Max Kistler

Colors and Appearances as Powers and Manifestations

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Introduction

Humans have only finite discriminatory capacities. This simple fact seems to be incompatible with the existence of appearances. As many authors have noted, the hypothesis that appearances exist seems to be refuted by reductio: Let A, B, C be three uniformly colored surfaces presented to a subject in optimal viewing conditions, such that A, B, and C resemble one another perfectly except with respect to their colors. Their colors di↵er slightly in the following way: the di↵erence between A and B and the difference between B and C are below the discrimination threshold, but the di↵erence between A and C is above this threshold. According to an intuitive construal of what an appearance is, given that A and B appear (to the subject) identical in color, A and B have the same (color 1 ) appearance P 1 ; likewise, B and C have the same appearance P 2 . B 's appearance is both P 1 and P 2 . This seems to imply that P 1 = P 2 . But then, A and C also have the same appearance, which contradicts the hypothesis that A and C are discriminable. If A and C are discriminable with respect to their color, they do not have the same appearance with respect to color.

1 If not stated otherwise, it will be tacitly understood in what follows that the appearances I speak of are color appearances.

INTRODUCTION 261

The paradox arising from such a series of judgments of sameness or di↵erence between pairs of colored surfaces seems to belong to the class of sorites paradoxes. Here is Armstrong's way of raising the issue.

If A is exactly similar to B in respect X, and B is exactly similar to C in respect X, then it follows of logical necessity, that A is exactly similar to C in respect X. 'Exact similarity in a particular respect' is necessarily a transitive relation. Now suppose that we have three samples of cloth, A, B, and C, which are exactly alike except that they differ very slightly in color. Suppose further, however, that A and B are perceptually completely indistinguishable in respect of color, and B and C are perceptually completely indistinguishable in respect of color. Suppose, however, that A and C can be perceptually distinguished from each other in this respect. (Armstrong 1968, 218) Armstrong uses the paradox arising from the non-transitivity of nondiscriminability to argue against the existence of sense-data. 2 The concept of sense data has widely been abandoned for reasons independent from the present problem (cf. Barnes 1945, Fish 2010). However, Armstrong's argument can be reconstructed so as to refute the existence of appearances, or "looks" (as we will call visual appearances) on any construal, not only in terms of sense data. When a subject looks at a uniformly colored surface S, the color of S will look to the subject a certain way, so that there seems to be a look, which is part of the content of her perception. 3 2 In a similar way, Dummett (1975) argues from this paradox to the non-existence of phenomenal qualities. According to Wright (1975), it shows that color predicates are not observational, which means that a subject cannot tell just by observation whether such a predicate correctly applies to a given surface or not.

3 This can be said independently of the metaphysical interpretation of the situation: in the perspective of adverbialist theories of perception, the way S looks to a subject T is a property of T (or of an event involving T ). In the perspective of intentionalist theories, it is

According to Armstrong's argument, the existence of looks (for him:

sense data) is refuted by a reductio. If there were looks, they would have contradictory properties; therefore there are no looks. Here is how he presents the reasoning.

Now consider the situation if we hold a 'sensory item' view of perception. If the pieces of cloth A and B are perceptually indistinguishable in color, it will seem to follow that the two sensory items A 1 and B 1 that we have when we look at the two pieces actually are identical in color. For the sensory items are what are supposed to make a perception the perception it is, and here, by hypothesis, the perceptions are identical. In the same way B 1 and C 1 will be sensory items that are identical in color. Yet, by hypothesis, sensory items A 1 and C 1 are not identical in color! (Armstrong 1968, 218) In what follows, I will show that there is a way to construe colors and their appearances in a way that does not fall prey to the reduction just sketched.

An Analysis in Terms of Powers and Manifestations

The concepts of power, disposition, and manifestation may help to describe the situation without any contradiction. Objective colors, as well as other perceived properties, are powers. This is certainly not a new idea.

On the contrary, it is, since Locke's analysis in the Essay (1689), one of the most influential conceptions of color, which has many followers in the twentieth and twenty-first centuries. To mention only one of them: "I therefore part of the content of a representation T forms at the occasion of this experience. Jackson and Pinkerton (1973,269) are wrong in thinking that the argument can be generalized only "against any act-object, as opposed to adverbial, style of analysis of sensations." color grounds a disposition to appear to a given observer. 5 The appearance is a manifestation that is specific to the power, the observer, and the context.

Part of what makes the concept of color puzzling is that a colored surface of an object can, without itself at all changing in any intrinsic respect, vary in the way it looks, due to various changes that are external to the object and the intrinsic properties of its surface: among variations that may make the object look di↵erent with respect to its color are changes in lighting, changes in the atmosphere and changes in the subject perceiving the object, neurophysiological or psychological. The conception of the color of an object as a power makes it belong to the class of objectivist theories of 4 Here I use the account of dispositions and powers suggested in Kistler 2012.

5 As one anonymous referee has suggested, it might seem simpler to cut out the concept of disposition from this picture, and just say that a power can manifest in di↵erent ways.

However, the concept of disposition is useful in making explicit the relation between the power and its manifestations, especially with respect to those manifestations that are only possible but not actual. To each possible manifestation that the power gives objects possessing it, corresponds one actual disposition. Instead of saying that the power can manifest (i.e., does possibly manifest itself) in di↵erent ways, the use of the concept of disposition makes it possible to say that objects that have the power (powerful property)

actually have a whole range of dispositions to manifest.

color. According to the power view, the physiology and psychology of the perceiving subject do not determine the objective color of perceived objects, but they contribute to determining how the color appears to the subject.

