Paula Kotzé
email: paula.kotze@gmail.com

Louis Coetzee
email: louis.coetzee@csir.co.za

Opportunities for the Internet of Things in the Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Domain

Keywords: WASH, Internet of Things, Water, Sanitation, Hygiene, Value Chains

This paper analyses the water, sanitation and hygiene (WASH) context in South Africa and presents views regarding the possible use of the Internet of Things (IoT) for WASH in South Africa. The views were informed by an analysis of literature related to the WASH domain nationally and internationally. Example case studies of the use of IoT in the WASH sector in developing countries, and where possible Africa, provided further background. As a triangulation exercise, a survey amongst various stakeholders in the WASH domain was conducted. To contextualise the WASH sector in South Africa, value chains were derived. To identity the opportunities for IoT, the findings of the study were combined with insights acquired on the IoT domain in general, both from literature and our experience and learnings.

Introduction

The human rights to water, sanitation and hygiene, collectively known as WASH, are guaranteed under international law as components of the right to an adequate standard of living guaranteed in the International Covenant on Economic, Social and Cultural Rights [1], as well as in many other human rights treaties. Moreover, water, sanitation and hygiene are inextricably linked to a range of other human rights, including the rights to life, health, education and housing [1][START_REF]Water, Sanitation and Hygiene[END_REF][START_REF]United Nations General Assembly: Report of the independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation[END_REF][START_REF]United Nations General Assembly: Report of the Special Rapporteur on the human right to safe drinking water and sanitation, Catarina de Albuquerque: Stigma and the realization of the human rights to water and sanitation[END_REF][START_REF]United Nations General Assembly: Report of the independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation[END_REF]. Reporting on progress with the United Nations (UN) Millennium Development Goals, UNICEF states that [START_REF]UNICEF and WHO: Progress on Sanitation and Drinking Water -2015 update and MDG assessment[END_REF]:

• More than 660 million people in 2015 lacked access to safe drinking water sources within a convenient distance from their habitation, 319 million of which lived in Sub-Saharan Africa. A total of 159 million people was dependent on surface water, of which 102 million lived in Sub-Saharan Africa. • Adequate sanitation facilities, for human excreta disposal in, or close to, peoples' habitation, were not available to 2.4 billion people in 2015, 695 million of which lived in Sub-Saharan Africa.

In South Africa, and many other developing countries, a large number of people still do not have an acceptable toilet and cannot easily access safe water to drink or wash their hands. This leaves significant proportions of young children and vulnerable individuals to die of preventable WASH related diseases such as diarrhoea, intestinal nematode infections, lymphatic filariasis, trachoma, schistosomiasis and malaria [START_REF]Global Health Observatory Data: Mortality and burden of disease from water and sanitation[END_REF]. This could also contribute to malnutrition and poor school attendance, which could result in cognitive impairment and reduced learning outcomes [START_REF]UNICEF: WASH: Ensuring Safe Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Help Children Survive and Thrive[END_REF][START_REF]The National Health Promotion Policy and Strategy 2015-2019[END_REF]. It is argued that improvements related to drinking water, sanitation, hygiene, and water resource management could result in the reduction of almost 10% of the total burden of disease worldwide. Access to adequate WASH services is therefore an important mechanism to address risks associated with the burden of disease of any country. The use of information and communications technologies (ICTs) has been posited as one way to address the burden of disease and improving quality of life for those most at risk. One of the new developments in ICT, the 'Internet of Things' (IoT), allows for the integration of digital and the physical worlds, resulting in the creation of new services that can be deployed for positive impact. In the context of WASH innovative IoT work, including technology development and applications, is being done in relation to WASH services in both the developed and developing world. However, it is unknown to what extent (and if at all) IoT approaches to providing WASH services have been pursued in South Africa.

Following a study conducted for the Water Research Commission of South Africa (WRC) [START_REF] Coetzee | The Internet of Things: Opportunities for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Management[END_REF], this paper analyses the WASH context in South Africa and presents views regarding the possible use of IoT for WASH services in South Africa. A literature review combined with inputs from a survey was used to collect data for the study.

Section 2 provides background to the WASH domain and IoT in general. Section 3 provides an overview of the findings of our study on the use of IoT in WASH in South Africa. Section 4 contextualises the WASH sector in South Africa using value chains. Section 5 identities benefits and future scenarios for the use of IoT in the WASH sector. Section 6 concludes the paper.

Background

What is WASH

WASH is the collective term for the associated concepts of safe drinking water, safe sanitation and hygiene [START_REF]Water, Sanitation and Hygiene[END_REF]. According to the WHO/UNICEF Joint Monitoring Programme for Water Supply and Sanitation (JMP) [11]:

• Drinking water services refers to the accessibility, availability and quality of the main source used by households for drinking, cooking, personal hygiene and other domestic uses. • Sanitation is the hygienic means of promoting health through the prevention of human contact with waste as well as the treatment and disposal of waste. Sanitation services refer to management of excreta from the facilities used by individuals, through emptying and transport of excreta for treatment and eventual discharge or reuse. Sanitation can also refer to the maintenance of hygienic conditions through services such as wastewater disposal and garbage collection.

• Hygiene refers to the conditions and practices that help maintain health and prevent spread of disease, including handwashing, menstrual hygiene management and food hygiene.

Due to their interdependent nature, these three core issues are grouped together to represent a growing sector, called WASH for short. While each issue can be considered a separate field of work, each of them is dependent on the presence of the other. For example, without clean water, basic hygiene practices are not possible, without toilets, water sources become contaminated, etc. [START_REF]Water, Sanitation and Hygiene[END_REF]. This paper addresses the WASH concept as defined by the JMP [11], but limiting the hygiene aspect to handwashing.

