Dr Miguel Cortijo

Dr Ángela Valentín-Pérez

Dr Patrick Rosa

Dr Nicolas Daugey

Dr Thierry Buffeteau
email: thierry.buffeteau@u-bordeaux.fr

Dr Elizabeth A Hillard
email: elizabeth.hillard@crpp.cnrs.fr

Resolution, structures, and vibrational circular dichroism of helicoidal trinickel and tricobalt paddlewheel complexes

Keywords: paddlewheel complexes, helicoidal chirality, arsenyl tartrate, chiral resolution, X-ray crystallography, vibrational circular dichroism

Introduction

Polynuclear paddlewheel complexes, also called "Extended Metal Atom Chains", or "Metal Strings", consist of a linear array of three or more closely-spaced metal ions, which are supported by four deprotonated oligopyridylamine (or related) ligands, giving complexes with D4 symmetry (Figure 1a). [START_REF] Berry | Extended Metal Atom Chains[END_REF] Such achiral ligands impart chirality to the complexes due to their helicoidal wrapping around the metal axis, arising from the steric hindrance between the protons in the 3-position of the pyridine groups (Figure 1b). [START_REF] Clérac | New Linear Tricobalt Complex of Di(2-pyridyl)amide (dpa)[END_REF][START_REF] Armstrong | Resolution of Enantiomers in Solution and Determination of the Chirality of Extended Metal Atom Chains[END_REF][START_REF] Warnke | Enantioseparation of extended metal atom chain complexes: Unique compounds of extraordinarily high specific rotation[END_REF] Racemic mixtures of [Co3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2] 2+ (dpa = the anion of 2,2'-dipyridylamine) obtained from laboratory synthesis can be resolved with the chiral anion [As2(tartrate)2] 2 , [START_REF] Marcovich | Carbon-13 NMR studies on arsenic(III) and antimony(III) dihydroxydicarboxylate complexes[END_REF] (AsT), by diastereomeric ion pairing and selective crystallization. [START_REF] Srinivasan | Enantiomeric resolution and X-ray optical activity of a tricobalt extended metal atom chain[END_REF] The compounds crystallize in the space group P4212 as enantiopure (NBu4)2[Co3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](AsT)2•[solvent] (1•[solvent]), with Flack parameters statistically equal to zero. The tricobalt complexes display persistent optical activity in solution, as evidenced by electronic circular dichroism (ECD) spectra in CH3CN, where the dichroism peaks exhibit dissymmetry (g) factors up to 10 -2 . It was also shown that the chirality of the -[Co3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2] 2+ unit was retained upon exchanging AsT with PF6 -to form -[Co3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2 (-2) crystallizing in the space group P21 as -2•CH3CN•C4H10O, as shown by X-ray crystallography and ECD. [START_REF] Srinivasan | Enantiomeric resolution and X-ray optical activity of a tricobalt extended metal atom chain[END_REF] This resolution strategy has now been applied to the nickel(II) analogue, [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2] 2+ . It has been recently reported that the combination of AsT and [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2] 2+ in DMF yields chiral onedimensional coordination polymers constructed of axiallybound AsT linking the trimetal units together in an alternating Ni3(dpa)4-AsT motif. [START_REF] Valentín-Perez | Enantiopure Chiral Coordination Polymers Based on Polynuclear Paddlewheel Helices and Arsenyl Tartrate[END_REF] However, when the reaction is performed in acetonitrile, discrete trinuclear chiral complexes were obtained. These compounds are isostructural with the cobalt(II) congener ( [Co3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2 (-and -2) and [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2 (-and -4), respectively. Complexes -and -2 exhibit mirrorimage vibrational circular dichroism (VCD) spectra, which are characterized by the remarkable intensity of their peaks with  values up to 6 Lmol -1 cm -1 and dissymmetry factors approaching 2 x 10 -3 . Complexes -and -4 exhibit similar spectra, but with lower  values (approaching 4 Lmol -1 cm -1 ) and dissymmetry factors of 1 x 10 -3 . DFT calculations well reproduce the peak position, the sign and the relative intensity for the spectra of both compounds, suggesting that the intensity of the peaks cannot be easily attributed to VCD enhancement from low lying excited states (LLES).

Materials and Methods

SYNTHESIS

General. Elemental analyses were carried out by the Service d'Analyse Elémentaire of the University of Lorraine (Nancy, France). Routine IR characterization was performed using a Nicolet 6700 FTIR spectrometer between 400 and 4000 cm -1 equipped with an ATR accessory on polycrystalline samples. The synthesis of 1•[solvent], 2•CH3CN•C4H10O 6 and (NBu4)2[As2(tartrate)2] 8 was accomplished as previously described.

[Ni3(dpa)4Cl2]. This compound was synthesized using the literature procedure, [START_REF] Berry | Oxidation of Ni3(dpa)4Cl2 and Cu3(dpa)4Cl2: Nickel-Nickel Bonding Interaction, but No Copper-Copper Bonds[END_REF] except it was crystallized from CH2Cl2 and n-hexane. The crystals were characterized as [Ni3(dpa)4Cl2]•0.67CH2Cl2•0.33C6H14 by X-ray diffraction (Tables S1-S3). Crystalline yield: 44%. IR (𝜈̅ , cm

(NBu4)2[Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](AsT)2•[solvent] (3•[solvent]

). A solution of [Ni3(dpa)4Cl2]•0.67CH2Cl2•0.33C6H14 (0.15 g, 0.15 mmol) in 2 mL of CH3CN and a solution of silver hexafluorophosphate (0.080 g, 0.32 mmol) in 1 mL of CH3CN were combined in a 20 mL aluminium foil-wrapped vial and stirred overnight in a glovebox. The solution was filtered to eliminate silver chloride and -or -AsT (0.30 g, 0.32 mmol), was added to the filtrate. The resultant solution was stirred for 2 h, filtered and set for Et2O vapour diffusion. After several days, dark purple crystals were obtained, washed and stored in Et2O. Yields based on quantity of starting racemate:  = 25%,  = 18%, where / labels refer to the handedness of the trinickel complex. IR (𝜈̅ , cm -

PHYSICAL MEASUREMENTS

X-ray Crystallography. Crystals suitable for X-ray diffraction were selected under immersion oil in ambient conditions and attached to a MiTeGen microloop. The crystals were mounted in a stream of cold nitrogen at 120(2) K and centered in the X-ray beam using a video camera. Data collections were performed with Mo Kα ( = 0.71073 Å) radiation on a Bruker Quazar SMART APEXII, operating at 50 kV and 30 mA using graphite monochromated radiation. The data were collected using a routine to survey reciprocal space, and reduction and a semi-empirical absorption correction was performed using software included in the Bruker Apex2 suite. [START_REF] Bruker | APEX2, SADABS, and SAINT[END_REF] The structures were solved using direct methods, [START_REF] Sheldrick | A short history of SHELX[END_REF] except for 4•2CH3CN, which used intrinsic phasing. [START_REF] Sheldrick | Crystal structure refinement with SHELXL[END_REF] Non-hydrogen atoms were refined anisotropically using weighted full-matrix least-squares on F 2 , followed by difference Fourier synthesis using Olex 2. [START_REF] Dolomanov | OLEX2: A complete structure solution, refinement and analysis program[END_REF] Flack parameters were calculated using Parson's quotients method. All hydrogen atoms were included in the final structure factor calculation at idealized positions and were allowed to ride on the neighboring atoms with relative isotropic displacement coefficients. The Olex 2 solvent mask routine was used to account for diffuse electron density arising from the interstitial solvent that could not be modeled in 3•[solvent]. CCDC 1969385-1969389 contain the crystallographic data for this paper. These data can be obtained free of charge from the Cambridge Crystallographic Data Centre via www.ccdc.cam.ac.uk/data_request/cif. Solution IR and VCD measurements. The IR and VCD spectra of the enantiomers of 2 and 4 were recorded on a FTIR spectrometer equipped with a VCD optical bench. [START_REF] Buffeteau | Vibrational Circular Dichroism in General Anisotropic Thin Solid Films: Measurement and Theoretical Approach[END_REF] Spectra were recorded at a resolution of 4 cm -1 , by coadding 50 and 24000 scans (8 h acquisition time), respectively. Samples were prepared in CD3CN at a concentration of 12.5 mM and measured in a 115 μm path length cell with BaF2 windows.

THEORETICAL CALCULATIONS

Geometry optimizations, vibrational frequencies and absorption intensities were calculated using Gaussian 16 on the DELL cluster of the MCIA computing centre of Bordeaux University. [START_REF] Frisch | Gaussian 16[END_REF] The X-ray geometry of -2 and -4 was used, and the structures were simplified by replacing the axial acetonitrile ligand with a chloride ligand and removing the PF6 -counter anions. These model complexes were used due to a lack of satisfactory convergence in the geometry optimization of the cationic acetonitrile adducts. Geometry optimizations (Figures S1 andS2) were performed at the density functional theory (DFT) level using the B3LYP functional and 6-31G** basis set with the Gaussian 16 package considering spin states of S = 1/2 for the Co(II) analogue and S = 2 for the Ni(II) analogue. For the nickel compound, we found that when two S = 1 centers were localized on the terminal ions, this simple "ferromagnetic" model with total spin S = 2 gave the best agreement with the crystal structure (Table S9) and the VCD spectrum, compared to the models with S = 0 or S = 1. IR and VCD intensities and frequencies were calculated at the same level of theory. For comparison to experiments, the calculated frequencies were scaled by 0.968 and the calculated intensities were converted to Lorentzian bands with a half-width of 4 cm -1 .

