Carine Ferradou

Storge's dream in George Buchanan's Jephthes siue Votum (1554) or how a topos contributed to the revival of tragedy in modern Europe

Keywords: George Buchanan, Jephthes, dream, Latin tragedy, Renaissance theatre

The premonitory and frightening dream of a mother in tears in the Latin tragedy Jephthes siue Votum (1554) is created by George Buchanan for both aesthetical and dramaturgical reasons. Inspired by the classical and the biblical traditions, not only this topos has a lyrical and pathetic dimension, but also it is perfectly inserted into the tragic structure of the drama so that its invention contributes to the deep signification of the holy tragedy.

The same questions went through ages: where do the dreams come from? Does "someone" send them to us? Do they have any meaning and how can we get it?

The Greek tragic poets Aeschylus, Sophocles, and Euripides, introduced a dream account into their tragedies;3 in general, a more or less obscure but always premonitory signification was given to it. Let us think about Aeschylus' Persians (in the first episode, the Queen is troubled by many bad dreams and in particular by one which directly implies her son Xerxes who is killed by the enemy), or about the Libation Bearers (Choephoroï; the Chorus tells to Orestes that Clytemnestra has just dreamt that she would beget a snake which would drink her blood, and Orestes interprets it as the announce of his murder of his mother), or about Sophocles' Electra (in the first episode, Electra's sister evokes Clytemnestra's dream that announces Orestes' return and Clytemnestra and Aegisthes' murders by Orestes; in 1537, the French poet Lazare de Baïf translated into Latin Sophocles' tragedy); and more particularly about Euripides' Hecuba, one of Buchanan's main patterns.

In the prologue of Hecuba, after the apparition of the ghost of Polydorus who announced the sacrifice of Hecuba's last daughter, Polyxena, Hecuba tells her terrible premonitory dream: she saw a wolf that tore a hind away from her arms and devoured the sweet animal. According to Hecuba, this dream warns her of the sacrifice of her last daughter.

Many elements of Storge's speech prove that Buchanan, who translated into Latin Euripides' Medea and Alcestes, deeply appreciated the tragedy focused on Hecuba, which had been translated into Latin by Erasmus in 1506, 4 and into French by Mellin de Saint-Gelais in 1560.

The second main ancient pattern that Buchanan followed was Seneca's Trojans, vv. 435-488, on the same subject as Euripides' tragedy. After the account of the apparition of Achilles' ghost who asked for Polyxena's sacrifice, Andromache says that the night before she has been terrified by a dream: the ghost of Hector warned her that the Greeks wanted to kill her son Astyanax and told her to hide him. This dream account is the model by excellence of all the tragic dream accounts until the end of Renaissance. One can find stylistic and thematic similarities between it and Storge's speech, as well as Jacques Grévin's French tragedy César or Jacques de la Taille's La Famine ou les Gabéonites (1573, act II, scene, 2: Resefe's dream). 5 Virginie Leroux, 6 as Raymond Lebègue long before her, 7 noticed the importance of the Senecan pattern in Calpurnia's dream account in the third act of Muret's Julius Caesar, 8 and also many similarities between Storge's dream account and Calpurnia's one, moreover Muret was probably influenced by Buchanan's tragedy.

On the other hand, another ancient tradition inspired Buchanan and his successors: the Biblical and Christian literature. Premonitory dreams present the Christians with a difficult problem, since in both Ancient and New Testaments, in hagiography and in Christian poetry, dreams are sent to prophets, saints, martyrs or powerful people either by God, in order to make clear his Will, or by the Devil, in order to lead them astray. That is why the Judaeo-Christian tradition always blamed divination through dreams.

In Genesis, in the Book of Samuel, in the first Book of the Kings, in the Book of Daniel for example, one can find instances of dreams manifesting God's Will. Either the Lord speaks directly to the dreamer, or through an Angel, or through the "metaphoric" dreams that need to be interpreted by a holy man. One can also remember an example taken from Genesis: the story of Joseph, Jacob's son, who is the protagonist of several Latin tragedies during the 16 th and the 17 th centuries, is full of dream accounts that need Joseph's interpretation.

