Diane Whitehouse
email: diane.whitehouse@thecastlegateconsultancy.com

Norberto Patrignani
email: norberto.patrignani@polito.it

Computers, Time and Speed: Five Slow Tech Case Studies

Keywords: Action, case studies, life cycle, myth, slow, Slow Tech, speed, thought, time

This chapter examines briefly the notions of time and speed. It introduces the notion of Slow Tech: information technology that is good, clean and fair, and places an especial emphasis on technology that is clean. This chapter does not delve deep into the Slow Tech concept. Rather, it highlights a set of arguments about why speed is not always important or necessary. People are now increasingly beginning to think about much longer periods and phases that may extend at least as long as the existence of human beings on the globe. As illustrations, the chapter explores five specific case studies. Each comes from a different location, yet all describe global implications and challenges. One example is in fact a mathematical model. Two sites, in sympathy with the location of the Human Choice and Computing 11 (HCC11) conference, are from Scandinaviaone from Onkalo, Finland, and a second from Svalbard, a northern Norwegian island. A further two cases are from the United States of America. The logic behind these five case studies strengthens the arguments about whywith the support of the Slow Tech conceptit is increasingly important for society and its many stakeholders to question the current information and communication technology (ICT) obsession with speed and rethink the relationships between society and technology.

Time and speed: their relationship with Slow Tech

It is important to investigate the limits of time. In the 21st century, a whole new set of questions are arising. Is ICT changing very fast the human concept of time? How is ICT changing people's everyday lives, i.e., what human beings do and who they are? Is ICT improving people's quality of life? Can ICT contribute to people's well-being without having detrimental side-effects on them, their social structures, and the planet? Can people identify guiding values that could influence the development of ICT from the point of view of society itself? As a result, is it possible to build a set of positive, ethical guidelines for ICT development? If so, could this set of guidelines be called Slow Tech, an initiative to

2

Time and speed: their relationship with ICT This section of the chapter explores human fascination with time as well as the myth of speed. Today, ICT is at the core of many of society's critical processes: the speed of ICT itself controls the tempo of these activitieswhether involved in communication, hardware development, manufacture, processing, software development, storage or retrieval and indeed, the obsolescence of the technologies themselves. The multitasking capability that many people are experiencing as a result of using ICT may offer them the illusion of compressing time and may offer them a range of different opportunities and even challenges (some would say, dependent on their gender). People may try to undertake different sets of activities, to complete more than one scenario or task at any one moment. They are attempting to control several processes that are evolving in parallel. Computers appear to increase people's productivity and performance. Thus, it may look as though ICT provides people with incredible speed in the management of information. Yet people still need to reflect on the limits of human minds and the consequences that arise as a result of speeding up of all life's processes, including those with impacts on the environment and on the consumption of limited resources. In this chapter, therefore, the authors support the notion of the design of complex ICT systems, together with a human-centric approachwhere sometimes speed is needed and sometimes not. Therefore, they query the myth of speed per se.

Human fascination with time and speed

Time is a convention that has been evolving throughout human history. People started to measure time at the very beginning of their history, when they looked at the sun rising every morning and the stars or the moon moving throughout the sky at night: time was measured in terms of natural events that recurred regularly, such as the new moon occurring over a period of about twenty-eight days, and the birth and re-birth of the seasonsthrough spring to summer, autumn, and back to winter before the beginning of the new year. Indeed, human beings perceive the passage of time according to what happens around them. As a consequence of scientific enquiry and technological development, human beings have refined and extended the measurement of time as they have become aware of processes that are not readily perceivable. These processes include phenomena in particle physics, such as the decay of a quark, thatin order to be measuredneed only a yocto-second (10 -24 sec) or less. The decay of one of the known quarks, the top-quark, requires only 0.5 yocto-seconds. Artefacts, including containers for nuclear waste, are therefore built to last for thousands of centuriesfor tera-seconds (10 12 sec.).

Speed is also a matter of fascination. A 2011 update on supercomputer competition indicated that Fuijtsu's K-Computer runs at more than 10,000 TeraFLOPS (Floating Point Operations per Second), which is 10,000 x 10 15 FLOPS, or 10 x 10 18 FLOPS. Just a single operation needs less than 0.1 x 10 -18 sec. or 0.1 atto-seconds to be executed [START_REF] Nakamura | Japan's K computer becomes fastest supercomputer in the world[END_REF]. The fastest computer on the planet is Chinese. Called Tianhe2, it runs at more than 33,000 TeraFLOPS [START_REF]China's Tianhe2 Supercomputer Takes No. 1 Ranking on 41st TOP500 List[END_REF]. Artefacts are now built that are planned to last for thousands of centuries, tera-seconds (10 12 sec.), including deposits of nuclear waste.

2.2

The myth of speed Speed is indeed a physical variable. At times, it can be useful to act fast. When people are at riskand even society as a whole is in dangerand when the aim is to protect people, society, infrastructure, and frameworks, then it is important to act quickly. For example, an accident victim must be brought to hospital in an ambulance, a child saved from falling from a chair, the behaviour of an incoming hurricane simulated to prepare for mass evacuations, or people's lifestyles modified promptly so as to cope with climate change. Ultimately, a long-term view on the impact of human activities on the environment needs to be developed. Otherwise, while speed is seductive, it may often prove to be an illusion. There are lots of ways to look at the history of speed as "faster-is-better", and many ways to interpret the motivation to go faster. It is important too to examine speed's benefits and shortcomings. In terms of physical transportation: speed helps to transport raw materials, perishable goods, manufactured goods and people quicker. Yet it also has effects on many other socio-economic factors: the profitability of trade; the type of diet people eat; the time passengers and goods spend in transit; and comparisons of the time at destination to that of arrival. With regard to communication: there is also, historically, a variety of speeds at which messages have been sent. These include via hand, drum or flame for physical messages and via courier or stage coach for letters.

More recently, messages have been sent through non-material transmission by telegraph, radio, telephone and the Internet. Unfortunately, it seems to have been assumed that the speed at which humansand groups of human beingscan process these messages and formulate a reply will keep pacenaturallywith the transmission speed. While computer programs were initially devised to mimic, electronically, the application of a clearly-defined procedure that was to be applied to quantitative input data, it must be borne in mind that these procedures had themselves been developed and adopted over long periods, which involved decades and centuries, by experts in a field.

Early in the twentieth century, speed became to be seen as a myth. Almost every human activity began to look better if it was faster. Speed was at the core of the Futurist movement: progress and modernity were synonymous with its writing and activities. Futurism was considered to be the avant-garde of culture: its leaders wrote that "...the splendor of the world has been enriched by a new beauty: the beauty of speed" [START_REF] Marinetti | Manifesto del Futurismo[END_REF]. The desire was there to celebrate modern engineering achievements that were measurably faster than those available in the previous century: vehicles that included automobiles, ships, trains and, later, aircraft. 'Slow' was associated with the previous (nineteenth) century and was seen as a drag on progress. This movement in support of speed can also be associated with the cultural background of the dictatorships of the twentieth century, and the eventual drive towards war. The perceived beauty of speed at the start of the twentieth century was based at least partly on the conviction that human power could dominate and over-ride nature. It is now acknowledged what a terrible mistake this illusion was with regard to the control of nature.

Indeed, approaches alter. Speed is no longer a value in itself. In the twenty-first century, it is becoming increasingly clear that the complexity of natural systems is so sophisticated that it is more effective to find new ways to co-exist with such systems than to attempt to dominate them. Rather, there is an growing fascination with the oppositewith slow. A message is emerging thatbefore initiating new ICT projects and initiativesmore time is needed. It is important to consider the impact that initiatives and advances relating to ICT may have on natural and social systems. Alternative solutions or different approaches or projects could be found rather than risking damage to the natural environment.

As Italian journalist, Giovanna Giuffreda, says: there is a real need for society to slow down [START_REF] Giuffreda | Elogio della lentezza[END_REF][START_REF] Giuffreda | Conversione ecologica e stili di vita. Rio 1992-2012[END_REF]. In order to face current societal challenges, innovation is certainly needed. However, it must occur in a way that enables people to use the incredible power that lies in their hands, with care, and without destroying living environments. This is especially pertinent in the field of ICT. According to a 2011 report from the European Commission: "... (ICT) Responsible Innovation ... must be socially desirable and inclusive, ... environmentally sustainable, ... ethically acceptable ..." [START_REF]Towards Responsible Research and Innovation in the Information and Communication Technologies and Security Technologies Fields[END_REF].

2.3

Dealing with limits and with myths Human beings tend not to like limits: they are constantly looking for new challenges. Since people need challenges in their lives, they need to continue to make use of fascinating myths, such as speed and time. However, people have to be conscious that many of the novel challenges that they face are now actually located inside themselvesintellectually and emotionallyrather than outside.

Human beings are also living on a finite planet [START_REF] Meadows | The Limits to Growth[END_REF]. People's continuing exploitation of natural resources, based on processes that are increasing in speed, need to be re-examined. Computers are the core engines that are speeding up many incompletely defined or tested processes. Instead, perhaps human beings now need to accept and embed the concept of limitslimits that are imposed by the current environmental and social crisesin their plans and endeavours, including those including new ICT initiatives. This is today's challenge for human beings.

Today, ICT and computers lie at the core of the increasing speed of technical processes, and indeed also social and societal processes. Yet are faster and faster processes always needed? Are there limits to this growth in computers? Is it time to rethink computer speed? Should computers be introduced into society not just because they are available but when and where they really make sense, and at speeds that make sense? Can good ICT (that is, is it ICT that is good for human beings) be designed and built? Is there likely to be a revival of interest in appropriate technology [START_REF] Schumacher | Small is Beautiful: A Study of Economics as if People Mattered[END_REF]?