Results and Discussion

SYNTHESIS AND CRYSTAL STRUCTURES

Resolution of [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2] 2+ enantiomers. The resolution of the trinickel complex was undertaken following the same strategy as used for the tricobalt complex [Co3(dpa)4Cl2], involving the conversion of racemic [Ni3(dpa)4Cl2] to the PF6 -salt [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2, followed by preferential crystallization with enantiopure arsenyl tartrate anions (AsT). [START_REF] Srinivasan | Enantiomeric resolution and X-ray optical activity of a tricobalt extended metal atom chain[END_REF] Specifically, acetonitrile solutions of [Ni3(dpa)4Cl2] and silver hexafluorophosphate were combined and stirred overnight. After filtration of the solution to remove AgCl, the tetrabutylammonium salt of -AsT or -AsT was added. After stirring for about two hours, the solution was filtered and placed in a vial which was placed in a larger vial of Et2O, yielding dark purple crystals after several days of Et2O vapor diffusion. The crystalline yield, based on the starting trinickel complex, averaged 22%, corresponding to a low-to-moderate yield of 44% with respect to a given enantiomer. The enantiomorphic compounds consist of a complex with three aligned nickel ions wrapped by four dpa ligands and a CH3CN molecule in each of the axial positions, along with AsT and tetrabutylammonium molecules present as counterions, giving the formula

a R1 = Σ||Fo| -|Fc||/ Σ|Fo|; wR2 = [Σ[w(Fo 2 -Fc 2 ) 2 ]/ Σ[w(Fo 2 ) 2 ]]

4•3.14CH3CN

-3•[solvent] -3•[solvent] -4•2CH3CN -4•2CH3CN Ni-Ni 2.
(NBu4)2[Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](AsT)2•[solvent] (3•[solvent]
). The trinickel complex is a dication while the AsT complex is a dianion; therefore a 1:1 stoichiometric relationship might be expected. Instead, the stoichiometry is 1:2 between the nickel complex and the arsenyl tartrate, with two tetrabutylammonium monocations balancing the charge. The interactions between the nickel cations and the arsenyl anions are heterochiral in the sense that the  enantiomer of the paddlewheel unit is associated with the  enantiomer of the AsT anion, and vice versa. This interaction is principally maintained by short contacts between pyridyl carbon atoms of the cation and O atoms of the anion (Figure 2).

Crystal structures for both enantiomers of 3 were solved in the tetragonal space group P4212 and are isostructural with those previously reported for the cobalt analogues (Table 1). [START_REF] Srinivasan | Enantiomeric resolution and X-ray optical activity of a tricobalt extended metal atom chain[END_REF] Flack parameters of 0.013 (19) for those of -3 and 0.02(2) for -3 demonstrate that the enantiopurity is high. Residual Q-peaks too diffuse to be assigned were attributed to highly disordered Et2O solvent molecules, as rigid CH3CN solvent molecules would not be expected to present such disorder. The solvent mask routine in Olex 2 [START_REF] Dolomanov | OLEX2: A complete structure solution, refinement and analysis program[END_REF] indicated the presence of a single solvent-accessible void of 2848 Å 3 containing 490 e -for -3 and a void of 2832 Å [START_REF] Armstrong | Resolution of Enantiomers in Solution and Determination of the Chirality of Extended Metal Atom Chains[END_REF] containing 525 e -for -3. The electron density here is lower than that observed for 1 (~550 e -), [START_REF] Srinivasan | Enantiomeric resolution and X-ray optical activity of a tricobalt extended metal atom chain[END_REF] but this can be explained by solvent loss at room temperature as indicated by the thermogravimetric analysis for both 1 and 3. The electron density corresponds to approximately six Et2O molecules (252 e -) per formula unit (Z = 2), consistent with the TGA mass loss of 15% before decomposition upon heating (Figure S3). Having no atomistic model of the solvents of crystallization, compound 3 in the solid state is referred to as 3•[solvent], in analogy with previously reported 1•[solvent]. [START_REF] Srinivasan | Enantiomeric resolution and X-ray optical activity of a tricobalt extended metal atom chain[END_REF] The structure of 3•[solvent] can be compared with previously reported racemic [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2•3.14CH3CN (4•3.14 CH3CN). [START_REF] Berry | Enhancing the Stability of Trinickel Molecular Wires and Switches: Ni3 6+ /Ni3 7+[END_REF] In 3•[solvent], the asymmetric unit consists of one quarter of the nickel complex, half of the arsenyl tartrate dianion and half of the tetrabutylammonium cation. The two Ni-Ni distances are thus crystallographically equivalent (with an average of 2.389 Å for the two enantiomers). In 4•3.14 CH3CN, the entire molecule is present in the asymmetric unit, with similar Ni-Ni distances of 2.375 and 2.371 Å. The slightly longer Ni-Ni distances in 3•[solvent] are concomitant with shorter distances between the terminal nickel ions and the axial nitrogen atoms (2.045 and 2.053 Å in 4•3.14 CH3CN vs an average of 1.991 Å in 3•[solvent]). In 3•[solvent] the angle formed by the three metal atoms and the acetonitrile molecules is perfectly linear, in 4•3.14 CH3CN, an angle of 179.06° in the trimetallic array and angles of 172.78° and 175.35° between the metallic array and the axial ligands were observed. Regarding the distances between the nickel ions and the nitrogen atoms of the dpa ligands, no notable differences were found. A comparison between selected atom distances and angles is presented in Table 2 and a more complete list for 3•[solvent] is given in Tables S4-S6.

With regard to the packing of the molecules in 3•[solvent], the trinickel chains are oriented with their metallic axis parallel to the crystallographic c axis. Layers of [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2] 2+ are formed in the ab plane, and are separated by a layer of AsT anions and NBu4 cations (Figure 3). This lamellar packing results in a two-dimensional solvent-accessible void, which accounts for the mobility of the solvent in the crystal structure. Viewing along the c axis (Figure 3) the [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2] 2+ units are separated by two AsT anions and two NBu4 cations positioned opposite one another forming a solventinaccessible capsule around the axial position of the trinuclear unit. [START_REF] Clérac | New Linear Tricobalt Complex of Di(2-pyridyl)amide (dpa)[END_REF] + bP, where P = [max(0 or Fo 2 ) + 2(Fc 2 )]/3.

a R1 = Σ||Fo| -|Fc||/ Σ|Fo|; wR2 = [Σ[w(Fo 2 -Fc 2 ) 2 ]/ Σ[w(Fo 2 ) 2 ]] 1/2 , w = 1/σ 2 (Fo 2 ) + (aP)

Preparation of [M3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2.

It has previously been shown that an exchange of AsT for PF6 -could be effectuated for -1 without any loss of chirality. [START_REF] Srinivasan | Enantiomeric resolution and X-ray optical activity of a tricobalt extended metal atom chain[END_REF] Using the same protocol, -or -3 was dissolved in CH3CN and treated with 5 eq. of KPF6. After filtration and crystallization with diethyl ether, -or -[Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2•2CH3CN (4•2CH3CN), crystallizing in the non-centrosymmetric space group C2, was obtained in moderate yield. Crystals of the two enantiomers of the cobalt compound 2•CH3CN•C4H10O were obtained similarly in good yield and have the same crystal structure as those obtained by spontaneous resolution by Cotton and coworkers. [START_REF] Clérac | New Linear Tricobalt Complex of Di(2-pyridyl)amide (dpa)[END_REF] In the structure of 4•2CH3CN, the trinickel complex sits on a special position, with its central Ni ion being bisected by the 2-fold axis. The Flack parameters, 0.016(9) () and 0.009(7) (), are consistent with the assigned absolute structure and show good crystalline enantiopurity (Table 3). It is worthwhile to compare the structures of 4•2CH3CN with 2•CH3CN•C4H10O. Surprisingly, these compounds are not isostructural, with 2•CH3CN•C4H10O crystallizing in the space group P21 and 4•2CH3CN crystallizing in space group C2. In the cobalt compound, the trinuclear complexes are packed in a zig zag fashion along the b axis, while in 4•2CH3CN, the metal axes are all aligned parallel to one another (Figure 4). Selected bond distances and angles for 4•2CH3CN are reported in Table 2, with a more complete list provided in Tables S7 andS8. The Ni-Ni distances of 2.384 Å fall between those observed in 4•3.14 CH3CN and 3•[solvent], with a corresponding intermediate distance between the terminal nickel ions and the axial nitrogen atoms.

Electronic circular dichroism (ECD) experiments at room temperature in CH3CN show that the anion exchange is effected in 4 with no loss of chirality (Figure S4). Futhermore, no loss in ECD intensity is observed for 3 or 4 over at least one week (Figure S5). While the crystalline enantiopurity of these complexes was confirmed by X-ray crystallography, the enantiomeric excess (ee) of bulk samples of the two enantiomers of 4 was not directly determined. Armstrong and coworkers reported the resolution of the neutral [Ni3(dpa)4Cl2] enantiomers using chiral HPLC. [START_REF] Armstrong | Resolution of Enantiomers in Solution and Determination of the Chirality of Extended Metal Atom Chains[END_REF] However, the reported  values in the ECD spectra for the two enantiomers were quite dissimilar ( values close to +300 and -350 Lmol -1 cm -1 for the peak at 368 nm), and thus are only approximations of the standard value for an authentic sample.

VIBRATIONAL CIRCULAR DICHROISM

The chiroptical properties of 2 and 4 were investigated by IR and VCD in 12.5 mM CD3CN solutions. The IR spectra of 2 and 4 are reported in the 950-1700 cm -1 spectral range in Figures 5a and5b, respectively. All the bands observed in this spectral range come from the dpa ligand. The assignment of spectral bands for the free ligand Hdpa as well as for the [M3(dpa)4X2] (M = Cr, Co, Ni and X = Cl, NCS) complexes have been reported in the literature using the Wilson notation for the vibrational modes of the pyridyl group. [START_REF] Hsiao | Metal-Metal Bonding and Structures of Metal String Complexes Cr3(dpa)4Cl2, Cr3(dpa)4(NCS)2, and [Cr3(dpa)4Cl2](PF6) from IR, Raman, and Surface-Enhanced Raman Spectra[END_REF][START_REF] Lai | Metal-metal bonding in metal-string complexes M3(dpa)4X2 (M=Ni, Co, dpa=di(2-pyridyl)amido, and X=Cl, NCS) from resonance Raman and infrared spectroscopy[END_REF] The experimental IR spectra are perfectly reproduced by the DFT calculations on neutral model compounds with chloride in the axial position in the gas-phase, as shown in Figure S6 for -2. The relative intensities and wavenumbers of the pyridyl bands are in good agreement with those calculated, suggesting that the models are appropriate and that more elaborate calculations (specific interactions of the CD3CN molecules, more extended basis set) are unnecessary. The agreement of the optimized atomic distances with the crystal structures are acceptable, as detailed in Table S9.

