Ulrika H Westergren
email: ulrika.westergren@umu.se

The Internet of Things: Opportunities, Challenges, and Social Implications of an Emerging Paradigm

Keywords: Internet of Things, Digital Transformation, Value Creation, Social Implications

The Internet of Things (IoT) is an ongoing technological revolution where ordinary objects are fitted with sensing capability and connected to the Internet. The number of smart and connected devices is increasing exponentially, creating an arena for both product and service innovation. Research on the IoT has to date focused mainly on the technology itself, with less attention being directed toward the potential for value creation and the social implications of this phenomenon. This essay examines that gap and takes a look at the emergence of IoT from a social perspective. Addressing both the private and public sectors, it takes a look at opportunities and challenges associated with IoT implementation and use and discusses implications for a number of different actors. In addition, it shows how IoT is connected to a strong discourse on security, privacy and ethical use of technology and offers suggestions for future research directions grounded in IoT as being a current example of the ongoing digital transformation of society.

Introduction

Over the past 20 years we have witnessed the dawning of a new digital era, where information technology has become smarter, faster, smaller and cheaper and, as a result, an integral part of our daily lives. The exponential growth of the Internet of Things (IoT), where ordinary objects are embedded with sensors and Internet connectivity, has moved the frontlines for what ICT is, does, and facilitates, and serves as a key enabler of the digitalization of society [START_REF] Krotov | The Internet of Things and new business opportunities[END_REF]. Encompassing everything from smart homes with intelligent lighting, remote-controlled thermostats and advanced home security systems, to health care applications, personal monitoring devices and fitness trackers, as well as solutions for smart agriculture, connected vehicles, and industrial applications where product and process data are collected and analyzed for logistical, strategic, and product-development purposes, the IoT creates vast opportunities for both product and service innovation. These opportunities are based on the availability of real-time, context-aware data. For example, a smart object can transmit information about its exact location, usage, and condition, and programmed to send alerts if values deviate from a set norm. This means that maintenance needs and product failures can be addressed as soon as they arise. However, the collected data can also be analyzed to find patterns and behaviors over time, and if combined with data from other connected products, IoT data can be used to make data-driven strategic decisions about whether a product should be updated, service performed, or a process optimized. In fact, this type of analysis makes it possible to make predictions about future behavior and foresee an incident before it actually occurs. In addition, real-time data can be collected and analyzed and used in the development of new products and services; during the procurement of services; or as input to ecosystems of IoT-suppliers that cooperate and jointly create value for their customers. The IoT thus enables situation-specific and efficient handling of both products and processes, based on data and actual needs instead of predefined variables, such as specified time intervals. It comes as no surprise then, that the public and private sectors alike are scrambling to take advantage of the opportunities enabled by this new technological paradigm.

In order to do that, one needs a clear understanding of what the IoT is, what types of value it is likely to produce in different contexts, as well as a thorough consideration of the opportunities and challenges associated with sensor-based systems. The previous forecasted growth figures of 20 billion connected objects by the year 2020 have already been surpassed and new measures mention numbers of up to 75 billion connected objects in 2025 (Statista.com, 2020). This chapter takes a deeper look at the implications of the IoT and its effects on public-and private sector value creation, privacy and security. It draws on current research on IoT and highlights the social aspects of the technology. As both people and devices continue to move online, markets are predicted to transform and grow, creating an increase in innovations, productivity gains and economic growth. In addition, public organizations may take advantage of IoT to create value for citizens and make efficient use of public funding. The combination of technological advancements and new business logic makes the IoT a powerful and transformational force to be reckoned with for the private and public sector alike.

IoT Architecture

A fundamental building block of IoT is of course the technological components. Smart technology in itself is no novelty, and for example RFID-tags have been used for decades to identify and track specific objects [START_REF] Gubbi | Internet of Things (IoT): A vision, architectural elements, and future directions[END_REF]. However, miniaturization has made it possible to embed technology within a diverse range of objects and with the cost of technology going down, and the capacity going up, the number of smart objects is increasing exponentially. A smart object is defined as "an autonomous, physical digital object augmented with sensing/actuating, processing, storing, and networking capabilities" (Fortino & Trunfio, 2014). These smart objects form the basis of the IoT.

A simple conceptualization of IoT architecture is the three-layer architecture described by [START_REF] Lin | A survey on internet of things: Architecture, enabling technologies, security and privacy, and applications[END_REF]. At the bottom we find the perception layer with smart objects, where there are sensors and actuators that capture context-aware data from physical objects. This is followed by the network layer, which consists of both connec-tivity devices, protocols, and communication-and network technologies. Wireless networks that are short-range (such as Bluetooth, RFID, and Zigbee), medium-range (such as Wi-Fi and zWave), and long-range (such as LPWAN and VSAT) are being actively developed for IoT connectivity. Low power wide area networks (LPWAN) provide low cost, low-rate, long-range radio communication and leading technologies are Sigfox, LoRa, and NB-IoT [START_REF] Mekki | A comparative study of LPWAN technologies for large-scale IoT deployment[END_REF]. The network layer receives data from the perception layer and transmits it further to or from devices and IoT applications. At the top, we find the application layer, which receives data transmitted from the network layer and uses it to perform operations or services. This basic architecture contains complex operations and some researchers have therefore suggested adding additional layers, for example a service/middleware layer between the network and application layers (Jin et al. 2017), and a business layer on top of the application layer, responsible for the management of the overall IoT system (Khan, Khan, Zaheer & Khan, 2012), to the architecture to better capture its complexity.

Once up and running, IoT devices are dependent on efficient power consumption in the form of reliable, long lasting batteries. As organizations start to implement IoT strategies at the core of their processes, systems must be able to deliver a continuous stream of real-time data. Unreliable devices could be detrimental to business, and the cost of constantly changing batteries would deplete the potential savings made by using IoT. Many IoT devices have batteries that last between three and ten years, but battery life remains a crucial question and there is ongoing research, both on battery technology development, but also on alternatives such as energy harvesting technology and remotely charging batteries, through for example Wireless Power Transfer [START_REF] Torun | Machine learning driven advanced packaging and miniaturization of IoT for wireless power transfer solutions[END_REF].

IoT technology must meet high performance needs and ensure scalability and flexibility. The rapid rate of innovation has led to a multitude of different IoT solutions being simultaneously developed by different providers. However, due to a lack of common standards, each solution being developed is connected to its own set of various choices made in regard to architecture, APIs, devices, data formats, etcetera, which in turn causes interoperability problems [START_REF] Noura | Interoperability in internet of things: Taxonomies and open challenges[END_REF]. Such interoperability issues may push businesses into vendor lock-ins and make it difficult to develop cross-platform IoT or to connect different systems to each other. The lack of agreed upon industry standards creates an uncertainty regarding "making the correct choices" and creating sustainable and interoperable IoT systems that will be able to function with other IoT systems. This ultimately prevents large-scale IoT where all smart objects can potentially be connected to each other and is seen, together with efficient energy consumption, as one of the big questions that has to be resolved in order for IoT to continue to grow and create value.

Creating value with IoT

The digitization of the physical world holds much untapped business potential [START_REF] Brynjolfsson | The second machine age: Work, progress, and prosperity in a time of brilliant technologies[END_REF]. Previous research has shown that as technology is coming to permeate almost every aspect of our lives, firms must form strategies that make use of the ongoing technical developments and combine them with new business logic in order to stay relevant to their customers [START_REF] Saarikko | The Internet of Things: Are you ready for what's coming?[END_REF]. In light of the rapid technological development, it has been suggested that managers need to develop the capacity to sense, assess, and respond to change [START_REF] Haeckel | The post-industrial manager[END_REF]. Strategically working with IoT thus incorporates asking questions about 1) How to create knowledge about technological developments, the research frontier and value creation potential? (sensing), 2) How to identify and evaluate IoT-value? (assessing), and 3) How to use and incorporate this knowledge into business processes? (responding). In addition, the speed of technological progress not only drives change, but also increases complexity and places high demands on finding staff with appropriate skills [START_REF] Bullen | IT workforce trends: implications for curriculum and hiring[END_REF]. Many firms are not able to deliver all competence in-house and therefore find it beneficial to participate in networks, forming ecosystems of firms, where mutual efforts reduce complexity and increase benefits for all participating actors [START_REF] Teece | Business models, business strategy and innovation[END_REF]. When entering into such arrangements, firms must reflect upon their role in the ecosystem and how the firm's identity is related to that role. As these different types of firms come together, new and innovative IoT solutions and applications will be developed. Indeed, IoT solutions are used to enable the intelligent home, that is receptive to its residents' preferences and habits and offers a personalized smart living experience. IoT home automation solutions include controls for, lighting, entertainment, appliances and security. Furthermore, one sees the opportunity to use IoT to create data-driven insurance services for the safe home, where premiums and offers are linked to individuals' behavioral patterns and use nudging tactics to push for behaviors that are advantageous. Another area for IoT ecosystem innovation is the automotive industry, where IoT solutions may bring together such disparate actors as car manufacturers, insurance firms, and entertainment hubs. The possibility of incorporating IoT in cars and measuring a large amount of data points (Bian, Yang, Zhao & Liang, 2018; Husnjak, Peraković, Forenbacher & Mumdziev, 2015), makes it possible to relay vehicle data back to the manufacturer, download updates, and schedule repairs and maintenance as needed, as well as enables so-called usage-based insurance (UBI) where the insurance premium is based directly on the driver's behavior. The same data can also be fed back to the driver for the purpose of promoting eco-friendly and safe driving (Soleymanian, Weinberg & Zhu, 2019). In addition, IoT can be used to provide Wi-Fi onboard and entertainment services for passengers. A third example is the connected workplace where steady access to context-aware data can serve as the basis for climate control, efficient cleaning services, and intelligent lighting, providing the individual worker with a customized indoor climate and a more efficient workday [START_REF] Mähler | Working with IoT: A Case Study Detailing Workplace Digitalization Through IoT System Adoption[END_REF]. Being part of such an ecosystem comes with challenges of its own, as firms must collaborate with others in order to create business value and are thereby also subjected to others' time schedules, expectations and processes. A key to succeeding in ecosystems is thus creating organizational strategies that explicitly ac-count for challenges associated with collaborative networks [START_REF] Adner | Match your innovation strategy to your innovation ecosystem[END_REF]. This includes ideas on how to build trust among network partners and create a context that allows for both alignment of interests and adaptation to emerging conditions (Westergren, Holmström & Mathiassen, 2019).