Global WASH Context

The UN 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development [START_REF]Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development[END_REF], comprising 17 Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) and 169 targets addressing social, economic and environmental aspects of development, seeks to end poverty, protect the planet and ensure prosperity for all. Concerning WASH services, Goals 6, 1.4, 3.9 and 4a [START_REF]Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development[END_REF][START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF] apply.

In the context of this paper SDGs 6.1 and 6.2 are specifically relevant:

• SDG 6.1: By 2030, achieve universal and equitable access to safe and affordable drinking water for all. • SDG 6.2: By 2030, achieve access to adequate and equitable sanitation and hygiene for all and end open defecation, paying special attention to the needs of women and girls and those in vulnerable situations.

The UN also identified a number of cross-cutting criteria for good practices in the WASH sector [START_REF]United Nations General Assembly: Report of the independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation[END_REF]: non-discrimination, participation, accountability, impact and sustainability.

JMP [11] is the custodian of global data on WASH and has derived a normative interpretation for SDG 6.1 and 6.2. JMP also compiled associated service ladders to benchmark and compare service levels across countries and to facilitate enhanced global monitoring of WASH as specified in the SDGs [START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF]. The JMP ladder for household drinking water services consists of five rungs and also classifies the water resources into four classes [11,[START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF], as presented in Table 1. Drinking water ladders also exist for schools [START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF][START_REF]UNICEF and WHO: Progress Core questions and indicators for monitoring WASH in Schools in the Sustainable Development Goals[END_REF] and healthcare facilities [START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF]. The JMP service ladder for sanitation for households is presented in Table 2. A service ladder for sanitation in schools also exist [START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF][START_REF]UNICEF and WHO: Progress Core questions and indicators for monitoring WASH in Schools in the Sustainable Development Goals[END_REF][START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: WASH in the 2030 Agenda[END_REF].

The full benefits of improvements in access to sanitation and drinking water cannot be realised without good hygiene. Although there is a distinction between sanitation and hygiene, the two topics are often covered together in literature. Handwashing with soap is considered the main focus for hygiene as it serves as a primary barrier to remove faecal matter from contact with stools and a secondary barrier to prevent pathogens to get into food and fluids consumed by people, allowing pathogens to spread to new hosts [START_REF] Curtis | Review: Domestic hygiene and diarrhoea -pinpointing the problem[END_REF]. JMP's service ladder for handwashing in households is presented Table 3. Handwashing facilities can consist of a sink with tap water, or other devices that contain, transport or regulate the flow of water [START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF], for example buckets with taps, tippy-taps [START_REF]The tippy tap![END_REF] and portable basins. JMP also has a handwashing ladder for schools [START_REF]UNICEF and WHO: Progress Core questions and indicators for monitoring WASH in Schools in the Sustainable Development Goals[END_REF].

What is IoT

Multiple definitions for the Internet of Things have been proposed in the past [START_REF] Minerva | Towards a definition of the Internet of Things (IoT)[END_REF]. For the purposes of this document, we define IoT as "an ecosystem that integrates the physical and digital via the Internet with associated computing services. Data is ingested from the physical and digital world for sense making, thus enabling the execution of contextual commands" [10: p.50]. Fig. 1 presents the generic IoT process chain. Observations are acquired via a variety of sensors and communicated via the Internet to backend systems (typically cloud infrastructure). A variety of services operate on the data observations. Through the services, value is introduced to society and the environment. Important to note is the bi-directional nature of the process chain. Outputs from services are fed into the processing engines, with those outputs feeding back into the physical world through actuation. IoT is maturing rapidly in the developed world. Many research initiatives at scale have been pursued and commercial solutions are becoming available. There is also an abundance of skilled resources and technologies available. This is not the case in South Africa and the rest of Africa, where the uptake is still in its early stages. This does create a challenge, as it is often believed that the required impact can be obtained by importing a 'canned' solution. Coetzee, et al. [START_REF] Coetzee | TRESCIMO: European Union and South African Smart City Contextual Dimensions[END_REF] have shown that canned solutions are not an optimal approach. The drivers quite often differ, thus impacting on the context in which a service needs to be developed.

Study to Determine the Status of IoT Use in WASH

The study flowed from a project conducted for the Water Research Commission of South Africa [START_REF] Coetzee | The Internet of Things: Opportunities for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Management[END_REF]. A literature review combined with inputs from a survey was used to analyse the WASH context in South Africa and present views regarding the possible use of IoT for WASH services in South Africa.

The goal of the literature review was to determine the normative standards applicable to the WASH sector, the WASH context in South Africa and the use, or possible use, of IoT in the WASH sector in South Africa. The review therefore focused on the criteria for WASH related services as set out by the United Nations General Assembly [START_REF]Transforming our world: the 2030 Agenda for Sustainable Development[END_REF] (see section 2.2), WASH value chains and role players, existing IoT technologies, trends and implementations, and existing case studies in IoT or similar domains. In the absence of case studies specific to South Africa, examples from other African countries were included.

The survey amongst stakeholders active in the technical, research, industry and policy domain related to WASH services, aimed to determine the current perception of the WASH sector and the use of IoT in service delivery in the WASH. The survey consisted of open-ended questions addressing the following topics: the WASH and IoT concepts, use of IoT in public sector service delivery (including WASH), what a successful IoT deployment in the public sector means, barriers to the deployment of IoT in the WASH sector, areas in the water/sanitation/hygiene sector service delivery that can benefit from the use of IoT, and any existing or planned South African examples of the use of IoT in the WASH sector or sub-sectors. Online questionnaires were distributed to 47 stakeholders. Only seven responses to the questionnaire were received, resulting in a response rate of 16%. The inputs received were collated, analysed and integrated with those from the literature review.

