves and if required derive new ones.

III -B -L-band Dielectric Constant Measurements

L-band dielectric constant measurements are being carried out at the Laboratoire de l'Intégration du Matériau au Système (Bordeaux, France) using two complementary approaches: The resonant cavity is based on the small perturbation method [START_REF] Boudouris | Validité de la méthode de perturbation appliquée aux cavités résonnantes pour la mésure de la perméabilité et de la permittivité des petits échantillons[END_REF]) and measures sample-induced changes of resonance parameters of the transmission coefficient curve (resonance frequency and quality factor). The Nicolson, Ross and Weir rectangular waveguide technique [START_REF] Weir | Automatic measurement of complex dielectric constant and permeability at microwave frequencies[END_REF] estimates the complex coefficients of transmission and reflection. In both cases the real and imaginary parts of the dielectric constant (ε', ε'') are computed. The former method is more precise but restricted to fixed frequencies, while the latter can measure over a wider range and uses larger samples, better accounting for the material's heterogeneity. Classification of the measured organic samples was undertaken according to Zanella et al. (2011, Table 2). A range of different humus types of both terrestrial and semi-terrestrial regimes (rarely/frequently water-saturated, respectively) were sampled. For comparison, the underlying mineral Ahorizons and overlying vegetation layers were also acquired at the Danish and Finish sites.

In case of the resonant cavity, glass tubes were filled with air dried material (5.2 cm 3 ) using pre-defined in situ bulk densities. Different water contents were added to span the entire wetness range. Two tubes per step were prepared and each was measured three times at room temperature and frozen conditions, respectively. For the wave-guide measurements, teflon containers (60 and 125 cm 3 depending on material's composition) were used. The samples having different soil water contents were measured twice at room temperature and under frozen conditions, respectively, turned 180 degrees between the two measurements to account for heterogeneity effects. Due to laborintensity, the ideal preparation from the wet-end was only undertaken in case of semi-terrestrial samples exhibiting the strongest shrinkage effects. For both methods a calibrated vector network analyzer was used. The measurements in different substrates, using the two complementary methods, are currently being analyzed and compared.

IV -RESULTS/DISCUSSION

IV -A -Soil Moisture Calibration

Figure 2 shows Decagon 5TE and ThetaProbe output plotted against the sample water content, separately for organic and mineral horizons (listed in Table 1), together with the manufacturer's default curves. For the 5TE sensor, є a is used as the raw output is only logged by Decagon-fabricated devices. Color codes go from highest to lowest SOM content. Despite a significant dispersion, a clear and consistent trend is visible in the organic data from all locations.

For both sensor types, there is good agreement between the field and lab measurements from the HOBE forest site.

The 5TE sensor response at a given water content is significantly lower for organic material than indicated by the default mineral function. This behavior was likewise observed in respective TDR studies (e.g. [START_REF] Topp | Electromagnetic determination of soil water content: measurement in coaxial transmission lines[END_REF][START_REF] Jones | Time domain reflectometry measurement principles and applications[END_REF]. It has been explained by the substantial bound water fraction in high surface-area porous organic matter where interfacial forces render water molecules rotationally hindered, leading to reduced є a . In contrast, and opposite to the manufacturer curve's trend, our organic ThetaProbe measurements consistently show an increased sensor output at a given water content, and the response seems to saturate around 1000 mV. The mineral data with SOM < 10% scatters around the default curves. While the ThetaProbe data of SOM > 10% follow this pattern, the 5TE sensor shows a tendency towards decreased є a but with weaker shape than for organic horizons. . For SOM% see Table 1.

IV -B -L-band Dielectric Constant Measurements Figure 3 illustrates an example of the first L-band dielectric constant measurements (real/imaginary parts) using an Figure 3: L-band dielectric constants (ε'/ε''), for an average mineral soil [START_REF] Hallikainen | Microwave dielectric behavior of wet soil-part 1: Empirical models and experimental observations[END_REF] and fitted through preliminary wave-guide and cavity measurements of organic soil from the Sodankylä forest site.

organic sample from the Sodankylä forest site. Data is depicted over the entire wetness range including corresponding estimates for an average mineral soil after [START_REF] Hallikainen | Microwave dielectric behavior of wet soil-part 1: Empirical models and experimental observations[END_REF]. Resonant cavity (1.48 GHz), and wave-guide (1.4 GHz) observations are in reasonable agreement. Consistent with the calibration data, lower values are observed for the organic material compared to the mineral soil.

V -CONCLUSIONS/OUTLOOK

Measurements of the two soil moisture sensors Decagon 5TE and Delta-T ThetaProbe for organic surface layers as well as sandy A-horizons from different sites in Denmark, Finland, Scotland and Russia show consistent trends.

While the data from mineral horizons with low soil organic matter content are in good agreement with the manufacturer's default functions, adapted organic calibration functions are currently being derived. At the same time, other organic calibration curves, mainly derived for TDR sensors, are being tested. L-band dielectric constant measurements spanning a variety of humus types and water regimes, and using wave-guide as well as resonant cavity techniques are currently being analyzed. Existing work such as TDR observations in similar frequency domains will be considered. Also, the sensitivity of the organic matter's dielectric constant to varying frequency, notably between L-band and standard measurement frequencies of capacitance and impedance soil moisture probes (~50-100 MHz) shall be studied. These investigations will be presented during the Fourth International Symposium on Soil Water Measurements. In a next step, new SMOS soil moisture products will be retrieved over Northern regions using L-band dielectric constants adapted to measured values, and compared to re-calibrated in situ data.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Overview over all sampling locations

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: 5TE apparent dielectric constant ε a (left) and ThetaProbe output [mV] (right column) against volumetricwater content Ө (gravimetric samples) for organic (top) and mineral horizons (bottom row) with color codes from highest to lowest SOM content (yellow -dark red and purple -dark blue, respectively). For SOM% see Table1.