Case studies to illustrate the challenges of time and speed

Case studies can often paint clear messages. To introduce a set of arguments about the many possible views of time and why speed is not always important or necessary, five case studies have been selected by the authors. Each comes from a different location around the globe. Many relate to technology and its implications, although not all. The first use case is simply a model. The Lotka-Volterra model shows the systemic and natural balance that occursover the very long-termbetween prey and their predators. It provides a fundamental reminder of how different animal or human development can look when it is examined over a sufficiently long time. The second case is located in Onkalo in Finland: it contains a long-term danger since it is a storage space for nuclear waste. The third case, Svalbard, is based in northern Norway, a place dedicated to beneficence: it stores examples of plant seeds for future, long-term usage. The fourth case, to be found in Van Horn in the United States' state of Texas, is also a building with a benevolent message. At Van Horn, a clock which is intended to run for at least 10,000 years is buried deep in the desert. The fifth and final use case alerts human beings to the dangers inherent in a reliance on computers that run critical systems. The 2010 New York Stock Exchange crash is a frightening illustration of an event that shows that human beings are no longer totally in control of banking and financial systems.

Today, people are beginning to think about very long periods and, indeed, phases that may extend beyond the existence of human beings on this globe. Three of the cases introduced here draw people's attention to this long-termism and the responsibility that is needed over lengthy periods. Most look a considerable time ahead, and at least one of them looks ahead for the lifetimes of 300 generations of people. They are all illustrations of means of facing, and overcoming, disasters. Some raise the challenge, whether for good or bad reasons, of how to alert future generations to the location of the materials and equipment that they house.

Long lifecycles: the Lotka-Volterra model

Human beings are simply small animals on a single, limited planet. When analysing a number of physical variables to see their evolution over time, all functions are in fact limited. Although some forms of (short-term) "exponential" growth can be observed, sooner or later, all growth is saturated and reaches its limit. On planet earth, in the long-run, only self-sustaining systems can survive. On the earth, nature is indeed composed of a collection of cycles. Examples include the carbon cycle, the water cycle and the life cycle. The Lotka-Volterra Prey-Predator Model is a pertinent case in point (see Fig. 1). It is a long-term natural cycle. The figure illustrates complete life cycles. The model was described by the American demographer, Alfred J. Lotka, in 1924 and the Italian mathematician, Vito Volterra, in 1926. It is a linear system of differential equations of the first order. It describes a simple system formed by two species: one is the prey (for example, small fish) and the other is the predator (such as large sharks). The following assumption can be made: a population of prey increases exponentially in the absence of predators, and a population of predators decreases exponentially in the absence of prey. Yet, if predators consume too many prey, they will have less food available to them and the population of predators will decrease. The population of prey then increases. Finally, the population of predators will again have more food. Of course, however, sometimes something goes catastrophically wrong, and extinctions occur that cause animals and other beings to disappear.

3.2

Long-lasting dangers: Onkala, Finland Some human activities necessitate long-term planning and building, as the Onkalo nuclear waste depository illustrates. Onkalo provides a concrete means of avoiding catastrophe. In Finnish, Onkalo means a "hiding place". It is also the name of the facility that will act as the long-term storage for all nuclear waste produced in Finland. It is to be found at a few miles from the Olkiluoto nuclear plant located about 280 kilometres north-west of Helsinki. This cave, which is built in the granite bedrock and constructed in a spiral shape, will be 520 metres deep when it is completed.

Construction of the cave started in 2004, and it will be ready to host nuclear waste by 2022 (http://www.posiva.fi). It will then be used for the disposal of nuclear waste for about 90 years. At that point, no further nuclear waste will be taken to the cave, and the tunnel which leads to it will be backfilled. In 2020, the repository will be sealedit is hoped, forever. This project has been started while today's generation is still living, but its mission will be complete when contemporary adults have been dead for a very long time. More precisely, the nuclear waste that Onkalo contains will remain dangerous for more than 100,000 years.

Onkalo therefore opens up new kinds of challenges related to people's concept of time. Some technologies are pushing people to a point where they simply do not have the intellectual background to answer a number of deep philosophical questions. For example, what will become of the planet over this period of 100,000 years? How can Fig1. Lotka-Volterra's Prey-Predator Model (source: authors' own) future generations be prevented from entering into contact with Onkalo's contents? What kind of messages, languages, visual images or symbols can be used to communicate this underground danger? Into Eternity is the title of a documentary, released in 2010, that poses difficult questions about Onkalo (http://www.intoeternitythemovie.com).

Human civilisation has existed for only a few thousand years (the Egyptian pyramids, for example, are just 5,000 years old). Human minds cannot easily make projections that extend into such a 100,000 year-long, long-term future. A hundred millennia, on the human scale, is close to eternitythe saecula saeculoruma world without end, that is thought to go on for ever and ever. For human beings, their concept of time is deeply affected by the artefacts, and the technological choices, that they make. The relationship between human beings and time is one of the oldest philosophical challenges to have faced humankind: the questions it provokes have fascinated people from their very origins. Onkalo is a perfect example of a human attempt to pre-determine the future. The decision to build this nuclear repository extends beyond the limits of scientific acceptability, even if it is one of the few serious projects that exist around the world to deal with nuclear waste management. The developments at Onkalo show where the zeal of dominating nature crosses the boundary of scientific acceptance, and enters the domain of 'magic'stories that proceed beyond science.

It might, instead, be wiser to accept the experience of limits that is strongly associated with the human body and its physical and intellectual experiences. In Germany and Italy in 2011/2012, to offer just two examples, several political decisions were made related to the closure of nuclear power plants and to stopping the generation of nuclear waste. These decisions about plant closure seem to indicate that a number of past nuclear disasters, and their associated security arrangements, have been transformed into real learning experiences (examples include the experiences at Three Mile Island, USA, 1979; Chernobyl, Soviet Union, 1986; Fukushima, Japan, 2011). Increasingly, in these two European countries, and possibly others, planning for the future seems to be based more than it was, in the immediate past, on a concern and consideration for saving and reducing energy consumption, and on developing renewable and cleaner energy sources. On the agenda for exploitation and use are hydroelectricity, geothermal power, wind, solar power, biomass and the waves of the oceans.

Crops for eternity: Svalbard, Norway

The Svalbard Global Seed Vault provides a form of long-term insurance to provide food for future generations. Svalbard (formerly called Spitsbergen) is the name of a Norwegian archipelago about 3,000 kilometres north of Oslo. William Barents discovered it in 1596. In the 17th century, it was used by whaling and fishing communities but was later abandoned. At the beginning of the 1900s, coal-mining began there and, in 1925, these remote islands became part of Norway. Travelling around one of the islands, by snowmobile or ship, one eventually comes to a strange construction with a small door: this is the Svalbard Global Seed Vault, a seed bank intended to last for eternity. Its entrance provides access to a 120 metre tunnel under a sandstone mountain that is equipped to cool seeds to -18°C. It is a place able to preserve about 4.5 million seeds so that they can survive for hundreds, even thousands, of years.

The construction was begun by the Norwegian government in 2006, and has cost about US$9 million. The government is supported, in its operational costs, by a combination of international organisations and foundations. Officially opened in 2008, the seed bank and its management is ensured by a three-party alliance: the Norwegian government, the Global Crop Diversity Trust and the Nordic Genetic Resource Center.

The vault was built with the mission to save the most important seeds on planet earth. The goal of the seed bank is to maintain reserves of seed in the event that all other samples of them are destroyed. Indeed, the Svalbard facility stores duplicates of seeds from several other collections around the world (many of them in developing countries and emerging economies). If these collections were to be lost, they could then be regenerated with the seeds from the Svalbard seed bank [START_REF] Maaf | Ministry of Agriculture and Food, Svalbard Global Seed Vault Official Web site[END_REF].

The idea of protecting seeds from possible catastrophes is not new. However, today's vaultslike Svalbardhave been built so that they can survive doomsdaylike events. For example, the Svalbard seed bank is built at 130 metres above sea level, so that it could survive rising sea levels caused by global climate change. Historically, such disasters were the outcomes of natural events such as volcanoes, asteroids or earthquakes: today, humankind is faced potentially with additional, artificial or human-created catastrophes like nuclear disasters, bioterrorism and global warming.

The idea underpinning this seed bank is the very opposite of a nuclear waste management site (such as Onkalo, where future generations need to be kept away from the location). With a seed bank, such as Svalbard, future generationsor at least the human beings who survive a possible cataclysmic eventwill want to enter this place, gain access to the seeds, and be able to sow them in the ground as future food sources.

Svalbard therefore illustrates yet another vision of time: one in which human beings are attempting to supplant the tyranny of split-second measures and counterbalancing such foolishness with the generosity of near-limitless time.. Indeed, the official Svalbard Web site announces that " ... The facility is designed to have an almost 'endless' lifetime" (http://www.regjeringen.no/en/dep/lmd/campain/svalbardglobal-seed-vault.html?regj_oss=1&id=462220).

Long-term thinking: Van Horn, Texas

This 10,000 Year Clock provides a reminder that civilisation is only about 10,000 years old: a mere moment when set against the 4.5 billion year-old age of the planet. It prompts human beings to ask, "What's the hurry?" It takes a day's hiking over the mountains in the western part of the state of Texas, in the United States of America, to arrive at a construction site, inside a mountain, that houses an amazing clock. A group of visionary people have united under the umbrella of The Long Now Foundation (TLNF; www.longnow.org) to build the world's first monumental clock, called the 10,000 Year Clock. This is the slowest computer in the world [START_REF] Hillis | Time in the 10,000-year Clock[END_REF].