WASH Context in South Africa

The literature review found that there is no integrated WASH sector or initiatives in South Africa. Responsibility for WASH services on government level are spread over various national and provincial departments, with overlapping mandates. Internationally, several large bodies, companies and NGOs are active in the WASH sector, some with a focus on the use of ICT. Some of the most prominent of these are the European Commission (e.g. ICT4Water Cluster [START_REF]ICT4Water Cluster: ict4water[END_REF]) and the ITU (e.g. Biggs, et al. [START_REF] Biggs | Harnessing the Internet of Things for Global Development[END_REF]). Multinationals (e.g. Google [START_REF]Charity: Water: New technology supported by Google[END_REF]), academia (for example, Oxford University [START_REF]Smith School of Enterprise and the Environment: From Rights to Results in Rural Water Services -Evidence from Kyuso, Kenya[END_REF]) and several NGOs (for example, the Toilet Board Coalition [START_REF]Toilet Board Coalition: The Digitisation of Sanitation[END_REF]) have a footprint through research, innovation and roll-out initiatives.

From the responses to the survey it appears as if the WASH concept is still not well established. Although three respondents acknowledged the interrelatedness of water, sanitation and hygiene, the remainder only highlighted the water aspect and the management and use of water. Concern was expressed that sanitation and hygiene should not be only a water issue or covered entirely by addressing the availability and quality of water.

IoT in WASH in South Africa

The literature review found that although IoT are increasingly applied to numerous domains in the context of WASH, overall it is mostly limited to billing purposes and smart water resources management (using smart meters) in the improved water domain in urban areas [START_REF]ICT4Water Cluster: ict4water[END_REF][START_REF] Gemma | Smart Water Management in Cities Telecommunication Standardization Sector of ITU[END_REF][START_REF]and Skills: The Smart City Market: Opportunities for the UK[END_REF][START_REF] Glenisson | Emerging Topics and Technology Roadmap for Information and Communication Technologies for Water Management[END_REF]. This also applies to South Africa [START_REF] Champanis | ICTs in the water sector -where do we stand? (978-1-4312-0463-2[END_REF][START_REF] Bridgiot | Bridgiot: Remote Intelligence and Control[END_REF][START_REF]Aquatrip, www.aquatrip.com[END_REF] and the rest of Africa [START_REF] Ndaw | Unlocking the Potential of Information Communications Technology to Improve Water and Sanitation Services Kenya Case Study[END_REF][START_REF] Ndaw | Unlocking the Potential of Information Communications Technology to Improve Water and Sanitation Services Tanzania Case Study[END_REF][START_REF]Upande: Water Sanitation Hygiene Management Information System (WaSHMIS)[END_REF]. There are, however, some examples of other uses of IoT for in-situ monitoring and information collection for rural and developing country contexts. Examples include sensors used by Charity: Water [START_REF]Charity: Water: Clean water changes everything[END_REF] to capture the location, determine the state of wells and if the wells need to be fixed, and accelerometers used in water lever hand pumps to measure utilisation and status of the pumps at specific water points [START_REF] Oxwater | OxWater -For sustainable water systems in Africa and Asia[END_REF]. Other examples are the Akvo [START_REF]Akvo: Akvo[END_REF] applications in Liberia and the Mwater application in Tanzania to measure and communicate the water quality of a water point [START_REF] Ndaw | Unlocking the Potential of Information Communications Technology to Improve Water and Sanitation Services Tanzania Case Study[END_REF], both which can be used across the water value chain. An example in the basic/limited sanitation domain include the use of sensors to indicate the presence of 'solid waste' in waterless toilets in informal settlements in Kenya [START_REF]Toilet Board Coalition: The Digitisation of Sanitation[END_REF][START_REF]No Village too Remote[END_REF].

Examples of IoT use in the WASH domain obtained from the stakeholder survey were limited to water and referred to smart metering and automated meter reading (i.e. safely managed water). The cross-disciplinary nature of the WASH domain, alongside a lack of IoT knowledge by ordinary people and technical IoT expertise, were listed as barriers to the deployment of IoT in the WASH domain. The issue of appropriate sensors for the harsh environment of the WASH domain, which is mostly submerged or underground and exposed to pollution, was highlighted. Opportunities identified for IoT in the improved water sector included measuring the quality and volume of available/used water for smart (hand) pumps, as well as water quality and equitable distribution of rural water supplies. For the sanitation section, the controlled use of chemicals and natural filtering and rehabilitation, was noted as alternative to water.

These examples by no means address the full potential of IoT in the WASH sector in (South) Africa. Most of the available technologies and publications are associated with water resource management, and in most of the cases billing. Sanitation and hygiene have not featured prominently in literature or the stakeholder survey. It is fair assumption that this is most likely due to demanding challenges related to in-situ sensing and communication. For instance, it is challenging to build an able robust sensor that can be installed in the field to accurately measure water quality. This contrasts with a relatively low-tech traditional water consumption meter that is relatively easier to install and maintain.

Overall, the inputs received from the stakeholders concurred with the findings of our literature review. However, a key outcome from both was that it is necessary to understand the context in which WASH services are supplied to determine the role that IoT can play in improving such services.

Value Chains for WASH

As a first step we therefore had to map the WASH context in South Africa using the UN and JMP criteria as guidelines. The concept of physical service value chains is one way to depict such context and is used as an example in this paper to depict the WASH context in South Africa. A value chain in the WASH context represents a set of activities or processes that must be performed to deliver coherent WASH services. From the literature review it was found that, in general, the value chains for WASH services in South Africa are similar to the value chains for WASH services in the rest of Africa.

