Jose J Gonzalez
email: jose.j.gonzalez@uia.no

Magnus Bång
email: magnus.bang@liu.se

Raquel Gimenez
email: rgimenez@tecnun.es

Josune Hernantes
email: jhernantes@tecnun.es

Susan Howick
email: susan.howick@strath.ac.uk

Patricia Maraña
email: pmarana@tecnun.es

Igor Pyrko
email: igor.pyrko@strath.ac.uk

Jaziar Radianti
email: jaziar.radianti@uia.no

Amy Rankin
email: amy.rankin@liu.se

Jose Mari Sarriegi
email: jmsarriegi@tecnun.es

Stalking resilience Cities as vertebrae in society's resilience backbone

Keywords: Resilience, Management guidelines, • Critical Infrastructures, Natural disasters, Social dynamics, Maturity model, Risk systemicity

This paper presents the EU H2020 project Smart Mature Resilience, which takes advantage of the fact that many cities are committed to become increasingly resilient and have ongoing processes for urban resilience. Smart Mature Resilience develops resilience management guidelines based on a Resilience Maturity Model that engages a growing number of stakeholders and multi-level governance in order for cities to become vertebrae for society's resilience backbone. In a dual approach, employing a systematic literature review of international resilience implementation approaches alongside group processes with experts, the Smart Mature Resilience project has developed a preliminary resilience maturity model consisting of five stages Starting, Moderate, Advanced, Robust and verTebrate (SMART) and a Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire. The SMART Resilience Maturity Model suggests two principal processes for the transition to resilience maturity: 1) A process of increasing engagement and collaboration with new stakeholder types, from local, to regional, to national to European in a growing resilience backbone, and 2) a process of quality improvement of policies for transitioning from a Safety-I to a Safety-II perspective (from risk assessment & mitigation to adaption to future surprises as conditions evolve).

Introduction

This paper reports findings done during the first year of the European Union's Horizon 2020 project Smart Mature Resilience (H2020-EU. 3.7., project ref. 653569). The findings should be considered preliminary, since they will be subject to further refinement during the remaining two years of the project. Smart Mature Resilience (SMR) was developed to meet the call "DRS-7-2014: Crisis management topic 7: Crises and disaster resilienceoperationalizing resilience concepts". Altogether five out of forty nine proposals targeting this call were funded. SMR started 1 June 2015 and will finish 31 May 2018.

The call adopted the definition of resilience by the United Nations International Strategy on Disaster Risk Reduction (UNISDR): "The ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate to and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions" [START_REF]UNISDR, UNISDR Terminology on Disaster Risk Reduction. International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (ISDR)[END_REF]. Based on this definition, the call stipulated:

 "It is necessary to break down and practically apply the UNISDR definition of resilience to different security sectors. Resilience concepts namely need to be developed for critical infrastructures (supply of basic services like water, food, energy, transport, housing/ shelter, communications, finance, health), but also for the wider public to integrate and address human and social dynamics in crises and disaster situations, including the role of the population, the media, rescuers (staff, volunteers and ad-hoc volunteers)."  "A general resilience management guideline should be developed, linked with the European Union's Risk Assessment Guidelines, and operationalized in one or more of the security sectors, and/or the public."  "The successful pilot implementation of the developed guideline needs to be demonstrated and tested in an operational environment."

To develop the SMR proposal we took the following stance:

1. To achieve society's resilience one must integrate cities' resilience in the overall perspective. Most people live already in cities, and cities will continue to grow at the expense of rural areas. When man-made or natural disasters happen, cities will always be affected, even if the disaster's epicentre should occur in rural areas. 2. Conversely, cities have the potential to play a key role for society's resilience: they have motivation and resources. Much has been done already and is being done about city resilience. However, the dominant perspective in those approaches is cities as isolated entities. Our project adds the perspective that society's resilience should rest on a resilience backbone with cities as vertebrae in the backbone. 3. Resilience should be seen as a quality improvement process, albeit a highly complex one, guided by a resilience maturity model. In this context a resilience maturity model should be understood as a trajectory through stages of increasing resilience maturity. The resilience maturity stages and the resilience building interventions ("policies") shape the resilience management guidelines required by the H2020's DRS-7-2014 call.

To achieve the goal of delivering a European emergent resilience backbone with cities as vertebrae, the SMR consortium was carefully composed of scientists and practitioner teams. The consortium consists of thirteen partners: four universities, two major non-profit organizations and seven cities.

The seven partner cities of the SMR project have excelled in their commitment as resilient cities or as smart cities. Four of the cities (Bristol and Glasgow -United Kingdom; Rome -Italy; and Vejle -Denmark) were selected by The Rockefeller Foundation as members of the 100 Resilient Cities (http://100resilientcities.org). The other three cities (San Sebastian -Spain; Kristiansand -Norway; and Riga -Latvia) have engaged in various smart city activities and networks.

The four universities in the consortium (Agder, Linköping, Navarra and Strathclyde) complement and supplement each other in terms of expertise and methods so as to cover all the relevant aspects of the project research. A major asset for the purpose of conducting pilot implementations of the envisioned resilience management guideline was the fact that three of the universities resided in cities represented in the project consortium (viz. Kristiansand for University of Agder, Donostia/San Sebastian for the University of Navarra and Glasgow for the University of Strathclyde).

Finally, the SMR consortium included two organizations with critical expertise for the success of the project, viz. ICLEI and DIN.

"ICLEI -Local Governments for Sustainability" http://www.iclei.org/ defines itself as «a high-energy, flexible Movement of local governments working together in national, regional and international networks; engaging in global campaigns for sustainability, participating in performance-based programs, advancing through an international exchange of experiences and solutionsa movement which is supported by commitment processes, performance frameworks, programs, networks, strategic alliances and centres of excellence.». In the SMR project ICLEI leads the pilot implementation work package. In addition, ICLEI leads the work package that targets dissemination and project impact.

DIN, the German Institute for Standardization, is one of the most active standards organizations in the world. In the SMR project DIN prepares the ground to develop international standards emerging from the project.

The paper continues in Section 2 with a discussion of the project's approach in terms of a maturity model. In Section 3 we provide an overview of the SMR project's architecture. Section 4 presents the main insights from the project's worldwide literature survey on resilience. Section 5 describes our current understanding of the resilience maturity model. Section 6 concerns the development of the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire. We conclude in section 7 with a brief summing up.

Advantages of a maturity model for resilience

Maturity models emerged from quality improvement in software engineering in 1979.

In the meantime maturity models have been developed for more than twenty different application areas [START_REF] Wendler | The maturity of maturity model research: A systematic mapping study[END_REF]. To the best of our knowledge, the SMR project embodies the first attempt to develop a maturity model for society's resilience.

Beyond the rationale that a resilience maturity model contains key aspects of the resilience management guidelines required by the H2020 DRS-14-2014 call, proceed-ing in terms of a resilience maturity model has a key advantage: It facilitates the otherwise extremely difficult requirement to develop and test in an operational environment the pilot implementation of the resilience management guideline.