The data that is captured, stored, and transmitted through IoT is at the heart of IoT value creation. In the private sector, service business firms mainly motivated by the possibility to increase process efficiency and to create efficient, customized services based on data analysis. They also see the potential in using accumulated data to better understand their customers and thus gain a competitive advantage when negotiating new contracts [START_REF] Westergren | Initiating the Internet of Things: Early Adopters' Expectations for Changing Business Practices and Implications for Working Life[END_REF]. Manufacturing firms that incorporate IoT into their existing products see an opportunity to use data to reduce machine downtime, improve product quality and customer relations, as well as enhance supply chain efficiency [START_REF] Dai | Big data analytics for manufacturing internet of things: opportunities, challenges and enabling technologies[END_REF]. IoT provides a possibility to efficiently monitor products and offer context-based services after the point of sale (Baines and Lightfoot, 2014; Kortuem, Kawsar, Fitton & Sundramoorthy, 2010). A deeper understanding of a product in use can prevent costly unplanned stops and product failure and enable the service organization to adapt its business model to the benefit of both the supplier and customer [START_REF] Brax | Developing integrated solution offerings for remote diagnostics: a comparative case study of two manufacturers[END_REF]. The move toward data-driven services, and the possibility to make informed decisions based on real-time contextual data, paves the way for proactive instead of reactive services and opens up for deeper levels of analyses (Tao, Qi, Liu & Kusiak, 2018). However, although access to data is seen as crucial, many firms lack the skills and analytical capabilities needed to use it for other purposes than quite basic anomaly detection and control. In order for firms to obtain greater value from IoT data and move toward prediction and optimization, they both need to develop analytical skills and resolve technical challenges regarding for example data acquisition, data preprocessing and storage, and data analytics, that need to be overcome [START_REF] Dai | Big data analytics for manufacturing internet of things: opportunities, challenges and enabling technologies[END_REF].

The majority of IoT initiatives have thus far been implemented in the private sector, but studies show that IoT adoption is increasing within the public sector as well [START_REF] Borgia | The Internet of Things vision: Key features, applications and open issues[END_REF][START_REF] Neirotti | Current trends in Smart City initiatives: Some stylised facts[END_REF][START_REF] Saarikko | Here, there, but not everywhere: Adoption and diffusion of IoT in Swedish municipalities[END_REF]). Under constant pressure to simultaneously lower costs and increase citizen value, the application of IoT in the public sector is mainly motivated by the possibility to improve efficiency, increase transparency and enhance public services [START_REF] Saarikko | Here, there, but not everywhere: Adoption and diffusion of IoT in Swedish municipalities[END_REF]). It is therefore not surprising to see that implemented solutions often focus on areas that are connected with high maintenance costs, such as infrastructure, utilities, transportation, and facility management and on services that are directly addressing citizen needs, such as various applications for health-and self-care. IoT enables in-home health care, where outpatients can continuously monitor their own condition, while staying connected to their health care provider (Delmastro, 2010;[START_REF] Pang | Design of a terminal solution for integration of in-home health care devices and services towards the Internet-of-Things[END_REF] In addition, IoT may also support elderly or disabled citizens with assisted living solutions, where connected pressure pads can detect falls, and smart pill boxes can assist with medication adherence [START_REF] Abbey | A remotely programmable smart pillbox for enhancing medication adherence[END_REF]. Public sector use of IoT also entails many smart city solutions, such as smart buildings with sensor-controlled ventilation and efficient power consumption, smart waste management, intelligent street lighting, smart parking solutions and more. Furthermore, there are IoT solutions that focus on citizen safety and continuously monitor urban environments as an aid to police in their work. Indeed, the incorporation of IoT into the public sphere can provide more efficient and effective public services as well as encourage citizen participation. A challenge for this sector, however, is to find the economic space for innovation in a context often characterized by cost savings, which shows the importance of building a solid business case.

IoT challenges

We have seen how IoT enables innovation in both the private and the public sector and that there are many different ways in which IoT can create value. However, there are also a number of challenges that must be overcome in order for IoT to deliver on its promises. Some have already been mentioned, like the lack of common standards, battery life, problems of interoperability, scalability issues and other technological considerations. IoT data is often messy and comes from a range of heterogeneous sources which brings forth questions of data integration, reducing data redundancy and cleaning data, as well as data transmission and analysis [START_REF] Dai | Big data analytics for manufacturing internet of things: opportunities, challenges and enabling technologies[END_REF]. This creates a complex landscape for organizations looking to incorporate IoT into their processes and sets expectations concerning technical know-how. However, decisions about IoT investments are often made by managers who, while extensively trained to make business assessments, are not usually equipped to make decisions that require extensive and deep knowledge of emerging technologies. Poor understanding of the technological dimension may lead to investment in narrow, proprietary solutions and enhance the interoperability problem, as isolated solutions create challenges in accessing, sharing, and reusing data in different services and contexts. In order to avoid vendor lock-ins or being stuck with ill-fitting solutions, many therefore choose to partner with firms that can provide both private and public sector organizations with the technological expertise needed to make choices about sensors, connectivity, application-and IoT platforms, and IoT standards [START_REF] Saarikko | The Internet of Things: Are you ready for what's coming?[END_REF]. By teaming up with trusted partners in IoT ecosystems, organizations can thus make use of network competence and overcome challenges related to a lack of technological competence. The decision to invest in IoT is not only about making technology choices, it is about building a proper business case, that clearly states what problems IoT is expected to solve, how the application of IoT will provide value, and for whom. By identifying IoT application areas, it is also easier to map out what potential value might be created and where the pitfalls are. The implementation of IoT within the public sector differs from IoT usage within the private sector in a number of ways. A challenge for any public organization is to create economic spaces for innovation when daily activities most often are characterized by cost savings. Public sector IoT value creation thus often focuses on improving efficiency, increasing transparency, developing public services, and enhancing the quality of life for citizens-actions that directly or indirectly cater to citizens' needs. Private sector use of IoT, on the other hand, is about increasing profit, capturing market shares, and creating value for customers. Furthermore, firms in the private sector normally have a well-defined customer base as opposed to the public sector where needs of citizens of all ages, capabilities and interests must be included and addressed. This creates a complex and dynamic innovation landscape, which should be acknowledged and accounted for in each new IoT project. Despite the growing number of IoT ecosystems and partnerships, many IoT solutions are being developed in-house, and in the public organizations, often in projects financed by external funds. A challenge for project based IoT innovation is to move from short term project activities to long term sustainable solutions that become an integrated part in daily operations.