The value chains for South Africa would therefore also be applicable to the rest of Africa and most of the developing world beyond Africa.

Water Value Chain

Several value chains for 'formal' or improved water and sanitation services in South Africa were found during our literature review. In general 'formal' water services is a nonstop sequential delivery process from source-to-tap and from tap-to-source [START_REF]Strategic Overview of the Water Services Sector in South Africa 2015[END_REF][START_REF]Strategic Overview of the Water Sector in South Africa 2013[END_REF].

It involves natural water resources, treatment works (processing), distribution infrastructure and effective operation to deliver potable (drinkable) water and safe sanitation. Rainfall runoff flows into rivers and is captured and stored in dams. Water from dams and other sources, such as groundwater, is purified and treated, and piped to reservoirs for distribution to customers (domestic, business and industrial users). Once the water is consumed, grey water (wastewater from washing, laundry etc.) and sewerage are collected and passed through a network of sewers to a treatment works. The wastewater is purified and treated, after which it is released back into rivers or dams, again becoming a water resource [START_REF]Strategic Overview of the Water Services Sector in South Africa 2015[END_REF][START_REF]Strategic Overview of the Water Sector in South Africa 2013[END_REF]. This formal water and sanitation sector perspective does, however, not provide the complete picture of the water and sanitation sector is South Africa and Africa. As a start, it excludes the 'non-formal' water sources and sanitation services, as it applies to most of the rural domestic inhabitants. It also excludes the agriculture sector not dependent on the 'formal' water supply. Agriculture is the largest user of water globally [START_REF]and Skills: The Smart City Market: Opportunities for the UK[END_REF]. In 2015, agriculture in South Africa used 62% of the available water in the country [START_REF]Strategic Overview of the Water Services Sector in South Africa 2015[END_REF]. Water use in agriculture, as a specific focus, is, however not addressed in this paper. It was therefore necessary to augment the existing value chains to represent the complete picture.

Although statistics vary between region and metropolitan areas, the main sources of drinking water in South Africa, according to the 2016 General Household Survey (GHS) [44] and categorised using the JMP ladder, are:

• Safely managed water (piped water on premises): Approximately 46.4% of households had access to piped water in their dwellings in 2016 and 26.8% accessed piped water on site. • Basic improved water (piped water not on premises): A further 13.3% of households relied on water from communal taps and 2.4% relied on water from neighbours' taps (called RDP standard in the GHS, provided that the distance to the water source is less than 200 metres).

Fig. 2. Value chain for drinking water in South Africa

• Unimproved water resources: An estimated 3.7% of households in 2016 still had to fetch water from rivers, streams, stagnant water pools, dams, wells and springs (down from 9.5% in 2002).

Based on analysis of literature on the sources and value chains for drinking water in South Africa and Africa, is a schematic presentation of the sources of water and the diversity of water distribution in South Africa, also applicable to other African countries (see for example [START_REF] Collignon | Independent Water and Sanitation Providers in African Cities: Full Report of a Ten-Country Study[END_REF]). Unlike cities in the United Kingdom, Europe, North America and other industrial nations in the north, where there is often a single source of water serving all residential and most industrial customers, in Africa (urban and rural) there can be a wide variety of water suppliers. Water can be obtained from household wells, neighbours' wells, springs, storing rainwater, water carriers, hand carters, carters using animal traction (unimproved water), standpipes, boreholes with manual pumps (basic/limited water), or even individual connections to the 'formal' city or town water networks (improved water) [START_REF]Strategic Overview of the Water Services Sector in South Africa 2015[END_REF][START_REF] Collignon | Independent Water and Sanitation Providers in African Cities: Full Report of a Ten-Country Study[END_REF].

Sanitation Value Chain

Once the water is used/consumed, the sanitation process kicks in. The sanitation value chain is fragmented, characterised by a wide range of stakeholders, businesses, from sole traders to multinationals, the majority responding to limited segments of the chain. Only a few companies/organisations have developed a business model that runs almost entirely across the value chain with the majority concentrating their core activities at either end of the value chain [START_REF] Mason | Private sector and water supply, sanitation and hygiene: Driving catalytic engagement[END_REF]. No specified value chain for sanitation for South Africa could be found in literature, but the general value chain for sanitation is also applicable to South Africa. The general sanitation value chain includes six phases [START_REF] Bill | Water, Sanitation & Hygiene Fact Sheet[END_REF][START_REF] Sahay | Report of a WASH Dialogue on faecal sludge and septage management Ushering a new era in sanitation value chain management in India[END_REF]: capture of sludge, containment of sludge, emptying of sludge, transport of sludge, collection and treatment of sludge, and safe reuse or disposal of treated sanitation waste.

According to the 2016 GHS [44], the majority of households in the City of Johannesburg (95.5%) and Nelson Mandela Bay (92.8%) had access to improved sanitation facilities, while households in the City of Tshwane (82.9%) and eThekwini (83.0%) were the least likely to have access to improved sanitation. Nationally, the percentage of households without sanitation, or who used bucket toilets decreased from 12.3% to 4.2% between 2002 and 2016. Despite the improved access to sanitation facilities in South Africa, the 2016 GHS [44] indicated that many households continue to be without any proper sanitation facilities.

Derived based on an analysis of literature regarding the supply sanitation practices in South Africa and Africa, Fig. 3 is a schematic representation of how the overall sanitation market works in South Africa, which is also applicable to other African countries (see for example [START_REF] Collignon | Independent Water and Sanitation Providers in African Cities: Full Report of a Ten-Country Study[END_REF]). Inhabitants adopt one of several basic solutions to the problem of disposing of human waste at the household level. The choice often depends on the physical conditions and on how much money they can spend on construction and periodic cleaning of the sanitation solution/facility. Solutions range from a simple pit or ditch, lined or unlined, with or without a platform slab (unimproved sanitation), to a toilet with provision for flushing to a soak pit for the waste water (basic/limited sanitation), or, at the high end of the market, a two-stage lined septic tank and a piped sewerage system (improved/safely managed sanitation).