Table 1 :

 1 Overview of the calibration samples collected from organic and mineral horizons. N=Number of readings.

			Location	Land cover Type Layer	SOM	N 5TE N ThetaProbe
					depth [cm]	[%]
	Organic HOBE_Forest_O_F	Gludsted, DK Forest	Field 0-5	69-93	19	13
		HOBE_Forest_O1_L			Lab 0-5	69	11	11
		HOBE_Forest_O2_L			Lab 0-5	31	11	11
		HOBE_Heath_O_F		Heath	Field 0-5	NaN	2	8
		FMI_Forest_O_L	Sodankylä, FI Forest	Lab 0-5	36.6	7	7
		SIB_O_L	Siberia, RU	Tundra/bog Lab 0-10	NaN	0	3
		ISL_O_L	Islay, GB	Bog	Lab 0-10	NaN	0	17
	Mineral	HOBE_Forest_M_L	Gludsted, DK Forest	Lab 10-15	8	11	11
		HOBE_Heath_M_F		Heath	Field 10-15	NaN	4	7
		FMI_Forest_M_L	Sodankylä, FI Forest	Lab 10-15	15	6	6
		FMI_Heath_M1_L		Heath	Lab 0-5	7	5	5
		FMI_Heath_M2_L			Lab 10-15	5	4	4

Table 2 :

 2 Overview over organic samples collected for L-band dielectric constant measurements

	Location	Land cover	Water regime	Type	Horizons
	Gludsted, Denmark	Coniferous forest (spruce) Terrestrial	Mor	OL-OF-OH
		Heathland	Terrestrial	Moder	OL-(OF)-OH
	Sodankylä, Finland	Coniferous forest (spruce) Terrestrial	Mor	OL-OF-OH
		Heathland	Terrestrial	Mor	OL-OF-OH
	West Siberia, Russia Tundra	Semi-terrestrial	Hydromor	(OLg)-OFg-(OHg)
		Bog	Semi-terrestrial	Histomor	hf
		Forest	Terrestrial	Mor	OL-OF-OH
	Islay, Scotland, GB	Peat	Semi-terrestrial	Histomor	hf-hm


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Potential effects of real life exposure to environmental contaminants on reproductive health

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Scenario analysis of alternative management options on the forage production and greenhouse gas emissions in Mediterranean grasslands

Antonio Pulina, Gianni Bellocchi, Giovanna Seddaiu, Pier Paolo Roggero

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Antonio Pulina, Gianni Bellocchi, Giovanna Seddaiu, Pier Paolo Roggero. Scenario analysis of alternative management options on the forage production and greenhouse gas emissions in Mediterranean grasslands. 19th Meeting of the FAO-CIHEAM Mountain Pastures Network, Jun 2016, Saragosse, Spain. 4 p. hal-01578283


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Zsuzsanna Zsuppan

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Longevity, an adaptation trait of Creole goats to tropical climate

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  1 , R.Arquet 2 , M.Mahieu 1 , N.Mandonnet 1 INRA -URZ 1 -UE PTEA 2 Aim of the study Ensuring food security in meat production locally, in Guadeloupe, and generally in the tropics Producing food in an agroecological way Sustainable management of animals adapted to production systems  Is it possible to increase productivity and adaptation of does to tropical regions through their longevity ? 1) Intensive farming system : 3 kiddings in 2 years  3 mating seasons (dry, intermediate, wet) during 1 month  Buck effect  Suckling period of kids ~ 3 months 2) Age at puberty 11 months 3) Replacement rate ~ 20 % 4) Performance recording; pedigree data, growth and development data, reproductive performance data…etc were recorded till foundation generation of 1979 at INRA Antilles-Guyane Material and Methods Performance recording Data base management of INRA-Gardel, Guadeloupe, French-West Indies Annual registration of reproductive performance Registration of 11 year period (2001-2012) Lifetime record completed of 387 Creole does Longevity: 1st kidding-culling age Survival Kit v6.1 (Ducrocq, Sölkner, Mészáros, 2012) Heritability estimates of longevity in Creole goats • Cattle production : Mercadante et al. (2000) h²=0.08-0.26 ; Rogers et al. (2004) h²=0.14 • Sheep production : Mekkavy et al. (2009) h²=0.27 ; Vatankhah (2013) h²=0.01-0.09 from different linear models and h²=0.08-0.55 from animal and sire models  Breeding value of resistance to GI parasitism ~ longevity basis of longevity in Creole goats which is an original result regarding the literature 2) Practical importance and management recommendations for farmers to optimize productivity of Creole does 3) Longevity, why is it an adaptation trait? http://transfaire.antilles.inra.fr/spip.php?article167


