Michelle Garcia-Vega

Transitive phrasal verbs with the particle out: A lexicon-grammar analysis *

Using a lexicon-grammar approach developed by Maurice Gross (1992), this project involved systematically mapping the structural properties of over 550 transitive phrasal verbs with the particle out, PV out. The data is analyzed in terms of two main tables or matrices. The first table illustrates the morpho-syntactic properties of purely simple PV out expressions, like freak out the kid ↔ freak the kid out. The second table illustrates the morpho-syntactic combinations of complex PV out expressions, as in take the boxer out of the fight. The research shows that PV out expressions may involve up to 25 syntactic features, including N 2 promotion, as in The girl spilled the water out of the glass → The girl spilled the glass out, complex-neutral constructions, like The water spilled out of the glass, and reversed constructions, like The company farmed the oil out of the land →The company farmed the land out of oil. The research shows that these syntactic combinations are highly lexical in that a unique combination of features applies to individual phrasal verbs.

Introduction

Verb particle constructions or phrasal verbs, PV, have long intrigued linguists, since van [START_REF] Van Dongen | He put on his hat and He put his hat on[END_REF], [START_REF] Bolinger | The Phrasal Verb in English[END_REF] and [START_REF] Fraser | The verb-particle combination in English[END_REF], and up to recent times as reflected in the works of Jackendoff (2002) and Dehé (2002). This article builds on recent work on phrasal verbs by [START_REF] Machonis | Compositional phrasal verbs with up: Direction, aspect, intensity[END_REF][START_REF] Machonis | Compositional phrasal verbs with up: Direction, aspect, intensity[END_REF], who uses a lexicon-grammar framework [START_REF] Gross | The argument structure of elementary sentences[END_REF][START_REF]Constructing Lexicon-grammars[END_REF] to provide an extensive description of a full body of language data in order to draw conclusions. We constructed an exhaustive lexicon-grammar of 562 purely transitive phrasal verbs with the particle out, PV out, indicating up to 25 varying syntactic properties and transformations specified by plus or minus signs (cf. sample Tables 1-5 in this article). Even though certain verb classes show some syntactic similarities in our classification, it will be shown, nevertheless, that this information is highly lexical with a unique combination of pluses or minuses applying to individual verbs rather than to broad semantic categories.

In constructing lexicon-grammar tables, we use elementary sentences [START_REF] Gross | The argument structure of elementary sentences[END_REF] of the type subject-verb-particleessential complements, such as N 0 V Part N 1 , where N 0 indicates the subject and N 1 indicates the first complement. All of the PV out expressions analyzed are transitive and can appear in both the continuous and discontinuous order, as in the following examples where the arrow (↔) indicates relative synonymy:

(1) N 0 V N 1 out ↔ N 0 V out N 1 Clowns totally freak Peter out ↔ Clowns totally freak out Peter 1

In contrast to intrinsically simple expressions like (1) above, some of these PV out constructions can also be analyzed as complex expressions. These introduce a second complement indicated by N 2, representing longer prepositional phrases generally by out of, signified as N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 . While simple PV out constructions may appear in both the continuous and discontinuous form, complex expressions can only appear in the discontinuous form.

(2) N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 ↔ *N 0 V N 1 N 2 out of Katie took the booties out of the basket ↔ *Katie took the booties the basket out of All the complex constructions examined, however, have the possibility of being reduced to simple PV out phrases, in which case the particle can be moved.

(3) N 0 V out N 1 ↔ N 0 V N 1 out

Katie took out the booties ↔ Katie took the booties out

In our lexicon grammar tables, subjects and complements were analyzed as simple NPs entailing the properties of human (Nhum) and non-human (N-hum) indicated by a plus or minus value in the appropriate column. The meaning of the PV was also included in the table under synonym. The data of 562 PV out expressions 2 was divided into two tables: (1) simple PV out expressions of the form N 0 V N 1 out, consisting of 201 constructions, and (2) complex PV out expressions, of the forms N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 , N 0 V N 1 out N 2 , and N 0 V N 1 out Prep N 2 -all of which can be reduced to the simple form, consisting of 361 constructions. The tables (c.f. sample tables 1-5) include morphological information on the nature of the subject and possible complements, as well as the subset of related sentences and transformations in the sense of [START_REF] Harris | Introduction to Transformations[END_REF].

Simple PV out

Section 2 briefly discusses the disambiguation and compositional status of PV out expressions. In section 2.1, it will be shown that much of the compositional status of PV out expressions is highly contextual. Section 2.2 presents the variety of transformations intrinsically simple PV out expressions exhibit showing that a unique set of features (plus or minus) apply to each phrasal verb and that this data is highly lexical and cannot be generalized based solely on semantic categories. Section 2.3 presents a sample table of the data. [START_REF] Bolinger | The Phrasal Verb in English[END_REF] was among the first to recognize that particles can contribute an aspectual or intensifying sense to regular verbs. Others have analyzed the compositional status of PV expressions as a semantic continuum ranging from fully transparent to fully idiomatic [START_REF] Bolinger | The Phrasal Verb in English[END_REF][START_REF] Fraser | The verb-particle combination in English[END_REF], Dehe and Jackendoff 2002[START_REF] Baldwin | The Semantics of Verb-particles: A Basic Literature Review[END_REF]. While such analyses provide a more comprehensive view of the verb particle combination, compositionality in a lexicongrammar framework entails simply two distinct semantic classes defined by the column, N 0 V N 1 , which indicates relative synonymy with N 0 V N 1 out [START_REF] Machonis | Compositional phrasal verbs with up: Direction, aspect, intensity[END_REF]. The following examples, where the particle out is an optional element, seem to imply some type of aspectual or intensifying interpretation to the simple verb and are thereby viewed as compositional.

Semantic Compositionality of Simple PV out

(4) N 0 V N 1 ↔ N 0 V N 1 out a. Classical music mellows Max ↔ Classical music mellows Max out b. The boxer punched the opponent ↔ The boxer punched the opponent out A plus [+] in the column N 0 V N 1 serves to distinguish compositionally transparent PV out from idiomatic PV out expressions. 3 In 92 of the 200 simple PV out entries examined, the particle can be deleted showing that almost half of these expressions are compositional. On the other hand, a negative value in the N 0 V N 1 column indicates the particle is an essential element of the verb phrase illustrating a more idiomatic PV construction. Idiomatic PV's, such as (5), are those that cannot delete the particle without causing a significant change in meaning and thus must be listed in the lexicon as complete units (Jackendoff 2002). 4 The (≠) means the expressions are not synonymous.

(5 In these examples although the N 0 V N 1 column forms an acceptable expression, as in The gangster took the boy meaning literally 'to take', they do not mean the same as the idiomatic verb plus particle combination The gangster took the boy out 5 meaning 'to kill'. The particle is as an essential component to the construction and the PV expression is consequently non-compositional.

) N 0 V N 1 ≠ N 0 V N 1 out a.
Deleting the particle in other idiomatic PV's can sometimes result in an unacceptable *N 0 V N 1 expression altogether, as in (6).

(6) *N 0 V N 1 → N 0 V N 1 out a. *Talented journalists will knock a story → Talented journalists will knock a story out The unacceptability of the single verb construction, *N 0 V N 1 , above is attributed to the arguments of the verb, as it does not allow *to knock a story or *to get your feelings. When the particle is added to the construction, it allows the verb to introduce complements that it would not typically take, or as [START_REF] Ishikawa | English verb-particle constructions and a V0-internal structure[END_REF] notes, it allows for unusual selectional properties, as in to knock a story out and to get your feelings out. [START_REF] Machonis | Compositional phrasal verbs with up: Direction, aspect, intensity[END_REF] observes that many of these expressions can be disambiguated by specifying more precisely the type of arguments the verbs may take. For instance, the following two expressions yield semantically different interpretations solely because of the difference in verbal complements, where in this case distinguishing between the literal and idiomatic expression can be disambiguated by the [+/-hum] feature.