Hygiene

No value chain specifically for hygiene could be found in literature. There are, however, guidelines on when to wash hands and how to wash hands. In general hands should, for example, be washed [START_REF]Water Sector Trust Fund: Safisan Toolkit[END_REF][START_REF] Wilkinson | Assessment of Handwashing and Hand Hygiene Behaviour[END_REF]: before, during, and after preparing food, before eating food or feeding children, before and after caring for an infected or 'at risk' person, after using the toilet, after changing diapers or cleaning up a child who has used the toilet, after touching an animal, animal feed, or animal waste, after handling pet food or pet treats, after handling money (or using an ATM), etc. The Centers for Disease Control and Prevention [START_REF]When & How to Wash Your Hands[END_REF] (CDC) recommends a five step process for washing hands when soap and water is available: wet, lather, scrub, rinse and dry. If soap and water are not available, CDC recommends the use an alcohol-based hand sanitiser that contains at least 60% alcohol, although it is said not to be as effective as handwashing when hands are visibly dirty or greasy and cannot eliminate all types of germs and harmful chemicals. If no soap is available or affordable, ash or mud can be used as abrasive, before rinsing [START_REF] Mckeever | Handwashing with soap: Saving the lives of children in South Sudan and the world[END_REF]. Another alternative in Africa is the use of Moringa oleifera powder [START_REF] Torondel | Efficacy of Moringa oleifera leaf powder as a hand-washing product : a crossover controlled study among healthy volunteers[END_REF].

5

Future Scenarios for IoT in WASH IoT as ecosystem enables a complete value chain, from data acquisition, processing and finally actuation with the community in the loop at all time (see Fig. 1). IoT is multidisciplinary, spanning competences ranging from device and sensor manufacturing, up to analytics and visualization techniques. However, IoT and its successful utilization span more than just technology. In driving towards a scaled IoT deployment, we therefore argue that the following aspects need to be in place to increase the chances for success in the WASH domain:

• Buy-in from the community.

• Policies for community privacy and security.

• Partnerships linked to research and the local community, vendors. and the various governing structures (e.g. the local water board). • An established accountable ecosystem that spans technology and community.

An IoT enabled WASH environment that is operating at scale provides access to large quantities of data observations, with opportunities for in areas of big-data and analytics. The true value of IoT is, however, only manifested when intelligent decisions are being made with the acquired data, resulting in appropriate actions. Furthermore, IoT is entirely dependent on addressing the 'real' challenge which only becomes possible if the community is part of the IoT lifecycle. For a broad IoT deployment, these data observations should ideally be from multiple sensor types (e.g. hand pump utilisation, water quality and flow in the pipe, sanitation pit level, etc.). In such a scaled IoT deployment, the following general benefits can be obtained: • Better data: Data is associated with the WASH context being directly observed (e.g.

water quality). Sensor data can be supplemented through community contributions/surveys. With better data, 'evidence-based decisions' become possible. • Better working infrastructure: IoT that enables access to the status of the WASH deployment (e.g. all devices are operational) becomes possible and thus empowers maintenance crews to effectively and rapidly service the infrastructure. Increased access to operational parameters of the devices can realise predictive maintenance. • The context of a WASH environment will increasingly become better understood:

IoT creates an opportunity for the introduction of key performance indicators that will provide insights into the operational efficiencies in WASH environments. • Community involvement throughout the lifecycle of the WASH deployment: Having the community involved is critical and ensures that the 'real' problem is solved and not the one that appears to be the most attractive (e.g. flashy). Localised business models can be realised, e.g. an empowered local community member can be informed of required maintenance, which would allow for faster turn-around times.

Viewing IoT in relation to the United Nation's crosscutting criteria for WASH [START_REF]United Nations General Assembly: Report of the independent expert on the issue of human rights obligations related to access to safe drinking water and sanitation[END_REF], several opportunities and benefits can be identified:

• Non-discrimination: Monitoring use through sensors and mobile-based technologies may assist in detecting/reporting denied or restricted access to sanitation facilities and /or water resources. • Participation: Using mobile-based technologies linked to sensors, communities can contribute to improving their own WASH context. • Accountability: Armed with the data from the community based IoT solutions, entities responsible for maintenance and planning can make evidence-based decisions. • Impact: Valid and justifiable choices have a higher probability for impact.

• Sustainability: With the inclusion of communities and the ability to solve that community's specific challenge, the probability of a sustainable intervention is higher.

The benefits above applies to the value of IoT in a fairly broad sense. Using the WASH value chains, as depicted in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3, more focused benefits can be identified, some examples of which are listed below:

• Water quality can be measured continuously through in-situ sensors installed permanently or through 'use-once and discard' type of sensors. Data related to taste, colour and odour can be obtained. This allows for early alerting where the water quality has dropped outside of the required parameters. This approach works for piped water, boreholes, tube and dug wells, springs, and packaged or delivered water. Water treatment plants can be measured before and after the treatment process. • Indicators related to water distribution can be obtained near real-time. Pressure within pipes can be measured at different locations. Pressure differences can indicate a leak, while a high-pressure point can provide alerts related to possible failures.