Another major challenge is ensuring IoT security. IoT devices are easily accessible and often have limited built-in security features. The possibility of data leakage and node compromising is high [START_REF] Jing | Security of the Internet of Things: perspectives and challenges[END_REF] and the more IoT is incorporated into products, services and processes, the more one opens up for the possibility of malicious attacks and malware. Distributed denial-of-service attacks may use botnets to infiltrate ordinary smart home objects, causing networks to overflow and services to crash (Bertino & Islam, 2017). Hackers may take control over self-driving cars or disrupt critical IoT healthcare solutions [START_REF] Yang | A survey on security and privacy issues in Internet-of-Things[END_REF], and ransomware attacks can be used to interrupt industrial IoT applications causing standstills or production failure. Ultimately human safety could be at risk. Making security a priority should thus be essential for any IoT project. Due to the heterogeneous nature of IoT systems and their inherent design that encourages flexibility and scalability, traditional security measures are often insufficient. Since IoT systems are too dynamic and too complex to benefit from a "one solution fits all"-package (Sicari, Rizzardi, Grieco & Coen-Porisini, 2015), there is a call for customizable IoT security architectures, that are carefully tailored to meet specific application needs, while at the same time ensuring a systematic and grounded approach to IoT security [START_REF] Jing | Security of the Internet of Things: perspectives and challenges[END_REF]. Previous research shows how issues such as authentication and authorization, privacy and confidentiality, and secure communication and computation must be addressed before, during and after IoT implementation (Alaba, Othman, Hashem & Alotaibi, 2017; Li, Yan & Chang, 2018). By defining needs and balancing the potential for value creation with the prospect of putting themselves and their customers at risk, organizations can prepare to use IoT in a safe and secure way. This includes asking questions regarding what needs to be protected and for how long, who has access to data, how will data be communicated, what standards will be used, and how accessible and simple to use should the IoT system be? In order to make sure all parts of the system are protected secure solutions must then be implemented at all layers of the IoT architecture [START_REF] Sicari | Security, privacy and trust in Internet of Things: The road ahead[END_REF]. IoT system failure can be detrimental to business and poorly developed IoT security can deplete not only company assets but also customer trust. Finding ways to ensure IoT security thus remains one of the major challenges with IoT Smart solutions affect their surroundings. By constantly capturing, collecting and communicating data, IoT can be used to customize environments and offer services based on individual preferences. However, as more and more objects become connected to each other and to the Internet, there is also a potent risk of privacy infringements for example through identification, localization, tracking, and profiling [START_REF] Ziegeldorf | Privacy in the Internet of Things: threats and challenges[END_REF]. Ensuring privacy and an ethical use of data is thus a central concern for IoT adopters, making sure personal and potentially sensitive data do not end up in the wrong hands [START_REF] Perera | Designing privacy-aware internet of things applications[END_REF], or are wrongly interpreted and misused. Context-aware data can be used to track, monitor, and map out individual behaviors and patterns not only of objects, but of humans in proximity to smart objects, without them even being aware of this happening. For example, the use of room occupancy sensors to control indoor climate can be an efficient solution that saves energy and provides individuals with optimized working conditions. However, the same sensors could be used to discern who stays in their office at their desk, and who spends a lot of time by the coffee machine, effectively transforming climate control into a surveillance tool. In such a scenario, it is of the utmost importance to reflect not only on what IoT can do and what patterns can become visible through the analysis of real-time contextual data, but also on what is desirable, necessary, and ethically justifiable. This requires being able to balance the perceived benefits of transparency (from the perspective of the observer) with the risks of privacy infringements (from the perspective of the observed) enabled by smart technology [START_REF] Bernstein | Making transparency transparent: The evolution of observation in management theory[END_REF]. As IoT continues to grow in scope and pervade all aspects of human life, new privacy threats such as privacy-violating interactions and presentations, lifecycle transitions, inventory attacks, and information linkages will surface, and the need for privacy-aware IoT applications will increase [START_REF] Ziegeldorf | Privacy in the Internet of Things: threats and challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Perera | Designing privacy-aware internet of things applications[END_REF]. A successful implementation of IoT technology whether it be in the private or public domain, must therefore consider the privacy implications and possible ethical consequences of IoT use.

Summary and conclusions

The IoT is only in its infancy. The growth thus far has been exponential and shows no signs of waning. As our world gets connected the potential for innovation is immense, and future IoT developments are projected to have an even more transformational impact on society. The research community has largely focused on the technological implications of IoT. This essay positions IoT as a socio-technical phenomenon and presents a number of opportunities and challenges that both private and public organizations face when engaging with IoT. By tracing the progress trajectory of IoT we can see certain patterns that emerge. First, technological knowledge is becoming a central concern for all types of organizations. In order to keep up with the rapid rate of digital innovation, organizations must develop an ability to sense, assess, and respond to technological change, either by developing skills in-house or by teaming with partners that can provide them with new competence. Second, a clear idea of value creation should be at the heart of all IoT investments. By building a business case and considering not only what IoT can do, but what value it will create and for whom, IoT moves from being just another technological phenomenon to a transformational power with the potential to cause long lasting change. Third, security issues threaten to hamper IoT development. Due to the complex and dynamic nature of IoT, security solutions need to be customized to the specific context, and many organizations find it hard to gain an overview of all potential risks and threats. Ranging from annoying (as in someone remotely turning lights on and off) to potentially life threatening (if said lights are traffic lights and unauthorized remote access may cause lethal accidents), IoT security issues must be swiftly identified and dealt with, to ensure safety and to build trust. Fourth, IoT enables unprecedented amounts of data to be generated, collected and analysed. While data can be used to increase transparency, improve efficiency, and enhance efficacy, the apparent risk of misuse, for example, unwarranted tracking and profiling means privacy and ethics must be on the agenda. A secure, responsible, and ethical use of IoT has the potential to transform society and provide value far beyond that found in ordinary technological innovation. Further research should therefore address IoT as an integral part of the ongoing digital transformation of society and take a deeper look at implications for both individuals and organizations. By conceiving of IoT as a technological, social, and cultural phenomenon, we can begin to understand its full potential and create strategies to account for both opportunities and challenges, as well as social implications, of this emerging paradigm.


Leon Strous
email: strous@iae.nl

Robert M Davison

Gabriela Marín-Raventós
email: gabriela.marin@ucr.ac.cr

Digital equity, sustainable development and the ICT professional

Keywords: digital equity, sustainable development, MDG, Millennium Development Goals, SDG, Sustainable Development Goals, WITFOR, developing and emerging countries, ICT4D

Digital equity and sustainable development are in the focus of attention nowadays. While ICT professionals and professional societies have contributed to supporting developing countries for many years, it is even more urgent nowadays to take responsibility. Technological and also societal developments are happening at an incredible speed with the risk that underprivileged persons and communities are lagging behind faster and further. A risk that is not limited to developing countries but also affects emerging and developed countries. This chapter describes some major UN initiatives and reflects on the options for ICT professionals and professional societies to contribute to achieving digital equity and sustainable development. These options are illustrated by a few examples of what has been done so far. Most of the efforts to contribute meet challenges and impediments and we list a number of them. Finally, suggestions are made to address the challenges and to increase the impact and long term effect of efforts.

Introduction

Digital equity and sustainable development are in the focus of attention nowadays.

While ICT professionals and professional societies have contributed to supporting developing countries for many years, it is even more urgent nowadays to take responsibility. Technological and also societal developments are happening at an incredible speed with the risk that underprivileged persons, communities and societies are lagging faster and further behind. This is a situation that is not limited to developing countries but also affects persons and communities in emerging and developed countries. The COVID-19 pandemic demonstrates even more the urgency of addressing digital equity. Differences in access to information and to technologies make a difference in chances for continuing education and for saving lives. IFIP has been active in supporting developing countries for more than 40 years. In these 40 years the world has changed and some major UN initiatives have exerted a significant impact on efforts to address inequality. This chapter briefly describes these UN initiatives, reflects on some activities undertaken in the recent past and examines the role and involvement of professionals, both on an individual level and as members of societies.

The chapter is written from an IFIP perspective but most of the activities described, problems encountered, and roles and options for the future are also applicable to national and regional societies and associations.

In 2016 an appeal was made that "professionals, scientists and IT professionals and their organization should take a holistic approach for all ICT activities and projects to always include and monitor the effects of their work on the SDGs (Sustainable Development Goals)" [START_REF] Tjoa | The role of ICT to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)[END_REF]. We subscribe to that appeal.

Major UN initiatives

As mentioned in the introduction, a number of major United Nations initiatives have exerted a significant impact on efforts to make the world a better place to live in. In this section, three of these initiatives are briefly described.

Millennium Development Goals (MDG's)

The Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) were eight international development goals established following the Millennium Summit of the United Nations in 2000 with a target achievement date of 2015 [START_REF] Mdg | [END_REF]. The MDGs are:

1. To eradicate extreme poverty and hunger 2. To achieve universal primary education 3. To promote gender equality and empower women 4. To reduce child mortality 5. To improve maternal health 6. To combat HIV/AIDS, malaria, and other diseases 7. To ensure environmental sustainability 8. To develop a global partnership for development

The Millennium Development Goals have galvanized unprecedented efforts to meet the needs of the world's poorest. [START_REF] Jha | IFIP WITFOR 2007 -ICT for Development and Prosperity[END_REF] The MDGs can be regarded as one of the most important and successful initiatives to eradicate poverty in modern history. The Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) [START_REF] Tjoa | The role of ICT to achieve the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDG)[END_REF] succeeded the MDGs in 2016.

World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS)

Following a proposal from the Government of Tunisia, the International Telecommunication Union (ITU) decided to hold a World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) in two phases. The United Nations General Assembly in 2001 endorsed the holding of this WSIS. The first phase took place in Geneva in December 2003 and the second phase took place in Tunis, in November 2005.

The rationale for this WSIS was the acknowledgment that a global discussion was needed to bridge the digital divide which had increased as a result of fast technological and societal developments. Developing a clear statement of political will and identify concrete steps to achieve an information society for all was the objective of the first phase. The second phase put a plan of action into motion. The ITU website on the WSIS is a rich source of information [START_REF]WSIS[END_REF].