The bands observed between 1400 and 1650 cm -1 are related to the C=C stretching vibrations of the rings (8a, 8b, 19a and 19b), whereas the bands between 1000 and 1340 cm -1 are associated with coupled C-H in-plane bending and C-C stretching vibrations of the rings (3, 15, 18a and 18b) and to coupled C-H out-of-plane bending and C-C stretching vibrations of the rings (5). The C-N-C symmetric and asymmetric stretching modes are located at 1264 and 1375 cm -1 for 2 and at 1268 and 1358 cm -1 for 4, respectively. The presence of a single component at 1157 cm -1 for the 15 mode reveals the symmetric structure of the two pyridyl groups with similar M-M bond distances. Indeed, Cotton and coworkers have shown that the asymmetric structure of the two pyridyl groups is associated with the presence of a second component at higher wavenumbers (ca. 1167 cm -1 ). [START_REF] Clérac | Linear Tricobalt Compounds with Di(2-pyridyl)amide (dpa) Ligands: Temperature Dependence of the Structural and Magnetic Properties of Symmetrical and Unsymmetrical Forms of Co3(dpa)4Cl2 in the Solid State[END_REF] It is noteworthy that high values of molar absorptivity (approaching 7000 Lmol -1 cm -1 for the 19a mode) are obtained for the two complexes.

The VCD spectra of 2 and 4 are reported in the 950-1700 cm -1 spectral range in Figures 6a and6b, respectively. For the cobalt complex, the VCD spectra of the two enantiomers are perfect mirror images with respect to the baseline, revealing identical enantiomeric excess for the two enantiomers. For the nickel analogue, the VCD for the  enantiomer is 1.25 times stronger than for the  enantiomer, thus demonstrating a lower enantiomeric excess for the latter. Spectral artefacts occur in the 1020-1060 cm -1 region due to the strong absorption interference of the CD3CN solvent (strong band at 1038 cm -1 ). The VCD spectra of the two enantiomers of 4 are similar in shape to those published by Armstrong et al. for [Ni3(dpa)4Cl2], except the intensity of the VCD bands which is about twice higher in the present work. [START_REF] Armstrong | Resolution of Enantiomers in Solution and Determination of the Chirality of Extended Metal Atom Chains[END_REF] The lower intensity of the VCD bands in the previous study is essentially due to the lower spectral resolution (i.e. 8 cm -1 vs. 4 cm -1 in our study).

It is noteworthy that the intensity of the VCD bands is very high with values rarely reached in molecular chirality. Enhancement of VCD has already been observed, to a lesser extent, in chelating chiral ligands coordinated to transition metals, and rationalized in part by invoking vibronic coupling with low-lying excited electronic states (LLES). [START_REF] He | Ab Initio VCD Calculation of a Transition-Metal Containing Molecule and a New Intensity Enhancement Mechanism for VCD[END_REF][START_REF] Johannessen | Vibrational circular dichroism spectroscopy of a spin-triplet bis-(biuretato) cobaltate(iii) coordination compound with low-lying electronic transitions[END_REF][START_REF] Sato | Effects of Central Metal Ions on Vibrational Circular Dichroism Spectra of Tris-(β-diketonato)metal(III) Complexes[END_REF][START_REF] Pescitelli | Symmetry-Dependent Vibrational Circular Dichroism Enhancement in Co(II) Salicylaldiminato Complexes[END_REF][START_REF] Nafie | Theory of Vibrational Circular Dichroism and Infrared Absorption: Extension to Molecules with Low-Lying Excited Electronic States[END_REF] This amplified VCD has also been used to elucidate the local chiral structure in biological macromolecules [START_REF] Domingos | Switchable Amplification of Vibrational Circular Dichroism as a Probe of Local Chiral Structure[END_REF][START_REF] Domingos | Amplified Vibrational Circular Dichroism as a Probe of Local Biomolecular Structure[END_REF][START_REF] Domingos | Switchable Amplification of Vibrational Circular Dichroism as a Probe of Local Chiral Structure[END_REF] and quickly determine the handedness [START_REF] Berardozzi | Co(II)-induced giant vibrational CD provides a new design of methods for rapid and sensitive chirality recognition[END_REF] and enantiomeric excess of amino acids. Among the largest anisotropy factors observed is that corresponding to the stretching of CN -ligated to the Fe(III) ion in haemoglobin with a g value (or vibrational dissymmetry factor) of +2.4 x 10 -3 . [START_REF] Bormett | Vibrational Circular Dichroism Measurements of Ligand Vibrations in Haem and Non-haem Metalloenzymes[END_REF] VCD enhancement by vibronic coupling has been shown to be dependent on the nature of the metal center. For example, Nafie et al. reported that the signs and the intensities of most of the VCD bands were very different in the VCD-enhanced (-)-sparteine complexes of cobalt(II) and nickel(II). [START_REF] He | Ab Initio VCD Calculation of a Transition-Metal Containing Molecule and a New Intensity Enhancement Mechanism for VCD[END_REF] Similar observations were made by Sato et al. when comparing the C-O bands in M(III) acac complexes. [START_REF] Sato | Effects of Central Metal Ions on Vibrational Circular Dichroism Spectra of Tris-(β-diketonato)metal(III) Complexes[END_REF] Comparing the cobalt and nickel complexes in the present system, most of the pyridyl modes exhibit the same sign for a given enantiomer (, for example), except for the two components of the 8b mode around 1600 cm -1 , which have the same negative sign for the Co complex and a (,+) couplet for the Ni complex. Another small spectral difference is noted for the C-N-C asymmetric stretching mode between 1300 and 1400 cm -1 , since only a single negative band is observed for -2 whereas a biased (+,) couplet is observed for -4. Nevertheless, the signs of the most intense VCD bands for each enantiomer are not modified by the nature of the metal (Co or Ni), suggesting that the strong response cannot be easily attributed to vibronic coupling with LLES. This interpretation is supported by the fact that, unlike in previous studies, [START_REF] He | Ab Initio VCD Calculation of a Transition-Metal Containing Molecule and a New Intensity Enhancement Mechanism for VCD[END_REF][START_REF] Johannessen | Vibrational circular dichroism spectroscopy of a spin-triplet bis-(biuretato) cobaltate(iii) coordination compound with low-lying electronic transitions[END_REF] no electronic CD is detected in the VCD spectrum up to 4000 cm -1 .

The VCD spectra of the  enantiomer of the [M3(dpa)4Cl2] model complexes were calculated using DFT (Figure 7), from optimized structures. The calculated spectra reproduce very well the sign and relative intensity of most of the bands observed in the experimental VCD spectra of the two complexes, although the overall intensity of the VCD spectra is underestimated in the calculations. The excellent agreement between experiment and theory is noteworthy, as it has been shown that DFT does not well simulate spectra that are enhanced due to coupling to LLES, [START_REF] Johannessen | Vibrational circular dichroism spectroscopy of a spin-triplet bis-(biuretato) cobaltate(iii) coordination compound with low-lying electronic transitions[END_REF][START_REF] Pescitelli | Symmetry-Dependent Vibrational Circular Dichroism Enhancement in Co(II) Salicylaldiminato Complexes[END_REF] and that consistency is highest when there is no evidence of VCD enhancement. [START_REF] Merten | Effects of electron configuration and coordination number on the vibrational circular dichroism spectra of metal complexes of trans-1,2-diaminocyclohexane[END_REF] In previous studies, the lack of agreement between theory and experiment is mainly reserved for bands where the symmetry of the LLES is the same as that for the vibrational displacement, thus providing a mechanism for vibronic coupling. [START_REF] Pescitelli | Symmetry-Dependent Vibrational Circular Dichroism Enhancement in Co(II) Salicylaldiminato Complexes[END_REF] In the present complexes, the large majority of VCD bands can be classified by symmetry such that the positive bands are associated with transitions corresponding to changes in electric dipole moment parallel with the M-M-M axis, while the negative bands consist of doubly degenerate modes with displacements perpendicular to the M-M-M axis. As the signs and the relative intensities of all of the main peaks, regardless of symmetry, are well reproduced by these ground-state calculations, it is another piece of evidence that suggests that any VCD enhancement of these peaks is not due to vibronic coupling of LLES.

The DFT calculations also reproduce remarkably well the experimental results expressed as vibrational dissymmetry factors (VDF or g values, Figure 8). The calculations replicate not only the high experimental VDF values (on the order of 10 -3 ), but also the higher intensity (ca. 2x) observed for the Co(II) complex compared to the Ni(II) compound. The reason for the higher intensity for the Co(II) compound is currently unclear. It should be mentioned that vibrationally induced ring currents generated in the ligands and enhanced by unpaired metal-based electrons have been offered as another mechanism for VCD enhancement. [START_REF] Merten | Effects of electron configuration and coordination number on the vibrational circular dichroism spectra of metal complexes of trans-1,2-diaminocyclohexane[END_REF] Considerable theoretical work has been previously undertaken on the model compounds [M3(dpa)4Cl2]. In the cobalt derivative, the presence of metal-metal bonding gives rise to an electronic structure with metal-based frontier molecular orbitals, with little admixture of ligand-based orbitals. [START_REF] Rohmer | Metal-Metal Bond Length Variability in Co3(dipyridylamide)4Cl2: Bond-Stretch Isomerism, Crystal Field Effects, or Spin Transition Process? A DFT Study[END_REF] The ground state electronic structure implies a three-centered three-electron bond by way of the population of orbitals of , , and  symmetry, with one unpaired electron delocalized over the terminal metal centers in a  non-bonding orbital. [START_REF] Rohmer | Metal-Metal Bond Length Variability in Co3(dipyridylamide)4Cl2: Bond-Stretch Isomerism, Crystal Field Effects, or Spin Transition Process? A DFT Study[END_REF] Thus, the magnetic orbital is orthogonal to the ligand-metal orbitals. In the trinickel complex, metal-metal bonding is absent, and the spin density resides on the two terminal HS S = 1 Ni(II) ions. [START_REF] Kiehl | Electron Delocalization in Nickel Metallic Wires: A DFT Investigation of Ni3(dpa)4Cl2 and [Ni3(dpa)43+ (dpa = Dipyridylamide) and Extension to Higher Nuclearity Chains[END_REF] In this "localized electron" picture, the magnetic orbitals would be considered to overlap with the ligand orbitals, contrary to the Co(II) complex for which there is little contribution of the ligand-based orbitals to the magnetic orbitals. Therefore, we would expect certain bands arising from Ni(II) compound to be modified if a ring current mechanism is operative. This is not is what is observed, instead the Ni(II) spectrum is globally less intense than the Co(II) one. Therefore, the influence of the magnetic orbitals is not obvious and other factors, such as the presence of metal-metal bonds in the cobalt complex may play a role.