(7) a. The boxer will knock the fighter out While the verb phrase under the literal interpretation (7a) selects its usual complement, the verb phrase in (7b) selects an atypical complement and is therefore idiomatic. Other examples show that disambiguating PV out expressions can go beyond specifying the argument of the verb and the [+/-hum] feature, thereby indicating that much of this information is intrinsically pragmatic. (8) and (9) show that the direct object of the verb does not distinguish the literal from the idiomatic expression.

Examples (8a-b) and (9a) can be analyzed as complex PV expressions that introduce an implicit or explicit second complement, N 2 , into the construction that can be analyzed as a locative particle. When this longer expression is made explicit, it serves as a distinguishing factor between its idiomatic counterparts, examples (8c) and (9b). For this reason, disambiguating these examples requires that the particle be specified according to the interpretation it conveys, i.e. whether it forms a complex expression indicating an implicit (or explicit) prepositional phrase, or whether it forms a simple PV expression of the aspectual type. Furthermore, when the longer expression in the complex PV construction is not explicit, disambiguating between these expressions is solely pragmatic, whereas when the longer expression is made explicit disambiguation between the two lexical entries requires distinguishing the particles of and to of the prepositional phrase as in (8a-b). These expressions were disambiguated in the lexicon-grammar by entering examples (8a-b) and (9a) in the complex PV out chart as separate entries and examples (8c) and (9b) in the simple PV out chart.

Simple PV out: The Neutral Construction

Simple transitive PV outs exhibit the causative alternation [START_REF] Levin | English Verb Classes and Alternations: A Preliminary Investigation[END_REF] or the neutral construction (Boons, Guillet, & Leclѐre 1976) in 85 of the 200 entries examined. The causative alternation or neutral construction is a process in which transitive PV out undergoes an intransitive transformation. In the process of intransitivizing, the N 1 rises and takes the subject position and the N 0 is explicitly omitted from the construction, yielding the following derivation:

(10) N 0 V N 1 out → N 1 V out a.
The chef rolled the dough out → The dough rolled out b. The couple aired their problems out → Their problems aired out c. The accountant balanced the checkbook out → The checkbook balanced out Some of these verbs are fully compositional, N 0 V N 1 ↔ N 0 V N 1 out, and also exhibit the neutral construction with or without the presence of the particle, N 1 V ↔ N 1 V out, showing that the particle is an optional element in the neutral structure. This combination is indicated in the lexicon-grammar tables by a [+] in all of the following columns, as we can see for spread out in (11).

(11) a. N 0 V N 1

The doctor spread the patient's legs b. N 0 V N 1 out The doctor spread the patient's legs out c. N 1 V

The patient's legs spread d. N 1 V out The patient's legs spread out

Other PV out expressions only exhibit the neutral structure when the particle is part of the construction and deleting the particle in the neutral structure will render the expression unacceptable. Out of the 85 PV out expressions that exhibit the causative alternation, 60 or 70% of them require that the particle be an essential component to the transformation. This feature is demonstrated in the lexicon-grammar The dough rolled out Not all the verbs that are fully compositional undergo the causative transformation; thus, there are some verbs which display full compositionality but do not undergo the derivation, like (13).

(13) a. N 0 V N 1

The professor argued the situation The athlete wears out

This morpho-syntactic behavior can also depend on the arguments of the verb, as changing the complements can cause a change in the acceptable structural combinations the construction may undergo. This is seen in (16c) where the particle seems to be essential for the causative alternation to occur, while in (15c) it is not.

Expressions can even fall under the same semantic category and exhibit different syntactic combinatorial properties.

The following examples, where the arguments are constant, demonstrate that while the PV out expressions all mean 'to exhaust', they each exhibit a unique set of syntactic combinations. There is one combination of acceptable structures, however, that is unattested in our PV out tables. If the single verb expression is unacceptable *N 0 V N 1 , and it cannot undergo the neutral construction with the particle *N 1 V out, then it also cannot undergo the neutral construction without the particle. Thus the following combinatory possibility does not seem to exist for PV out:

7 (20) a. *N 0 V N 1 b. N 0 V N 1 out c. N 1 V d. *N 1 V out
If the single verb expression is unacceptable *N 0 V N 1 , and it cannot undergo the neutral construction with the particle *N 1 V out, then it cannot undergo the neutral construction without the particle *N 1 V; thus, it must also have a [-] value under N 1 V, as in (20) above.

Simple PV out: The lexicon-grammar table

Table 1 is a sample lexicon-grammar of the purely simple PV out constructions. The first two columns represent potential subjects, N 0 , which are specified for human, Nhum, or non-human, N-hum, followed by a verb and an example of a direct object, N 1 , which is also classified as Nhum or N-hum. The next column, N 0 V N 1 , indicates the compositional status of the phrasal verb as defined by a lexicon-grammar approach. A [+] value under this column indicates the particle is optional, whereas a [-] value indicates the particle is an essential component to the construction and must therefore be lexically listed as an idiomatic expression. Following this row is the N 1 V out column, where a [+] indicates the PV expression can undergo the causative alternation. Finally, the N 1 V column demonstrates if the particle is a necessary component for the causative transformation. This row is then followed by the particle out and a synonym.

Table 1

Sample matrix of Simple PV out At times the particle is necessary for the neutral construction to occur, while in other cases it is not, while still in others the verb does not exhibit the neutral construction at all. The variety of pluses and minuses shows that neither the compositional nature nor the semantic category of the PV expression can be used to predict its syntactic behavior.

N 0 =: Nhum N 0 =: N-hum Verb Example of N 1 N 1 =: Nhum N 1 =: N-hum N 0 V N 1 N 1 V out N 1 V Particle Synonym + - deck the room + + + - -

Complex Constructions

The majority of the data consisting of 361 PV out entries are analyzed in the Complex PV out table. Complex PV out constructions are those which the particle can be analyzed as a locative or prepositional expression that introduces a second complement, N 2 , generally by means of the prepositional phrase out of . When complex PV out appears in its simple form, N 0 V N 1 out, the N 2 complement seems to be an intrinsic property of the locative particle. For instance, the simple expression The man scrubbed the gunk out intrinsically entails that he scrubbed the gunk out of something, and thereby gives rise to the more complex expression The man scrubbed the gunk out of the tub. When the second complement, N 2 phrase, is an implicit part of the phrasal verb expression, the construction appears in its simple (continuous or discontinuous) form, N 0 V out N 1 ↔ N 0 V N 1 out, but when made explicit, it appears in the more complex structure, N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 appearing only in the discontinuous form. The following sections demonstrate the variety of complex structures transitive PV out's exhibit.

Complex PV out:

The nature and limits of the locative particle

Complex PV out introduce a longer (implicit or explicit) locative phrase into the construction. [START_REF] Machonis | Compositional phrasal verbs with up: Direction, aspect, intensity[END_REF] tests whether the particle can be analyzed as contributing a locative interpretation by replacing the particle with a full prepositional phrase, represented as Prep N 2 , where Prep indicates an appropriate directional preposition. A positive value under the column labeled N 0 V N 1 Prep N 2 indicates that the particle may be derived from a locative prepositional phrase, such as (21). These examples show that replacing the particle with a full PP entails that the particle is intrinsically locative. The lexicon-grammar tables demonstrate that the nature of the locative phrase is semantically and syntactically varied and complex. First of all, it is not always the case that locative out can be replaced by a full prepositional phrase.

(

) N 0 V N 1 Prep N 2 ≠ N 0 V N 1 out a. * 22
The manager punched the employee from work → The manager punched the employee out of work 8

In example (22a) the locative particle cannot be replaced by a full PP; however, it still forms a locative expression. Such examples are indicated with a plus value under the column N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 , but a minus under N 0 V N 1 Prep N 2 in the lexicon grammar table.

