Changwoo Suh
email: changwoo.suh@gmail.com

Byungtae Lee
email: btlee@kaist.ac.kr

Habin Lee
email: habin.lee@brunel.ac.uky.choi@soton.ac.uk

Youngseok Choi

Sunghan Ryu
email: shryu@sjtu.edu.cn

What to be Disclosed? Attributes of Online Games for the Market Transparency Policy

Keywords: information disclosure, online game, information spillover, stock returns

This paper identifies main features of online games to be disclosed to the market for policy makers. It tests the positive relationships between information disclosure for online games and stock returns using event analysis method. Based on data collected from online game companies between 2004 to 2009 in South Korea, the paper finds positive and significant correlation between game rating information and stock reactions. Specifically, the positive reactions are clear when a company introduces casual games, and a company has development capability. However, we do not find any significant relationships between stock reactions and voluntary information releases after the game rating information released. The findings support the feasibility of introduction of mandatory information disclosure scheme for online game industry.

Introduction

Information disclosure is widely used by policy makers to protect public interests in many countries for protecting environment, ensuring health and preventing market failures in finance. FDA mandates drug companies to disclose the details of any new products to protect publics from any side effects. Mandatory disclosure of fuel mix percentages and pollution discharge statistics of electricity companies led to reduced use of fossil fuels and increased use of clean fuels in US [START_REF] Delmas | Information disclosure policies: Evidence from the electricity industry[END_REF]. It is reported that disclosure of financial information of companies leads to reduced liquidity, lower cost of capital, and more efficient market through reducing information asymmetry [START_REF] Verrecchia | Policy implications from the theory-based literature on disclosure[END_REF]). Recently, scholars and policy makers are designing biodiversity index for companies to enforce companies disclose how their business activities making impact on the biodiversity in the ecosystem [START_REF] Skouloudis | Corporate biodiversity accounting and reporting in mega-diverse countries: An examination of indicators disclosed in sustainability reports[END_REF].

As online games are forming an important industry over the world, policy makers are pressed to control the market in particular for transparency issues. The policy makers are in black on what information is required to be disclosed to provide right information for investors due to the new and unique nature of the service. Online games exploit the connectivity of the Internet, which appears to trigger rapid growth of the online game industry [START_REF] Oecd | The online computer and video game industry[END_REF]. The online game industry is technology-intensive as well as the traditional video game industry and it depends on complementary technologies such as micro payments, broadband diffusions, and popularization of PCs [START_REF] Lee | Analysis on the evolution and innovation of online game industry using meta-frontier analysis[END_REF]). Traditional video games and online games are both experience goods, which means it is not easy to judge their value before use. Characteristics of experience goods make it difficult for managers and investors of game industries to allocate human and monetary resources.

This paper measures the impacts of the government enforcement to reveal the online game specification that can reduce information asymmetry by applying real option theory before the commercialization procedure. Online games are usually updated periodically, and the updates contain new features. So, we test information asymmetry for the beginning of commercialization and the updates that contain less information than the beginning period of the game. We adopt the event study methodology to discover reactions of stock markets during the online game development process.

Understanding information spillovers to the stock market during the product development cycle will provide a signal to investors and people who are interested in this product. By analyzing the information spillovers, the market may accordingly change the present value of undergoing products. So the related matters of information spillovers of online games (i.e. when they happen, what is included, which steps are important, or which steps are voluntary or forced by law) is critical to policy makers for the transparency of the online game industry.

2

Conceptual background and hypotheses Traditional video games are based on their dedicated platform, and their strategies contribute to the survival of indirect network externalities by increasing third parties to produce games for their platforms. But most online games do not have dedicated platforms. Online games generally make use of a personal computer and the Internet broadband. [START_REF] Choi | Why people continue to play online games: In search of critical design factors to increase customer loyalty to online contents[END_REF] showed that not only personal interactions and playing, but also anticipation of social interactions help players to reach flow. [START_REF] Steinkuehler | Where Everybody Knows Your (Screen) Name: Online Games as "Third Places[END_REF] said that "by providing spaces for social interactions and relationships. MMOs have the capacity to function as one form of a new 'third place' for informal sociability." Many people anticipate relationships when they choose to play an online game. A player will have more utility when s/he selects an online game in which more players participate. This feature may generate direct network effects: as more people participate in a game, a player will be bestowed with more utility.

The Korean Game Rating Board examines game contents, and rates it with one of the following 4 rates: "Everyone", "Above 12", "Above 15", and "Adults only (above 18)". "Everyone" graded games can be played by any players, including potential players of "Above 12", "Above 15", and "Adults only (above 18)" graded games. But "Adults only (above 18)" grade games are only playable by players who are older than eighteen. The difference of potential players between "Everyone" and "Adults only (above 18)" graded games reduces the pool of potential players from 100% to 67.8% (Korea Creative Contents Agency 2012). "Adults only (above 18)" online games contain generally prohibited activities in the reality such as violent, sexual, bleeding, or drug-use related actions; these contents may prevent potential players from playing the game, if they do not personally prefer some of these contents. Hence, the positive network externality in online game suggests that the direct network externality induces online games to gain more potential players which leads to a higher stock price reaction. H1: If an online game has more potential players, then it promotes a higher stock price reaction of the firm which serves the game in the market.

Experience Goods. Many MMOGs offer trial opportunities for players in limited level or time, but basically MMOGs adopted subscription-based pricing strategies. Casual games use more aggressive strategies: they offer basic game functions for free and charge for optional game items (item-based pricing) such as beautiful hats, pets, or functional items: for example, strengthening their avatar for 5 minutes. If many games operate for free, subscription-based payments acts as an entry barrier for players. A game which does not charge for access is attractive. Traditional video games, including online games, are typical experience goods. Gaining information about quality of experience goods differs from getting information about the price of experience goods, and the latter is easy and inexpensive to obtain. It is also expected that the variance in the quality of the experience a player gets to be greater than the variance in the utility of price [START_REF] Nelson | Information and Consumer Behavior[END_REF]. It is easy to guess the quality of casual games because casual games are generally based on the real activities such as sports, racing, or dancing. On the other hand, an MMOG has its unique background, user interfaces, and its systems.

Usually casual games have much simpler structures and logics than MMOGs. The simplicity and aggressive pricing strategies of casual games makes it much easier for potential players to discover their values in fewer sampling trials. So we can assume the following hypothesis: H2: Introduction of casual games will have a larger impact on stock prices than MMOGs.