Such appearances are manifestations of the objective powerful color property. A given determinate objective color can appear di↵erently to di↵erent subjects, and to one subject at di↵erent times because one objective power grounds many di↵erent dispositions to manifest itself. Consider the set of all possible factors that may determine the look of a specific determinate color. Triggering conditions are sets of these factors. In each situation, the power, together with the triggering condition and the laws of nature, determines how the color will manifest itself. For each triggering situation, there is a well determined disposition: If a subject is in triggering situation T i (composed, among other factors, of lighting conditions as well as neurophysiological and psychological conditions), then color C will manifest itself in color appearance A i . In the context of sorites arguments, the most important dispositions are those of judging whether one color appears the same or di↵erent with respect to a second color. In Armstrong's example considered above, the objective color of item B grounds (together with a great many natural circumstances, such as the presence of light, of a well functioning perceptual apparatus and nervous system) the disposition of a subject to judge that B has the same color as A, 6 in a typical situation 6 This is not exactly the same as judging that A and B are indiscriminable. The terms "discriminable" and "indiscriminable" designate themselves capacities, which may manifest themselves in the long run, even if they do not in a single trial. Hardin (1988) shows that a scientific experiment may well establish that a subject can discriminate A and B in the long run, in the sense that she will more often than random judge that A is di↵erent from B, even if she will judge in many individual occasions that she can see no di↵erence between them. More significant still, an experiment conducted with many subjects may well show that A and B are objectively discriminable even if many subjects judge them equal on many occasions, and maybe be also if some individuals always judge them equal, on all occasions. See below, section 5.

("triggering condition") in which she is shown B next to A. The judgment is the manifestation of the disposition. 7

Let us now have a closer look at the structure of the "sorites" argument that seems to refute the existence of appearances on the basis of a contradiction that can be derived from the fact that the indiscriminability of colors is non-transitive. Following Ra↵man (2000), Fara (2001), and others, I will call this argument "Nontrans." Let A, B and C be objects with very similar colors, as described in the quote from Armstrong above. The argument presupposes three principles.

Sameness Principle 8 (SP): For all objects x, y, for all subjects s of experience of type S, if x looks the same as y with respect to some perceptual dimension R, there is an appearance (or a "look" 9 ) X, such that X is the appearance of x and X is the appearance of y.

Di↵erence Principle (DP): For all objects w, z, for all subjects s of experience of type S, if w looks di↵erent from z with respect to some perceptual dimension R, there is an appearance W, such that W is the appearance of w and there is an appearance Z, such that Z is the appearance of z, and W 6 = Z.

7 I put aside here two further distinctions: (1) the judgment may or not be expressed. I take the most immediate manifestation to be the mental act (Ra↵man 2000, Proust 2001, 2010) of judging, whether or not it gives rise to a public expression.

(2) I will also neglect the distinction between the mental act of attending to a pair of stimuli and the act of making the judgment itself (Ra↵man 2000, 158). 8 Here is how Fara expresses the Sameness Principle: "x looks to be the same color as y ! 9c(x looks to have c & y looks to have c)" (2001, 914). 9 I will use "appearance" and "look" interchangeably in this chapter, except when stated otherwise: "appearance" is more general and can also be applied to sensory modalities other than vision, whereas "look" applies only to visual perception.

Uniqueness Principle (UF): For all objects x, for all subjects s of experience of type S for each respect R in which x can appear to subjects s, there is a unique 10 appearance X, such that: for all times t, if x is presented at t to s in conditions that are normal (or optimal) with respect to the perception of aspect R, then x appears to s as X.

With SP, DP, and UP, one can derive a contradiction from the existence of a situation in which indiscrimability is nontransitive. Such situations have the formal structure described in premises 1-3.

(1) A looks to be the same color as B.

(2) B looks to be the same color as C.

(3) A looks to be a di↵erent color from C.

(4) There is a look A 1 , such that A has look A 1 and B has look A 1 .

(1, SP)

(5) There is a look C 2 , such that B has look C 2 and C has look C 2 .

(2, SP) (6) There is a look A 3 and a look C 3 , such that: A has A 3 and C has

C 3 and A 3 6 = C 3 . (3, DP) (7) A 1 = A 3 . (4, 6, UP) (8) A 1 = C 2 . (4, 5, UP) (9) C 2 = C 3 . (5, 6, UP) (10) A 3 = C 2 . (7, 8) (11) A 3 = C 3 . (9, 10) (12) A 3 = C 3 and A 3 6 = C 3 . (6, 11)
The contradiction in line 12 has been derived from three premises (1-3), together with three principles, SP, DP, and UP. Which of these premises should be abandoned? In what follows, I will examine some analyses of the problem raised by the apparent non-transitivity of indiscriminability that deny either SP or UP.

None of them makes essential use of the notions of power and manifestation.

My strategy will be to check whether these analyses can accommodate the following intuitions.

Nontransitivity of Indiscriminability (NTI):

There are series of objective colors (or other objective perceivable properties) such that indiscriminability between adjacent pairs of elements of the series is non-transitive.

Existence of Looks (EL):

There are looks: aspects of perceptual experience that are directly accessible to the subject and perfectly known to her (i.e., known completely and infallibly).

It will turn out that none of the analyses in the literature is compatible with both NTI and EL. However, as I will show, if looks are construed as manifestations of powers, NTI and EL can both be accepted.