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Muriel Mambrini-Doudet

Elsa Berthet

DESIGNING ANINTERDISCIPLINARY LABORATORY TO TACKLE GOVERNANCE FOUNDATIONS

Keywords: Governance, Theory, Interdisciplinarity Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -1 Designing

The formal landscape of governance studies is obscure although governance has become a selfunderstanding practice in very discrepant fields. Our assumption is that governance relies on micro-foundations not captured through disciplinary procedures, which are better shaped for macro-foundations. We propose an interdisciplinary method mixing indirect approach and epistemic rigor. We chose as experimental field the ecosystem of science management, because i) it is one of the most ancient enterprise practicing governance and ii) each member of our team could provide the knowledge of actors, practitioners, managers and scholars using the same experimental device. We built a transient interdisciplinary laboratory using procedures offered by a new epistemic proposal, which opens the disciplinary fields on a generic space and allows the combination of different sources of knowledge with high rigor. In short, governance is considered as an integrative object encompassing a large diversity of dimensions. It is studied using a dynamic matrix crossing sources of knowledge corresponding to the dimensions (variables) with drivers of knowledge exchange (index) within a working community. We defined the minimal model for governance as the ratio of orchestration of collective organization over dynamic knowledge puzzling. We built the matrix with, as variables, the discrepant postures within the ecosystem of scientific knowledge production and as index the epistemic tools best linked to the two terms of the model namely discipline democracy and machinery for knowledge exchange. Each of the authors of the present article filled in the matrix, the cells provided then the scientific data to be processed in our interdisciplinary laboratory. The results are so far the precise description for governance of i) a model, ii) a style and iii) micro-foundations. All together they highlight the landscape in which searching for theories and give the interdisciplinary background as well as impulses to eventually design new ones.

epistemic rigor. We chose as experimental field the ecosystem of science management, because i) it is one of the most ancient enterprise practicing governance and ii) each member of our team could provide the knowledge of actors, practitioners, managers and scholars using the same experimental device. We built a transient interdisciplinary laboratory using procedures offered by a new epistemic proposal, which opens the disciplinary fields on a generic space and allows the combination of different sources of knowledge with high rigor.

In short, governance is considered as an integrative object encompassing a large diversity of dimensions. It is studied using a dynamic matrix crossing sources of knowledge corresponding to the dimensions (variables) with drivers of knowledge exchange (index) within a working community.

We defined the minimal model for governance as the ratio of orchestration of collective organization over dynamic knowledge puzzling. We built the matrix with, as variables, the discrepant postures within the ecosystem of scientific knowledge production and as index the epistemic tools best linked to the two terms of the model namely discipline democracy and machinery for knowledge exchange. Each of the authors of the present article filled in the matrix, the cells provided then the scientific data to be processed in our interdisciplinary laboratory. The results are so far the precise description for governance of i) a model, ii) a style and iii) micro-foundations. All together they highlight the landscape in which searching for theories and give the interdisciplinary background as well as impulses to eventually design new ones.

Introduction: convoking epistemology to design governance theory

Governance has become the most commonly used term in social and political science; it gets even more mentions among scholars than 'government', 'politics' or democracy' (Colebatch, 2014). It endeavors an historical transition worldwide, although the actual applications and meanings of governance vary according to the culture -for example it does not cover the same perimeter in English and French-and to the levels of development of civil society and of democracy within the political system [START_REF] Peters | Is governance for everybody?[END_REF].). But everywhere "governance" means something else than government or management, it activates other mechanisms and processes.

If it is obvious in practice, the contrasts between governance, government and management are however hard to illustrate.

What surrounds governance is global change and knowledge dynamic. Indeed arrangements between governance and knowledge systems are co-produced [START_REF] Jasanoff | States of Knowledge: The Co-Production of Science and Social Order[END_REF].and have mutually constitutive relations [START_REF] Van Der Molen | The interplay between knowledge and governance: insights from the governance of recreational boating in the Dutch Wadden Sea area 1981-2014[END_REF]). Then we may resume governance as steering in complex, uncertain and transformational environments with wellequipped knowledge systems. This amplifies the request of raising awareness and knowledgeability of this steering mechanism. According to [START_REF] Peters | Is governance for everybody?[END_REF],), the future development of governance theories will have to be towards refining and extending the use of the concept. But are we prepared to do so?

Governance is practice; what matters is the practice of governing, the action that creates governing. What can then the theoretical framework? On the one hand, theories have Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -3 predictive and explanatory capacities to support a broad area of practice such as management, policies, guidance, etc. On the other hand, combining academic rigor with practitioner relevance is challenging: practice uses fragments of different sources of knowledge, coming from numerous disciplines and outside disciplines. For the only strategic management research, 202 theories have been used so far; five of their "top ten" originate from the discipline of management, the other ones are borrowed to the economics, psychology and sociology fields (Kenworthy and Verbeke, 2014).). What will be the count for governance which embeds more variable and complex dimensions than management? The term governance, as the term management are so open, they intricate a large variety of dimensions, which cannot be reduced without increasing the risk of ideologically driven interpretations.

Governance has a generic value and specific declinations, none has to be neglected because, as Peters (2014) claims, "governance is for everyone". How can we handle such large and discrepant dimensions within a common theoretical landscape? Following Colebatch (2014),), we may learn more from looking at governance not as the next big thing in political or management science, but at the way of relocating concerns of scientists within a broader framework for theorizing social action.