The Long Now Foundation is behind the development of this clock, as well as several other projects. It has as its mission the goal of enlarging the human concept of time: "The Long Now Foundation was established in 01996 ... to become the seed of a very long-term cultural institution ... to provide a counterpoint to today's accelerating culture and help make longterm thinking more common. We hope to creatively foster responsibility in the framework of the next 10,000 years." [START_REF] Tlnf | The Long Now Foundation[END_REF]. When writing dates, the foundation uses five-digits for each year, so thatto identify 2014, for exampleit uses the number 02014. This device is intended to encourage longer-term thinking.

Once finished, the 10,000 Year Clock will be open to visitors who will have to climb a spiral staircase for hundreds of metres in order to see the huge mechanical computer that drives the clock. The complex system that underpins the clock will capture and store mechanical energy as a result of the physical movements made by the visitors themselves. Yet, another mechanism is also operating. Energy is stored by using a smart system that captures different temperatures induced by the rays of the sun that enter through a hole in the vertical tunnel at the top of the clock. The clock uses the power of the sun to correct small variations in the length of the day, making its own self-adjustments. At noon, the sun lies exactly over a tunnel leading to the clock A prism directs the sun's rays inside the mountain, and down, to be captured by the mechanical engine and interpreted as a synchronising signal. This thermal power is translated into mechanical power by transmitting heat inside the clock by means of long metal bars. So, the clock is designed to run on its own. Even if not a single person comes to visit it, the sun will power the clock! It can last for one thousand decades, even if no one comes to visit it. It is built to cope with both human survival, and also its opposite.

The clock itself is huge: it is more than fifty meters high. This monumental device is intended to help human thinking develop over a long period of time. While the engineering challenges in building the clock are immense, its real goal is to stimulate thinking about the long-term future. The clock will, for example, play different melodies, and is programmed not to repeat any of the music it plays for 10,000 years. The main question the clock aims to pose to human beings is: How are we acting today with regard to future generations of people? "Are we being good ancestors?" [START_REF] Tlnf | The Long Now Foundation[END_REF].

More pragmatically, the clock is also intended to avoid anxieties around yet another millennium computer bug occurring in the year 10,000. Most of those involved in this initiative are people whose careers originated in various high-tech domains. They include: Danny Hillis (a parallel computing pioneer, the designer of the clock), Steward Brand (founder of the Global Business Network, Whole Earth Catalog, the Hackers Conference and The WELL), Ester Dyson (pioneer of the digital age and founder of ICANN), Kevin Kelly (founder of Wired magazine), and Mitch Kapor (pioneer of personal computing and founder of the software company, Lotus). This group of people looks as if it is expressing a need: the need to zoom out from the imperceptible intervals of computer clocks (that run at the scale of nanoseconds, a kind of narrow time) to the immensity of a ten thousand year-duration initiative. This collective of leading personalities wants to show a more responsible face to future generations by building the slowest computer on earth. As Steward Brand, President of the Long Now Foundation, says: "Civilization is revving itself into a pathologically short attention span. The trend might be coming from the acceleration of technology, the short-horizon perspective of market-driven economics, the next-election perspective of democracies, or the distractions of personal multi-tasking. All are on the increase. Some sort of balancing corrective to the short-sightedness is needed, some mechanism or myth which encourages the long view and the taking of long-term responsibility, where 'long-term' is measured at least in centuries. Long Now proposes both a mechanism and a myth." [START_REF] Tlnf | The Long Now Foundation[END_REF].

Limits to the speed of machines? NYSE, New York Stock Exchange

On Thursday, May 6th, 2010, something strange happened on the frantic floor of the New York Stock Exchange. The stock market was down just 1.5% from the previous day. At around 2:30pm something exceptional occurred. At 2:47pm the rate was -9.16%. In just ten minutes, a billion dollars had been lost. In only a few minutes, the indices that enumerate market status had dropped hundreds of points. Some shares lost 90% of their value (the price of Accenture, the business consultancy, for example, dropped to 1 cent); other businesses were traded at incredibly high prices (Apple shares were purchased at $US100,000). Operations were cancelled and the entire financial system stopped. What happened was later described as the "flash crash" (see Fig. 2).

For the first time ever, human beings no longer controlled the execution of trades in the financial markets; computers were in control of the process. Indeed, the trading speed reached that May afternoon was impossible for human beings to follow, Fig2. Dow Jones Index during the "flash crash" (source: Bloomberg) whether they were investors or brokers. Nevertheless, the fast-trading software algorithms continued to compete with each other. It took months for the United States Commodity Futures Trading Commission (CFTC) and the United States Securities and Exchange Commission to produce a detailed report [START_REF]Commodity Futures Trading Commission) / SEC[END_REF] explaining the flash crash. Yet one thing was clear. The cause of the catastrophe was not human beings 1 . It was machines, algorithms, and sophisticated software programs that were able to place 10,000 bids-per-second through computer trading. These algorithms were very similar to each other: one program emulated the behaviour of others that, in turn, influenced other programs. In the end, the process triggered a snowball effect.

Machines can keep millions of variables under their control simultaneously. They are able to trade thousands of stocks at the same time in order to exploit extremely small changes in stock prices. Every day more than 70% of the volume of transactions are now controlled by computers that have taken over the trading industry [START_REF] Salmon | Algorithms Take Control of Wall Street[END_REF]. The responsibility for the handling of these incredibly fast mechanismsthat are impossible for a human being to controlhave been delegated to machines to play stock market games that can change the destiny of entire companies and markets. At these speeds, cause-and-effect explanations of market phenomena become impossible while they are occurring.

At a later date, Mary Schapiro, the then chairwoman of the Security and Exchange Commission, admitted that "automated trading systems will follow their coded logic regardless of outcome ...." and "human involvement likely would have prevented these orders from executing at absurd prices" [START_REF] Norris | Time for Regulators to Impose Order in the Markets[END_REF]. As a result, the United States Securities and Exchange Commission imposed circuit breakers, mechanisms that slow down the speed of transactions (for example by automatically stopping trading if the fluctuations are higher than 10% in five minutes) [START_REF] Salmon | Algorithms Take Control of Wall Street[END_REF]. More recently, the European Parliament has published guidelines on how to better handle high-frequency trading [START_REF]Financial trading rules: Economic Affairs Committee MEPs outline reform plan[END_REF].

Both of these 2011-2012 measures go in the direction of slowing algorithms down. Ultimately, they are admissions that some limits have to be imposed on the speed of execution and operation of computer software.

Discussion and towards a set of conclusions

This chapter has dealt with the concept of time and the preoccupation with speed in the context of ICT. It questions the indiscriminate pursuit of faster technologies and the assumption that faster is better. It highlights a set of arguments about why speed is not always important or necessary. In contrast to the technological imperative to measure changes over ever tinier fractions of a second, and in recognition of the need to address longer-term concerns and phenomena, some people are now starting to consider periods at the other end of the temporal scale: decades, centuries, millennia and beyond. The chapter illustrates this by putting forward four concrete case studies, and offers a fifth which is more conceptual in its basis, to underline the need for more circumspection in the quest for faster ICT. Important messages that emerge during the course of the chapter include the facts that:

 Life cycles are long: this is a valid observation for both for human beings and for technology. Human beings need to consider the use of technologies over time and throughout life cycles.  The notion of slow refers to both time and speed: slow and fast refer to rates of change that take place in conditions or items over a given period of time.  Speed may need to be limited: in appropriate circumstances, the speed of machines may need to be limited. It may not always be a recommendation to push on the accelerator at the maximum speed allowed by technology. Instead, human beings might seek to regain the control of the 'pedal' that drives the speed of technology, and thus avoid a kind of techno-deterministic fatalism.  Dangers can be particularly long-lasting: today, the possibility of immense disasters needs to be faced, whether these are natural catastrophes, such as the failure of crops, orand especiallyhuman-created ones (examples include atomic accidents and the side-effects of atomic waste).  Control on the part of humans is important: human beings have created more than one technological processthe chief example being trading using financial systemsfor which there is a need to reclaim a certain degree of control.  Preparing for eternity is important, and long-term thinking and acting, should both be encouraged: in preparing for the extremely long-term future needs of humanity, there needs to be implicit wisdom, care, and a sense of concern.  Links with ICT can be positive: some of this chapter's case studies are about how technology can help humankind plan long-term, and keep stores and symbols going over the long-term. As examples, Onkala and Svalbard could presumably not exist without technologies to power them, whereas the clock at Van Horn shows that it is possible to do something similar that is kept running by only the sun.

All five of the case studies explored in this chapter relate in some way to nature, ecology, sustainability and the continuity of human life over time. Given this orientation, ultimately, there will be a need to focus on sustainable elements of technologies, what Slow Tech calls clean ICT. Clean ICT means taking into consideration the environmental impacts (such as materials and energy consumption) of the manufacture, use and disposal of ICT products [START_REF] Patrignani | Challenging the Pursuit of Moore's Law: ICT Sustainability in the Cloud Computing Era[END_REF]. This, technology should respect the environment, and promote biodiversity and sustainability. It will mean undertaking in-depth analyses of the impact of both hardware and software production, use and disposal. It could help people to minimise their consumption of non-renewable resources and materials, and thereby reduce any ensuing pollution. At the same time, it could maximise the contribution of renewable resources in energy production. More specifically, ICT could be recyclable-by-design so that ICT lifetimes are extended and lengthened, and interoperability encouraged.