After IFIP participated in most of the forums, in plenary sessions, with workshops and in preparatory meetings. IFIP has also been an official partner in the forum since 2014.

Sustainable Development Goals (SDG's)

With the end date of 2015 for achievement of the MDGs and the observation that there was still work to be done to achieve these goals, a new set of goals was defined. These Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) are a universal call to action to end poverty, protect the planet and improve the lives and prospects of everyone, everywhere. These 17 Goals were adopted by all UN Member States in 2015, as part of the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development.

The goals, presented graphically in Fig. 1, are: [START_REF] Sdg | [END_REF] 1 The goals are interconnected and all have a strong link to ICT. For each goal it is not difficult to find examples of how ICT can help, or is even instrumental, in achieving the goal. To mention just a few: technology and applications that assist farmers in precision farming and in marketing and distributing agricultural products; health monitoring systems; promotion of healthy living habits using games and IoT; e-learning systems; use of IT to increase efficient use of energy; development of low cost technological products to support industries in developing countries; use of social networks to promote increasing citizen involvement.

Considering constraints in terms of available time and money, individuals and societies have to make choices and set priorities in order to make effective and meaningful contributions to society and mankind.

What can ICT professionals and professional societies do

Many stakeholders can contribute to achieving digital equity and sustainable development, and are doing so. Among these stakeholders are governments, industry, academia and non-governmental organizations (NGOs). What are the distinctive features of individual ICT professionals and professional societies that (can) make their contributions different from other stakeholders and in particular from governments and industry? An important distinction is the non-political and non-commercial nature of professional societies. Vested interests and conflicts of interest generally are few. Another important feature is that many members that are active in professional societies live and work in the communities that are supposed to benefit from the SDGs. They are familiar with the on-the-ground realities and thus can advise which initiatives will work (or not) and what adjustments need to be made. The goal of advancing digital equity, by promoting accessibility of ICT, promoting good practices, and promoting and enhancing appropriate access to knowledge and experiences, can be achieved in a variety of ways.

• Events. This category has a broad set of options in itself. It includes events from small (workshops) to very large (conferences, congresses) and events focused on a small set or a broad range of topics. It can be events organized by a professional body on its own or in cooperation with other organizations/stakeholders. It can also be contributions to events organized by others. • Research. Scientific research can be of great support to develop cost effective and pertinent technologies, to adopt emergent technologies successfully, and to help communities draft well-founded policies. Supporting research in developing countries will help focusing on the specific needs and topics for their environment. Also research and comparison of good practices can be helpful. • Publications. Publishing the results of scientific research and of good practices and making these publications easily available enhance knowledge sharing. Encouraging and facilitating contributions from developing countries in book series and journals, promotes researchers and broadens problem solving. • Projects. Specific projects can have a quick impact but also have the potential for a longer term impact. • Policies. Professionals and professional bodies can assist policy makers in drafting policies that include ICT. They can also influence policies by issuing and sharing policy statements and good practices and publish these. • Professional bodies. Supporting the creation and positioning of national and regional professional bodies is a way to get ICT professionals in a better position to effectively contribute to their country/community and to promote ICT use to reach the SDGs.

Some examples from IFIP

In a contribution to the Quarter Century of IFIP jubilee book, Narasimhan assessed that the strength of IFIP is its international, non-governmental character [START_REF] Narasimhan | IFIP and the developing countries[END_REF]. The lack of financial resources is a major limitation to providing assistance and to start essential projects. Despite this limitation significant contributions have been made. This section provides some examples. As stated in the introduction, the chapter is written from an IFIP perspective but most of the examples described are also found in other national, regional and other global societies or associations.

Committees

The role of "committees" essentially is to initiate, guide and/or coordinate various activities towards the realization / achievement of a specific strategic goal. Committees should create and safeguard conditions that support these activities. IFIP established in 1979, with assistance from UNESCO, the IFIP Committee: Informatics for Development (ICID). ICID's guiding philosophy was that emphasis should be given to events organized within developing countries. Topics would be selected in direct cooperation with organizations or individuals in those countries, and technical experts would be supplied by IFIP.

In 1987, ICID was transformed into the Developing Countries Support Committee (DCSC). The aim of the DCSC was to promote IFIP's cooperation with developing countries and to help developing countries/areas in their specific needs and requests. Specific tasks of the DCSC included among others identifying needs and requests from developing countries/areas that may be answered by information and skills available at present in IFIP. Another task concerned interfacing with Technical Committees, Working Groups and Affiliate Members to get involvement and expertise in the different work areas of these groups.

In 2015 another transformation took place. The activities of the DCSC, of the WITFOR Steering Committee and a separate digital equity initiative, were merged into the Digital Equity Committee (DEC). The activities of this Standing Committee are: a. Promoting accessibility of ICT; b. Promoting good practices; c. Promoting and enhancing appropriate access to knowledge and experiences; d. Organizing and contributing to activities aimed at achieving the UN Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and the goals of the World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS).

Looking at the various subsequent committees and their activities, aims, scope and guiding principles it is interesting to observe that, although using different terminology and despite new types of activities, there is still a strong base from the beginning that has not really changed.

Working groups

Many of IFIP's technical committees and working groups pay attention to digital equity and sustainable development. In this section we list a few that are dedicated to these topics. Here we provide a brief summary. More information about aims and scopes can be found on the respective websites. WG 6.9 Communications systems for developing countries [START_REF]IFIP WG 6.9[END_REF] This working group aims to identify and study technical problems related to the access to, understanding of and application of network and telecommunications technology in developing countries or regions. It also encourages cross-fertilization of concepts and techniques among developing countries, and between developing countries and developed countries. The areas of study include models and methods for transfer of concepts and methods in communication systems and the establishment of new applications in developing regions for existing technologies. The requirements of the users of those regions include cost-effective technologies for global access, rural access to services and social development in those regions through appropriate applications of communication systems. The problems of human resources, sharing of experience and cost of technology are particularly acute, and are to be examined in detail.

WG 9.4 -Social Implications of Computers in Developing Countries [8]

This Working Group is currently updating its' aims and scope and has proposed a name change to "The Implications of Information and Digital Technologies for Development". Subject to approval, the aims of the group are:

• To collect, exchange and disseminate the social, cultural, economic, environmental, and political experiences of information and digital technology implementation in all the contexts of the 'Global South' as well as disadvantaged groups in societies more generally. • To develop greater awareness amongst professionals, policy makers and the public on the social and ethical implications of information and digital technologies. • To develop criteria, guidelines, methods and theory (including indigenous ones) appropriate to the study of information and digital technologies. • To establish international collaboration networks of researchers and practitioners interested in the use of information and digital technology for addressing the complex and pressing problems of society. • To mentor academics and PhD students from across the international collaboration network. • To promote sustainability and inclusion in all the arenas where we undertake research and practice.

• To enable open access to content wherever possible so as to ensure that all stakeholders can freely benefit from the research that we undertake.

WG9.9 ICT and Sustainable Development [9]

An important aim of this group is to be actively involved in the development of ICT applications which involve the goal of sustainable development. It wants to investigate the interaction among social, environmental and economic issues in the development of ICTs and their applications. A cluster of aims concerns the promotion of worldwide research and practice, the strengthening of interdisciplinary research efforts and the provision of a platform for presenting and discussing emerging ideas and trends in the intersection of the topics 'information society' and 'sustainable development'. Last but not least promoting and supporting the organization of meetings as well as easy access to high-quality data, information and knowledge in this area and related areas are within the scope of this group.

WG 13.8 Interaction design for international development [10]

WG 13.8 supports and develops the research, practice and education capabilities of Human Computer Interaction (HCI) in institutions and organizations based around the world taking into account their diverse local needs and cultural perspectives. It promotes application of interaction design research, practice and education to address the needs, desires and aspirations of people across the developing world. While researching and promoting interaction design practice in cross-cultural settings, with a special focus on new and emerging economies, the group develops links between the HCI community in general and other relevant communities involved in international development and cross-cultured aspects of ICT development.

WG 13.10 Human-centered technology for sustainability [11]

In the field of human-computer interaction, WG 13.10 promotes research, design, development, evaluation, and deployment of human-centered technology to encourage sustainable use of resources in various domains. These technologies would include interaction techniques, interfaces, and visualizations for applications, tools, games, services, and devices. The group brings together, and stimulates exchanges between, researchers, practitioners, and policy-makers from across different disciplines involved in sustainability through regular events. These disciplines would include computer science, engineering, design, social sciences, etc.

Activities and services

Availability / access to knowledge By making the content of scientific event proceedings available for free in its digital library, IFIP contributes to the "access to high quality digital content" element of digital equity. Another way to increase access to knowledge is to promote open access publications. For instance, the Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries [START_REF]Electronic Journal of Information Systems in Developing Countries[END_REF] since its inauguration in 2000 has been online and platinum open access, which means that readers pay no fee for reading and authors pay no fee for submitting and processing articles. [START_REF]Open Access[END_REF] Encouraging and facilitating participation of researchers from developing countries in scientific events is also a good practice for many event organizers, and that creates more access and inclusiveness.