11 To my knowledge, DP has not been questioned (except indirectly, by questioning the existence of appearances as such).

Armstrong (1968) andDummett (1975) accept NTI and deny EL. They take Nontrans to be valid, and conclude that it refutes the existence of looks by reductio. Wright (1975) argues that Nontrans shows that predicates that seem to express looks (observational predicates) are incoherent. I will not explore such radical conclusions any further here. Rather, my aim is to explore whether it is possible to acknowledge NTI and nevertheless save EL (i.e., the existence of looks). I take NTI to be uncontroversial and will not try to justify it here.

Denying UP

It is psychologically plausible that UP is wrong. Indeed, the appearance of some object O in a given respect does not only depend on the objective features of the object, on the physiology of the subject and the viewing conditions, but also on the context in which O is seen. In the case of color vision, many experiments show that the appearance of the color of O is influenced by other colored objects which are part of the same visual scene as O. Appearances are "shifty," to use Hellie's (2005, 487) expression. Without UP, the reductio does not go through because a given objective property doesn't give rise to a unique context-independent appearance, which could then be used as the middle term in a sorites argument. Without UP, step 8 in the above argument is blocked:

8. A 1 = C 2 . (4, 5, UP)
Thus, one cannot derive the fact that B 's look, when seen together with A

(A 1 according to step 4) is identical to B 's look, when seen together with C

(C 2 , according to step 5).

To deny UP is to suppose that it is possible that B 's appearance in the context of a judgment of comparison with A (which I will call "B 1 (A 1 )") is not identical with B 's appearance in the context of a judgment of comparison with C (which I will call "B 1 (C 1 )"). The present hypothesis is that B 1

(C 1 ) may di↵er from B 1 (A 1 ). If B 1 (A 1 ) 6 = B 1 (C 1 )
, no paradox can be constructed any more. Therefore, to avoid the paradox, it is not necessary to deny the Sameness principle as well.

Both Robinson (1972) and Jackson and Pinkerton (1973) have shown that (1) (a premise equivalent to) UP is not plausible "in view of the familiar fact of perceptual relativity" (Jackson and Pinkerton 1973, 270), because "the same object can have various sense data" (Robinson 1972, 85), corresponding to its appearance in various circumstances, and ( 2) without (a premise equivalent to) UP, "the paradox vanishes" (Robinson 1972, 85).

However, it is not enough to show that UP is not true in general, in other words, that it is sometimes false. It must be shown that UP is false in the particular situation described by the premises of Nontrans.

Premises SP and UP seem especially plausible in that particular situation insofar as it is not made clear whether the two comparisons-of A with B and of B with C -are made (1) simultaneously or (2) in succession. On one hand, if the two discriminations are made together (at the same time, as it were in one glance), it seems indeed plausible to suppose that B 's look is the same when B is seen together with A as B 's look when B is seen together with C. After all, there is only one glance in which B appears. On the other hand, if these two comparisons are made separately, in succession, it appears to be a substantial assumption that B 's look is the same in both comparisons.

Colored objects are permanent substances. It is possible, or at least conceivable, that their surfaces do not undergo any change in color during a certain lapse of time. However, the looks of such colored surfaces of objects cannot be assumed to be substances lasting through time, and even if some sense could be made of a look lasting for some while, it would be di cult to justify the hypothesis that some aspect of that look remained constant through time. On the contrary, looks are perceptual events, or aspects of perceptual events, which are in general subject to permanent change.

Therefore, if two comparisons (A-B ) and (B -C ) necessarily required two successive perceptions (more precisely, two acts of comparison, which are dated mental events), there would necessarily be two looks, B 1 (A 1 ), and (A 1 ), and B 1 (C 1 ), are identical.

B 1 (C 1 ),
However, this reasoning presupposes that the two comparisons are necessarily made separately. If it were possible that the two comparisons be made with respect to the same look B 1 , one would after all have constructed a situation which leads to a contradiction (and thus refutes the existence of looks).

Both Robinson (1972) and Jackson and Pinkerton (1973) 12 argue that there are necessarily two looks in play, so that no sorites argument can be constructed and no contradiction follows. According to Jackson and Pinkerton, the hypothesis that the same look (of B : B 1 ) is involved in the comparison of A and B and in the comparison of B and C is "logically impossible" (1973,270). "The suggestion that A might look to be the same color as B, B might look to be the same color as C, while A looks to be a di↵erent color from C, to one and the same person at one and the same time, is inconsistent," because this "the suggestion involves one object, B, looking to have two di↵erent colors at the same time to the same person, which is impossible" (1973,271). They agree with Armstrong that this leads to a contradiction, and conclude that the hypothesis of the existence of a unique B 1 must be rejected. 13

12 Their strategy is taken up by Ra↵man (2000) and Fara (2001). 13 The di↵erence with Armstrong's conclusion is that they conclude only that UP should be abandoned (there can be, in this situation, no unique look involved in two comparisons),

DENYING UP

However, it remains to be seen whether Robinson's and Jackson and Pinkerton's defense of the existence of sense data can be adapted to a conception of color perception that does not make use of sense data but only of objective colors and color appearances. In what follows, I shall propose an analysis that (1) justifies abandoning UP while (2) retaining SP and EL and

(3) is compatible with NTI. Being only concerned with appearances (conceived as sense data), neither Robinson nor Jackson and Pinkerton raise the latter issue with respect to indiscriminability judgments bearing on objective colors of surfaces. However, with respect to the appearances of A, B, and C, the question of transitivity cannot even be asked: if UP is false, there is no common look of B, which could be used as a "middle term" in a sorites argument.