Achieving resilience within the scope of a three year project that, as a first step, must develop the tools to achieve resilience, is hardly possible. The partner cities in the SMR project were carefully selected so that the cases for demonstrating and testing the resilience management guideline concern cities in different stages of maturity.

First, a preliminary resilience maturity model was developed, shown in Table 1. The SMART acronym maturity model corresponds to the first letters of the maturity stages Starting -Moderate -Advanced -Robust and the T from the last stage Vertebrate. The approach is mainly city centered. A multi-governance approach with a European dimension is dormant. The city is not part of a larger resilience network.

Moderate

The city manages resilience development policies, using control measures. The risk assessment with regard to hazards affecting critical infrastructures and man-made threats are been operationalized in cooperation with critical infrastructure providers. Plans to involve communities and develop private-public cooperation have been developed. The city recognizes the relevance of a multi-governance approach with a European dimension and acts to invigorate the approach. The resilience management is still fragmented and siloed. The city has started planning for networking with other European cities with regard to resilience and sustainability.

Advanced

The city has developed a framework to manage resilience within an explicit holistic approach that integrates critical infrastructure providers, expertise on man-made disasters and sustainability. Community resilience and private-public cooperation is part of the approach. The nodes in a multi-governance approach with a European dimension are well-linked in the plans, but not yet fully operationalized. The city is member of a major network of European cities with regard to resilience and sustainability.

Robust

The city has engaged all relevant agents to its resilience holistic approach. Agents perceive value added by resilience. The multi-governance approach with a European dimension is well developed and operationalized. The city is a member in a major network of European cities with regard to resilience and sustainability, with a proactive posture regarding interdependencies and potential cascading effects.

VerTebrate

The city excels with its resilience as part of the ecosystem (regional, national, European) resilience. The city acts as a vertebra in the European Resilience backbone Note the increase of the cities' capability as functional units ("vertebrae") of the resilience backbone as they progress toward higher resilience maturity levels.

Next, a preliminary assessment of the resilience maturity of the partner cities was done. The outcome yielded that Donostia/San Sebastian was at the resilience maturity stage "Moderate", Kristiansand at the stage "Advanced" and Glasgow at the stage "Robust". The project target is to demonstrate and validate that each city will progress to the next higher stage of resilience maturity. Thus the SMR project is structured so that much of the trajectory toward resilience, from low to high stages, is covered.

Overview of the Smart Mature Resilience proposal

The SMR project was conceived with the perspective of a holistic, multi-level governance perspective of European resilience with cities as vertebrae in a strong European resilience backbone. SMR builds upon the experience, the insights and the practice of on-going endeavours on urban/city resilience (including smart cities), but it approaches risk and resilience in an overall European perspective. The project does not view cities as isolated entities, but rather as interconnected and interdependent units, in the similar situation of vertebrae as interconnected and interdependent parts of a backbone. Cities can be affected directly or indirectly by disasters. Indirect effects can arise from proximity, from interdependencies and cascading effects, or even from sharing the same class of major threats and suggesting common approaches and collaborative arrangements.

Error! Reference source not found. illustrates the vision of a resilience backbone in Europe with cities as vertebrae. SMR targets an emergent resilience backbone consisting of the cities in the consortium as a direct project result. Furthermore, the project develops the tools and triggers a process to facilitate growth of the resilience backbone by attracting and consolidating more cities in the resilience backbone.

Error! Reference source not found. illustrates that the Resilience Management Guideline rests on three pillar tools (Resilience Maturity Model, Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire and Resilience Building Policies). The Engagement and Communication Tool ensures active user participation. The System Dynamics model is a computer simulation that integrates and connects the tools, supporting decision makers to diagnose and monitor with "what-if" analysis the progress to higher resilience maturity levels.

The activities during the first year of the project enhanced the preliminary resilience maturity model presented in Error! Reference source not found. and a prototype of the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire. In addition, design principles and specification for the Engagement and Communication Tool were derived.

The enhanced resilience maturity model was the outcome of two parallel project activities: 1) a thorough survey of the literature on resilience, followed by a literature synthesis and experts' assessment of the findings using a Delphi process; and 2) workshops with experts on critical infrastructure, climate change, social dynamics and city representatives occurring in Riga, Bristol, Rome and Vejle. The prototype of the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire evolved from activities using Group Explorer (See https://www.strath.ac.uk/media/faculties/business/brochures/GE_Brochure.pdf) during the workshops mentioned above. A worldwide literature survey of state-of-the-art resilience research was carried out to inform the development of the resilience management guideline and ensure common ground of concept, methods and approaches throughout the project. The survey was in part worldwide and general, and in part focused on Europe and specific problem areas.

The aim was to identify, synthesize and assess the main challenges and best practice existing today. Further, the survey serves as a repository of policies, metrics and best practices for continued work in the project.

The literature survey encompassed several reviews which can be summarized as follows: (1) a systematic literature review of academic peer-reviewed journal articles on urban resilience (119 articles), (2) a systematic literature review of three problem areas (resilience in critical infrastructure, climate change and social dynamics) (38 articles), (3) a review of EU project reports regarding resilience (170 reports) (4) a review of approaches and methods in relevant organisational bodies and networks (23 reports), (5) a survey of approached used in the SMR project cities (7 questionnaires).

The main findings of the resilience literature survey can be summarized as follows:

There are different perspectives on the concept of resilience

An analysis of underlying assumptions and differences in definitions of urban resilience uncover four conceptual "tensions", that is, theoretical concepts which are inconsistent or unclear. ( 1) "The notion of equilibrium". The concept of an equilibrium makes the distinction between resilience as the ability to "bounce back" or retain functionality in the face of disturbance [START_REF] Bruneau | A Framework to Quantitatively Assess and Enhance the Seismic Resilience of Communities[END_REF] compared to definitions that have a multi-equilibrium view, or see resilience as adaptive cycles, emphasizing the systems' ability to adapt, learn and change [START_REF] Walker | Genealogies of resilience: From systems ecology to the political economy of crisis adaptation[END_REF][START_REF] Malalgoda | Challenges in Creating a Disaster Resilient Built Environment[END_REF]. (2) "Resilience behaviours". Comparisons between the behaviours that characterise resilience uncover different theoretical underpinnings and thus pose a challenge when used concurrently in definitions. For example, "recover" suggests that there is an objective to "get back" to a previous state, "absorb" suggests coping with a disturbance without changing the basic structure and "adapt" suggests a change in structure to cope with new demands. (3) "Temporal aspects", that is, differences in how resilience is described; as something that happens before, during or after some disturbance. The differences imply the need for different types of policies and strategies, e.g., do they focus on building stable structures (before), flexible response teams (during) or re-building (after)? (4) "Urban resilience boundaries". Defining boundaries for the system to be examined presents a challenge which is not well discussed in literature, nor described in the reviewed urban resilience definitions. Boundaries include, for example, geographical (city or region limits), temporal, sectors of inclusion and level of abstraction.