Longer Life Expectancy of Online Games. Lineage and Lineage 2, popular online games developed by NCSoft, have been running over 15 and 10 years respectively. A casual game, the "Crazy Arcade" developed and serviced by Nexon, is also enjoying a long life of 12 years. Many online games enjoy a longer lifespan than video games. Online games have average 50.8-month lifetime, but video games have only up to a 24month lifetime, less than a half of an online game lifetime (Korea Creative Contents Agency 2012). It is well known that traditional video games follow the box office revenue models of Hollywood "blockbusters": 80% of the total revenues are made in the initial month, after which revenues quickly decline on a weekly basis. The average shelf-life of a video game is about six weeks. On the other hand, online game revenues increase over time: routine and urgent updates make its life time longer [START_REF] Choi | Innovation Characteristics and R&D Strategies in Creative Service Industries: Online Games in Korea[END_REF]).

The major reason why online games usually have longer lifecycles is that they receive routine updates. A routine update generally adds new contents to the existing game and fixes its bugs. Major updates are usually applied one or two times a year; they add whole new story portions, tweak existing game systems, and eventually enhance the gaming experiences with improved game engine features and user interfaces. Minor updates are generally done between one or two weeks; they may add holiday events, minor story additions, and bug fixes.

So reacting to players' demands and to solve unintended situations such as bugs to hinder players' activities or system abuse is not only crucial to the success of an online game but also to sustaining a long life time of the game [START_REF] Meagher | Two-part tariffs in the online gaming industry: The role of creative destruction and network externalities[END_REF]. According to the aforementioned logic, we can expect that a firm having game maintenance capability produces higher market reactions in the online game industry than a firm without it. H3: A firm which has game maintenance and development capability can expect higher market reactions than a firm without it.

Business models in the online game industry. We focus on the "dis-intermediated" firms which are vertical integrated firms. These firms appeared in the beginning era of the online game industry. These firms have developmental organizations and service operation departments. They develop their own games, distribute them in their game portal, do marketing campaigns, and serve their games by themselves. It is platform providers that are similar to vertically integrated firms in the video game industry such as Sony, Microsoft, and Nintendo. In the traditional video game market, platform providers differentiate themselves by incompatible hardware systems [START_REF] Aoyama | Hardware gimmick or cultural innovation? Technological, cultural, and social foundations of the Japanese video game industry[END_REF] and the exclusive killer titles such as "Super Mario" which was only playable on Nintendo platforms. Platform providers focus on gathering competent independent developers that do not own a platform. Gathering third-parties (competent independent developers) reinforces indirect network effects based on its platform (Zhu and Iansiti 2012). One more reason is "software licensing fees are the primary source of revenue for platform providers" of the video game industry. So platform providers prefer to gather more third-party developers. The online game firms, however, adopt vertical integration in order to operate their own games by themselves and to earn money directly through the service of these online games to reduce transaction costs.

Many online game projects are high risk projects with high returns. From this point of view, online games can be viewed the same way as high risk R&D projects. Online game firms may stop their projects if they predict that it will not yield the initially targeted profits. The publisher, developer, and vertical integrated model have differences in real options when the project outcome is uncertain.

A vertically integrated firm can enjoy various real options: they may either stop the project, simply delay it, or may acquire a firm which develops an online game or is able to develop new projects for their line-up. But for an independent publisher it is not easy to delay a project or develop a new one. Similarly, an independent developer has the options to stop, delay its projects or develop a new one, but the actions are limited by contracts with a publisher. They do not have the real options of acquiring new projects that are under development or developed by others. Independent publishers cannot take actions without help from the developer's side regarding problems such as bugs or unexpected events. Most independent online game publishers started without online game development teams, so they did not have sufficient experience to solve unexpected technical problems that occurred when online games were served to the public in the early stage. So it is predictable that a firm which adopts vertically integration receives higher stock returns from the market. H4: Vertically integrated firms show higher stock returns than independent developers or independent publishers.

Data and Method

We collect data from Korean online game industry during 2002-2009. The history of the Korean online game industry is the longest in the world, and the Korean market is still a leading global market. By using data collected in the early stage of the industry life cycle, we can generalize the results to other countries who need to understand the policy implications before they introduce regulatory frameworks.

There were 12 firms listed on the Korean stock market in 2009. One firm, NCSoft is listed on KSE , the others on KOSDAQ. We selected firms which have an online game business as the major part in their portfolios. We gathered disclosures from the website of the Korean Financial Supervisory Service for all 12 firms to control confounding effects, especially financial issues. We retrieve the game rating information from the Korean Game Rating Board website. We dropped GameHI and JCEntertainment data. These two firms were listed in 2009, so it was not enough to calculate normal returns.

So we used ten firms for the event study test. The sample size of this study is small, but Brown and Warner (1985) showed that the specification of the test statistics is not dramatically altered if sample size is less than 20 compared to 50 in their sensitivity analysis.

Press releases contain broad information such as: announcements of a new online game development; announcements of close beta tests and open beta tests; commercialization schedules, promotions of upkeep and new online games; and update notices of upkeep games. We chose Yonhap News Agency as a source of press releases because Yonhap News provides the most comprehensive database of news, other printed information, and press releases. This database provides press releases from January 2004 to May 2009. We supplemented them from the firm's own website when necessary.

The Korean Game Rating Board is a regulatory agency granting rates for computer game publications. It is the Game Industry Promotional Act enacted in 2006 that prevents the publishing of a game without a rating. The Game Rating Board demands expressions and substances of sustaining coherence to retain a rating. If expressions or the substances of a game are changed without prior notice, the board has the authority to suspend any further commercial/non-commercial service.

We acquired game rating information from the website of the Game Rating Board. All the game rating information of our targets are available after 2000 . For this study we only included data regarding online games. We excluded new games or sequels in the other gaming platforms such as mobile and video game platforms. As of 2008, there were a total of 4,426 cases requesting the game rating. 3,375 cases (76.25%) received an "Everyone" grade and 749 cases (16.92%) were granted an "Adults only" grade. The "Above 12" and "Above 15" grades only took up very small portions of the total cases, just 184 (4.15%) and 118 (2.67%) respectively. Due to their small portions we did our tests only with the "Everyone" and "Adults only (above 18)" cases.

After the data gathering, we deleted invalid events that lacked sufficient event window spans of at least three days (event day +/-1 day). Publishers generated press releases for their individual games on the daily basis. So many press releases about updates and promotions of the games have less than three days. Filtering procedure to remove overlapped events for the game rating is similar to the press release. However game rating is less frequent than the press release, deleted events percentages of the game rating is less than the percentages of the press release.

Many studies used event study methodology for extracting the reactions between events and stock price changes. Event study was first adopted in the finance sectors [START_REF] Dodd | On corporate governance: A study of proxy contests[END_REF].

