Masahiro Yamada

Thomas Pellard

1 The language and its speakers 1.1 Geography Yonaguni Ryukyuan, Dunan munui in the vernacular, is spoken on Yonaguni Island (Dunan ccima), which belongs to the Yaeyama district of the Okinawa prefecture, Japan. The island, 28.91 km² large, is the westernmost one in Japan (approximately long. 123°E

, lat. 24°45' N) and is located halfway between Taiwan and Iriomote Island. There are three villages, Sonai (Thumaimura), Higawa (Ndimura), and Kubura (Khubura), located 5 to 7 km away from each other. Kubura's population almost entirely consists of immigrants from outside the island. p. 449

Genetic affiliation and historical developments

The Dunan language belongs to the Macro-Yaeyama subgroup of Southern Ryukyuan, and it is thus a sister language of Yaeyama Ryukyuan [START_REF] Lawrence | Yonaguni hōgen no keitōteki ichi[END_REF]Pellard 2009, this volume).

Dunan exhibits some interesting phonological developments, such as the reduction of the vowel system to three basic ones, the shift of the velars *k and *g to respectively /ɡ/ and /ŋ/ in intervocalic position, or the fortition of *z and initial *j to /d/. Dunan is also characterized by the historical syncope of high vowels between voiceless consonants that led to the emergence of strong consonants (*C₁VC₂ > C2 ), and by the nasalization of high vowels before a voiced or nasal consonant, which gave birth to syllabic nasals (*(C₁)VC₂/N > nC₂/N).

Concerning its lexicon, Dunan has renewed a significant number of its basic vocabulary, and it shares about 80-85% of it with the other Ryukyuan languages and 70% with Japanese (Ōshiro 1972).

Number of speakers

All Dunan speakers are in their mid-fifties or older, and all of them are bilingual in both Standard Japanese and Dunan, while younger generations are usually monolingual in Japanese. Extrapolating from these sociolinguistic observations and from the census data available, the total number of Dunan speakers can be roughly estimated to be around 400, that is to say 25% of the total population of the island (approximately 1600).

Dialects and sociolinguistic information

The dialects spoken in Sonai and Higawa are fully mutually intelligible and show very little if any variation, which is a rather unusual situation in the Ryukyus. It should also be noted that many women come from outside the island, which further contributes to the replacement of Dunan by Standard Japanese. Within most Yonaguni families, the inter-generational transmission of the language has long been interrupted, and the total number of Dunan speakers is steeply decreasing. p. 450

Previous studies and available documentation

The first extensive description of Dunan is [START_REF] Hirayama | Ryūkyū Yonaguni hōgen no sōgōteki kenkyū[END_REF] phonological and morphological survey, which is accompanied by a short lexicon and a few texts. More recent grammatical sketches can be found in Hirayama (1988), together with a larger lexicon, [START_REF] Takahashi | Yonaguni hōgen[END_REF], or [START_REF] Izuyama | Ryūkyū Yaeyama (Yonaguni) hōgen no bunpō kiso kenkyū[END_REF],1 but most of the syntax is left undescribed. The tone system is best documented in [START_REF] Uwano | Ryūkyū Yonaguni hōgen no akusento shiryō (1)[END_REF][START_REF] Uwano | Yonaguni hōgen no akusento to sedaikan henka[END_REF][START_REF] Uwano | Yonaguni hōgen dōshi katsuyō no akusento shiryō (2)[END_REF].

Though there are several Dunan-Japanese bilingual lexicons (Hōsei daigaku Okinawa bunka kenkyūjo 1987a,b; [START_REF] Ikema | Yonagunigo jiten[END_REF], no real dictionary has been hitherto published. A few Dunan texts in phonemic script with word-by-word glosses in Japanese can be found in Hirayama & Nakamoto (1964, with accompanying sonosheets), Shibata (1972, with audio tapes and a re-edition as cd-roms), and [START_REF] Kajiku | Yonaguni hōgen ni tsuite[END_REF]. Fukuda et al. (1983) is the largest collection of Dunan texts, but it adopts an inconsistent orthography and has no glosses but only free translations in Japanese.

Phonetics and phonology

Vowels

Dunan has three main vowels: a low /a/, whose realizations vary between front [a] and back [ɑ], a high front unrounded /i/ ([i], [ɪ]), and a high back rounded /u/ ([u], [ʊ]). Though most previous studies only posit these three vowel phonemes, a mid-vowel [o] can also probably be recognized as an independent phoneme and not just as an allophone of /u/. The distribution of o is however extremely limited, and apart from a few interjections, this vowel seems to consistently appear in one morpheme only, the sentence-final exclamative particle do.

p. 451 Vowel length does not appear to be distinctive, though vowels can be lengthened in some cases. For instance, monosyllabic words are usually lengthened if they are not followed by a clitic, and vowel lengthening can have an expressive function in some adverbs like aragu 'very' ([aɾaɡu] or [aɾaːɡu]) or buru 'all' ([buɾu] or [buːɾu]).

Consonants

The Dunan consonant system is summarized in Table 18.1, with a practical orthographic representation given between parenthesis after each symbol. There is a three-way laryngeal opposition for stops between a fortis, a lenis, and a voiced series. The fortis/lenis opposition is neutralized in word-medial position, where all voiceless stops are usually phonetically fortis. The fortis series, traditionally called "glottalized", is unaspirated and tense, while the lenis series is weakly aspirated and lax. The consonants /pˀ/ and /cˀ/ have no lenis counterparts. In our practical orthography, initial fortis consonants are written with double letters and lenis ones as h-digraphs, while word-medial neutralized consonants are written with a single letter.

In positions other than prevocalic, all nasals are neutralized and are here written uniformly as n, but phonetically they are homorganic with a following consonant (e.g.

Syllable

The syllable structure of Dunan is rather simple, with both the onset and coda being optional. Complex onsets are not allowed, except for the optional presence of a medial glide (G) j or w. The only coda possible is the nasal archi-phoneme, and the[nucleus p. 452 can contain up to two vowels. Dunan's basic syllabic template is thus as follows:

(

1) (C(G))V₁(V₂)(N)
The nasal archi-phoneme can also constitute a syllable on its own, but this special type of minor syllable is strictly restricted to word-initial position before a stop, affricate, or nasal (e.g. n.da 'you').

Mora

All vowels bear a mora, and a nasal is also moraic when it stands in coda or nucleus position. Syllables can be light ((C)(G)V), heavy ((C)(G)VV, (C)(G)VN) or super-heavy ((C)(G)VVN). All super-heavy syllables seem to be morphologically complex and are not subject to resyllabification (CVVN → *CV.VN). Thus hâi=n 'needle=incl' and dúi=n 'handle=incl' are respectively realized with a falling and a high pitch, and not as LF and LH, as would be the case with disyllabic words (cf. hâci=n 'chopsticks=incl' LF and háci=n 'bridge=incl' LH).

The mora has not been considered to be an important unit in previous studies on Dunan phonology, but it nevertheless plays a major role in two processes. First, there is a bimoraic constraint on the minimal size of words, and C(G)V words get their vowel lengthened when they constitute a phonological word on their own. This does not apply to NC(G)V words since the initial nasal bears a mora.

Second, heavy and light syllables differ in their ability to bear a falling tone: polysyllabic words ending with a light C(G)V syllable cannot realize an underlying falling tone, while those ending with a heavy (C)(G)VV or (C)(G)VN syllable can. NC(G)V words also fail to phonetically realize a falling tone since the initial nasal forms a syllable on its own and thus does not affect the prosodic weight of the final syllable.

Tone

Dunan has a three-way word-tone system for simple nouns. The tone domain is not the syllable nor the mora, but the word; one of the three distinctive melodies is mapped onto the word as a whole, regardless of its length. However, the actual tone-bearing unit is the syllable.

The three word-tones High, Low and Falling, are also usually called A, B and C. The High tone is characterized by a high pitch on the last syllable of the words, with all preceding syllables high, except the first one in polysyllabic words. The Low tone is evenly low throughout the word. The Falling tone is similar to the High one, but[the p. 453 final syllable has a falling contour if it is heavy. If the last syllable of the word is light (i.e., is a (C)V syllable), it is pronounced with a high pitch, making it indistinguishable from a High-tone word, unless it is made heavy by attaching some extra phonological material, such as the inclusive clitic =n ('even, too'). An unrealized final fall can also trigger a downstep of the following word [START_REF] Uwano | Yonaguni hōgen no akusento to sedaikan henka[END_REF]). In the present practical orthography, the High, Low and Falling tones are respectively marked with an acute (ˊ), grave (ˋ), and circumflex (ˆ) accent on the first vowel of the word. The difference of range between the high and low pitches is usually quite small in Dunan, which makes the assessment of each word's tonal category a difficult task.

Investigation of the tone system has barely begun,2 and tone will thus be left unmarked in most examples.

Word classes

There are two large word classes (nominals and verbs) and five small word classes (adverbs, role markers, adnominals, conjunctions, and interjections) in Dunan. As in most Ryukyuan languages, property words ("adjectives") share most of their morphosyntax with ordinary verbs and can thus be regarded as a subclass of verbs. Most of the word classes listed above are phonologically independent, but role markers are clitics phonologically integrated into the last word of the nominal phrase they attach to.

p. 454

Nominals

Nominals are words that head nominal phrases (NP), which are independently defined as constituents that can function as an argument or as a copula predicate. Nominals can be subcategorized into nouns, pronouns, and numerals.

Verbs

Verbal words comprise both "ordinary" verbs (henceforth simply "verbs") and stative verbs (which may alternatively be called "adjectives"). Verbs inflect and function as the predicate of a clause. Basically, the same set of inflectional affixes applies to both verbs and stative verbs, although some restrictions and differences are observed (Section 4.4). One conspicuous difference lies in the way negative forms are formed. Whereas verbs are negated with the suffix -anu-, stative verbs are negated with the affix -minu-, as in khag-anu-n (write-neg-ind) 'not write' versus thaga-minu-n (high-neg-ind) 'be not high' .

Adverbs

Adverbs serve as modifiers of an entire clause (sentential adverbs) or of the predicate of a clause (predicate adverbs). Adverbs may be underived bare root forms, or derived from a stative verb root, by attaching -gu to it, e.g. thaga 'high' → thaga-gu 'high (adverb)' , ninsa 'slow' → ninsa-gu 'slowly' .