Ultimately, clean ICT is just one of the three important element of Slow Tech: these are technologies that are good, fair, and clean.

One could also argue, of course, that human beings were partly the indirect cause of the failure, since they had not recognised the need to question, nor questioned, their assumptions about market behaviour when designing the algorithms underpinning the trading systems; neither had they, presumably, tested the software sufficiently thoroughly.


Sachiko Yanagihara
email: sachiko@eco.u-toyama.ac.jp

Hiroshi Koga
email: koga@res.kutc.kansai-u.ac.jp

Sachikoyanagihara

Case Study of Practice of the Tea Ceremony (Sado) through Distance Education

Keywords: Distance Education Systems, Ethics of ICT, the Tea Ceremony

diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

In recent years, the distance education system attracts attention. Innovation in distance education system is remarkable. The driving force is an application of technologies such as "gamification" and "AR (augmented reality)", supported by 3D technologies.

Here, gamification is the use of game thinking and game mechanics in non-game contexts to engage users in solving problems [START_REF] Deterding | Gamification: Toward a Definition[END_REF]. Distance education (e-learning) is undergoing a major transformation in this way. The purpose of this paper is to consider the meaning of the distance education which utilizes ICT (Information and Communication Technology) from the viewpoint of the ethicality of ICT. Sometimes, the focus of research of distance education has a tendency concentrated on a technical trend. For example, the meaning of "gamification" or "serious game" is told in many cases (e.g. [START_REF] Deterding | Gamification: Toward a Definition[END_REF][START_REF] Johnson | Serious Use of a Serious Game for Language Learning[END_REF]). There, it is discussed what is acquired (or lost) by the virtual space closer to the real there. However, in this paper, such newest distance education systems are not targeted. Rather, it is a subject discussed in a relatively simple system. In addition, the tea ceremony (sado) of traditional Japanese performing arts would be taken up as a learning object. Conventional-ly, it is an area in which it has been considered only face-to-face training is effective. Therefore, the authors suspect it to be beneficial in the discussion of the ethics of the information system in distance education and exploring the meaning of distance education.

This paper is organized as follows. First, the education system of the tea ceremony is introduced. Second, as a case of distance education utilizing ICT, "WEB lessons" of tea ceremony of traditional Japanese performing arts (specifically, Ensyu Sado School) is taken up 1 . Third, the effect of the distance learning system of the tea ceremony had on the code of conduct of trainees will be discussed. In other words, ethics of ICT in lessons WEB of the tea ceremony is considered.

Background of Lessons of the Tea Ceremony

In this section, before a discussion, the education system or lessons of the tea ceremony are introduced. The first step of the exercise in the tea ceremony is mastery of basic operation. Specifically, they are the manners in tearoom and temae (procedure for making maccha, that is, Japanese green tea, for guests as they watch). In practice, lessons would be divided the operation of the procedure for making tea, mastery of each part would be a challenge: how to fold the fukusa (silk cloth), how to inspect the chasen (tea whisk), how to wipe the chawan (tea bowl), container for powdered thin tea, tea scoop, how to fold chakin (a tea cloth). In Figure 1, we can see Chawan, Chasen, chakin, Natsume (which use to contain the powder of green tea), Chashakus (which is spoon for scooping into bowls green tea). 1 Enshu Sado (Tea) school has 400 years of history. Enshu Kobori who is the originator was a feudal lord of the early 17th century (Edo Era). Therefore, Enshu School is known as samurai tea ceremony. The Spirit of Enshu Sado lies in "Kirei Sabi", or gracefulness and simplicity. Kirei Sabi has its origin in ancient Japanese sense of beauty which is closely related to ccha of the Heian period. (Quoted by Enshu's Tea Ceremony Web site [START_REF]Web Site of Enshu's Tea Ceremony: Available in the Internet[END_REF])

Exercise of such divided operation is called "Wari Geiko" in Japanese. Although exercises of the tea ceremony are one to one fundamentally, in this stage, two or more pupils may receive exercise simultaneously. After finishing mastery of these basic practices, a pupil performs the face-to-face training. The center of training is accomplishment in temae. Since the face-to-face training is in the mainstream, two or more pupils cannot be practiced simultaneously. Therefore, other pupils will play a visitor's role during a one pupil's exercise. In Figure 2, we can see training that is carried out at the same time more than one in the initial stage (left photo) and pupils those who play the role of customers except those who train (right photo). However, the contents of exercise of the tea ceremony do not stop only at them. In the field of lessons, the pupil would learn the traditional culture of Japan, such as the following as well as manners and way of temae or otemae. That is, Ikebana (arranged flower), the meaning of a kakejiku (hanging scroll), incense, tools, a tearoom and the yard, confectionery, Japanese clothes (wafuku), kaiseki ryori (dishes served before tea ceremony), and so on. That is, the opportunity to learn traditional Japan culture synthetically is condensed by exercise of the tea ceremony. In Figure 3, we can see Kakejiku and Ikebana (left photo) and Wafuku (right photo that the first author is wearing a Wafuku). Furthermore, there is no end in exercise. Tea ceremony is different in each season. In order to learn the manners of each, a long life of learning is required. And, the art or technique of tea ceremony is broken down into Kata: model form2 . That is, there are successive levels of study and people study step by step to an instructor from a beginner. And, when the learner has finished learn each stage, the instructor would issue a certificate (called Kyojo, meaning license) that proves it.

By the way, the guidance in the lesson of tea ceremony, specific instructions in everyday language is common. For example, instructions such as "a teacup is on the left of the front", "being a left hand there" is made. Then, in the practice room, the mentor does not instruct using the metaphor or "Waza Language" by Ikuta [START_REF] Ikuta | Learning from "Waza": Inquiry into the New Form of Knowledge[END_REF]. It can be said that guidance is by everyday specific.

Moreover, while training continuously, pupils can take "diplomas" such as "Shihan (instructor)." However, in this paper, lessons which aim at an instructor are not taken as an object. Rather, in order to clarify the ethics of ICT, discussion of this paper is limited in practice to target disciples general.

Case Study of the Tea Ceremony through Distance Education

In this section, the case of lessons of the tea ceremony as a key which considers the meaning of a distance education system is taken up 3 . And in this paper, we focus on non-vocational training for adult. By the way, as is well known, the tea ceremony is the originator by men and it has been popular among men (that is, the machisyu (commercial and industrial men) and the samurai). In a word, the tea ceremony was a male-dominated world until the first half of the Edo period. However, in the late Edo period, players of the majority are women. In other words, the central players in the tea ceremony were replaced by women [START_REF] Kato | The Tea Ceremony and Women's Empowerment in Modern Japan: Bodies Re-Presenting the Past[END_REF]. Because the tea ceremony became to be considered one subject of domestic training.

If repeatedly emphasized, despite have been formed in the male-centered society, tea ceremony has been penetrated as a lesson events in women. Tea ceremony has been learned as a domestic training or training for homemaking. However, female learners have been reduced by the social advancement of women [START_REF]MIC's Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities[END_REF][START_REF]MIC's Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities[END_REF]. On the other hand, the number of male learners is flat trend [START_REF]MIC's Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities[END_REF][START_REF]MIC's Survey on Time Use and Leisure Activities[END_REF]. Therefore, there is a tendency to increase the ratio of male learners. A lot of male learners would like to become familiar with Japanese culture. Therefore, leaners who aim to become instructors are very few. Almost of the learners in "WEB lessons" do not intend to become an instructor.

Rather, they would aim to learn mind and form (called kata) of tea ceremony [START_REF] Yanagihara | Customer Relationship Management and Trust management using "The WEB lessons" in the Iemoto System[END_REF]. And many of the learners in "WEB lessons" are male. The authors would like to emphasize this point. Now, in exercise of the tea ceremony based on facing education, probably, it is only Gishio Horiuchi (The name in the tea ceremony is Kochu-An-Socho) who uses the distance education system. Mr. Horiuchi is a master of the tea ceremony who plays various active parts. With regard to the activities of Mr. Horiuchi, please refer to the following website [10]. The direct trigger of the "Web lessons" was a pupil's overseas transfer. One male pupil was transferred to France. If it is domestic transfer, it is possible to continue the lesson by finding the mentor of the same school. However, since it was the transfer to overseas in the case of this pupil, it was difficult. Then, there was a proposal of distance education spontaneously from a pupil. In this way, the "WEB lessons" is born as a result of unintended.

At the beginning, the lesson was carried out with an iPhone. At the lesson, since instruction was performed orally, the camera function of iPhone was enough. That is, system requirements are simple. A mentor just sees a pupil's operation. After, a system configuration progresses follows: the latest version of the freeware Skype TM in which IP video call is possible can use. However, the web camera of high resolution is recommended. Now, at a WEB lessons, image of pupil's procedures will be captured in the Web camera. In lessons, Mr. Horiuchi sees in the home video of pupil. He will indicate by words specific to the pupil as necessary. It would be just "365 day and 24 hours," and "living room exercise." Recently, two cameras have been used during the practice of the WEB lessons. In order to teach to fine operation, it decided to use together not only the whole body but the camera for hands.

In 2011, pupil of the Web lesson had been living in Singapore, New York, Vietnam as well as France. The problem for a mentor was that instruction time is midnight. Time for a pupil to finish work and go home becomes midnight due to the time difference in many cases. Therefore, there are not few burdens of Mr. Horiuchi who is a mentor. However, Mr. Horiuchi still says that WEB lessons have a big charm. That is, first, it can have a pupil, without affecting exercise in the usual practice room.