We adopted the traditional assumptions on the event study method: efficient market hypothesis, unanticipated events, and confounding effects (McWilliams and Siegel 1997). In this study, we adopted the traditional event study that was used in McWilliams and Siegel (1997) and [START_REF] Im | Research Report: A Reexamination of IT Investment and the Market Value of the Firm--An Event Study Methodology[END_REF]. It is a standard residual analysis technique based on the market model. We set the event day as t = 0, which is shown in press releases or game ratings information. The trading day prior to event day is numbered as minus, t = -1, t = -2, and trading day after event day set as plus, t = +1, t = +2. We estimated daily market model parameters for each event using two hundred day returns from t = -250 to t=-51. Similar studies generally use two hundred days to estimate normal returns.

,,

it i i m t i t RR    = + + (1)
Regression ( 1) is used to estimate the coefficients of the daily market model. Rit is the common stock return of firm i on day t calculated by (2), and Rmt is the market return on day t calculated by [START_REF] Skouloudis | Corporate biodiversity accounting and reporting in mega-diverse countries: An examination of indicators disclosed in sustainability reports[END_REF]. Because the common stock return, Rit, and the market return, Rmt, are evaluated as the difference of each price respectively, we do not put the control variables in the regression [START_REF] Delmas | Information disclosure policies: Evidence from the electricity industry[END_REF]. Two parameters, ai and bi, are ordinary least squares estimators, and εit is the market model error.

, , 1
,1

i t i t it it price price R price - - - = (2) , , 1 ,1 -
- - = m t m t mt mt price price R price (3)
In this study, we calculated abnormal returns from the difference between the expected return of market returns at time t and individual firm i's returns at time t that is calculated in (4). The standard errors are calculated by the formula defined by [START_REF] Im | Research Report: A Reexamination of IT Investment and the Market Value of the Firm--An Event Study Methodology[END_REF]. , , , ()

i t i t i i m t AR R R  = -+ (4) ( ) ( ) 2 , 2 , 2 , 1 1 var(
)

1 mm ii T m t m t RR AR S T RR   =     -   =+   -      (5)
We used the cumulative abnormal return (CAR) values for specified window sizes that contain event days. We used [START_REF] Meagher | Two-part tariffs in the online gaming industry: The role of creative destruction and network externalities[END_REF] to calculate the cumulative abnormal return (CAR) for various window sizes. τ and τ' can be different if the window size is not symmetric. Under the assumption that the returns on each day are independent, the standard error of the cumulative return is the sum of the standard errors [START_REF] Subramani | The Impact of E-Commerce Announcements on the Market Value of Firms[END_REF].

,, i i i i CAR AR    =- =  (6)
,, var( ) var( )

i i j j CAR AR    =- =  (7)
As this study is the first trial event study about the online game industry, a field where this method has never been applied, we tried several window sizes: t=-1~1, t=-3~3, t=-5~1, t=-5~5, t=-10~1, and t=-10~10 to determine which one would be appropriate empirically. We tested asymmetric windows due to the issue of information leakage. If any information is leaked, asymmetric windows should show higher returns than other windows. Through testing six window sizes, we finally adopted three windows sizes in order to achieve bigger cumulative abnormal returns than other returns. The adopted sizes are: t= -3~3, t= -5~ 1 and t= -5~5. An asymmetric window was accepted to reveal information leakage. In the results, the values of cumulative abnormal returns (CAR) of the asymmetric window are superior compared to symmetric windows. , 1

1 N i i CAR CAR N  = =  (8) , 2 1 1 var( ) var( ) N i i CAR CAR N  = =  (9)
Finally, we employed a conventional t-test for the significance test with average standardized cumulative abnormal return (ASCAR) and its variance. ṽar( )

   =- = df N
CAR tt CAR [START_REF] Nelson | Information and Consumer Behavior[END_REF] We took stock market index and daily stock price information of our target firms from Fnguide.com . We utilized a rectified stock price of each firm provided by this web site. As we assumed two hundred days as the daily market model estimation time, two firms did not achieve these criteria and we could not analyze them. Neowiz Holdings announced in 2007 they would divide their online game business division into Neowiz Games. But Neowiz Holdings kept governing Neowiz Games even after being listed in KOSDAQ as a separate firm. So we only analyzed Neowiz Holdings data and excluded Neowiz Games from our analysis with the purpose of avoiding duplication and maintaining stock price consistency. ,

) i t i t free t m t free t AR R R R R  = - -+ - , , , , ( ) ( ( )
We use another estimation model to control macroeconomic influences: capital asset pricing model, the equation [START_REF] Choi | Innovation Characteristics and R&D Strategies in Creative Service Industries: Online Games in Korea[END_REF]. We adopted the three year Korean government bond rate as the risk free rate. The results of the CAPM model is almost similar to the market model. It also supports the robustness of our results.

Results

Table 1 presents average cumulative abnormal return (ACAR) values of our estimated three different window sizes associated with online game development and publishing events. The numbers inside the parenthesis represent p-values respectively. We display the level of p-values as asterisks next to the parentheses: a value that is p < 0.10 represents cross ( †), values that are p < 0.05 are represented with one asterisk (*), and values that fall under p < 0.01 are depicted as two asterisks (**).

Regarding our overall observations, we conclude that game rating events have significant meanings. In the case of game rating event, ACARs shows positive and significant values for unbalanced window t = -5 to t=1. On the other hand, press releases are insignificant. An important premise of this research is that generally stock price reactions to game rating events will show significantly positive values rather than zero. The information from a game rating is regarded as a signal of the possibility that the product will be introduced into the market and also includes an outline of the game.

Many investors and managers inferred that each beta test and the final commercialization of a product would raise the firm value: this assumption does not fit with our results. Usually plenty of media reports already deliver related information before press releases to the market before beta tests are conducted or commercialized. We guess that lots of media reports leak related information about new games and as an effect reduces the abnormal return on the actual event days. These events can be interpreted as earning shocks if the real earning of a firm in the annual report is less the same as to the expectation of the earning. All information is already leaked and the information is realized as a price of the stock. 1. Stock price reactions to online game events 1Game rating events were tested according to the rating grade the game has received. The results are also summarized in table 1. We found that all ACARs of "Everyone" rates are positive and show significant values for all event window sizes. We guess that this result mainly stems from the existence of direct network externality. The smaller potential customer size of the "Adults only" grade is one of the main reasons to show negative ACARs, which is not significant. Another reason is the diversity of preferences of adult users. Many people develop their own tastes while growing up. So many "Everyone" grade online games have similar appearance as they have the same large pool of potential users; whereas "Adults only" rated online games mostly contain different contents. This leads to the result that the "Everyone" rated games have bigger potentials than "Adult only" rated games. This result can be interpreted as a sign that as direct network externality exists in online games, which supports our Hypothesis 1.

Event

To test Hypothesis 2 by stock price reactions to game ratings that are classified according to categories, we received the following expected result: stock price reactions to game ratings of casual games are positive and show significant values. So we can accept hypothesis 2. As opposed to the results of casual games, stock price reactions to game ratings of MMOGs do not show any significance. Due to the simple game structure and contents, relatively small sizes that make them easy to download and install, casual games can usually gather more attention in a given short time compared to MMOGs. It is reasonable to assume that many investors are also able to make proper decisions within a shorter time about casual games compared to cases of MMOGs.