Role markers

Role markers are enclitics that mark the syntactic, semantic, and/or pragmatic role of the NP to which they attach. Case markers, quantifiers, topic markers, and focus markers form the class of role markers. Several role markers can be agglutinated on the same NP, with case markers coming closest to the NP, followed by quantifiers, and finally topic/focus markers.

Other minor classes

Adnominals (khunu, unu, khanu) are preposed demonstrative modifiers of NPs. Though both khunu and unu could be analyzed as involving a demonstrative pronoun (i.e., khu 'proximal' , u 'mesial') followed by the genitive case marker =nu, this analysis is not possible for khanu (cf. khari 'distal').

p. 455 Conjunctions like =tasi 'while' , =jungara 'because' , =ŋa 'but' , =tin 'even if' encode the subordinate status of the clause they attach to. They follow the predicate of the subordinate clause and act as a linker with the main clause.

Interjections are uninflected words that mark an exclamation, like di 'hey' .

Morphology

Dunan has a comparatively complex morphology for a Japonic language, but its morphological type is nevertheless similar to that of its linguistic relatives. Dunan has thus a generally dependent-marking, concatenative, and suffixal morphology. Morphological formatives most often show no cumulative exponence, and words have a medium degree of synthesis.

Nominal morphology

The general morphological structure of nominal words in Dunan can be summarized as in ( 2).

(2) (Prefix-) (Root+) root (-diminutive) (-plural)

Noun affixes

Dunan's morphology is overwhelmingly suffixal, but some noun prefixes that denote a quality or a property are also found, like ubu-'big' (e.g. ubu-ici 'big stone'), mi-'female' , (e.g. mi-uci 'cow'), or bigi-'male' (e.g. bigi-uci 'ox'). Nouns can be followed by the diminutive suffix -ti, which marks smallness, youth, or endearment (e.g. agami-ti child-dim 'small child' , inu-ti dog-dim 'puppy'). Most of nouns in Dunan are number neutral, in the sense that they are not specified as being singular or plural, and they can be used to refer to a single or to multiple entities (3).

(3) inu=ŋa dog=nom maasiku many bu-n be-ind 'There are a lot of dogs.' However, nouns can be explicitly be marked for plural number with the suffix -nta, which can express associative (e.g. Tharu-nta Taro-pl 'Taro and others') or collective (e.g. inu-nta dog-pl 'a (particular) group of dogs') plural. Derived from its associative meaning, the plural suffix can also be used to express ambiguity or[approximation p. 456 with entities (e.g. khwaci-nta cookie-pl 'cookies among other things') or locative nominals (e.g. khuma-nta here-pl 'around here').

Numerals and classifiers

Numerals in Dunan are built from a numeral root (1 ttu, 2 tta, 3 mi, 4 du, 5 ici, 6 mu, 7 nana, 8 da, 9 khugunu, 10 thu) followed by a classifier suffix. The choice of classifier depends on the nature or shape of the object quantified (humans: -taintu; animals: -gara; generic for inanimates: -ci; flat thin objects: -ira; trees: -mutu; days: -ka/-ga; times: -muruci; steps: -mata; handful: -ka, etc.). Some numeral + classifier combinations exhibit morphophonological alternations and suppletion, and borrowed Sino-Japanese numerals are also frequent.

Pronouns

Pronouns can be categorized into interlocutory pronouns, i.e, those referring to speech act participants, demonstrative pronouns, which refer to non-speech act participants, reflexive pronouns, locative pronouns, and interrogative pronouns.

While other nominals are number neutral, personal pronouns are regularly marked for number. They also often exhibit suppletion and stem-final ablaut in the plural and some case forms. In particular, interlocutory pronouns form their genitive case with their bare (or truncated) stem or with the nominative marker =ŋa instead of genitive =nu, which can be viewed as an instance of case deponency. p. 457

Case

Case is marked by postpositional markers that have phrasal scope over whole NPs. These markers are phonologically dependent, but they are not as tightly bound to their host as suffixes, and some of them can also appear on verbs and act as conjunctions.

There is a sharp distinction between direct cases, which encode core arguments (S, A, P), and oblique cases, which encode other verb satellites. While oblique cases are usually always formally marked, the core arguments S and P are usually not, though a nominative marker =ŋa can be used on S arguments, especially when they are not topicalized. This nominative marker is also regularly used to mark non-topicalized A arguments.3 p. 458

The verbal system of Dunan is without doubt the most complex one within the whole Japonic family. Its complexity is the result of the conjunct effects of important phonological and morphological changes that have disrupted the originally rather straightforward system. Figure 18.1 represents the overall structure of the verb in Dunan. Each position can be filled with only one morpheme, and only positions 0 (the root) and 5 (the endings) 3. The exact conditions that determine when the nominative marker is used and when it is not are still unclear.

are obligatory. Each of the non-final suffixes in positions 1 to 4 can change the conjugation class of the stem. Position 3 (aspect/polarity) and 4 (tense) are incompatible with deontic moods and the medial/converb category. Dunan's verb morphology is characterized by a high degree of allomorphy in both stems and grammatical formatives. There is generally no synchronic phonological motivation for these alternations, whose ultimate cause can only be found in the historical developments of the language. Moreover, stems and suffixes are arbitrarily coindexed, and stems carry themselves no inflectional information. The co-indexation of stems and suffixes is also not uniform across all verbs.

0 (1) (2) (3) (4) 5 Present -u-/∅ Indicative -n ∅ Past -(i)ta-Participle ∅/-ru Negative -anu- Past -(i)ta-Circumstantial -iba/-uba Root Causative -amir Passive -arir-Perfect -( j)a-/-( j)u- ∅ Conditional -ja ∅ ∅ ∅ ∅ Imperative i Prohibitive -(u)nna Hortative -(i)ndangi Medial -i
The combination of stem alternations, formative allomorphy, and stem-suffix coindexation necessitates positing a complex system with several dozens of inflectional verb classes and eight stems, far more than in any other Japonic language. There is also no single form or stem that can serve as a principal part or reference form and predict a verb's paradigm, which can only be deduced from a set of more than three forms.

For instance, some verbs otherwise homonymous differ only by their perfect form, such as sagun 'tear' → satjan versus sagun 'bloom' → satun, or nirun 'cook,[boil' → njan p. 459 versus nirun 'get cooked, boiled' → njun. On the other hand, the perfect form alone cannot disambiguate a verb's class membership, since non-homonymous verbs can have the same perfect form, like khatun 'win' and khagun 'write' , which both have a perfect form khatjan.

Stems

Dunan exhibits a comparatively high degree of stem allomorphy. Stem-shape alternation patterns are lexeme-based and follow no general (morpho)phonological rule (Table 18.6). Trying to account for Dunan's stem alternations with derivational rules would be rather pointless, since rules would not be generalizable but would turn out to be specific to some verb classes and suffixes, and they would thus hold no explanatory power.

Stem allomorphy involves not only segmental but also supra-segmental alternations, since some Low tone verbs shift to the Falling tone within their paradigm. Me-tatony is not uniform across all Low tone verbs, and three patterns must be recognized according to which forms undergo tonal alternation (Table 18.7). Most of the inflectional information is encoded by suffixes, which, like stems, exhibit allomorphy. Several suffixes have two phonologically conditioned variants according to the shape of the stem they attach to, but, as explained above, the choice of the stem depends on the suffix and the verb's class, and the allomorphy is not always phonologically motivated (see Table 18.9). On the other hand, the perfect marker shows lexeme-based allomorphy between -( j)a-/-( j)u-, depending on the verb's class only.4 Moreover, an inflected form can combine several suffixes, and the combinations between suffixes of different slots are by and large idiosyncratic and often follow irregular patterns.

Inflected verb forms can be divided into two categories according to their morphosyntactic status and function, which are encoded by different endings (Slot 5). First, independent verb forms are marked for mood and are syntactically autonomous; they can head main clauses and form a complete sentence on their own. Indicative forms can be marked for tense and/or aspect, but not other independent mood forms (see Table 18.10).

p. 461

Non-perfect Present

Indicative

-∅-u/∅-n khirun Past -∅-(i)ta-n khitan Negative Present -anu-∅-n khiranun Past -anu-ta-n khiranutan Perfect Present -( j)a/( j)u-∅-n khjan Past -( j)a/( j)u-ta-n khjatan - - Imperative -i khiri - - Prohibitive -(u)nna khinna - - Hortative -(i)ndangi khindangi
On the other hand, dependent verb forms (Table 18.11) such as the medial form and converbs usually do not appear in independent clauses, except in the case of ellipsis. They head adverbial or chained clauses, or appear with an auxiliary in a complex verb form. Some of these dependent verb forms, namely the circumstantial and conditional forms, can be marked for tense/aspect and take the perfect and past suffixes. Medial and various converb forms are on the other hand incompatible with tense/aspect and depend on another clause's predicate for the expression of these categories.

p. 462 Participial forms have a somehow ambiguous status since while their primary function is to head adnominal clauses, they can also appear in a main clause, with an exclamative value or in focus concord (kakari musubi) constructions. For most verbs, the stem of the indicative minus its suffix -n serves as a participle form, but for the perfect and past, a suffix -ru attaches to the stem.

4. The choice of the perfect marker is partly correlated with agentivity/transitivity, but there are too many exceptions to consider this correlation to be a synchronic rule. The relationship between transi- Dunan also shows several complex verb forms, where a medial verb is followed by an auxiliary which carries the inflectional markers. Verb auxiliaries mark subject honorification (warun) or various TAM values (e.g. imperfective bun, completive ccidimirun, conative nnun, preparative utugun, potential ccun, desiderative busan) and can be more or less fused with the main verb. Some auxiliaries form a distinct word, as shown by the fact they retain their tone and can be separated from the main verb by the focus marker =du (e.g. khati=du buru 'be writing'). On the other hand, some auxiliaries form a compound with the main verb and have no autonomy (e.g. khati-busan 'want to write').

Non-perfect Present Circumstantial -∅-∅-iba/uba Past Conditional -∅-ta-ba Present Conditional -∅-∅-ja Past Conditional -∅-ta-ja Negative Present Circumstantial -anu-∅-ba Past Circumstantial -anu-ta-ba Present Conditional -anur-∅-ja Past Conditional -anu-ta-ja Perfect Present Circumstantial -( j)a/( j)u-∅-ba Past Circumstantial -( j)a/( j)u-ta-ba Present Conditional -( j)ar/( j)ur-∅-ja Past Conditional -( j)a/( j)u-ta-ja - - Medial -i - - Sequential -iti - - Causal -ibi - - Simultaneous -idatana - - Negative converb -nki - - Supine -ndi
tivity and the perfect is thus better viewed as a relic of history.