Does practice particularly hurts the universal, predictive and explanatory values of theories?

Or are scientific practices limited to provide theories with generic values? Epistemology, "the theory of knowledge", questions the extent to which knowledge pertinent to any given entity can be acquired. Its classical form remains grafted to philosophy: the criteria to acquire pertinent knowledge are built on opposition such as complementarity and continuum, theory and fact, theory and observation, theory and experience, justification and verification. This is in line with the disciplinary apparatus, where scientific knowledge is produced with incremental precision, facts selection, experience designed according to theory… In other words science is qualified within disciplines, disciplines are identified according to their theoretical contribution, they are hierarchized, according to their theoretical production, mathematics and philosophy lay at the top. Classical epistemology frames a space where macro-foundations clearly appear and quickly become structuring dimensions of the disciplinary apparatus, for the best efficiency of qualified scientific knowledge production.

Today, classical epistemology account with difficulty for the multiplicity of contemporary manifestations of science1 , the limits are that i) theories coming from different disciplines are generally mutually exclusive, ii) eventual middle-range or micro-dimensions are shadowed, iii) knowledge outside disciplines is not qualified. "Undiscipline knowledge" demands "a new thought style" (Darbellay, 2015),), which means an extended frame to nuance and surround oppositions, complete the macro-foundation and gain compatibility among the discrepant sources of knowledge. Because philosophy is particularly resistant to foreign elements2 , it implies that epistemology rely on additional thinking modes and invent.

Concerning management science, Hernes (2014)) suggests that scholars cut loose the shackles of misplaced scientific ideals to focus on the localized, embedded, fluid and contingent nature of managerial work. Foss (2009)) and Kenworthy and Verbeke (2014) point out the importance of the "micro-foundations" for the theoretical production of this specific field of science.

Our hypotheses are: (H1) governance is particularly sustained by micro-foundations, not visible through disciplinary procedures, which are shaped to identify macro and universal foundations (H2) the theoretical landscape where to formalize theories is radically interdisciplinary.

This means that i) the landscape will be more efficiently identified if the process is not driven by a unique discipline, ii) interdisciplinary procedures has to be invented and iii) theories can be designed outside disciplines if disciplines cooperate. It is known that interdisciplinary projects offer favorable conditions for exchanging fragments of knowledge and consistent concepts [START_REF] Schmid | Une nouvelle logique d'interdisciplinarité[END_REF]. They may even be seen as enterprises bringing innovative designs [START_REF] Hatchuel | De la gestion des connaissances aux organisations orientées conception[END_REF]. But for the purpose of identifying micro-foundations, such "enterprises" will not be driven by any common object. They will have to be shaped with a theoretical ambition and to comply with the highest request of scientific rigor and relevance.

In other words, they will harbor epistemic values. Already in 2005, Hatchuel proposed to convoke epistemology to surround design theories because they deal with the process of knowledge formation and exchange [START_REF] Hatchuel | Towards an epistemology of collective action: management research as a responsive and actionable discipline[END_REF]. Examples of cooperation of design or management scientists with philosophers are rare and confirm that the dialogue is not only of quality, it also raises original concepts (Konda et al., 1992 , Schmid and[START_REF] Schmid | On generic epistemology[END_REF].

Their theoretical impulsion seems still limited by classical conception of epistemology which are strongly rely on philosophy. None of the classical or modern philosophic proposals welcome the design's dynamic process, and its way to associate components as heterogeneous as objects, knowledge and concepts.

Generic epistemology is a new proposal. It is an invention extending the limits of classical epistemology. It places epistemology not over of after science, but in science. In doing so, it opens up the epistemological field, which gains vigor and additional rigor through its anchorage to the context of the scientific activity. Instead of criteria of evaluation, generic epistemology provides procedures.

-The first series of procedures open the generic space, based on the following inventions i)

The integrative object: the object is not given, remains partially unknown, linked to the intention of the research team and superposes state of art and of non-art, ii) Collective intimacy: refers to conditions leading expression and share of knowns and unknowns favorable to interdisciplinary regimes; within a device allowing collective intimacy, the integrative object can be translated into a heuristic.

-The second series of procedures maintains the generic space with: i) Operators: such as fiction, future or virtual. They allow the combination of heterogeneous fragments of science and philosophies, their property is to modify the use of disciplinary knowledge and thus to enrich the concepts,

ii)

The dynamic matrix: is central in generic epistemology. It treats dualities and heterogeneities, adds dimensions and interactions, preserves knowledge heterogeneity, avoids the overlapping of one source of knowledge with another one and warrant the democracy between variables even if those are disciplines.

Our strategy was to build an "interdisciplinary transient laboratory" using experimental methods based on procedures of generic epistemology to produce the compound of knowledge on which the theoretical landscape for governance could be designed. The

Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -7

"laboratory" was formed at purpose. It gathers researchers from various disciplines to which management has borrowed theory: sociology, philosophy, biology and ecology. Each of us tackles research fields as diverse as work, ecosystems, innovation, scientific organization and epistemology. We have in common to be engaged in producing new concepts in response to the actual stakes of the evolution of working and environmental conditions as well as the extension of scientific production and technical possibilities. Our interdisciplinary "laboratory" merges high philosophical, scientific and social ambitions.