If the Korean market just preferred the casual games, then the new portfolio which contains casual games for each grade, "Everyone" and "Adult only", will show positive and significant stock returns respectively. But the results do not match this opinion. Table 2 shows the results for casual games. As we expected with Hypothesis 1, casual games with the "Everyone" grade which have more potential players show positive and significant stock returns. Casual games which rated "Adult only" show no significant relationship with stock returns. We also did the same tests for MMOGs, but all rated MMOGs show no significant relationship with stock returns. We can see that independent developers show positive and significant impacts on stock reactions to game ratings by business structure in Table 1. But vertically integrated firms do not show significant stock returns. So we partially accept Hypothesis 3. Because of the important technological aspects of the industry, the development capability is considered as an important factor in the online game industry. The reason that independent developers are seeing higher stock price reaction than other models lies in the timing of capitalization: independent developers can capitalize some part of the expected total earnings by licensing the product to the publisher, but firms which adopted the vertical integration model have to pay additional costs for beta tests, marketing campaigns, and commercial distribution. Generally vertically integrated firms are able to capitalize larger amounts of financial resources for a game than other models, but the realization of such a capitalization takes more time than firms which adopted the independent developer model.

We proposed the impacts of business models in the online game industry with Hypothesis 4. Against our expectations, vertically integrated firms did not show higher stock returns than other business models.

Conclusions

This paper found that not only online game characteristics but also the online game industry structure that is favorable to market reactions. The findings of this paper have strategic implications to policy makers and online game makers.

We derived the following results. First, it is likely for online games to have direct network externalities generated by interactions within potential players. Its managerial implication is that the firms pay more attentions to boost network externalities through interactions in the game to ensure their success in the online game industry. Sustaining development ability (or technological competence) is an important factor in the online game industry. Online games are complex experience goods: they are technology-intensive, but the contents are also important [START_REF] Choi | Innovation Characteristics and R&D Strategies in Creative Service Industries: Online Games in Korea[END_REF]). Continuous technological innovation and maintenance with technological competence can make differences to competitors. Hence, the independent publishers may be seriously disadvantaged in this industry than in the traditional video game industry. The downtime of World of Warcraft in China was due to a change-over in the Chinese game operation license regulation. This was an inevitable incident to Activision-Blizzard . It is an example that an independent publisher can suffer in the market.

Casual games, which are generally simpler than MMOGs, generate stronger market reactions in the short term due to ease of quality evaluation, possibly the shorter payback cycle of investments and smaller capital requirements for development, all of which lead to lower risks. But it does not mean that casual games show superior performance in the long run. High stock returns in the short term do not guarantee high performance in the long term. Stronger market reactions of the casual games could be based on the market preference, but it is not easy to identify market preference publicly. We pooled casual games and MMOGs in this study. However, as mentioned before, MMOGs have much longer service cycles and more various pricing strategies after our data period. Therefore, MMOGs may require studies over a much longer time.

We studied relationships between events and stock price reactions only. Linking market responses to actual game success may be an interesting topic to be explored further. As we tested in this game, many online games are launched in the market every year, while many online games are withdrawn from the market. That may test the efficiency of financial markets in assessing online games' success in the market.

While our study is limited to online games, expansion to other entertainment genres may shed more light on similarities and dissimilarities of the online game industry against traditional entertainment markets.

2.1 Online game characteristics Network Effects of Games

  The virtual world is evolved in real time through interactions of the users. Massive user connectivity, interactivity, and a continuing virtual world make it difficult to technically implement a MMOG game and require vast amounts of investments for development. On the contrary a conventional casual game creates disposable virtual spaces and a number of 2~32 clients participate in the game that is hosted in such spaces. At the end of a game session these virtual spaces are removed, and the results of the game are saved in the central databases.Meagher and Teo (2005) modeled the existence of network externality in multi playable online games (MPOGs) using a two-part tariffs model. The model in this study is consistent with observed examples of online games pricing strategies.

. Usually a massively multiplayer online games (MMOG) consists of two key components: a seamless vast virtual world and a large number of multiple users.

Table

	sification	Clas-	Window Size (in days)	-3 ~ +3	-5 ~ +1	-5 ~ +5
	Stock Price Reactions	Game Rating	.0016 (.119)	.00178 (.091) †	.0014 (.105)
			Press release	.0001 (.396)	-.0004 (.371)	-.0010 (.177)
	Reactions to Game Rating	Everyone	.0035 (.039)*	.0039 (.025)*	.0036 (.013)*
	by Age Grades	Adults Only	-.0003 (.389)	-.0009 (.334)	-.0010 (.307)
	Reactions to Game Rating	MMOGs	.0002 (.394)	.0011 (.297)	.0005 (.372)
	by Category	Casual game	.0026 (.065) †	.0024 (.087) †	.0029 (.024)*
	Reactions to	Vertical Integra-	.0015	.0014	.0019
	Game Rating	tion	(.239)	(.242)	(.128)
	by Business	Independent De-	.0029	.0043	.0033
	Structure		veloper	(.130)	(.041)*	(.056) †
			Independent Pub-	.0002	-.0010	-.0035
			lisher	(.392)	(.348)	(.070) †
	Reactions to	Vertical Integra-	.0017	.0002	.0001
	Press Release	tion	(.116)	(.391)	(.394)
	by Business	Independent De-	-.0024	-.0043	-.0015
	Structure		veloper	(.175)	(.389)	(.229)
			Independent Pub-	-.0021	-.0037	-.0038
			lisher	(.178)	(.194)	(.122)

Table 2 .

 2 ACAR for casual games

	Event windows	ACAR casual games Everyone	Adult only
	-3 ~ +3	.00385(.040)*	.00017(.395)
	-5 ~ +1	.00455(.017)*	.00051(.382)
	-5 ~ +5	.00411(.017)*	.00037(.385)

*: p < .05, **: p < .01, †: p < 0.10. The value in the parentheses is p-value. Less than .001 reported as <.001.


Mariana S Gustafsson
email: mariana.s.gustafsson@liu.se

Elin Wihlborg

Technology Mediated Citizenship: What can we learn from library practices

Keywords: Digital citizenship, public digital services, agency, library 1 Background and Research Problem

Advanced digital societies in democratic societies are conceived to be sustained by informed, active and responsible citizens. While internet and information technologies are both hailed for their empowering potential for the citizens to express their civic and political rights, they also pose considerable literacy and usage challenges, and thus can raise exclusionary thresholds for these same aspirations. Digital skills and information literacy as preconditions for tapping into such technology potential, can thus affect the way citizenship is practiced and conceived by the members of society. Based on an extensive field study at Swedish libraries practices with helping and educating clients with a wide diversity of questions relating to digital technologies and e-services, we examine both empirically and conceptually how citizenship is practiced in an advanced digital society, in a universal welfare state. The analysis focused on citizenship practices in daily activities when technologies mediate participation and interaction among the public, civic and market actors. The conclusions contribute to the conceptualization of citizenship act and agency and elaborates on citizenship as a performative process.