Secondly, only two types of locative constructions were accepted in the analysis of complex PV out phrases, i.e. directional and spatial expressions. Jackendoff (2002) defines directional particles as full prepositional phrases that can replace the particle (as illustrated in (21a-d)) and select a directional path as its complement. [START_REF] Ishikawa | English verb-particle constructions and a V0-internal structure[END_REF] defines spatial particles as those which can be replaced by a full PP indicating a spatial relation rather than a directional one, as in (23). Both directional and spatial locative phrases were accepted as comprising a complex PV out construction. In contrast, metaphorical particle expressions (Dirven 1997[START_REF] Baldwin | The Semantics of Verb-particles: A Basic Literature Review[END_REF] were excluded from the analysis and the phrasal verb was inputted into the simple PV out table to be interpreted as an aspectual modifier, as in (24).

(

) N 0 V N 1 Prep N 2 → N 0 V N 1 out 24
a. Jenny had to blot the entire experience from her mind → Jenny had to blot the experience out b. Ty picked a name out of his head → Ty picked a name out c. The students wiped the teacher out of energy → The students wiped the teacher out Once again, there may be more than one entry in the lexicon for a phrasal verb. These separate entries serve to disambiguate lexically similar PV's by inserting one in the complex PV out table for the literal expression to pick a shirt out of the rack and one in the simple PV out table for the less transparent interpretation to pick a name out.

The complex PV out lexicon-grammar charts so far describe a range of structures entailing a variety of relationships. First, the locative or spatio-directional particle out can be optionally deleted and the expression is analyzed as compositional, indicated with a plus under the column N 0 V N 1 , while idiomatic PV out expressions have a negative value under N 0 V N 1 .

( The variety and unpredictability of these expressions is not based on its semantic categorization alone.

The prepositional phrase out of constructions

Transitive PV out expressions in the discontinuous form can also appear in a variety of longer structures when the second complement, N 2 , is an explicit part of the construction, representing prepositional phrasal verb expressions.

The most common complex PV out expression, comprising 85% of the data, introduces the second complement as an out of N 2 phrase, represented with a plus in the N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 column. Likewise, there will be exceptions to the out of N 2 phrase indicating that this is not necessarily a property of all locative PV out expressions. Unacceptable *N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 comprise 55 of the 361 entries examined. The tables show that in this form the longer phrase is associated with prepositions, such as to N 2 , around N 2 , and on N 2 , in contrast to the out of N 2 constructions which are closely associated with a from N 2 prepositional phrase (compare columns N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 with N 0 V N 1 Prep N 2 in Table 2). In addition, most of these verbs are dative, as in (29a-b), and also include hand out, deal out, and email out, all of which reject the out of N 2 construction.

The complex out N 2 construction

Another longer construction appears with the N 2 itself surfacing directly following the particle, represented as N 0 V N 1 out N 2 . As observed in the lexicon grammar tables, the out N 2 phrase essentially indicates a literal spatio-directional phrase, as in the following examples: The acceptability of the N 0 V N 1 out N 2 construction seems to not only be dependent on the meaning of the PV but also on the nature of the N 2 complement. If a construction was possible with any N 2 , we marked it plus, however syntactic variation resulting from differing N 2 's is a topic for further research.

The complex out Prep N 2 construction

The second most common locative structure, besides the out of N 2 phrase, introduces the second complement N 2 conjoined with out plus a prepositional phrase commonly observed as from N 2 but also includes to N 2 , at N 2 , for N 2 , on N 2 , and through N 2 . The Prep N 2 phrase usually introduces a longer locative or spatio-directional phrase; the nonlocative or non-spatio-directional type was disregarded. This complex construction is represented with a plus under the column labeled N 0 V N 1 out Prep N 2 where Prep indicates a spatial or directional PP. The tables show expressions that reveal both acceptable and unacceptable N 0 V N 1 out Prep N 2 indicated by a plus or minus value under this column. Because of its close relationship to the out of N 2 phrase, this construction comprises 80% of the data. The column is challenging to fill out as differing opinions accept or reject some of these expressions.

Table 2 shows the various complex constructions discussed so far. The first two columns represent the potential human and non-human properties of the subject followed by the verb and an example of the N 1 also indicating the human/non-human dichotomy. After this, there is the particle out and an example of a possible preposition. The N 0 V N 1 Prep N 2 column indicates whether the particle can be replaced by a full PP. The next three columns show the various complex constructions, namely, the most common N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 phrase, the N 0 V N 1 out Prep N 2 phrase, and the less common N 0 V N 1 out N 2 phrase discussed above, followed by an example of the N 2 marked for the properties human and non-human.

Complex Constructions: Other transformations

Along with transformations like the neutral construction or the causative alternation, which we already observed with the simple PV out, complex PV out expressions can also undergo a variety of transformations, such as N 2 promotion, reversed constructions and complex neutral structures. Section 4 is dedicated to the variety of transformations complex transitive PV out constructions exhibit in the sense of [START_REF] Harris | Introduction to Transformations[END_REF].

N 2 Promotion

Complex PV out structures at times appear in its simple form with the N 2 , the second complement, in the direct object N 1 position and the N 1 complement becomes implicit or omitted altogether yielding the relationship N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 → N 0 V N 2 out, which we refer to as N 2 promotion. The new expression, which promotes the original N 2 into the N 1 position, appears to become a simple verb phrase indicated with a plus under the column N 0 V N 2 out. In this form the new expression, derived from the longer prepositional phrase, is reanalyzed as an aspectual modifier appearing once again in both the continuous and discontinuous forms, like (35) and (36).

(

) N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 → N 0 V N 2 out ↔ N 0 V N 2 out 35
a. The man scrubbed the gunk out of the tub → The man scrubbed the tub out ↔ The man scrubbed out the tub This construction can also be derived from any one of the longer The promotion of the second complement to the N 1 position constitutes 116 of the 361 entries or 32% of the complex expressions. After this transformation, the number of the purely simple PV out expressions increases from 200 to 316 constructions representing 56% of the entire corpus. 11 The column labeled N 0 V N 2 out in the complex PV out table shows that the particle, which once stood for a complex phrase N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 , comprises part of a simple expression of the aspectual type in the form of N 0 V N 2 out. This column implies that 37% of purely simple PV out constructions entail some kind of intrinsically implicit N 1 phrase.

N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 , N 0 V N 1 out N 2 , or N 0 V N 1 out Prep N 2 structures. (

Reversed Constructions

The structure previously described as N 2 promotion at times can introduce the N 1 back into the expression in the position where the N 2 originated exhibiting a reversed order as in N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 → N 0 V N 2 out of N 1 . This N 1 and N 2 inversion, comprising 30 of the complex expressions, is also a characteristic of the other longer forms, i.e. the N 0 V N 2 out N 1 and N 0 V N 2 out Prep N 1 phrases described below.

Reversed constructions appear as inverted forms of the N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 phrase giving rise to the new expression N 0 V N 2 out of N 1 indicated by a positive value under the appropriate column, where the ↔ indicates a relationship between the two structures that is not necessarily synonymous, for example (39).

(

) N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 ↔ N 0 V N 2 out 39

Reversed constructions derived from dative verbs

Another type of reversed construction is derived from the N 0 V N 1 Prep N 2 and N 0 V N 1 out Prep N 2 forms appearing as N 0 V N 2 out N 1 , in which the of and Prep is omitted in the inversion. This new structure is derived from dative verbs as it is the object of the PP that is moving into the N 1 position. This structure is illustrated in the following examples indicated with a plus sign under the column N 0 V N 2 out N 1 in the lexicon-grammar table 12 :

(41) N 0 V N 2 out N 1 a. Ty dealt the cards to the players ↔ Ty dealt the players out the cards b. The teacher handed some papers out to the students ↔ The teacher handed the students out some papers c. Evan gave his number out to some girls ↔ Evan gave some girls out his number d. The employee rents movies out to customers ↔ The employee rents customers out movies These examples show that dative verbs, like make 13 , send, print, pour, hand, pass, give, and rent commonly followed by a Prep N 2 phrase, undergo the reversed order. Prior to the inversion the expression can appear in both continuous and discontinuous forms (The teacher handed some papers out to the students ↔ The teacher handed out some papers to the students), but can no longer do so after the inversion (*The teacher handed out the students some papers). Regular transitive verbs do not accept this particular inverted construction, marked with a minus under In Table 3 the columns following the preposition illustrate the acceptable N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 , N 0 V N 1 out N 2 and N 0 V N 1 out Prep N 2 followed by an example of the N 2 marked for human and nonhuman features. The N 0 V N 2 out column, discussed in 4.1, shows the constructions which can promote the N 2 to the N 1 position reappearing in its simple form, and the N 0 V N 2 column reveals the compositionality of the new expression. Following this column are the reversed structures, N 0 V N 2 out of N 1 , N 0 V N 2 out N 1 and N 0 V N 2 out Prep N 1 . Ultimately all expressions have the property of appearing in the simple continuous and discontinuous forms N 0 V N 1 out ↔ N 0 V out N 1 by deleting the N 2 PP following the verb.