The research activity in our "interdisciplinary laboratory" consists of iterative meetings of 1h30, during which we trace trajectories between our disciplines and scientific actualities, under our hypotheses (H1 and H2) and using the tools provided by generic epistemology. It began 1,5 years ago with no other material that our collective intention, under the auspice of our scientific organizations and the intellectual environment of a chair of Design thinking cofunded by academy and industry.

To function, our laboratory has:

1. as research object: governance considered as an integrative object.

2. as management process, data acquisition facilities, analytical frame: a dynamic matrix 3. as means to ease knowledge exchange (double movement of individuation and genericity): posture and style.

Our scientific method and collective strategy were progressively established. The series of results obtained son fare are:

regarding governance foundations: The later results will not be presented here. They were an intermediary step of knowledge rearrangement to render manifest the components directly linked to governance.

Method: the logics and scientific strategy

The steps are as follows:

1. Explore the various dimensions of governance, including the structural and variable ones, and find the minimal model that will encompass as much as dimensions and variations as possible, that may be used as a vector of expression and transmission of the results.

We analyzed the most recent scientific literature on governance, to identify the dimensions of this integrative object and composed the minimal model (see results):

Orchestration of processes Governance ---------------------------------------------------------
Dynamic puzzling of knowledge 2. Choose as experimental field a sector of activity where governance is practiced for long and to which the members of the laboratory are connected. The experimental data will be the bulk of knowledge convoked by each expert without purpose or a priori and under conditions of collective intimacy. The data are highly heterogeneous.

Scientific knowledge production was the activity chosen.

Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -9

First, it appears as the oldest enterprise practicing governance. [START_REF] Stroker | Governance as theory: five propositions[END_REF] teer and guide rather than command, knowledge production can be programmed but hardly commanded Second, regarding the activity of scientific knowledge production, we, the members of the interdisciplinary laboratory, are at the same time actors, practitioners, managers, scholars and end-users coming from different organizations and communities, with discrepant backgrounds. We could extract heterogeneous but connected knowledge within our "laboratory", without any disciplinary supervision, using generic epistemology procedures as underpinning processes warranting quality and rigor.

3. Identify the dimensions structuring the sector of activity that is governed; they are the variables of the matrix. We considered them as to be harbored by the actors of the scientific knowledge production ecosystem which are: researchers, technicians, science managers, end-users, political bodies and civil society.

Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -12

We crossed the distinct postures regarding knowledge production with two principles of generic epistemology: i) knowledge from different origins has the same weight (science democracy) and ii) knowledge exchange needs a "device". They were chosen because they both orient the variations of the numerator and denominator of the model (orchestration of policies and dynamic puzzling).

5. Experts or academics fill in the matrix separately.

Each of us asked him or herself: "what if, given a specific posture, the activity of knowledge production and use was undertaken based on knowledge democracy?" and "what if there was a device activating knowledge exchange?". We recruited a mix of scientific, experiential, organizational, practical and conceptual knowledge.

6. Extract the content of each cell of the matrices by column and then by row across all matrices. It is a bulk of heterogeneous knowledge and concepts disconnected from their historic, disciplinary or ontological background, but sounding theoretically and in practice. They are the experimental data of the interdisciplinary laboratory to be analyzed and organized.

Results and discussion: Model and theoretical landscape for governance

The types of results

Beside the description of governance as an integrative object, we produced a minimal model of actions encompassed under the term governance.

The results coming out of the matrix are:

1) By column: components and concepts mobilized for each posture when considering knowledge democracy and a machine for collective interaction, upon which:

a. narratives are built on heuristic maps composed by a logical reassociation of the terms used by the different experts b. our model of governance was refined, by selecting processes supporting orchestration of policies and resources facilitating dynamic puzzling of knowledge.

c. We identified terms of common sense for each posture, which were considered as the first series of concepts of the theoretical landscape.

2) By index: we found properties, actions and values expected from governance:

a. The terms used to describe the changes linked to "knowledge democracy" were components of governance quality and the ones used to foresee the effects of the "machine for knowledge exchange" were actions expected to be fulfilled.

All together, they compose the "governance style".

b. We found terms pointing values common to the different stakeholders of the ecosystem, which may be considered as a second series of concepts of the theoretical landscape.

c. We found unexpected connections between concepts which opens original hypothesis and fields of research.

The present paper focuses on the description of governance model, style and theoretical landscape.

Governance as an integrative object

Different facets or governance are revealed by literature analysis.

Governance instead of government or management. The tendency is that the term governance replaces the term government in public administration, corporate organization, international affairs; it replaces the term management for objects as discrepant as project, environment, internet, information technology, family.

Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -14

Governance as a practice. In short, it is raised by the practitioner as the best description of the orientation, decision-making, organization of complex mixes of public-private-society interests and it is understood as such by the public.

Governance as a norm. It is considered as good or fair when rights and interests of the stakeholders and civil society are respected; it is qualified as bad or unfair when the efficacy and accountability of the key persons to deal with such complex issues is under question.

Governance as a concept. Governance is affiliated to analytical construct, label or concept, which may be generic, operational or even magic [START_REF] Pollitt | Talking about government: The role of magic concepts[END_REF].

Governance as a need to shift. The appeal for governance may reflect the need to design means based on principles. According to the Commission on Global Governance, what is mobilized is process rather than rules, accommodation rather than domination, continual interaction rather than formal institution. It denotes the need of closer intricacy between policy, market and society, and of quantum entanglement between end-users, decision-makers and decision-takers.