Derivational morphology

Non-class changing derivation includes the two voice categories, namely the causative and the passive. Both are marked by suffixes directly attaching to the root, and the two can combine with each other, in which case the causative precedes the passive suffix. The causative is marked by -(a)mir-and the passive by -(a)rir-.

Stative verb morphology

Stative verbs ("adjectives") have a different and less complex morphology than ordinary verbs. Stative verb roots uniformly end with the vowel a and attach the auxiliary verb an 'exist' , which carries the inflectional markers. The root and the auxiliary are in the process of being completely fused together, and the final a of[the root and the p. 463 initial a of the auxiliary can be reduced to a single short vowel. In some constructions, the auxiliary still retains some freedom, and for instance the focus marker =du and the topic marker =ja can attach to the root, in which case the auxiliary is detached to the right. Since all the inflectional information is carried by the auxiliary, stative verbs inherit the irregularities of the verb an, such as the suppletive form minun for the negative and the long participial form aru. Stative verbs also have two special forms not seen in other verbs: an exclamative form in -anu ('high' thaga-(a)nu), and an adverbial form in -gu ('high' thaga-gu). On the other hand, stative verbs lack most aspectual, mood, and converbial forms of other verbs.

Many stative verbs have two forms, a short one, and a long one with a suffix -sa intervening between the root and the auxiliary (e.g. 'high' thaga-an/thaga-sa-an), but the difference between the two is unclear.

Word formation processes

Though both nominal and verbal derivations are usually realized through affixation, compounding is also frequent in nominal and verbal word formation. New nominals can be formed by adding a noun or a property concept root (PCR) before the head nominal root.

(4) a. noun + noun: dunan 'Yonaguni' + ttu 'person' → dunan-ttu 'Yonaguni islander' b. baga 'young' + nai 'seedling' → baga-nai 'young seedling'

Compounding is also frequent with verbs. Compound verbs can combine a main lexical verb with an auxiliary (see above) or a noun with the light verb khirun 'do' , [likein p. 464 hanasi-khirun 'to speak, to chat' (literally 'do story'). The noun can also be a loanword like benkyoo (Sino-Japanese 'study') → benkyoo-khirun 'to study' .

Syntax

Dunan is a head-final, dependent-marking language. The basic constituent order is S (X) V / A (X) P V, but the arguments may be left unstated if they are recoverable from the context. Word order is flexible and varies according to information structure, but no obligatory fronting or post-posing of arguments is observed in questions or other pragmatically marked structures. In nominal phrases, the modifier precedes the head, and the syntactic/semantic role of a whole NP is indicated by an enclitic.

Alignment and the basic case system

Dunan has a nominative-accusative alignment, where the {S, A} argument rather than the P argument is marked. However, the {S, A} argument is often left unmarked (Section 4.2). The nominative marker is consistently =ŋa, unlike other Ryukyuan languages where there are usually two nominative case forms.5 In a ditransitive clause, the Extended core argument (E, e.g. goal, recipient, causee) is indicated by the locative (=ni) or the directive (=nki) case, and the alignment is thus of the indirective type. In a nominal predicate clause, a subtype of intransitive clause, the copula subject is marked by the nominative, and the predicate NP is unmarked.

(5) [agami=ŋa] s child=nom maasiku many bu-n exist-ind 'There are lots of children.' (Intransitive)

(6) [agami=ŋa] a child=nom [min] p water num-u-n drink-prs-ind 'A child drinks water' (Mono-transitive) (7) [agami=ŋa] a child=nom [nma=nki] e horse=dir [

min] p water

num-asimir-u-n drink-caus-prs-ind 'A child makes a horse drink water.' (Ditransitive) 5. For example, Miyako has two different nominative markers =ga and =nu [START_REF] Hayashi | Ikema (Miyako Ryukyuan)[END_REF][START_REF] Pellard | Ōgami (Miyako Ryukyuan)[END_REF][START_REF] Shimoji | Irabu Ryukyuan[END_REF]).

The nominal phrase p. 465

NPs have a head-final structure, with modifiers appearing before the head. An NP may be further followed by a role marker when it is used as an argument, or by a copula verb when it is used as a predicate. The entire construction consisting of an NP and its extension (case marker, copula, etc.) constitutes an extended NP. The head of an NP is usually a nominal, and it may be modified by an adnominal word, an adnominal clause, or a genitive NP. ( 8 A verbal predicate can be simply constituted of a single inflected lexical verb or combine a main lexical verb in the medial form with a following grammatical auxiliary which carries the inflections. Whereas the main verb denotes the lexical meaning of the predicate and is thus a primarily determinant of the argument structure of the clause, the auxiliary functions to indicate various grammatical categories that the predicate is typically associated with: TAM, modality, honorification, etc.

Auxiliary constructions fall into two types: analytic predicates, where the two components form distinct words, and compound predicates, where the two form a compound word. In both types, the main verb must be inflected as a medial form, which lacks TAM and other inflectional information, which are all taken over by the auxiliary verb that follows. Since the main and auxiliary components are separate words in analytic forms, it is possible for a role marker to be inserted, as in (10) below, where the focus marker =du follows the main verb. p. 466 (10) suŋuti book khat-i=du write-med=foc bu-ru=na? ipfv-ptcp=ynq '(Are you) writing a book?' By contrast, as illustrated in (11) below, some auxiliaries opt for a fused form, where the main verb component and the auxiliary component form a single compound word.

(11) khat-i-busa-n

write-med-desid-ind '(I) want to write.'

Nominal predicate

A nominal predicate minimally consists of an NP, which may be further followed by the copula, an irregular verb related to the existential verb an.6 However, as illustrated in ( 12) below, the copula does not appear unless the overt marking of inflection (TAM, polarity, honorification, focus concord) is necessary, as in ( 13). In other words, no copula appears in non-focalized present indicative nominal predicates.

( umu-i, think-med '(The woman) thought, "[(They) pretend not to see me, so…], and"…' (Kajiku 2002: 283) 6. Contrary to existential verbs (see Section 6.1.1), the copula shows no variation according to its argument's animacy.

) khari=ja dist=top dunan-ttu Yonaguni-person (*a-n) (*cop-ind) '(S) 12
6 Functional categories 6.1 Sentence types 6.1.1 Declarative A declarative sentence with a verbal predicate normally takes the indicative verb ending -n as in ( 17), while with a nominal predicate, the bare nominal without a copula occupies the predicate position. Clauses that express existence use one of the existential verbs, i.e, bun for animates or an for inanimates, as their predicate, and the location is marked the locative case (=ni). {*bu, a}-n=do exist-ind=sfp 'That person has a lot of money.' (Literally 'A lot of money exists in that person.')

Interrogative

A Yes/No-question is marked with the special sentence final particle =na. This particle attaches to the participle form of most non-perfect present verbs, but to a special form7 for the existential verbs and for all past and perfect inflected forms.8 (20) khuruma car mut-i hold-med bu=na? ipfv=ynq 'Do (you) have a car?' 7. The indicative form without its suffix -n. 8. This constitutes further evidence that both the perfect and past markers historically derive from the existential verbs bun and an.

Interrogative Y/N nominal predicates with or without role marking also take =na.

(21) a. dunan-ccima=ja? Yonaguni-island=whq 'Where exactly is Yonaguni Island?'

Imperative

The verb in an imperative sentence appears in either the imperative or the prohibitive form.

(24) da=nki house=dir hir-i go-imp / hi-nna go-proh 'Go home / Do not go home.'

Negation

Negation of a verbal predicate is generally marked by the negative suffix -anu-, which appears before other inflections. The existential verb an has a special suppletive negative form minun (25a), which is also used with stative verbs and to negate the perfect aspect. Negation of a nominal predicate necessitates to use the negative form of the copula, which is the expected regular form aranun (25b), and not not the suppletive form minun. There are also some special negative forms, like the negative potential/passive/ malefactive, which is not formed by agglutinating the negative suffix -anu-to -arir-but is marked by a special form -aninu-. The prohibitive form can be regarded as a negative imperative and is marked by a specific suffix -(u)nna (24). Example (26) illustrates the negative sequential form, which is marked by a special negative sequential suffix -nki attached to a negative form.

( The perfect9 (-( j)a-/( j)u-) signals that a resultant state of the event indicated by the verb exists at the reference time. The perfect is clearly differentiated in its uses p. 471 from the imperfective, but it can often rather freely alternate with the past, and the exact distinction between the two remains to be fully clarified.

(29) a. tharu, Taro di letter khat-ja=na? write-prf=ynq / khat-ita=na? write-pst=ynq 'Taro, have (you) written/did you write the letters (that i asked you to write)?' 9. [START_REF] Izuyama | Evidenshariti (shōko yōtai): Yonaguni hōgen no baai[END_REF] claims that what we call "perfect" is a type of evidential marker. We have tried to replicate her data in the same context settings she describes but we found no clear support for her claim. This issue will require further research.

b. oo, yes

khat-ja-n write-prf-ind / khat-ita-n write-pst-ind 'Yes, (I) have written/wrote (them).'

The negation of the perfect is marked by the special negative form minun following the medial form of the verb, which constitutes further evidence that the perfect etymologically comes from the medial form of the verb followed by the existential verb an. The main moods, namely the indicative, imperative, and prohibitive, have already been described above. Among other moods, the hortative (-indangi) Dunan has several evidential markers that indicate the source of the information for the utterance. The inferential evidential marker -indangi, for instance, is illustrated in (35), where the information is presented as being inferred by the speaker on the basis of the outer appearance of the tree.

(35) khanu dist khi tree dagati eventually thur-indangi=du fall-infer=foc ar-u cop-ptcp 'That tree will fall(, I infer).' (Looking at the root coming out of the ground)

Other modality expressions

Other modalities, like necessity and possibility, are marked by periphrastic constructions.10 For example, the functional nominal hadi is used in an adnominal construction to indicate epistemic necessity ('given the knowledge available for the speaker, it is necessarily the case that…') as in (36a).11 On the other hand, deontic necessity p. 473 ('given the current situation, it is necessarily the case that…') is marked by a complex verbal expression, as in (36b). nar-anu-ta-n become-neg-pst-ind 'I had to go home early because a guest was coming.' Epistemic ('given the knowledge available for the speaker, it is possibly the case that…') and deontic ('given the current situation, it is possibly the case that…') possibilities are also expressed periphrastically (37a, 37b).