Events -WITFOR

In 2001 a proposal for the organization of a new IFIP flagship event, called the World Information Technology Forum (WITFOR) was accepted. The overall goal of WITFOR is to assist developing countries in developing and implementing sustainable strategies for the application of ICT and to share experiences that will help to bridge the digital divide and improve the quality of life. [START_REF] Jha | IFIP WITFOR 2007 -ICT for Development and Prosperity[END_REF][START_REF]WITFOR 2003 White Book[END_REF] The specific goals are: a. To share and discuss experiences in drafting and implementing ICT policies; b. To share and discuss experiences in initiating and implementing ICT projects; c. To present and discuss research concerning the overall goal. IFIP in cooperation with the host countries successfully managed to engage UN bodies and persons in WITFOR with high-level speakers, involvement in the organization and support, for instance, by making conference venues available. Linking WITFOR with a UN event is beneficial for both in terms of availability of speakers and participants, and sharing mutual topics of interest. An example of this is the Second Session of the Conference on Science, Innovation and Information and Communications Technologies of the Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC) which was held as a joint event with WITFOR 2016 in Costa Rica.

Although the term WITFOR is usually linked to the big global conference, the idea is to undertake a number of activities under the umbrella of the World Information Technology Forum (WITFOR). Another idea behind WITFOR was to involve the national professional society of the host country not only in the event but in the network of IFIP relations for the longer term.

Events -Working Groups

The working groups with a focus on developing countries and digital equity have a long track record of conferences. This includes bigger events such as the WG 9.4 bi-annual conferences that are always organized in a developing country location with an average attendance of 150 registered participants. Also smaller events like working conferences as well as special sessions as part of other major conferences are organized regularly by the working groups. The groups strongly encourage the participation of both established researchers and PhD and Master students.

Participation support

With limited general funds IFIP supports the participation of researchers from developing countries in conferences by partially covering expenses. This is a small effort to encourage such researchers to submit papers to scientific conferences and by doing so get involved in international networks of scientists. Besides the general funds, some Technical Committees and Working Groups also provide, whenever possible, sponsorships, often for PhD students in particular, drawing on funds held over from past events.

Challenges, impediments

In previous sections we have described how volunteers and volunteer societies can contribute to achieving digital equity and sustainable development goals. A limited number of examples was provided. In many discussions at all levels within IFIP and also outside, concerns are raised about the effectiveness and impact of our efforts. In this section we list some obstacles that volunteers face.

• Volunteers and volunteer societies in general have limited resources, both in terms of time and money. This prohibits for example investments in projects and solid continuous financial support for participation in events from developing countries. • Working on a voluntary basis makes activities highly dependent on people whose time and commitment may change in time. Moreover, finding good successors is not always possible. • Good working relationships with governments are dependent on the stability of governments and government policies. Governments change, therefore initiatives supported by one government may suffer from change in support and priorities of the new government. • Involvement of people from emerging and developing countries, or underprivileged communities in general, can be hindered by lack of funding or lack of access to the information and communication technologies needed for being connected. • The focus of activities can be too vague or too general which results in not attracting the participants that were envisaged. • Many scholars, whether from developed or developing countries, are motivated primarily by the prospect of enhancing their curricula vitarum, not by making the world a better place. Thus, changes to scholarly agendas, and reward systems, are essential to the undertaking of research that makes a difference. Thus, the volunteer editors and reviewers of journals that focus on publishing research that ostensibly makes the world a better place nevertheless have to wade through the treacle of research that is broadly in scope, yet that makes no such contribution.

How can we address the challenges

We strongly believe the activities described in the previous sections are valuable contributions to achieving digital equity and sustainable development. In our opinion ICT professionals and professional societies do have an important role to play in these goals. Despite the challenges in terms of financial and human resources, there is still a lot that can be done. The non-exhaustive list of activities in this chapter illustrates that there are many ways to contribute to achieving digital equity. However, in order to increase the impact and long term effect of efforts, it is important to: a. set priorities; perhaps based on the experience of what works; b. rethink how available funds are spent -and can be raised; c. work with local and national bodies to create incentives, rewards and recognition for researchers who set out to make the world a better place via digital equity; d. engage groups that are not purely focusing on digital equity but that can contribute due to the nature of their field and work; e. increase cooperation with other societies/organizations; f. decide what should be achieved with each event or activity and link this planned achievement/target to specific IFIP objectives; g. leverage high level contacts and participation in high level events in order to secure funding, recognition, kudos or opportunities that we can leverage; and h. change research agendas and research culture, enhance SDG awareness among researchers in order to increase SDG-relevant research and publications. [START_REF] Davison | Sustainable Development Goals and the ISJ/EJISDC[END_REF] Furthermore, we can give it another try for initiatives from the past that were not successful (but carefully select initiatives and set priorities):

a. assist in creating national professional ICT societies in those countries where no such societies exist; b. engage these societies in international cooperation, regional and global; c. Initiate projects with a longer lifespan as a follow up to an event in a developing country; and d. encourage more countries to belong to IFIP, especially those in less developed parts of the world.

In order to encourage volunteers, and in particular academics, to spend time on activities in the digital equity efforts, a way should be found to reward volunteers for contributing to "non-scientific" events with academic credits (comparable to accepted papers in conferences and journals). COVID-19 has shown that virtual meetings are a solution to inability to travel; one of the obstacles for a bigger involvement of professionals from the developing countries to participate in activities and specifically in events is travel limitations (mostly in terms of funding). Here we have an opportunity to change at least part of the events that are annually organized to permanent virtual editions or combinations of physical and virtual meetings.

We are convinced that with some adjustments in our approaches ICT professionals and professional societies can make a difference and by doing so demonstrate the added value of such societies.

  the second summit in 2005, in the context of the annual consideration by the UN Economic and Social Council (ECOSOC) of the integrated and coordinated implementation and follow-up of major UN conferences, the Commission on Science and Technology for Development (CSTD) was assigned to assist the Council as the focal point in the system-wide follow-up of WSIS. Starting in 2006, the annual WSIS Forum organized by ITU and co-organized/supported by almost all UN agencies, addresses progress of the actions and goals defined in the summits and the MDGs and the subsequent SDGs.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Sustainable Development Goals. Wikipedia (access 13-08-2020)

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. IFIP WITFOR general logo


David Kreps
email: d.g.kreps@salford.ac.uk

A resource perspective on E-waste: A global problem with local solutions?

Keywords: E-Waste, Green IT, design for repairability, end-of-life design

ICT is, at least to some extent, material, and different phases of the ICT lifecycle present us with different challenges related to the physical properties of ICT. E-waste is a term used to describe discarded electronic and electrical equipment that is neither reused or repaired, nor refurbished. While it is clear that e-waste is currently mainly a big social and environmental problem, we also see opportunities in re-introducing materials from existing e-waste into the ICT supply chain. Although e-waste is a pressing problem, it can also be seen as, and become a resource. The shift in perspective required is towards a life-cycle perspective on all materials in the production, marketing, and end-of-life processes of ICT artefacts. A combination of Design for Repairability and End-of-life Design can contribute to a set of electronics design guidelines that would meet circular economy principles.

Introduction

Because of the abstract nature of ICT, many have long assumed that the negative social and environmental side effects of ICT are non-existent, or at least negligible given the immense potential of ICT to create wealth and prosperity and even to promote sustainability [START_REF] Rattle | Computing Our Way to Paradise?: The Role of Internet and Communication Technologies in Sustainable Consumption and Globalization[END_REF][START_REF] Fors | Problematizing Sustainable ICT[END_REF]. However, in recent decades it has become increasingly apparent that ICT is, at least to some extent, material, and that different phases of the ICT life-cycle present us with different challenges related to the physical properties of ICT. ICT products -such as mobile phones, servers, desktops and laptops -are produced by an increasing number of different materials that need to be extracted from the earth in one way or another, usually with severe environmental, health and safety issues. Components used in ICT products also need to be produced, and these components need to be assembled into the final product. In this phase, we are also presented with different problems related to social and environmental factors. It is in the use phase of ICT products where the social, economic and potentially also environmental benefits are reaped. However, we are also becoming increasingly aware of the energy consumption of these products. Although these products are becoming more energy-efficient by the day, the quantity of ICT products is rapidly increasing, and the total amount of electricity needed for them to function also increases. While all phases of the ICT lifecycle are intimately connected, this chapter will focus on the disposal phase, or the of end-of-life (EoL) of ICT products, often termed electronic waste or e-waste. E-waste is a term used to describe discarded electronic and electrical equipment that is neither reused or repaired, nor refurbished [START_REF] Kreps | IFIP Position Paper on E-Waste[END_REF]. According to the Solving The e-waste Problem initiative, e-waste should be defined as "all types of electrical and electronic equipment (EEE) and its parts that have been discarded by the owner as waste without the intention of re-use" (StEP). While we acknowledge the fact that e-waste is not entirely made up of ICT products, we mainly focus on ICT related e-waste in this chapter. Both since the majority of the products referred to as ewaste are ICT products and also since this book has a focus on ICT.

