Karlheinz Kautz
email: kautz@uow.edu.au

Thomas Heide Johansen

Andreas Uldahl
email: andreas.uldahl@dk.ey.com

Creating Business Value through Agile Project Management and Information Systems Development: The Perceived Impact of Scrum

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Value creation through information systems (IS) and information technology (IT) is one of the major research topics for IS/IT researchers. In a recent literature review of IS business value research Schryen [START_REF] Schryen | Revisiting IS business value research: what we already know, what we still need to know, and how we can get there[END_REF] however laments the ongoing ambiguity and fuzziness of the 'IS business value' concept and the lack of clarity surrounding the value creation process. He proposes that to develop a consistent and comprehensive understanding of the complex phenomenon research should account for linkages between different types of performance depending on varying contexts, for different capabilities that go beyond hard indicators and measures, and for perceived impacts and benefits that are dependent on the respective stakeholders. Schryen [START_REF] Schryen | Revisiting IS business value research: what we already know, what we still need to know, and how we can get there[END_REF] focuses on business value of IS in general, but his conclusions are also true for business organizations that develop IS and IT and for development technologies like information systems and software development and project management methods that are applied in the production of IS and IT.

The agile development and project management method Scrum is one such technology. While numerous publications claim a positive impact of Scrum on information systems and software development, only little empirical work exists to verify these claims. To further contribute to the body of knowledge on IS value creation and the impact of Scrum we set out to answer the following research question: What kind of value is created and which impact has the introduction of the agile development and project management method Scrum on information systems and software development? We apply Schryen's [START_REF] Schryen | Revisiting IS business value research: what we already know, what we still need to know, and how we can get there[END_REF] taxonomy of IS business value types consisting of internal value, external value, tangible and intangible values. Here we focus at the outset on internal value provided by Scrum throughout the development process. The results we present in the following are part of a larger project where we developed a framework for investigating value creation and the impact of Scrum (see [START_REF] Johansen | Measuring the Impact of the Implementation of the Project Management Method Scrum[END_REF]). In this paper however we concentrate on three of these concepts, namely productivity, quality, and employee satisfaction. In the remainder of the paper we first briefly introduce Scrum. Then we describe our theoretical background and the research setting and method. Subsequently we present and discuss our findings against the existing literature on Scrum and relate them in our conclusions to the literature on IS business value research.

SCRUM -An Agile Development and Project Management Method

Scrum is an agile information systems and software development method with a strong focus on project management, which was formalized and tested by Schwaber and Sutherland in the mid 1990ties [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF][START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Project Management with Scrum[END_REF]). Scrum focuses on an iterative and nimble development process, on transparency, visibility and on cooperation in and between the development team and the customers. In Scrum the development team is called the Scrum team. Unlike traditional development projects where analysts, developers and testers are typically separated, Scrum teams are built on an interdisciplinary basis and comprise all these roles in one team preferably in one physical location. This structure, as well as Scrum's focus on self-organization aims at creating team dynamics and a better understanding of the tasks to be performed jointly. In this context the role of the Product owner has the responsibility to represent the project and product externally to other stakeholders and customers and to handle and manage the tasks that appear in the product and release backlogs (see below) [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. Internally, the role of the Scrum master will provide leadership, motivate and facilitate the team in line with the Scrum values, practices and development process.

A Scrum development process is structured through a product backlog, which is a prioritized list of required business and technical functions of the envisioned product. It might change in line with the customer's new needs. A release backlog is a prioritized subset of the total product backlog and defines the functions to be included in a release. A Scrum, performed in so-called sprints, is a set of development tasks and processes which a Scrum team carries out to achieve a given sprint goal. The length of a sprint is predefined. It typically lasts between 5 and 30 calendar days [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. What needs to be done during a sprint is determined by a prioritized sprint backlog, which is determined together with a sprint goal before the start of each sprint by the team and Scrum master and others, if necessary, at a planning meeting. Throughout a project a burn-down chart shows the amount of work left to do versus time over a given period [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Project Management with Scrum[END_REF]). In short daily Scrum meetings project members briefly present what they have done during the preceding day, which tasks they take on that day, as well as any challenges and obstacles that might have prevented them from carrying out their work without any solution being discussed. Scrums of Scrums are additional short meetings by the Scrum masters of projects, which consist of several Scrum teams. At the end of a sprint a sprint review meeting takes place where the Scrum team, the Product owner, other management, and one or more representatives from the customer [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF] assess the team's development process and progress in relation to the predefined sprint goal. Finally the Scrum team, the Scrum master and possibly the Product owner hold a meeting, called a retrospective, to secure learning and further improvement in the team where both the process and the product are assessed and discussed by each individual team member.

Literature Review and Theoretical Background

With the IS value literature as examined by Schryen [START_REF] Schryen | Revisiting IS business value research: what we already know, what we still need to know, and how we can get there[END_REF] as a point of departure in our study we were interested in the impact of a specific method, namely Scrum on information systems and software development. Our literature review was therefore focused on that particular approach and not in general on project management methods' or agile methods' impact on information systems and software development. This limited our sources to writings which take their starting point in agile software development. We combined a concept-centric with an author-based approach [START_REF] Webster | Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review[END_REF] the value concept through the concept of impact, either by focussing on economic impact [START_REF] Kohli | Business value of IT: an essay on expanding research directions to keep up with the times[END_REF] or on organizational and/or individual impact [START_REF] Delone | Information systems success: the quest for the dependent variable[END_REF][START_REF] Delone | The DeLone and McLean model of information systems success: a ten-year update[END_REF]. On this background our original search with keywords such as 'impact of Scrum', 'effect of Scrum', 'impact of Scrum implementation', and 'effect of Scrum implementation' primarily in Google, Google Scholar and IEEE sources lead to about 90 sources, of which 8 dealt more precisely with our research problem. An additional 8 sources were identified through the other mechanisms. From that literature we derived a number of concepts and for these concepts indicators for the impact of Scrum on information systems and software development processes and projects. The resulting framework consisted of the identified, interrelated concepts productivity, quality, employee satisfaction, management support, as well process clarity, and a total of 28 indicators, which defined the concepts on a more detailed level. Here we are focusing on Scrum's impact on the first three. Productivity is a prominent concept in the IS business value literature (see f.ex. [START_REF] Brynjolfsson | Paradox lost? Firm-level evidence on the returns to information systems spending[END_REF]; for a detailed discussion [START_REF] Schryen | Revisiting IS business value research: what we already know, what we still need to know, and how we can get there[END_REF]); in the agile development literature it is an expression of the development team productivity [START_REF] Moe | Scrum and Team Effectiveness: Theory and Practice[END_REF]. There are a number of interrelated indicators that are linked to different areas that may impact on productivity. Dybå and Dingsøyr [START_REF] Dybå | Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review[END_REF] describe the results of a comparative case study where productivity was measured in projects driven by traditional and agile development methods based on the number of lines of code (LOC) per hour, month or employee. Guang-Yong [START_REF] Guang-Yong | Study and Practice of Import Scrum Agile Software Development[END_REF] describes the measurement of productivity in the number of lines of code, and demonstrates how productivity increases gradually as a team becomes more self-organized and manages to review its development processes to avoid the repetition of mistakes. Appelo [START_REF] Appelo | Management 3.0 -Leading agile Developers, Developing agile Leaders[END_REF] has a different view how productivity can be measured. He highlights the increased functionality to the final product as a direct indicator of improved productivity. The way he measures the functionality is the number of story points that have been completed within a given period. A story point is a number that reflects the severity of a given task. Mahnic and Vrana [START_REF] Mahnic | Using stakeholder-driven process performance measurement for monitoring the performance of a Scrum-based software development process[END_REF] and Mahnic and Zabkar [START_REF] Mahnic | Using COBIT Indicators for Measuring Scrum-based Software Development[END_REF] define the assessment of productivity as a ratio of the added value versus the associated financial costs as well as costs associated with bug fixes. We use these sources to investigate the indicators employee performance, the time associated with fixing bugs, and repetition of the same mistakes. Sutherland and Altman [START_REF] Sutherland | Organizational Transformation with Scrum: How a Venture Capital Group Gets Twice as Much Done with Half the Work[END_REF] use the term "perfect hours" as a label for a project participant's undisturbed and uninterrupted work. They emphasize that a project's progress and productivity should be measured by taking perfect hours combined with other indicators into account. The number of interruptions and the number of uninterrupted development hours were the two indicators we descended from these authors. Moore et al. [START_REF] Moore | Scrum at a Fortune 500 Manufacturing Company[END_REF] argue that increased productivity through the use of Scrum is grounded on its focus on delivering functional software in short time intervals with fixed deadlines where developers do not end up in endless development cycles in an attempt to provide perfect solutions with a product that can handle everything at one time. The avoidance of continuous development cycles and compliance with deadlines are the last two indicators we derived from these authors.