(37) a. khanu dist ttu=ja person=top nai now da=ni house=loc war-u=kan exist.hon-ptcp=whether bagar-anu-n understand-neg-ind 'That person may be at home now.' 10. Nominal predicates need to be followed by the copula in the constructions presented in (36b) and (37b), but not in those of (36a) and (37a). 11. According to the native speakers' intuition, it might be too strong to call it a necessity modal; instead it could simply be translated as 'I think that…' . The passive is encoded by the suffix -arir-and is canonically used to reduce a verb's valency by demoting the A argument of a transitive verb. The demoted argument can be simply suppressed or it can surface as an oblique in the locative or directive case. Conversely, the corresponding P argument is usually promoted to the S position and marked with the nominative case. The benefactive construction attaches the auxiliary verb thuran 'give' to a lexical verb to increase its valency by adding a beneficiary argument marked with the directive case, without demoting or promoting the other arguments. Unlike modern Japanese, the auxiliary verb is insensitive to the person feature of the beneficiary, and thus the same verb thuran is used when the beneficiary is the speaker (40a) and when it is a third person (40b). Apart from encoding the canonical passive voice, the suffix -arir-is also used with a malefactive value. With intransitive verbs, an argument is added, which is usually p. 475 topicalized and thus not case-marked,12 while the original S argument is demoted and marked with the locative or directive case. This added argument is interpreted as an individual who is negatively affected by the event expressed in the clause. thata-n stand-prs-ind 'Jiro is going to make Taro stand up.'

Honorifics

Dunan has an honorific system where the socially higher status of the subject is encoded on the verb. Some verbs have suppletive honorific forms such as ujan ['eat.hon' p. 476 12. Our corpus does not include examples of non-topicalized maleficiary arguments that would reveal with which case they would be marked.

and warun 'be.hon, go/come.hon' , while most verbs simply attach the honorific auxiliary verb warun as in ( 44).

(44) asa=ŋa grandfather=nom uta song khi do-med war-u-n hon-prs-ind 'The grandfather is singing a song.'

A very limited number of verbs have a suppletive deferential form used when the subject has a lower status than another argument. This class of verbs for example includes ccarirun 'say (to s.o.)' and thabararirun 'receive' , none of which is frequently used nowadays in Dunan except in some formulaic idioms. Contrary to Japanese, Dunan does not have allocutive (addressee honorific) forms.

Focus concord (kakari musubi)

Dunan exhibits a focus concord, or kakari musubi, phenomenon similar to that found in Classical Japanese and other Ryukyuan languages. In its strong form, this phenomenon can be described as follows: the main predicate of a sentence is in the participle form instead of the indicative form if and only if there is a focus marker =du in the main clause (45). The existence of a special kakari musubi form for the negative predicates -anu-'neg' and minu-'exist.neg' has not been described in the existing literature hitherto. For example, the negated predicate in (46) ends with the special suffix -ru, which we tentatively glossed as "msb" for musubi, rather than the expected participle form hiranu or the non-kakari musubi indicative form hir-anu-n.

(46) khama=ja there=top thwa-bi=du far-csl=foc hir-anu-ru go-neg-msb '(I) will not go there because (it is) far.' There are however counter examples to this strong definition of kakari musubi in Dunan. For instance, there are examples where the indicative form can co-occur with the marker =du and the others where the main verb is in the participle form even though there is no marker =du. It seems that the co-occurrence of participle/musubi forms with the marker =du is at best a tendency, probably due to a significant overlap of their distributional environments, though more research is necessary. p. 477

  ng [ŋɡ], nd [nd], nb [mb]) and velar ([ŋ]) in final position. The symbol c(c) represents a voiceless dental affricate [tsˀ]. Major allophones include the palatalized realizations of c(c), s, and h before j and i ([tɕˀ], [ɕ], [ç]), and the labialized variant of h before w and u ([ʍ], [ɸ]).

Figure 18

 18 Figure 18.1: Verb structure in Dunan

  m going to eat now.'

  exist-ind=sfp 'There are many children in this house.' p. 468 In Dunan, clauses expressing possession use the same construction as location expressions, with the possessor marked as a locative. (19) a. khanu dist ttu=ni person=loc agami child maasiku many {bu, *a}-n=do exist-ind=sfp 'That person has many children.' (Literally 'Many children exist in that person.

  ipfv.neg-ind '(I) have not given (it) to Taro yet.' 6.3 Mood and modality 6.3.1 Moods

  -ta-n eat-pass-pst-ind 'This mouse was eaten by the cat.'6.4.3 Benefactive

  -ta-n do-pot.neg-pst-ind 'A child cried on me and i could not work.'6.4.5 Reflexive and reciprocalReflexive and reciprocal are not morphologically marked on the verb in Dunan. Reflexive interpretation is achieved by using the reflexive pronouns sa or du as in (42). Reciprocal, on the other hand, does not seem to be marked in any way. Reciprocal situations are often described by a plural subject and a transitive verb without an overt internal argumenthimself in a mirror and saw (himself).'6.4.6 Transitive/intransitive lexical alternationsSome verbs exhibit a transitive/intransitive morphological alternation, but the underlying process is opaque and no longer productive, so that such pairs are completely lexicalized.(43) a. nai=gara now=abl tharu=ŋa Taro=nom that-u-n stand-prs-ind 'Taro is going to stand up.' b. nai=gara now=abl diru=ŋa Jiro=nom tharu Taro

  told (something to someone) now.'

Table 18 . 1 :

 181 Dunan consonants

		Labial	Dental	Palatal Velar	Glottal
	Lenis stops		/tʰ/ (th)
	Voiced stops	/b/ (b)	/d/ (d)	/ɡ/ (g)
	Nasals	/m/ (m)	/n/ (n)	/ŋ/ (ŋ)
	Voiceless fricatives		/s/ (s)		/h/ (h)
	Tap/trill		/ɾ/ (r)
	Approximants	/w/ (w)		/j/ ( j)

/kʰ/ (kh) Fortis stops/affricates /pˀ/ (pp, p) /tˀ/ (tt, t) /cˀ/ (cc, c) /kˀ/ (kk, k)

Table 18 .2: Dunan tone system

 18

			High		Low			Falling
	1σ	ná 'name' mái 'rice'	[náː] [máí]	H H	khì 'tree' hài 'South'	[khìː] [hàì]	L L	wâ 'pig' hâi 'needle'	[wâː] [hâi]	F F
		háci 'bridge'	[hàtɕí] LH	hàna 'flower'	[hànà] LL	hâci 'chopsticks'	[hàtɕí] LH
	2σ	háci=n 'bridge too' [hàtɕíŋ] LH	hàna=n 'flower too' [hànàŋ] LL	hâci=n 'chopsticks too' [hàtɕîŋ] LF
		dúrai 'meeting' [dùɾáí] LH	mùnui 'speech'	[mùnùì] LL	mâgai 'bowl'	[màɡáì] LF
	3σ mínaga 'garden' [mìnáɡá] LHH dìmami 'peanuts' [dìmàmì] LLL dâmami 'k.o. turtle' [dàmámí] LHH

Table 18 . 3 :

 183 Dunan singular and plural pronouns

			Singular	Plural
	Interlocutory 1st person	ânu	bânu(-nta) (excl), bânta (incl)
	Interlocutory 2nd person ndá	ndí(-nta)
	Demonstrative Proximal khú	khuntati
	Demonstrative Mesial	ú	ùntati
	Demonstrative Distal	khári	khàntati
	Reflexive 1		sá	si
	Reflexive 2		dû, dunudu
	Locative Proximal		khûma	khumanta
	Locative Mesial		ûma	umanta
	Locative Distal		kháma	khamanta
	Interrogative animate	thá	thanta
	Interrogative inanimate nû
	Interrogative locative	nmâ
	Table 18.4: Dunan irregular case forms of pronouns
		Base form	Special form
	1sg	ânu		a=ŋa nominative/genitive
	1pl	bânu(-nta) , bânta ba=ŋa nominative, ba/bânta genitive
	Locative Proximal	khûma		khûmi locative
	Locative Mesial	ûma		ûmi locative
	Locative Distal	kháma		khámi locative
	Locative Interrogative nmâ		nmî locative

Table 18

 18

			.5: Dunan case markers
	Label	Marker Main role(s) encoded
	Nominative	=ŋa	S, A (genitive function with 1st person pronouns)
	Genitive	=nu	possessor, nominal modifier
	Locative	=ni	location of existence or action, time, goal of move-
			ment, state resulting of a change, recipient, standard
			of comparison, agent of passive constructions, causee
			of causative constructions, beneficiary of benefactive
			constructions
	Directive	=nki	direction, goal of movement, state resulting of a
			change, recipient, agent of passive constructions,
			causee of causative constructions, malefactor of male-
			factive constructions
	Ablative	=gara	source, cause, mean of locomotion, path, location
	Elative	=di	source
	Terminative	=ta	temporal or spatial limit
	Instrumental =si	instrument, material, cause, mean
	Comitative	=tu	companion, addition
	Comparative =ka	standard of comparison
	4.3 Verb morphology
	4.3.1 Morphological structure and paradigm classes

Table 18

 18

	.6: Verb stem (segmental) alternations in Dunan
	'pull' 'eat' 'drop' 'make' 'do' 'burn'
	sunk-pp-	ut-	kkw-	kh-	mw-
	sunt-ppu-utu-	kku-	khi-mui-
		utus-kkur-khir-muir-

Table 18

 18 Present negative indicative dàndanun L hìranun L dûganun F ûmanun F Present perfect indicative dàndasyan L hjûn F dûgwan F ûmwan FThe variation of stem-suffix co-indexation across verb classes necessitates setting up a complex system with eight different stems, though no verb has eight different stem forms (see Table18.8). Table 18.8: Examples of verb stems in Dunan