Once objective colors are taken into consideration, we can construct an even stronger argument against UP. If UP were true (i.e., if there was a oneone correspondence between the objective colors A, B, C and their looks A 1 , B 1 , C 1 ), colors (and the objective properties of the objects of perception in general) would be single-track dispositions, as it is tacitly understood in the traditional Lockean analysis. However, and surprisingly, if colors were single-track dispositions, then, given the one-one correspondence of B and its unique manifestation B 1 , Nontrans would refute not only the existence of looks but also the existence of objective colors, which manifest themselves by their looks.

Here we seem to have a place where "powers may be put to work." The metaphysical analysis of the relations between powers, dispositions, and manifestations shows how reality must be structured so that (1) UP can be false, whereas both (2) EL and (3) NTI are true. I will make a suggestion along these lines in section 7 below.

where Armstrong takes it that the contradiction justifies the more generally conclusion that there are no looks. Qualia are defined indirectly, with the help of the concept of matching: x and y match it they look the same. 14 Two qualia x and y are identical if they do not only match each other but if for all other qualia z, either z matches

14 Goodman (1977, 197) takes the predicate "match" to be basic and provides no analysis.

4. DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE EXACT: GOODMAN/CLARK 273 both x and y, or z matches neither x nor y (cf. Goodman and Hellman 1977, 196). Qualia thus conceived have coherent identity conditions and do not fall prey to any sorites argument. The reason is that they do not obey to any principle of the form of the Sameness Principle. It is not the case that for all objects x, y, if x looks the same as y with respect to R ("if matches y with respect to R"), there is a quale Q such that Q is both part of the content of the representation of x and part of the content of the representation of y. It is crucial for the concept of qualia that matching of two perceived objects with respect to R is not su cient for the sameness of the qualia caused by the perception of x and y. x and y may well match although the qualia by which an observer represents them are not the same. This happens precisely in the situation described by the premises of Nontrans.

The fact that B matches A is not su cient for their qualia Q(A) and Q(B ) to be identical. On the contrary, the fact that there is a third item C which matches B without matching A, establishes that qualia Q(A) and Q(B ) are not identical.

The problem with this strategy is that it changes the subject rather than solving the problem. The aim was to understand how there can be looks although their existence seems to be refuted by Nontrans. Goodman and Clark reply that there are no looks, but that their role can be taken over by qualia. Qualia in Goodman's and Clark's sense are the content of representations. They are theoretical properties postulated in order to explain judgments of perceptual similarity and dissimilarity (Shepard 1962(Shepard , 1965)).

Qualia are subjective, because they are the content of representations which are partly determined by constraints imposed by the subject, in particular by its neurophysiology. However, qualia, as defined by Goodman and Clark are not looks as we use the concept in this chapter 15 because qualia are not 15 Armstrong considers the possibility of conceiving sense data in a similar way, and criticizes it for similar reasons. "The upholder of sensory items" says Armstrong, may "abandon the view that we have incorrigible knowledge of the nature of the items at what is taken to be su cient for knowledge, the subject might nevertheless be said to know that QA = QB. Even then however, qualia are not looks because such knowledge is not direct: knowledge that QA = QB requires inspection of items that are di↵erent from both A and B.

With the help of the concept of qualia, it is possible both (1) to accept that indiscriminability is non-transitive (NTI), and (2) nevertheless to maintain that there is something, the quale, that has psychological reality and accounts for the way things appear to a subject. However, qualia are not looks. Insofar as the Sameness Principle bears on looks, it is paradoxical to deny it. 16 Denying it means denying that a subject can tell just by looking how things look to her, and denying that a subject can know whether two things that look the same really have the same look. It is not paradoxical if the subject's (partial) ignorance it taken to bear, not on how things look, but on the qualia by which their perceptible qualities are represented. But then, the paradox arises if qualia are supposed to be appearances which do not directly appear to the subject.

The fact that qualia do not satisfy the conditions we have imposed on looks is no reason to deny that they are real. Rather, they can be understood 16 Fara says that it is a "truism" (2001, 909) that "if any two color patches look the same, then if one looks red so does the other" (908). She also says that it would be confused to attribute an observational predicate such as being red to one object and to deny it to a second item if these two items look the same: "I cannot see my way through to the possibility that two color patches might look the same, yet that 'looks red' applies to one but not to the other" (909). Armstrong says that Goodman's strategy, namely "abandon the view that we have incorrigible knowledge of the nature of the items at the time we have them" (1968, 219), while it is not logically absurd, "is nevertheless most implausible." Jackson and Pinkerton agree that "it is not open to the sensory item theorist to argue that in the kind of case described in the above quotation [the non-trans case; MK] the percipient is mistaken about the nature of his sensory items" (1973,269).

DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE INEXACT: HARDIN 276

as being real powers. Just as a subject of perception has only incomplete knowledge of the objective properties she perceives, she has only partial knowledge of her own qualia. Each manifestation gives the subject partial knowledge: looks reveal part of the nature of objective colors, but also part of the nature of her own qualia. The fact that a subject judges that A and B "match" means that the objective colors are very similar, but also that the qualia Q(A) and Q(B ), by which she represents these objective colors lie close together in her psychological quality space.

Denying SP, Supposing That Representations of Colors Are

Inexact: Hardin

According to Hardin (1988) it is an illusion that looks (and apparent colors in particular) fall prey to sorites arguments. It stems from an oversimplified conception of looks, according to which a look can be exhaustively determined and known by one subject at one instant. He shows that this is not the only way to conceive of the psychological basis of perceptual appearance, and furthermore that there is an alternative, scientific way of conceiving that basis. The value of the scientifically measurable properties in this basis, which Hardin misleadingly calls "looks" although, as I shall argue, they are not looks in our sense, can be determined by statistical means.