Governance as an article of faith. The governance arrangements may combine the best of governmental and market-based alternatives in a constructive and efficient way. This claim can be no more than an article of faith.

Governance as not an easy escape. Shift from centralized government to governance modes needs specific means to be handled because i) it is not easy to escape the assumption that governing is done by the government given that the constant subdivision of its workforce is described in terms of its functional concern for matters to be governed (Foucault, 1986), Governance as failure. ii) governance without government may lead to shadow hierarchy, dilution of authority and blurring of responsibilities [START_REF] Peters | Is governance for everybody?[END_REF] and iii) shift from hierarchical to non hierarchical regimes is accompanied by the multiplication and combination of governance modes, decentralized, interactives and self-governed. This suffers too from failure unless the modes are adapted to objects, objectives, context and circumstances [START_REF] Howlett | The two orders of governance failure: Design mismatches and policy capacity issues in modern governance[END_REF].

The model

The minimal model

We depart from [START_REF] Heclo | Policy analysis[END_REF] description of governing as being accomplished by a continuing interplay of official and non-official forms underpinned by the collective puzzling.

continuing interplay of official and non-official forms Government = - -----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------collective puzzling to anchor the various dimension of governance as they appear when it is considered as an integrative object. We then expressed the minimal model as : governance being is a consistent and oriented orchestration of policies, management, guidance, processes and mechanisms of decision-making underpinned by the puzzling of heterogeneous and dynamic knowledge, interests, intentions and trajectories:

Orchestration of policies, management, guidance, processes, mechanisms of decision making

Governance = ----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------- ----------------------------------

Dynamic puzzling of heretogeneous knowledge, interests, intentions and trajectories

The refinement

Means to orchestrate policies

We identified means, existing or innovative, which sustain the quality of governance process.

They rely on:

Ways of dynamic knowledge puzzling

Within areas orchestrating policies harbouring the features previously described the following effects can be inferred:

-

The style

What is expected from a « good governance » is :

Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -17

-If the head of the organization has the following skills : intuition, discernement, intention, engagement, political sense, scientific culture -Then the activities promoted in the organization may be: deliberating, conjugating, inventing, designing, prototyping, instituting, alterstituting, empowering, treating, curing

The theoretical landscape

The concepts that we have identified are mobile within the different disciplines, where they have different meanings and address specific dimensions.

- because of the number of disciplinary fields and volume of literature concerned. However, first, we found that the list of concepts as a whole reveals a theoretical landscape of interest to scholars and practitioners willing to position, visit or extend the theoretical background of their action. Second, if macro-foundations are linked to and provide a certain degree of homogeneity, micro-foundations have certainly to be searched within a background composed of multiple dimensions. Therefore, we decided to preserve the heterogeneity of the so-called landscape.

Research subjects

We discovered relationships among notions or concepts that may shed a new light on macroconcepts moved by governance practice, such as property, exploitation and responsibility.

This movement is of prime importance. At the same time, it gives at the same time the value and arguments to devaluate governance practice because it leads to shadow hierarchy, dilution of authority and blurring of responsibilities.

The relationships were as follows:

-Epistemic responsibility with collective intimacy -Exploration with exploitation -Property with common sense

They reinforce and open new ways for tackling the evolution of such macro-concepts and impulsion of further interdisciplinary research on these difficult subjects.

Conclusions: ways to pursue

In our transient interdisciplinary laboratory, we have highlighted and gathered background material in which micro-foundations of governance theory may be searched. The fact that 1) it constitutes a dense and heterogeneous landscape which coordinates are known and new concepts and 2) it opens research questions on responsibility, exploitation and property, gives credit to the hypothesis that governance is particularly sustained by micro-foundations.

Because the results are radically interdisciplinary, they are open to research in numerous disciplinary fields. They add the constrain or impulsion of studying the subject knowing its situation in other dimensions that will not be experienced.

The method set up in our transient interdisciplinary laboratory was efficient enough to raise a bulk of results largely heterogeneous; they have implications far beyond the sum of our disciplinary fields. The present manuscript opens the discussion in each disciplinary and professional field concerned. The specific perspectives of our "transient interdisciplinary laboratory" is to design the next steps of our method that will lead to the scientific expression of the micro-foundations. We are currently exploring the possibilities of tracing the trajectories of the set of the outlined concepts (like a "high density" image of the theoretical landscape) within each of our disciplinary fields, through regular iterations between our common laboratory and our usual working communities. These trajectories should be composed of fragments of existing theories (of macro-foundations) and of new material.

Litterature

Callon M., Law J.

o-

  a minimal model o a description of the management style o a series of concepts circumscribing the micro-foundations of the theoretical field. Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -8 In addition, o narratives of the posture of each actors of the scientific knowledge production ecosystem.

  has identified five groups of conditions for which governance is mobilized. They perfectly fit with the concerns of deans or CEOs of scientific organizations: Stoker (1998) Scientific organizations, activities of the deans or CEOs 1. Link institutions and actors for decision-making, Link institutions and actors for decisionmaking since science is both an international and local activity, 2. Extend roles and responsibilities in response to their blurring, Extend roles and responsibilities according to scientific advances, external project funding… 3. Take account of power dependence between institutions, Take account of power dependence between institutions, shape the nature and objects of activities of the organization to make it specific although contributing to global scientific production 4. Consider self-organizing networks Consider the self-organizing networks that are disciplines and research laboratories 5. Steer and guide rather than command.