Conclusion

Following our work on the analogous cobalt(II) system, we have shown that the use of the chiral anion [As2(tartrate)2] 2-is likewise effective in the resolution of trinickel paddlewheel complexes. These enantiomers crystallize in the non-centrosymmetric space group P4212 and are isomorphous with the previously-reported cobalt analogue. The complexes are stable against racemization in solution, and can be conveniently studied by chiroptical spectroscopic methods. To simplify the VCD spectra, the (NBu4)2[M3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](AsT)2 salts were converted to the [M3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2 salts, with retention of the original chirality. The VCD spectra of the cobalt and nickel complexes demonstrate a significant response, which does not change substantially according to the identity of the metal center. Theoretical calculations well reproduce the main bands for both compounds. The similar shape of the VCD spectra for the two compounds, their agreement with DFT calculated spectra, as well as the lack of any electronic CD in the IR spectral range, suggest that the high VDF values observed for the two complexes cannot be attributed to the vibronic coupling to LLES that is often observed in chiral transition metal complexes. In general, the strong chiroptical response of these compounds is likely due less to electronic reasons than to structural ones. These molecules are highly rigid, such that the spectra could be effectively modelled using only one conformation. Due to this rigid helicoidal structure, the intensity of the VCD bands are not diminished by contributions from different conformations.

  FIGURE 1 a) Depiction of a representative trinuclear paddlewheel complex with the anion of 2,2'-dipyridylamine (dpa). Metal in dark blue, nitrogen in light blue, chloride in green; b) Helicoidal chirality engendered by proton repulsion in the dpa ligand.

  1 ): 2962 (w), 2877 (w), 1664 (m), 1603 (m), 1592 (m), 1550 (m), 1469 (s), 1459 (s), 1423 (s), 1355 (m), 1313 (m), 1283 (m), 1263 (m), 1154 (m), 1128 (m), 1074 (m), 1057 (m), 1016 (m), 927 (w), 894 (m), 878 (m), 832 (s), 763 (s), 734 (s), 661 (m), 638 (m), 591 (w), 557 (s). Anal. calcd. for Ni3As4C92H118N16O24•4H2O•1.2Et2O: C 47.09, H 5.63, N 9.08; found: C 46.79, H 5.30, N 8.67. [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2](PF6)2•2CH3CN (4•2CH3CN). KPF6 (20 mg, 0.11 mmol) and -3•[solvent] (64 mg, 0.028 mmol) were dissolved in 3 mL CH3CN and stirred for 3 h in a glovebox, filtered and set for Et2O vapour diffusion. Purple crystals of -4•2 CH3CN were obtained in 38% yield. The same reaction, using 55 mg of -3•[solvent] and 17 mg KPF6 was used to obtain -4•2 CH3CN in 24% yield. Anal. calcd. for Ni3P2C44H38N14F12•CH3CN: C 43.51, H 3.25; N 16.54; found: C 43.36, H 3.32, N, 16.67.

FIGURE 2

 2 FIGURE 2 Representation of the short contacts (dashed green lines, 2.365 Å) between [Ni3(dpa)4(CH3CN)2] 2+ and AsT in -3•[solvent] from X-ray data. Nickel (green), arsenic (purple), nitrogen (blue), oxygen (red), carbon (gray), hydrogen (pink).

FIGURE 3

 3 FIGURE 3 Crystal packing of -3•[solvent], A) along the a axis, B) along the c axis.

FIGURE 4

 4 FIGURE 4 Packing diagrams of a) 2•CH3CN•C4H10O along the a axis and b) 4•2CH3CN along the c axis. Cobalt (dark blue), nickel (green), phosphorous (orange), fluorine (yellow) and other atoms their usual colors.

29

 29

FIGURE 5 1 bFIGURE 6

 516 FIGURE 5 IR spectra of a) 2 and b) 4 in CD3CN.

FIGURE 8

 8 FIGURE 8 Comparison of a) experimental VDF values for -2 and -4 and b) comparison of theoretical VDF values for -2 and -4.

FIGURE 7

 7 FIGURE 7 Comparison of experimental and calculated VCD spectra of a) -2 and b) -4.

TABLE 1

 1 Crystal data and structure refinement for -3•[solvent] and -3•[solvent].

	-3•[solvent]	-3•[solvent]

TABLE 2 Selected

 2

average atom distances (Å) and angles (deg.) for 4•3.14CH3CN, 3•[solvent] and 4•2CH3CN. Average values indicated by standard deviations in brackets.

TABLE 3

 3 Crystal data and structure refinement for -4•2CH3CN and -4•2CH3CN.

		-4•2CH3CN		-4•2CH3CN
	Formula	C48H44N16F12P2Ni3		C48H44N16F12P2Ni3
	FW	1311.00		1311.00
	T / K	120(2)		120(2)
	 / Å	0.71073		0.71073
	Crystal system, space group	Monoclinic, C2		Monoclinic, C2
	Unit cell dimensions (Å and deg.)	a = 16.1969(15)	 = 90	a = 16.1847(14)	 = 90
		b = 16.6318(14)	 = 120.462(4)	b = 16.6245(15)	 = 120.505(4)
		c = 11.7335(11)	 = 90	c = 11.7246(11)	 = 90
	V / Å 3	2724.5(4)		2718.0(4)
	Z, calc/ g cm -3	2, 1.5979		2, 1.6018
	 / mm -1	1.177		1.180
	F(000)	1335.2		1335.2
	Cryst. size / mm 3	0.15 × 0.12 × 0.07		0.29 × 0.13 × 0.09
	2θ range / deg.	3.80 to 52.82		3.82 to 61.08
	Limiting indices	-20 ≤ h ≤ 20		-23 ≤ h ≤ 23
		-20 ≤ k ≤ 20		-23 ≤ k ≤ 23
		-14 ≤ l ≤ 14		-16 ≤ l ≤ 16
	Reflections collected/unique	43583/5591 [Rint = 0.0367]	97269/8303 [Rint = 0.0456]
	Data/restraints/parameters	5591/1/369		8303/1/369
	GooF on F 2	1.058		1.052
	R indexes [all data] a	R1 = 0.0246		R1 = 0.0302
		wR2 = 0.0592		wR2 = 0.0627
	Flack parameter	0.016(9)		0.009(7)

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the CNRS, the University of Bordeaux (PhD fellowship for AVP), the Conseil Régional de la Nouvelle Aquitaine, the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation program under the Marie Sklodowska-Curie grant agreement No 706556 CHIMMM (Postdoctoral fellowship for MC). Computational facilities were provided by the MCIA (Mesocentre de Calcul Intensif Aquitain) of the University of Bordeaux and financed by the Conseil Régional de la Nouvelle Aquitaine. The authors thank S. Exiga for technical assistance and R. Clérac and J. Autschbach for useful discussions.

Supporting information

Additional supporting information may be found in the online version of this article at the publisher's website.


Marie Laval

Claude Garcia

Maya Leroy

Ajit Menon

Christelle Hinnewinkel

C G Kushalappa

Sylvie Guillerme

Collective action for Natural Resource Management in the Western Ghats. Case study of Chennayanakote village, Kodagu District

Keywords: Western Ghats, Joint Forest Management, Forest policies, Participation, Actors

Community forestry and participatory forest policies such as Joint Forest Management and Ecodevelopment in India have been largely studied. This paper proposes to investigate the same public policies not only with a deep attention to the complexity of forest practices and representations but also from a particular theoretical lense: the strategic approches developed by the Sociology of Organized Action and the Strategic Environmental Management Analysis. An in-depth study of two types of management committees called Ecodevelopement Committee (EDC) and Village Forest Committee (VFC), in a forest-fringe village of Kodagu district in the Western Ghats, was carried out to understand how the ruling principles of such participative natural resources management schemes were translated into field realities. The application of the theoretical frameworks mentioned enabled us to outline the effective systems of action developed inside and around both committees. A first assessment of the actions undertaken in Kodagu revealed the relative weak contribution of those participatory schemes to the sustainable management of forest resources. Then the analysis we draw from local governance aspects questions the extent of citizen power in the decision-making process over natural resources management. We described the type of participatory forest management promoted by the Forest Department as an 'accepted' participation in which villagers are not really involved in the decision-making process and in which their role is limited to provide information to the Forest Department and their 'participation' limited to a physical one (labour). Local realities call for the necessity to impulse another system of forest management that could integrate multiple of actors with multiple interests and who all pursue divergent and sometimes contradictory objectives.

Introduction

For the last twenty years the international discourse on natural resources management (NRM) has promoted communities' participation to achieve sustainable development (Barbault et al. 2002;Sheil & Lawrence 2004). Decentralization of NRM can assume different forms [START_REF] Edmunds | Local Forest Management. The Impacts of Devolution Policies[END_REF]Ribot and Larson, 2005) but is generally expected to generate three major benefits: (i) improve the livelihood of rural populations; (ii) better preserve the forest resources and the biodiversity associated to the knowledge and know-how of native communities; and (iii) improve local governance by empowering communities and enabling them to democratically control their resources.

Many tropical countries have thus developed mechanisms integrating the participation of rural populations, making the transfer of power from the State to the local people feasible. This is in conformity with the global agendas of the donor agencies (Bratton and Walle, 1997;[START_REF] Agrawal | State Formation in Community Spaces? Decentralization of Control over Forests in the Kumaon Himalaya, India[END_REF][START_REF] Ribot | Waiting for Democracy: The politics of choice in natural resource decentralisation[END_REF]. In India, most of the forest lands are state-owned; only 10% of the total forest lands belong to either communities (about 6%) or private owners (about 4%)1 .

The community-owned forest lands belong mainly to tribal communities settled in the northeast while the remaining ones are scattered in other parts of the country. Hence this area is "noticeably small compared to the large forest-dependant tribal and non-tribal population outside the north east" (ibid).