Next, it is that a burden is small since it is not a lot of people. In addition, Mr. Horiuchi said as follows: 'I think the reaction of WEB lessons when viewed from the pupil also good. It is the reason why pupil is satisfied with the environment of being able to question at any time'. By the way, WEB lessons would be carried out in private room of leaners. Of course, it is not a formal tea room. In addition, the tool also dispense with substitute in many cases.

Mr. Horiuchi has been instructed to bring tools from Japan, such as fukusa (silk wrapper) and chasen (bamboo whisk). However, pupils have to use a substitute in the local tool such as a furnace. So to speak, the practice by mitate (resembling) had been practiced.

The training fee was set at 2000 yen for 30 minutes. Normal practice is 4000 yen in about an hour once. In addition, it has introduced a coupon system of six times 10,000 yen at present. There are two challenges: First, a change in the code of conduct of Mentor. Second, changes in code of conduct of leaners. In this paper, we focus on the first challenge. That is, changes in the code of conduct of mentor (not leaners) would be discussed. By the way, our previous work [START_REF] Horiuchi | The Tea Ceremony Guidance for Men[END_REF] analyzed changes in the code of conduct of the learner from the perspective of organizational citizenship behavior, but it is not from the perspective of ethics of ICT. Furthermore, as to the changes in the code of conduct of the learner, "double-loop learning" also is involved [START_REF] Argyris | Increasing Leadership Effectiveness[END_REF]. The idea of double-loop learning is proposed by Chris Argyris. The popularly idea of the learning is that we are working to solve problems according to the framework of ideas and action that has already. However, there is another type of learning. It is to discard the existing frameworks, and to incorporate a framework for new thinking and action. Such a type of learning is "double-loop learning."

In practice in remote location, the tea utensils are not perfect. Since there is no furo which is tool to boil water 5 , it is replaced by an electric kettle. Or, there is no coal, but to perform the practice with the intention of some. Through such lessons, pupils would the concept of practice as well as the procedure of the tea ceremony. It is said that the learning through such lessons is a doubleloop learning exactly. Therefore, we would like to challenge in the future the issue of learner.

By the way, through the practice of the WEB lessons, the contents of the lesson have not been substantially changed. And, the way of lessons are not changed significantly. That is, code of conduct is not changed significantly. However, the authors would focus on the context that is the background of the lesson. ICT in Web lesson is a mirror and an amplifying device of context.

At this time, contexts in which Mr. Horiuchi had are as follows: First, he would like to guide to the entrance of the tea ceremony to a lot of people. Second, he would like to impart the pleasure of tea ceremony in Japan. Third, he would like to break down stereotypes that it requires specialized tools and that learning is difficult 6 .

As related to the context of the first and second, the authors would like to point out that Mr. Horiuchi was reviewing the traditional master and pupil relationship. It is said that traditional master and pupil relationship as being collapsed in the world of tea ceremony (or it might not limited to the world of tea ceremony). In the case of domestic training, voluntary pupils were few. Pupil of this type had come to practice for a period of up to marriage. But, in recent years, new pupil who would pay a fee on their own has been increasing. They believe the lesson of a lifetime. In addition, the master and pupil relationship sought by new leaners would be dry, such as the service consumer. (It is said to be the era where disciples choose a mentor.). It would not be a wet relationship such as apprenticeship 7 . Therefore, Mr. Horiuchi would be considered weak ties are important. ICT (that is, distance education system) has strengthened the concept of weak ties. Consequently, ICT revealed the significance of maintaining a weak relationship.

Then, in terms of the third context that described above, the practice of lesson using ICT was a breakdown of stereotypes in the tea ceremony. Mr. Horiuchi was hoping that people will enter the world of tea ceremony frankly. And he would like to tell not only how to kata of temae (partial form model of temae) but also the fun of tea ceremony. Then, it is important that the pupil continues the lessons in order to have the experience of the pleasure of tea. However, there are cases where continuation of the lessons is difficult on account of work. Therefore, as described above, distance education system by ICT is enabled. Then distance education system according to ICT is a reflection of the intention of Horiuchi. In other words, ICT can be understood as a tool to convey the heart of tea rather than a tool to teach kata (form). That is, ICT has amplified his intentions or was polarized to his intentions. Further, in order to continue the dry master-pupil relationship, Mr. Horiuchi adopted a fare system in accordance with the practice times.

Then, ICT is a mirror that reflects the context as described above. WEB lessons were developed while reflecting the context of Mr. Horiuchi. And, through a WEB lessons, he began to strengthen the context of his own. And, he was convinced of the validity of the context of his own. The loose coupling master and pupil relationship is the prominent example. New pupil (who would become pupil to learn Japanese culture) different from the old disciple (the people that was recommended from the parent as domestic training) prefer relationships dry. So, he clarified the unit price of the lessons. That is, Web lesson was induced behavior of discount rates in response to the absence. Further, Mr. Horiuchi said "It is necessary for master to compromise with disciples."

In addition, Mr. Horiuchi said, "I does not matter the reason for the absence of lessons of disciple. (Rather, the continuation of the lesson is important)." ICT has also induced such correspondence.

As described above, ICT promoted the loose coupling master and pupil relationship. And, ICT lowered the threshold of the introductory tea ceremony. However, to convey the fun is only one aspect of interest. Another object is to teach proper type. Also in this regard, ICT induced additional actions. It is a change of distance educa-tion system itself. That is, it is the addition of the Web camera. Then, the mentor would be able to monitor the enlarged image of a hand if needed. As a result, the mentor is ready to check the detailed behavior of the disciples.

Finally, for the context of breaking stereotypes, ICT has been reinforced. Originally, the use of a substitute for professional tool in the tea ceremony is not a few. However, Mr. Horiuchi admits further substitution of the tool. As a result, WEB lessons were to break down stereotypes that lesson is not possible without adequate tools.

As mentioned above, it would correspond to "the bricolage" to point out of Levi Strauss that one pupil would liken the electric kettle to furo [START_REF] Levi-Strauss | The Savage Mind (French: La Pensée sauvage)[END_REF]. Off course, the procedure of the tea ceremony is formalized. However, it is not necessary to view the absolute form of model (that is, kata). It's may be a flexible (case by case) approach. Because the environment is restricted as a remote location, the student can learn the flexibility of interpretations. After all, the pupil would begin to consider that "we can continue the lessons without access to the equipment" 8 .

However, ethics of the distance education system like this is not the uniqueness of ICT. Rather, it is the one that ICT enhance or reflect the ethics of users (mentor).

Conclusion

This paper was discussed the ethics of ICT (the promotion of changes in the Code of Conduct) on distance education system of the tea ceremony that is a traditional Japanese performing arts. And ethicality that polarizes or reinforces the context of the user of the ICT is discussed. In a nutshell, we argued that ICT is to reinforce the Code of Conduct of the user. In other word, ICT does not include ethics of its own. Through reflecting the context of the user, ICT to reinforces the code of conduct of the user. In addition, by utilizing the ICT on the basis of the Code of Conduct that has been reinforced, code of conduct to more polarized. With the negative feedback loop such acts, ethicality of ICT will be polarized ethics of the user. This is the conclusion of this paper.

In the tea ceremony tea utensils plays an important role, making a practice of behavior to fit the tea utensils is essential. Also, it is a matter sensuous. Therefore, the idea that people could substitute other things because there are no adequate utensils. However, disruption to practice for that is that a waste. After all, distance education systems were facilitated the direction in which to continue practices in admit a certain degree of substitution.

In addition, these findings were obtained from targeting the distance education system of simple configuration. Distance education systems using the latest technologies such as augmented reality are seeking the realization of reality. However, WEB lessons are seeking actuality. Through a system of simple configuration, mentors are aware of the master and pupil relationship and have done an invitation to the world of tea ceremony. Also, when viewed from the standpoint of the pupil, the concept of actuality is useful. WEB lessons are a tool that allows you to feel the loose coupling master and pupil relationship. However, in this regard, we want to challenge for the future.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig.1. Tea Utensils (Right: Chawan, Chasen, Chakin, Natsume, and Chashaku; Left: Fukusa)

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig.2. State of the practice

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig.3. The traditional culture in Japan

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig.4. Mr. Horiuchi (left) and the State of the lessons (right)

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig.5. the State of WEB lessons (Screenshot of the mentor side)

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig.6. kama (kettle) and furo/ro would vary depending on the season

Kata (model form) is a cardinal rules or basic promise, and refers to how to behave. For example, there are how to use fukusa, how to drink tea, how to perform temae, and so on.

[START_REF]Web Site of Enshu's Tea Ceremony: Available in the Internet[END_REF] This case study was created based on the atypical interviews with Mr. Horiuchi to deploy WEB lessons (

December 4, 2011, October 12, 2013 and March 17, 2014). Interview survey was carried out in one-two hours each times. In addition, we would reference the writings of Mr. Horiuchi[START_REF] Horiuchi | The Tea Ceremony Guidance for Men[END_REF], web site, and Facebook. Furthermore, we send an e-mail any question as appropriate. And Fig.1(the lower right one), Fig.2and Fig.5are photos that Horiuchi is taken.

In this paper, we would referred to an implicit assumption about the practice of the tea ceremony as "the Code of Conduct." Specifically, we refer to the idea of common sense in the tea ceremony world such as "how should we do with the practice of the tea ceremony," "what should a teacher-student relationship" and so on.

In the tea ceremony, the tool to boil hot water will vary from season to season. Therefore, it is not possible to provide a hook for all remote.

Personal interview at December 4, 2011 and October 12, 2013.