A shift in resilience tools from theory to practice

The literature review shows that frameworks for urban resilience are abstract and far from being a practical tool for operationalization. There is a large variety in the attrib-utes/indicators used in the frameworks, which reflects a lack of consensus and unification on the notion of urban resilience in general and the central concepts is relates to. The findings further reflect the vast number of aspects that are important to resilience in an urban context and that there are many ways to increase resilience, depending on the area of interest. In developing guidelines for resilience it is thus of importance to carefully consider how to go from general concepts to specific applications. Each city that applies the maturity model is unique and thus a model which encompasses a large number of variables is necessarily on a high level. However, guidance on how general concepts can be applied in context may be a useful part of developing guidelines to aid the implementation. This could be, for example, support on how to priorities more/less important parts of the model to a particular context and also to demonstrate how different aspects of the model are interlinked.

Political and financial support and social engagement

The literature suggests that the financial and political capital of a city is a critical factor for resilience management. Challenges related to urban resilience are in many cases related to gaining support and financing resilience-supporting measures. Further, as found in the SMR partner city survey, a difficulty is that much of the policy and related decision-making regarding resilience is outside the cities' jurisdiction, which inhibits their response to disasters and crises. The dependencies, numerous stakeholders (subcontractors) and legal frameworks render managing the infrastructures on the local level difficult. A present strategy in the resilience work by the partner cities, as demonstrated in the survey, is to improve communication among different stakeholders and to pool resources locally and regionally. The strategy was echoed in the literature review as a central factor for successful implementation of policies. Another influencing element of urban resilience is citizens as local communities. Strategies to increase resilience include having well-informed citizens and promoting self-protective behaviour. Involving local stakeholders also has the benefit of building trust in a community and identifying local needs, which in turn may increase the resilience of a community. To create resilience, it is not sufficient to create new policies at a high level, it is also critical to have support from the community in order to make changes. These enabling factors should be considered in the development of the maturity model.

4.4

There is a need to link resilience and governance

In the literature, resilience is often linked to governance concept although the use and context of governance itself varies among scholars, especially in how it operates in society [START_REF] Walker | Risk governance and natural hazards[END_REF]. However, there are common themes, including adaptiveness, adaptive capacity and multi-level governance [6 -9]. Adapting from Commission of Global Governance (CGC), governance is interpreted as "the sum of the many ways individuals and institutions, public and private, manage their common affairs" [START_REF] Cgg | Our Global Neighbourhood[END_REF]. Governance is a continuous process, requiring cooperation and capacity to accommodate conflicting or diverse interests. It consists of formal institutions and regimes empowered to enforce compliance, as well as informal arrangements that people and institutions either have agreed to or perceive to be in their interest. In brief, adoption of governance implies several aspects: 1) Institutional pluralism and networks beyond the state established through cooperation of multiple actors and partnerships, distributed responsibilities. 2) No longer single sovereign authority. 2) New form of authority and control based on diplomacy, agreements, and empowerments. 3) Multilevel governance and issues of scale such as how much it is possible to talk on a widespread cross-national shift and trend [START_REF] Walker | Risk governance and natural hazards[END_REF].

The concept of resilience within governance of institutions and organisation is relatively new, and the Hyogo Framework Action (HFA) has pushed the resilience agenda forward in governance circles. Governance is important because governments often cannot act alone to respond to specific disaster events. When linking governance to the city resilience, it suggests that a resilient city should be capable of sustaining multi-level, multi-stakeholders platform to promote resilience in different levels: regional, national and international. At a more advanced maturity level, organizational capacities of the city to negotiate and make agreement are required. Principles of good partnership are becoming relevant such as shared vision, consensus, participation, negotiation, inclusion, volunteerism, accountability, and trust [START_REF] Mclean | Developing A Resilience Framework[END_REF].

Managing risk in a governance context

Incorporation of resilience into governance means that an increased numbers of actors such as politicians, regulators, businesses, NGOs, media and the public are involved in common affairs. The literature points out the importance of taking into account risks of collaborative practice in governance, and wider social and political context [START_REF] Renn | Risk Governance: Coping with Uncertainty in a Complex World[END_REF], [START_REF] Mclean | Developing A Resilience Framework[END_REF]. Risk governance is a comprehensive way of understanding and dealing with risks from different sources of hazards, including all relevant actors and stakeholders, who have to deal with the effects and impacts of the respective risks [START_REF] Costa | Governance Indicators for (Un)succcesful MSPs[END_REF]. When a city adopts multilevel governance approach on a common issue, it should be followed by an understanding of the advantages and disadvantages of this concept such as unclear responsibility or accountability and many other consequences that may follow. Partnership in risk management is considered as a way of risk governance [START_REF] Costa | Governance Indicators for (Un)succcesful MSPs[END_REF]. One strategy is to establish public-private insurance systems against unexpected events such as natural disasters, to enable risk sharing cooperation through public-private partnerships.

The enhanced Resilience Maturity Model

The principal aim of the second work package of the SMR Project is to gather requirements from partner cities regarding resilience based on their current experience and expectations in order to enhance the preliminary version of the Resilience Maturity Model (Table 1) as well as gathering information for the other tools (see Fig. 2).

The SMR project focuses on resilience on three different topics: 1) risks and problems derived from critical infrastructures and technology dependencies, 2) climate change and the resulting increase of natural disaster risks, and 3) human dynamics such as, immigration, poverty, population aging and dependencies problems. Work-shops on these topics with the partner cities and their stakeholders enabled the project to understand better partner cities' requirements regarding resilience as well as to orient the outcomes of the project to cities' needs. The collected information was used to enhance the preliminary version of the Resilience Maturity Model with indicators and policies.

Four workshops with partner cities and local stakeholders were organized to gather their requirements regarding the resilience building process. The first workshop, held in Riga 26-29 October 2015, focused on the analysis of the partner cities' dependency towards critical infrastructures and technology. The second workshop, held in Bristol 25-28 January 2016, collected information on risks associated with climate change. The third workshop, held in Rome 22-25 February 2016, analysed social problems. Finally, a workshop was held in Vejle 9-12 May 2016 with the aim to explore the partner cities' current experiences, best practices, and difficulties concerning the resilience building process.

In all the workshops the different challenges that the cities are facing were also discussed. Further, the possible policies and actions that could be carried to overcome potential barriers were identified. As a result, a great range of resilience building policies were identified, in addition to useful requirements for the development of the SMR tools.

The workshop sessions were also very helpful to create a collaborative and supportive environment between the scientific partners (universities, ICLEI and DIN) and the cities, building trust among them and therefore, increasing their involvement in addition to giving the opportunity of mutual learning.

Two different methodologies were used during these workshops: Group Explorer (GE) and Group Model Building (GMB). For details on GE see the next section.

Group model building (GMB) is a collaborative methodology that enables integrating fragmented knowledge, initially residing in the minds of different agents, into aggregated models [START_REF] Vennix | Group model building: facilitating team learning using system dynamics[END_REF]. GMB encourages consensus building among the involved agents. Actually, the GMB methodology has specific exercises where the group of experts is usually divided into small groups, and then the results obtained are exposed in plenary in order to encourage the discussions between different problem perspectives that enrich the process and lead to reach a consensus.