Joint Forest Management (JFM) and Ecodevelopment are two different but coexisting schemes of participatory forest management in India. JFM principles were established by the Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) after the 1988 National Forest Policy (NFP). Its aim was to enable village communities to take part actively in forest management and to get a share from forest resources. The 1990 guidelines on JFM, revised in 2000, gave operational recommendations to all the State Forest Departments for implementing their new mission. The 1988 NFP marked a turning point in the Indian forest policy history by stating as main objective the "environmental stability and maintenance of ecological balance" contrary to the former commercial exploitation of forests for industrial purposes. Forest-dwellers' needs on forest produces were to be satisfied first and the policy acknowledged that "[t]he rights and concessions enjoyed by [tribal people and other poor living and near forests] should be fully protected". The Government of India (GoI) confirmed these engagements by signing and ratifying the Convention on Biological Diversity in 1994. Appearing in the 1990s as well, the Ecodevelopment seeks to conserve biodiversity by reducing local communities' dependence on forest resources. For that, the main strategy is to foster local economic development through income generating activities and social welfare programs including the provision of drinking-water and irrigation facilities, village road-work, health care camps and the creation of employment opportunities for local communities in the vicinity of protected areas [START_REF] Badola | People and protected areas in India[END_REF].

Focusing on one district located in the Western Ghats, we propose to analyse how these different schemes and initiatives based on the same overarching principles of 'participation' can co-exist in the same locality and what are their respective strengths and weaknesses.

Our work is based on the district of Kodagu (75°25'-76°14'E and 12°15'-12°45'N), in the State of Karnataka (Figure 1). Located in the Western Ghats range, Kodagu (4106 km²) is part of one of the biodiversity hotspots identified by Consevation International [START_REF] Myers | Biodiversity hotpsots for conservation priorities[END_REF]Conservation International, 2008). Forests cover 46% of the total area of the district [START_REF] Elouard | Vegetation Features in relation to Biogeography[END_REF]. Owing to a sharp gradient in rainfall pattern, the forests in the district range from wet evergreen forests on the western side to moist deciduous in the central-eastern part and dry deciduous forests on the eastern belt (Pascal, 1982a). Of those 46%, 30% are Reserved Forests (RFs) managed by the territorial division of the Karnataka Forest Department (KFD) under working plans prescriptions. The remaining 16% of forest come under a variety of management regimes, from government control under the KFD or the Revenue Department [START_REF] Bon | The Dynamics of Land Use[END_REF] to community-based management in the devarakadus or sacred forests [START_REF] Bhagwat | The role of informal protected areas in maintaining biodiversity in the Western Ghats of India[END_REF][START_REF] Garcia | Sacred Forests of Kodagu : Ecological Value and Social Role[END_REF] and to private holdings under a multitude of land tenures [START_REF] Uthappa | Land Tenure, Land Holding, Tree Rights of Kodagu[END_REF]. Since 1865, the official stewards of the forests are not the traditional forest-user groups, but the KFD. The forest-user groups are mainly former hunter-gatherer tribal groups (Kurubas and Yerawas) who became non timber forest products (NTFP) collectors and/or workers for the KFD or for coffee estate owners [START_REF] Richter | Gazetteer of Coorg[END_REF]Moppert, 2005). A second category of forest-users are the landowners, formerly paddy cultivators who have turned coffee planters for the last 100 years. Those belong essentially to two communities, the Kodavas and the Gowdas (Srinivas, 1951;[START_REF] Moppert | Entre café et forêt: dynamiques paysagères et gestion de la biodiversité dans le Kodagu (Karnataka, Inde du Sud)[END_REF]. Traditional practices such as hunting, NTFP collection and timber extraction by local communities were and still are highly restricted by forest policies and strictly controlled by the Forest Department. There are provisions to allow people below the poverty line (BPL) to harvest NTFP in reserved forests, provided marketing goes through the channels of the Large Scale Adivasi Multi-Purpose (LAMP) Societies [START_REF] Bawa | Poverty, biodiversity and institutions in forestagriculture ecotones in the Western Ghats and Eastern Himalaya ranges of India[END_REF]. Timber felling and extraction are banned from reserved forests and highly restricted, even on private lands [START_REF] Cheynier | Emergence of a private forestry sector in the Western Ghats[END_REF].

In this context of top-down, centralized command and control system of forest management, the concepts of decentralization and participatory management of natural resources dictated by the central and State guidelines have been translated into action. In 1993, Karnataka adopted the JFM policy by issuing a Government Order (G.O.) on Joint Forest Planning and Management (JFPM). Thus, the State provided its rules and norms to involve local communities and voluntary agencies in the protection and the management of degraded forests land with a canopy cover density upto 25%. Then, the area subject to JFPM was extended to any reserved forests irrespective of the density of the canopy cover if "predominantly inhabited by tribal people" or "in the vicinity of areas where forest-dependent tribal people live or which they traditionally depend upon for their livelihood or which they culturally identify themselves with"2 (G. O. amendements, 1996 andrevised G.O. on JFPM in Karnataka, 2002). It should be noted that JFPM is not applicable in any protected areas (national parks and wildlife sanctuaries). Ecodevelopment was initiated in Karnataka in 1993 with the Western Ghats Forestry Project (1993)(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999) supported by the Overseas Development Agency and continued with the India Ecodevelopment Project (1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001) supported by the World Bank and the International Development Agency. The National Afforestation Programme (NAP) initiated in 2002-2003 has been promoting this type of community forestry too.

This paper aims to assess if the commitments announced in participatory forest policies were fulfiled in field realities. Our exploratory study provides a first assesment of the environmental and socio-political outcomes. Community forestry and participatory forest policies have been largely studied in tropical countries [START_REF] Poffenberger | Facilitating change in forest bureaucracies[END_REF][START_REF] Agrawal | Enchantment and Disenchantment: The Role of Community in Natural Resource Conservation[END_REF][START_REF] Sarin | Disempowerment in the name of 'participatory' forest? Village forests joint management in Uttarakhand. Forests, Trees and People[END_REF][START_REF] Lélé | Joint Forest Planning and Management in the eastern plains region of Karnataka: a Rapid Assessment[END_REF].

Materials and methods

In this paper, we present another way to explore these topics thanks to a combinaison of strategic approaches from social sciences and management sciences. The Sociology of Organized Action [START_REF] Crozier | L'acteur et le système. Les contraintes de l'action collective[END_REF][START_REF] Crozier | L'acteur et le système. Les contraintes de l'action collective[END_REF][START_REF] Friedberg | Le pouvoir et la règle. Dynamiques de l'action organisée[END_REF] provides a relevant theoretical framework to explore interactions between organizations and collective action in community forestry. Through the analysis of decision-making process, Crozier and Friedberg investigate the power relationships as well as the rules of the game among strategic actors who are interconnected into complex systems of action. Next, the Strategic Environmental Management Analysis (SEMA) is a framework for assessing effectiveness in the pursuit of ecological goals [START_REF] Mermet | L'analyse stratégique de la gestion environnementale: un cadre théorique pour penser l'efficacité en matière d'environnement[END_REF][START_REF] Leroy | Gestion stratégique des écosystèmes du Fleuve Sénégal. Actions et inactions publiques internationales[END_REF]. "Despite the public commitments made (laws, international conventions, political statements) and the varied, ambitious and complex management systems set up (institutions, planning procedures, financial tools…), examples in all environmental areas (biodiversity, water management, air and varied pollution…) show that in many situations processes causing serious environmental degradation are out of control" (Mermet et al, 2005: 1). Given this fact, the authors suggest that environmental studies should more than ever analyse and assess the coherence and effectiveness of actions in the light of environmental commitments.

We tried to identify in what extent the actors encountered in Kodagu could be agent of change in the system of action related to NRM. This notion refers to every person who acts intentionally in order to impulse a change in the social and ecological system as defined by the Resalliance3 (Berkes and Folke, 1998) and described as actor of environment into the SEMA framework [START_REF] Mermet | L'analyse stratégique de la gestion environnementale: un cadre théorique pour penser l'efficacité en matière d'environnement[END_REF][START_REF] Leroy | Gestion stratégique des écosystèmes du Fleuve Sénégal. Actions et inactions publiques internationales[END_REF].

In Kodagu, both JFPM and Ecodevelopment schemes have promoted the creation of committees through which village communities are supposed to become KFD's equal partner in the day-to-day management of specific, most of the time degraded, forest areas. We focused on Chennayanakote village, located on the fringe of Devamachi Reserved Forest on the eastern part of the district (Figure 2), where both participatory schemes were operational and where management related issues were described as critical by initial interviews with resource persons. The two major issues identified were the widespread teak plantations developed by the KFD and the high level of human-elephant conflicts.

In the light of the strategic approches mentioned above, we analysed the executive committees called 'Managing Committees' (MCs) of one Ecodeveloppement Committee (EDC) created under NAP and one Village Forest Committee (VFC) created in the framework of KSFMBC4 Project under JFPM guidelines. Data collection was performed from May to September 2007. Twenty-nine semi-structured interviews were carried out in English when possible or in local languages (Kannada and Kodava) with the help of a field assistant. Respondants from the MCs of EDC and VFC were systematically interviewed (15). A second phase consisted in expanding the sample of interviewees through snowballing ( 14). To protect the anonymity of our respondants the interviews coded 'I' are accompanied with letters related to their community plus a chronological number (Table 1), for example 'I.K1' for the interview with Kodava number 1, except Forest officers coded 'KFD' regardless of their community.

Christian (C) Lingayat (L) Total Yerava (Y) J. Kuruba (J) KFD officers 3 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 4 EDC members 5 2 1 0 1 1 0 0 10 VFC members 0 0 1 3 0 0 0 0 4 NGO members 2 0 0 1 0 0 3 0 6 Non EDC/VFC members 2 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 5 Total 12 3 3 5 1 1 3 1 29
The Kodava forester is registered as KFD officer, not as EDC or VFC member.

Scheduled Castes (SC), Scheduled Tribes (ST) and Other Backward Classes (OBC) are official denominations used by the Government of India5 . The code for SC interviewees is similiar to the official abbreviation to make the difference with Christians coded 'C'.

In addition to formal interviews, discussions with key informants, direct observation and secondary data collection (official documents collected with the permission of KFD, reports and scientific literature) were also used to analyse local realities behind participation. A final restitution presenting the analysis of the data was conducted on site on October 26 th 2007, with 24 attendants from different backgrounds, including KFD officials, scholars, Panchayat representatives (elected villagers) and members of the EDC and VFC studied.