Quality is another important concept in the IS business value literature, in the form of product quality [START_REF] Thatcher | An economic model of product quality and IT value[END_REF][START_REF] Thatcher | Understanding the business value of information technology investments: theoretical evidence from alternative market and cost structures[END_REF] or system and information quality [START_REF] Delone | Information systems success: the quest for the dependent variable[END_REF][START_REF] Delone | The DeLone and McLean model of information systems success: a ten-year update[END_REF]. In the agile development literature a strong focus is on measures that can be applied during the development process. In their comparative study Dybå and Dingsøyr [START_REF] Dybå | Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review[END_REF] identify various quality measures that were applied across a wide range of projects. In line with their findings Mahnic and Vrana [START_REF] Mahnic | Using stakeholder-driven process performance measurement for monitoring the performance of a Scrum-based software development process[END_REF]) and Mahnic and Zabka [START_REF] Mahnic | Using COBIT Indicators for Measuring Scrum-based Software Development[END_REF] put forward two different indicators for measuring quality both related to error density: the number of errors as detected during the development process by the development team itself, and those reported by the customers over a fixed period of time, in both cases the measurement unit is defects or errors per 1000 lines of code (KLOC), which we adopt for our study. Dybå and Dingsøyr [START_REF] Dybå | Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review[END_REF] emphasize that the 'seriousness' of the errors might have an impact on the perception of quality; we follow their suggestion and also use number of bugs or minor errors as a quality indicator. As another important measure for quality to be taken into account during the development process Appelo [START_REF] Appelo | Management 3.0 -Leading agile Developers, Developing agile Leaders[END_REF] highlights that the number of errors identified by testers during the integration of software modules is an essential metric as well. Another undisputed indicator for quality is of course the overall useability of the final product [START_REF] Dybå | Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review[END_REF]. Thus, although we in our study did not have access to customers directly (see below) we collect, to the extent possible, data about this indicator.

Customer and user satisfaction [START_REF] Delone | Information systems success: the quest for the dependent variable[END_REF][START_REF] Delone | The DeLone and McLean model of information systems success: a ten-year update[END_REF][START_REF] Devaraj | R: Information technology payoff in the health-care industry: a longitudinal study[END_REF] as well as consumer welfare [START_REF] Thatcher | An economic model of product quality and IT value[END_REF][START_REF] Thatcher | Understanding the business value of information technology investments: theoretical evidence from alternative market and cost structures[END_REF] are significant performance measures for IS business value; in our context we identified employee satisfaction of the different team members in the development teams that perform a development task, as an important concept. These team members have the roles of project managers, analysts, developers, and testers. As such we do not focus on staff in general or those who maintain the final product. In the reviewed agile development literature there are significant differences in the perceptions of the various authors concerning employee satisfaction. Mann and Maurer [START_REF] Mann | A Case Study on the Impact of Scrum on Overtime and Customer Satisfaction[END_REF], Manhic and Vrana [START_REF] Mahnic | Using stakeholder-driven process performance measurement for monitoring the performance of a Scrum-based software development process[END_REF] as well as Manhic and Zabka [START_REF] Mahnic | Using COBIT Indicators for Measuring Scrum-based Software Development[END_REF] argue that a reduction of overtime hours raises the overall satisfaction among team members. Mann and Maurer [START_REF] Mann | A Case Study on the Impact of Scrum on Overtime and Customer Satisfaction[END_REF], Manhic and Vrana [START_REF] Mahnic | Using stakeholder-driven process performance measurement for monitoring the performance of a Scrum-based software development process[END_REF] Moore et al. [START_REF] Moore | Scrum at a Fortune 500 Manufacturing Company[END_REF], and Manhic and Zabka [START_REF] Mahnic | Using COBIT Indicators for Measuring Scrum-based Software Development[END_REF] also argue that improving the lines and channels of communication within the team, as well as externally, with other organizational units and with the customer increases employee satisfaction. In particular better information about project progress and more direct feedback about the work in progress are emphasised as influential indicators for employee satisfaction. Finally, a general agreement among most of the above authors, supported also by Moe and Dingsøyr [START_REF] Moe | Scrum and Team Effectiveness: Theory and Practice[END_REF] and Green [START_REF] Green | Measuring the Impact of Scrum on Product Development at Adobe Systems[END_REF], was that Scrum provides general working conditions and a working environment that have a bearing on a positive social life at the workplace as well as on work pleasure, also described as job satisfaction, that increase overall employee satisfaction. We therefore included these two indicators also into our framework.

Research Setting and Method

We chose a case study approach to research the impact of Scrum on information systems and software development processes and projects. The chosen case organization has approximately 40 years of experience in solving complex IT tasks. Some years ago it changed from being publically owned to private company. It has about 3,000 employees, who are involved in the development of administrative and statutory software solutions. The investigated case department falls into the latter category and has 45 employees. Its sole product is a case management system for municipal job centers, which gives administrators the opportunity to work across different platforms. For the development of the case management system, the department previously followed the traditional waterfall model. In 2011 it launched the implementation of Scrum as the preferred development model. At the time of our investigation, the department had completed three full releases with the use of Scrum. As such the department had the profile of the unit of analysis which we were looking for: an organization that had recently, within the past year, chosen to implement Scrum, and that had previously used the traditional waterfall model. With the former model still in their minds we expected the employees to make candid assessments of the impact of Scrum as compared to the past. As we were not able to make direct measurements nor had direct access to data, such as number of interruptions, uninterrupted development hours, number of overall, integration or minor errors, over time registrations, etc., we chose to directly ask respondents about their perceptions of the given concepts. The indicators, which we had derived from the literature review, were therefore transformed into direct questions for our interviews, which we validated with 2 employees in a small pilot study before putting them to the 11 interview partners, who were available for the study. We developed 3 largely overlapping interview guides for the three stakeholder groups, with 6 developers as respondents, 4 respondents in leadership roles such as Scrum master, Product owner or unit managers and one representative from the service department, which is responsible for external liaisons. All interviews were recorded, transcribed and handed over to the respondents for approval. The results of our analysis were also presented to the participants of this study and the case organization at large. The data collection with standardized interviews allowed both collections of qualitative and quantitative data. We first asked the respondents to numerically assess, on a scale from -5 to + 5, for each indicator its individual change, improvement or decline, as compared to the situation before the implementation of Scrum and then to evaluate its impact on the concept in question. After that quantitative judgment we asked into the reasons for these assessments, which provided rich qualitative data. This combination of data allowed for data and method triangulation to improve the validity of our findings [START_REF] Andersen | The apparent Reality[END_REF]. The subsequent analysis was based on mean values for the quantitative data within each indicator; these were interpreted on the basis of the qualitative opinions. The results were then compared and discussed with regard to published Scrum guidelines and findings from the literature. It is worth pointing out that the numerical element of the collected data should be considered secondary. The interviews were intended as the primary source to collect qualitative data with a statistical element -and not vice versa. The quantitative data was exclusively used to create an indication and an overview over any specific area.

Finding and Results

The investigation of Scrum's value creation through and impact on productivity, quality and employee satisfaction in information systems and software development was part of a larger study, which both developed and applied a comprehensive framework consisting of a further two concepts. Although a presentation of the overall result would give a more comprehensive portrait of the method's value and impact we have here focused on three concepts mostly due to length limitations. This still provides some valuable insights and where necessary we will relate to the other two concepts.

As a background for our subsequent discussion in the following we summarize the results of our analysis concerning Scrum's value and impact on productivity, quality and employee satisfaction in the case unit.

Scrum's Impact on Productivity

Table1summarizes the respondents' assessment of Scrum's impact on productivity. Despite some individual variations the respondents' mostly positive scores indicate their favourable assessment and an improvement in productivity after the implementation of Scrum. We found that the decrease in the number of interruptions was limited, but it had led to a significant, perceived impact on productivity. In addition, in the changed process interruptions now came from an authorized person and were thus being less perceived as disturbances. The perception of the number of uninterrupted, continuous development hours had only seen a very modest increase. The respondents reasoned that the use of Scrum had led to more meetings than in the past which led to interruptions in the continuity of their work. The frequent meetings resulted, however, in a better understanding of the tasks. This was appreciated by the respondents as having a positive impact on their productivity as they thought they now both worked more efficiently and tackled unforeseen challenges much better.

Prioritizing new functionality higher than error-free deliveries had been the organization's strategy to avoid endless development cycles. Nevertheless these were expe-rienced by the majority of the respondents. The increased focus on delivering functional software in defined, short iterations has prevented endless development and has resulted in more productivity, however not on the expense of product quality as described in the next subsection. The respondents felt that Scrum's decomposition and prioritization of tasks had positively changed the compliance to deadlines and had had a positive impact on productivity in general. With regard to the repetition of mistakes there was also positive development. Primarily the respondents' explained this progress with Scrum's focus on self-organization and not that much with the practice of retrospectives, which are the method's explicit mechanism for the identification of weaknesses and subsequent process and product improvements.