The apprenticeship system in Japan, it has been emphasized technology can be obtained through the washing and cleaning. In other word, it's been said that it is important that you spend together the day-to-day life. Sometimes such a relationship is expressed as "wet" in Japan. In this paper, I use a wet with the same meaning. Conversely, it is referred to as "dry" when building the appropriate relationship as needed.

Personal interview at December 4, 2011 and October 12, 2013.

Acknowledgment

We are deeply grateful to Gishio Horiuchi (Kochu-An-Shocho). We appreciate anonymous reviewers for their helpful comments on the earlier version of this paper. This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Numbers 22530358, 26380458 and 26380550 and by a grant from Center for Asian and Pacific Studies, Seikei University.

Ethics in Distance Education Systems

In this section, ethics of ICT in distance education system will be discussed. In other words, the authors would like to pay attention to changes in the educational activities for the pupil. That is, the question whether ICT changes the code of conduct of the real world would be discussed 4 .


Ramon Puigjaner

Jordi Fornes
email: jfornes@ac.upc.edu

Implementation Criteria of University Computer Education in Spain between First Experiences and the European Higher Education Space (EHES)

This paper intends to present a short overview of the different criteria used in the university environment for setting up the computer education in Spain since the first teaching experiences in this do-main to the current implementations adapted to the European Higher Education Space (EHES). Also some samples of these different curricula are presented.

Introduction

A point that is necessary to take into account is that, until the implementation of the Bologna agreement the diploma recognizing that somebody had attained some university level was delivered by the Ministry of Education and Science (MEC). In order to ensure that the knowledge delivered to the students was coherent with the diploma, the MEC required a set of conditions, variable along the years. The goal of this paper is to present the changes of criteria, the control applied to the universities by the MEC and the curricula implemented consequently. Some historical background is needed. Computerization of Spain had begun in 1958 with two major acquisitions: an IBM 650 for RENFE, the national railway company, and an UNIVAC UCT for the JEN, the national nuclear research institution. The early push of central state, characteristic of the autarchic period, had been followed in the 1960 by a development based on private industry. With computerization ac-companying economic modernization, Spain counted by mid-1970 with almost 100,000 people working in electronic computing [29]. As happened in other countries [START_REF] Ensmenger | The Computer Boys Take Over: Computers, Programmers, and the Politics of Technical Expertise[END_REF], these professionals lacked a formal university education in computing and had been generally acquired their skills in computer companies such as IBM or UNIVAC. Spanish companies, relying generally on American machines, had also took advantage in the early 1960s of new installations, mostly IBM 1401 and Bull Gamma 10, to train their employees [START_REF] Sales | La informática comercial española en la primera década (1960-1970): Apuntes para una historia de la informática en España[END_REF], and a few began to access the profession in universi-ty computer labs, private schools and self-learning. We begin our narrative at this point, when Spanish government had just acquired an UNIVAC 1108 to process Administration payroll. Minister of Education, pushed by the lack of computing people among the civil servants, accepted the creation of the Informatics Institute.

No comprehensive account exists to date about the creation and evolution university studies in computing. Some articles and books had explore the topic: [START_REF] Samet | The evolution of computer science teaching and research the UK[END_REF] provides a chronological listing of courses, pointing out that British universities created their stud-ies following the model started in Cambridge, while [START_REF] Clark | State support for the expansion of UK University computing in the 1950s. Annals of the History of Computing[END_REF] analyses the role of two government agencies, the Advisory Committee on High Speed Calculating Machines and the University Grants Committee, in the establishment university-based computing facilities in the United Kingdom. Finally, William Aspray's paper [START_REF] Aspray | Was early entry a competitive advantage? US universities that entered computing in the 1940s[END_REF] on the early development of computing in five American universities (MIT, Harvard, Penn, Princeton, and Columbia) has inspired international comparison, specifically in the case of French computing, which has been studied in great detail by Mounier-Kuhn [START_REF] Mounier-Kuhn | L'Informatique en France de la seconde guerre mondiale au Plan Calcul[END_REF][START_REF] Mounier-Kuhn | Computer science in French universities: Early entrants and latecomers[END_REF]. In Spain, his-tory of computing has a handful of scholars [START_REF] Yuste | Scanning our past from Madrid: Leonardo Torres Quevedo[END_REF][START_REF] Randell | From analytical engine to electronic digital computer: The contributions of Ludgate, Torres, and Bush[END_REF][START_REF] Arroyo | años de informática[END_REF][START_REF] Galán | añoos de informática y telecomunicaciones: Españaa siglo XX[END_REF][START_REF] García | Introducció a la història de la informàtica en Espanya[END_REF]. Also there are some contributions made by economic historians [START_REF] García | Actes de les I Trobades d'Història de la Ciència i de la Tècnica[END_REF][START_REF] García | Tècnica i societat en el món contemporani, chap. Los precedentes de la informática y la automática en España[END_REF] and [START_REF] De Diego García | Historia de la industria en España: la electrónica y la informática[END_REF]. In contrast, the history of the Barcelona's School of Informatics is generally well known thanks to a commemorative work [START_REF]25 anys de la Facultat d'Informàtica de Barcelona[END_REF] and two recent papers on the history of the school's early days [START_REF] Fornes | Los físicos en la facultad de informática de Barcelona, 1976-1992[END_REF][START_REF] Fornes | Computing in transition: the origins of Barcelona's school of informatics, 1976-1984[END_REF].

The motivation of this paper is to present the evolution of the regular informatics teaching in 1969 until today. In this history the reader will find two main key actors: from one side the Ministry of Education with the goal of controlling the informatics teaching and in the other side the universities, initially each one individually and finally grouped in the CODDII (Conferencia de Decanos y Directores de Centros Universitarios de Informática, Conference of Deans and Directors of Informatics University Centres) trying to incorporate studies of something very much appreciated in eighties and nineties. The titles of sections of this paper remark the years with significant changes in these criteria:

 Section 2: In 1969 the MEC created the Instituto de Informática (II), estrange organization delivering a diploma each year.  Section 3: In 1976 the MEC created the Facultades de Informática transforming the delegations of the Instituto de Informática existing at that time to deliver the title of Licenciado en Informática (Licencesed in Informatics).  Section 4: In 1992 the MEC transformed the diplomas delivered by the universities from Licenciado en Informática into Ingeniero en Informática (Informatics Engineer).  Section 5: In 2010 all universities started to deliver the Grado en Ingeniería Informática (Bachelor in Informatics Engineering).  Finally, section 6 gives some conclusion and future expectations.

1969, Informatics Institute. Official certification, out of the University

At this time, after 30 years under the Franco's dictatorship, the centralism in the administration was very strong. Informatics as a body of knowledge was not included in the University. There were some courses in different studies like the Universidad Complutense de Madrid that had an Automatic Computation specialty with some courses on the basic computer architecture and on programming, common to the curricula on Mathematics and Physics, and the Industrial Engineering Schools that had a course on Computers in which was mainly explained the basic von Neumann architecture and the FORTRAN language. In March of this year, the MEC decided to create in Madrid the Instituto de Informática [START_REF]Decreto 554/1969[END_REF] directly depending of the MEC. This institute had strange organization, without any contact with the university and following a strange curriculum: the students earned a different diploma after each one of the five years of studies after the secondary education [START_REF]Orden de 24 de junio de 1971[END_REF].

 Programador de aplicaciones (Applications programmer)  Programador de sistemas (Systems programmer)  Analista de aplicaciones (Applications analyst)  Analista de sistemas (Systems analyst)  Técnico de sistemas (Systems engineer)

The first two levels had compulsory courses but in the other three there were three specialties: fundamental informatics, business management informatics and physical systems. The specialties of fundamental informatics and business management informatics had at the applications analyst, systems analyst and systems engineer optional courses chosen in both cases among the same set of courses mainly oriented to applications and not to fundamental informatics. With these degrees it was intended that people who earned them were ready to develop professional tasks in industry and companies. It is easy to understand the difficulties of simultaneously giving a solid back-ground and the practical knowledge associated to each degree. The Informatics Institute started its courses in 1970. In 1971 the II created a delegation in San Sebastián that was obliged to follow the same curriculum and also without any contact with the University. In 1972, the Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona (UAB) succeeded to create in its Faculty of Sciences an Informatics Department. It decided to start teaching Informatics in this Faculty as a 5 years curriculum with a typical university structure, but rapidly the II reacted and obliged the UAB to follow the same curriculum in its teaching. However, the team that started to teach Informatics at the UAB was a mixture of good professionals and people having followed some university computer courses, mainly in France (Paris and Grenoble); they kept the course titles of the official curriculum but they tried to transform the contents into a more reasonable structure according the university spirit. Criterion in this period: Centralism that is all centers teaching informatics should follow the same curriculum, at least formally. The idea of giving a professional diploma each year avoided the possibility of a good theoretical basis before giving the application knowledge.