Smart valves can be used in the distribution system to control the flow of water (e.g. shut off in case of failure, or if the pressure appears to be too high). • Water availability can be confirmed through sensors that indicate the water level (for instance in a dam or borehole). Trends can be extracted, which in turn can guide the community as well as providers as to the future availability of water. • Excreta management (sanitation) can be enhanced. Sensors linked to the appropriate back-end systems can provide insights as to when a pit or sanitation tank has reached capacity and needs to be emptied. General (solid) waste management can also be improved with the appropriate sensors and can be enhanced further by optimising the routing of waste trucks and the dispatch of an appropriate truck. • Handwashing has been highlighted as one of the most important criteria for both hygiene and sanitation. IoT can be used to raise awareness of when hands should be washed. E.g. sensing when a toilet has been flushed, and if the basin has been used directly after the toilet flushing, after which a general reminder can be communicated to the occupant through smart visual aids when leaving the rest room. Also, trends from handwashing can be used as indicators of when and if additional awareness campaigns should be executed.

Conclusion

The study found that very limited use is currently made of IoT in the WASH domain in South Africa (and Africa). Currently the only real use of IoT related technology in South Africa is in the smart water (safely managed) management domain, primarily in metropolitan areas, to measure the amount of improved water use and payment therefor.

No use is made of IoT to improve the livelihood and health of the majority of the South African population, and especially those dependent on basic, limited or unimproved water resources, basic, limited or unimproved sanitation facilities, or basic or limited handwashing facilities. This finding was supported by both the literature review and the inputs received from the stakeholders' responses to the survey. Apart from the current focus on 'urban' applications of IoT in mainly the water sector, which is also necessary, there are therefore huge opportunities to investigate the use and benefits of IoT in WASH as an integrated and interlinked domain. Vast opportunities also exist for research to determine how IoT technologies can be used to improve the lives and health of the large proportion of the South African population dependent on WASH services that cannot be classified as safely managed, improved or advanced, and to develop suitable technologies to fit such environments.

This paper was positioned to inform policy makers, improve decision-making and shape the design, implementation and commission of IoT-enabled WASH services.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. IoT process chain[START_REF] Coetzee | The Internet of Things: Opportunities for Water, Sanitation and Hygiene (WASH) Management[END_REF]

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Sanitation value chain for South Africa

Section 3

 3 presented insights as acquired from numerous reports, publications and a survey on the use of IoT in the WASH context in South Africa. The solutions are patchy, i.e. often only focussing on one aspect within WASH and therefore not utilising the full value cycle of IoT. This section presents a broader view of what IoT can possibly bring to the WASH sector and what should be in place to increase the probability of success. The view is based on our collective learnings from literature and our experience in the WASH and IoT domain.

Table 1 .

 1 Water service levels and resources[11,[START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF][START_REF]The World's Woman 2015: Trends and Statistics (E.15.XVII.8)[END_REF][START_REF]WHO: Guidelines for Drinking-water Quality[END_REF][START_REF]Human Development Report 2006 -Beyond Scarcity: Power, Poverty and the Global Water Crisis[END_REF][START_REF] Hutton | Monitoring "Affordability" of Water and Sanitation Services after 2015: Review of global indicator options, Revised draft United Nations Office of the High Commissioner for Human Rights[END_REF]

	Service	Service Criteria	Resource	Resource	Resource Example
	Level		Class
	Safely man-	aged service	Accessible: On premises. Available: When needed. Quality: Free from faecal and chemical contamina-tion.	Improved		Sources, which by na-ture of their design and construction have the potential to de-liver safe water.	Piped water, boreholes or tube wells, pro-tected dug wells or springs, packaged wa-ter.
			Affordable
	Basic service		Improved source does not meet any one of above normative criteria A round trip to collect water ≤ 30 minutes, in-	Improved
			cluding queuing time
	Limited ser-	vice	Round trip for water col-lection > 30 minutes, in-cluding queueing time	Improved
						Collected from source Unprotected dug wells
	Unim-	proved		Unim-	proved		or springs
	No service			Surface	water	Collected directly from an unprotected resource	Surface water, e.g. lake, river, stream, pond, canals, irriga-tion ditches

Table 2 .

 2 JMP No toilets or latrines. Disposal of human faeces in fields, forest, bushes, open bodies of water, beaches or other open spaces or with solid waste

	Unim-	Use of pit latrines without a slab or platform, hanging latrines and bucket la-
	proved	trines
	Open defe-
	cation / No
	service

service ladder for sanitation in households

[START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: Safely Managed Drinking Water[END_REF][START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: WASH in the 2030 Agenda[END_REF]

Service Level Definition Safely managed Use of an improved sanitation facility which is not shared with other households and where excreta are safely disposed in situ or transported and treated off-site Basic Use of improved facilities which are not shared with other households Limited Use of improved facilities shared between two or more households

Table 3 .

 3 JMP service ladder for handwashing in households[START_REF]UNICEF and WHO: Progress Core questions and indicators for monitoring WASH in Schools in the Sustainable Development Goals[END_REF][START_REF]WHO and UNICEF: WASH in the 2030 Agenda[END_REF]

	Service Level	Definition
	Advanced	Handwashing facilities available at critical times and accessible to all
	Basic	Hand washing facility with soap and water in the household
	Limited	Handwashing facility without soap or water
	No facility	No handwashing facility

Acknowledgement

The work presented in this paper was jointly funded by the Water Research Commission of South Africa (Grant K5/2779//3), the Meraka Institute of the Council for Scientific and Industrial Research, and the National Research Foundation of South Africa

(Grant 115456). The authors specifically wish to acknowledge the support and guidance of Dr Nonhlanhla Kalebaila, WRC Research Manager: Drinking Water Treatment and Quality, during the execution of the project.