Bug fixing time was the area with the least perceived improvement compared to the other indicators. Despite low average ratings, respondents expressed that although the actual time spent had not decreased, bug fixing now happened at a much better and appropriate time in the process. Thus, its impact on productivity was assessed significantly higher.

The managers among the respondents assessed that the employees' performance had increased significantly. They provided two different arguments for this. First Scrum's emphasis on process clarity resulting in visibility and transparency which we had identified as a separate concept for investigating Scrum's impact on information systems and software development, made it compulsory for developers to publically present their work and take a position with regard to any challenges they had encountered. As a consequence they put more focus on the execution of their tasks. The other reason was related to the avoidance of project overruns. In the past overruns had always been passed through the chain of development tasks, with the results that the developers or even more so the testers became time-pressured and could not do their job properly. The shorter iterations carried out by a multidisciplinary team avoided this effect and resulted in overall better performance.

Scrum's Impact on Quality

Table 2 summarizes the respondents' assessment of Scrum's impact on quality. There were two indicators, where the respondents had perceived improvements and a posi-tive change. These were the number of defects per KLOC and the number of minor errors. The two parameters were interdependent, as we from the responses could conclude that the reduction of the number of defects per KLOC had mostly come from the reduction of the number of minor errors; there had been little change in the number of serious errors, especially no change in the number of integration errors, which were usually categorised as serious defects. The reason that there had been an improvement in this area, was that with the implementation of Scrum, also unit testing as part of the Scrum team's tasks jointly performed by specific testers and the developers was introduced. This rationale was spelled out explicitly in the responses to our questions concerning the number of defects per KLOC and the number of minor errors in specified development unit and modules. In view of this, we conclude that the noteworthy improvement in this area had come about through the interplay between the introduction of unit and iterative testing as featured and emphasised by Scrum. No of integration errors 0 0.6 --2 --2

No of minor errors 1.9 1.9 0 --4

End product usability 0 0 0 --0

The respondents had not perceived any improvement with regard to the number of integration errors. The minimal increase of the impact on quality, according to respondents, was an outcome of the participation of staff from different professional areas and different sub-projects in the sprint meetings and their resulting increased understanding of the product under development. In addition, individual respondents believed that although the level of complexity and the number of interfaces between modules had increased, the constant number of integration errors indicated that quality had not been impaired; on the contrary, they saw this as a positive effect on the resulting quality. No change was perceived concerning the overall useability of the end product. However, in the absence of the possibility to access customers and end users, questions relating to this indicator were posed to employees in leadership roles, who admitted that the organisation in the future, beyond representatives from the service department, had to include customers directly into the development process to both improve useability and to make informed judgements about it.

Scrum's Impact on Employee Satisfaction

Table 3 summarizes the respondents' assessment of Scrum's impact on employee satisfaction. The examination of the concept shows both areas where respondents had experienced positive changes, but also areas where the situation was largely unchanged. The latter proved to be the case in the assessment of overtime. Some respondents felt that this area had improved for two reasons. First of all, there had been a relief that Scrum had not led to the amount of overtime work that the individual respondents had feared. In addition, Scrum had made it more fun to work, which di-verted attention from overtime. Common to most respondents concerning this indicator was, however, that the reorganization of work process had a neutralizing effect on the negative perception of overtime. With regard to the possibilities to track, monitor, and follow a project's progress the respondents perceived a clear improvement. With the exception of a few, most respondents highlighted the role of product backlogs in their responses. The majority of the respondents felt that using backlogs was rewarding, but at the same time, they found them cumbersome to work with because of a, at times, paucity of clarity and transparency which were explained with a lack of experience with this tool and expected to disappear in the future.

In relation to the assessment of lines of communication, the respondents were divided into two factions. Those in leadership roles felt there had been a deterioration since the transparency of who at management level was associated with the various Scrum teams had become blurred and elusive. In contrast, respondents in developer roles had the perception that the communication paths had clearly improved. The reason for this was that as part of the Scrum implementation clearer guidelines had been put in place about the ways any communication should take in case of problems; in addition the introduction of Scrum of Scrums had improved communication across the different teams. Concerning the amount of feedback there had not been a notable change. One respondent however put strongly forward that the amount of feedback had indeed increased, which explains the positive mean value of both the perceived improvement and its impact on the indicator.

When respondents were asked to assess the social life in the Scrum teams, most of them responded that they saw an improvement in this respect. The improvement had been achieved because professional and disciplinary boundaries between the different roles had been broken down and because staff were now sitting together in an open office landscape. Finally, pleasure of work or job satisfaction was the indicator which by far received the most top scorings of all indicators -the largest number of '5 scores'. All but one respondent felt that Scrum had supported the elevation of job satisfaction. Breaking tasks down in smaller bites, cross disciplinary collaboration and increased process clarity and transparency of the development process and the product under development had all together contributed to this perceived improvement.

Discussion

On this background, in the following we contrast our empirical data with the literature on agile information systems and software development and in particular the identified writings about Scrum.

Empirical Findings on Productivity and the Agile Development Literature

There are a number of areas that impact on productivity; according to the Scrum and agile development literature, which we reviewed for this research, these are: sprints, a focus on functional software, retrospectives, self-organization, the product backlog and the daily scrum meetings.

The iterative sprint development process [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF] plays a central role in the use of Scrum. In the case unit, sprints had made it easier to comply to deadlines as tasks were now decomposed in smaller manageable items with clear definitions, which allowed for their easier handling and execution. These results are confirmed in empirical work reported by among others Augstine et al. [START_REF] Augustine | Agile project management: steering from the edges[END_REF], Vidgen and Wang [START_REF] Vidgen | Organizing for Agility: A Complex Adaptive Systems Perspective on Agile Software Development Process[END_REF] as well as Wang and Vidgen [START_REF] Wang | Order and Chaos in Software Development: A comparison of two software development teams in a major IT company[END_REF]. Scrum's increased focus on iterative delivery of functional software should according to the literature increase productivity while avoiding falling into endless development cycles in an attempt to develop the 'perfect piece' of software [START_REF] Moore | Scrum at a Fortune 500 Manufacturing Company[END_REF]. This was the effect Scrum had on the case unit, which thus was an area where the method lived up to the expectation.

Retrospectives are intended to increase the productivity among others as a result of the project participants' learning from their own and others' mistakes, so that errors and faults are not repeated in the next sprint or iteration. Retrospectives should address both, the overall application of the method, its processes and practices, but also the more specific experience in the daily development work and its relation to the resulting product [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Project Management with Scrum[END_REF]. The latter turned out to be an area the case unit did not focus on and thus did not benefit from in their daily work. This prioritization of topics discussed during retrospectives can be explained with the case unit's early stage of utilizing Scrum and their lack of experience with regular retrospectives. In the case organization this area should therefore get further attention with an increased focus on Scrum's practices to support learning. Self-organization in a Scrum team has among others the objective to protect and relieve individual team members from certain tasks and create an environment where they are not constantly disturbed in their work. In a successfully self-organized team, everyone has insights into the other team members' tasks, while at the same time a Scrum master is clearly identified and appointed [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. This means that when there is a need for input from a specific team member, the other team members are not unnecessarily disturbed, as the tasks have been clearly defined, broken down and distributed. If in doubt, the Scrum master is available to facilitate or solve the problem. At the case unit this had not yet been fully achieved, which meant that employees were still interrupted and disturbed in their work and further efforts will be needed to progress. However, one of the benefits of the Scrum master role had been achieved already: the respondents expressed that the interruptions now came from the right person.

In the literature the avoidance of repeating errors is ascribed to retrospectives. As discussed above in the case unit retrospectives had not yet been applied to their full potential, yet the perception of the respondents had been that the repetition of errors had drastically decreased. This was attributed to the influence that self-organization had. As a consequence of the increased individual developer's responsibility now, team members had become more mindful not to repeat the same mistakes. Individual and collective mindfulness have been reported as characteristics of agile development independently of a particular method or agile practice [START_REF] Matook | Mindfulness and Agile Software Development[END_REF]. This supports that the lack of exploiting retrospectives in the case organization has been compensated by selforganization and mindfulness to lead to a positive outcome with regard to avoiding the repetition of mistakes.

In the case organization the introduction of a product backlog had primarily an effect on compliance with deadlines. As the work was now broken down to single items, there were ongoing opportunities to check whether the agreed schedule was met. Additionally, there was now the possibility to prioritize and plan the order of executing the items in an appropriate manner, which according to the literature (see e.g. [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]). further increases the overall productivity. The introduction of a product backlog at the case unit had affected both of these areas positively, and thus the overall productivity. Product backlogs can also be used to plan a specific test, debugging and error correction period in form of a dedicated item for these tasks [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Project Management with Scrum[END_REF]. In the case unit this did not lead directly to a reduction of the time spent on bug fixing, but it had resulted in bug fixing happening at a more appropriate point in time, which ultimately had had an impact on productivity.