		.7: Verb metatony in Dunan
		'tear'	'go'	'rest'	'think'
					p. 460
	Used for	'count' 'walk' 'think' 'close' 'make' 'tear' 'burn' (v.i.)
	Present, Conditional	dùm₁ àig₁ ùm₁ hú₁ kkùr₁ dàndir₁ múir₁
	Negative	dûm₂ àig₁ ûm₂ hˊ₂	kkûr₂ dàndir₁ múir₁
	Imperative, Circumstantial dùm₁ àig₁ ùmu₃ hú₁ kkùr₁ dàndir₁ múir₁
	Prohibitive	dùm₁ àig₁ ùm₁ hú₁ kkù₃ dàndi₂ múi₂
	Past	dùm₁ àit₂ ûmu₄ hú₁ kkù₃ dànd₃ mú₃
	Hortative	dùm₁ àit₂ ùmu₃ hús₃ kkù₃ dànd₃ mú₃
	Medial	dûm₂ âit₃ ûmu₄ hús₃ kkû₄ dând₄ mú₃
	Perfect	dûm₂ âit₃ ûmw₅ hús₃ kkwˆ₅ dând₄ mwˊ₄
	4.3.3 Inflectional morphology

Present indicative

dàndan L hìrun L dùgun L ùmun L Past indicative dàndatan L hìtan L dùgutan L ûmutan F

  Table 18.9: Phonologically conditioned allomorphy in Dunan

		Prohibitive Past Present Circumstantial
	Consonant-ending stem	-unna	-ita-	-u-	-uba-
	Vowel-ending stem	-nna	-ta-	∅	-iba-

Table 18

 18

			.10: Dunan independent verb forms
	3	4	5	Marker(s)	Example 'do'

Table 18

 18

		.11: Dunan dependent verb forms
	3	4	5	Marker(s)

  Table on p. 461

		Table 18.12: Dunan participles
	3	4	5	Marker(s)	Example 'do'
	Non-perfect	Present Past		-∅-u/∅-∅ -∅-(i)ta-ru	khiru khitaru
	Negative	Present Past	Participle	-anu-∅ -anu-ta-ru	khiranu khiranutaru
	Perfect	Present Past		-( j)a/( j)u-∅-ru khjaru -( j)a/( j)u-ta-ru khjataru

Table 18

 18

		.13: Dunan stative verb morphology
	3	4	5	Example 'high'
			Indicative	thaga-n
			Participle	thaga-ru
		Present	Exclamative	thaga-nu
	Non-perfect		Circumstantial thagar-u-ba
			Conditional	thagar-ja
		Past	Indicative Participle	thaga-ta-n thaga-ta-ru
	Negative	Present Past	Indicative Participle Indicative Participle	thaga-minu-n thaga-minu thaga-minu-ta-n thaga-minu-ta-ru
	-	-	Adverbial	thaga-gu
	-	-	Causal	thaga-bi

  he is a Yonaguni islander.' Complementation is either encoded by an adnominal clause where the head noun is a formal noun, or by a quotative clause with speech verbs like ndun 'say' , kkun 'hear' , umun 'think' , etc.

	(13) a. khari=ja		dunan-ttu=du	a-ru/*∅
	dist=top	Yonaguni-person=foc	cop-ptcp/*∅
	'(S)he is a Yonaguni islander.'
	b. khari=ja		dunan-ttu=ja	ar-anu-n/*∅
	dist=top	Yonaguni-person=top	cop-neg-ind/*∅
	'(S)he is a Yonaguni islander.'
	c. anu=ja		nkaci=ja	maihuna	a-ta-n/*∅
	1sg=top	old.time=top	good	cop-pst-ind/*∅
	'I was a good child a long time ago.'
	5.4 Complex clause structure
	Adverbial subordination is encoded by converb inflections on the predicate of subor-
	dinate clauses.
	(14) [thagaramunu=du treasure=foc	a-ibi] adv cl cop-csl	atara importance	khir-u-n do-prs-ind	p. 467
	'Since (it) is treasure, (I) treat it as such.'
	Adnominal subordination is marked by participle forms, and adnominal clauses
	fill the modifier slot of an NP with no linker (e.g. relative pronoun) required.
	(15) [khami there.loc	bu-ru] adv cl exist-ptcp	nma horse
	'the horse (that) is (standing) there.'
	(16) [anu=du	nn-anu	khatarai	khir-iba]=ndi
	1sg=foc	look-neg.ptcp	pretention	do-circ=quot

  A content question with a verbal predicate is marked by =nga on the verb, and a role marker =ba can attach to a wh-word.

	khami	bur-u	nma=ja	dunan-nma=na?
	dist		be-ptcp	horse=top	Yonaguni-horse=ynq
	'Is the horse (standing) over there a Yonaguni horse?'
	b. thabi	nma=nki=bagin	hi-ta=nga?	hokkaidoo=nki=bagin=na?
	travel	where=dir=incl	go-pst=whq	Hokkaido=dir=incl=ynq
	'Up to where did you travel? Up to Hokkaido?'
	(22) a. su=ja				tha=ŋa	waru=nga?	p. 469
	today=top	who=nom	be.hon=whq
	'Who is (here/there) today?'
	b. nda=ja	tharun=nki	nu(=ba)	thura=nga?
	2sg=top	Taro=dir	what(=ba)	give=whq
	'What will you give to Taro?'
	A content question with a nominal (e.g. a noun or an interrogative) as its predicate
	is marked by =ja on the nominal.
	(23) a. dunan-ccima=ja	nma={ ja, *nga}?
	Yonaguni-island=top	where=whq
	'Where is Yonaguni Island?'
	b. nma=ŋa(=ba)
	where=nom(=ba)

  In non-converbial clauses, past tense is marked by the verb suffix -(i)ta-, while the present and future (non-past) are marked by -u-/∅.

	26) mata	nni	ccaŋir-anu-nki=du	bu-ru=na?
	again	rice	wash-neg-seq=foc	ipfv-ptcp=ynq
	'Are (you) not washing the rice again?'
	6.2 Tense and aspect
	6.2.1 Tense
	(27) nnu=ja			Tharu=ŋa	uta	khi-ta-n=do
	yesterday=top	Taro=nom	song	do-pst-ind=sfp
	'Taro sang a song yesterday.'
	6.2.2 Aspect
	The imperfective auxiliary verb bun follows a verb and indicates an ongoing action or
	a resultant state.
	(28) a. khat-i		bu-n
	write-med	ipfv-ind
	'(I) am writing (it).'
	b. khanu	ttu=nu	na	ubu-i	bu=na?
	dist	person=gen	name	remember-med	ipfv=ynq
	'Do you remember the name of that person?'

  expresses an invitation, an encouragement, or a request.The exclamative mood is expressed by a special form in -(a)nu for stative verbs.

	(34) aca-(a)nu!
	hot-excl
	'How hot it is!'
	6.3.2 Evidentials
	(31) ajami-habiru	nn-iti=gara	khais-i	h-indangi
	mark-butterfly	see-seq=abl	return-med	go-hor
	'Let's go back after watching Ayami-habiru butterflies.'
	The desiderative is marked by the auxiliary stative verb busan and expresses the
	volition of the subject. Contrary to Japanese, the undergoer cannot be marked with
	the nominative case.
	(32) anu=ja	bansuru(*=ŋa)	ha-i-busa=du	ar-u	p. 472
	1sg=top	guava(*=nom)	eat-med-desid=top	exist-ptcp
	'I want to eat a guava.'
	Two different potential moods are found: the potential suffix -arir-usually marks
	deontic possibility (33a), while the auxiliary verb ccun (< 'know') expresses the ability
	of the subject (33b).
	(33) a. gaku		ma		simar-ja	da=nki	khais-i	hir-ariru-n
	school	already	finish-cond	house=dir	return-med	go-pot-ind
	'Since school is already over, (you) may go home.'
	b. khanu	ttu=ŋa		santi	tt-i-ccu-n
	dist		person=nom	sanshin	play-med-abil-ind
	'That person can play the sanshin.'

  The causative is marked by the suffix -amir-and increases a verb's valency by adding a causer argument, which is marked by the nominative case. The causee, which would be the {S, A} argument in a non-causative construction, is demoted and marked for the directive or locative case when the resulting verb is ditransitive.

	b. gaku	ma		simar-ja	da=nki	khais-i	hi-ta-n=tin	nsa-n
	school	already	finish-cond	house=dir	return-med	go-pst-ind=even.if	good-ind
	'Since school is already over, (you) may go home.'
	6.4 Valency changing operations
	6.4.1 Causative
	(38) a. tharu=ŋa		i		maga-ta-n
	Taro=nom	rice	cook-pst-ind
	'Taro cooked rice.'
	b. a=ŋa		tharu=nki	i	mag-ami-ta-n	p. 474
	1sg=nom	Taro=dir	rice	cook-caus-pst-ind
	'I made Taro cook rice.'
	6.4.2 Passive

All the information on tone in this chapter thus comes from[START_REF] Uwano | Ryūkyū Yonaguni hōgen no akusento shiryō (1)[END_REF][START_REF] Uwano | Yonaguni hōgen no akusento to sedaikan henka[END_REF][START_REF] Uwano | Yonaguni hōgen dōshi katsuyō no akusento shiryō (2)[END_REF].

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank our native speaker consultants Ikema Nae, Mikura Takashi, Mikura Toshiko, and Maekuroshima Yuichi. To work on and complete the present chapter, Masahiro Yamada, Thomas Pellard, and Michinori Shimoji were supported by a JSPS Grant, Number 22.4831, 22.0100 and 22720161, respectively.


Dany Lussier-Desrochers
email: dany.lussier-desrochers@uqtr.ca

Hélène Sauzéon
email: helene.sauzeon@inria.fr

Charles Consel
email: charles.consel@inria.fr

Jeannie Roux

Émilie Balland
email: emilie.balland@inria.fr

Valérie Godin-Tremblay
email: valerie.godin-tremblay@uqtr.ca

Bernard N'kaoua
email: bernard.nkaoua@u-bordeaux2.fr

Yves Lachapelle
email: yves.lachapelle@uqtr.ca

Analysis of how people with intellectual disabilities organize information using computerized guidance

Keywords:

Access to residential settings for people with intellectual disabilities (ID) contributes to their social participation, but presents particular challenges. Assistive technologies can help people perform activities of daily living. However, the majority of the computerized solutions offered use guidance modes with a fixed, unchanging sequencing that leaves little room for self-determination to emerge. The objective of the project was to develop a flexible guidance mode and to test it with participants, to describe their information organization methods. This research used a descriptive exploratory design and conducted a comparison between five participants with ID and five participants with no ID. The results showed a difference in the information organization methods for both categories of participants. The people with ID used more diversified organization methods (categorical, schematic, action-directed) than the neurotypical participants (visual, action-directed). These organization methods varied depending on the people, but also on the characteristics of the requested task. Furthermore, several people with ID presented difficulties when switching from virtual to real mode. These results demonstrate the importance of developing flexible guidance modes adapted to the users' cognitive strategies, to maximize their benefits. Studies using experimental designs will have to be conducted to determine the impacts of more-flexible guidance modes.