1976, the First University Degrees in Informatics

In 1974, the MEC considered that Informatics had to be included in the regular university teaching structure. A commission was created to study how to pass the Informatics Institute and its satellites to the university. Several universities fight in this commission to get the informatics studies. Finally by the end of 1975 (the decision was published by the MEC early 1976) was decided that three Faculties of Informatics had to be created in Barcelona (in the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya, UPC), in San Sebastián (in the Euskal Herriko Unibertsitatea, EHU) and in Madrid (in the Universidad Politécnica de Madrid, UPM), and that the previous institutions giving informatics studies had to stop to teach informatics [START_REF]por el que se crean Facultades de Informática en[END_REF]. This was true in Madrid and San Sebastián because the Informatics Institute and its delegation were incorporated to the corresponding universities and their denomination changed. In Barcelona the situation was more complicated because it was necessary to passing studies from one university to another (unbelievable in Spain at that time). Finally, both universities kept their studies. The new Faculties started to work in October 1977 with a five year curriculum that, for the first time in Spain, was different for each university but approved by the MEC. In addition, in the Faculty of Barcelona the classical curriculum structure of a fixed set of courses per academic year was broken and the curriculum was organized by courses with their corresponding pre-requisites in such a way that the student was able to organize his/her own curriculum choosing courses among those offered by the Faculty but respecting some compulsory courses [START_REF]Orden de 7 de junio de 1977[END_REF] and the student had the right to earn his/her diploma when they had cumulated an established number of credits. This curriculum was deeply inspired by the ACM Computing Curriculum 1968 [START_REF] Atchison | Curriculum 68: Recommendations for academic programs in computer science: A report of the ACM curriculum committee on computer science[END_REF]. A draft version of this curriculum can be found in [START_REF] Puigjaner | Bases para un plan de estudios[END_REF]. In all cases curricula were planned for five years of studies. Curricula of the Madrid and San Sebastian Faculties followed the traditional structure but also inspired by the ACM Computer Curriculum 1968 [START_REF]Orden de 7 de junio de 1977[END_REF].

The students that successfully followed the studies in one of these universities obtained the title of Licenciado en Informática (Licensed in Informatics).

Criterion in this period: Centralism because the curricula should be approved by the MEC but, for the first time in Spain, each centre was following a different curriculum proposed without any guidelines and the MEC delivering the same diploma. These curricula were proposed, according the university interests and the possibilities of their teaching staff. Around 1980 a new 3-years study in Informatics was created and started in Madrid (UPM) and Valencia (Universitat Politècnica de València). The students that successfully followed these studies obtained the title of Diplomado en Informática (Diplomate in Informatics). Few after the Universidad de Las Palmas de Gran Canaria and the Universistat de les Illes Balears (Palma de Mallorca) created 3years studies in Informatics. When these studies in Valencia, Las Palmas and Palma de Mallorca arrived to the third year, extensions to 5-years were implemented in these three universities. These three years studies had two orientations or intensifications, common to all centers, derived from the specialties of the Informatics Institute:

 Computer systems mainly devoted to a vision of the computer under the user interface.  Business management applications mainly devoted to the computer over the user interface.

1992, Informatics Engineering

By the late 1980s, the MEC started a general reorganization of all university studies creating a catalogue of official titles (those delivered by the MEC itself based on the studies done in some university) reorganizing the existing titles and creating new ones. To get the official acceptance by the MEC each one of these titles had to respect a set of contents established by the MEC (main topics). To describe the relative importance of each of these topics a measure was invented: the credit equivalent to ten hours of teaching (including all kind of activities driven by the university teaching staff: theoretical classes, practical classes, etc.) received by the students. An academic year was estimated to have 30 weeks. Each university wishing to deliver some diploma had to submit a curriculum proposal that was controlled by the MEC itself in order to check if the compulsory main topics were correctly covered.

In the case of informatics three new titles were created and those existing till that moment disappeared:  Ingeniero en Informática (Informatics Engineer): 5-years divided in two cycles and between 300 and 400 credits [20].  Ingeniero Técnico en Informática de Sistemas (Technical Engineer in Informatics: Computer systems orientation): 3-years and between 180 and 225 credits [START_REF]Real decreto 1459/1990[END_REF].  Ingeniero Técnico en Informática de Gestión (Technical Engineer in Informatics: Computer business management orientation): 3-years and between 180 and 225 credits [START_REF]Real decreto 1459/1990[END_REF].

Also it was stated that the students having earned one of these 3-years degrees were allowed to follow the second cycle of Ingeniero en Informática. In the early years of this decade all universities giving the old degrees in informatics adapted their curricula to the new characteristics and other universities started to teach informatics with this new orientation. This adaptation took different solutions:  Universities that delivered the three degrees separately: the 5-years degree in a faculty or school and the 3-years degree in a different school.  Universities that delivered the three degrees in the same faculty or school with a complete implementation of the three degrees.  Universities that delivered the three degrees in the same faculty or school but without the implementation of the first cycle of Ingeniero en Informática and using both 3-years degrees as the first cycle.  Universities that had just the 5-years degree.

 Universities that had one or both 3-years degrees However, soon several problems appeared:  The fact that three different first cycles gave access to the second cycle introduced difficulties in different topics like networks, computer architecture and software engineering. The reasons were that sometimes the same main topic with the same descriptors had assigned different number of credits or that the student coming from some first cycle had a previous knowledge of some topic unknown for the students coming from other first cycles.  The low number of credits assigned to operating systems (6) that obliged to most of universities to create supplementary courses in this topic.  The growing importance of networking. It was possible that an Ingeniero Técnico en Informática de Gestión could earn his/her title with no knowledge on networking.  The inconvenience of having Automata theory as a compulsory topic in the first cycle of Ingeniero en Informática (too theoretical for beginners) and in Ingeniero Técnico en Informática de Sistemas (too theoretical for the applied orientation of the 3-years studies).

During this period the number of faculties and schools delivering these degrees was continuously increasing (and currently there are approximately 80 in Spain). This fact and the need of exchanging information about experiences and discussing about the difficulties in the implementation of their curricula provoked the need of discussion meetings with the participation of all faculties and schools teaching informatics careers. These annual meetings started in 1995. However, as the number of schools and faculties was continuously increasing, in 1998 it was decided to set up a minimal organization for these meetings, with a president and a secretary and a title: CODDI. The first task assigned just after the appointment of a president was the review of the main topics of the informatics careers in order to correct the detected inconveniences. CODDI submitted this proposal to the MEC. However, it was not accepted by the MEC because the acceptation would have allowed other studies to request also the modification of their compulsory main topics. And this would have introduced a high degree of discussions between universities and between these ones and the MEC. Nevertheless, this proposal was accepted for the new informatics curricula as guidelines for the analysis and acceptation of future curricula submitted to the MEC by the universities.

Criteria: The degree of freedom in the creation of new university curricula was reduced. The names of the diplomas were fixed by the MEC and these diplomas were delivered by the MEC following the university proposal when a student had successfully passed all courses. Each university curriculum could be different.

2010, European computer people

Adaptation to the EHES

In coincidence with the change of millennium, the European Union decided ask the member states to reorganize their university systems in such a way that a convergence was reached around 2010 in two main points:

 University studies should be organized in three levels: bachelor, master and doctorate.  University studies should define for each course the effort required to the student, the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), equivalent, approximately to 25 to 30 hours of work for the student including all his/her activities (theoretical courses, practical courses, seminars, personal study, exam preparation, etc.).

This convergence was named as the Bologna process because the agreement of all the member states was reached in a meeting held in the city where the first European university was created.

In 2001 CODDI started a volunteer work on how to adapt the informatics studies to this convergence process. Initially a set of considerations showing mismatches in either the university studies structure or in the consideration by the society of the degrees delivered by the university [START_REF] Campos | Informe sobre la adaptación de los estudios de TIC a la declaración de Bolonia[END_REF]. Later in 2003 CODDI started an economically funded that confirmed the conclusions of the previous one [START_REF] Casanovas | Libro Blanco sobre las titulaciones universitarias de informática en el nuevo espacio europeo de educación superior[END_REF].

Several changes in the MEC delayed the implementation of the EHES. Finally in 2007 the framework for the implementation of the EHES was set up [START_REF]Real decreto 1393/2007[END_REF]. Some points were clear but the framework was not yet complete:  There would not be a catalogue of official titles; each university had to propose its own titles that would be validated by an independent agency (Agencia Nacional de Evaluación de la Calidad del Sistema Universitario, ANECA, National Agency for the Evaluation of the Quality of the University System) that would evaluate the appropriateness of the proposed title (specially avoiding confusion to the society), the quality of the proposal and the existence of a sufficient amount of the human and material resources allocated to the correct implementation.  The Grado (Bachelor), in our case of Ingeniero en Informática, would have 240 ECTS that would include an end of studies project.  The Master degree would have 60 or 120 ECTS depending on the coherence between the grade earned and the intended Master and including an end of Master project.

The proposal of the CODDI, several years before the decisions of the MEC, was fully in line with the framework in which the universities will work in the following years.

Early 2008 five commissions were set up to analyse the new curricula on Science, Engineering, Health, Law and Economics, and Letters and Humanities. Informatics was included in the engineering domain.

In order to understand the environment, it is necessary to know that all classical engineering studies (agronomical engineers, aeronautical engineers, civil engineers, forest engineers, industrial engineers, mining engineers, naval engineers and telecommunication engineers) have exclusive professional capabilities and differentiated by branch and level (3-years or 5-years of studies) and associated only to the academic diploma. This organization causes serious conflicts of interests in which are involved the corresponding professional associations. The informatics engineers have no defined professional capabilities and their professional space is frequently invaded by other engineering branches, mainly the industrial and telecommunication engineers.

Traditional engineering associations were against the decision of the government of associating professional capabilities to the Grado diploma when there were different capabilities for diplomas of 3 and 5 years. Before solving this fight, the verification process started in March 2008. This process was theoretically very wellconceived but looking more to how to teach than what should be taught. However, there were terms not clearly defined, related between them and critical for the correctness of this process, like: objectives, competencies, modules, matters, courses, contents, learning outcomes, etc.

The verification commissions started to work with a formal description of its work but with an important lack of definitions (as explained before) and fundamental and logistic problems. Among the last ones an important difficulty was the lack of a good management system of the proposals. Due to the lack a good definition of its task, commission members used their better knowledge to the proposals analyses.