Ott Velsberg
email: ott.velsberg@umu.se

The Outcomes of the Implementation of Internet of Things: a Public Value Perspective

Keywords: Public values, Public sector, Value creation, Internet of Things

In recent years, Internet of Things (IoT) has gained presence in all areas of life. Whilst private sector is the forerunner in the adoption of these devices, public sector usage has been lagging. With the rise of smart initiatives, public organizations are increasingly implementing IoT. The necessity to know in which areas of public sector IoT has been implemented and what public value has been derived, has gained importance as reporting of the cost efficiency and benefits of these initiatives has gained attention. This paper seeks to determine the importance of IoT in the public sector from the perspective of public value. IoT implementation in Estonian municipalities was studied to provide concrete data on the use of IoT. Next to efficiency, which is a known goal of IT implementation, the research findings suggest that while IoT has generated public value, there has been a shift in value creation with other outcomes such as effectiveness, transparency and collaboration gaining increased presence. While IoT shows great promise for public value creation, more research is needed to study how public sector can leverage these devices to harvest more benefits than the simple automatization of work processes.

Introduction

The term Internet of Things (IoT) has attracted considerable attention in academics, industry and public sector, and is envisioned as a global network of machines and devices that can interact with each other [START_REF] Lee | The Internet of Things (IoT): Applications, investments, and challenges for enterprises[END_REF]. The IoT has been regarded as one of the most important areas of future technology [START_REF] Lee | The Internet of Things (IoT): Applications, investments, and challenges for enterprises[END_REF] and to be at the core of the fourth industrial revolution [START_REF] Kagermann | Recommendations for implementing the strategic initiative Industrie 4[END_REF]. The European Commission envisions IoT as an indispensable component towards the digitisation of our society and economy [START_REF]The Internet of Things[END_REF]. It is forecasted that the market value of IoT in the EU will exceed one trillion euros by 2020 [START_REF]Definition of a Research and Innovation Policy Leveraging Cloud Computing and IoT Combination[END_REF], and by 2025 the yearly global economic impact of IoT is estimated to be between 3 trillion to 9 trillion euros, accounting close to 11 percent of the world economy [START_REF] Mckinsey | The Internet of Things: Mapping the Value Beyond the Hype[END_REF].

Research indicates that by 2020, close to 26 percent of all IoT solutions will be consumed by public sector [START_REF] Growthenabler | Market Pulse Report, Internet of Things[END_REF]. A high rate of expenditure can be predicted, as national and local governments have been voracious consumers of information technologies (IT) in the past [START_REF] Pang | IT resources, organizational capabilities, and value creation in public-sector organizations: a public-value management perspective[END_REF]. However, recent studies indicate that close to 60 percent of IoT initiatives stall at the Proof of Concept stage and 75 percent of completed IoT projects fail to produce value [START_REF] Johansen | Cisco Survey Reveals Close to Three-Fourths of IoT Projects Are Failing[END_REF]. With regards to this, it becomes questionable whether the value created from IoT overweighs the financial risks taken by the public sector.

Creating public value has been a key focus in digitizing public sector organizations. If the public sector continues to invest in IoT, our innate logic tells us that it must create public value. Agarwal & Lucas [START_REF] Agarwal | The Information Systems Identity Crisis: Focusing on High-Visibility and High-Impact Research[END_REF] argued that to contribute to the IS field it is fundamental to demonstrate the value of IT. Following the same argumentation, it is crucial to demonstrate the public value of IoT. However, to date, the research on IoT and public value creation has been scarce.

The aim of this research is to offer a contribution regarding the public value created by IoT, asking: What public value does IoT create in the public sector? The study offers a glimpse on the main values created by IoT, based on an extensive qualitative study on 46 municipalities in Estonia. The paper briefly introduces the concept of public value and IoT, including an overview of IoT implementation in the public sector.

The paper is structured as follows. First, the theoretical basis is set by introducing the concept of public value. Next, the concept of IoT and its role in public sector will be introduced. In the following parts, the research design and findings are presented. This will be followed by a discussion of findings and a conclusion.

Theoretical Background

This section introduces the concept of public value, which is regarded as one of the main reasons for public sector innovation. The following section introduces the concept of IoT and discuss its importance in generating public value.

Public Value Perspective

Public entities such as governments, municipalities and county councils are constantly seeking to address contemporary challenges and opportunities through utilizing emerging technologies [START_REF] Pang | IT resources, organizational capabilities, and value creation in public-sector organizations: a public-value management perspective[END_REF]. While there are many motivators for adopting IT solutions, a primary goal of IT initiatives is to create and deliver public value [START_REF] Jørgensen | Public values: an inventory[END_REF]. Public value focuses on governmentally produced benefits that serve the interests of stakeholders both inside and outside the public organization [START_REF] Harrison | Open Government and E-Government: Democratic Challenges from a Public Value Perspective[END_REF]. The creation of public value entails balancing competing public interests through emphasizing collective preferences and expectations of government, citizens and other stakeholders who consume the services [5; 29]. Consequently, public sector bases its decisions to implement IT on the expected benefits and conflicting demands of various stakeholders [START_REF] Pereira | Delivering public value through open government data initiatives in a Smart City context[END_REF].