Finally, daily Scrum meetings, have among others the objective to create visibility in a Scrum team. This helps that everyone in a team gains insight into what the others are working on and at the same time it makes it difficult for employees to conceal modest work efforts, since they publically have to communicate and document their results [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. The latter had a substantial impact on employee performance in the case unit. It affected productivity positively as openly explaining why as task took longer than expected had the psychological effect that it deprived the employees of the opportunity to hide behind a task longer than necessary. In addition, the meetings had both a positive and negative impact on the number of uninterrupted development hours. The increased number of meetings had reduced the amount of uninterrupted development hours. This was outweighed, however, by the fact that the meetings created better visibility, oversight and knowledge. This allowed employees to tackle unforeseen challenges better, which had a positive effect on productivity as waste time was avoided.

Empirical Findings on Quality and the Agile Development Literature

The Scrum measures, which have an influence on quality, are according to the reviewed literature: the Scrum team, the Scrum team's maturity, the sprints and the sprint reviews.

A well-functioning Scrum team raises the quality of the end product through its interdisciplinary cooperation, its team dynamics and its utilization of self-organization [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. Based on the respondents' assessments we can conclude that case unit had managed to exploit these areas as there had been a noticeable improvement in the decrease of the number of defects per KLOC and of the number of minor errors. A Scrum team's maturity also contributes to the improvement of quality; it affects quality through increasing the mutual understanding within the team and by raising the level of self-organization [START_REF] Guang-Yong | Study and Practice of Import Scrum Agile Software Development[END_REF]. Scrum was a relatively new initiative of the case unit, and our results showed that the Scrum team had so far only achieved a limited degree of maturity, especially with regard to reaching out beyond the team boundaries. This was probably one of the main reasons that there had been no significant improvements in either the number of integration errors and end product usability.

A change of the development process to sprints can affect quality in several areas [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. The largest impact on quality happens through a change to a process where analysis, design, programming and testing activities are not performed separately, but in parallel during defined periods of time. The case unit had performed its first iterative development cycles with Scrum as classic 30-day sprints. After a period, learning from their own practice concerning a sustainable rhythm of work, the unit decided to run 14-day sprints. This led to a further refinement and decomposition of the tasks the team and its individual members were working on, and an even greater focus on the delivery of functional software. Both actions, according to respondents, helped to reduce the number of defects per KLOC and the number of minor errors, which had a positive impact on the product quality as a whole.

According to the literature [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF] a sprint review meeting should be held at the end of each sprint. At this meeting customers have the opportunity to interact directly with the development team. Quality can be raised as customers at these meetings have the opportunity to provide input, feedback, but also objections and change requests. The latter may be the case if, according to the customer there has been too big a discrepancy between the agreed sprint goal and the developed software. Before the meeting ends any disagreements should be discussed and resolved [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. The case unit had in this area not utilized customer and user involvement as intended by the method. One possible explanation for not involving customers to a larger extent could be that the case organization was concerned that individual incoming requests would be too diverse to be fully integrated in the standard information system under development. Another reason could simply be a lack of experience with customer involvement, a deficiency the organisation intends to resolve in the future. The lack of user involvement was one of the main reasons that the perception of end product usability remained unchanged despite the implementation of Scrum. The case unit might experience better results in terms of final product usability, as the Scrum team becomes more mature in the use of the method and thus learns which actions, processes and tools, likely including active and direct customer participation, are best suited for them. In any case the case unit has to consider a change of practice in the way customer will be involved in the development process to make the most of Scrum.

Empirical Findings on Employee Satisfaction and the Agile Development Literature

According to the reviewed literature the measures that have an impact on employee satisfaction are: sprints, Scrum master, Scrum teams, Scrum of Scrums, product backlog, and burn down charts. The change to a defined development process, in the form of 14-day sprints, had an influence on employee satisfaction in the case unit. Schwaber and Beedle [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF] put forward that at the end of each sprint there should be a defined piece of developed and tested functional software. They highlight that it is up to the team itself to judge and decide how much work needs to be performed in a sprint to reach the agreed sprint goal. In the case unit the short and iterative development cycles had the effect that the employees found their work more satisfying and enjoyable. They therefore did not consider overtime as something necessarily negative. We can conclude although the case unit with regard to functional software -not every sprint ended with such a result yet -did not fully follow Schwaber and Beedle's [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF] advice, this had no negative consequences, on the contrary the case unit actually experienced progress with regard to employee satisfaction, specifically increased job satisfaction and pleasure of work, due to the utilisation of sprints and the reorganization of the development processes. This effect corresponded well with what the literature suggests as potential improvement.

According to Schwaber and Beedle [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF], the introduction of sprints also alleviates the social life and communal atmosphere in the teams as employees encounter progress and success due to the frequent delivery of a functional product at the end of each sprint. The case unit had commenced to celebrate milestones and started to experience these effects, however thus far not to the extent predicted by Schwaber and Beedle [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF].

The Scrum master also plays a significant role in employee satisfaction. Schwaber and Beedle [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF] emphasize that clearer guidelines concerning the lines of communication involving the Scrum master, as well as an active protection of the Scrum team through this role from unnecessary disturbances, both are actions that contribute to increasing employee satisfaction. The case unit had followed the recommendation from the literature and established Scrum masters and communication guidelines, which resulted in a positive outcome evidenced by the respondents' answers concerning the lines of communication. It is however important to emphasize that the improvement of communication links were only perceived at the Scrum team level and not at a senior level beyond the Scrum masters. As the case organization becomes more familiar and accustomed to the use of Scrum, Schwaber and Beedle [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF] argue that management will also experience these improvements. Concerning team structures the respondents repeatedly mentioned that the destruction of disciplinary boundaries and the gathering of team members in the Scrum teams with different professional background had contributed positively to their perceptions of employee satisfaction. This is an intended effect of interdisciplinary Scrum teams [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. Self-organization as part of Scrum teams' governance contributed to the respondents' favourable assessment. On this background we can conclude that the case unit has been able to benefit from the composition of their Scrum teams. This is also manifested through the respondents' positive statements regarding the indicators social life and work pleasure.

Scrum of Scrums should be used in large, complex development projects where several Scrum teams are associated [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Project Management with Scrum[END_REF]. The idea behind the Scrum of Scrums is to ensure the sharing and exploitation of the potential knowledge that exists between different Scrum teams. The responses we received document that the way the case unit had chosen to use Scrum of Scrums had affected the lines of communication between the teams in a positive direction despite the fact that no clear guidelines for this particular communication activity had been developed by the case unit. Although it remained unclear whether the case unit used Scrum of Scrums, as the literature recommended it, the use of Scrum of Scrums did not only contribute to improve communication lines in general, but also had a positive influence on the ability to monitor project progress. The interaction between the Scrum teams raised the common understanding of the individual Scrum team's status, where they positioned themselves as compared to the other teams and with regard to the development process of the overall product.

Schwaber [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Project Management with Scrum[END_REF] argues that the product backlog is one of the most important tools in Scrum as breaking down the development tasks to more tangible and manageable size and to increase their visibility is essential for a well functioning product backlog. The case unit has had difficulties with the utilisation and exploitation of the product backlog: the employees felt that the product backlog was unmanageable and cumbersome to work with. This indicates that they did not use the product backlog as proposed by f. ex. Schwaber and Beedle [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Software Development with Scrum[END_REF]. Nevertheless, they also felt that the product backlog had helped to improve their ability to monitor project progress as there had been no monitoring tool for this before the Scrum implementation. In the context of product backlogs, another tool, namely a burn down chart is intended to provide information about the development work. Depending on the status of the burn down chart it is the Scrum master's responsibility to adjust the number of hours available for the unfinished development tasks, so that the team can reach the sprint goal on time [START_REF] Schwaber | Agile Project Management with Scrum[END_REF]. Although the case unit used burn down charts, it was surprising that no respondents mentioned that this had contributed to any improvement with regard to monitoring and following project progress. A possible explanation could be that the respondents were not yet fully aware of the difference and the different roles the product backlog and the burn down charts play in a Scrum managed development process. This did however not have negative effects on the respondents' overall positive perception of employee satisfaction.

Conclusion and Contribution

We have applied Schryen's [START_REF] Schryen | Revisiting IS business value research: what we already know, what we still need to know, and how we can get there[END_REF] taxonomy of IS business value as an analytical and structuring device and demonstrate its overall viability. We identified and studied different types of performance measurements in particular productivity, quality and employee satisfaction as value creating measures and provide a useful operationalization of the concepts through 17 indicators. Our positive assessment of Scrum through these measures for the value and impact of information systems and software development confirms empirically the expectations and claims, which are made in many of the conceptual and non-academic writings we had identified in our literature review. It also fills a gap in the area of empirical studies of the value and impact of agile software development [START_REF] Dybå | Empirical studies of agile software development: A systematic review[END_REF].