Hardin claims that, understood in this way, "looks" are immune against refutation by sorites arguments. "If we are prepared to count statistical ensembles of observations and observational data-a quite common practice in science-Nontrans . . . must be rejected" (214). Furthermore, the construal of looks as objective theoretical properties, which can be determined by direct introspection only to a finite degree of precision, paves the way for a coherent "concept of phenomenal color," according to which phenomenal colors "are often indeterminate" (214). 17

17 Hardin takes care to distinguish this thesis from the claim that it is "just phenomenal color predicates . . . [that] are often indeterminate" (1988, 214, my emphasis).

DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE INEXACT: HARDIN 277

The statistical treatment of comparisons between colors shows that the judgments subjects make of a given pair of colors are not constant, neither for the same subject over time, nor within a group of di↵erent subjects.

Rather, such judgments are spread out in a way one would expect from a process in which noise is added to the process of signal treatment. 18 One can assume that the factors producing this "noise" are "randomly distributed and thus representable by a normal (Gaussian) distribution curve" (Hardin 1988, 215). As a result, the scientific construal of the appearance of a color is not a point in color space (the space corresponding to the contents of perceptual representations) but an imprecise value, spread around a mean value with a distribution that can be characterized by its standard deviation.

According to Hardin, this is su cient to show that "the sorites problem does not arise" ( 220). If looks are construed as imprecise theoretical properties, each with its mean value and standard deviation, their distributions can overlap. The sorites paradox arises as long as one identifies represented properties with single looks, on the basis of single comparison judgments of one individual subject at one occasion.

To one individual (to use our own symbols introduced above), B 1 can seem to be the same apparent color as A 1 , and also seem to be the same apparent color as C 1 . However, statistical sampling of many judgments of one subject, and of many subjects, will show that the look B 1 is neither identical with A 1 , nor with C 1 . Instead, their characteristic distributions overlap. The points in the overlap zone correspond to judgments according to which the two looks are equal.

In the terms of the premises of Nontrans we have distinguished above, Hardin denies SP: The observation of a statistically significant sample of comparison judgments of a given pair of items (within the triple A, B, C

18 Discriminating between colors can be represented as the extraction of "a signal which is transmitted over a noisy channel" (Hardin 1988, 215). This idea is taken up by Hellie (2005).

DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE INEXACT: HARDIN 278

that gives rise to the sorites paradox), say A and B, will show that the representations R(A) and R(B ) are not identical although they may be judged to look equal for many individuals at many occasions.

However, Hardin's account accepts UP not only as a plausible empirical hypothesis. UP is built into the construal of phenomenal properties: the phenomenal property as which a given item A appears to subjects of a given type is defined as the statistical distribution of the individual appearances, as they are manifested in various comparison judgments. All appearances of one item, to the same subject and to di↵erent subjects, are integrated in the unique phenomenal property.

Hardin's account does not adequately solve our problem of showing that EL and NTI are compatible, for two reasons.

(1) Hardin's "phenomenal colors" (1988,214) are not appearances or looks at all. They are theoretical properties, constructed according to a scientific methodology, from a third person perspective, on the basis of a statistical evaluation of many first person appearance judgments. Knowledge of such "phenomenal properties" can only be acquired indirectly. It would be more appropriate to call appearances or looks "phenomenal properties." Hardin's "phenomenal properties" are ill named: There is no subject to whom they appear at any time and who knows them directly, by how they appear. As Goodman's and Clarke's defense of qualia against the sorites paradox, phenomenal colors as construed by Hardin's are a Pyrrhic victory against the sorites refutation of appearances: Hardin shows that there is a property that does not fall prey to the refutation; but it is not an appearance.

(2) Moreover, Hardin's construal of phenomenal properties as objective measurable quantities with a mean value and standard deviation, obtained from the statistical treatment of many appearance judgments, does not solve the problem in all generality. As Hardin himself admits, "the sorites argument could be resurrected" (1988,220) with a series of phenomenal colors that are so close together that their di↵erence could not even be detected by statistical means, on the basis of a large set of individual comparison judgments. If the objective di↵erence in the stimuli is so small that it would take a very large number of trials to detect a subjective di↵erence in the ways these stimuli appear to subjects, it seems practically impossible to avoid changes in the experimental situation. In such cases, "the signal gets buried in the noise" ( 220). This means that, given the practically limited number of trials, the distribution curves that ground the objective distinctness of different looks are themselves not infinitely sharp. As a consequence, there are "phenomenal colors" (i.e., distribution curves) that are so close together that they cannot be distinguished by statistical means. Sorites arguments can be constructed with respect to such phenomenal colors. A series of very close distribution curves can serve as premises of an argument that has exactly the same structure as Nontrans. There is a series of phenomenal colors, such that they appear equal even in the long run to a large group of observers, although the first and last in the series appear di↵erent to them. Therefore, there are no such phenomenal colors, scientifically construed on the basis of the statistical evaluation of a large number of appearance judgments. 19 Hardin's own reply to this problem is that "it doesn't arise in everyday color-attributing practice" (1988,221), and that it has "little bearing on a rational reconstruction of the rules governing color predicates in a public language since such predicates are necessarily much coarser than the fine grains of just noticeably di↵erent colors perceivable by particular individuals" (221). This fact shows that the problem doesn't threaten the meaning of ordinary language predicates; 20 however, it does not save the existence of "phenomenal colors" from refutation by sorites arguments.