The information collected from the GMB exercises with partner city representatives and stakeholders during the four workshops was analysed and combined with results from the worldwide literature survey on resilience. This enhanced and refined the preliminary Resilience Maturity Model from Table 1. Thereafter, a Delphi process provided additional insights and feedback concerning the Resilience Maturity Model, leading to an even more refined version.

Table 2 shows the high-level structure of the maturity model. The dots indicate text with details about the corresponding entry (e.g. detailed descriptions of the resilience maturity stages and resilience building policies).

The policies contained in the maturity model are generic, bearing in mind that the maturity model will be in charge of supporting activities at a strategic level. Therefore, the policies described in each maturity stage are described using a high-level approach, while in the policy repository tool the policies are particularized for each city. The policies we classified along five resilience dimensions that were elicited from the workshop participants using the GMB method: Robustness of infrastructure & Resources, Preparedness, Leadership & Governance, Cooperation and Learning. While we expect that the project work in the second and the third project year will help improve and refine the content of the modelin terms of the model policiesthe overall structure of the Resilience Maturity Model after the first project year as shown in Error! Reference source not found. is likely to remain quite stable.

Rather than providing a detailed description of the identified policieswhich would require much spacewe render on Error! Reference source not found. a tentative insight emerging from project work done so far. (Needless to say, the policies and the tentative insight will be subjected to critical analysis during the implementation of the resilience pilot in the second year of the project.)

6

The Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire "Resilience …. requires actively understanding the risk landscape." [START_REF] Van Der Vegt | Managing Risk and Resilience[END_REF] This quote highlights that a key element of resilience is an ongoing risk assessment. Cities which are mature with respect to resilience should therefore be actively assessing the different types of risks which impact them and the impact of policies to mitigate such risks. In addition, as cities become more mature, there will be increasing engagement with key stakeholders. Therefore risk assessment and mitigation tools are required that can take account of the perspective of a wide variety of stakeholders involved in city resilience, consider how risks and stresses impact the cities level of resilience and which mitigation policies best support their resilience journey. In addition, the development of city resilience is inevitably constrained by finite resources, and therefore it is important for cites to prioritise risks and stresses in order to get value for money through cost-benefit analysis. x-axis) Engagement and collaboration with more stakeholder categories (local, regional, national, European); y-axis) Continuous quality improvement within each maturity stage, increasing in scope as the city progresses to higher stages of resilience maturity

Recent research [START_REF] Williams | Systemic project risk management -the way ahead[END_REF][START_REF] Williams | Project risk: systemicity, cause mapping and a scenario approach[END_REF][START_REF] Ackermann | Systemic Risk Assessment: A Case Study[END_REF][START_REF] Eden | The role of feedback dynamics in disruption and delay on the nature of disruption and delay (D&D) in major projects[END_REF] indicates that it is the interaction and dynamics between different types of risk that can cause the most damage to, for example, a project or a city. Risk and stresses are likely to interact with one another and form a portfolio where the impact of the whole is greater than the sum of the parts. When one risk event is triggered, it may reinforce the likelihood and ramifications of other risks or stresses, [START_REF] Ackermann | Systemic Risk Assessment: A Case Study[END_REF], as well as form interacting vicious cycles where risk consequences mutually feed themselves [START_REF] Ackermann | Systemic risk elicitation: Using causal maps to engage stakeholders and build a comprehensive view of risks[END_REF]. In contrast to traditional risk registers where risk are treated as independent [START_REF] Eden | The role of feedback dynamics in disruption and delay on the nature of disruption and delay (D&D) in major projects[END_REF], by recognising the systemicity of risks, it is possible to identify and address those risk or stresses which seem most potent in triggering and reinforcing negative ramifications within the risk landscape.

As a result, the risk systemicity perspective calls for the introduction of new tools and approaches to managing risks, which allow multiple stakeholders to surface and negotiate their understandings of the relationships between relevant risk and stresses with respect to the city [START_REF] Ackermann | Systemic risk elicitation: Using causal maps to engage stakeholders and build a comprehensive view of risks[END_REF].

A tool which encompasses the systemic perspective on risks is the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire which has been used successfully in the context of risks assessment in projects within a large company in the private sector [START_REF] Ackermann | Systemic Risk Assessment: A Case Study[END_REF]. The Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire is an interactive questionnaire programmed in Excel using Visual Basic for Applications which comprises a set of questions about the relationships between risks. The questions in the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire seek to gain stakeholders judgements regarding the risks they face. However, the questions are not independent from one another, instead they capture the interdependence between risks through, for example, removing risks that become irrelevant or giving increased weight to some risks due to responses to questions regarding other risks. The output of the questionnaire is a risk score which helps in assessing the risk level of a given project or initiative and provides help in prioritising those areas where most attention is required.

The Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire is therefore being developed for the needs of the SMR project. The initial work on the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire construction was grounded in a series of group workshops organised with representatives of the seven European cities involved in SMR. Each of the workshops was dedicated to one of the themes being covered by the SMR project: critical infrastructure, climate change, and social problems. The aim of the sessions was to gather views and opinions from city representatives with regards to risks associated with each theme. These views were gathered using a Group Explorer decision support system to facilitate group discussion and negotiation about risks [START_REF] Ackermann | Using Causal Mapping with Group Support Systems to Elicit an Understanding of Failure in Complex Projects: Some Implications for Organizational Research[END_REF][START_REF] Ackermann | Making Strategy: Mapping Out Strategic Success[END_REF]. The system allowed for surfacing and gathering the perspectives of multiple stakeholders in a fair and structured manner [START_REF] Ackermann | Systemic risk elicitation: Using causal maps to engage stakeholders and build a comprehensive view of risks[END_REF]. The entire process was facilitated by an academic representative who, at various stages of the session, invited participants to engage in different types of exercises, such as consideration of risk that may impact their cities, identification and prioritisation of key risk themes, and gathering of policies which address the identified risks. The resulting empirical data formed a risk map including over 2000 concepts and links which depicted complex relationships between risk events and their ramifications, as expressed by city participants.

Drawing on the analysis of the risk map created by workshop participants, the researchers seek to generate a list of risks scenarios which will form the basis of the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire. When using the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire, respondents will be asked to answer questions about the likelihood of the risk scenarios and the risks which trigger them with respect to their own cities. In order to provide an indication of the overall level of risk in a city, risk scenarios will also be weighted with respect to the potential impact of the scenarios if they were to occur. These weights will be informed by the analysis of the maps produced during the workshops and will be validated with city participants in two further workshops.

As indicated above, a key outcome from the Systemic Risk Assessment Questionnaire is to assist in the prioritisation of managing risks and stresses. It will also provide a tool that can be used to engage multiple city stakeholders in considering those risks which impose the greatest threat on a city, creating potential barriers to resilience, and to agree upon the most important areas to prioritise policies.