  Generic epistemology proposes operational concepts like posture or style giving a common base for knowledge exchange without affecting heterogeneity and individuation. Posture was used to distinguish actor's relationship to knowledge production, whereas style sustained the interdisciplinary process. The concept of style has been progressively engaged in the description of scientific and philosophical approaches since 1970 3 . With the changes of scale and levels provoked by interdisciplinary processes, the compositions between style and objectivity are possible and very actual. The style is engaged in philosophy to combine different sources of argumentations (multiplicity of the right of philosophies). It opens the 3 For the introduction of the style in philosophy, ChaïmPerelman et Lucie Olbrechts-Tyteka, 1952[START_REF] Perelman | Traité de l'argumentation : La nouvelle rhétorique[END_REF], Jean- Louis Galay, 1983, Gilles-Gaston Granger, 1968. The philosophies of Gilles Deleuze, Jacques Derrida and Jean-Luc Nancy contribute also to the introduction of the style in philosophy. The subject of introducing the style to consider the plurality of scientific argumentation is currently treated by Ian Hacking or Stéphanie Ruphy.Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -11 capacity of acknowledging the coexistence of diverse modes of arguing and logical binding. Design the dynamic matrix that will support knowledge extraction, by crossing the structural dimensions of governance (see above) and the dynamic ones (index). The later may correspond to tools provided by generic epistemology, like principles or translation of operators in the specific activity studied or principles of generic epistemology, because they will move knowledge exchange and concept production.

-

  Designing the interdisciplinary laboratory to tackle governance foundations -16 Collective organizations such as professional associations and knowledge communities undertaking specific activities such as learning by exploring and experimenting within specific devices such as laboratories and platforms where processes have simultaneously the following features : local, formal and informal where knowledge conjugates and iterates among the different professions, common objects being occasions with an open government with the aim to design, incubate, treat, cure activities and organizations developing dynamic plans in and alter-stituting.

  Knowledge exchange undergo trajectories instead of articulation -Technics are multiplied -The choice becomes collective -Careers are more mobile -Collective identities are built -The alliance between science, industry and society is intensified.

  considered as concepts in different disciplines, others are new ones. It has been, for us and so far, impossible to agree on categories in which we could rank or organize the different concepts. Describing each of them is almost impossible in a regular publication

  schemes,

Table 1 :

 1 , Rip A. (Eds.), 1986. Mapping the Dynamics of Science and Technology: Discipline and Punish : the birth of the prison. Translated from the French by Alan Sheridan. Surveiller et punir. English Publisher New York: Vintage Books. Matrix filled in drawing upon an experience in biology

	Sociology of Science in the Real World. London: Macmillan.
	Coutellec L., 2013. De la Démocratie dans les sciences. Epistémologies, Ethiques, Pluralisme.
	Paris, Matériologiques (Ed)
	Colebatch H.K., 2014. Making sense of governance. Policy and Society, 33, 307-316.
	Darbellay F., 2015. Rethinking inter-and transdisciplinarity: Undisciplined knowledge and
	the emergence of a new thought style. Futures 65 (2015) 163-174
	Foss N.J., 2009. Alternative research strategies in the knowledge movement: From macro bias
	to micro-foundations and muIti -Ievel explanation. European Management Review, 6, 1--
	28.
	Foucault M. 1979.

Models, for example, are in a "no man's theoretical land", hypothesis do not have a fixed position regarding scientific knowledge production, science produce objects with no specific identifies or functions and the questions addressed to science are only partially translated.

This obstacle to philosophical invention and cooperation with other disciplines has been challenged by theorists from various disciplinary backgrounds such as Wittgenstein, Derrida, Bourdieu, Lacan, Simondon, Stiegler or Sloterdijk.


est destinée au dépôt

FFAR4 is involved in docosahexaenoic acid effects on oocyte developmental potential during in vitro maturation

Mouhamad Oseikria, Svetlana Uzbekova, Anais Vitorino Carvalho, Véronique

Duranthon, Sébastien Elis

To cite this version:


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Valorisation of the natural variation available in tomato accessions to decipher the genetic control of fruit quality traits

h 1 1 1 h 1 13 l' 3 L. Pascua 1 J. Xu 1 C. Sauvage 1 G. Bauc et 1 N. Desp at 1 J. Bouc et 1 D. Brune 1 M. Lepas rer 1 M. Causse 1 • 1 INRA, UR10S2, GAFL, BP94,F-
Identifying the genes controlling the variation of quantitative traits is a key goal for breeders. Genetic variations underlying quantitative traits {QTL} have been mapped by traditional linkage mapping for years and positional cloning identified several QTLs. However linkage mapping is limited to the analysis of traits differing between two lines and the impact of genetic background on QTL effect has been underlined. Thanks to the increase in molecular markers, genome-wide association studies were then proposed to circumvent QTL limitations. ln tomato, a self-pollinated crop, we have shown that association studies are possible, using the admixed nature of cherry tomato genomes that limits the impact of population structure in such an approach. Nevertheless, the results might be limited by linkage disequilibrium, which varies greatly across the genome. Multi-allelic Advanced Generation Inter-Cross {MAGIC} populations allow a wide range of variability to be analyzed and avoid dealing with population structure.