Results

The total population of the village studied is 6,946 people divided equally into male and female (Census of India, 2001). The population composition results from various phases of migration both external and internal to the district (Guilmoto, 2000). Table 2 presents more details on Chennayanakote village. Chennayanakote Gram Panchayat is divided into three inhabited zones -Chennayanakote, Chennangi and scattered hamlets-(Figure 3). SC and ST inhabitants who represent about 39% of the inhabitants (EDC microplan, 2003) tend to occupy different territories and seem mutually exclusive (Guilmoto, 2000). SC people have their own neighbourhood nickamed Holamala in Chennayanakote; ST are mostly settled in hamlets within or at the fringe areas of the reserved forest either in Yerava haadi, Jenu Kuruba haadi or mixed-community haadis.

Kodavas and Gowdas are mostly based in Chennangi (rather than in Chennayanakote) where most of the coffee plantations are concentrated (personal observation). Most of people's livelihood is based on agriculture (paddy, ginger), plantations (coffee, arecanut, fruit trees, cardamom, pepper, banana, etc) and a few people rear cattle. Yet it is worth noticing that out of 1,126 families, 726 are landless (EDC microplan, 2003).

In this village, both JFPM and Ecodevelopment schemes with their corresponding committees (EDC and VFC) were operational. Table 3 sums up the main components of the EDC and VFC. In the village, the groups of actors involved in both MCs were Kodava and Gowda coffee grower landowners, SC workers and ST workers and/or NTFPs collectors.

here to use the official one, well aware that none of those designations are neutral and that they all convey different political ideologies. Now that the salient features of the EDC and the VFC have been presented, we suggest to examine each committee in details, starting with Chennanayakote-Chennangi EDC.

Ecodevelopement Committee (EDC)

Chennayanakote-Chennangi EDC was created in March 2003 for five years under the central guidelines of the National Afforestation Programme (NAP) designed by the MoEF. The KFD was in charge of the NAP's implementation. Contrary to other EDCs in the district, the EDC studied did not manage any lands within the protected areas but into reserved forests and devarakadus.

Principles

The NAP's main objective was to develop sustainable forest development "to meet the requirements of local people who live in a close vicinity and adjacent forest land" (KFD, 2002). According to official guidelines, the decision-makers behind that programme opted for a "participatory approach" associating local people and forest officials as follow. Villagers were expected to take part in forest management (i) by helping the KFD for the design of a microplan according to the Participatory Rural Appraisal (PRA) method; (ii) by forming an Ecodevelopment Committee (EDC), and (iii) by implementing the activities (KFD, 2002). By the creation of such management committee, programme-makers intended to better organise the collective action around a major activity: the afforestation of "degraded forests and adjoining lands". As there is no formal definition for these types of lands, this is left to the appreciation of the KFD.

Microplan

The microplan is a 23-page document written in 2003 in Kannada and kept in a locked cupbord in the forester-secretary's office. The contents (Table 4) mention first the salient features of the NAP and a public welfare programme (6 pages) before providing details on the village (2 pages) and the formation of the EDC (1 page The predetermined composition of the MC given in the G.O. is present in the microplan (1 page) with the corresponding name of the members. It counts fifteen members. Four 'exofficio members' are nominated: the Forester of the area who is the EDC Secretary, the Accountant of the Revenue department, the village Panchayat Secretary and one representative of a NGO. According to a reservation system, the eleven elected members should comprise two women, two SC/ST, one artisan, one landless labourer, four persons belonging to any group and one President from any group. The election of the eleven nonnominated members is conducted during the first general body meeting.

The duties and responsibilities of the MC and general members are quite detailed (6 pages).

We discuss them further as aspects of local governance. Then the microplan relates how the PRA should be conducted in the village (4 pages). Forest staff and villagers were supposed to prepare different maps (social maps, resource maps, etc.), to enumerate the trees with a general geographical description of the area before mentionning the problems related to forest. While the list of the trees as well as the survey on water and agriculture resources proper to the village is indicated, the microplan gives only a list of predetermined problems of fodder, fueldwood, wood and water availability. Therefore, as we will see further, the management of the human-elephant conflict, which is a daily issue for Chennayanakote inhabitants, is not mentioned in the document.

In Chennayanakote-Chennangi EDC, the total project area planned in the microplan is 49 acres of lands comprising one Devarakadu and various areas with low tree density (Table 5).

In theory these data result from the PRA exercise conducted in consultation with the villagers. Even though the NAP guidelines have to be followed, the microplan should be site-specific and should express villagers' priorities on local forest management. The main activity to be conducted to reach the objectives is afforestation work into the project area.

Activities

Natural Resources Management

Afforestation. In conformity to the NAP guidelines, plantation work was the most funded activity. The EDC spent Rs.141,560.00 on afforestation work (about Rs.5,662.4 per hectare) indeed about 48% of the total amount utilised (Table 6). Until the 31 st of March 2007, for the first five years, the EDC planted 25 hectares of lands including 3.76 acres of Devarakadu. When asked about the plantation work conducted by the EDC, all the interviewees to which the question was asked (10) declared that the plantation work was not effective. For instance, one MC member declared: "we have to plant though the plants are going to die in one month" (I.K3). According to Forest Department officials themselves, the priorities of the microplan were not fit for the locality: wildlife (Axis axis or spotted deer amongst others) and cattle grazing put a lot of pressure on forest regeneration, yet no action was contemplated in the microplan to fence or otherwise protect the newly planted areas, therefore spelling their doom in a question of weeks.

Soil and water conservation is the second main activity of the NAP. For the first five yeras, the EDC spent Rs.84,256.00, or 28% of the total amount received, to build one check dam to combat soil erosion (Table 6). With the amounts they earn thanks to afforestation work (see further), the villagers chose to build two gully checks to provide water to wild animals within the forest. They were expecting that it would prevent wild elephants to come to the village in search of water from private tanks. Contrary to plantations, MC members were satisfied with this activity they have chosen to implement and forest officers were satisfied too.

Human-elephant conflict. The EDC received and spent Rs.9,58,269.00 to set up a solar fence of 10.8 Km to prevent wild elephants intrusions in private lands and tribal hamlets (about Rs.88,730 per Km) but out of the Rs.58,443.00 granted to the EDC for the protection of fence, nil amount was utilised (Table 6). All the MC members interviewed (10) about the fence in general expressed regrets that no provision was made for its maintenance, which is a critical element of the efficacity of the deterrent measures. As a result, not only the two watchers employed by the EDC for the purpose of maintaining it were not paid regurlarly, but they were dismissed of their job in 2008 when maintenance stopped due to the lack of funding (personal observation). According to the interviewees, if not maintained daily, the fence did not prove an effective means of mitigating the crops raiding incidents. We could identify existing weaknesses in the fence (bent or broken polls, damaged wires), points where the elephants had managed to fill up the Elephant Proof Trench and neutralized the electrical fence. Once this happened, the whole fence became inefficient.

Poverty alleviation

Poverty alleviation was an indirect objective of NAP. As we already mentioned contrary to the JFPM, the Ecodevelopment guidelines do not provide financial benefit from forest resources. Over the five years, the EDC who was granted Rs.4,000 per hectare planted managed to obtain Rs.1,00,000.00 to develop 'entry point activities' (Table 6). Rs.71,744.00 (24% of the total amount utilised by the EDC) were spent to instal two solar lamps to overcome power shortage during monsoon and two gully checks to provide animals with water as we already mentioned. The remaining part was still locked up in the bank. Clearly this form of participation in NRM did not have a major impact on the economic condition of the households involved.

Local governance

Representativeness. One of the EDCs' ruling principles is that they should be established in a democratic manner. Our interviews suggest that the process of creating the MC exhibited a strong bias towards the landed coffee growers from the Kodava and Gowda communities who represented the majority of the members (at least 8 members of out 15). The Kodavas helded the key positions in the MC: Secretary, President, Panchayat Secretary and NGO member. Yet, the interviewees did not express a real willingness or a special pride to hold their position as members. The position as president especially aroused hesitation: "in general body meeting they tell you to become the President but no one agrees" (I.G2). Interviewees often used the passive form "they have made us members" in which 'they' refers to the forest department.

One woman declared: "they put my name on the list three years back" (I.O1). Of 15 members, 4 were women.

Involvement. EDC members were expected to attend meetings at regular intervals, at least once every three months, yet most of them did not. Out of 15 members, 9 missed regularly the meetings and at least 2 never showed (I.KFD1 and I.Y1). The burden of attending the meetings was heavier for the members of underpriviledged communities (ST, SC and OBC) due to problems of availability and financial capacities, especially for daily wage laborers (I.Y1, I.SC1 and I.O1) who wondered why they should loose one day wage "just for one tea and one biscuit" (I. SC1).

Decision making process. As planned the members "cooperated" with KFD in preparation of the afforestation plan and actively took part in enrichment of forests by plantation work. Yet, when asked about the microplan, two respondents including the president expressed their dissatisfaction with regard to the participatory process. During the PRA sessions villagers were asked to express their views on so many aspects in such a short notice that they did not have the time to think and come to a conclusion whether the suggestions were 'good or bad' (I.K1). Two respondents went further declaring that they had "no word to say in planning" (I.K3 and I.G2); their role was: "seat in the meeting, node the head, node the head and say "yes go ahead". (I.K3).

Training. The training programme, workshop, educational tour and vocational training programmes that had to be organised to provide more information about NAP had not been conducted. According to the president, the lack of training and information had caused other EDC in the area locality to submit their accounts in a suitable manner, therefore jeopardizing the maintenance of the institution.

Empowerment. The sharing of responsiblities between the villagers and the KFD was quite ambiguous. The execution orders and the technical details for plantation work (pits size and number) were given by the KFD. The assessment of the realisations such as the check dam was done by Forest Department officials. One respondant felt this lack of responsibility given to the MC members was due to the forest officers' perception on villagers' capacities: "they think we are not technically competent" (I.K3). Moreover villagers' responsibility over finance was highly limited. The decisions to withdraw funds from the bank account of the Village Ecodevelopment Fund rested entirely within the hands of the Deputy Conservator of Forests (DCF), the highest ranking official in the taluk (county).

Institutional resilience: The Forest Department was supposed to fulfil the expenditures for the first five years and then to consider the future of the EDC according to the results obtained.

The deadline occured the 31 st of March 2007. Six months later, despite several letters addressed to the DCF on that topic, the MC members still did not have a clear view of the future of the committee.