7

Concluding remarks

SMR is an ambitious project, but as evidenced in this paper, good progress has al-ready been done in its first year. The close collaboration between the scientific partners and city partners has al-lowed to create an intellectually stimulating environment which translates into better understanding of resilience.

Following the lessons from the literature, the project partners have aimed to translate the general concepts into practical applications, as well as to address the 'theoretical tensions' around resilience; this is evidenced in the city resilience tools which are described in this discussion. It can be argued that the co-creation of the city resilience tools by both the scientific partners and city partners at the same time helps to achieve the balance between 'the general' (conceptual level) and the 'specific' (operational level).

Whilst the development of tools has proved to be a collaborative process for the SMR partners, it is expected that the same level of collaboration will be sustained as the project enters its second year when the city resilience tools will be implemented in the participating cities.

Fig. 1 .Fig. 2 .

 12 Fig. 1. The vision of an emergent resilient backbone in two stages: as direct project result and as long-term impact of the project

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. The contents of the enhanced Resilience Maturity Model with two principal dimensions:x-axis) Engagement and collaboration with more stakeholder categories (local, regional, national, European); y-axis) Continuous quality improvement within each maturity stage, increasing in scope as the city progresses to higher stages of resilience maturity

Table 1 .

 1 Preliminary resilience maturity model

	Maturity Stage	Description
	Starting	The city has launched policies regarding resilience development. The risk assessment is still fragmented and incomplete with regard to haz-
		ards affecting critical infrastructures and man-made threats. The com-
		munity involvement and the private-public cooperation are incipient.

Table 2 .

 2 Structure of the enhanced Resilience Maturity Model

					MATURITY STAGES
			Starting	Moderate Advanced Robust	verTebrate
		Maturity stage	…	…	…	…	…
		description
		Robustness of	Policies	…	…	…	…
		infrastructure &	correspond-
		Resources	ing to the
			Starting Stage
			Related to the
	Resilience dimensions	Preparedness Leadership & Governance Cooperation Learning	Robustness of infrastructure & Resources dimension … … … …	… … … …	… … … …	… … … …	… … … Policies
							corresponding
							to Vertebrate
							Stage related
							to the Learn-
							ing dimension

Acknowledgement

The Smart Mature Resilience research project has received funding from the European Union's Horizon 2020 research and innovation programme under grant agreement no.653569.


Roberto Dos

Santos Rocha
email: rsrocha@usp.br

Adam Widera
email: adam.widera@ercis.uni-muenster.de

Roelof P Van Den Berg
email: roelof.vandenberg@ercis.uni-muenster.de

João Porto De Albuquerque

Bernd Helingrath
email: bernd.hellingrath@ercis.uni-muenster.de

Improving the Involvement of Digital Volunteers in Disaster Management

Keywords: Citizen Engagement, Volunteered Geographic Information, Motivation, Crowd Sensing, Disaster Management

Volunteered geographic information (VGI) has been seen as useful information in times of disasters. Several authors have shown that VGI is useful for coping with preparedness and response phases of disaster management. However, because it is still a young technology, the use of VGI remains uncertain, due to its lack of strong reliability and validity. It is our assumption that to improve reliability and validity the promotion of citizen engagement (CE) is needed. CE is not new topic, but in the digital humanitarian context, it involves important factors that are not yet considered by disaster managers, such as communication processes, motivation of volunteers, different media for production of information, etc. To fill this gap, we identified a set of preliminary factors which should be considered to promote the involvement of volunteers in disaster management. These factors were derived from critical review of CE literature and from an analysis of lessons learned from an experiment on interaction with citizens carried out in context of the EU-project "DRIVER -Driving Innovation in Crisis Management for European Resilience".

Introduction

Citizen Engagement (CE) refers to actions designed to identify and address issues of public concern [1]. Community participation can augment officials' abilities to govern in a crisis, improve application of communally held resources in a disaster or epidemic, and mitigate community wide losses [START_REF] Schoch-Spana | Community Engagement: Leadership Tool for Catastrophic Health Events Biosecur[END_REF]. Participatory community approaches in research and governance are not new [START_REF] Craglia | Digital Earth from vision to practice: making sense of citizen-generated content[END_REF][START_REF] Weiner | Participatory geographic information systems[END_REF]. However, Web 2.0 platforms, mobile internet, and social networking access through smartphones have made a significant difference by encouraging the social responsibil-ity and active engagement of citizens [START_REF] Craglia | Digital Earth from vision to practice: making sense of citizen-generated content[END_REF]. These technologies enable the public to contribute and participate on an unprecedented scale and have led to many diverse initiatives using information from citizens [START_REF] Craglia | Digital Earth from vision to practice: making sense of citizen-generated content[END_REF][START_REF] Weiner | Participatory geographic information systems[END_REF]. Examples include, among others, participation of the public in event reporting, environmental monitoring, and providing information on natural disasters. This phenomenon is called volunteered geographic information (VGI).

VGI is the harnessing of tools to create, assemble, and disseminate geographic da-ta provided voluntarily by individuals [START_REF] Goodchild | Citizens as sensors: the world of volunteered geography[END_REF]. VGI has been increasingly recognized by researchers as an important resource to support disaster management [START_REF] Poiani | Potential of Collaborative Mapping for Disaster Relief: A Case Study of OpenStreetMap in the Nepal Earthquake[END_REF][START_REF] Horita | An approach to support decision-making in disaster management based on volunteer geographic information (VGI) and spatial decision support systems (SDSS)[END_REF][START_REF] Erskine | Utilizing Volunteered Geographic Information to Develop a RealTime Disaster Mapping Tool: A Prototype and Research Framework[END_REF]. The production of geographic information is predominantly made through social media (e.g. Twitter, https://twitter.com/), crowd sensing (e.g.citizens equipped with smartphones can report about local conditions using dedicated applications) and online mapping tools (e.g. OpenStreetMap, https://www.openstreetmap.org; Wikimapia http://wikimapia.org/; Google Map Maker, https://www.google.com.br/mapmaker) [START_REF] Goodchild | Citizens as sensors: the world of volunteered geography[END_REF][START_REF] Albuquerque | Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster risk management and improving urban resilience: an overview of the lessons learned[END_REF][START_REF] Haworth | Emergency management perspectives on volunteered geographic information: Opportunities, challenges, and change[END_REF].

Whilst those platforms can be potentially used to provide useful information for dealing with disaster management, there are still many challenges to be addressed, for instance: (i) how can people be encouraged to provide valuable information; (ii) how can information from volunteers be validated; and (iii) how can this information be integrated with other sources of data [START_REF] Albuquerque | Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster risk management and improving urban resilience: an overview of the lessons learned[END_REF][START_REF] Horita | Development of a spatial decision support system for flood risk management in Brazil that combines volunteered geographic information with wireless sensor networks[END_REF].