Denying SP, Supposing That Representations of Colors Are

Inexact: Hellie

Both Hellie (2005) and Zeimbekis ( 2009) argue that the paradox of Nontrans can be avoided by conceiving perceived qualities as determinables, corresponding to regions, not points, in quality space.

Let us suppose that phenomenal qualities, such as colors, sizes and shapes, are representations in a psychological quality space (i.e., a psychological space of the content of the representations of perceived qualities [Shepard 1962[Shepard , 1965]]). Let us suppose that hues can be represented in a twodimensional surface in a psychological color space (Shepard 1962). Determinate and determinable predicates and properties can be ordered in a series:

colored is a determinable relative to red, and red is a determinable relative to scarlet. Each determinable color corresponds to a part of the color surface.

The higher a represented color is in the determinate-determinable hierarchy, the larger is the corresponding surface: the surface corresponding to scarlet is a proper part of the surface corresponding to red. "Super-determinates" (Funkhouser 2006) lie at the bottom of the hierarchy: they are perfectly determinate and correspond to points in the psychological quality space.

Zeimbekis argues that the empirical limitations in the discrimination powers of any real cognitive system make it "impossible for any discrimination system to discriminate super-determinate shape and size properties" (2009,352). He concludes that "phenomenal sizes and shapes are determinable types" (346), in the sense that each phenomenal size corresponds to a whole region of determinate objective sizes. However, Zeimbekis does 20 Therefore, it can be used as a defense against Wright (1975). (2005,485). This is equivalent to a denial of (SP).

Hellie explicitly makes the hypothesis that the phenomenology of the represented properties has exactly the same structure as the representations. The consequence is that the subject does not perfectly well know the phenomenal properties. His account "allows for indiscriminability without sameness of phenomenology" (2005,496). In this sense, Hellie's analysis su↵ers from the same defect as Hardin's: Representations corresponding to extended surfaces in psychological quality space are not looks and should better not be called "phenomenal," because the subject does not know them directly and exhaustively. In particular, the subject who perceives A and B, which look the same, does not know just by looking (in experience e) whether A's and B 's phenomenal colors R(A, e) and R(B, e) are identical or just overlapping. I take it to be incompatible with the notion of phenomenology that there are phenomenological facts that are not directly accessible to the subject herself.

Looks as Manifestations of Powers

Let us take stock, and answer the question we have started with, whether there is a way to account for the phenomena of appearance that is compatible both with

Existence of Looks (EL): There are looks: aspects of perceptual experience that are directly accessible to the subject and perfectly known to her.

Nontransitivity of Indiscriminability (NTI):

There are series of objective colors (or other objective perceivable properties) such that indiscriminability between adjacent pairs of elements of the series is non-transitive.

We have seen that it is possible to acknowledge the possibility of situations such as those described by the premises of Nontrans, and still avoid the contradiction that Nontrans derives from these premises. This is possible as immediately and completely known to the subject. If two things look the same with respect to R, there is a look they share; and if two things look di↵erent with respect to R, there are two di↵erent looks.

At this point, the only way to save the existence of looks from contradiction is by dropping UP. We have already seen that this fits well with the hypothesis that colors and other perceptible properties are "multi-track" powers. Given that the context contributes to determine how things appear, how an object looks to subject S 1 will in general di↵er from how it appears to subject S 2 , even if viewing conditions are normal, or optimal; and how an object looks to S 1 at t 1 will in general di↵er from how it looks to S 1 at t 2 . For each perspective and each context, there is a di↵erent disposition grounded on the relevant properties of the object, to manifest itself in the mind of an observer. This is equivalent to the negation of UP: it means that it is not the case that a given object manifests itself, with respect to a given perceptible aspect, such as color, with a unique look.

There remains an important obstacle on the way to an adequate construal of looks. We have found that extant analyses of appearances, qualia, or "phenomenal colors" are all incompatible with EL, according to which looks are immediately and completely known to the subjects to which they appear, by the very fact that they appear to the subject. On the other hand, Robinson's and Jackson and Pinkerton's analysis justifies the existence of looks, but only in the framework of the theory of sense data. In that frame- there is nothing more about the look of A than how S judges it to be at a given moment. Of course, this hypothesis raises a lot of new questions.

One may immediately worry that this account of appearances gives rise to a regress: the look of A can only be constituted by a judgment of its sameness or di↵erence with respect to B if the look of B is already known.

The hypothesis that appearances are constituted by acts of comparison has important consequences. One consequence is that it is incompatible with the thesis of the representational theory of phenomenal consciousness (Dretske 1995) that a subject's representing a property is su cient for the property to appear to the subject. Our hypothesis leads to the result that representing a property is not su cient for the property's appearing to the subject. Perceptual judgments require representations because they are mental acts that have representations as objects; but the very existence of the representations does not guarantee that the subject directs her attention to them nor that she will make a judgment bearing on them. Phenomena such as change blindness and inattentional blindness (see Most 2010) seem to be incompatible with a pure representational theory, insofar as they seem to show that a subject can represent many things and events without their appearing to her. Our hypothesis can account for these phenomena. The hypothesis that the appearance results from a perceptual judgment fits with

According to Ra↵man, looks can arise either from discriminatory judgments, which I am presently considering, or from categorical judgments, when one color is judged to belong to a perceptual category stored in memory. It is controversial whether there is a notion of judgment that can be applied the comparison judgments I am considering and that does not rely on the use of concepts. If all judgments make use of concepts, the hypothesis remains open that at least some appearances precede such judgments (Zeimbekis 2013).

the fact that a subject is "blind" to objects and events it represents but to which it does not direct its attention. Perceptual judgment requires directing one's attention to a perceived object or fact. Here is a question which calls for further empirical and conceptual work: is perceptual attention in itself su cient for making things appear, or do they only begin to "look" a certain way once they have been made objects of perceptual judgments? We cannot explore such questions here; however, they suggest that it is fruitful to conceive appearances as manifestations of powers.