The Gospel and the medieval hagiographic literature also evoke many dreams which come either from God (see for example in Mathew's Gospel the Angel's apparitions when Joseph, Mary's husband, is twice sleeping) and the Virgin (see Giacomo da Varazze9 's Golden Legend, or Legenda aurea), or from the Devil. One of the most famous examples of this kind of nightmare is reported by Saint Jerome himself in his Epistle to Eustochium (when he was an ascetic in the desert, he was often troubled by lascivious dreams, that is why he made repentance and prayed God until he recovered serenity).

All along the Middle Ages and Renaissance, dream accounts were more and more often introduced as anecdotes into the narrative, on the other hand, they could be used as the framework within which a story or a moral message took place, as in the famous Poliphilo's Strife of Love in a Dream (Hypnerotomachia Poliphili)..

What is particular to Buchanan is that he deliberately maintains ambiguity about Storge's dream account: in Jephthes, we do not know what the origin of the bad dream is. It becomes true, since Jephtha will have to sacrifice his only daughter, but neither God nor his Angel directly play a part into the dream in order to clearly warn Storge, and she asks for no interpreter. In consequence, the only supernatural intervention, the only element that could be fantastic or "magic" in the tragedy is very tenuous. Contrary to many ancient patterns, Buchanan's aesthetics is not based on the "deus ex machina" principle.

Buchanan is not interested in the spectacular dimension of drama, on the contrary what he prefers is so to speak psychology and the expression of feelings.

The lyrical and pathetic dimension of Storge's nightmare

At the beginning of the play, through Storge's dream account, Buchanan immediately that the public will read or see a tragedy, and suggests a kind of aesthetics which provokes the feelings with which Aristotle dealt in the Poetics and which the theoretical treatises of Renaissance dramatists also evoke (see for example, Jean de la Taille's l'Art de la tragédie, in 1572-1573).

First, the dream account participates in the heightened expression of feelings. Before Storge's account, many of her words mean sorrow and fright. The first word of the episode is "Eheu". Then, as Calpurnia in Muret's Julius Caesar,10 she begins to express the physical signs of her fright, 11 a diffuse but intense and progressive emotion: first she feels fear ("metu", v.73), then fright ("formidine", v.89) and finally terror ("timor", v.89).

After the dream account, a metrical change shows Storge's deep emotional trouble: she "goes" from the iambic senary to the anapaestic dimeter between the vv. 102 and 103. Her daughter Iphis, who forms with her a kind of a couple -a couple mother-daughter -, answers to her with the same anapaestic rhythm because she is also disturbed by her mother's anguish, even though she refuses it: she feels some innate empathy towards her mother.

Storge's change of metrical rhythm corresponds to a lyrical cosmic invocation to the moon, the stars, the sun.

One has to link this extract to the other laments of the tragedy. For instance, Storge asks the stars to throw her head into the Tartar (the Hell), in the same way as, in the sixth episode, Jephtha, who must sacrifice his daughter, asks the Earth to swallow him up and the Tartar to receive him because he will be a "parricida" (a child-killer).12 This is a good example of what is well-known as rhetoric of lament which is characteristic of Renaissance tragedy, 13 and of the influence of the poetic genre of the elegy on early modern dramatists.

This sad and strained mood becomes more and more full of threatens all along the play.

Within the dream account (vv. 92-102), the contrast between the stillness of the night and the disturbing effects of the nightmare on Storge is an imitation of Andromache's dream account in Seneca's Trojans, vv. 438sqq. Everybody rests all around Storge and Andromache, the night is deep, nice and salutary14 . But both women are in the same state of mind: they suffer from war, the former has lost her husband and has been made a slave, the people of the latter still makes war without knowing if they will win and Jephtha is risking his life (vv. 123-140). Their nightmares give them new reasons for being even more anxious. Their state of mind makes them so to speak more receptive than other sleepers to the messages sent by the night.