Village Forest Committee (VFC)

Chennangi VFC was created in June 2006 under KSFMBC Project funded partly by the Japanese Bank for International Cooperation (JBIC) and partly by the KFD.

Principles

The project guidelines were designed by KFD project-makers with JBIC approval. The KSFMBC project's main objective was "reducing poverty and preserving biodiversity conservation" [START_REF] Kfd | JBIC-Assisted Karnataka Sustainable Forest Management & Biodiversity Conservation (KSFMBC) Project[END_REF]. Programme-makers who intended to organise a collective action by the creation of committees called VFCs chose JFPM as incentive for people's participation in the forest management and protection. Hence, the tribal populations living in the reserved forests subject to JFPM, were to be involved in the committee as well as their spouses since the 1996 amendements introduced co-membership. The Government made provisions for SC/ST, landless labourers and also NTFPs collectors and ladies especially (the committee should have at least 50% of ladies).

At least 100 hectares of forest lands were to be taken for treatment according to eight afforestation models predetermined by the KFD. The sharing of the total proceeds derived from the sale of NTFPs and other forest products was first set up into the 1993 G.O. on JFPM.

In addition to the 50% share in forest products to the VFCs from JFPM areas (G.O., 1993), the benefice sharing was extended from 50% to 90% in respect of NTFPs and 75% in the plantation assets (revised G.O., 2002) (Table 7). In Case 1, the proceeds come from the assets created with the help of VFC (plantations). In Case 2, they come from the assets created prior to the VFC formation including other fuelwood, fodder and small timber plantations but excluding teak plantations. In Case 3, they come from the natural growth prior to the formation of VFC excluding valuable species as Sandalwood, Teak, Honne (Pterocarpus Marsupium), Matti (Terminalia tomentosa) and Nandi (Lagerstroemia lanceolata) subject to the Working Plan prescriptions. For all the produces in all the cases, a minimum of 50% of the VFC share should go to the Village Forest Development Funds. The balance will be shared by the VFC members as dividends or will go to the VDF as decided by the VFC.

In Kodagu, the KFD was in charge of the project's implementation with the assistance of IBRAD6 , a national NGO. The phases of the VFC's formation are presented in Figure 4. The driving principle of the process is villagers' participation in all the steps. The analysis of the effective system of action around people's participation is presented further. At the end of the process, a Memorandum of Understanding (MoU) signed between the KFD and the MC members sets the seal on the joint management of the target area.

Microplan

The VFC microplan is a 84-page document written in 2007 in Kannada and kept in a locked cupboard in the Forester-Secretary's office and a copy with the Range Forest Officer. Certain headlines sections are quite similar to the EDC microplan (background of the project, details of the village, formation of the committee, duties and responsibilities of the members) and some paragraphs identical (Table 8). The PRA results are detailed at length (22 pages).

Two additional sections describe first the eight afforestation models (9 pages) and then the 'By law rules and regulation' that have emerged from the consultation with the villagers (16 pages).

Activities

Natural Resource Management

The committees created by the JBIC-assisted project are relatively new institutions, less than 10 years old, often much less, and it proved difficult to assess long term ecological dynamics in that time-frame.

Afforestation. The KSFMBC Project's target was the afforestation of 1,85,000 ha and the development of farm forestry (76 million seedlings, plantation of 2,150 ha with 500 t. of seeds). These quantitative indicators do not necessarily inform us on how effective these activities are to match the objectives of biodiversity conservation. In the village studied, the plantations conducted in Devamachi Reserved Forest by the VFC were not protected by any fence, the only protection was a watcher patrolling on the site for the first month. This measure may not be effective in the long run. The MC members interviewed about the plantation work (4) expressed dissatifaction about the project's quantitative target and methods of afforestation. No data were available on the percentage of plant surviving after one month but the same interviewees declared it was very low.

Soil and water conservation. Chennangi VFC dealt with water and soil conservation in the areas under the MC's management (parts of RFs) only. The pieces of information on that topic were not thorough enough to provide a first assessment.

Human-elephant conflict. The VFC did not implement direct solutions to manage the conflict with wild animals. This environmental issue was briefly mentioned as a "problem in agriculture" listed by the villagers. The 'possible' solutions cited were solar fencing (already existing) and scaring the animals.

Poverty alleviation

The KSFMBC Project's guidelines presented an important commitment for poverty reduction.

The main strategies employed by project-makers were benefit sharing of forest products and microfinance. Chennangi VFC was a 'Scheduled Tribes VFC' extended over six hamlets inhabited by 92 ST families over 142 (Chennangi VFC microplan, 2007). Almost all the tribal families lived on forest lands and did not have property nor tree rights.

Benefit sharing of forest products. It was too early to assess the impact of such measure on people's livelihoods. Yet fieldwork revealed that benefits were vague and uncertain for the participants. Tribal interviewees were doubtfull on the reality of the sharing at the time of the harvest: "every five years law keeps changing [...] how can we trust that?" (I.J4).

Microfinance. Provisions were made for BPL members to access loans with low rate of interest to develop Income Generating Activities (IGA) through the formation of Self Help Groups (SHGs). Each VFC will be granted Rs.1 lakh (Rs.1,00,000) in three payments. Up to September 2007, Chennangi VFC received Rs.30,000 distributed among 5 SHGs with 1% interest. This amount is low (Rs.700 per person about 14€) and does not provide for big investments (I.J3). Undertaking actions in common to get higher amounts and more effective results is a strategy to overcome this problem, as suggested by the VFC President. But it has yet to be put into effect by the villagers. Therefore at present, people use microfinance as consumption loans not as income generating activity. This does not help them to improve their livelihood in a sustainable way.

Local Governance

Representativeness. In the VFC, the first beneficiaries targeted were underprivileged people (SC, ST, OBC). The president as well as half of the MC members were Jenu Kuruba (ST).

The key positions were held by different community members: the President was a Jenu Kuruba, the facilitator was a Christian and the Forester-Secretary was a Kodava. Out of the 11 elected members, 5 were women.

Involvement. The few VFC meetings (3) we attended were postponed. Not only because of the members' availability, capacities and needs (attending meetings was still a problem especially for workers) but also because the forester had other priorities to handle (elephant intrusions) and the NGO facilitator had logistical difficulties. Besides we noticed that above the forester, no forest officer showed up (RFO, ACF, DCF). MC members regretted these absences (I.J3 and I.J5) as well as IBRAD NGO members (I.C2 and I.C3).

Conclusion

We have shown that power asymmetry is very much in favor of the KFD and therefore we wonder how tribal communities living on government controlled forest lands could develop sufficient capacities and deploy strategies to become agent of change in forest management.

In addition, tribal communities and forest dwellers have also to deal with Kodava and Gowda coffee grower landowners, some of them having voluntarily gathered into conservation NGOs such as Coorg Wildlife Society (CWS) and Kodagu Model Forest Trust (KMFT). Their collective action intends to develop a local forest management attuned to the environmentalist concerns for biodiversity conservation and compatible with their private interests.

Our work suggests a first answer: the alliance between tribal groups and empowerment NGOs such as Budakattu Krishikara Sangha (BKS) and Coorg Organisation for Rural Development (CORD). Such an alliance reflects locally the worldwide ongoing movement for indigenous rights' recognition. Government of India just adopted The Scheduled Tribes and Other Traditional Forest Dwellers (Recognition of Forest Rights) Act, 2008 giving property rights on forest lands to "forest dwelling Scheduled Tribes" and "other traditional forest dwellers who have been residing in such forests for generations but whose rights could not be recorded" (GoI, 2008). We have seen on the field that this Act has already empowered the tribal groups in their discussions vis-à-vis the Forest Department and other communities even before its implementation.

We can see that the crucial point is to understand what type of participatory management is advocated by each group of stakeholders. Each of them develops its own vision and rationale of the problem. In the KFD-promoted community forestry, the dominant vision remains: "It is ultimately people who are destroying the forest: they should be educated and involved in forest management with sharing profit" (I.KFD4). For the Kodava-led environmental NGOs, core forests should be free from human habitat and left to the wildlife. They ask to bring tribal groups at the periphery of the forests. Jenu Kurubas and Yerawas supported by empowerment NGOs demand the right to live in their homelands by obtaining property rights within the forest, claiming stewardship of the ecosystem. Whether this claim is genuine or constructed to fit the global romanticized vision can and is still debated.

This multiplicity of actors with multiple interests and who all pursue divergent and sometimes contradictory objectives spell the recipe of a wicked problem, with "no definite formulation, no stopping rule and no test for a solution" [START_REF] Ludwig | The Era of Management Is Over[END_REF]. Beliefs, values and the notions of equity and social justice are integral part of it. Adaptive management, involving true partnership between management agencies, local agencies and researchers, is needed to handle such a wicked problem. It involves risk sharing between the stakeholders, and requires mutual trust, collaboration, transparency and accountability [START_REF] Berkes | Rethinking Community-Based Conservation[END_REF]. This approach is fundamentally different from the command and control style that we have described above.

The concept of domestic forests that "pushes towards more equitable relations between forest agencies and farmers managing forest resources" could thus be an avenue to explore within this model of management, ensuring not only that "production and conservation are compatible" but also that "no choice [has] to be made between people and nature" (Michon et al, 2007: 1). Or to put it in terms more apt to the locality, "It needn't be tigers vs tribals' [START_REF] Sekhsaria | Conservation in India and the Need to Think Beyond Tiger vs[END_REF] or in Kodagu's case, elephants vs tribals.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Steps of the participatory process

  from KFD's Project ImplementationManual, 2005

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Localisation of Kodagu in the Western Ghats Sri Lanka Biodiversity Hotspot

Table 1 :

 1 Classifications of the interviewees per community and per position into the forestry schemes

	Communities (+ codes) Positions	Kodava (K)	Gowda (G)	Scheduled Tribes Scheduled Castes (SC)	Other Backward Classes (O)

Table 2 :

 2 Details on the Chennayanakote Gram Panchayat's population

	POPULATION		FAMILIES
		Number Illiterate SC/ST	Number
	Male	2611	1401	1016 Landless	726
	Female	2477	1010	977 Agriculture dependant	400
	Total	5088	2411	1993 Total	1126
		Data from Chennayanakote-Chennangi EDC microplan, 2003

Table 3 :

 3 Main features of Chennayanakote-Chennangi EDC and Chennangi VFC

	FEATURES	EDC	VFC
	Related programme or project	NAP	KSFMBC Project
	Funds origin	Centrally-funded programme	Externally-aided project
	Period of extent	5 years (2002-03 to 2006-07)	8 years (2005-06 to 2012-13)
	Area under MC management	Degraded parts of RF + sacred grove ≤ 100 ha of degraded parts of RF
	Design document and method	Microplan (PRA)	Microplan (PRA)
	Presence of a Facilitator	No	NGO staff (IBRAD)
	Benefit sharing on forest products selling No	Benefice sharing under JFPM
	Number of member in MC	4 nominated ex-officio, 11 elected	4 nominated ex-officio, 11 elected

  ). It is indicated that in Kodagu circle, due to non-availability of forests area with less than 25% canopy cover density, no VFC could

be formed

(G.O. N°FEE 50 FAP 2000 dated 19.06.2002)

. Hence the existing Devarakadu Committees were modified and EDCs were formed. Yet as mentioned above, further to the 1996 G.O. amendements and the revised G.O. on JFPM in 2002 in Karnataka, the JFPM areas were extended to reserved forests inhabited by tribal communities regardless the canopy cover density.