Conclusion

Starting with an analysis of a famous apparent paradox arising from a series of judgments of perceptual comparisons with stimuli so similar that their di↵erence lies under the discrimination threshold, our aim was to find out whether there is a metaphysical picture of perception and its objects, which allows discrimination between objective colors to be non-transitive, and still makes room for the existence of what I have called "looks," or more generally "appearances." I have taken looks to be defined by the possibility for the subject to know them immediately, exhaustively, and infallibly. I have suggested that this is possible if colors and other objective properties that are objects of perceptual judgments, are "multi-track" powers. Each occasion of comparison between two perceptible items is a triggering condition, relative to which the power gives rise to a disposition to appear in a certain way to a given type of cognitive subject. If the subject makes a comparison judgment, the item appears to her in a way constituted by the judgment. The appearance results from a cognitive act of the subject, and is therefore directly and completely knowable by the subject.

All other accounts of appearances we have examined either construe appearances as sense data (Robinson, Jackson and Pinkerton) or as contents of permanent representations. Such permanent representations as "qualia"

(Goodman and Clark) and "phenomenal properties" (Hardin, Hellie) are 8. CONCLUSION 286 powers rather than manifestations of powers, in the sense that they are not directly and completely manifest to the subject. The content of representations, whether sharp or "determinate" (Goodman, Clark) or spread out or "determinable" (Hardin, Hellie), can only be explored and completely known with scientific methods. Such representations and their contents are not looks in our sense because they are not immediately accessible to the subject.

If looks are construed as contents of perceptual judgments, they are ephemeral, in the sense that their existence is limited to a particular situation. This is a consequence of the fact that they are manifestations rather than powers. Here lies the main di↵erence between our proposal and the accounts we have considered. Permanent representations, such as Goodman's qualia and determinable qualities in a psychological space, are powerful properties. Just as objective powerful properties (such as the objective colors of perceived objects), the representations a subject forms of the colors she perceives are powerful properties of the subject. Both are only indirectly accessible to the subject. The subject acquires new partial knowledge on both objective and subjective powerful properties each time she makes a perceptual judgment. Each acquisition of such partial knowledge gives rise to an appearance, so that the appearance itself is completely knowable by the subject. However, this knowledge concerns only an ephemeral manifestation, not a power, and is therefore of very limited use.

  corresponding to the look of B, when it is seen together with A and compared to A, and to the look of B when it is seen together with C and compared to C. But then, given the ephemeral character of looks, which is due to their dependence on context, both on what is perceived at the same time in other parts of the visual field and on what has been perceived by the subject earlier, there is no reason to suppose that these two looks, B 1

  4. DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE EXACT: GOODMAN/CLARK 272 4. Denying SP, Supposing That Representations of Colors Are Exact: Goodman/ClarkThe most influential strategy to avoid the refutation of looks by Nontrans has been introduced byGoodman (1977) and further developed byClark (1993). In terms of our analysis of the logical form of Nontrans, this strategy can be interpreted as based on the rejection of the Sameness Principle (see Fara 2001). Goodman and Clark deny that the fact that two objects look the same with respect to color su ces to establish that there is a property, traditionally called appearance or look, that is directly apparent to the subject. Supposing that such a property exists leads to the sorites contradiction. However, contrary to Robinson and Jackson and Pinkerton, Goodman and Clark's aim is not merely critical. Indeed, Clark provides a positive metaphysical interpretation of colors and looks, which goes beyond finding a way of avoiding the conclusion of Nontrans. Discrimination and di↵erence judgments are made by subjects on the basis of the perception of objects. Although these judgments bear on external objects, they must be made on the basis of some representation which has psychological reality. The challenge is to account for this psychological reality without falling into the trap of the sorites argument. Goodman and Clark's strategy is to introduce a new kind of entity that is supposed to take over the role of looks, but di↵ers from looks in being immune to sorites arguments. "Qualia," as Goodman and Clark call them, are psychological entities for which there is no principle equivalent to the Sameness Principle. No sorites argument refutes their existence even if all other premises are kept, including the Uniqueness Principle.

  4. DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE EXACT: GOODMAN/CLARK 275the subject to check all third items, which might possibly reveal that QA 6 = QB. The identity QA = QB always remains hypothetical. Depending on

  5. DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE INEXACT: HARDIN 279

19

  In a similar vein, Ra↵man judges that, the statistical relation defined by the psychologists seems equally likely to be nontransitive: there are or can be three stimuli A, B, and C such that, for example, A and B are judged di↵erent only 40 percent of the time (hence are indiscriminable), and similarly B and C, but A and C are judged di↵erent 70 percent of the time (hence are discriminably di↵erent). (2000, 157) 6. DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE INEXACT: HELLIE 280