There are many reasons materials used in ICT products are not properly recycled. The main reasons include the complex material composition of ICT products, that make them virtually impossible to fully recycle, at least without the use of extremely hightech facilities. Such facilities can recycle between 70 and 90 percent of the materials in e-waste, but they only exist in few locations around the world (Sweden, Japan, Canada, Germany and Belgium). A second reason is the lack of incentive for ICT companies to design products for longevity, repairability, upgradeability, disassembly and recycling -rather than for cost-efficiency, performance, aesthetics and a relatively short useful life. A third reason is the lack of proper systems for recovery and recycling of e-waste in many places, and a lack of incentive for consumers of electronic goods to actually use these existing systems and hand back worn-out electronics. There are also other reasons that we have failed to create a circular system for ICT products with the accumulation of e-waste as a result, including the use of virgin materials over recycled materials, short-term profits of exporting waste over long-term profits of keeping them in the cycle, and the overconsumption of new electronic products in the developed world.

However, while it is clear that e-waste is currently mainly a big social and environmental problem, we also see opportunities in re-introducing materials from existing ewaste into the ICT supply chain. There are indications that the linear production system (i.e. take-make-waste) is not only inferior from a sustainability-perspective, but also that many elements (such as copper and gold) are getting increasingly profitable to recycle rather than to extract from virgin ore [START_REF] Izatt | Challenges to achievement of metal sustainability in our high-tech society[END_REF]. Considering the three pillars of sustainability (social, environmental, economic), we argue that with e-waste recycling we have a rare case of "win-win-win" synergies, as solving the e-waste problem will lead to economic, social and environmental benefits. This chapter will discuss e-waste from a social, environmental and economic standpoint on both the local and global level. The principal areas of concern for this chapter are e-waste, sustainable development and resource use and reuse and these concepts will be briefly touched upon in the next section of the chapter.

Background

Sustainable development is a term that was coined in the late 1980s and got its famous definition in the renowned "Brundtland report" Our Common Future [START_REF]Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development[END_REF]. Here, it was concluded that sustainable development should be seen as human development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs [START_REF]Our Common Future: Report of the World Commission on Environment and Development[END_REF]. Since then, sustainable development has become a buzzword with many different interpretations. What unites these interpretations is the fact that sustainable development is an assemblage of complex and interrelated social, environmental and economic aspects that need to be taken into consideration simultaneously. Despite the focus on different sustainability-related goals, in more recent decades, not least the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), sustainable development should not be seen as an end-goal or something that "can be achieved", but rather as a process of continuous improvements.

It is clear that the e-waste problem presents numerous sustainability-related challenges, as it affects the environment and human societies at both local and global levels. Turning to the SDGs, it is clear that the e-waste problem needs to be solved in order to reach some of them, most notably Goal 3, to "Ensure healthy lives and promote wellbeing for all at all ages", Goal 8, to "Promote sustained, inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all", Goal 9, to "Build resilient infrastructure, promote sustainable industrialization and foster innovation, "Goal 11, to "Make cities and human settlements inclusive safe resilient and sustainable", and Goal 12, to "Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns". For a closer scrutinization of how the e-waste problem relates to the targets within each SDG, please see the UN Environmental Management Group (EMG) report "United Nations System-wide Response to Tackling E-waste" [START_REF]United Nations System-wide Response to Tackling E-waste[END_REF].

Resource Use

As Meadows et. al. [START_REF] Meadows | The Limits to Growth[END_REF] [START_REF] Crutzen | The Anthropocene[END_REF]. Defined as a new geological era, the Anthropocene is characterised by the extent of man-made changes -not least to the weather system -our activities have effected upon the planet we share. The Great Acceleration [START_REF] Steffen | The trajectory of the Anthropocene: The Great Acceleration[END_REF] of these changes since 1945, moreover, means that the modern period "deserves to be marked off as different from what came before it in environmental history" [37, p.208]. The crucial point here is that although the Anthropocene is here to stay, the acceleration must stop, if humans are to be able to continue living on this planet in anything like the manner we have been used to over the last 10,000 yearsi.e. in settled, civilised conditions supported by the planet's ecosystems. Key to an understanding of these changes -and how to remedy them -remains economics. The production cycle of our economic growth model -how we make, use, and then discard things -is extremely inefficient, leading to massive and unsustainable resource depletion, and enormous amounts of polluting waste. As John Bellamy Foster [START_REF] Foster | The Ecological Rift[END_REF] and others have outlined, our systems of production and trade are so divorced from the needs of the natural world -and so efficient at its use -that they are "killing the planet" [17, p. 8]. The core premise of this thinking is that we cannot continue to use natural resources in such flagrant and wasteful a manner as we have become used to, without devastating consequences. According to the Global Footprint Network, "Humans use as much ecological resources as if we lived on 1.75 Earths" [19]. According to 2011 figures, the average American uses seven "global hectares", compared to a global average of 2.7, so if we all lived like US citizens we would need four Earths, not one [START_REF] Macdonald | [END_REF]. New economic thinking, including ideas like the steady-state economy [START_REF] Daly | Beyond Growth[END_REF], and the more recent 'doughnut' economics of Kate Raworth [START_REF] Raworth | A safe and just space for humanity: can we live within the doughnut[END_REF][START_REF] Raworth | Doughnut Economics[END_REF], are complementing the ambitions of supra-national bodies such as the UN and the EU to move toward a "circular economy" [START_REF] Bovea | Identifying design guidelines to meet the circular economy principles: A case study on electric and electronic equipment[END_REF][START_REF]PACE The Platform for Accelerating the Circular Economy: A New Circular Vision for Electronics: Time for a Global Reboot[END_REF] fundamentally changing the habits of industrial capitalism.

As is becoming increasingly clear, moreover, "digital's (growing) contribution to the ecological catastrophe unfolding in the 21st century" [START_REF] Kreps | Against Nature: The Metaphysics of Information Systems London[END_REF] cannot go unchallenged. The production cycle of digital devices is immensely wasteful. To take just one example, over a billion iPhones have been made since 2007 using some 40 million tons of gold ore. How little of this is recycled is quite shocking, considering that gold was made trillions of years ago in the heart of exploding stars, later to coalesce into the rocks and dust from which planets such as ours were formed around our own, relatively young Sun.

Perhaps the most extraordinary tale, however, concerning the resources used by our everyday technological devices, is that of Rare Earth Elements, or RREs. These are precious resources found in only a very few places on Earth, each fraught with problems. China, which has the greatest sources of these precious materials, has either restricted or blocked their export on a number of occasions. It is perhaps as much -or more -to do with these resources than the relatively cheaper labour that is behind the decisions of Apple and other smartphone manufacturers to base their manufacturing operations in China, rather than elsewhere [START_REF] Ferris | [END_REF]26,[START_REF] Krugman | [END_REF]57]. In the US, deposits of these materials are to be found, but only with relative difficulty, and thus expense. A Congressional Research Service Report on Rare Earth Minerals [24] pointed out that in 2011 96.9% of all Rare Earth Mineral production took place in China, where some 50% of global reserves are to be found, compared to only some 13% in the US, with the rest spread across the world, notably in Russia.

Resource depletion is a growing problem for many industries. As the global population rises, and the economic model of GDP growth encourages constant innovation, the use of resources is increasing rapidly. This rapaciousness includes the depletion of metals, such as gold and aluminium as well as RREs, [START_REF] Ferris | [END_REF]26,[START_REF] Krugman | [END_REF]57], which are central to the production of ICTs. The recycling of e-waste, for the recovery of these minerals (urban mining), is thus a central concern for the electronics industry.

4

The "e-waste problem"

Having briefly touched upon some of the problems with e-waste, this section of the chapter will focus upon different sustainability-related (social, economic and environmental) problems, both on a local and a global scale. E-waste, often referred to as the fastest growing waste stream globally, is a global problem with both local and global consequences. According to the Global E-Waste Monitor "the world generated 44.7 million metric tonnes (Mt) of e-waste and only 20% was recycled through appropriate channels" in 2016 [START_REF] Balde | The global e-waste monitor -2014[END_REF]. The majority of the other 80% remains with the user [START_REF] Wilson | The Hibernating Mobile Phone: Dead Storage as a Barrier to Efficient Electronic Waste Recovery[END_REF], is thrown in residual waste (4%), is exported as secondhand goods or illegally exported as e-waste to be informally recycled under inferior circumstances. The Global E-Waste Monitor records that the United States produced 6.3 Mt of e-waste in 2016, of which only 1.4 Mt was collected (22%). Norway produces the most e-waste (28.5 kg per inhabitant), but it has one of the highest collection rates (49.2%). While the West has traditionally been the largest producers of e-waste, it is estimated that by 2030, China will be the biggest producers of e-waste, with over 28 million tons produced each year. This makes China a bigger producer than all countries in the EU combined [START_REF] Zeng | Measuring the recyclability of e-waste: an innovative method and its implications[END_REF].