Introduction

Social participation and integration of people with intellectual disabilities (ID) is a priority in the fields of rehabilitation and social services. As such, support for residential integration of these people is currently a priority in Québec [START_REF]Chez soi : le premier choix, la politique de soutien à domicile[END_REF]. In fact, a residential setting represents 'an indicator of independence, self-reliance and normality' [START_REF] Morin | Le logement comme facteur d'intégration sociale pour les personnes classées malades mentales et les personnes classées déficientes intellectuelles[END_REF] and constitutes an important component of social participation [START_REF]De l'intégration à la participation sociale : Politique de soutien aux personnes présentant une déficience intellectuelle à leurs familles et aux autres proches[END_REF][START_REF] Proulx | Le logement à soutien gradué: Évaluation d'un projet prometteur pour les personnes ayant une déficience intellectuelle (No 07-09)[END_REF][START_REF] Haelewyck | L'autorégulation : porte d'entrée vers l'autodétermination des personnes avec retard mental?[END_REF][START_REF] Mcconkey | Variations in the social inclusion of people with intellectual disabilities in supported living schemes and residential setting[END_REF][START_REF] Heller | Autonomy in residential facilities and community functioning of adults with mental retardation[END_REF][START_REF] Robertson | Environmental opportunities and supports for exercising self-determination in communitybased residential settings[END_REF][START_REF] Stancliffe | Longitudinal Study of Deinstitutionalization and the Exercise of Choice[END_REF][START_REF] Pedlar | Community Services Landscape in Canada: Survey of Developmental Disability Agencies[END_REF]. Unfortunately, for people with ID, their significant limitations related to functional and adaptive competencies complicate the performance of some activities of daily living (ADLs) in a home setting. Preparing meals, maintaining a secure environment, taking medication, maintaining a residential environment, managing a budget, managing their time, hygiene, and health are areas where greater assistance is required [START_REF] Morin | Le logement comme facteur d'intégration sociale pour les personnes classées malades mentales et les personnes classées déficientes intellectuelles[END_REF][START_REF] Lussier-Desrochers | Challenges in the Completion of Daily Living Activities in Residential Settings[END_REF][START_REF] Corbeil | Inventaire des habiletés pour la vie en appartement[END_REF]. Information and communication technologies (ICT) are among the means used to help these people perform ADLs in a residential setting. These means of assistance have been the subject of several studies in recent years. ICT are used notably as guidance devices for performing ADLs.

Prompting to help perform ADLs

Prompting is a type of stimuli that act as cues to help the person perform the expected behaviour [START_REF] Macduff | Prompts and prompt-fading strategies for people with autism[END_REF]. Several prompting modalities are used to assist people with ID [START_REF] Mechling | Assistive Technology as a Self-Management Tool for Prompting Students with Intellectual Disabilities to Initiate and Complete Daily Tasks: A Literature Review[END_REF], including picture prompting systems, auditory prompting systems (MP3 players) and video prompting [START_REF] Taber-Doughty | Video Modeling and Prompting: A Comparison of Two Strategies for Teaching Cooking Skills to Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Taber-Doughty | Considering student choice when selecting instructional strategies: a comparison of three prompting systems[END_REF][START_REF] Banda | Review of Video Prompting Studies with Persons with Developmental Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Mechling | Comparison of the Static Picture and Video Prompting on Completion of Cooking Related Tasks by Students with Moderate Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Mechling | Continuous Video Modeling to Prompt Completion of Multi-Component Tasks by Adults with Moderate Intellectual Disability[END_REF]. Audio and video systems may be presented on a variety of digital supports [START_REF] Banda | Review of Video Prompting Studies with Persons with Developmental Disabilities[END_REF], such as touch-screen MP3 players [START_REF] Taber-Doughty | Video Modeling and Prompting: A Comparison of Two Strategies for Teaching Cooking Skills to Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Taber-Doughty | Considering student choice when selecting instructional strategies: a comparison of three prompting systems[END_REF], personal digital assistants (PDAs), digital tablets, laptops, desktop computers [START_REF] Ayres | Computer and Video-Based Instruction of Food Preparation Skills: Acquisition, Generalization, and Maintenance[END_REF][START_REF] Van Laarhoven | Comparaison of three video-based instructional procedures for teaching daily living skills to persons with developmental disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Lussier-Desrochers | Des habitats intelligents pour promouvoir l'autodétermination et l'inclusion sociale[END_REF] or portable video players [START_REF] Dollar | Using simultaneous prompting to teach independent living and leisure skills to adults with severe intellectual disabilities[END_REF]. In the past few years, prompting on digital tablets or on iPod touch has been gaining in popularity. In fact, these types of consumer technologies are less stigmatizing for people with ID [START_REF] Davies | Enhancing Independent Time-Management Skills of Individuals With Mental Retardation Using a Palmtop Personal Computer[END_REF].

Published studies pertaining specifically to the use of high-tech prompting to help perform ADLs generally address three broad types of tasks: household (e.g. cleaning furniture, using a vacuum cleaner, folding clothes) [25, 26, 27, 28, 29; 30, 31]; preparing food and related tasks (e.g. putting away groceries, setting a table, washing dishes) [START_REF] Taber-Doughty | Video Modeling and Prompting: A Comparison of Two Strategies for Teaching Cooking Skills to Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Lancioni | Promoting independent task performance by persons with severe developmental disabilities through a new computer-aided system[END_REF][START_REF] Lancioni | A Computer-Based System Providing Pictorial Instructions and Prompts to Promote Task Performance in Persons with Severe Developmental Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Cannella-Malone | Comparing Video Prompting to Video Modeling for Teaching Daily Living Skills to Six Adults with Developmental Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Lussier-Desrochers | Des habitats intelligents pour promouvoir l'autodétermination et l'inclusion sociale[END_REF]; activities in the community (using an ATM or travelling within the community) [START_REF] Scott | Teaching Adults with Moderate Intellectual Disability ATM Use via the iPod[END_REF][START_REF] Mechling | Use of a Hand-Held Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) to Self-Prompt Pedestrian Travel by Young Adults with Moderate Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF]; vocational tasks [START_REF] Davies | Enhancing Independent Time-Management Skills of Individuals With Mental Retardation Using a Palmtop Personal Computer[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | A Palmtop computer-based intelligent aid for individuals with intellectual disabilities to increase independent decision making[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | Enhancing independent task performance for individuals with mental retardation through use of a handheld self-directed visual and audio prompting system[END_REF][START_REF] Furniss | A palmtop-based job aid for workers with severe intellectual disabilities[END_REF]; and time management [START_REF] Wennberg | Participation When Using Cognitive Assistive Devices -from the Perspective of People with Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | Application of Computer Simulation to Teach ATM Access to Individuals with Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF]. The results obtained show that this intervention method promotes a higher rate of success in performing the proposed tasks [24, 27, 28, 29, 32, 41, 42,], reduces the amount of human assistance required to perform the task [START_REF] Davies | Enhancing Independent Time-Management Skills of Individuals With Mental Retardation Using a Palmtop Personal Computer[END_REF][START_REF] Lachapelle | Évaluation des impacts d'une technologie mobile d'assistance à la réalisation de tâches sur l'autodétermination des personnes présentant une déficience intellectuelle[END_REF][START_REF] Riffel | Promoting independent performance of transition-related tasks using a palmtop PC-based self-directed visual and auditory prompting system[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | A Palmtop computer-based intelligent aid for individuals with intellectual disabilities to increase independent decision making[END_REF], improves daily living skills [START_REF] Lachapelle | Évaluation des impacts d'une technologie mobile d'assistance à la réalisation de tâches sur l'autodétermination des personnes présentant une déficience intellectuelle[END_REF][START_REF] Van Laarhoven | Comparison of Three Video-based Instructional Procedures for Teaching Daily Living Skills to Persons with developmental Disabilities[END_REF] and helps in learning new tasks [START_REF] Lachapelle | Évaluation des impacts d'une technologie mobile d'assistance à la réalisation de tâches sur l'autodétermination des personnes présentant une déficience intellectuelle[END_REF][START_REF] Sigafoos | Computer-Presented Video Prompting for Teaching Microwave Oven Use to Three Adults with Developmental Disabilities[END_REF].