Our study is built upon subjective perceptions; as with all qualitative studies of this kind we of course have to take the danger of positive bias and a respondents' tendency of reporting future expectations rather than stating actual perceptions into account. However, the fact that the respondents reported no or only minimal impact on some of the indicators gives confidence that the reported efforts were genuine rather than showing a general positive bias. In doing so, we however follow Schryen's [START_REF] Schryen | Revisiting IS business value research: what we already know, what we still need to know, and how we can get there[END_REF] call and go beyond hard measures and indicators. While it might be argued that our results lack the objective strength of economic value measured in monetary revenue, they provide insights about individual and organisational impact, benefits and values as perceived by the different stakeholders. We take into account internal capabilities which are usually out of scope of the value considerations, and regard the normally disregarded subjective preferences of stakeholders. We investigate an IS business value generation process within its context and environment, in our case agile development, which usually is ignored.

While not making up for a lack of a theory of IS business value our discussion sheds light on the value generation process and the measures we present deal with some of the deficiencies in current IS business value research and contribute to filling gaps in the research agenda as put forward by Schryen [START_REF] Schryen | Revisiting IS business value research: what we already know, what we still need to know, and how we can get there[END_REF]. His distinction of internal and external value was helpful, the distinction of tangible and intangible is however not that easy to apply. While productivity is overly linked to tangible value and employee satisfaction is clearly linked to intangible value, elements of quality are both tangible and intangible. The work presented here is a first contribution to solving the identified challenges, however further research is needed to understand the IS business value and IS value in general.

Table 1 .

 1 Scrum's impact on productivity

	Productivity	Improvement	Impact	Score
			on productivity	Range
	No of interruptions	1.4	2.0	0 --4
	No of uninterrupted devel-	0.8	1.3	0 --3
	opment hours
	Endless development cycles	2.8	2.8	1 --5
	Compliance with deadlines	2.9	2.1	0 --5
	Repetition of mistakes	1.1	1.4	--1 --3
	Bug fixing time	0.5	1.7	--2 --3
	Employee performance	3.5	4	3 --4

Table 2 .

 2 Scrum's impact on quality

	Quality	Improvement	Impact	Score
			on quality	Range
	Defects per KLOC	2.7	3.2	1 --4

Table 3 .

 3 Scrum's impact on employee satisfaction

	Employee satisfaction	Improvement	Impact	Score
			on employee	Range
			satisfaction
	Overtime	0.4	0.9	0 --5
	Project progress	2.2	2.0	0 --4
	Communication	1.7	1.3	--3 --4
	Feedback	0.8	1.3	0 --3
	Social life	1.9	2.1	0 --4
	Work pleasure	2.8	3	--2 --5


Pia Nielsen

Liana Razmerita

Motivation and Knowledge Sharing through Social Media within Danish Organizations

Keywords: Knowledge sharing, Motivation, Social Media, Social Business, Internal Communication, Enterprise Social Networks, Enterprise 2.0

Based on an empirical quantitative study, this article investigates employee motivation in Danish companies and aims at determining which factors affect employees' knowledge sharing through social media in a working environment. Our findings pinpoint towards the potential social media have for enhancing internal communication, knowledge sharing and collaboration in organizations, but the adoption is low, at this point, due to mainly organizational and individual factors. Technological factors do not seem to affect employees' motivation for knowledge sharing as much as previous research has found, but it is the influence from the combination of individual and organizational factors, which affect the adoption of the platforms. A key finding in the study is that knowledge sharing is not a 'social dilemma' as previous studies have found.

The study shows a positive development in employees' willingness to share knowledge, because knowledge sharing is considered more beneficial than to hoard it.

Introduction

In a digitalized world, organizations face increasingly competitive environments and many companies are forced to downsize in order to cut costs and adapt to a changing marketplace. This can lead to loss of valuable knowledge unless it has been captured and stored in the organization. Knowledge is a key source of competitive advantage, and knowledge has become the most important resource and strategic asset for organizations [START_REF] Nonaka | The Knowledge Creating Company[END_REF][START_REF] Davenport | Thinking for a Living: How to Get Better Performance and Results from Knowledge Workers[END_REF][START_REF] Paroutis | Determinants of Knowledge Sharing Using Web 2.0 Technologies[END_REF]. Managing knowledge and knowledge sharing have, consequently, gained increased attention in organizations. Social media is slowly reshaping the concept of knowledge management in organizations and more and more companies adopt 'social business' [START_REF] Kiron | Social Business: Shifting Out of First Gear[END_REF][START_REF] Rennie | More Than Facebook: The Time Is Right For Social Business[END_REF] communication strategies in order to enhance the internal communication and collaboration to become more productive and competitive.

Social media provide new opportunities for knowledge sharing through collaborative platforms [START_REF] Kirchner | New Forms of Interaction and Knowledge Sharing on Web 2.0[END_REF] such as social networks, blogs and wikis, which allow employees to share knowledge easier across departmental and geographic boundaries [START_REF] Stephen | Business Impact of Web 2.0 Technologies[END_REF]. The plat-forms Chatter, Yammer and Podio are examples of social media, which are used in an organizational context for internal communication and collaboration. Salesforce Chatter is an enterprise social network as well as a collaborative application based on cloud-computing apps. Podio is also an enterprise social network and an online work platform. Podio users can create workspaces to collaborate with specific groups of people, and use an employee network for company-wide communication across departments and get their work done using apps. Yammer is a secure, private social network, which enables employees to collaborate easily. These platforms are also referred to as 'Enterprise 2.0' [START_REF] Mcafee | Enterprise 2.0: The Dawn of Emergent Collaboration[END_REF] or enterprise social networks, because they are deployed in a business environment for internal communication. The platforms provide new opportunities for organizations to benefit from the human resources and valuable knowledge that resides in the organization, which, potentially, can enhance work routines, business practices and knowledge sharing.

According to studies conducted by the consultancy firm McKinsey & Company, companies, which deploy social media, have gained measurable business benefits such as: better access to knowledge, lower cost of doing business, higher revenues and more innovative products and services [START_REF] Mckinsey | How Companies Are Benefiting from Web 2.0: McKinsey Global Survey Results[END_REF][START_REF] Bughin | The Rise of the Networked Enterprise: Web 2.0 Finds Its Payday[END_REF]. A more recent study conducted by McKinsey & Company from 2012, shows that social technologies within an enterprise can raise the productivity of the employees by 20-25 percent [START_REF] Chui | The Social Economy: Unlocking Value and Productivity through Social Technologies[END_REF]. According to this study, the average employee spends an estimated 28 percent of the workweek managing e-mails and nearly 20 percent looking for internal information or tracking down colleagues, who can help with specific tasks. But when companies use social media internally, messages become content; a searchable record of knowledge, which can reduce, by as much as 35 percent, the time employees spend searching for company information Social media provide new opportunities to manage knowledge at both personal and organizational levels through social-collaboration and networking opportunities provided by such platforms [START_REF] Razmerita | Personal Knowledge Management: The Role of Web 2.0 tools for Managing Knowledge at Individual and Organisational levels[END_REF][START_REF] Razmerita | Social Media in Organizations: Leveraging Personal And Collective Knowledge Processes[END_REF]. Personal knowledge could be synergized into collective knowledge through social collaborative processes that may facilitate externalization of knowledge, fostering creativity and innovation [START_REF] Razmerita | Collaboration using Social Media: The Case of Podio in a Voluntary Organization[END_REF][START_REF] Popadiuk | Innovation and knowledge creation: How are these concepts related[END_REF]. All these processes may have the potential to increase companies' competitiveness. However engaging employees to adopt and use these platforms on regular basis seems to be the main challenge organizations are facing nowadays owing to both organizational and individual factors [START_REF] Razmerita | Social Media in Organizations: Leveraging Personal And Collective Knowledge Processes[END_REF]. According to a recent report conducted by Gartner, the vast majority of social collaboration initiatives fail due to lack of purpose and a 'provide and pray' approach, which only leads to a 10 percent success rate [START_REF] Gartner | Gartner Says the Vast Majority of Social Collaboration Initiatives Fail Due to Lack of Purpose[END_REF].

Despite the potential social media have for enhancing organizations' internal communication [START_REF] Kirchner | New Forms of Interaction and Knowledge Sharing on Web 2.0[END_REF], [START_REF] Paroutis | Determinants of Knowledge Sharing Using Web 2.0 Technologies[END_REF], [START_REF]The New Conversation: Taking Social Media from Talk to Action[END_REF][START_REF]Social Semantic: Social Media Factbook[END_REF] only few studies exist related to which factors affect employees' knowledge sharing through social media, and how organizations can deploy social media in order to increase their competitive advantage. Due to the recognition of knowledge as a source of competitive advantage and the growing significance of knowledge sharing in organizations, the purpose of this article is to contribute to a better understanding of how knowledge workers can be motivated to share knowledge using social media [START_REF] Denyer | Social, Open and Participative? Exploring Personal Experiences and Organizational Effects of Enterprise 2.0 Use[END_REF][START_REF] Danis | A Wiki Instance In the Enterprise: Opportunities, Concerns and Reality[END_REF]. The article draws on human psychology motivation theory [START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions[END_REF]. The following research question: Which factors affect employees' knowledge sharing behavior through social media? was investigated using empirical data collected using a questionnaire distributed to several Danish organizations.