N 0 V N 2 out N 1 . (42) N 0 V N 1 out N 2 ↔ *N 0 V N 2 out
The construction is also prone to the longer complex version:

(44) N 1 V out from N 2 a. The water spilled out from the glass Moreover, this complex neutral construction can yield a new expression of the form N1 V out N2.

(45) N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 → N 1 V out N 2 a. The water spilled out the glass However, in these cases it cannot appear in both the continuous and discontinuous order.

(46) a. *The water spilled the glass out 14

The column labeled N 1 V Prep N 2 shows whether the particle can be replaced by a PP in the neutral form. The chemicals squirted out of the hole c. N 1 V out Prep N 2

The chemicals squirted out from the hole d. N 1 V out N 2

The chemicals squirted out the hole e. N 1 V Prep N 2

The chemicals squirted from the hole *The nail screws from the wood Employing [START_REF] Levin | English Verb Classes and Alternations: A Preliminary Investigation[END_REF] 55), but by changing the argument more suitable to the expression reveals a higher degree of combinatorial similarities, as in (56)-( 57). This information is unpredictable based on general semantic classes, (49)-( 56), nor the meaning of the PV as demonstrated by (57)-(58). Many of these expressions can be disambiguated by distinguishing between the purely simple form and the (implicit or explicit) prepositional phrasal form, (57), while others can only be disambiguated by the nature of its prepositional complement or context (60).

Reversed-neutral Constructions

In addition to the complex neutral structures, in some cases the second complement, N 2 , may even rise to the subject position of the sentence, exhibiting structures similar to [START_REF] Salkoff | Bees are swarming in the garden: A Systematic Synchronic Study of Productivity[END_REF] 'swarm alternation' in what we refer to as the reversed-neutral construction. In other words, the original N 2 complement appears in the N 0 subject position indicated with a plus under N 2 V out N 1 . This new expression can then once again appear in both the continuous and discontinuous order. There can also be a significant change in meaning between the constructions, as 'The store rents movies out' implies that there are movies available for renting, whereas 'The store rents out of movies' implies that there are none left.

Table 4 illustrates some of the PV out expressions that exhibit the complex neutral and reversed-neutral structures.

Following the example of an N 2 phrase, we see the most common complex neutral constructions of the N 1 V out of N 2 form, and then the slightly less common N 1 V out Prep N 2 . The next structure is the less complex N 1 V out N 2 , followed by N 1 V Prep N 2 which shows whether the particle can be replaced by a full PP in the neutral order. Finally the columns N 2 V out N 1 and N 2 V out of N 1 illustrate the variety of reversed-neutral constructions.

Conclusions

Table 5 illustrates the complete set of structural combinations of complex PV out analyzed in this article.

Table 5

Sample matrix of complex transitive phrasal verbs with the particle out

As we can see, each phrasal verb expression exhibits a range of various properties. While some properties can be attributed to verb class, verb complements, stress and intonation, and pragmatics, our lexicon-grammar analysis demonstrates that this information is highly lexical, in that unique combinations of pluses or minuses in the matrix apply to individual verbs. Although some of these judgments might vary from dialect to dialect, Table 6 demonstrates the relative frequency of the various structures studied in this article.

  gangster took the boy out (of the fight) 'withdraw/ remove' b. The gangster took the boy out (to the fight) 'take to a social event' c. The gangster took the boy out boss punched the employee out (of work) 'record end work time' b. The boss punched the employee out 'render unconscious'

  The professor argued the situation out c. *N 1 V *The situation argued d. *N 1 V out *The situation argued out Then, there are cases in which the phrasal verb is non-compositional and does not undergo the causative alternation, as in (The professor talked the situation out c. *N 1 V *The situation talked d. *N 1 V out *The situation talked out But there are also cases in which the phrasal verb is non-compositional, *N 0 V N 1 , but can undergo the causative alternation with or without the particle making the particle an optional element in the transformation, even though it is an essential component to the transitive construction, as in (15). (15) a. *N 0 V N 1 *High speed racing wears the tires 'exhaust' b. N 0 V N 1 out High speed racing wears the tires out c. N 1 V The tires wear d. N 1 V out The tires wear out Other idiomatic expressions can undergo the causative alternation only if the particle is present, such as (The trainer wears the athlete out c. *N 1 V *The athlete wears d. N 1 V out

  The trainer wiped the athlete out c. *N 1 V *The athlete wiped d. *N 1 V out *The athlete wiped out 6 The trainer burned the athlete out c. *N 1 V *The athlete burned d. N 1 V out The athlete burned out These examples demonstrate that the unique set of features PV out expressions exhibit cannot be predicted solely on the general semantic interpretation, as examples (15)-(19) all mean 'to exhaust' and behave syntactically distinct.

  squirts water through the hole → Max squirts water out b. The kids tossed the ball from the window → The kids tossed the ball out c. The girl was dragging the garbage from the house → The girl was dragging the garbage out d. The clumsy boy spilled the water from the bucket → The clumsy boy spilled the water out

  parent blocked sensitive material from the internet → The parent blocked the sensitive material out b. The gardener bedded the plants around the garden → The gardener bedded the plants out c. The team beat their opponents from the competition → The team beat their opponents out

  woman whipped out the bill ↔ The woman whipped the bill out → The woman whipped the bill out of her bag b. Manny washed out the stain ↔ Manny washed the stain out → Manny washed the stain out of the shirt c. Lily picked out a dress ↔ Lily picked a dress out → Lily picked a dress out of the rack d. The teacher flunked out the boy ↔ The teacher flunked the boy out → The teacher flunked the boy out of school

  gave joy to the students → Martha gave joy out → *Martha gave joy out of the students b. Katie put the flowers on the table → Katie put the flowers out → *Katie put the flowers out of the table c. We bedded the plants around the garden → We bedded the plants out → *We bedded the plants out of the garden

  Max squirted out the water ↔ Max squirted the water out → Max squirted the water out the hole b. The kid is tossing out the ball ↔ The kid is tossing the ball out → The kid is tossing the ball out the window c. The student wheeled out the keg ↔ The student wheeled the keg out → The student wheeled the keg out the door d. The house belched out smoke ↔ The house belched smoke out → The house belched smoke out the chimney This structure is not very common appearing in 43 of 361 or 12% of the complex phrases and seems to be dependent on the type of N 2 complement that follows the particle. For instance, while examples (30a-d) above are acceptable constructions, changing the N 2 in these examples can yield unacceptable expressions, such as (squirted water out the tube b. *The kid is tossing the ball out the court c. *The student wheeled the keg out the tub d. *The house belched smoke out the doors