If we take a closer look at the use of prompting on high-tech and mobile assistive technologies (electronic tablets, iPods, PDAs, smart phones) to help people with ID perform ADLs, we see that several use a linear method of presenting the prompts [START_REF] Haelewyck | L'autorégulation : porte d'entrée vers l'autodétermination des personnes avec retard mental?[END_REF][START_REF] Heller | Autonomy in residential facilities and community functioning of adults with mental retardation[END_REF][START_REF] Robertson | Environmental opportunities and supports for exercising self-determination in communitybased residential settings[END_REF][START_REF] Taber-Doughty | Video Modeling and Prompting: A Comparison of Two Strategies for Teaching Cooking Skills to Students with Mild Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | Enhancing Independent Time-Management Skills of Individuals With Mental Retardation Using a Palmtop Personal Computer[END_REF][START_REF] Lancioni | Promoting independent task performance by persons with severe developmental disabilities through a new computer-aided system[END_REF][START_REF] Lancioni | Task instructions for persons with severe intellectual disability : reducing the number of instruction occasions after the acquisition phase[END_REF][START_REF] Riffel | Promoting independent performance of transition-related tasks using a palmtop PC-based self-directed visual and auditory prompting system[END_REF][START_REF] Sabielny | Comparison of Prompting Strategies on the Acquisition of Daily Living Skills[END_REF][START_REF] Scott | Teaching Adults with Moderate Intellectual Disability ATM Use via the iPod[END_REF][START_REF] Mechling | Use of a Hand-Held Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) to Self-Prompt Pedestrian Travel by Young Adults with Moderate Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | Enhancing independent task performance for individuals with mental retardation through use of a handheld self-directed visual and audio prompting system[END_REF][START_REF] Furniss | A palmtop-based job aid for workers with severe intellectual disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Wennberg | Participation When Using Cognitive Assistive Devices -from the Perspective of People with Intellectual Disabilities[END_REF][START_REF] Alario | A set of 400 pictures standardized for French: norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, visual complexity, image variability, and age of acquisition[END_REF]. Participants must thus perform the tasks in a specific, predetermined order. This modality helps to limit the number of methodological biases and to ensure a more accurate measure of dependent variables, such as the percentage of steps performed correctly, the average number of errors, the average number of cues given, the number of steps performed independently, etc. However, this type of prompting does not necessarily allow the development of all components relating to self-determination, which constitutes a central principle of intervention in the field of ID [START_REF] Caouette | Étude descriptive des pratiques d'intervention en CRDITED favorisant l'autodétermination d'adultes présentant une déficience intellectuelle : la perspective des intervenants[END_REF]. In fact, although the results of these studies show that this type of prompting is effective for supporting the learning of skills and the development of behavioural autonomy, it does not offer the possibility of addressing other self-determination dimensions (self-regulation, psychological empowerment and selfrealization). Indeed, several studies show that these prompting modalities leave little room for participants to express their preferences by making choices. Finally, the use of this type of guidance does not take into account inter-individual or inter-occasion variability in the information organization methods of people with ID. Nonetheless, a few studies have evaluated the effects of more flexible prompting modalities that allow the person to make choices and decisions. For example, in some studies, the prompting device includes a decision point where the person must choose between several possible actions [START_REF] Lachapelle | Évaluation des impacts d'une technologie mobile d'assistance à la réalisation de tâches sur l'autodétermination des personnes présentant une déficience intellectuelle[END_REF][START_REF] Davies | A Palmtop computer-based intelligent aid for individuals with intellectual disabilities to increase independent decision making[END_REF][START_REF] Lachapelle | L'utilisation d'un assistant au déplacement : Étude de cas en déficience intellectuelle[END_REF]. In some cases, the person can also omit or change the order of the proposed steps without this being counted as an error [START_REF] Lachapelle | Évaluation des impacts d'une technologie mobile d'assistance à la réalisation de tâches sur l'autodétermination des personnes présentant une déficience intellectuelle[END_REF][START_REF] Lachapelle | L'utilisation d'un assistant au déplacement : Étude de cas en déficience intellectuelle[END_REF]. This type of prompting thus helps to support choices or decision making. In the long term, non-linear prompting modalities would prevent people from losing their cognitive skills [START_REF] Dixon | Principles of compensation in cognitive neuroscience and neurorehabilitation[END_REF].

In summary, several prompting modalities are proposed and may be adapted to various contexts. That said, it appears that fixed prompting would be more suitable to objectives related to learning or developing new skills, while more flexible prompting would be more appropriate for objectives related to substituting or compensating for limitations in performing ADLs [START_REF] Lussier-Desrochers | Technologies de soutien à l'intervention : une visée d'apprentissage ou de suppléance ?[END_REF][START_REF] Carrier | Une nouvelle définition de l'intervention d'adaptation en sites réguliers[END_REF]. These two modalities can therefore act in complementarity.

Information organization methods of people with ID

Several studies have shown that semantic knowledge is stored according to various organization methods that are more or less developed in terms of abstraction [START_REF] Sauzéon | Verbal fluency output in children aged 7-16 as a function of the production criterion: Qualitative analysis of clustering, switching processes, and semantic network exploitation[END_REF]. The organization mode using categorical reasoning is the most abstract. A person using this method will group, for example, the fork and knife in the 'cutlery' category. In the schematic organization mode, the information is organized according to a context or a situation. The information is thus grouped according to spatial or temporal relationships. For instance, the fork and knife would be temporally and spatially recurring in the 'setting the table' situation. Finally, pragmatic organization is directed rather by the functionalities of items. In this organization mode, the knife and fork would be grouped under the 'instruments used to feed yourself' category.

Regarding more specifically the information organization methods used by people with ID, studies reveal a great heterogeneity in the semantic organization profiles [START_REF] Rowe | Cognitive executive function in Down's syndrome[END_REF][START_REF] Nash | Semantic and phonological fluency in children with Down syndrome: Atypical organization of language or less efficient retrieval strategies?[END_REF].

Consequently, some results show that these people are able to spontaneously classify the information categorically but exhibit a preference for schematic or functional organizations [START_REF] Nash | Semantic and phonological fluency in children with Down syndrome: Atypical organization of language or less efficient retrieval strategies?[END_REF].

Some studies reveal also that one person may use various organization methods depending on the context or the type of information [START_REF] Rondal | Exceptional language development in Down syndrome: Implications for the cognition-language relationship[END_REF].

These elements clearly show that a guidance interface structured a priori using a specific method of information organization makes the cues more difficult to understand for people who do not possess the semantic connections that served as referents. Exclusion created by an environmental support unsuited to the person's knowledge could be circumvented by designing guidance technologies in which the content display is poorly organized, so as to allow the person to choose his or her preferred organization strategy, while being steered towards the sub-goals required to successfully perform the task.

Research objective and questions

The research objective was to analyse the interactions between users with ID and a computerized guidance interface with poorly organized content, to describe the information organization methods. The research also pursued a sub-objective aimed at making a comparison between the information organization methods of people with ID and those of people with no ID, matched according to age.

Method

The following subsections present the design, experiment location, materials used, sampling method, experimental process, and data analysis procedure.

Design

Given that this is a new field of research and that few studies on computerized guidance have addressed the theme from this angle, a descriptive exploratory research design was used.

Therefore, the participants were immersed in two navigational experiments that were then examined in detail through maps describing the trajectories used.

Experiment location and materials used

The study was conducted at (removed to prevent identification). The laboratory was an accurate replica of a four-room, fully furnished apartment (living room, kitchen, bedroom and bathroom). To perform the required tasks, the participants used a guidance application (removed to prevent identification) installed on an iPad 2. This application, developed by (removed to prevent identification), was subdivided into two sections. The first asked the person to bring a certain number of foods and other items needed for a picnic, and the second asked the person to secure the research lab (i.e. smart apartment) before leaving (cf. laboratory description further down). The application consisted of images and written instructions for which an auditory aid could be activated by the user.

For the 'picnic' section, three items were selected for each of the four predetermined categories (i.e. food, cutlery, outdoor games, and personal-care items for the outdoors) [START_REF] Alario | A set of 400 pictures standardized for French: norms for name agreement, image agreement, familiarity, visual complexity, image variability, and age of acquisition[END_REF]. This section of the application displayed two series of six disorganized items sequentially (e.g. no spatial contiguity between two items from a same category). These materials thus allowed the participants to use, at their convenience, categorical, schematic or functional relationships to perform this part of the task. For the 'securing' section, six securing actions had to be performed in the laboratory: turn off the stove, the kettle, the lights, the television and the clothes dryer, and close the faucets. The actions were all semantically connected to the notion of securing but differed according to the places where they were to be performed (i.e., divided among the four rooms in the laboratory). This section of the application was used to assess the participants' spontaneous ability to optimize their time by performing the actions room by room.

Each part ended with a summary of the elements gathered or secured. A maximum of six images were visible at one time (corresponding to the visual memory often preserved by people with ID) [START_REF] Lott | Cognitive deficits and associated neurological complications in individuals with Down's syndrome[END_REF].

Participants and sampling method

The participants solicited were five people with a minor intellectual disability between 18 and 35 years of age. Two inclusion criteria were retained for selecting participants: be living in an apartment or intending to live in an autonomous residential setting as an intervention objective, and being able to use a computer. Two exclusion criteria were also retained: having a behavioural disorder and having a physical disability. To conduct comparative analyses, five participants with no ID were solicited and matched with the sample of five people with ID, based on the 'age' variable. This matching was a way to partially control the bias related to having been exposed to technologies and to thus limit the generational bias associated with the use of technologies.

An accidental, non-probabilistic sampling method was used. Participants with ID were recruited in collaboration with the (removed to prevent identification), a centre for intellectual disability and pervasive development disorder rehabilitation. Meanwhile, participants with no ID were solicited during one bachelor's-level class and one master's-level class at the (removed to prevent identification). In the end, five age categories were represented in the sample (23, 24, 25, rehabilitation centre and university). All participants signed an informed consent form.

Experimental process

The experiment was conducted in three stages.

Stage 1. Technology introduction meeting. The first meeting was intended only for the people with ID, and the objective was to show them the basic functions of the iPad (turn on the device, open the application, click, navigate, slide), as well as how to operate the application (listen to the audio command, read the instruction, confirm the action). The introduction was made using a lighter version of the application. However, so as to not bias the participants' performance, items other than those used in the experiment were selected. At this stage, participants having difficulties could request help from the research assistant.

Stage 2. 'Bring items' experiment. During the second meeting, the participants with ID and those with no ID used SecurApp to bring the items needed for a picnic. The participant was positioned in a central location in the apartment (kitchen island) and was handed the iPad.

During these steps, the 12 items described in the 'materials' section had to be gathered into a backpack.

Stage 3. 'Secure the environment' experiment. Stage 3 was conducted in the same manner as Stage 2. The assistant asked the participants with ID and those with no ID to use SecurApp to secure the apartment and leave the experiment site. The person was placed in the same spot (kitchen island) as for the previous experiment.

Analyses

All the navigation trajectories performed on the interface were recorded by a cookie installed on the electronic tablet. For each of the participants, a navigation map was drawn for each of the requested tasks (bring a meal for a picnic, bring items for a picnic and secure the apartment before leaving). These maps were then analysed to find the method used to organize the information, as well as the similarities and differences in these methods, by proposed task and by participant profile (ID versus no ID). All the experiments were filmed and each map was validated by viewing the video sequences.

Results

The analyses of the maps for all participants showed a greater variability in the information organization strategies used by the people with ID. Overall, these participants used four organization modes. The first was a visual one called 'literal reading', where the application was read like a written text, from left to right and from top to bottom. The second was a categorical organization mode, where the items were selected according to the categorical relationships that connect them. The third was a schematic organization mode, where the items were selected according to the situational/contextual relationships that connect them. The fourth was an action-directed organization mode, where the actions performed on the items to accomplish the task underway were carried out by spatial proximity. However, the analyses showed that none of the participants with ID systematically used only one organization mode for all the proposed tasks; variability was observed according to the nature of the task. Of the five participants with no ID, two systematically used the same organization mode for all the proposed tasks. Table 1 presents a summary of the information organization methods used by the participants with ID.

- --------------------------------Insert table 1 about here ---------------------------------Before describing the participants' organization modes in more detail, further explanations are needed concerning the method used by the people with ID to perform the tasks.