We have constructed a MAGIC population by crossing 8 tomato lines, representing a wide range of genetic diversity within the species. The large range of phenotypic variability represented by these lines was then characterized at different scales, metabolomic, proteomic and transcriptomic. The variation of a few genesjproteins, involved in primary metabolism and stress response, was related to metabolite content by network reconstruction. The whole genomes of the 8 founder lines were resequenced identifying more than 4 millions SNPs when mapped onto the reference genome. A set of 1536 SNPs markers was then selected to genotype the MAGIC population and used to construct a linkage map. A large increase in recombination frequencies compared to bi-parental populations was shown. QTLs for fruit quality traits were mapped and related to the variations detected at the genome sequence and expression levels in the parental lines. The advantages and limits of the three types of population, in the context of the available genome sequence and resequencing facilities, will be discussed.

  Laura Pascual-Banuls, Jiaxin Xu, Christopher Sauvage, Guillaume Bauchet, Nelly Desplat, Jean-Paul Bouchet, Dominique D. Brunel, Mathilde M. Causse To cite this version: Laura Pascual-Banuls, Jiaxin Xu, Christopher Sauvage, Guillaume Bauchet, Nelly Desplat, et al.. Valorisation of the natural variation available in tomato accessions to decipher the genetic control of fruit quality traits. Applied Vegetable Genomics, Feb 2014, Vienne, Austria. hal-02741808 Valorisation of the Natural Variation Available in Tomato Accessions to Decipher the Genetic Control of

  84143 Montfavet, France (mathilde.causse@avignon.inra.fr),

		2 NorthwestA&FUniversity,	College of
	Horticulture,	Yang Ling, Shaanxin, 712100, P.R.China, 3 INRA, EPGV, Centre de Génotypage, Evry, France

YISCEA

Vienna International Science

Conferences and Events Association

International Conference

Applied Vegetable

Genomics

Programme and Abstracts

Vien na, Austria


Concentration of procaine and exposure time influence in vitro fertilization rate in the equine

CONCENTRATION OF PROCAINE AND EXPOSURE TIME INFLUENCE IN VITRO FERTILIZATION RATE IN THE EQUINE

DOUET C 1 , JEANNERAT E 2 , GOUDET G Most wild equids are currently endangered or threatened, as mentioned in the Red List of the International Union for the Conservation of Nature and several domestic horse breeds are at risk of extinction. Genome resource banking requires cryoconservation of semen, oocytes and/or embryos. Embryo production in equids is limited in vivo, since routine induction of multiple ovulation is still ineffective. Embryo production in vitro allows the production of several embryos per cycle that could easily be frozen owing to their small size. Intracytoplasmic Sperm Injection (ICSI) has been widely adopted to generate horse embryos in vitro, however ICSI is time-consuming and requires expensive equipment and expertise in micromanipulation. We have established an efficient in vitro fertilization (IVF) technique in the equine (Ambruosi et al., 2013 Reproduction, 146: 119-133) but IVF zygotes have a low developmental competence. Incubation of gametes with procaine, necessary for induction of sperm hyperactivation, may have a deleterious effect on embryos quality. Our objective was to increase the developmental competence of the IVF zygotes by decreasing procaine concentration or exposure time. Immature cumulus-oocyte complexes were collected from slaughtered mares in a local slaughterhouse, cultured for 26 hours in an in vitro maturation medium and pre-incubated for 30 minutes in oviductal fluid collected from slaughtered females. Fresh sperm was collected, diluted to 10x10 6 spermatozoa/ml, incubated for 5 hours in a capacitating medium and diluted to 1x10 6 spermatozoa/ml. Spermatozoa were then added procaine (1mM or 5mM) and co-incubated with oocytes for 2, 4 or 18 hours. Zygotes were cultured in DMEM-F12 for 48 hours post-IVF, fixed and analyzed. In experiment 1, spermatozoa were added 5mM procaine and coincubated with oocytes for 2 hours vs 18 hours. The percentage of zygotes 48 hours post IVF was higher for 18 hours co-incubation (62%, 13/21) than for 2 hours (0%, 0/22) (Chi2 test p<0.05). In experiment 2, spermatozoa were added 5mM procaine and co-incubated with oocytes for 4 hours vs 18 hours. The percentage of zygotes 48 hours post IVF was similar for 18 hours (44%, 7/16) and 4 hours co-incubation (32%, 6/19) (Chi2 test p>0.05). In experiment 3, spermatozoa were added 5mM vs 1mM procaine and co-incubated with oocytes for 18 hours. The percentage of zygotes 48 hours post IVF was higher for 5mM procaine (48%, 13/27) than for 1mM (19%, 5/26) (Chi2 test p<0.05). In the 3 experiments, zygotes contained at least 2 highly decondensed pronuclei, pronuclei decondensation being the first step of embryo development. We also observed 2 cleaved embryonic structures in the group 5mM during 18 hours, but the quality of these embryos was poor.

In conclusion, decreasing procaine concentration or exposure time influence IVF rate and doesn't improve equine embryo quality.

  1 1 INRA, UMR 85, Physiologie de la Reproduction et des Comportements, CNRS, Université François Rabelais, IFCE, 37380 Nouzilly, France 2 Swiss Institute of Equine Medicine, Agroscope and University of Berne, Avenches, Switzerland