Table 4 :

 4 Headline contents of the Chennayanakote-Chennangi EDC microplan

	▪ Background of the NAP	▪ Formation of the village committee
	(salient features/concept and benefit of	▪ Duties and responsibilities of EDC members
	afforestation policy + village public welfare	▪ PRA: resources, agriculture lands
	programme)	▪ Problem of Management
	▪ Details of the village	▪ Evaluation
		Source: EDC microplan (2003)

Table 5 :

 5 Planned project area as per the EDC microplan

		PROJECT AREA
	Types of areas	Devarakadu	Marshy area Plain area
	Area in acres	5.16	24.00	20.00
		Data from the EDC microplan, 2003

Table 6 :

 6 Amounts granted by the KFD and utilised by the EDC over the five years.

	Types of activities	Amount granted (Rs) Amount utilised (Rs)
	Plantation work	1,81,700.00	1,41,560.00
	Entry point programme	1,00,000.00	71,744.00
	Water and soil conservation	87,664.00	84,256.00
	Protection of the fence	58,443.00	0
	Total	4,27,807.00	2,97,560.00

Source: Chennayanakote-Chennangi

EDC account, 2007

Table 7 :

 7 Sharing of the total proceeds derived from the sale of forest products in Karnataka

	Types of Products	Government share (in %)	VFC share (in %)	Remarks
	NTFPs	10	90	None
		25	75	Case 1
	Other Forest Products	50	50	Case 2
		50	50	Case 3
	Source: data from the Revised GO on JFPM in Karnataka, 2002

Table 8 :

 8 Headline contents of the Chennangi VFC microplan

	▪ Background of JBIC JFPM (salient features/	▪ PRA: resources, agriculture lands, etc.
	concept and benefits of JFPM prog. + soil water	▪ Objectives of the VFC
	conservation + income generating activities)	▪ Problems of management
	▪ Details of the village	▪ Evaluation
	▪ Formation of the VFC	▪ Forest development models
	▪ Duties/ responsibilities for the MC	▪ Data from the PRA
	▪ Village Development Fund	▪ By Law rules and Regulations

htpp://www.fao.org

In addition to government waste lands and other lands under the control of the Revenue department transferred for the purpose of JFPM to the Forest Department as well as roadsides, canal banks and tank foreshores and other non-forest lands under the control of the KFD(Revised G.O. on JFPM, 2002).

http://www.resalliance.org/

Karnataka Sustainable Forest Management and Biodiversity Conservation Project

See the National Commission for Scheduled Castes http://ncsc.nic.in/. Members of the ST often refer to themselves as adivasi (the original inhabitants) and SC leaders often use the term dalit (oppressed). We choose

Indian Institute of Bio-Social Research and Development.

For a study on VFCs in the eastern plains of Karnataka see[START_REF] Lélé | Joint Forest Planning and Management in the eastern plains region of Karnataka: a Rapid Assessment[END_REF] and for a study on village forest joint management (VFJM) replacing former Van Panchayats in Uttarakhand see[START_REF] Sarin | Disempowerment in the name of 'participatory' forest? Village forests joint management in Uttarakhand. Forests, Trees and People[END_REF]

Decision making process. In the planning phase, villagers should help the KFD in site selection, selection of tree species, protection measures, etc. But the role of the villagers in the decision making process was curtailed by the afforestation models predetermined by the KFD. During the phase of execution, MC members' participation seemed articifial too. The decisions proposed by the Forest officers were hardly if ever questioned (I.J4, I.Y2 and I.J3). The reason behind this passivity may be related to the power relationships between tribal communities and forest officials: "We can question them but we do not: by questioning we will spoil our relation" (I.J4).

Training. Trainings on JFPM for KFD officers occured at the beginning of the JBIC-assisted project. Yet, due to logistical constraints (monsoon), the trainings for villagers that were to take place before the design of the microplan were posponed afterwards indeed a little bit late compared with the normal procedure (Figure 4).

Empowerment. With regard to finance, the devolution of responsibilities to villagers was highly restricted. MC members expressed their dissatisfaction with regard to the fund flow managed by the KFD: "money is in their hands" (I.J4) and pointed out delays in the payment: "they say they will put money in our account but they are not coming" (I.Y2). Even the IBRAD facilitators had to face difficulties to obtain pieces of information from the KFD (I.C3).

Institutional resilience. The microplan designed for ten years will be reviewed at mid-term. The president and MC members are elected for five years. Since the VFC was one-year old, we can only expect that it will last eight years at least, the lenght of the the JBIC-assited KSFMBC project.

Discussion

Any discussion on participation is definitely political and, politics contains a dimension of power. Power is not one actor's attribute but an unequal relationship among several actors [START_REF] Crozier | L'acteur et le système. Les contraintes de l'action collective[END_REF]. Before the advent of participatory forest management in Karnataka, the KFD was the main power holder actor in the game. The JFPM and Ecodevelopment schemes that we have presented do not seem to have changed significantly the power asymmetry among the actors. Following other studies 7 on village committees conducted by [START_REF] Lélé | Joint Forest Planning and Management in the eastern plains region of Karnataka: a Rapid Assessment[END_REF][START_REF] Sarin | Disempowerment in the name of 'participatory' forest? Village forests joint management in Uttarakhand. Forests, Trees and People[END_REF], our fielwork demonstrates similar drawbacks on democracy aspects of planning and implementation both in EDC and VFC. Due to the top down planning, villagers' role in the decision-making process of 'participatory' forest management is limited to provide information for the design of microplans and provide worforce for forest work. We noticed that in both microplans a few paragraphs on forest ecological state and MC members' duties were copied and pasted. While the local situation is quite thoroughly described in the VFC microplan, we have some doubt with regard to the EDC's diagnostic. Local priorities were not always considered while writing the microplan. In both systems, the KFD decides which lands are to be assigned to the committees. With regard to the representativeness of the members, the presence of the forester as ex-officio member of both committees extends the KFD's control over the MCs fonctionning. Prior approval of the DCF is necessary for every action. The KFD controls all the steps from planning, implementation and checking of the activities. Financially the committees are not autonomous bodies. Information is not transparent neither circulated freely within the MCs and out of it. The commitments with regard to public empowerment (information, trainings, etc.) were not fulfiled in the EDC yet we noticed a good start in the VFC for women empowerment specifically.

The type of participation occuring in EDC and VFC is characterised by ambiguous discourses of the participants moving back and forth between conflict (criticism) and cooperation (acceptation of the rules of the game). We described this process as 'accepted participation'. First, the cooperation is conducted by constraint because of the rules' rigidity. The participants obey with more or less agreement to the rules dictated by external actors. Next, the local populations are object to an action of development, they are only the 'beneficairies' targeted by a top-down project and hardly become equal partners of the KFD. Those participatory schemes do not change the rule of the game: the power holders remain identical. But, without redistribution of power, participation is an empty and frustrating process for the powerless which "allows the powerholders to claim that all sides were considered, but makes it possible for only some of those sides to benefit [and] it maintains the status quo" [START_REF] Arnstein | A ladder of Citizen Participation[END_REF] 2). For Arnstein, participation is a strategy which enables the powerless citizen to be deliberately included in political and economic processes introducing a social change where benefits are shared. Following Arnstein's ladder of participation, the extent of the citizen power in Kodagu's EDC and VFC denotes rather 'non participation' indeed their manipulation or therapy (we educate them).

Nevertheless, if the institution survives, that means the system of action must satisfy at least a few interests of the participants. Intermediate-level and local forest officers may seek an opportunity to get workforce, to delegate some of their duties and eventually appropriate financial resources (I.C3) (EDC, VFC). MC members may seek an opportunity to get a share of the benefits (VFC), financial assistance (VFC), responsibilities in forest management however meagre (EDC, VFC), a means to get access to forest resources (VFC) as well as an arena to negotiate with the KFD on property rights (VFC) or issues on private lands (EDC). Village committees offer a platform for members to express themselves and talk directly to Forest department's official.

But, cases happened when intermediary-level officers (RFOs, ACFs and DCFs) tend to escape their responsibilities with regard to the project management and refused to play the game. They disrupted the participatory process by their absence during meetings, by keeping secret the fund flow, etc., as individual strategies of non cooperation. In general, JFPM activities were not a priority for forest officials (I.C3). [START_REF] Sood | Implications of Indian Foresters' Perspectives of Joint Forest Management[END_REF] highlighted that "the primary aim of FD officials is to have power, authority, social standing, job security and facilities; the orientation as a facilitator is secondary". Yet, the JFPM Coordinator from KFD made clear that "if forest officers wants Forests to remain an important sector in society there is no way except accepting the participatory management". Thus, the KFD is in a transitional phase where forest officers are trained and requested to change their believes to accomodate for people's participation in forest management. Yet a main obstacle for another forest management is the KFD's hierarchical organisation and rules that gives policy decisionmaking and project design solely to senior officials remote from the field (discussed also by [START_REF] Sood | Implications of Indian Foresters' Perspectives of Joint Forest Management[END_REF]Gupta, 2007 quoting Poffenberger, 1990). This system imposes great constraints to frontline officers in charge of the implentation and prevents them to be creative in problemresolution. They have no leeway to test freely alternative solutions. In such a system, although fieldstaff hold a strategic position, how can they take a key role as agent of change?