Moreover, the contrast between Storge's worrying dream and the rest that comforts everybody symbolically announces the paradox that comes from Jephtha's imprudent vow in the third episode: on the one hand the whole people is happy because the Hebrews won the battle; on the other hand, this victory provokes the worst misfortune for Jephtha's family. In Jephthes, one of the tragic elements is this recurrent gap between the community and its leader, who becomes more and more isolated.

Storge describes her nightmare through visual images which are deeply engraved on her memory. Let us examine how precisely she evokes the arrival and the appearance of the wolves: their run is fast (v. 94: "concito cursu"), they look cruel and wild (the vv. 95-96 are full of descriptive ablatives): they are "ferae", according to the traditional imagery of wolves. Their behaviour is violent (v. 95: "cruento", "rabido" and the neuter adjective "saeuum" used as an adverb in the v. 96, in contrast with the phrase "imbellia…pecora" of the v. 97), yet one can compare it with the behaviour of the dog which is described by the v. 102: "agnam reuulsam dente laniauit truci". Vv. 98-102 are inspired by Erasmus' Latin translation of Euripides' Hecuba15 , vv. 99sqq.:

Vidi siquidem ceruam uariam…nostro e gremio ui direptam Quam laniat lupus ungue cruento Since I saw a spotted hind which is violently snatched from my breast And which a wolf tears to pieces with its bloody claw Buchanan's female character succeeds in expressing the roughness and the rapidity of the action that enhance the fear that she feels, as a passive spectator of her dream, because she gives the public raw data, mere facts, without trying to explain them.

During the nightmare, Storge's terror is provoked by two different causes that lead progressively horror to its climax. The first fear is aroused by the arrival of the wolves: they represent a collective and external danger from the point of view of the sheep (the "grex" of the wolves is opposed to the flock of the sheep), this danger is current, normal in Nature since it is based on the link between preys and predators. Then the fright is renewed with the faithful shepherd dog that suddenly becomes a predator whereas it traditionally protects the flock, thus it represents an "internal", unexpected and unnatural danger, a kind of supreme betrayal (it has to protect, not to kill). The violence of this second attack is greater that the first one.

Storge is particularly receptive to this gradation in her nightmare because her whole life has always been a succession of more and more terrible misfortunes, as she says it in vv. 123-140. She seems to be under some curse. Her continual unhappiness is not inspired by the Bible, but it is a way for Buchanan to give deepness and pathos to her maternal character which reminds us of Hecuba.

Storge's dream account contributes to give the whole tragedy a pathetic and lyrical tone; on the other hand it has also a dramaturgical function, since it has deep links with the tragic plot.

The dramaturgical function of Storge's dream account

The nightmare does not announce something new to readers or spectators, because the Angel of the Prologue 16 already summed up the plot, but it is supposed to inform the characters of the tragedy of their future. One could imagine that their will try to avoid this fate, as it is the case in Seneca's Trojans or in Jacques de la Taille's la Famine ou les Gabéonites. Yet in Jephthes, the prophetic meaning of the nocturnal omen remains too obscure for Storge and Iphis. Tragic irony ensues from their impossibility of understanding the whole message sent by the night: even though the characters are warned, they will be catch off their guard by misfortune.