  The students wheeled the keg out through the door b. Manny washed the stain out from the shirt c. Police officers blocked people out from the parade There are exceptions to this construction as well. For example, some constructions do not sound so natural yielding unacceptable, or at least awkward, sentence forms as in examples (showed her uncle out from the house b. ?*Teens were booming music out from the window c. *The detective sniffed the details out from the crime Additionally, unlike the out N 2 and the out of N 2 construction in which the PV must appear in the discontinuous form in order to introduce the N 2 into the structure (i.e *The kid tossed out the ball the window and *The reporter yelled out his name of the car), this is not the case with the out Prep N 2 phrase. The out Prep N 2 construction can appear in both the continuous and the discontinuous form. 10 students wheeled out the keg through the door b. Manny washed out the stain from the shirt c. ?Police officers blocked out the people from the parade

  The girl spilled the water out of the glass → The girl spilled the glass out ↔ The girl spilled out the glass b. Exterminators smoke rats out the house → Exterminators smoke the house out ↔ Exterminators smoke out the house c. Manny washed stains out from the shirt → Manny washed the shirt out ↔ Manny washed out the shirt However, N 2 promotion is not a property of all complex phrasal verb expressions. Unacceptable expressions are marked by a minus value under the column N 0 V N 2 out, for instance: parents left Dustin out of the plan → *His parents left the plan out b. The government flushed the terrorists out of the country → *The government flushed the country out c. Denise got her girlfriend out of jail → *Denise got jail out A positive value under the N 0 V N 2 column denotes that the new structure is compositional, example (38a), while a negative shows that it is not, (38b). (38) N 0 V N 2 out ↔ N 0 V N 2 a. The girl spilled the water out of the glass → The girl spilled the glass out ↔ The girl spilled the glass b. The runner wore the rubber out of his shoes → The runner wore out the shoes ↔ *The runner wore the shoes

of N 1 a.

 1 The workers mined the coal out of the cave ↔ The workers mined the cave out of coal b. The company farmed oil out of the land ↔ The company farmed the land out of oil c. The scientist filtered chemicals out of the water ↔ The scientist filtered the water out of chemicals d. Max squirted the paste out of the tube ↔ Max squirted the tube out of paste As the lexicon-grammar tables illustrate, not all of the N 2 promotions can be reanalyzed as reversed constructions, indicated with a negative value in N 0 V N 2 out of N 1, as in (terminator hosed the rats out of the house ↔ *The terminator hosed the house out of the rats b. The cleaner shook the dirt out of the rug ↔ *The cleaner shook the rug out of dirt c. Alex sanded the stains out of the wood ↔ *Alex sanded the wood out of stains d. The therapist rubbed the pain out of my shoulder ↔ *The therapist rubbed my shoulder out of pain

N 1 a.

 1 The pool guy pumped the water out of the pool ↔ *The pool guy pumped the pool out water b. The massage therapist rubbed the pain out of my leg ↔ *The massage therapist rubbed my leg out pain c. The exterminator hosed the rats out of the house ↔ *The exterminator hosed the house out rats

  water spilled out the glass → The water spilled from the glass The particle cannot be substituted by a PP in all cases. umpire struck the player out of the game b. The player struck out of the game → *The player struck from the game Altogether we get the following six possible combinations of neutral structures from simple to complex expressions, as in (49) and (50). (49) The scientist squirted chemicals out the hole → a. N 1 V out The chemicals squirted out b. N 1 V out of N 2

( 50 )

 50 The band was booming the music out the window → a. N 1 V out Music was booming out b. N 1 V out of N 2 Music was booming out of the window c. N 1 V out Prep N 2 Music was booming out through the window d. N 1 V out N 2 Music was booming out the window e. N 1 V Prep N 2 Music was booming through the window While some expressions exhibit each one of these longer structures as in (49) and (50), not all the phrasal verb expressions that undergo neutrality display each combination, as in examples (51) -(60). (51) The carpenter screws the nail out of the wood → a. N 1 V out The nail screws out b. N 1 V out of N 2 The nail screws out of the wood c. *N 1 V out Prep N 2 *The nail screws out from the wood d. *N 1 V out N 2 *The nail screws out the wood 15 e. *N 1 V Prep N 2

  rolled the chair out of the house 17 a. The company rolled the products out of the factory b. The chair rolled out b. The products rolled out c. The chair rolled out of the house c. The products rolled out of the factory d. ?The chair rolled out the house d. ?The products rolled out the factory e. *The chair rolled from the house e. *The products rolled from the factory But changing the phrasal verb yet not the meaning or the arguments can yield radically different acceptable constructions, as seen by comparing the literal PV roll out the chair with the semantically similar expression wheel out the chair. (58) a. Max wheeled the chair out of the house b. *The chair wheeled out c. *The chair wheeled out of the house d. *The chair wheeled out the house e. *The chair wheeled from the house The direct object of the verb can be responsible for the possible combinatorial properties of each expression, like (59). (59) a. Max printed his name out (on the paper) → *His name printed out (on the paper) write in print b. Max printed the papers out (of the computer) → The papers printed out (of the computer) print from computer In other expressions it is the arguments of the prepositional phrase that serve to disambiguate expressions and govern the acceptability of possible transformations. In these examples unless the prepositional phrase is made explicit, disambiguation is purely contextual, as in (60). (60) a. The pitcher struck Max out of the list → *Max struck out of the list erase b. The pitcher struck Max out of the game → Max struck out of the game strike out in baseball In sum, examples (52)-(53) demonstrate how morpho-syntactic similarity can be seen in general semantic categories illustrated with the verbs of sound emission. However, these examples show that only a few sound emission verbs display similar combinatorial features. Other broad semantic classes demonstrated more varied structural combinations as in (54)-(

  The kids squirted water out of the gun → The gun squirted out water ↔ The gun squirted water out b. Max prints papers out of the computer → The computer prints out papers ↔ The computer prints papers out c. The couple rents out movies from the store → The store rents out movies ↔ The store rents movies out d. The business churns clothes out of the factory → The factory churns out clothes ↔ The factory churns clothes out e. The government pumps money out of banks → Banks pump out money ↔ Banks pump money outIn few cases reversed-neutral structures may even appear as longer complex constructions in which the N 1 appears as part of a longer locative phrase, as in (store rents out of movies b. The streets cleared out of people 18 c. ?The water filters out of chemicals d. ?The gun squirted out of water e. ?The tube squeezes out of jelly

  The gangsters took the boy ≠ The gangsters took the boy out

	'kill'

b. The mischievous students burn the professor ≠ The mischievous students burn the professor out 'exhaust'

1 V out

			table with a [-] under the column N 1 V but [+]
	under the column N 1 V out, as in roll out in (12).
	(12)
	a. N 0 V N 1	The chef rolled the dough	'flatten by rolling'
	b. N 0 V N 1 out The chef rolled the dough out
	c. *N 1 V	*The dough rolled
	d. N

0 V N 1 Prep N 2

  illustrates that the PV is fully compositional, example (25b) shows that although an idiomatic expression, the particle can still be analyzed as locative, i.e. Max casted Katie out of the group, showing that the construction is partially compositional. Furthermore, some of these partially compositional expressions can still have the particle replaced by a full PP, shown by a minus in the N 0 V N 1 column but a plus under N

	)
		a. Max squirts the water	↔	Max squirts the water out (of his mouth)	'squirt'
		b. *Max casted Katie	↔	Max casted Katie out (of the group)	'exclude'
	While example (25a) , for
	instance:
	(26)	*Max casted Katie → Max casted Katie from the group 'exclude'
	However, other idiomatic expressions cannot, illustrated with a negative under both columns, N 0 V N 1 and N 0 V N 1
	Prep N2, such as:
	(27)

*Max left Katie 9 → *Max left Katie from the plan 'exclude' Examples (26) and (27) highlight how two semantically similar phrasal verbs can have a distinct syntactic behavior.

  verb classes, some expressions seem to reveal similar combinatorial properties with some slight variations based on general semantic classes, as shown by the following verbs of sound emission. The musicians were blasting / booming / blaring music out of the house b. Music was blasting / booming / blaring out c. Music was blasting / booming / blaring out of the house d. Music was ?blasting / ?booming / ?blaring out the house e. Music was blasting / booming / blaring from the house These examples, however, comprise a minority of the verbs within a particular verb class. For instance, of the 15 verbs of sound emission, only three, as illustrated in (52), exhibit syntactically similar properties in the neutral or causative alternation. The following examples show syntactic behavior can vary even within the same general semantic class: Other examples show that variation can be attributed to the arguments of the verb, governing the possible syntactic combinations the expressions reveal as in the unacceptability of *The musician roared the music out, in contrast to The musician roared the announcement out.Other examples, though not synonymous, show that the same PV out demonstrate similar syntactic formations with varying arguments, one giving rise to the literal interpretation and the other the more idiomatic one, as exemplified with the PV roll out.