Two points were taken especially into account:

 The name of the title should represent the delivered contents.  The title description should not induce into error the future students reading the document with the intention of following these studies.

However, as classical engineering studies had associated professional capabilities supported by the corresponding professional associations, it soon appeared the need of defining the objectives and competencies of these studies. To solve this problem the MEC published in February 2009 these characteristics for all classical engineering studies making the equivalence of the Grado with the 3-years engineers and their capabilities and the Master with the 5-years engineers and their capabilities. However the definitions objectives and competencies of these studies were not an example of well doing because:  The objectives were defined in terms of competencies.  The competencies were defined in terms of teaching contents. Also, this decision was against the previous definition in which the Grado gave the professional capabilities and the Master gave the specialization. With this decision the Grado gave the professional capabilities of the 3-years engineers in its concrete specialties and after obtaining the Master they got all the professional capabilities of 5years engineers. This approach has the inconvenience (detected by the CODDI with respect the previous Informatics studies) of passing from a specialized knowledge to a general one.

In the case of Informatics Engineering and some other newly created they had not professional capabilities, this fact represented to place them in a level lower than the classical engineers and the CODDI fight to have at least a definition of its studies similar to the other engineering studies even if they had not professional capabilities. This was obtained in August 2009 when the MEC published the definition of objectives and competencies for the Grado and Master in Informatics Engineering [START_REF]Resolución de 8 de junio de[END_REF] with a better conception avoiding the definition of objectives in terms of competencies and the competencies in terms of teaching contents. This definition included the five specific technologies defined in the ACM/IEEE-CS Computing Curricula [1] in a similar way to the other classical engineers that all of them had several specialties:

 Computer Engineering  Software Engineering  Computing  Information Systems  Information Technology
These specific technologies are different in its competencies but have the same objectives. The competencies structure is the following:  Module of basic knowledge: 60 ECTS  Module common to the informatics branch: 60 ECTS  Specific technology module: 48 ECTS, different for each specific technology  End of Grado project: 12 ECTS The rest until 240 ECTS is at disposal of the University for strengthening the above mentioned topics or others, for stages in companies and for collateral activities.

With the existing degree of freedom for defining the title of the Grado, two alternatives were presented to the Universities:  To propose a unique name with several technological specialties (or professions with professional capabilities, if any)  To propose one or several names related to the technological specialties (or professions with professional capabilities) they want to develop.

In favour to independent titles for each specific technology or profession with recognized capabilities there are to be aligned with these professions and to use socially recognized names. Instead, for a unique title with technological specialities there are the limitations imposed by the local governments concerning the number of careers they were ready to fund, to be aligned with the White Book recommendations and to find the social recognition.

In order to avoid misunderstandings of the future students the criteria followed by the verification commission was to accept a specific name if it was adapted to a specific technology (e.g. Software Engineer) and a generic name (e.g. Informatics Engineer) in the case of including several specific technologies.

Criteria: The degree of freedom in the creation of new university curricula was maintained or increased. The names of the diplomas were fixed by the universities and these diplomas were also delivered by the universities who have the responsibility on the quality of the delivered diploma. Each university curriculum could be different.

5.2

Results of the adaptation to the EHES New computer careers are currently in their first years of implementation considering that the starting academic year was between 2008-09 and 2010-11. There is some uniformity after the definition of objectives and competencies of the Grado en Ingeniería Informática. The curricula verified previously to this definition have quite different structures. To access the details of these studies, one can access the Registro de Universidades, Centros y Títulos, RUCT, (Register of Universities, Centres and Degrees, RUCT) [START_REF]Registro de universidades, centros y títulos (RUCT), Registro de Universidades, Centros y Títulos (RUCT)[END_REF]. At present we find:  57 studies of Grado en Ingeniería Informática, of which 8 were verified before the definition of the objectives and competencies; those verified based in this definition should have, at least, two specific technologies but most of them have the five defined specific technologies, although, maybe for economic restrictions, they are not running all of them.  7 curricula of computer engineering, according with the corresponding specific technology.  8 curricula of information systems, according with the corresponding specific technology.  7 curricula of software engineering, according with the corresponding specific technology.  7 curricula of information technology, according with the corresponding specific technology.  1 curriculum of systems engineering, that is not in accordance with the defined specific technologies.

However, the adaptation of informatics studies (and most of the university curricula has been done without the adequate preparation for teachers to assume changes involving the adaptation to the EHES: the change from a paradigm based on the teaching effort of professors to another based on the learning effort of students with the modifications involved both at teaching infrastructure (decrease in large amphitheaters and increase in small rooms for seminars, spaces for study and group work of the students, increased laboratories, etc.) as well as the teachers task and dedication to follow the students learning process and to coordinating with other teachers of the same course to achieve a reasonably uniform weekly workload. Also some universities have proposed curricula that we can consider in the informatics domain but with different orientations and contents and without professional capabilities. Among them we can find:

Coming Steps

Follow up Process.

To prevent that the accreditation process discover that the implementation of curricula have not been made in accordance with the proposal made by the university, ANECA has proposed a monitoring process two years after the implementation of some curriculum and to be repeat every two years. The objective of this exercise is to analyze how the curriculum implementation has been carried out and inform universities about missing or not correctly implemented aspects, especially with regard to the procedures to ensure the quality of the educational process. These procedures are generally new to the universities and should ensure the new orientation of the teaching given by the Bologna agreement. The follow up process has been structured in the following way:

 Universities should not submit any documentation; they should only give access to the responsible people for monitoring the information university system so that they can see how the points proposed in the verification report have been implemented.  From these observations a report is issued that allows the university to have an external and impartial view of its performance.

Accreditation process.

The accreditation process has been scheduled to be performed six years after the implementation of any new curriculum. However, there is still nothing defined: Neither by whom, nor how it will be done.

Conclusion

We have presented a short overview of the different criteria used in the university environment for setting up the computer education in Spain. To sum up:  The story began by 1969, with the creation of the Informatics Institute, we have described a period of centralism. All centers which teaching informatics followed the same curriculum, at least formally. The idea of giving a professional diploma each year avoided the possibility of a good theoretical basis before giving the application knowledge.  Next step, by 1976, three universities began to develop a Computer Science curricula. It was still an age of centralism as long as curricula have to be approved in Madrid by MEC, but for the first time in Spain each University centre could follow a different curriculum proposed without any guidelines and MEC delivered the same diploma. These curricula were proposed, according the university interests and the possibilities of their teaching staff.  By the late 1980s the MEC started a general reorganization of all university studies. In the case of computer science it implied a reduction in the degree of creation freedom of new university curricula. The names of the diplomas, fixed by MEC, passed from the old Licenciado (Licensed), a term associated to base sciences (like Mathematics, Chemistry or Physics) to the new Ingeniero (Engineer) a term associated to applied sciences. However, there was no such change in the curricula and the balance among computer science and computer engineering matters remained almost the same.  Eventually, by 2000, the European Union decided to reorganize the member states' university systems in such a way that a convergence was reached around 2010. It was the so-called European Higher Education Space (EHES). Convergence had two folds. On the one hand, University studies should be organized in three levels: bachelor, master and doctorate. On the other hand, University studies should define for each course the effort required to the student, the European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), equivalent, approximately to 25 to 30 hours of work for the student including all his/her activities (theoretical courses, practical courses, seminars, personal study, exam preparation, etc.). Once again, we want to evaluate the implementation criteria. In this case, the degree of freedom in the creation of new university curricula was maintained or increased. The names of the diplomas were fixed by the universities and these diplomas were also delivered by the universities who have the responsibility on the quality of the delivered diploma. Each university curriculum could be different. How will the future be? We think it will be necessary to wait ten years until we will be able to have an opinion about the success of this reform, mainly to evaluate how professors and students have changed their teaching and learning habits. This is, may be, the strongest challenge of this reform.

 6

 6 curricula of Grado en Ingeniería Multimedia (Multimedia engineering), habitually composed by a third of informatics, a third of telecommunications and a final third of content generation.  8 curricula of Grado en Ingeniera Biomédica (Biomedical Engineering)  1 curriculum of Grado en Informática y Servicios (Informatics and Services)  1 curriculum of Grado en Fotografía y Creación Digital (Photography and Digital Creation)  1 curriculum of Grado en Ingeniería en Organización de las Tecnologías de la Información y de la Comunicación (Information and Communication Organization Engineering)  1 curriculum of Grado en Ingeniería de Sistemas TIC (ICT Systems Engineering)  1 curriculum of Grado en Matemática Computacional (Computational Mathematics)  1 curriculum of Grado en Matemáticas e Informática (Mathematics and Informatics)  1 curriculum of Grado en Ingeniería en Desarrollo de Contenidos Digitales (Digital Contents Development Engineering)  1 curriculum of Grado en Diseñoo y Desarrollo de Videojuegos (Videogames Design and Development)

Table 1 .

 1 Informatics Institute. Degrees, courses and teaching hours

	Diploma			Compulsory	Compulsory	Optional	Optional	Total
				courses	teaching	courses	teaching	teaching
					(hours)		(hours)	(hours)
	Applications pro-	4	750	0	0	750
	grammer
	Systems program-	6	750	0	0	750
	mer
	Systems	analyst:	6	690	1/3	90	780
	Fundamental	in-
	formatics

Acknowledgements

This work has been partially funded by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and the European Union FEDER funds, both in the framework of the project TIN2011-23889, Eficiencia Energética, Virtualización y Rendimiento de Servidores.