Many governments and agencies recognize the opportunities and challenges posed by informal volunteers, and many have developed strategies and resources for en-gaging and managing them. However, organizational culture, risks and liabilities im-pose significant barriers to greater involvement of informal volunteers in emergency and disaster management [START_REF] Schoch-Spana | Community Engagement: Leadership Tool for Catastrophic Health Events Biosecur[END_REF].

Different VGI categoriessocial media, crowd sensing, and collaborative mapping activitiesrequire different strategies for promoting citizen engagement. It is our assumption that knowledge of the VGI categories is relevant for disaster managers to recruit and motivate users to utilize VGI-systems.

Additionally, works related to VGI in disaster management focus on production by volunteers and the use of this information by disaster managers. They disregard the fact that the production and consumption of VGI should be seen within a communication process, i.e., the communication among the stakeholders should be multidirectional.

To help fill this gap, we present in this paper a preliminary set of key factors to help promote the involvement of volunteers in the disaster management domain. These factors were derived from review of CE literature and from an analysis of les-sons learned from a simulation exercise carried out in context of the EU-project "DRIVER -Driving Innovation in Crisis Management for European Resilience". The DRIVER project was launched in May 2014. This project, gathers the expertise of 37 organizations, and will jointly develop solutions for improved crisis management. Representatives from the security & defense industry, research and academia, SMEs, end-users and several European institutions, from 13 EU member states and 2 associated countries participate in this innovative venture.

With this work we aim to answer the following research question:

RQ. What factors should be considered by disaster managers to improve the involvement of digital volunteers?

The remainder of this paper is organized as follows. First, in order to set a ground on the different VGI approaches an overview is presented in Section 2. In Section 3 we present a review on the motivation and engagement of digital volunteers. In Section 4 we present factors to improve citizen engagement, based on lessons learned from an experiment on interaction with citizens carried out in context of the EU-project. Finally, in Section 5, we conclude with final remarks and give potential directions for future works.

2

Volunteered Geographic Information

Volunteered Geographic Information VGI Source

In general, VGI in the context of disaster risk management can be collected through different collaborative sources [START_REF] Albuquerque | Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster risk management and improving urban resilience: an overview of the lessons learned[END_REF]: (i) social media; (ii) crowd sensing; and (iii) collaborative mapping activities.

The first category of geo-information (i) involves the use of existing social media platforms to exchange information in an unstructured way. These platforms enable citizens to share self-produced content within a network of contacts or for the general public [START_REF] Albuquerque | Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster risk management and improving urban resilience: an overview of the lessons learned[END_REF]. Common social media platforms include Twitter; Facebook, https://www.facebook.com/;

Flickr, https://www.flickr.com/; YouTube, https://www.youtube.com/.

The second category of geo-information (ii) relies on citizens on the Web or equipped with smartphones to act as sensors and share observations [START_REF] Albuquerque | Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster risk management and improving urban resilience: an overview of the lessons learned[END_REF][START_REF] Ma | Opportunities in mobile crowd sensing[END_REF]. The term 'crowd sensing' is used to describe approaches that make use of specific software applications to provide more precise structured data [START_REF] Albuquerque | Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster risk management and improving urban resilience: an overview of the lessons learned[END_REF]. Ushahidi-based platforms and mobile applications are the most commonly used in this category for data collection. GDACSmobile, for instance, is a tool that facilitates the self-organization of volunteers and improves the situational awareness of citizens by sharing an easy-to-understand overview of the state of affairs. At the same time, GDACSmobile also provides a feedback mechanism to the crisis manager/control center [START_REF] Link | GDACSmobile -An IT Tool Supporting Assessments for Humanitarian Logistics[END_REF].

The third category of geo-information (iii) consists of a specific type of information and collaboration platform: the collaborative editing of geographic features to fulfill internet-based interactive maps. Well-known platforms like OpenStreetMap (OSM), Wikimapia and Google Map-Maker fall into this category [START_REF] Albuquerque | Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster risk management and improving urban resilience: an overview of the lessons learned[END_REF].

Collaborative mapping activities are essential for disaster management, because they collect a very specific type of datanamely, georeferenced data about features like streets and roads, buildings etc.and structures this information in the form of a map [START_REF] Poiani | Potential of Collaborative Mapping for Disaster Relief: A Case Study of OpenStreetMap in the Nepal Earthquake[END_REF]. The OpenStreetMap (OSM) project has great potential in disaster scenarios, which was shown when a large number of volunteers provided their support in mapping events after the 2015 Haiti earthquake [START_REF] Eckle | Quality Assessment of Remote Mapping in Open-StreetMap for Disaster Management Purposes[END_REF][START_REF] Zook | Volunteered Geographic Information and Crowdsourcing Disaster Relief: A Case Study of the Haitian Earthquake[END_REF] and the 2015 Nepal earthquake [START_REF] Poiani | Potential of Collaborative Mapping for Disaster Relief: A Case Study of OpenStreetMap in the Nepal Earthquake[END_REF]. Collaborative mapping in OSM has emerged as a key mechanism through which individuals can provide information about affected areas, thus making a tangible difference to aid agencies and relief work without actually being physically present on-site [START_REF] Poiani | Potential of Collaborative Mapping for Disaster Relief: A Case Study of OpenStreetMap in the Nepal Earthquake[END_REF].

VGI Types

Senaratne et al. [START_REF] Senaratne | A review of volunteered geographic information quality assessment methods[END_REF], categorize the main types of VGI as (i) text-based VGI, (ii) imagebased VGI, and (iii) map-based VGI.

Text-based VGI is generally produced implicitly on portals, such as Twitter or various blogs, where people contribute geographic information in the form of text by using smartphones, tablets etc. [START_REF] Senaratne | A review of volunteered geographic information quality assessment methods[END_REF]. Twitter, for example is used as an information foraging source [START_REF] Senaratne | A review of volunteered geographic information quality assessment methods[END_REF][START_REF] Maceachren | Senseplace2: geotwitter analytics support for situational awareness[END_REF] Image-based VGI is generally produced implicitly within portals such as Flickr, Instagram, etc., where contributors take pictures of a particular geographic object or surrounding with cameras, smart phones, or any hand held device, and attach a geo-spatial reference to it [START_REF] Senaratne | A review of volunteered geographic information quality assessment methods[END_REF].

Map-based VGI covers all sources that include geometries as points, lines, and polygons, which are the basic elements to design a map. Among others, OSM, Wikimapia, Google Map Maker, and Map Insight are examples of map-based VGI projects [START_REF] Senaratne | A review of volunteered geographic information quality assessment methods[END_REF].

Table 1 presents the relationship between sources and the different types of VGI.

Typology of VGI

Craglia et al. [START_REF] Craglia | Digital Earth from vision to practice: making sense of citizen-generated content[END_REF] introduced the concept of typology in VGI. According to these authors, there are two modes through which individuals or communities contribute such information: first, the way the information was made available and second, the way geographic information forms a part of it.