	Similar behavior is seen in Levin's 'verbs of removing' class 16 :
	(54)	Verbs of removing
		a. N 0 V N 1 out of N 2	Manny cleaned / rinsed / rubbed / washed stains out of the shirt
		b. N 1 V out	The stain *cleaned / rinsed / rubbed / washed out
		c. N 1 V out of N 2	The stain *cleaned / rinsed / rubbed / washed out of the shirt
		d. N 1 V out Prep N 2	The stain *cleaned / ?*rinsed/ *rubbed / washed out from the shirt
		e. N 1 V out N 2	The stain *cleaned / ?*rinsed / ?*rubbed / *washed out the shirt
		f. N 1 V Prep N 2	The stain *cleaned / *rinsed / *rubbed / *washed from the shirt
	Likewise, the following 'verbs of substance emission' show a high degree of variability when the arguments are kept
	constant.
	(52) (55)	Verbs of sound emission Verbs of substance emission
	a. N 0 V N 1 out of N 2 b. N 1 V out c. N 1 V out of N 2 a. (53) d. N 1 V out Prep N (56) a. The musicians banged / clapped / thumped / tapped music out Max spewed/ *spilled/ spit/ spurted/ ?squeeze/ squirted water out of his mouth Water spewed/ spilled/ *spit/ spurted/ *squeezed/ squirted out Water spewed/ *spilled/ *spit/ spurted/ *squeezed/ squirted out of his mouth a. Water spewed out of his mouth ↔ Water spewed out his mouth b. The musicians ?banged / *clapped / *thumped / *tapped music out of the house b. Water spilled out of the bucket ↔ Water spilled out the bucket c. Music *banged / *clapped / *thumped / *tapped out c. Water spits out of the sprinklers ↔ *Water spits out the sprinklers d. Music *banged / *clapped / *thumped / *tapped out of the house d. Water spurted out of the sprinklers ↔ *Water spurted out the sprinklers e. Music *banged / *clapped / *thumped / *tapped out the house e. Water squeezes out of the sponge ↔ *Water squeezes out the sponge f. Music *banged / *clapped / *thumped / *tapped from the house f. Water squirted out of the tube ↔ Water squirted out the tube

2 Water *spewed/ *spilled/ *spit/ *spurted/ *squeezed/ *squirted out from his mouth e. N 1 V out N 2 Water *spewed/ *spilled/ *spit/ *spurted/ *squeezed/ *squirted out his mouth f. N 1 V Prep N 2 Water *spewed/ *spilled/ *spit/ ?spurted/ *squeezed/ *squirted from his mouth Changing the arguments can demonstrate a higher degree of syntactic similarity as in the following examples where the neutral construction in its prepositional phrasal form are acceptable, as opposed to (55), solely by modifying the arguments of the prepositional phrase.

'render unconscious' b. The boxer will knock a good story out 'produce quickly'

All PVs in the data can appear in the continuous and discontinuous order, thereby excluding idiomatic expressions of the 'frozen' or 'fixed' type, like examples inJackendoff (2002) Harold sang his heart out, in which particle movement is not possible: *Harold sang out his heart.

For each sense of the PV out expression, a separate entry was added to the lexicon-grammar table. In this case, one for the literal meaning of The gangster took the boy out meaning 'to take' and one for the idiomatic meaning 'to kill'.

This number does not include expressions which can undergo the derivation, but in doing so the meaning changes, as in: a. The student checked the books out of the library → The student checked out the library While the new expression is an acceptable construction, it is not synonymous with the original longer structure and therefore a [-] under the N 0 V N 2 out column.

This syntactic behavior was also observed by den[START_REF] Den Dikken | Particles: pn the Syntax of Verb-Particle, Triadic, and Causative Constructions[END_REF] andDehé (2002), in the following examples: a. They sent a schedule out to the stockholders ↔ They sent the stockholders out a schedule (den Dikken 1995:55f.) b. Andrew will print a copy out for his teacher ↔ Andrew will print his teacher out a copy c. Susan poured a drink out to the man ↔ Susan poured the man out a drink(Dehé 2002:2)

Dehé (2002) refers to complex particle verbs as the N 0 V N 2 out N 1 type and gives the example He made John out a liar which appears to be derived from the construction He made a liar out of John. This PV was not included in the data because it cannot appear in the simple continuous and discontinuous order (*He made a liar out ↔ *He made out a liar), and therefore not the type of PVs analyzed in this paper.

This expression is not synonymous with The water spilled out the glass.

This example has an alternative meaning which seems to surface when an adverb follows the expression, i.e. The nail screws out the wood easily. This is known as the 'pseudo-passive' construction and was not considered in the analysis since these constructions do not imply an agentive subject.

It was commonly brought to attention that some of these questionable examples seem to sound better when followed by an adverb exhibiting the 'pseudo-passive' construction, as in The stain rinses/ washes/ rubs/ out the shirt easily. Again pseudo-passive constructions were not considered in the analysis, and thereby marked[-].

As noted, changing the arguments of the verb yields differing syntactically acceptable constructions; thus, in this example changing chair to ball results in acceptable constructions in (57a-e) and (58a-e).

This example comes from The police cleared the people out of the streets forming the new expression The streets cleared out of people. Depending on the speaker, some of these expressions vary in acceptability.

The Causative Alternation and Neutral Structures in Complex Constructions

Similar to section 2.2, which illustrated the causative alternation or the neutral construction in simple PV constructions, i.e. N 0 V N 1 out → N 1 V out, complex phrasal verb expressions can also undergo this transformation followed by a variety of acceptable and unacceptable longer locative phrases. The most common prepositional phrasal verb expression which undergoes the causative alternation is the N 1 V out of N 2 phrase, as in (43).

( N-hum

Reversed-neutral 46% 54% 43% 57% 43% 73% 80% 84% 12% 36% 6% 3% 30% 25% 11% 13%

Transitive PV out expressions can exhibit a combination of up to 25 morpho-syntactic features. At present, syntactic theories do not take into account the range of variability that lexicon-grammar demonstrates, resulting in many competing analyses [START_REF] Jackendoff | The Architecture of the Language Faculty[END_REF][START_REF] Hoekstra | Small clause results[END_REF], Olsen 2000, Dehe 2002) on the governing principles of PV expressions. A lexicon-grammar approach raises some imperative questions about the underlying principles that govern verb phrases, while providing a thorough depiction of the data along with a systematic analysis of the possible and impossible structural and semantic features. This syntactic description can thereby provide competing theories with an empirical framework to verify hypotheses and account for transformations that phrasal verbs undergo. In addition to the present syntactic investigation, we have been classifying the semantic properties of PV out. This new data so far shows that phrasal verbs with out can entail a continuum of 10 aspectual features, ranging from inchoative to exhaustive, and varying degrees of intensification. In the future, the data of these two studies would be combined thus creating a principled mapping between the syntax and semantics and thereby contribute to the development of a restrictive theory of grammar.

1 In the case of a pronominal direct object, the particle must appear in the discontinuous order.

N 0 V ProN 1 out ↔ *N 0 V out ProN 1 : Clowns totally freak him out ↔ *Clowns totally freak out him 2 The corpora of PV out entries is an extension of a previously constructed table by Machonis (2009b.) while the remainder were collected from the Longman Phrasal Verb Dictionary, online dictionary websites, such as dictionary.com and urbandictionary.com, and in books and linguistic articles cited. Also, PV constructions are highly productive since native speakers constantly create new expressions; these expressions would need to be added to the corpora as they appear.