The article is structured as follows: Section 2 provides a literature review. In section 3, we introduce our research methodology. The findings from our study are presented in section 4. The main findings are discussed in section 5. Our conclusions are outlined in section 6.

2

Literature review

Previous studies emphasize that many companies already reap benefits from the collaborative nature of social media, which improve collaboration and knowledge sharing within and between organizations due to faster and more efficient communication [START_REF] Chui | The Social Economy: Unlocking Value and Productivity through Social Technologies[END_REF], [START_REF] O'dell | The New Edge In Knowledge: How Knowledge Management is Changing the Way We Do Business[END_REF]. And Von Krogh [START_REF] Krogh | How does social software change knowledge management? Toward a strategic research agenda[END_REF] argues that drawing increasingly on social software, knowledge management is "becoming less costly, more cloud-based, ubiquitous, standardized, and mobile, but also more personalized and more effective in meeting individual needs". Companies such as IBM, Siemens AG and Royal Dutch/shell (KPMG) have successfully adopted social media as part of their knowledge management strategy and are already gaining measurable business benefits [START_REF] Bernal | Web 2.0 and Social Networking for the Enterprise: Guidelines and Examples for Implementation and Management within Your Organization[END_REF], [START_REF] O'dell | The New Edge In Knowledge: How Knowledge Management is Changing the Way We Do Business[END_REF].

Central to this study is the potential social media have for enhancing internal communication, knowledge sharing and collaboration in organizations. For many companies the organization's employees are an unused source of knowledge, which could improve the organization's competitive advantage, if their knowledge is shared and distributed in more effective ways through social media platforms [START_REF] O'dell | The New Edge In Knowledge: How Knowledge Management is Changing the Way We Do Business[END_REF].

According to recent work conducted by Von Krogh [START_REF] Krogh | Carrots and Rainbows: Motivation and Social practice in Open Source Software Development[END_REF] social practices do not only evolve and refine employees' tacit and explicit knowledge. Under certain conditions, such as a history of interaction, their members also pursue higher collective standards of excellence related to their work. The platforms Chatter, Yammer and Podio, are examples of social media that are used in an organizational context for internal communication, collaboration and knowledge sharing.

Recent studies and literature from the beginning of the 2000s till now, have identified several factors, which affect employees' knowledge sharing behavior through social media, as well as, identified three main categories they fit into. These categories are: individual, organizational and technological factors. The following literature and studies have identified a number of factors, which affect employees' knowledge sharing through social media: [START_REF] Paroutis | Determinants of Knowledge Sharing Using Web 2.0 Technologies[END_REF], [START_REF] Kirchner | New Forms of Interaction and Knowledge Sharing on Web 2.0[END_REF], [START_REF] Sajeva | An Investigation of Critical Barriers to Effective Knowledge Management[END_REF], [START_REF] Lin | Knowledge Sharing and Firm Innovation Capability: An Empirical Study[END_REF] virtual communities [START_REF] Mcafee | Enterprise 2.0: The Dawn of Emergent Collaboration[END_REF], [START_REF] Ardichvili | Motivation and Barriers to Participate in Virtual Knowledge-sharing Communities of Practice[END_REF], knowledge sharing in multinational corporations with focus on managerial support [START_REF] Riege | Actions to Overcome Knowledge Transfer Barriers in MNCs[END_REF]. Furthermore, factors such as: organizational culture [START_REF] De Long | Diagnosing Cultural Barriers to Knowledge Management[END_REF], [START_REF] Alawi | Organizational Culture and Knowledge Sharing: Critical Success Factors[END_REF], cultural influences on knowledge sharing [START_REF] Ardichvili | Cultural influences on Knowledge Sharing through Online Communities of Practice[END_REF], and critical barriers to effective knowledge management [START_REF] Sajeva | An Investigation of Critical Barriers to Effective Knowledge Management[END_REF], have also been identified as significant factors to affect employees' knowledge sharing.

Companies need to get an understanding of their employees, their needs and their motivation to share knowledge if they want to stay competitive. The reason for this is that the traditional approach to doing business is a top-down approach, but social media bring power back to people and employees. This reality challenges the existing business model in many companies, because the implementation of social platforms is all about the employees, which demands a more employee centric and bottom-up approach. This means that it is crucial to focus on the employees and understand their needs in order for management and managers to facilitate the right kind of motivation to promote use and adoption of the social platforms.

As mentioned earlier, previous research has identified several factors that affect the individual employees' willingness to share knowledge using different theories. In particular understanding knowledge sharing in virtual communities has been investigated using social capital and social cognitive theories [START_REF] Chiu | Understanding Knowledge Sharing in Virtual Communities: An Integration of Social Capital and Social Cognitive Theories[END_REF], social exchange theory [START_REF] Zhang | Effect of Knowledge Sharing Visibility on Incentive-based Relationship in Electronic Knowledge Management Systems: An empirical investigation[END_REF][START_REF] Chen | To give or to receive? Factors Influencing Members' Knowledge Sharing and Community Promotion in Professional Virtual Communities[END_REF] or theory of planned behavior [START_REF] Tohidinia | Knowledge Sharing Behaviour and Its Predictors[END_REF]. In the this study, in order to understand which factors affect employees' knowledge sharing, we attempt to understand the human psychology behind employees' motivation to share knowledge.

The concept of motivation has been discussed frequently by using Deci and Ryan's framework [START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions[END_REF] and original separation of intrinsic and extrinsic motivation, which is applied to explain some of the factors that drive people to action. This motivational theory framework was chosen for this study to explain why employees share or do not share knowledge due to the simplistic and employee centric nature of the theory of only two determinants; the two basic human needs: intrinsic and extrinsic motivation.

Deci and Ryan's framework of motivation [START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions[END_REF] can be divided into two categories based on the different reasons and goals, which drive a person to action: intrinsic motivation (internal) and extrinsic motivation (external). The two types of motivation influence individual employees' intentions regarding an activity as well as their behaviors.

Intrinsic motivation refers to motivation that is driven by an interest or enjoyment in the task itself or enjoyment in helping others, and exists within the individual rather than relying on any external pressure or reward. People who are intrinsically motivated are more likely to engage in the task willingly, as well as, work to improve their skills, which will increase their capabilities as well as the organization's productivity [START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions[END_REF].

Extrinsic motivation refers to the performance of an activity, which leads to a desirable outcome. Extrinsic motivation focuses on goal-driven reasons, such as monetary rewards and career advancement [START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions[END_REF]. Extrinsic motivation is typically based on the perception of the cost (effort) and benefit (reward) associated with sharing knowledge. If the perceived benefits exceed or equals the cost, then knowledge sharing will happen. Many organizations have reward systems, which can be useful for motivating the employees to share knowledge. Furthermore, the concept of 'social dilemma' is also relevant to consider, since some scholars [START_REF] Cabrera | Knowledge-sharing Dilemmas[END_REF][START_REF] Kimmerle | The Social Psychology of Knowledge Management[END_REF] argue that knowledge sharing can be considered a social dilemma, because organizational interests conflict with employees' individual interests. Taking a social dilemma perspective, organizations have an interest in making knowledge available for all employees, but from an employee's point-of-view it is a rational choice to hoard knowledge in order to save time, conserve power and thereby remain valuable for organization and reduce the risk of getting fired [START_REF] Cabrera | Knowledge-sharing Dilemmas[END_REF][START_REF] Kimmerle | The Social Psychology of Knowledge Management[END_REF][START_REF] Casimir | Knowledge Sharing: Influences of Trust, Commitment and Cost[END_REF][START_REF] Gammelgaard | Why Are We So Hostile to Sharing Knowledge?[END_REF].

Research method

Based on the above presented literature review, the studies conducted by Paroutis and Al Saleh [START_REF] Paroutis | Determinants of Knowledge Sharing Using Web 2.0 Technologies[END_REF], Kirchner, Razmerita and Sudzina [START_REF] Kirchner | New Forms of Interaction and Knowledge Sharing on Web 2.0[END_REF] and Lin [START_REF] Lin | Knowledge Sharing and Firm Innovation Capability: An Empirical Study[END_REF] were selected for this study, because they provide the most systematic framework of analysis of individual, organizational and technological factors, which affect employees' knowledge sharing through social media.

In order to provide a systematic understanding of the possible factors, which affect employees' knowledge sharing, the identified individual, organizational and technological factors are proposed as a framework, which is illustrated in Fig. 1. Each category has several sub-categories of the identified factors, which are further described in Table 1. The identified factors can be considered as both drivers and barriers, depending on the point of view. For instance, if managers take on a supportive role, the factor can increase the employees' use of social media. And if managers take on a passive role, it becomes a barrier for the employees' knowledge sharing behavior. The factors are described in Table 1 as barriers. Based on the framework illustrated in Fig. 1 an online questionnaire was developed for data collection. The questionnaire was distributed to a number of Danish companies from different industry sectors, which are using one of the social media platforms Chatter, Yammer or Podio for internal communication and knowledge sharing. The majority of the companies are from different industry sectors such as telecommunications, media and marketing, banking and financial services and shipping and logistics.