Each of these two dimensions can be 'explicit' or 'implicit', with explicit denoting that the dimension is of primary concern to the piece of VGI, while implicit denotes that the dimension was not originally an integral part, and is of secondary concern [START_REF] Craglia | Digital Earth from vision to practice: making sense of citizen-generated content[END_REF]. Thus the topology of VGI proposed by Craglia et al. [START_REF] Craglia | Digital Earth from vision to practice: making sense of citizen-generated content[END_REF] is a matrix of four types of VGI as shown in Table 2.

Geographic location is essential in disaster analysis [START_REF] Klonner | Volunteered Geographic Information in Natural Hazard Analysis: A Systematic Literature Review of Current Approaches with a Focus on Preparedness and Mitigation[END_REF]. Thus, only the explicit geographic categoryexplicitly-or implicitly-volunteered informationof the VGI typology is used in this paper.

Nevertheless, the typology of VGI proposed does not take in account the fact that different VGI types have different translation needs, which this may imply excess noise (e.g., many useless messages before a useful message to be found). For example, a picture of a flooded area is more effective (i.e., it has less translation needs) for disaster managers than a short message (tweet) describing the same flooded area. Considering this aspect, we propose a new typology of VGI, which considers different levels of uncertaintynoise and translation needs. As can be seen, the explicit VGI sourcescrowd sensing, and collaborative mapping activitieshave fewer translation needs than social media data.

Motivation and Engagement of Digital Volunteers

A Digital volunteer or a digital humanitarian is an individual that applies and leverages their technical skills in collecting, processing and managing data in support of response efforts for disasters [START_REF] Liu | Crisis Crowdsourcing Framework: Designing Strategic Configurations of Crowdsourcing for the Emergency Management Domain[END_REF]. In most cases, he/she is not physically present at the place where the disaster has occurred. The Digital Humanitarian Network (DHNetwork) grew out of this ecosystem of emerging technical volunteer involvement based throughout the globe [START_REF]Humanitarian Response[END_REF]. Since the 2010 Haiti earthquake, these com-munities have provided support to formal humanitarian operations [START_REF] Zook | Volunteered Geographic Information and Crowdsourcing Disaster Relief: A Case Study of the Haitian Earthquake[END_REF], and more recently have provided a crucial compliment to operational organizations and governments active in the field [START_REF]Humanitarian Response[END_REF]. However, it is still a challenge to keep digital volunteers motivated and engaged for longer periods, especially considering that they do not have strong connections to events due to their digital presence instead of physical presence in affected areas. This requires different ways to motivate and engage them to provide high quality contributions in future crisis/disaster situations.

To deal with this critical issue, we propose in this section a first attempt to understand how motivation of digital volunteers can be understood using, for instance, the Valence, Instrumentality, Expectancy (VIE) approach [START_REF] Lawler | Pay and organization development[END_REF].

In general, volunteers are motivated by many incentives. Examples include, ideology, personal satisfaction, community, and humanitarian values. Particularly, in the context of a digital humanitarian, there is another factor that should be considered: the desire to apply and improve technical knowledge. Considering that many of these volunteers come from open source communities [START_REF] Capelo | Guidance for collaborating with volunteer and technical communities[END_REF], why is it so important to understand the incentives of citizens in order for them share their observations from the field? Considering the 90-9-1-Rule [START_REF] Nielsen | The 90-9-1 Rule for Participation Inequality in Social Media and Online Communities[END_REF], there is a so called "participation inequality". According to this rule, in a collaborative online environment, 90% of the participants of a community only view content, 9% of the participants edit content, and only 1% of the participants actively create new content [START_REF] Nielsen | The 90-9-1 Rule for Participation Inequality in Social Media and Online Communities[END_REF].

In addition to such factors, it is important to understand two specific questions: (i) why does a citizen report an observation from the field, and (ii) does the information reported supports the decision making of disaster managers.

The first question is related to behavioral aspects, i.e., what are the incentives of citizens in order for them to want to share their observations from the field? Literature commonly understands incentives as instruments influencing the behavior of members of an organization or community in order to adapt to the organization wide system of objectives [START_REF] Grob | Towards A Holistic Approach of Elearning Incentive Management[END_REF]. By creating incentives, certain desired modes of behavior from individuals are promoted, enabling specific situational conditions which in turn result in the activation of individual motives. In this case, a motive denotes a time-invariant psychological disposition, i.e. an isolated, not yet activated incitement for the behavior. Capelo et al. [START_REF] Capelo | Guidance for collaborating with volunteer and technical communities[END_REF] highlight some important incentives: ─ Encourage volunteers by giving feedback, recognition, appreciation and gratitude; ─ Cultivate a sense of ownership and accountability. Team members have to know that they matter, and that they are making a difference in the humanitarian operation;

─ Generate a feeling of inclusivity based on a system of collaboration, partnership and sharing with multiple stakeholders; ─ Provide training and capacity-building opportunities for volunteers.

The second question is related to the contribution of effort input. For instance, the reporting of a flooded road is higher, if the reporter (or citizen) is affected or not. According to the VIE approach [START_REF] Lawler | Pay and organization development[END_REF], the effort input of an individual is high when it expects that the contribution will yield results, which are first important to the organization or community, secondly, due to the expected instrumentality, show close relationships to individually aspired results from extrinsic incentives, and thirdly exhibit valences as high as possible.

Lessons Learned to Improve the Involvement of Volunteers

In this section, we summarize the lessons learned to improve the involvement of volunteers in the production of high-quality relevant information for disaster management.

The elements presented here were derived from the VGI and citizen engagement literature reviews, as well as the analysis of lessons learned from a field experiment carried out in the EU-funded demonstration project DRIVER.

The selection process of the literature was based on the experience of the authors of this paper. Regarding the VGI literature, four main works were selected as an input to identify the main characteristics that may affect the digital volunteers' engagement: Albuquerque et al. [START_REF] Albuquerque | Crowdsourcing geographic information for disaster risk management and improving urban resilience: an overview of the lessons learned[END_REF], Craglia et al. [START_REF] Craglia | Digital Earth from vision to practice: making sense of citizen-generated content[END_REF], Klonner et al. [START_REF] Klonner | Volunteered Geographic Information in Natural Hazard Analysis: A Systematic Literature Review of Current Approaches with a Focus on Preparedness and Mitigation[END_REF], Senaratne et al. [START_REF] Senaratne | A review of volunteered geographic information quality assessment methods[END_REF]. Regarding motivation and engagement of volunteers, we selected Nielsen [START_REF] Nielsen | The 90-9-1 Rule for Participation Inequality in Social Media and Online Communities[END_REF], Lawler [START_REF] Lawler | Pay and organization development[END_REF], and Capelo et al. [START_REF] Capelo | Guidance for collaborating with volunteer and technical communities[END_REF] to understand the main aspects that should be considered in the digital volunteers' engagement.