3 Both literal and metaphorical interpretations were considered as compositional as long as the single verb expression was semantically acceptable and relatively synonymous with the phrasal verb expression. 6 The example The athlete wiped out is a well-formed sentence but is an intransitive PV and not synonymous with The trainer wiped the athlete out meaning 'to exhaust', hence the reason for its unacceptability in this example.

7 Machonis (2009: 256) observes that this combination is possible with particle verbs with up. This combination of features is exemplified in Machonis' article with the verb stink up, which demonstrates the morpho-syntactic combination which PV out does not seem to exhibit. a. *The old food stinks the room b. The old food stinks up the room c. The room stinks d. *The room stinks up 8 That locative out cannot be replaced by a full prepositional phrase is especially true in the more idiomatic expressions as omitting the particle and replacing it with a PP renders the expression unacceptable. However, it will be shown that even the particle in some idiomatic expressions can be replaced by a full PP, illustrating the variety of combinatorial properties of these expressions.

9 Max left Katie does not mean the same as Max left Katie out; thus, the single verb expression is considered unacceptable. 10 In other cases, it has been observed [START_REF] Olsen | Partikelverben im Deutsch-Englischen Vergleich[END_REF], Dehé 2002) that the particle out may surface in the discontinuous form following the Prep N 2 phrase as in Prep N 2 out.

a. The student filled the application from the website out

In this example, the prepositional phrase is a fairly productive adjectival modifier and so the particle can appear in three different positions, the continuous order, the discontinuous order, and after the Prep N 2 phrase:

b. The student filled (out) the application (out) from the website (out)

While this Prep N 2 phrase indicates adjectival modification of the N 1 , it is not the type of syntactic prepositional phrase under discussion. In fact, the type of locative PP under analysis cannot appear at the end of the construction (i.e. *The students wheeled the keg through the door out) and only two structures are acceptable, namely N 0 V out N 1 Prep N 2 , or N 0 V N 1 out Prep N 2 .


Peter A Machonis

Neutral Phrasal Verbs in English

Keywords: phrasal verbs, neutral verbs, ergative verbs, lexicon-grammar verbes à particules, verbes neutres, relation de neutralité, lexique-grammaire

This article examines the feature of neutrality in English phrasal verbs. In a formal classification of over 1,300 transitive phrasal verbs, a large part (350 entries or 27%) also exhibits the feature of neutrality. While some semantic classes favor neutrality in English, they do not automatically assure it, thus giving further evidence of the need for building lexicon-grammars. Since more than one meaning can sometimes be associated with a particular verb-particle combination, phrasal verbs enter into one of seven verbal syntactic classes as first defined by Boons, Guillet & Leclère (1976), a complexity further justifying formal lexicons.

Introduction

In the 1970's many linguists in the United States were investigating the behavior of phrasal verbs. Although such works as [START_REF] Bolinger | The Phrasal Verb in English[END_REF], [START_REF] Fraser | The Verb-particle Combination in English[END_REF], and [START_REF] Makkai | Idiom Structure in English[END_REF] were not systematic in their approach, they did offer a representative listing of the types of phrasal verbs found, and examined factors such as restrictions on particle movement, ambiguity, nominalizations, and aspectual features of these verbs. At the same time, researchers at the Laboratoire d'Automatique Documentaire et Linguistique (LADL) at the Université de Paris 7 were building a formal large-scale classification of the French language or lexicon-grammar. This exhaustive process revealed numerous classes of French verbs at the time and among the many fascinating discoveries was the phenomenon of verbes neutres or neutral verbs. In their chapter on the "Relation de neutralité, " Boons, Guillet & Leclère (1976, 66-120) showed not only how complex this syntactic relationship was, but also how omnipresent these verbs were in French with over 400 entries in the lexicon-grammar. 1Since the 1970's, the status of both phrasal verbs and neutral verbs -referred to as ergative verbs, unaccusatives, and the causative alternation in other frameworkshave been discussed from many diverse points of view. Studies on phrasal verbs now focus on intonation [START_REF] Dehé | Particle Verbs in English: Syntax, Information Structure and Intonation[END_REF], compositionality [START_REF] Jackendoff | English Particle Constructions, the Lexicon, and the Autonomy of Syntax[END_REF][START_REF] Mccarthy | Detecting a Continuum of Compositionality in Phrasal Verbs[END_REF]), and productivity (McIntyre 2002[START_REF] Villavicencio | The Availability of Verb-particle Constructions in Lexical Resources: How Much Is Enough?[END_REF] as well. This article examines yet another aspect, the correlation of neutrality in English phrasal verbs. Although some websites and textbooks might point out a few "ergative phrasal verbs," the present analysis is based on a formal classification of a significant portion of the lexicon of transitive phrasal verbs (over 1,300 entries), of which a large segment (350 entries or 27%) also exhibits the feature of neutrality.

Neutral Phrasal Verbs

Particles or satellites [START_REF] Talmy | Lexicalization Patterns: Semantic Structure in Lexical Forms[END_REF] are often associated with prepositions or adverbs, and combine with simple verbs to form verbal expressions known in English as phrasal verbs, two-word verbs, multi-word verbs, or verb-particle combinations. For example:

(1) a. The TV station blacked out the football game

[block broadcast] 2
b. The TV station blacked the football game out

In the English transitive phrasal verb, this movement is optional and does not change meaning. The following equation is therefore true:

(2)

N 0 V Part N 1  N 0 V N 1 Part
If the object is a pronoun, however, it generally must appear after the particle:

(3) a. The TV station blacked it out b. *The TV station blacked out it

Neutrality is present when the following equation holds, where the arrow means relative synonymy:

(4)

N 0 V Part N 1  N 1 V Part
For example, the direct object of (5a) and (5b) has the possibility of being the subject of (5c):

(5) a. The maid aired out the room [ventilate] b. The maid aired the room out c. The room aired out Note that example (5) is different from example (1) in that the expression black out does not exhibit the feature of neutrality as can be seen in the following:

(6) * The football game blacked out

The Lexicon-Grammar of Phrasal Verbs

Our database of over 1,300 transitive phrasal verbs was composed using [START_REF] Fraser | The Verb-particle Combination in English[END_REF], [START_REF] Spears | Basic Phrasal Verbs[END_REF], The American Heritage Dictionary (2000), The Longman Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2000) and The Cambridge International Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (1997). The lexicon-grammar includes both compositional phrasal verbs (e.g., drink up the milk, wipe down the countertop) and non-compositional or idiomatic phrasal verbs (e.g., break up the audience "cause to laugh," burn out the teacher "exhaust").

Although some dictionaries include prepositional verbs under the rubric of phrasal verbs, we did not incorporate them into our database. True phrasal verbs can be separated from prepositional verbs by a test for particle movement; that is, they have both a continuous and discontinuous structure, while prepositional verbs require the continuous form. Thus call out would be categorized under transitive phrasal verbs, but not call on as in the following examples: We also did not take into account transitive phrasal verbs that entail a frozen noun phrase afterwards:

(12) a. [START_REF] Freckleton | Une taxonomie des expressions idiomatiques anglaises[END_REF] and [START_REF] Machonis | Transformations of Verb Phrase Idioms: Passivization, Particle Movement, Dative Shift[END_REF], have a very restricted complement after the phrasal verb. As can be seen in examples ( 13) and ( 14), some of them are also limited to either the continuous or discontinuous form, although these linguistic judgments do not always remain consistent across dialects. Nevertheless, when the following two related expressions are compared, we see the importance of entering each and every frozen expression into the lexicon-grammar: As can be seen in the sample Table 1, the lexicon-grammar of phrasal verbs is in matrix form, where each verb-particle combination represents a row in the matrix. To the far left, we indicate if the subject, N 0 , can be human or non-human by plus or minus signs. After the verb and particle, we indicate the distributional properties of the object N 1 (i.e., human and non-human), along with a potential N 1 or noun phrase. This is followed by three possible transformations: particle deletion with a similar meaning (indicated by a plus in column N 0 V N 1 ), intransitive neutral use with particle (plus under N 1 V Part), and intransitive neutral use without particle (plus under N 1 V). Finally a paraphrase or synonym is provided for each phrasal verb.