In advanced digital societies, such as the in the Scandinavian countries, it is the responsibility of the 'active and informed citizen' to manage daily needs and activities, by accessing public services, communicating with authorities and businesses, or engaging in social or political acts [START_REF] Eggers | Self-Responsibility of the "Active Social Citizen": Different Types of the Policy Concept of "Active Social Citizenship" in Different Types of Welfare States[END_REF]. These practices can be highly empowering and effective for the individual person. But an important precondition for empowerment to happen, she needs to be knowledgeable and skillful to use an array of different digital technologies that are mediating pretty much every relation and service in society [START_REF] Van Laar | The relation between 21st-century skills and digital skills: A systematic literature review[END_REF]. For individual citizens to fulfil these requirements, in the current process of a swift digitalisation of public societal services, this is not easy, but requires various forms of support [START_REF] Van Deursen | The first-level digital divide shifts from inequalities in physical access to inequalities in material access[END_REF][START_REF] Scheerder | Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second-and third-level digital divide[END_REF]. There are policy ambitions to promote increased digitalisation and call for harnessing of digitalisation opportunities for economic growth and citizen well-being [START_REF] Van Laar | The relation between 21st-century skills and digital skills: A systematic literature review[END_REF][START_REF]Shaping Europe's Digital Future[END_REF][START_REF]Regeringskansliet, För ett hållbart digitaliserat Sverige -en digitaliseringsstrategi[END_REF][START_REF] Oecd | How's Life in the Digital Age?: Opportunities and Risks of the Digital Transfromation for People's Well-being[END_REF]. 'People must have the opportunity to develop personally, to choose freely and safely, to engage in society, regardless of their age, gender or professional background' the European Commission writes in a recent communication [START_REF]Shaping Europe's Digital Future[END_REF]. Furthermore, they state: 'Citizens should be empowered to make better decisions based on insights gleaned from non-personal data', thus calling for technologies that make a difference and work for people in their daily lives [START_REF]Shaping Europe's Digital Future[END_REF].

OECD calls for immediacy of policies that target digital literacy for effective use of technologies, and emphasize that these shall: 'empower people with the mix of skills needed to succeed, improve social protection to ensure no one is left behind' [START_REF]Going Digital: Shaping Policies, Improving Lives[END_REF]. While finding proved effects of digitalisation on human productivity and accessibility to knowledge [START_REF] Oecd | How's Life in the Digital Age?: Opportunities and Risks of the Digital Transfromation for People's Well-being[END_REF], they stress the risks of disinformation, insecurity and the digital divides that are inherent to the process of transformation in society [START_REF]Going Digital: Shaping Policies, Improving Lives[END_REF]. Normative analyses have depicted the good citizenship implied in being an informed participant in democratic practices [START_REF] Shelley | Lost in cyberspace: barriers to bridging the digital divide in e-politics[END_REF], while digital divide research showed that digital technologies empowered those already politically engaged and highly educated [START_REF] Van Deursen | The first-level digital divide shifts from inequalities in physical access to inequalities in material access[END_REF][START_REF] Scheerder | Determinants of Internet skills, uses and outcomes. A systematic review of the second-and third-level digital divide[END_REF].

The case of Sweden should be understood as an advanced and rather digitalized welfare state, rather than a universal welfare state. In this context we include in the concept of citizenship not only the right to vote (political citizenship), but also social, economic and civic engagement [START_REF] Svallfors | Class, attitudes and the Welfare State: Sweden in comparative perspective[END_REF]. In this study, we focus on citizenship from a performative perspective, that involves what individuals actually do when they live in society, in their daily lives -solving mundane problems, fulfilling their different needs -civic, political, educational, financial. As Hintz, Dencik [START_REF] Hintz | Digital citizenship in a datafied society[END_REF] clarify, participation in society is conditioned by receiving of citizen status, in contrast to enacting citizenship through engagement in social and political activities. In advanced information societies these activities are often digitalized, something which brings to the fore how digital access and skills condition the performing of citizenship (van Deursen & van Dijk, 2018). Swedish research shows that digital diversity involves always exclusionary potential and that citizenship should be examined as an entanglement of human and technology relations [START_REF] Sefyrin | Addressing Digital Diversity in a Digitalized Society: Ethics of Care in a Swedish Library Context[END_REF][START_REF] Gustafsson | It is unbelievable how many come to us': A study on librarians' perspectives on digital inclusion in Sweden[END_REF][START_REF] Gustafsson | It Is Always an Individual Assessment': A Case Study on Challenges of Automation of Income Support Services[END_REF][START_REF] Wihlborg | Automation of Income Support in the Public Social Services: A case study of an innovation that is still struggling, in Regional Innovation and Entrepreneurship Potentials -How to unlock them[END_REF].

Libraries present valuable fora used increasingly by citizens to learn about and get help with digital technologies. The library as an institution is fundamental for the lively, engaged, inclusive and rooted democracy [START_REF] Bertot | Community-based e-Government: libraries as e-Government partners and providers[END_REF][START_REF] Palfrey | Bibliotech : why libraries matter more than ever in the age of Google[END_REF]. The public libraries play a central function in the building of democratic and inclusive local communities, being increasingly relied upon by governments to deliver access and support for e-services [START_REF] Jaeger | The Intersection of Public Policy and Public Access: Digital Divides, Digital Literacy, Digital Inclusion, and Public Libraries[END_REF]. In particular local public libraries have played a crucial role for deliberation, literacy and democratic inclusion during the building of the Scandinavian welfare states [START_REF] Hedemark | Mötet mellan folkbibliotek och användare[END_REF]. The Library Act in Sweden stipulates today that every municipality shall have a local library open for every citizen and adapted to their needs [20]. Public libraries are managed under the municipalities in Sweden and they are currently developing their organizations and services to meet the new and increasing demands on digital information and e-services. Eight out of ten libraries in Sweden are currently offering services targeting citizens' needs for digital information and services [START_REF] Norberg | Insatser för digital kompetens på folkbiblioteken: En studie om folkbibliotekens arbete med digital delaktighet[END_REF]. Through the libraries, citizens are supposed to get improved access to information, culture and values -which are preconditions for informed, active and engaged citizens in the civic realm. By providing access and qualified support to all citizens, the libraries are expected to promote access to information and knowledge resources for all individuals in society regardless of their economic and social resources. Hence, libraries and library employees work to support citizens' everyday activities in terms of digitalized relations with authorities and other organizations, as well as private matters,. In these terms the library employees become mediators and enablers of citizenship agency.