The survey questionnaire consists of 15 questions. The questions are constructed in a restricted manner in order to get answers, which are specific and related to our research question: Which factors affect employees' knowledge sharing behavior through social media?

The questions relate to employees knowledge sharing behavior and their use and adoption level of social media platforms during work. The first part of the questionnaire focuses on how frequent employees share knowledge, which type of knowledge they share, and which platforms they share it on. Traditional communication channels have also been included as part of the answer options in order to determine the adoption level of the new social media platforms. The second part and the majority of the questionnaire, entails questions, which focus on employee motivation and the drivers and barriers to knowledge sharing. Demographic questions are included in the last part of the questionnaire in order to provide a profile of the participants.

4

Survey results

Adoption and use of social media platforms

Employees play a central role in knowledge sharing and social media can be a facilitator for more effective knowledge sharing to unlock valuable knowledge in organizations. The use and adoption of Chatter, Yammer and Podio was investigated in a number of Danish companies from different industry sectors based on an online questionnaire. In total 114 responses were collected. The majority of the employees, who participated in the survey (63%), are relatively young (between 20-39 years) and only few senior respondents have participated. A profile of the respondents is illustrated in Fig. 2. The participation of female and male respondents is almost 50/50, with only 8% more male respondents. The majority of the respondents (69%) have worked from 1-5 years in their organization, which, most likely, correlates to the majority of the respondents' relatively younger age. All levels of positions are represented in the survey, but it is noteworthy that almost 50% of the respondents are specialists. Specialists are employees, who possess a high level of expert knowledge within a field, which they often are hired for.

The survey results show that 95% of the employees share knowledge with their colleagues. Only 5% are passive and never share their knowledge. Over half of the employees share knowledge frequently: 55% of the employees share knowledge daily and some several times daily. 25% only share knowledge occasionally (weekly) and 15% rarely (monthly), which is illustrated in Table 2.

Table 2. Knowledge sharing frequency

The survey results show that the adoption of social media platforms is limited, at this point. The fact that 95% of the employees actively share knowledge is very positive, but the employees, primarily, share knowledge through email (91%) and face-toface meetings (79%), as illustrated in Table 2. Chat (41%), intranet (27%) and Google Docs (24%) are other frequently used ways to share knowledge in organizations. The survey results show that the adoption of social media platforms is limited, at this point. The fact that 95% of the employees actively share knowledge is very positive, but the employees, primarily, share knowledge through email (91%) and face-to-face meetings (79%), as illustrated in Table 2. Chat (41%), intranet (27%) and Google Docs (24%) are other frequently used ways to share knowledge in organizations.

The social media platforms: Yammer (14%), Podio (13%) and Chatter (14%), still score low compared to traditional communication channels. The usage of wikis also scores 14% and blogs scores as low as 4%, which is illustrated in Table 3. 1 1 The percentages in Table 3 do not sum up to 100% due to a multiple choice question in the questionnaire.

Table 3. Use of traditional communication channels and social media

Social media: The Benefits

The survey shows that the social media platforms are providing benefits and business value, and in particular improve the internal communication (41%), increase knowledge sharing (37%) decrease the amount of emails (35%). Other identified benefits are it is easier: reaching colleagues in other departments (34%), employees get faster response to work related problems (34%) and it is easier to collaborate on projects (30%). The key benefits are presented in Fig. 3. 2These findings are similar to previous research [START_REF] Lin | Knowledge Sharing and Firm Innovation Capability: An Empirical Study[END_REF] that found that technological tools positively affect employees to share knowledge, because it enables faster communication and knowledge sharing.

Knowledge sharing drivers and barriers

The analysis and discussion of the factors, which affect employees' knowledge sharing is based on the framework developed for this study, which was introduced earlier in Figure 1.

The survey shows that the majority of the employees are motivated by intrinsic motivation [START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions[END_REF], which means they are motivated to share knowledge out of altruistic and unselfish reasons, simply, because they feel it is important to help colleagues and provide value to the organization. This is consistent with previous studies [START_REF] Lin | Knowledge Sharing and Firm Innovation Capability: An Empirical Study[END_REF], [START_REF] Wasko | Why Should I Share? Examining Social Capital and Knowledge Contribution In Electronic Networks of Practice[END_REF], which identified similar findings. Only few employees are motivated by extrinsic motivation and monetary rewards, such as a higher salary, a bonus or a promotion. The key knowledge sharing drivers identified in this survey are presented in Fig. 4. 3

Fig. 4. Knowledge sharing drivers

A key finding in this study shows that knowledge sharing may not be a 'social dilemma', as previous studies have found [START_REF] Cabrera | Knowledge-sharing Dilemmas[END_REF][START_REF] Kimmerle | The Social Psychology of Knowledge Management[END_REF]. Organizational interests and the individual employees' interests do not seem to conflict. Not even in times, where many companies are forced to downsize. The survey results show that fear of giving up power and authority (4%) and fear of becoming replaceable (5%) are among the lowest scoring factors. The finding indicates a positive attitude in employees' willingness to share knowledge in organizations and that knowledge sharing is becoming a more integral part of employee's work life. Employees find that it is more beneficial to share knowledge than to hoard it and thereby defy the rationality of 'social dilemma' theory. The key knowledge sharing barriers identified in this study are presented in Fig. 5.4

Fig. 5. Knowledge sharing barriers

This study identifies lack of employees' participation (38%) and lack of management commitment and motivation (34%) as the top two key factors, which affect employees' willingness to share knowledge negatively. The finding emphasizes that motivation and encouragement from management and managers to get employees to adopt social media and share knowledge is closely related. Previous studies have also emphasized the need for management and managers to get actively involved, since the deployment of social media alone does not promote adoption of the platforms and knowledge sharing [START_REF] Paroutis | Determinants of Knowledge Sharing Using Web 2.0 Technologies[END_REF], [START_REF] Kirchner | New Forms of Interaction and Knowledge Sharing on Web 2.0[END_REF], [START_REF] Mcafee | Enterprise 2.0: New Collaborative Tools For Your Organization's Toughest Challenges[END_REF], [START_REF] Stenmark | Web 2.0 in the Business Environment: The New Intranet or a Passing Hype[END_REF].

In general, employees urge management and managers to explain the value and benefits of the social media platforms and to get more involved to motivate and encourage knowledge sharing and adoption of the platforms. This emphasizes the lack of a strategic approach to knowledge management, and the deployment of a 'provide and pray' approach, which according to a recent study conducted by Gartner, is the reason why the majority of social collaboration initiatives fail and only leads to a 10% success rate [START_REF] Gartner | Gartner Says the Vast Majority of Social Collaboration Initiatives Fail Due to Lack of Purpose[END_REF].

Discussion

Social media platforms can be a facilitator for more effective knowledge sharing and collaboration within organizations and thereby make organizations more productive and competitive. Due to the recognition of knowledge as a source of competitive advantage, the purpose of this study is to identify which factors affects employees' knowledge sharing on social media platforms within organizations.

A key finding in the study is that knowledge sharing is not a 'social dilemma' as previous studies [START_REF] Cabrera | Knowledge-sharing Dilemmas[END_REF][START_REF] Kimmerle | The Social Psychology of Knowledge Management[END_REF] have found. The organizational interest in making knowledge available to all employees do not seem to conflict with the employees' individual interest in hoarding knowledge in order to stay valuable and reduce the risk of getting fired. The study shows a positive trend in employees' willingness to share knowledge, because they consider sharing knowledge to be more beneficial than to hoard it, which defies the rationality of 'social dilemma' theory. The study, however, shows that only few employees have adopted social media for knowledge sharing and that employees, primarily, share knowledge through traditional communication channels such as: email and face-to-face meetings. A reason for this seem to be that employees are creatures of habits and prefer their current work routines due to convenience, why it takes time to adopt a new platform in their work routine. Even though the adoption of the platforms is limited, the organizations are still reaping benefits and business value. Overall, social media have enhanced the organizations internal communication, collaboration and knowledge sharing.