A crucial aspect that has contributed to the e-waste problem is the fact that electronic goods have not and are not designed with longevity and recycling -but instead with attributes such as cost-efficiency, performance and aesthetics -in mind. Planned obsolescence also remains a key problem in the ICT industry [START_REF] Wieser | Beyond Planned Obsolescence: Product Lifespans and the Challenges to a Circular Economy[END_REF][START_REF] Bakker | Products That Go Round: Exploring Product Life Extension through Design[END_REF]. For example, many current smartphones are glued, rather than screwed together, making battery replacement difficult and expensive. Diminished battery capacity is one of the primary drivers for replacement of the whole device [START_REF] Reck | Challenges in metal recycling[END_REF]. In pursuit of cost-efficiency and performance, the material composition of electronic goods is also becoming increasingly complex. According to [START_REF] Löser | Strategic information systems management for environmental sustainability: enhancing firm competitiveness with Green IS[END_REF], a microprocessor used in desktops in the 1980s consisted of 12 different chemical elements. Today, a microprocessor is usually made up of as many as 60, or more than half of all the elements in the periodic table. While high-technological facilities for recycling of e-waste do exist, as previously mentioned, they are few and can currently not keep up with the rapid technological developments within the ICT industry.

While approximately 70 to 90 percent by weight of each electronic product can be recycled today, very few of these many different elements are actually recycled. For example, most, if not all, of the Rare Earth Elements (REEs) will end up in landfills because of the small amount used in each product [START_REF] Reck | Challenges in metal recycling[END_REF]. REEs, such as iridium, palladium and gallium, are elements used to give electronic products certain unique properties. The name is used collectively for Group 3 elements of the periodic table, and they are chemically similar and are often found together in the Earth's crust [START_REF] Kassem | Metals in Our IT Equipment: Social and Economic Impacts, Geopolitical Conflicts. Other Social Impacts of ICT Manufacturing[END_REF]. While these are used in very small amounts, the use of them gives rise to local environmental and social problems as well as global environmental problems. Many of these precious resources are found in only a very few places on Earth, each fraught with problems [START_REF] Schüler | Study on rare earths and their recycling[END_REF] have looked into REE extraction in China and conclude that refining REEs is a very energy-intensive process which often causes emissions into water and air due to heavy use of chemical materials being used in the process. In one of the largest REE mines (Bayan Obo in China), a large number of environmental and health issues have been identified due to the huge amount of gas, liquid and solid waste generated by the mining operation. Even in the few REE mines that do not contain radioactive elements (e.g. thorium), many environmental and health issues were identified. Many illegal mines also exist in China, where environmental, health and safety issues are more or less ignored. China has also either restricted or blocked their export on a number of occasions.

Many actors along the value chain of ICT products, moreover, have traditionally tried to avoid the responsibility of the e-waste problem. According to [START_REF] Umair | Ewaste Imports and Informal Recycling in Pakistan[END_REF], only around 20 percent of all End-of-Life (EoL) electronic devices are properly recycled, while the remaining 80 percent is shipped as second-hand goods to developing parts of the world. According to the Basel Convention, while the exportation of second-hand goods is legal, exporting e-waste is illegal. However, only about two-thirds of the second-hand equipment is still functioning and sold in local second-hand markets. The rest is repaired and sold or ends up at local scrap yards. According to Basel Action Network (BAN), the biggest importers of e-waste are China, Pakistan and India, while the biggest exporters are the US, the EU and Australia. From the US, according to [START_REF] Lepawsky | Best of Two Worlds? Towards Ethical Electronics Repair, Reuse, Repurposing and Recycling[END_REF], between 50 and 80 percent of all e-waste is exported rather than being recycled nationally. The lack of sustainable e-waste management results in wide-scale environmental impacts as well as health impacts to the people and communities working in or living near these sites [START_REF] Asamoah | Assessment of PCBs and Exposure Risk to Infants in Breast Milk of Primiparae and Multiparae Mothers in an Electronic Waste Hot Spot and Non-Hot Spot Areas in Ghana[END_REF][START_REF] Awasthi | Environmental Pollution of Electronic Waste Recycling in India: A Critical Review[END_REF][START_REF] Grant | Health Consequences of Exposure to E-Waste: A Systematic Review[END_REF][START_REF] Krugman | [END_REF].

According to the WEEE handbook, e-waste generally contains many different toxic substances, such as mercury, lead, chromium and cadmium, but also various other chemicals including ozone-depleting substances and flame retardants. The amount of toxic substances in e-waste vary, but generally speaking older equipment contains more toxic substances, but also more valuable materials, making these devices more attractive to informal recyclers. Many CRT (Cathode Ray Tube) monitors, for example, contain valuable materials such as cadmium, which should only be managed by professionals. If humans or animals are exposed to cadmium, bones and kidneys can be affected. This substance is now banned by the European Restriction on Hazardous Substance Directive. While CRT monitors have been more or less phased out, flat-screen monitors can also be dangerous to handle, as they may contain mercury which is highly toxic and can cause damage to different vital organs in humans and animals. Also, this toxic substance can be passed on to children when breast-fed by someone who has been exposed to the substance. Cables and wiring are often informally recycled in order to extract the copper. Cables are often coated in plastics (incl. PVC plastics), and the fastest/easiest way to access the copper is to burn the plastic coating away. However, PVC release dioxins when burned, and these dioxins can affect the immune and reproductive systems of humans and animals. Other standard procedures include heating and manual removal of components from printed circuit boards (PBCs), and acid digestion of components, both of these with potential negative effects on the health of the workers. Needless to say, these workers are not trained to properly manage e-waste, but many (including children) are forced to engage in these activities to survive.

This highlights another problem related to e-waste, namely that the whole problem is highly unequal from a global world-system perspective. Lennerfors et. al. [START_REF] Lennerfors | ICT and environmental sustainability in a changing society[END_REF] review the ICT lifecycle from a sustainability perspective, and present a critique toward research, policy and practical initiatives that present ICT as a solution to different sustainability-related problems. They see that while ICT in the use phase can be used for sustainability purposes (dematerialization, optimization, etc.) locally in the developed world, this also results in environmental degradation and social problems in developing countries where much of the extraction, production, manufacturing and disposal takes place. They argue that using ICT to achieve different sustainability-related problems usually resembles a "zero-sum game", where developing countries suffer local environmental and social problems in order to "keep the [developed] core green and clean" [START_REF] Hornborg | The power of the machine: Global inequalities of economy, technology, and environment[END_REF]. Thus, there is certainly an important aspect of global inequalities related to the ewaste problem that needs to be taken into consideration.

Initiatives to solve the problem

There are several global initiatives that aim to regulate and create incentives for increased circularity within the ICT industry. As of 2018, two-thirds of countries are covered by a national e-waste management policy. [START_REF] Balde | The global e-waste monitor -2014[END_REF]. Almost all national and international policies include a take-back system, often based on an Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) clause, in which the producer or distributor is obliged to collect used electronic and electrical products for reuse and recycling. Even though "policymakers, producers and recyclers in various countries have created specialized 'take-back and treatment' systems to collect e-waste from final owners and process it in professional treatment facilities (... ) the collection and state-of-the-art treatment of e-waste is limited, and most nations are still without such e-waste management systems" [START_REF] Baldé | The global e-waste monitor -2017[END_REF]. In Sweden, where recycling is the norm [START_REF] Hage | Norms and economic motivation in household recycling: Empirical evidence from Sweden[END_REF], a sophisticated take-back system is implemented (El-kretsen), and where one of the few high-technological recycling facilities is located, only a very small amount of small electronic devices such as mobile phones are actually recycled.

Perhaps the most well-known global initiative is the Basel Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and their Disposal, which came into place in 1992 and restricts the movement of hazardous waste from highincome to low-income countries [START_REF]Basel Convention Text[END_REF]. Of the high-income countries, only the USA has not ratified the Convention. In 1995, the Basel Ban Amendment was proposed, which would ban all shipment of e-waste from OECD countries to low-income countries, including export for recycling, but this Amendment remains unratified, because not enough countries support it. The European Union countries and Norway and Switzerland have fully implemented the Amendment in their national legislation [START_REF] Rucevska | Waste Crime -Waste Risks: Gaps in Meeting the Global Waste Challenge.A UNEP Rapid Response Assessment[END_REF]. After the Basel Convention, the Partnership for Action on Computing Equipment (PACE) was initiated. PACE is described as a "multi-stakeholder public-private partnership" where many different actors are represented, including producers, recyclers, researchers, environmental groups, and so on. The final guidance documents that were adopted by the parties in 2017 deals with environmentally sound management of end-of-life computing equipment.

In the EU, a Waste Electrical and Electronics Equipment (WEEE) Directive in 2012 promoted the "re-use, recycling and other forms of recovery of waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) in order to reduce the quantity of such waste to be disposed and to improve the environmental performance of the economic operators involved in the treatment of WEEE" [14]. Another organization that focuses on e-waste is The International Environmental Technology Centre (IETC). Their focus is to promote environmentally sustainable technological solutions focusing on holistic waste management. To realize this vision, IETC provides support to governments that want to enhance their use of more sustainable practices, strategies and technologies. They focus on innovative waste prevention methods and technologies and aim to improve human well-being and reduce the impact of e-waste on climate change. IETC is a part of the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) and is located in Osaka, Japan. Another UN initiative is the Environmental Management Group, which was established in 2001. In 2016, they started focusing also on e-waste more specifically, by attempting to strengthen collaboration between different policy initiatives within the UN, and to support already existing initiatives and projects related to design and life cycle approaches for sustainability.