On this background, this paper will discuss how digitalization affects citizenship as performative enactment, viewed through the lens of Swedish library employees and their practices of supporting visitors with questions relating to access, understanding and acting upon digital services, digital information and technologies. The focus is the image of citizenship which emerges in the stories told and the observations of library practices to provide support for the visitors. These visitors come to the library because they need help with enacting their rights and obligations as citizens. Thus, citizens who are invoked in the empirical material is a limited group of citizens in different vulnerable positions due to lack of knowledge and/or ability to use information technologies, rather than representative for the whole population. Our main argument is that through digital mediation of social activities, the boundaries of what individuals can do in the frame of their citizen rights, responsibilities and duties are shifting depending on how they manage digital technologies and thereby digitalization re-frames the meaning of citizenship.

The Aim and the Research Questions

In this paper we aim to explore practices of citizenship in an advanced digital society as they are supported in library practices. Based on our findings and analyses we aim to open for a discussion on re-assessing the meaning of citizenship when its practicing is mediated by digital technologies. To pursue this aim, the paper will focus on three research questions:

• How is citizenship practiced in daily life activities through digital technologies? • How do digital technologies affect the practice of citizenship and how are they supported by the library staff? • What implications do technology mediated citizenship practices have upon citizenship acts and citizenship agency?

Literature Insights and Theoretical Framework

Digital citizenship has been described in terms of the ability of the individuals to participate in society through access and use of digital technologies as a critical medium for 'individual expression, democratization, economic opportunity, community and education' [START_REF] Mossberger | Toward Digital Citizenship: Addressing Inequality in the Information Age[END_REF][START_REF] Mossberger | Digital citizenship : the internet, society, and participation[END_REF]. The term is not new, it emerged at the same time as Internet became widely accessible for the public. This development resulted in a reflection of -and a challenge to rights, obligations and freedoms in the physical polities -democratic or authoritarian alike. More recently, when digitalisation has permeated the depths of both public and private spheres -digital literacy, in addition to government knowledge is to drive the ability to participate online in society and politics [START_REF] Lindgren | Digital media & society[END_REF]. Building on different literacies and technology affordances, the individuals engage in activities of 'becoming' digital citizens, by negotiating new ways of living their rights and freedoms [START_REF] Mccosker | Negotiating Digital Citizenship: Control, Contest and Culture[END_REF][START_REF] Mccosker | Contested Publics: Racist Rants, Bystander Action and Social Media Acts of Citizenship[END_REF]. Critical analyses on digital citizenship from a governing perspective argue that through the popular education and the lifelong learning ideal, policies work to re-include citizens in a society that they already were part of, but were excluded by computerization [START_REF] Rahm | Popular education and the digital citizen : a genealogical analysis[END_REF].

Performative Citizenship in a Sociotechnical Landscape

When access and use of public services is increasingly digital, as well as online participation, deliberation and interaction with elected politicians and public servants, when digital infrastructure for e-legitimation and signature is systemically built -the institutional arrangements for democratic citizenship should be considered as socio-technical arrangements [START_REF] Nafria | Building up eParticipatory decision-making from the local to the global scale. Study case at the European Higher Education Area[END_REF][START_REF] Ingrams | Mobile phones, smartphones, and the transformation of civic behavior through mobile information and connectivity[END_REF][START_REF] Enggong | Investigating personal and community factors in e-government: a citizen's perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Geels | Ontologies, Socio-technical Transitions (to Sustainability), and the Multi-level Perspective[END_REF]. Consequently, there is a need to address these arrangements that make up the digital citizenship. Current digital infrastructure in public sector that requires to perform digital acts can be compared with Winner [START_REF] Winner | Do Artifacts Have Politics? Daedalus[END_REF] analysis of Moser bridges in '20s New York, as well as Chandler and Hikino [START_REF] Chandler | Scale and scope : the dynamics of industrial capitalism[END_REF] studies of large scale energy technology infrastructure and their early arguments about the political properties -intrinsic or by design, of technologies. The analogy in the citizenship case is to reflect upon what information technologies and digital (and automated) infrastructures in public services require or condition in terms of practicing citizenship acts and how human agency is affected by these.

Digital Citizenship as Performative Enactment

Studies of citizenship as practice -'the doing of citizenship' -draw on theories of performativity that seek to understand how people manifest their citizenship through their activities [START_REF] Mccosker | Negotiating Digital Citizenship: Control, Contest and Culture[END_REF][START_REF] Isin | Citizens without frontiers[END_REF][START_REF] Isin | Theorizing acts of citizenship[END_REF] while claiming rights and implementing responsibilities [START_REF] Zivi | Making rights claims : a practice of democratic citizenship[END_REF]. Citizenship as practice comprise individuals' decisions and actions when claiming rights and implementing responsibilities as members of society. The practice should be seen in relation to the different statuses a person can have, where the citizenship establishes the belonging of the individual to a nation state, their legal and political regimes and entitlement to welfare. By acquiring the status of 'citizen', the person acquires a legal identity and a subjectivity in the frame of the national jurisdiction, with full rights and responsibilities towards the national state. However, not all members in a society are 'citizens', as for example persons with rights to work and study, persons with residence rights, refugees or asylum seekers. Depending on these statuses, these people will have more or less limited access to rights, responsibilities and welfare services and thus their practices will involve different activities [START_REF] Dryzek | Deliberative democracy and beyond : liberals, critics, contestations[END_REF][START_REF] Fishkin | When the people speak : deliberative democracy and public consultation[END_REF]. In these terms the agency associated with citizenship is always conditioned, circumscribed by a number of regulations.

Citizen Acts and Citizen Agency

A performative perspective of citizenship will thus have 'citizen acts' and 'citizen agency' among the main units of analysis [START_REF] Isin | Theorizing acts of citizenship[END_REF]. A citizen act is here broadly defined as intentional actions of individual subjects to engage with society (ibid.). Isin [START_REF] Isin | Theorizing acts of citizenship[END_REF] proposed to shift the focus from the institution of citizenship and the citizen as an individual actor to acts of citizenship. Isin defined acts of citizenship as 'individual deeds that rupture social-historical patterns'. According to Isin, acts are not passively given, nor are they coming from a natural order. Citizenship acts are not simply the exercise of rights and obligations, 'as if these neutral forms of individual choice could be sanctioned outside multiple networks of authority'.., such practices like voting, paying taxes or learning languages appear passive and one-sided in mass democracies, whereas acts of citizenship break with repetition of the same…' [START_REF] Isin | Theorizing acts of citizenship[END_REF]. Citizenship shall thus also include acts of solving daily needs.