Factors affecting knowledge sharing

The survey results show that employees are motivated to contribute and share knowledge by a number of different factors. In general employees feel that knowledge sharing is an integral part of their work and it is important to share knowledge with colleagues and provide value to the organization. The survey shows that the majority of the employees are motivated by so-called 'intrinsic motivation' [START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions[END_REF], which means they are motivated to share knowledge out of altruistic and selfless reasons, because they believe it is important to help colleagues and create value to the organization. This is consistent with previous studies [START_REF] Lin | Knowledge Sharing and Firm Innovation Capability: An Empirical Study[END_REF], [START_REF] Wasko | Why Should I Share? Examining Social Capital and Knowledge Contribution In Electronic Networks of Practice[END_REF], which also identified that recognition from colleagues and managers is a key motivating factor. Only few employees are motivated by so-called 'extrinsic motivation' [START_REF] Deci | Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivations: Classic Definitions and New Directions[END_REF], which entails monetary rewards, such as a higher salary, bonus or promotion. This study also identifies a number of factors, which affect employees' knowledge sharing negatively. Lack of other employees' participation (38%) and lack of management commitment and motivation (34%) are identified as the top two barriers to affect employees' knowledge sharing negatively. The finding emphasizes the need for management and managers to get actively involved to motivate and encourage knowledge sharing. In general, employees urge management and managers to explain the value and benefits of social media platforms, which 19% of the employees see as a barrier to knowledge sharing, as well as to get more involved to motivate and encourage knowledge sharing. To some employees the active participation of management and managers on the social media platform does not seem to be a particularly motivating factor. This, however, seem to be correlated to the fact that knowledge sharing is a part of some of the employee's job description, why this may not be the case for other employees.

Recent reports by Gartner emphasize that lack of a strategy is not the road to become a social business. The vast majority of social collaboration initiatives fail due to lack of purpose and a 'provide and pray' approach, which only leads to a 10 percent success rate [START_REF] Gartner | Gartner Says the Vast Majority of Social Collaboration Initiatives Fail Due to Lack of Purpose[END_REF]. It is crucial that the individual organization get an understanding of their employees and how they work and what their needs are in order for them to opt into a technological and cultural change. In order to become a social business, organizations need to focus on the employees, make a cultural change within the company and make sure management and managers are actively involved [START_REF] Gartner | Gartner Says 80 Percent of Social Business Efforts Will Not Achieve Intended Benefits Through 2015[END_REF].

Among the key factors to affect knowledge sharing negatively, the study identified the following factors: lack of content quality and relevance (26%), information overload (26%), lack of time (24%) and lack of understanding of social media and the benefits it provides (19%) (Fig. 5). It is noteworthy, that lack of content quality and information overload are factors that have been rated as barriers to knowledge sharing on the same level as lack of time.

Lack of content quality (26%) is among the key factors, which concern employees when they share knowledge, since the essence of social media is to share relevant content with colleagues and provide value to the organization. Some employees find it hard to determine, which kind of content they should share and whether it is relevant for their colleagues, which may prevent them from sharing knowledge. On the other hand it prevents some employees from using the platform, due to the irrelevant content. Lack of need, simply, keeps some employees from using the platform, which could be part of the reason for the limited adoption of the social media platforms. This could be correlated to the fact that almost 50% of the respondents are hired as specialists (Fig. 2), who primarily, use other systems, where they find the majority of the content they need during work. This indicates that there is a correlation between the limited adoption of the social media platforms and the type of position and the specific knowledge employees have. This sort of issue could be addressed by a set of social media guidelines, which could help employees by defining what is relevant, which would ensure a higher level of relevance and content quality.

Information overload (26%) is also identified among the key factors, which prevent employees from sharing knowledge. However, Paroutis and Al Saleh [START_REF] Paroutis | Determinants of Knowledge Sharing Using Web 2.0 Technologies[END_REF] argue if, for instance, all relevant content is on the platform, and the 'perceived usefulness' and the benefits of using the platform outweigh the costs, then employees, eventually, will start using it.

Contrary to the findings in a study conducted by Paroutis and Al Saleh [START_REF] Paroutis | Determinants of Knowledge Sharing Using Web 2.0 Technologies[END_REF], this study identifies lack of technical skills (15%) and training (18%) among the lowest scoring barriers to knowledge sharing. Lack of time (24%), however, is a key factor that prevents employees from getting familiar with the platforms. Lack of time seems to be a key factor, which affects participation from management, managers as well as employees negatively. These findings seem to be correlated to the fact that majority of the employees (63%), who participated in this survey, are relatively young (between 20-39 years) and only few senior respondents have participated, why lack of technical skills and training do not seem to be factors, which affect knowledge sharing in this specific case study (Fig. 2). This could, very likely, be linked to the younger generation is more technically skilled due to more frequent use of social media in their private lives.

Another noteworthy finding in this study is that lack of trust does not seem to be a factor, which affects employees' knowledge sharing negatively. Even though many previous studies have identified lack of trust as a key barrier to knowledge sharing, only 6% of the employees find that lack of trust is a barrier. The finding indicates that the employees in the participating companies, simply, know and trust each other relatively well, why trust is not a barrier associated with knowledge sharing in this specific study.

Towards a research model

Our research results can be summarized based on the discussion and analysis of the individual, organizational and technological factors, which are presented in the framework we have proposed in Fig. 1 in this study. The findings identified in this study are presented in a modified framework, which is illustrated in Fig. 6 below.

The original framework, illustrated in Fig. 1, is based on the findings of previous studies, which identified a number of individual, organizational and technological factors, which affect employees' knowledge sharing through social media. The results of this survey have identified a number of key findings, which from the previous studies, which means that some of the factors no longer are considered to affect employees' knowledge sharing as much as previously.

The initial framework in Fig. 1 includes 11 factors, which are, almost equally, divided among the individual, organizational and technological factors. The updated framework is slightly modified from the original version and consists only of 7 key factors that impact the adoption and use of social media. The original framework highlights that individual, organizational and technological factors, almost equally, affect employees' knowledge sharing through social media.

Based on the findings in this study, fewer factors seem to affect employees' knowledge sharing. The organizational factors: management support, knowledge sharing culture, recognition and rewards, and knowledge management resources have the strongest influence on employees' knowledge sharing followed by the individual factors: Motivation and perceived usefulness (cost/benefit). The technological factors do not seem to affect employees' knowledge sharing as much as previous research has found, but it is the influence from a combination of the individual and organizational factors, which determine whether an employee adopts social media for knowledge sharing.

The fact that technological factors do not seem to affect the employees' knowledge sharing in this particular study is most likely very case specific. These findings are very likely correlated to the fact that the majority of the employees (63%), who participated in this survey, are relatively young (between 20-39 years) and only few senior respondents have participated as illustrated in Fig. 2. Why lack of technical skills and training, consequently, do not seem to be factors, which affect knowledge sharing in this specific case. This could, very likely, be linked to the younger generation is more technically skilled due to more frequent use of social media in their private lives.

Conclusion

This study investigates employee's motivation and has attempted to determine which factors affect employees' knowledge sharing through social media in their working environment. The study identifies a number of factors that differ from previous studies, which shows a positive development in employees' knowledge sharing through social media within organizations.

The study shows that organizational factors such as: management support, knowledge sharing culture, recognition and rewards, and knowledge management resources have the strongest influence on employees' knowledge sharing. Furthermore, individual factors and in particular motivation and perceived usefulness (cost/benefit) seem to play an important role. Technological factors including usability (ease of use) functionality and training do not seem to affect employees' knowledge sharing as previous research has found, but it is the influence from the combination of the individual and organizational factors, which determine whether an employee adopts social media platforms for knowledge sharing.

A key finding of this study is that knowledge sharing is not a 'social dilemma' and that employees do not hoard knowledge as much as previously found due to the fact that it is more beneficial to share knowledge than to hoard it. The majority of the employees are motivated by intrinsic motivation, which means they are motivated to share knowledge out of altruistic and unselfish reasons, simply, because they feel it is important to help colleagues and provide value to the organization. Only few employees are motivated by extrinsic motivation and monetary rewards, such as a higher salary, a bonus or a promotion. Employees are more concerned with providing valuable content, since the essence of knowledge sharing trough social media is to provide value to colleagues and the organization.

The survey shows that the social media platforms have improved the companies' internal communication, collaboration and knowledge sharing among the limited group of employees, who have adopted the platforms. The biggest challenge for the organizations seems to be to promote and foster continued adoption of the platforms in order to become a social business and reap more benefits from social media. So far, none of the case companies can be considered to be social businesses, which means integrating social media into all of the organization's business practices and processes in order to build stronger relationships among employees, customers and business partners.

The findings of this study emphasize that a number of factors determine an organization's success of social media adoption. Each organization is unique and has a different structure, culture, number of employees, industry sector and so on. The combination of these factors affects the organization's approach to knowledge man-agement, which will have an influence on whether the adoption of a social media platform will be a success among employees or not.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Factors that affect employees' knowledge sharing behavior.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Respondent profile

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Key benefits from the adoption of social media platforms

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Results: Factors that affect employees' knowledge sharing behavior.

Table 1 .

 1 Knowledge sharing barriers

Table 3 .

 3 Use of traditional communication channels and social media.

The percentages in Fig.

do not sum up to 100% due to a multiple choice question in the questionnaire.

The percentages in Fig.

do not sum up to 100% due to a multiple choice question in the questionnaire.[START_REF] Kiron | Social Business: Shifting Out of First Gear[END_REF] The percentages in Fig.

do not sum up to 100% due to a multiple choice question in the questionnaire.

Acknowledgment

This research is partally supported by CBS Competitiveness Platform.