  6. DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE INEXACT: HELLIE 281not conclude that phenomenal appearances are determinables as appearances (i.e., in the sense of corresponding to an extended region of representations).For Zeimbekis, appearances are determinables only relative to the objective properties they represent. "Phenomenal sizes . . . stand in a determination relation to objective sizes" (353).By contrast, Hellie (2005) takes phenomenal properties (i.e., representations of objective properties acquired through perception) to be "inexact" as appearances, in the sense that the identity of a phenomenal property corresponds to an extended region in the psychological space of representation.Hellie represents the situation establishing the non-transitivity of indiscriminability in the following way: R(A, e) is the representation of a color A in experience e. It corresponds to a region in psychological quality space that contains A. According to Hellie, the fact that A and B are indiscriminable in experience e means that the representations of the colors of A and B overlap: There can be "indiscriminability without sameness of representation"

  elucidate colors as powers, in Locke's sense, to evoke certain sorts of dis-

	criminatory responses in human beings. They are also, of course, powers to
	cause sensations in human beings (an account still nearer Locke's)" (Smart
	1959, 149).
	I suggest introducing a new twist in the analysis of colors as powers,
	which is the key to overcoming the sorites paradox threatening the existence
	of appearances. Colors are what have traditionally been called "multi-track"
	dispositions. I think the best way to understand them is this.

4

Colors as objective properties of the surfaces of objects are powers. Such a power grounds, not a single disposition to manifest itself in one way, but a whole set of dispositions. For each context of observation of a given colored surface, the

  4. DENYING SP, SUPPOSING THAT REPRESENTATIONS OF COLORS ARE EXACT: GOODMAN/CLARK 274known (1) directly nor (2) completely nor (3) infallibly by the subject that has them.It is part of the concept of a look (or in general, of an appearance) that it is possible for the subject to acquire direct knowledge of how things look (or appear) to her. It is essential for looks that knowledge of the sameness or di↵erence of the looks of A and B can be acquired directly: if A 1 and B 1 are looks it is su cient for the subject to inspect A 1 and B 1 themselves to know whether they are identical or not. However, the subject cannot tell

	datum that the very subject to whom it appears ignores what it is; for this presupposes
	that the way it appears to her (and which she knows by immediate introspection, or
	acquaintance) is not what it really is. Broad (1923, 244) seems to take sense data to be
	only incompletely known. This seems to be incompatible with the very notion of a sense
	datum. We might take this to be a verbal issue: What Broad calls sense data just are
	not sense data, in the sense of what appears necessarily as what it is, and about which

by direct inspection alone whether two items A and B produce the same quale in her psychological quality space. The fact that they look exactly the same ("match") with respect to some dimension of perceivable qualities, such as color, is necessary but not su cient. If there is a third item C that looks di↵erent from one (say A) but looks the same as the other (B ), (in Goodman's terminology: if there is C which matches B but not A), the quale Q(A) by which the subject represents the color of A is not identical with the quale Q(B ) by which the subject represents the color of B. The crucial point is that there are situations where QA 6 = QB but where the subject cannot by introspection directly acquire knowledge that QA 6 = QB.

Moreover, even if A and B match and if it is in fact true that QA = QB, the subject can never be certain that QA = QB : It is impossible for the time of having them"

(1968, 219)

. As Armstrong notes, such a doctrine would be paradoxical, in the sense that it is incompatible with a central tent of the sense datum doctrine. Sense data are defined by the fact that the appearance-reality distinction does not apply to them: They are what they appear to be. Thus it is impossible to say of a sense the subject cannot be ignorant. Rather, they might be powers to give rise to sense data: powerful properties of the perceptual experience.

  by rejecting at least one of DP, UP, or SP, without rejecting the existence of looks as such. I have argued that DP and SP cannot be rejected without threatening the existence of looks and the intuition that they are directly and completely known by the subject, by the very experience in which they are present to the subject. A subject would not know how things appear to her if it were possible (as it is if SP is denied) that (1) she judges A and B to look the same, but that nevertheless (2) the look of A di↵ers from the look of B. Thus, the existence of looks can only be justified if SP is maintained. The same reasoning shows that the existence of looks requires DP: A subject would not know how things appear to her if it were possible (as it is if DP is denied) that (1) she judges A and B to look di↵erent, but that nevertheless (2) the look of A is identical to the look of B. Abandoning SP or DP is equivalent to abandoning the idea of looks as immediately and perfectly known to the subject on the basis of the very experience of having them. In other words, SP and DP are constitutive of the conception of looks

	7. LOOKS AS MANIFESTATIONS OF POWERS	283

  A looks the same as B, A's look is constituted by the fact that it is equal to B 's look. If the subject judges that A looks similar or di↵erent from B with respect to its color, A's look consists in A's similarity or di↵erence with respect to B 's look. The only way to comply with EL is to suppose that the content of the judgment exhausts the appearance:

	7. LOOKS AS MANIFESTATIONS OF POWERS	284
	a subject judges that
	work, NTI does not make sense because discrimination judgments are not
	taken to bear on objective colors, but rather on sense data.
	I can here only sketch how manifestations of powerful objective colors
	can comply with the intuitive constraints expressed in EL. This is possible
	if looks are construed as (parts of) the contents of acts of comparison. Let
	us suppose that these acts are judgments. 21 According to this hypothesis, if

21

Ra↵man suggests that looks are constituted by judgments. "I shall speak indi↵erently of patches' looking red and being judged to look red "

(1994, 45

; emphasis Ra↵man's).

  22 22 I thank my auditors at St Louis, Oxford, Paris, and Bergamo, as well as Pascal Ludwig, John Zeimbekis, and two referees for Oxford University Press for very helpful critical remarks.

AN ANALYSIS IN TERMS OF POWERS AND MANIFESTATIONS