Storge and Iphis are aware of a great danger since they interpret the dream as an omen. The mother, before the dream account, asks God to remove the unknown danger that threatens her family (vv.79sqq.) and after the evocation of the nightmare, she also wants the stars and the night to preserve her daughter from a danger (vv. 107-108):

… si quid natae miserae inpendet, Si quem casum fata minantur… in the same way as Euripides' Hecuba asked the cosmos to protect her son Polydoros (who was already dead, thus her prayer was as fruitless as Storge's one). See for example Hecuba's prayer as it has been translated into Latin by Erasmus (vv. 77sqq.): …o sacra tellus Gignens atris somnis pennis 17 The vocabulary suggests that Storge's dream is an ill omen. First the dream is evoked as "nocturna uisa" (v. 76); according to Forcellini's Latin Lexicon,18 it is the same as the Greek :

Est species alicuius rei, quae oculis nostris diurno tempore dum uigiliamus, uel phantasiae in somniis abiicitur.

So it means either that you see a wonder when you are awake (see the Aeneid, 4,458), or that you make a prophetic bad dream, as in Ovid's Amores, 3, 5sqq or in Silius Italicus' Punic war, 10, 369 or 17, 170. 16 See vv. 51-59.

Moreover, in v. 77, the plural neuter substantive "insomnia" means either insomnia or nightmare, with a negative connotation. For instance, Dido's bad dreams and Palinurus' dream in the Aeneid are called by Virgil "insomnia". The Greek equivalent is , a vision which takes place during the sleep and is sometimes premonitory, according to the definition given by Macrobius in the Commentary on the Dream of Scipio, 1, 3. 19 Finally the substantive "somnium" is used in v. 90 in a phrase with some negative connotation: "imago somnii tristissima", which refers to the Prologue (v. 69: Storge is worried by "somnium") and to the mother's prayer which evokes the "somnia" with black wings. Forcellini, in his definition of the "somnium" quotes many examples, among which Seneca's Hercules furens, v. 1082-1083:

En fusus humi saeua feroci Corde uolutat somnia

After the massacre of his sons, Hercules gets asleep and is disturbed by terrible dreams. "Somnia" are not precisely bad dreams but they are often linked to adjectives which have a negative connotation. Forcellini adds that generally speaking "somnia" have a premonitory meaning, if they are sent by a god (they mean divine orders or interdictions).

Besides, in Jephthes, these terms are associated with the vocabulary of divination. Storge speaks about her dream as a "luctuosum et funebre omen" (v.81). Iphis begins her answer to Storge with the verb "ominare" (v.84): even though she refuses her mother's pessimistic interpretation of the dream, she acknowledges its prophetic dimension.

The interpretation of the dream is obvious for the public, but not for the characters.

Storge only understands that the female lamb is the symbol of her daughter, who will be the victim of misfortune. But she cannot imagine that the dog represents her husband. Even though she understands that her nightmare is meaningful, she paradoxically does not grasp its sense. On the other hand, the Angel of the Prologue already explained that God let Jephtha make this terrible vow in order to remind him of his human condition and to prevent him from the sin of pride.

The public immediately understands that the dream announces the victory against the external enemies (the wolves) thanks to Jephtha (the faithful dog); and also the sacrifice of his daughter (the female lamb) caused by his own imprudence. Jephtha will become the enemy of his own people and kill his only daughter.

Furthermore, the learned public is aware of the implicit references to Euripides' plays, either Hecuba or Iphigenia in Aulis (also translated into Latin by Erasmus; no need to remind that Iphigenia was sacrificed by her father in order to please the gods). In late Antiquity, Lycophron calls Iphigenia Iphis, and "Storge" is a Greek substantive which means maternal love. Thanks to all these cultural and linguistic indications, Renaissance public was able to decode the message of Storge's dream. This is tragic irony: the public knows more than the characters, and this situation creates some complicity between the dramatist and the public, and also some sympathy or pity for the unaware characters.

Storge's uncertainty and hesitation20 make the misfortune unavoidable; Iphis' reaction is as unsuitable to the circumstances as her mother's one. First her optimism in this episode is deceptive; then she rejoices at her father's victory and return (forth episode), but both of these "happy" events lead to her death. Here is the paroxysm of tragic irony: a good thing turns out to be an evil one.

Even if readers and spectators know the story before the beginning of the drama, there is some tragic suspense: they are waiting for the moment when all the characters understand what really happens to them.