In a digital society, many of such citizen acts will be mediated by digital technologies, which will have an effect upon how citizens perform more advanced activities in society: how they live their rights, freedoms and obligations. How knowledgeable citizens are about their living conditions, how able they are to fulfill their daily needs and act upon them using technologies, will have effects upon their ability to participate in society, politically, socially and economically, in a more informed and timely manner. We argue that if a person has difficulties to act upon her daily needs by being restrained by technology, she will also be limited in her ability to engage in more advanced activities.

Along with rights and responsibilities granted by formal citizenship status -digital literacy, technology access and the abilities of the person to use such technologies will make up an important part of her citizenship agency. Citizen agency will thus consist of the ability of the person to perform citizen acts to fulfill the individual's social, political, cultural and financial needs. Importantly, citizenship agency is relational as it builds abilities based on the relations that the individual cultivates with technologies, authorities, and other supporting or mediating actors. Thus, practicing citizenship by using digital technologies daily becomes an important medium through which citizens enact their role in society [START_REF] Hintz | Digital citizenship in a datafied society[END_REF]. Daily activities that involve purposefully using Internet to search for, access and use digital platforms of governmental authorities, public and private services providers -make up the agency with which the person performs and positions herself as a citizen in society. Such an agency builds on knowledge about the services and their providers, literacy of rights and obligations, the experience of solving problems through digital and other technologies and the relations with other members in the community. However, when the person lacks literacy, other actors supporting or mediating knowledge become important in building and sustaining citizenship agency, which is the case of library employees in this study.

Method

This study follows the path of 'library studies' and builds on our interest to follow the process of advancing digitalization of society and the implications for citizens' participation in democratic practices [START_REF] Sefyrin | Addressing Digital Diversity in a Digitalized Society: Ethics of Care in a Swedish Library Context[END_REF][START_REF] Bernhard | A Digital Society For All? : Meanings, Practices and Policies for Digital Diversity[END_REF]. The public library as an institution is framed as a democracy arena that works for broad folk literacy and digital inclusions [START_REF] Bertot | Building Digitally Inclusive Communities: The Roles of Public Libraries in Digital Inclusion and Development[END_REF][START_REF] Mcdermott | Digital Inclusion and the Affordable Care Act: Public Libraries, Politics, Policy, and Enrollment in "Obamacare[END_REF][START_REF] Bertot | Local Big Data: The Role of Libraries in Building Community Data Infrastructures[END_REF]. The study focused on library activities occurring at a main public library in a medium sized municipality in Sweden, at one of its local branches in a housing area and at the regional library program for Introduction of asylum seekers to society, where social communicators work. Acts of citizenship and agency were studied through the stories of the library employees, and in our observations at the library information desk. Through these main sources we learned about the visitors' individual needs and challenges when attempting to perform citizenship acts. These visitors can be understood as a vulnerable group of citizens, rather than representative of all Swedish citizens. Compared to the average in Sweden, the citizens in this municipality had a slightly lower level of education, lower level of income, and shorter average lifespan [START_REF]Rådet för främjande av kommunala analyser[END_REF]. A relatively high number of immigrants lived in the municipality, which also showed in their attendance of the libraries in focus.

The study was designed as a qualitative, interpretive study with included elements of ethnographic studies. Besides documentary information, the empirical material was collected through seven semi-structured interviews, about an hour in length, with library employees and managers (all were librarians), 29 documented observation visits during daily activities at the library information desk, IT-tutorials and courses, events such e-Citizen week, All Digital Week, and two focus groups with social communicators. The observations range from one to several hours in length, and the focus groups comprised two hours each.

This material was corroborated with our empirical findings from our previous library studies [START_REF] Gustafsson | It is unbelievable how many come to us': A study on librarians' perspectives on digital inclusion in Sweden[END_REF][START_REF] Bernhard | A Digital Society For All? : Meanings, Practices and Policies for Digital Diversity[END_REF]. This interpretive analysis employed an abductive procedure and connected the concepts of 'citizenship acts', 'digital acts' and 'agency' to the empirical content, which was in its turn ground for assessing the theoretical concepts [START_REF] Alvesson | Constructing research questions: doing interesting research[END_REF][START_REF] Alvesson | Qualitative research and theory development: mystery as method[END_REF]. Our interest lies in both explaining the empirical questions of citizenship practices and hoping that these findings would contribute to refine theory of citizenship. The material was coded in NVIVO, in this case by focusing on citizenship. The codes 'need', 'knowledge', 'technology', 'support', 'challenge' were included in the analysis, but also grounded theory approach allowing for themes such as 'concern', 'boundaries', 'responsibility' to emerge from the material..

Findings from Library Practices

To embed the discussion in practical situations, we will use critical situations as we have identified in the field studies that illustrate examples of activities mediated by digital technologies, and later to relate them to acts of citizenship.

Daily Digital Acts that Make the Practice of Citizenship

As we argued above, members of society practice their rights and responsibilities daily -in more or less obvious forms and based on a diversity of needs that arise from lived experiences. Confirming earlier studies, we find that library visitors increasingly address questions and ask for assistance to manage access and exchange of information with authorities in the public and private sector. It is through the lens of their challenges that we shall understand their citizen acts and their agency in the digital society.

Printing papers or digitizing paper records present the most popular kind of assistance at the library: activity reports for unemployment benefits, monthly account statement and receipts for municipality income support services, records asked by banking services. Not so seldom, the person who is not able to manage the entire communication via e-services, chooses to present them on paper. So far some of these authorities still accept papers. We observed and got confirmed by the interviewed staff at the branch library that in the areas inhabited by immigrants, non-speakers of Swedish and socially vulnerable households, such questions and assistance is much more frequent than at the central library. Some more examples follow on public transportation, when buses are not accepting cash or paper tickets: Two young women asking for help to print bus tickets QR code, when staff 2, wonders why she cannot just show it on her mobile. It turns out the women's mobile does not have internet connection and the women was unsure whether she could use her QR-app to show the code to the ticket scanner. She prints a huge QR-code on paper and leaves (Obsr. Branch 7, Ref 1).

One of the visitors turned out to have a smartphone without internet connection, which hindered her to handle the ticket app and use the ticket scanner on the bus. A similar case, almost anecdotal, occurred when another library visitor had two different mobiles which he could not use (ex. google maps) to find the address and the route to the specific store he needed. Pursuing without hinder such elementary acts will facilitate or sometimes pre-condition the persons contacts with the authorities, the employers or health care. A house rental situation was observed as follows:

An older lady needs help to post an ad on Internet about renting her apartment: "Where would you like to place your ad?", she is asked. She replied "I don't know, anywhere. I don't know where to post ads. I don't have my own computer'. She is curious about computers, but afraid to become dependent on them, she admits. After explaining her intention, she gets the advice to contact the local rental housing company. But she explained that she had tried but has not got any help. Finally, the alternative was suggested to post the ad in the local newspaper, but for that she needed to have an email account. (Obsr. Main 2, Ref 1)

Here again, we witness several elementary acts that the person needs to know and manage digitally. Even when an alternative to use the print newspaper, it turns out she needed to mail them her request online, for which she needed to have an email account and know the password for login. Knowing about the service, knowing the language is in many cases not enough anymore. Handling logins to email, passwords, mobiles, websites and computers become mediators of elementary digital acts of the citizen.