Semantic Nature of Neutral Phrasal Verbs

Among the 1,300 entries of transitive phrasal verbs, we found 350 that exhibited neutrality. Although certain semantic classes (e.g., change of state, motion, sound emission, cooking, gathering) seem to favor neutrality in English [START_REF] Machonis | Neutral Verbs in English: A Preliminary Classification[END_REF]), as they do in French (Boons, Guillet, & Leclère 1976), they do not automatically assure it, thus illustrating the value in building formal lexicons or lexicon-grammars as defined by Maurice [START_REF] Gross | Lexicon Grammar[END_REF].

Table 1: Sample from Lexicon-Grammar of Transitive Phrasal Verbs

Neutrality seems to imply an independent activity which can occur without an external agent, yet at the same time has a presumed external control. Inchoative verbs, for example, often allow neutrality, although non-compositional phrasal verbs may not allow it with the simple verb, as in turn up, fire up and power up: Yet even in semantically similar fields, such as for "block," "delay," and "extend" verbs, we find that some phrasal verbs exhibit neutrality while others do not: b. *The meeting drew out Levin (1993, 26-7) implies that verbs having both a transitive and intransitive use but where the transitive verb, V, can be paraphrased as "cause to V-intransitive," are often neutral. Causative expressions from our lexicon-grammar tables, however, show that neutrality is highly variable, and can even vary if the particle is deleted:

(25) a. We find a similar unpredictability with respect to neutrality for "gather" verbs. While the idiomatic rake in only allows neutrality with an overt particle, the compositional herd in allows it only without, yet the phrasal verb gather up, also compositional, does not allow neutrality at all:

(28) a. The casino raked in the bets

Syntactic Classes of Phrasal Verbs

Since more than one meaning can be associated with a particular verb-particle combination, either idiomatic or compositional, phrasal verbs can enter into one of seven verbal syntactic classes as established by Boons, Guillet & Leclère (1976, 100). For example, some phrasal verbs are intrinsically intransitive (the class C i ) with respect to neutrality: Sometimes a single phrasal verb can have more than one connotation exhibiting neutrality, along with an autonomous transitive and intransitive meaning, which all require separate entries in the lexicon-grammar:

(37) a.

Conclusions

As first noticed by Boons, Guillet & Leclère (1976), neutrality is not a peripheral occurrence in verbal behavior, but present in a large portion of the lexicon, as observed in our corpus of English phrasal verbs, where 27% of them exhibit the feature of neutrality. As the examples here show, a systematic study of neutrality is incredibly complex, both semantically and syntactically. Research in lexicon-grammar continues to confirm that "tests for characterizing essential complements are highly lexical and tend to apply more to individual verbs or small groups than to broad semantic classes" (Gross 1996, 245). Further defining the parameters of the complements N 0 and N 1 in detailed lexicon-grammar tables will consequently shed more light on the phenomenon of neutrality with respect to English phrasal verbs.

  The announcer called out the numbers [announce loudly] b. The announcer called the numbers out (8) a. Anne called on her neighbor [visit for short period] b. *Anne called her neighbor on We also did not incorporate what appear to be obligatorily discontinuous phrasal verbs, some of which may be neutral: (9) a. The workers slapped the roof together [make quickly] b. *The workers slapped together the roof c. The roof slapped together (10) a. The researcher saw the project through [work until completion] b. *The researcher saw through the project c. *The project saw through This last example in fact contrasts with the following prepositional verb: (11) a. The people saw through the leader's charisma [see deception in] b. *The people saw the leader's charisma through

(

  15) a. Let's get a move on [get something started / underway] b.*Let's get on a move (16) a. Let's get on the move [get something started / underway] b. *Let's get the move on

(

  17) a. Max (booted up + turned on) the computer [start] b. The computer (booted up + turned on) c. The computer (booted + *turned) 3 (18) a. The driver (started + fired + powered) up the engine [start] b. The engine (started + fired + powered) up c. The engine (started + *fired + *powered)

(

  19) a. The crowd jammed up the exits [block] b. The exits jammed up (20) a. The accident tied up the interchange [block] b. *The interchange tied up (21) a. The controversial debate bogged down the peace talks [delay] b. The peace talks bogged down (22) a. The mail strike held up the delivery [delay] b. *The delivery held up (23) a. The comedian dragged out the story [extend] b. The story dragged out (24) a. The discussion drew out the meeting [extend]

  The bets raked (*E + in) (29) a. The cowboy herded up the cattle [gather] b. The cattle herded (E + *up) (30) a. The child gathered up the toys [gather] b. The toys gathered *(E + up)

( 31 )

 31 The stock bottomed out  *The market bottomed out the stock [fall to lowest point] Others are never intransitive and are intrinsically transitive (the class C t ): (32) The student jotted down (*E + the answer) [make note of] A third category, C ti , involves phrasal verbs that, although never in a relationship of neutrality, have both an independent transitive and intransitive use: 4 (33) a. Chris broke out the champagne  *The champagne broke out [open] b. War broke out  *The political tension broke out the war [start] The class C tn represents neutral verbs that have at least one independent transitive use: (34) a. The Senate wrapped up the session  The session wrapped up[finish] b. The clerk wrapped up the gift  *The gift wrapped up [wrap] 4 Although some members in this class may first appear to exhibit neutrality, the direct object does not encompass the same semantic relationship in the intransitive sentence: (iii) a. Mary helped out (E + Max)  *Max helped out [help someone explicitly stated] b. The workers helped out  *Max helped out the workers [help in general] The class C ni , on the other hand, entails verbs that have at least one autonomous intransitive use, aside from the neutral: (35) a. The sun melted down the ice  The ice melted down [melt] b. The nuclear reactor melted down  *The accident melted down the nuclear reactor [melt core and release radiation] Similarly, the category C tni involves phrasal verbs that can have three interpretations: autonomously transitive, intransitive, as well as neutral: (36) a. The artist blew up the photo *The photo blew up [enlarge] b. The professor blew up (E + in class) [lose temper] c. The army blew up the bridge  The bridge blew up [destroy]

  While not part of the lexicon-grammar of transitive phrasal verbs, example (31) is included in a new table under construction of purely intransitive phrasal verbs. All of the other examples (32) -(38) can be found in the current lexicon-grammar, which includes both transitive and neutral. The relationship of neutrality observed in phrasal verbs is thus as intricate as that previously witnessed with simple verbs.

The clown broke up the spectators The spectators broke up [make laugh] b. The police broke up the crowd  The crowd broke up [disperse] c. The gardener broke up the sticks  The sticks broke up [break] d. The bystander broke up the argument  The argument broke up [end / disrupt] e. The short rest stop broke up the long trip [interrupt monotony of] f. I can't hear you; you're breaking up [have a bad phone connection]

Finally, the class C n represents verbs that are intrinsically neutral, having no independent transitive or intransitive usage:

(38) The loud noise woke up Mary  Mary woke up

[wake]

For a systematic analysis of 500 non-phrasal neutral verbs of English, see[START_REF] Machonis | Neutral Verbs in English: A Preliminary Classification[END_REF].

Throughout this article, we give an equivalent translation in brackets of all phrasal verbs and phrasal verb idioms to clarify ambiguities and to facilitate understanding by non-native speakers of English.

Examples containing parentheses mean that any given element is possible or, if starred, not possible, with E standing for an empty string. Thus the (a) sentences below should be understood as meaning both (b) and (c): (i) a. The computer (booted + *turned) [start] (ii) a. The palm tree blew (*E + down) [fall] b. The computer booted [start] b. *The palm tree blew [fall] c. *The computer turned [start] c. The palm tree blew down [fall]