The field experiment was based on a storyline designed by practitioners. They defined a fictitious disaster event based on past experience, which resulted in a more realistic and relevant scenario compared to a more tool-friendly situation designed by the tool providers. The experiments conducted in the DRIVER "Interaction with Citizens" campaign concentrate on the following functions (a more detailed description of this experiment can be founded in Havlik et al. [33], Middelhoff et al. [START_REF] Middelhoff | Crowdsourcing and Crowdtasking in Crisis Management Lessons Learned from a Field Experiment Simulating a Flooding in City of The Hague[END_REF] and van den Berg et al. [START_REF] Van Der Berg | Pictograms and Assessment Categories as Crisis Communication Language: Lessons from a field exercise with GDACSmobile[END_REF]): ─ Provision of context-aware and timely information tailored to the specific needs of different societal groups over various channels, in order to improve their understanding of the crisis situation and to minimize adverse impacts. ─ Context-aware (micro-)tasking of non-affiliated volunteers to perform real and virtual tasks. ─ Efficient gathering of situational information about an incident from volunteers. ─ Efficient usage of received information from volunteers to improve the situational awareness of crisis managers and consequently their handling of the cri-sis.

In the following subsections, we will summarize the findings into two categories: (i) characteristics of VGI, and (ii) communication processes. communication among the stakeholders should have to include a mechanism for continuous feedback.

In the context of the DRIVER Project, tools were proposed that should address both objectives for the benefit of the community, and for individual members of the population according to the VIE approach. In a recent field exercise, the software tool GDACSmobile was used to communicate observations to crisis mangers (com-munityobjective). The personal objectives of members of the population were ad-dressed by sharing reports with the community as an information layer on a map of the environment around the user. In this way, the users could assure themselves of their safety in the situation and strengthen their situational awareness using map representation.

Consequently, by acknowledging the perceptions of community members, a common language visualizing interactions becomes a basic requirement for an appropriate crisis communication environment. One way to establish a common language is to use VGI systems in combination with commonly used information categories and according pictograms [START_REF] Van Der Berg | Pictograms and Assessment Categories as Crisis Communication Language: Lessons from a field exercise with GDACSmobile[END_REF]. In the meantime, many different VGI tools are available, having different pros and cons regarding particular tasks. However, as mentioned above, the main challenge here is less a technical problem, but rather an organizational one. According to the discussion on incentives, we identify a trustful and open solution as most appropriate. However, it must be able to visualize benefits for the community, i.e. an easy-and fast-to-understand situation overview including a connection to responding authorities. In order to do so, the information should be structured and visualized respecting the communities' attributes (like age distribution, language, technical affinity, etc.).

Conclusion

Further research is still necessary for engaging volunteers in the production of highquality relevant information for disaster management. For instance, how can we ensure that local communities are involved at a meaningful level in different phases of a disaster? This could be achieved, for instance, by initiating a community group or by providing training to volunteers to produce high-quality VGI. Moreover, how to improve collaboration between formal humanitarian organizations and volunteer technical communities (VTCs) should also be explored in future works. Additionally, the different VGI categories require different strategies for promoting citizen engagement, given that the knowledge of the VGI categories is relevant for disaster managers to recruit and motivate users to utilize VGI-systems. Therefore, one of the expected outcomes will be the development of a new framework for promoting engagement of digital volunteers in the disaster management context. João Porto de Albuquerque is grateful for the financial support from the CAPES Pró-Alertas (grant nº 88887.091744/2014-01 and nº 88887.091743/2014-01). The authors would like to thank Robin Mays and Lívia Degrossi for their helpful comments and suggestions, and the DRIVER "Interaction with Citizens" experiment team that has been working together for several months in order to prepare, conduct and finally assess the field exercise in The Hague.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Typology of VGI considering different levels of uncertaintynoise and translation needs

Table 1 .

 1 A summary of the source and types of VGI

	Source		Type
		Text	Image	Map
	Social Media	X	X
	Crowd Sensing	X	X
	Collaborative Mapping			X

Table 2 .

 2 Typology of VGI[START_REF] Klonner | Volunteered Geographic Information in Natural Hazard Analysis: A Systematic Literature Review of Current Approaches with a Focus on Preparedness and Mitigation[END_REF] (adapted from Craglia et al.[START_REF] Craglia | Digital Earth from vision to practice: making sense of citizen-generated content[END_REF])

		Geographic Information
		Explicit	Implicit
	Explicitly Volunteered	"True" VGI, e.g., Open-	Volunteered (geo)spatial.
		StreetMap	Information, such as Wikipedia articles about
			non-geographic topics
			containing place names
	Implicitly Volunteered	Citizen-generated geo-	User-Generated
		graphic content (CGGC),	(geo)Spatial Content
		e.g., Tweets referring to	(UGSC), such as Tweets
		the properties of an identi-	only mentioning a place
		fiable place	in the context of another
			(non-geographic) topic

Acknowledgments

The research that led to this work was funded by the European Community's Seventh Framework Programme: Marie Curie Actions/Initial Training Networks under grant agreement n° 317382 and FP7 / 2007-2013 under grant agreement n° 607798.

Characteristics of VGI

The characteristics of VGIorigin, type and typologyshown in Section 2 have an impact on citizen engagement.

In regard to the origin of VGI, crowd sensing and collaborative mapping activities have the potential to promote citizen engagement, due the ways in which the information is created.

Thus, we propose a typology of engagement based on five levels of involvement from volunteers in scientific work [START_REF] Haklay | Citizen Science and Volunteered Geographic Information: Overview and Typology of Participation[END_REF] and a typology of participation proposed by Pretty and Hine [START_REF] Pretty | Participatory appraisal for community assessment[END_REF]. At the first level, citizens provide resources, while having only a minimal cognitive engagement. This level is called 'basic'. In second level, 'distributed intelligence' relies on the cognitive ability of the participants. After some training, the participants collect data or engage in minor interpretation activities. At this level, quality evaluation by the volunteers is crucial. The third level represents 'participatory engagement', where users take part actively in the problem definition and data collection. On the last level, 'self-mobilization', non-professionals collaborate with professionals, and together, decide on a problem they want to focus on and the methods for data collection. This allows for both the consideration of interests and motivation of the volunteers. On this level, volunteers are not only experts, but also have the role of facilitators [START_REF] Klonner | Volunteered Geographic Information in Natural Hazard Analysis: A Systematic Literature Review of Current Approaches with a Focus on Preparedness and Mitigation[END_REF][START_REF] Haklay | Citizen Science and Volunteered Geographic Information: Overview and Typology of Participation[END_REF]. As shown in Table 3, social media presents a 'basic' level of engagement. This is because of the nature of its contribution, i.e., social media is provided implicitly. All other VGI sources, provided explicitly, require different strategies for citizen engagement, since many have volunteers with different levels of knowledge and motivation.

Communication Process

The elements in the communication process determine the quality of communication.

A problem in any one of these elements can reduce communication effective-ness [START_REF] Keyton | Communication and organizational culture: A key to understanding work experience[END_REF]. For instance, different perceptions of the message, language barriers, interruptions, emotions, and attitudes can all reduce communication effectiveness. There-fore, a feedback mechanism should be considered to promote the involvement of volunteers. The existing literature on VGI focuses on the production of geographic information, and the use of this information by disaster managers. It disregards the fact that the production of VGI should be seen within a more effective communication process, i.e., the