If we switch from the dramaturgical level to the theological one, there is another reason why in spite of the nocturnal omen, all the characters are inevitably on the road to ruin. Within Buchanan's plot, God wants Jephtha to commit a terrible mistake. This particular kind of Greek "hamartia" or tragic flaw was so to speak predestined: Jephtha has to utter an imprudent vow which will cause his misfortune, according to God's plan. The Book of Judges simply says:21 "Then the Spirit of the Lord came upon Jephthah, and he passed over Gilead…" when Jephtha begins to make war against the Ammonites, but no more detail is given at the very moment of Jephtha's vow. All kinds of interpretation are possible, many Christian commentators, such as Ambrose, Augustine or Hugh of Saint-Victor, wrote about Jephtha's story and its meanings.

If we stay within the framework of Buchanan's plot, the lack of any clear and objective interpretation of Storge's nightmare highlights the mysterious, secret and implacable will of God. Human beings don't have to understand God's plan, because if it was the case, one day it would be possible for them to avoid the divine intention, which is greater than their own desires. Jephtha's case is a terrible example of this moral and spiritual lesson: everybody has to stay moderate (the Greek wisdom already asserted the same ideal), humble and obedient to God.

Far from being a simple anecdote, Storge's nightmare contributes both to create a powerful tragic irony and to give a moral and spiritual dimension to the whole tragedy. Buchanan's drama is an example of the Renaissance issue of the status of truth: for the first time in Europe, people begin to think that truth cannot be defined in one simple way.

As a conclusion, we can say that Storge's dream account is neither a fruitless literary ornament, nor the formal "update" of a topos which was appreciated by Renaissance public.

Many early modern poets after Buchanan and Muret used the device of the dream account in their own Latin or vernacular tragedies. Buchanan's attempt to combine a double ancient tradition in Jephthes became so to speak a pattern for European dramatists.

The plot of his drama is not based on the simple repetition of the themes of vow and sacrifice, it enlarges them and deepens their link step by step. Every time they are conjured up in the tragedy, a new light is thrown on them. First, facts are announced objectively by a divine messenger, the Angel of the Prologue, who is external to the plot. In the first episode, the allegorical and encrypted warning of the dream provokes a mere emotion, Storge's confused anxiety. From the third episode (when Jephtha repeats his vow on stage) to the seventh one, a debate develops about Jephtha's "impious piety": he believes he is very pious because he wants to achieve the vow he uttered towards God, but all the other characters think he is sacrilegious because he wants to kill a human being. What is impious is not the act of the vow in itself, but its contents and its outcome. It was the opinion of Augustine and Thomas Aquinas.

Beneath Storge's anguish and Jephtha's mistake, the question at issue is the nature of truth: can human beings easily and usefully know it? Is truth the same thing for everybody? Finally, in the eighth episode the denouement that was expected from the beginning happens, God's plan becomes reality with the account of Iphis' sacrifice: everything is now achieved.

The only thing that remains is the mother's suffering and sorrow:22 beneath the quest of truth, the tragedy of human condition is asserted for the common run of people who, like Storge, cannot reach her daughter's saintliness.

Appendix:

1) Summary of Jephthes siue Votum (first edition: Paris, Guillaume Morel, 1554): Prologue: an Angel briefly tells the story of the Hebrews, then Jephtha's life, and what the heart of the tragedy is: the sacrifice of his only daughter which is linked to his vow (he promised to sacrifice to God the first creature he would see if he won the battle against the sons of Ammon). 1 st episode: Jephtha's wife, Storge, worries about an obscure nightmare that she tells her daughter, Iphis. The girl does not want to believe in this ill omen, and hopes for her father's complete victory. First chorus of the girls from Israel: they ask for God's help against their oppressors, and remember His numerous acts of mercy. 2 nd episode: A messenger exposes to the Chorus how Jephtha won the battle thanks to some divine intervention. The Chorus praises God and admires Jephtha's feat. They ask Iphis to go and make herself beautiful in order to welcome her triumphant father as soon as he is back. 3 rd episode: in front of the Chorus, Jephtha thanks God and expresses once again his impious vow. But (4 th episode) Iphis and a friend called Symmachus come and congratulate him. Both do not understand why he suddenly seems so unhappy (because he knows now that he must sacrifice his daughter). Iphis wonders if she has committed a misdeed towards her father, then she reassures herself: she knows she is innocent. The Chorus remains happy and optimistic, as well as Iphis who leaves the stage. 5 th episode: After a long discussion with Symmachus, Jephtha confesses his horrible vow, his friend tries to convince him not to kill his child, but Jephtha stays steadfast: his promise is sacred, so he must fulfil it. Deeply frightened and compassionate, the Chorus says they will warn Iphis and her mother of the misfortune that threatens them both; for the moment, they lament the dreadful reverses of fortune that humankind has to suffer. 6 th episode: the priest who must sacrifice the victim endeavours to reason with Jephtha, he demonstrates that God cannot be happy with this sacrilegious sacrifice, and that it is possible and desirable not to fulfil such a promise. Jephtha answers that divine truth is absolute and does not allow the slightest compromise. The Chorus laments the misfortune of both female characters, who are back on stage at the end of the Chorus song. 7 th episode: Storge blames her husband for his cruelty and reminds him of the right of any mother to save the child to whom she gave birth. Iphis also asks for her father's pity. But Jephtha remains unyielding, although he deeply suffers and would like to die instead of his daughter, if it was possible. Iphis understands her father's great despair, and then deliberately consents to die. The Chorus mourns for its young friend, and admires her courage, which will make her illustrious for ever. 8 th episode: the Messenger tells Storge how the sacrifice happened: Iphis's composure remained "sublime" until the last moment. According to the Messenger, this behaviour should console the mother, but Storge refuses any comfort, she says that her daughter's heroism makes this loss even harder, and her own sorrow even greater. the shining heavens, divert this grievous and funereal omen upon our enemies, and be benign both to myself and to my daughter, the sole remaining hope and consolation of the household, the single stay of my old age. IPHIS-Dear mother, let your prophecy be more joyful, and dismiss these causes of baseless distress. Be sunny; scorn these risible mockeries of a trouble mind, and once you have scorned them, forget them. ST.-I pray that I could, but whenever I recall that fear anew it makes my heart palpitate with panic, and the picture of that grimmest of dreams swims before my mind. Terror stupefies my breast. Soothing sleep had now laid all things everywhere to rest, and night had ushered speechless silence over all. I saw a pack of wolves rushing at full speed with bloody, foaming, savage jaws, and raging with bent claws, dash pell-mell for the peace-loving flocks bereft of shepherds. Next the dog, faithful guardian of the fearful fold, drove off the wolves; and then returning to the weakling flock which was still half-dead in recollection of that trembling fear, it tore the shrinking lamb from my arms and mangled it with merciless teeth.

2) Extracts from

O sun, O roaming light of the moon, O dappled stars in the silent sky, and you, night, who share my cares and bring back black-winged dreams, should any doom overhang my poor daughter, should fate threaten any misfortune for her, first thrust this wretched person of mine into Hell whilst my expectations are uncertain and with intermittent cares trouble a heart as yet unsure of its misfortune.