Digital Acts and Challenges Connecting to Welfare Services

Our field studies suggest that more advanced activities, like accessing and using public e-services to solve daily needs involve more digital acts and higher citizenship agency abilities. To recall, her agency will thus be her ability to perform citizen acts based on her knowledge and understanding of the services, knowing of her rights and responsibilities entitling her to social, cultural, and political benefits, but also her relation with the respective authorities and communication abilities through digital technologies.

A specific case that illustrates a challenge of agency concerns the decision of the local public schools in to introduce paper free communication policies. Certain parents with daycare or school children, had difficulties communicating with the schools through basic digital means such as emails or through the municipality school platform. These parents needed much more assistance to use the digital platforms at the transmit the information about the pupil, but more often they needed support when the services did not function based on wrong or missing information. The observation below describes a typical situation occurring at the library: A woman around 40 y.o. approaches the library reception. She tells the library staff that since her children's school recently has become paper-free and she needed help to report special diet for one of her children. The woman is annoyed. Staff 1 replies that [the municipal] contact centers will attend libraries during specific hours to assist parents with such issues. The woman admits she can't attend during those hours. She replies: "why should it be so damn hard and take such a damn time [for the staff to help her]". The class teacher and the school administration advised her to use the library help desk for the purpose. (Obsr. Branch 10,Ref 2) Another common support activity is counseling on IT problems, both on spot when the questions are posed in the reception and in booked sessions, as illustrated by the following examples: Woman, 50 years old, who has recently become a custodian needs to buy a new computer to be able to manage the custodee's economy. [Earlier] she was hesitant to use new computers, but now as she needed to use Internet banking, she will need a more secure computer. She asks the staff for advice on the type of computer, the software and the broadband security. She seems to know many of the answers but asks to get confirmation (Obsr. Main 1, Ref 1).

Or, missing the communication with the authorities, as witnessed by one of the librarians:

[it's] various contacts with authorities, like the National Insurance Office, The Swedish Employment Service, this way you should fill in an activity report. You shall fill in time reports, [ed. asking himself] "how should I do? what should I do?" My husband just received a payment from the unemployment fund, several months after he had applied and he did not understand how it worked at all and he had not seen that he had a message in his inbox in the system (Interview Librarian 2).

And the list of such queries is long, as all the interviewed staff confirmed: activity reports for social services as bank account statements, check ins to flights or printing.

Many of them have difficulties understanding the Swedish language on the websites or computer programs, as discussed in interviews and seen during observations. So, what do these cases have in common? In each of these examples, we see persons who have challenges to act upon their rights to use the e-services, both in public and in private sector. For them to use most of the services (banks, shops, schools, authorities), they need to access the information, understand it and act upon it to fulfill a diversity of needs arising in their daily life. A they seem to have limited agency in daily activities, these persons will experience more exclusions and difficulties to reach out. Their citizenship agency is increasingly depending on support and assistance with different digital technologies. We argue that such acts present elementary citizenship acts that underly more advanced acts and make up for an autonomous citizen's agency. A person's integration in the labor market, her balance of work-life activities, her social or political affordances for engagement and influence in society is now mediated by technologies and conditioned by her information literacy.

When a library visitor turns to the library information desk with her questions -they usually seem as rather simple questions -'please help me to print my bank statement', 'I can't log in to the employment agency's website', all related to some kind of device and with the purpose of solving an issue with the authorities or banks. For certain clients -usually old, immigrants or with functional disabilities, but not only -these are not easy tasks. These mundane tasks of reporting to the insurance agency, or activity reporting to the social assistance services, or booking a visit to the doctor, or checking out the balance on the bank account -are difficult if not impossible for them to solve independently through digital systems.

Our study finds that the library staff experience this at the counter and in IT-guidance meetings daily. The practice is similar for the society communicators who work with asylum seekers: what seems to be a very basic task for most of the clients -it may turn a rather difficult challenge for the certain individuals. Such seemingly simple tasks pursued by the client should be seen as assemblages of entangled questions (what do I need to do in order to solve my problem), information (what do I need to know), devices (why can't I log in to this computer or webpage, why is this app not opening) and concerns (will I ever get employed, will I get may income by the end of this month), requirements (of a personal security number, passwords) and signatures (e-ID).

Discussion and Conclusions

This study focused on the doing of citizenship in daily practices in the context of an advanced welfare society and concerned a limited group of citizens who were in different vulnerable positions. Based on the study of this particular group we argue that along with rights and responsibilities granted by formal citizenship status -digital literacy, technology access and the abilities of the person to use such technologies will make up an important part of her citizenship agency. Her citizen agency is proven in practice and builds on knowledge about the services and their providers, literacy of rights and obligations, the experience of solving problems through digital and other technologies and the relations with other members and authorities in the community. Such agency, based on Isin and Ruppert [START_REF] Isin | Digital Citizenship and Surveillance| Citizen Snowden[END_REF] argument, makes up the citizen's role and position in society, serving as claims to the right to act 'freely' in both digital environments and physical environments [START_REF] Hintz | Digital citizenship in a datafied society[END_REF].

This study shows that the activity of citizenship involves an entanglement of artifacts (technology), people and concerns, information, and knowledge. The agency of citizenship is made up of such entanglements of people with authorities, technology, and information. It points at the importance of studying such entanglements to understand how citizenship evolves when practiced through digital acts and mediated by technology.

In daily situations when the technology does not work or is not available, or the information available to the person is limited or misunderstood -the agency for citizenship is also limited and that results in hindering her participation in society, her relationship with the authorities, and with other community actors. With such limited agency, the person will have a limited de facto access to the benefits of the digital society, will experience more exclusion and will be less able to act upon her social and political rights, responsibilities, and economic opportunities. Such examples of limited agency for citizenship are abounding in library practices. The library staff in such cases are supporting to restore and untangle such assemblages.

However, while they play an important supporting role, the citizen's autonomy and the scope of her opportunities to engage in society will be affected. In certain cases, when the person will acquire literacy and skills, they will empower her agency, while in other cases -when the citizen becomes dependent on such support, it will have opposite effects. Such effects of different actors and technologies upon citizenship agency should be carefully studied and need further research. Finally, a re-assessment of institutional arrangements for citizenship in information societies, increasingly mediated by technologies is critical in order to understand how citizenship agency evolves and how these are negotiated to reflect the actual challenges and conditions for social and political engagement.