There are other initiatives aiming to solve problems related to e-waste, or to design, use, and dispose of electronic equipment in ways that promote circularity and sustainability. Examples include The UN agency International Telecommunication Union (ITU), The International Solid Waste Association, responsible for the well-known report the Global E-Waste Monitor, first released in 2014, Solving the E-Waste Problem (StEP), and more. Another central initiative that works for sustainability in the ICT industry more broadly, but also specifically targets the e-waste problem is the Karlskrona Manifesto for Sustainable Design. According to the manifesto, not only producers of hardware are responsible for sustainable design of technology. Rather, software practitioners who design software systems that "run our world" also have a big impact on the sustainability of ICT and other technological devices. Finally, the International Federation for Information Processing (IFIP) has recently taken a stance in the e-waste discussion with the IFIP Position Paper on e-waste. The work on this paper began in IFIP's Technical Committee 9 in the Autumn of 2017, led by David Kreps, with the goal of setting out some of the details of the problem, as it currently stands, and what role IFIP affirms it can play in trying to redress it. Here, just like in the Karlskrona Manifesto, IFIP establishes which actor (e.g. users, designers and producers of ICT products) has the responsibility for what aspect of the e-waste problem, and how each actor can take their responsibility [START_REF] Kreps | IFIP Position Paper on E-Waste[END_REF].

E-waste as a resource

While the magnitude of the e-waste problem is growing, much current research is showing that there are many benefits in recycling e-waste, and the recovery of precious materials such as plastic, iron, platinum, copper, aluminium, gold, silver and palladium. While finding a solution to the e-waste problem is likely to be costly initially, there are thus important synergies that need to be taken into consideration. Since virgin materials have traditionally been both cheaper and of better quality than recycled materials, initiatives for ICT companies to adopt more circular business models have been driven either by good will/CSR or by regulations. According to [START_REF] Zeng | Measuring the recyclability of e-waste: an innovative method and its implications[END_REF] Zeng et al. ( 2019), much research has focused on how to recover different types of materials from e-waste. However, few studies have focused on the economic feasibility of recovering such materials from e-waste rather than from virgin -mined -materials. Recently, however, it has been suggested that many precious metals (such as gold and copper) are becoming cheaper to extract from e-waste than from virgin ore. The biggest potential for recycled materials compared with virgin materials is according to [START_REF] Hagelüken | Recycling of gold from electronics: Cost-effective use through 'Design for Recycling[END_REF] that the content of precious metals in e-waste is usually much higher than in virgin ores. This means that while ore usually exists in larger quantities in each specific location compared with ewaste, it can be very profitable to extract metals from e-waste instead, given that it is possible to gather large enough quantities [START_REF] Cucchiela | Recycling of WEEEs: An economic assessment of present and future e-waste streams[END_REF]. According to Cucchiella et al. CRT monitors, smart phones, LCD TVs, cellphones and LCD notebooks are probably the products with most potential to be profitable when recycled, due to the high amount of precious materials in them [START_REF] Cucchiela | Recycling of WEEEs: An economic assessment of present and future e-waste streams[END_REF]. The Global E-waste Monitor [START_REF] Baldé | The global e-waste monitor -2017[END_REF] concludes that the total value of all raw materials present in e-waste is estimated at approximately €55 billion in 2016. However, Cucchiella et al. [START_REF] Cucchiela | Recycling of WEEEs: An economic assessment of present and future e-waste streams[END_REF] estimate that the potential profit from recycling materials in e-waste is €2.15 billion. This much lower figure is affected by a number of factors such as transportation, collection rates, etc. However, given the increased interest in circular business models, and increased regulatory pressure, it would be surprising if not more ICT companies started to see the potential of e-waste as a resource in the near future. After all, the ICT industry is heavily dependent on metals such as copper and gold and utilizes about 30 and 12 percent of the total consumption respectively [START_REF] Zeng | Measuring the recyclability of e-waste: an innovative method and its implications[END_REF].

According to the WEEE handbook (p. 5), "from a resource perspective, e-waste is an urban mine providing tremendous resources for manufacturing and refurbishing". Zeng et al. [START_REF] Zeng | Measuring the recyclability of e-waste: an innovative method and its implications[END_REF] argue that as virgin-mined materials are getting more expensive, and ewaste more easily accessible, recycled materials will soon be more profitable than virgin-mined materials. They show that in China, a country with large quantities of ewaste available for recycling, pure gold and copper recovered from e-waste is now cheaper compared with virgin mining of ores. More specifically, the cost of urban mined gold from [e-waste] has been far lower than the world commodity price each year, and is falling as per the learning curve associated with the processes of demanufacturing involved. By 2015 the estimated cost of urban mined gold had fallen to US $1,591 per kg in 2015, compared with the world commodity price of just under US$4,000 in the same year [START_REF] Zeng | Measuring the recyclability of e-waste: an innovative method and its implications[END_REF].

As China will soon be the biggest importer and producer of e-waste, the economic benefit of recycling will most likely increase in the future, given the investment in proper recycling facilities. Zeng et al. [START_REF] Zeng | Measuring the recyclability of e-waste: an innovative method and its implications[END_REF] argue that this could also be the case for other materials and in other geographical contexts. However, at the moment many OECD countries lack the required infrastructure and collection systems, making alternatives to formal recycling more attractive, as they provide a smaller but immediate short-term benefit [START_REF] Izatt | Challenges to achievement of metal sustainability in our high-tech society[END_REF].

There are obviously many other benefits to recycling materials found in e-waste. For example, metals can be extracted from e-waste with far less environmental impact than by extracting the same amount of metals from ore, given that the waste is formally recycled. The approximate content of different metals in e-waste is often known beforehand, making the refining process more efficient. Furthermore, much less solid waste material is generated from extracting metals from e-waste compared to from virgin ore [START_REF] Izatt | Challenges to achievement of metal sustainability in our high-tech society[END_REF]. There are also obvious social benefits from formal recycling, such as the cleaning up of "e-waste villages", and replacement of harmful informal recycling practices with formal recycling. Two problems that arise with increased formal recycling is that initial costs are high before proper regulations, take-back systems and recycling facilities are in place; that many people today make a living out of informal recycling practices; and that take-back systems and regulations need to be more impactful than they are today. As emphasized by [START_REF] Izatt | Challenges to achievement of metal sustainability in our high-tech society[END_REF], increased recycling rates and improved processing of end-of-life products are necessary in order to achieve sustainability in metal life cycles.

Conclusions

In conclusion, it is clear that although e-waste is a pressing problem, it can also be seen as, and become a resource. The shift in perspective required is towards a life-cycle perspective on all materials in the production, marketing, and end-of-life processes of ICT artefacts. Such a perspective includes attention to:

• Sustainable (social + environmental + economic) extraction of materials (both virgin materials but more importantly from existing (e-)waste). • Sustainable production of hardware and software (for repair, longevity, dismantling, upgradeability, etc.) • Reparation and refurbishing of discarded products • Effective take-back systems • Effective dismantling and separation of precious materials (e.g. iron, platinum, copper, aluminium, plastic, gold, silver, palladium and more). • Re-use of precious materials Any attempt to address the issue of electronic waste and sustainability needs first, therefore, to consider the interdependence of the different aspects of the issue as discussed in this chapter: design, resource depletion, environmental degradation, and human health impacts are all interwoven. For example:

• Design for repairability can extend the lifespan of ICTs through plug-and-play upgrades and improvements, both hardware and software [27], as well as a modular design that encourages repair [START_REF] Cordella | Development of an Approach for Assessing the Reparability and Upgradability of Energy-related Products[END_REF]. • End-of-life design results in a less complex disassembly process and less scrap [START_REF] Xing | IREDA: An Integrated Methodology for Product Recyclability and End-of-life Design[END_REF].

The combination of Design for repairability and End-of-life design can contribute to a set of electronics design guidelines that meet circular economy principles [START_REF] Bovea | Identifying design guidelines to meet the circular economy principles: A case study on electric and electronic equipment[END_REF]. In addition, a Best of 2 Worlds (Bo2W) approach, in which informal disassembly of electronics is combined with formal high tech recycling, may diminish health and environmental impacts [START_REF] Wang | The Best-of-2-Worlds philosophy: Developing local dismantling and global infrastructure network for sustainable e-waste treatment in emerging economies[END_REF].

These changes are challenging, but not insurmountable. They will need to be supported by supra-and national policy and regulations, encouraged by taxation and other levers of behaviour change; and CSR. They will increasingly be driven by virgin resource scarcity.

The responsibility for rising to these challenges lies, therefore, with the ICT industry, first and foremost, but also with policymakers and governments, ICT professionals working in the industry, and ultimately the users/consumers of ICT products, who can help to drive change through consumer choice. Lastly, waste handling companies must be engaged more by the industry, to ensure their own requirements are built-in to the design of artefacts, streamlining the life cycle from design to disassembly.