IPH.-Why, mother, do you torture your mind so wretchedly, and with your grief increase the people's grief, and renew sharp anxieties? Rather you must lay aside your complaints and welcome my returning father with joyful expectation. For unless my mind with empty anticipation beguiles an over-trusting heart, he will be there, glorious with rich spoils, bearing back to his family and his native land achievements, praise and eternal glory. ST.-Fate has not granted me this manner of life. What period has ever failed to bring me tears since I first came forth from my mother's womb? First my youth witnessed the slavery of my land, grim threats from the enemy column, the plunder of cattle, our land barren and uncultivated, slaughter and bloodshed and ravaging and fire, the intermingling of things sacred and profane. No days of my life have ever flowed on untroubled. As wave pushes on wave, as one billow gives way to the next, as day is driven out by day, so evils past are ever harried by new ones. Sorrow is companion to sorrow, grief to grief. The madness of war shattered my brother and my father; my mother grew old, wearied with troubles, amidst the deaths of her kinsmen. My husband is in arms, pressing hard on treacherous foes. Yet my heart fears some outrage greater than these. IPH.-Fear uncontrolled readily lends credence to unpropitious prophecy. ST.-I pray that I may hear that my husband has returned to applauding cries and that his army is safe, with no harm to his family. IPH.-My father will return safe beyond doubt. The God who advised him to make war will bring him home safe, adorned with new glory.

Jephthes siue Votum (George Buchanan, Tragedies, edited by P. Sharratt and P. G. Walsh, Edinburgh, 1983):

	ST.-Eheu, recenti corda palpitant metu,
	Mens horret, haeret vox in ipsis faucibus,
	Nec ora verbis pervium praebent iter.	75
	Nocturna sic me visa miseram territant,
	Et dira turbant inquietam insomnia
	Gravibusque curis pectus urunt anxium.
	At tu, nitentis summe dominator poli,
	Averte in hostes luctuosum et funebre	80
	Omen, mihique placidus et natae meae,
	Quae sola spes et familiae solacium
	Superest, senectae columen unicum meae.
	IPH.-Quin ominare, cara mater, laetius,
	Vanaeque causas abice aegritudinis,	85
	Et ista mentis turbidae ludibria
	Secura sperne spretaque obliviscere.
	ST.-Utinam liceret, sed metus, veluti recens
	Quoties recordor, concutit formidine
	Mentem, atque imago somnii tristissimi	90
	Oberrat animo ; pectus horrificat timor.
	First episode: STORGE, mater, IPHIS, filia

Iam cuncta passim blanda straverat quies Mutumque nox induxerat silentium ; Vidi luporum concito cursu gregem Rictu cruento spumeo rabido, unguibus 95 Saevum recurvis, praecipite ferri impetu Imbellia in pecora vidua pastoribus. Tum pavidi ovilis fida custodia canis Lupos abegit, atque ad infirmum pecus, Trepidi timoris exanime adhuc memoria, 100 Denuo reversus e sinu timidam meo Agnam revulsam dente laniavit truci.

  Ah, how my heart throbs with new fear! My heart trembles, my voice cleaves to my very throat, my mouth offers no open passage for words; for the spectres of the night terrify me repeatedly in my wretchedness. Grim dreams trouble me in my restless state, and sear my troubled heart with oppressive cares. Do you, highest Lord of