The analysis showed that several did not clearly understand the instruction and used only the application without performing the task in the environment; this was not the case for the participants with no ID. Therefore, several participants did not integrate the virtual (using the application) and real (performing the actions in the environment) dimensions of the task.

Consequently, several people with ID remained in the virtual dimension and, therefore, did not accomplish the requested task in the intelligent apartment. However, several of them repeated the proposed task. The analysis of the video sequences suggested that these participants suspected that there was a second component to the task, but several were unable to clearly identify the expectations of the experimenter who, to avoid bias, had to conform to the proposed experimental protocol. Therefore, in Table 1, the organization modes between parentheses represent situations where the person used only the application, while those not between parentheses represent situations where the requested task was performed in the environment. We can thus see that some participants did not necessarily use the same mode when they switched over.

For the specific 'Bring a meal for a picnic' task, two participants with ID responded appropriately to the instruction and performed the action in both the application and the environment. Participant No. 5 used an 'action-directed' mode, performing behaviours that optimized his spatial position in the environment. He thus brought all the items from the fridge, and then gathered the ones from the counter. Meanwhile, Participant No. 3 performed the task first in the application and then in the environment. However, a specific information organization mode was not identified through the analysis of this participant's actions. Two participants (No. 1 and No. 7) used a 'categorical' strategy, where the items were grouped according to the relationships that connect them (utensils and food). This strategy indicates that they possessed and self-initiated abstract semantic knowledge to plan how to perform the requested task.

However, none of these participants performed the task in the environment. Finally, Participant No. 9 used a schematic organization. The items were thus selected according to the schematic relationships that connect them (e.g. temporal usage relationships of items for a meal). The categorical and schematic modes refer to an information organization based on previously learned or used knowledge. Figure 1 presents the map for this participant and shows the precise order in which the task was performed.

- --------------------------------Insert figure 1 about here ---------------------------------For the 'Bring items for a picnic' task, three participants with ID began by navigating randomly in the application without specifically using information organization modes.

However, two of the three (No. 3 and No. 9) repeated the task in the application. This is the point where Participant No. 3 switched from virtual to real mode and from an unspecified organization mode to a visual mode similar to reading. We thus see that this participant read the application like a written text, from left to right and from top to bottom. This strategy reveals self-initiation of an overlearned habit of scanning and visually exploring a medium. The same phenomenon occurred with Participant No. 9, who switched from an unspecified organization mode to a visual mode but without actually performing the task (the person performed it only on the tablet).

For the 'Secure the apartment before leaving' task, only Participant No. 9 stayed in virtual mode, performing the task only in the application, using a visual organization mode similar to reading. Three other participants (No. 1, No. 3 and No. 7) also used this visual organization mode but performed the task simultaneously in the environment (integration of virtual and real).

Only one participant with an intellectual disability (No. 5) used an action-directed strategy.

Figure 2 presents the map of the fifth participant's actions.

- --------------------------------Insert figure 2 about here ---------------------------------The analysis of the maps for the participants with no ID shows a greater homogeneity in the information organization methods notably with respect to the first two proposed tasks ('Bring a meal for a picnic' and 'Bring items required for a picnic'). Table 2 summarizes the results for this group of participants.

- --------------------------------Insert table 2 about here - --------------------------------Participants with no ID systematically used the visual mode of information organization. This simple, self-initiated strategy is directed by the content of the medium and suggests the predominance of an overlearned reading strategy involving visual scanning among the participants with no ID. Nevertheless, during the securing task, three of the participants (No. 4, No. 6 and No. 10) changed their information organization method to an action-directed strategy, in which the participants' actions were guided by spatial proximity. The departure point of the initial action varied, however, from one person to the next, with some preferring to first close the faucets and others, to turn off the electric appliances (kettle).

Discussion

The objective of this research was to analyse how users with ID interact with a guidance interface that does not present a fixed sequence in which to perform a task and to make a comparison between their information organization methods and those of the participants with no ID. In practical terms, the research helped notably to map the navigation trajectories and to observe a greater variability in the organization modes used by the participants with ID. These participants used four methods: visual, categorical, schematic and action-directed. These results support those from studies mentioning the heterogeneity of the semantic-organization profiles [START_REF] Rowe | Cognitive executive function in Down's syndrome[END_REF][START_REF] Nash | Semantic and phonological fluency in children with Down syndrome: Atypical organization of language or less efficient retrieval strategies?[END_REF] and the conclusions of [START_REF] Rondal | Exceptional language development in Down syndrome: Implications for the cognition-language relationship[END_REF], underscoring the presence of various information organization methods among these people. However, this phenomenon may be explained by individual differences that could not be evaluated systematically due to the sample size.

However, this situation had not yet been observed in the research on computerized guidance modes. This may be because, until now, fixed guidance modes had been generally used in studies among people with ID. These fixed modes leave little room for self-initiation of information organization strategies. The results of our research suggest rather that fixed guidance modes are better suited to people with no ID, who seem to 'read the application' and favour a visual strategy. This guidance method limits the activation of certain cognitive processes (memory, planning, problem-solving). For people with ID, it seems preferable to offer some flexibility to allow them to use personalized information organization modes that will help them perform the proposed tasks more successfully.

The analyses also revealed a particular phenomenon related to the 'secure the apartment' task. In fact, during this task, four of the five participants with ID adopted a visual mode similar to the one used mostly by the participants with no ID in other tasks. Conversely, the participants with no ID dropped this strategy for an action-directed one. In our opinion, two hypotheses might explain this situation. First, the nature of the task could account for this phenomenon. In fact, for this task, auditory and visual cues caught the participants' attention (sound of the faucet running, steam from the kettle) and then directed their actions in the environment. It thus seems that for people with no ID, these cues directed the sequence of their actions. Meanwhile, only one of the participants with ID responded to these environmental cues, and it was the steam from the kettle that caught his attention. For the other people with ID, these cues did not seem to help them prioritize the actions to be accomplished, and were elements of distraction. It thus seems that the people with ID disregarded this information and settled for a strategy similar to reading (visual). A second hypothesis can be linked to the sequence in which the three tasks were performed. It is possible that in a context of new elements, people with ID attempt to give a meaning to the task by using an organization method that helps them better understand what is presented to them. However, after several attempts, they would end up using a strategy similar to reading (visual). In both cases, this shows that they have difficulty making decisions when faced with new situations [START_REF] Lott | Cognitive deficits and associated neurological complications in individuals with Down's syndrome[END_REF][START_REF] Willner | Performance in Temporal Discounting Tasks by People With Intellectual Disabilities Reveals Difficulties in Decision-Making and Impulse Control[END_REF] and turn to a simple reading strategy. Meanwhile, the participants with no ID would have started the task using over-learned, self-initiated strategies of visual scanning similar to reading. However, in the final task, they would have adapted their strategies, and several used the environmental cues to guide them.

In summary, the results show that people with ID process information cognitively when performing a task and that the guidance must take this element into account. It thus seems that a fixed, linear guidance mode, like those currently favoured in interventions, is appropriate for only some people's profiles or may depend on the nature of the task (learning perspective) [START_REF] Lussier-Desrochers | Technologies de soutien à l'intervention : une visée d'apprentissage ou de suppléance ?[END_REF][START_REF] Carrier | Une nouvelle définition de l'intervention d'adaptation en sites réguliers[END_REF]. It also seems that people with ID use a wide spectrum of organization strategies and that adapting guidance modes to all these strategies is relevant. This will undoubtedly improve how well the tasks are performed, but will also promote intervention approaches favouring decision making, action analysis, and results anticipation, which will meet the requirements of self-determination intervention [START_REF] Wehmeyer | Essential Characteristics of Self Determined Behavior of Individuals With Mental Retardation[END_REF]. Of course, these elements are just avenues for reflection and will require further examination in other studies, to find out whether it is the nature of the task or its subsequent performance that influences the information organization method.

It should also be noted that several participants with ID were unable to switch from the virtual dimension to the real one. They were therefore unable to perform the requested task in the apartment. This situation did not present itself at all for the participants with no ID. The difficulty experienced by these people with ID in shifting from virtual to real mode could be likened to the well-known problem related to transferring rehabilitation strategies to daily living situations traditionally observed among patients with brain injuries and cognitive disorders [START_REF] Geusgens | Occurrence and measurement of transfer in cognitive rehabilitation: A critical review[END_REF][START_REF] Toglia | A multicontext approach to promoting transfer of strategy use and self regulation after brain injury: An exploratory study[END_REF]. Furthermore, in studies using virtual reality as a medium for learning or relearning ADLs, this transfer problem was reduced but not eliminated [START_REF] Rizzo | Analysis of assets for virtual reality applications in neuropsychology[END_REF]. Therefore, people with ID who do not make the virtual-real transfer may not perceive or understand the connection between the two situations or they could see the connection without performing the expected actions in the real situation. It would thus be relevant to examine this dimension in more detail, to better understand the cognitive processes involved in navigating in the applications and performing the tasks in the environment, and to see how the cognitive processes might act in complementarity or in duality.

Nonetheless, this research presents several limitations. First, the choice of a descriptive design allowed us to examine the organization methods but not specifically the impacts of these methods on other variables, such as the percentage of steps accomplished correctly, the average number of errors, the average number of cues transmitted, the number of steps performed independently, etc. These elements could be studied using experimental or quasi-experimental designs. Furthermore, the low number of participants and the non-probabilistic sampling method greatly limit the possibility of generalizing the study results. With respect to the experimental procedure, limitations were found regarding the instructions for the task. They need to be revised to give people a clearer idea of the expected behaviours.

Conclusion

The results of this first descriptive study have helped bring a new dimension to the reflection on the use of technological guidance modes supporting the performance of ADLs.

They tend to demonstrate the importance of developing more flexible guidance modes and adapting them to the cognitive profiles of the people and to the characteristics of the tasks requiring assistance. The study has laid the groundwork for a reflection requiring further examination in subsequent studies. The developments in the field will thus enable the deployment of intervention modes favouring self-determination by people with ID. This research also questioned the link between certain experimental designs and the action areas that are prioritized in interventions for people with ID. In fact, despite self-determination being at the heart of intervention practises, the research designs and technological guidance modes used to date have left little room for expressing the four essential characteristics of self-determination. This would then help provide a new perspective on the guidance modes proposed to these people.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Map of the organization method used by Participant No. 5 when interacting with the application with respect to the securing task.