			Cognata senuit ; perduelles perfidos
		Armis maritus urget. His maius nefas STORGE (mother), IPHIS (daughter)
	STORGE-		Tamen veretur animus. -IPH.-Immodicus timor	140
			Facile sinistris adhibet auguriis fidem.
			ST.-Utinam secundis audiam rumoribus
			Virum reversum sospitemque exercitum
			Salva familia.	-IPH.-Veniet haud dubie
			parens
			Incolumis. Idem bella qui suasit deus	145
			Salvum reducet laude cumulatum nova.
	O sol, o vaga lumina lunae,
	Pictaque tacito sidera mundo,
	Et tu, nox mihi conscia curae,	105
	Nigris referens somnia pinnis,
	Si quid natae miserae impendet,
	Si quem casum fata minantur,
	Caput hoc prius in Tartara miserum
	Detrudite, dum spes ambiguae	110
	Alternantibus angunt curis
	Incerta suae pectora cladis.
	IPH.-Cur misere animum crucias, mater,
	Luctuque tuo cumulas luctum
	Publicum, et acres renovas curas ? 115
	Omine laeto reducem potius
	Positis questibus excipe patrem,
	Qui, nisi vano mens augurio
	Credula nimium pectora fallit,
	Spoliis aderit clarus opimis	120
	Remque et laudem et decus aeternum
	Genti referens patriaeque suae.
	ST.-Non hunc tenorem Parca mihi vitae dedit.
	Quod tempus unquam lacrimis caruit mihi,
	Ex quo parentis primum ab alvo prodii ?	125
	Primum iuventa servitutem patriae
	Tristesque vidit hostici agminis minas,
	Pecorumque raptus, sterile sine cultu solum,
	Caedes cruores vastitatem incendia,
	Profana sacra mixta. Non unquam mihi	130
	Secura vitae fluxit ulla portio.
	Ut trudit undas unda, fluctus fluctui
	Cedit sequenti, pellitur dies die,
	Semper premuntur praeterita novis malis ;
	Dolor dolori, luctui 23 est luctus comes.	135
	Fratrem patremque perculit belli furor ;
	Confecta curis mater inter funera
	23 luctui 1554, R :	luctus 1597

See the summary of Jephthes siue Votum in the appendix of this paper.

Because originality is not the main goal at which the Renaissance artists aimed, introducing a new element into a well-known story is particularly meaningful. From the point of view of Buchanan's contemporaries his invention was not shocking precisely because it referred to ancient and glorious literary traditions.

See for example G. Devereux, Dreams in Greek Tragedy, Oxford: Blackwell, 1976.

The comparison between many verses from Erasmus' Latin translation of Hecuba and Buchanan's Jephthes shows that the latter read the former with a great attention.

Other Renaissance dramatic poets were inspired by the scene of the ghost of the husband that announces the death of a member of his family and that his wife needlessly tries to kiss. See Robert Garnier, Cornélie, act III, sc. 1, vv.

663-726. 6 Marc-Antoine Muret, Juvenilia, édition critique, traduction, annotation et commentaire par VirginieLeroux, Droz, 2009, p. 305-306. 7 Raymond Lebègue, La Tragédie religion en France, Les débuts(1514-1573), Paris : H. Champion, 1929 p. 246. 8 Or more exactly the pseudo-Senecan pattern of Octavia.

Or Jacobus de Varagine or Voragine, who lived during the 13 th century.

See op. cit., p72,: … horror artus concutit, Corpusque totum frigidus sudor lauat, Quoties recordor : mensque necio quod malum Praesagit ipsa…

 o patres… »)

See Jodelle's Cléopâtre captive, Garnier's les Juifves, etc.

See the phrase (Jephthes, v. 92) "cuncta passim blanda strauerat quies" and Trojans, v. 438 : « nox alma ».

Quoted by Peter Sharratt and P. G. Walsh, in George Buchanan, Tragedies, edited by P. Sharratt and P. G. Walsh, Edinburgh, 1983, and published by Waszink (Jan Hendrik Waszink, ed., Euripidis Hecuba et Iphigenia Latinae factae Erasmo Interprete, Amsterdam : North-Holland Publishing Company, 1969).

This verse inspires Jephthes, v. 106 : "nigris referens somnis pennis"

Egidio Forcellini, Lexicon totius Latinitatis, consilio et cura Jacobi Facciolati, opera et studio Aegidii Forcellini, secundum tertiam editionem cuius curam gessit Josephus Furlanetto[Patavii, 1771], .. correctum et auctum labore variorum. Editio in Germania prima… Lipsiae, in Libraria Hahnaniana, 1835, 4 vol.

Macrobius quotes Aeneid, 4, 4 and 6, 896.

See v.110 : "spes ambiguae" (the beginning of the dream is positive but not the end), v.111 : "alternantibus curis", v.112: "incerta pecora".

Judges, 11, 29.

The last word of the tragedy is Storge's "dolor".