It is widely acknowledged that IT creates public value. A successful IT implementation is believed to drastically change how governmental organizations operate, bringing forth substantial organizational, technical, business and societal benefits [11; 21]. IT-based value manifests itself both in terms of economic values e.g. operational efficiency, and non-economic values e.g. trust in government and sustainability [START_REF] Pang | IT resources, organizational capabilities, and value creation in public-sector organizations: a public-value management perspective[END_REF]. For the associated stakeholders, e.g. citizens, users, public administrators and politicians, the public value can manifest differently, e.g. administrative personnel and managers from public sector might place high value on accountability, c.f. [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Collaborative e-Government: impediments and benefits of information-sharing projects in the public sector[END_REF], while citizens might value accessibility to governmental information [START_REF] Vicente | Are ICTs Improving Transparency and Accountability in the Eu Regional and Local Governments? An Empirical Study[END_REF]. Harrison et al. [START_REF] Harrison | Open Government and E-Government: Democratic Challenges from a Public Value Perspective[END_REF] divided public value into seven categories, namely:

1. Economic -impacts on current or future income, asset values, liabilities, entitlements, or other aspects of wealth or risks to any of the above. 2. Political -impacts on a person's or group's influence on government actions or policy, or their role in political affairs, influence in political parties or prospects for public office. 3. Social -impacts on family or community relationships, social mobility, status, and identity. 4. Strategic -impacts on person's or group's economic or political advantage or opportunities, goals, and resources for innovation or planning. 5. Quality of life -impacts on individual and household health, security, satisfaction, and general well-being. 6. Ideological -impacts on beliefs, moral or ethical commitments, alignment of government actions/policies or social outcomes with beliefs, or moral or ethical positions. 7. Stewardship -impacts on the public's view of government officials as faithful steward. The incorporation of public value in the discussion of public sector investment in IT is especially relevant as it allows to monitor the outcome of government investment and understand the relationship between IT and public value delivery [START_REF] Zhang | Creating public value through Open Government: Perspectives, experiences and applications[END_REF]. Understanding the relationship between IT and public value creation can assist public organizations in the pursuit of suitable use of technology to benefit society and secure the cost efficiency of public value creation [START_REF] Bannister | The trouble with transparency: a critical review of openness in e-government[END_REF].

Role of the Internet of Things

The IoT has rapidly gained presence and is sometimes regarded as the most disruptive phase of the Internet revolution [2; 36]. IoT is ubiquitous by nature and is present in different almost identical concepts, such as " Internet of Everything", "ubiquitous computing", "pervasive computing" and "ambient intelligence", whereas the differences between the terms are of academic nature [START_REF] Friedewald | Ubiquitous computing: An overview of technology impacts[END_REF]. IoT is a general term used for objects interconnected through networks, that encompass processing and sensor capabilities, allowing the devices to transmit recorded information from the outside environment. IoT allows information, resources, "things", e.g. sensors, beacons, actuators, mobile phones etc., to interact with each other and cooperate with their smart components to reach common goals [START_REF] Hermann | Design Principles for Industrie 4.0 Scenarios[END_REF]. Realizing the value of IoT requires integration of IT infrastructures and information services -such as RFID tags, wireless broadband and geographic information systems [START_REF] Shin | Ubiquitous city: Urban technologies, urban infrastructure and urban informatics[END_REF]. Sensory data must be gathered from distributed smart objects and be transmitted using a communication infrastructure, which can encompass both wired and wireless communication technologies [START_REF] Singha | A survey of Internet-of-Things: Future vision, architecture, challenges and services[END_REF]. IoT allows to link real-life objects with the virtual world -providing anytime, anyplace connectivity for anything [START_REF] Sundmaeker | Vision and Challenges for Realising the Internet of Things[END_REF].

These capabilities can be applied to everyday objects, thus affecting all areas of life [START_REF] Friedewald | Ubiquitous computing: An overview of technology impacts[END_REF]. IoT will change the way we collect, analyse, and respond to data, creating opportunities for individuals, governments, and businesses to develop new business models and forms of interaction that take advantage of ubiquitous computing power embedded in objects [START_REF] Gubbi | Internet of things (IoT): a vision, architectural elements, and future directions[END_REF]. While the majority of IoT initiatives have been implemented in the private sector, studies have indicated that the importance of IoT in public sector is increasing [4; 13]. This is driven by the rapid development of IT, and expanding efforts by national and local governments to change how they operate. Local governments are increasingly turning towards new information systems, often utilizing IoT, to develop livable, economically sustainable and efficient living environments. IoT is implemented in various settings from cities to rural areas. Utilizing IoT devices allows local governments to monitor and take immediate action on almost every aspect of urban and rural space, and provide citizens with relevant information and services [35; 37]. Among others, IoT can be used to create new and enhance existing services, improve efficiency and effectiveness of internal management and service delivery, and foster collaboration with different stakeholders [10; 23]. Due to the dynamic nature of public sector, the requirements for IoT devices can vary significantly. The IoT devices that can swiftly and accurately transmit information can be crucial for winter road maintenance, while speed would not be a requirement for water consumption monitoring.

In the context of public sector, IoT has the potential to improve several areas, including: healthcare, education, utilities, infrastructure, buildings, environment and culture. With regards to this, IoT becomes pivotal in streamlining governmental processes and engaging citizens in all areas of local governance. However, to date, little is known on how IoT generates public value. Consequently, there also lacks knowledge on how local governments could benefit from implementing IoT.

Public Value Framework

For the study in hand, it was considered suitable to use the six public value generating mechanisms proposed by Harrison et al. [START_REF] Harrison | Open Government and E-Government: Democratic Challenges from a Public Value Perspective[END_REF] to understand what public value IoT creates in public sector (See Table 1). Harrison et al. [START_REF] Harrison | Open Government and E-Government: Democratic Challenges from a Public Value Perspective[END_REF] created the set of value generators to specify how public value is created, i.e. which government action lead to the creation of public value. For analysis, the six public value mechanisms proposed by Harrison et al. [START_REF] Harrison | Open Government and E-Government: Democratic Challenges from a Public Value Perspective[END_REF] were used for guidance. To investigate the relationship between IoT and public value generating mechanisms, a public value framework was created to assess the IoT initiatives and to distinguish between the outcomes (See Table 1). Based on Nam & Pardo [START_REF] Nam | The changing face of a city government: A case study of Philly311[END_REF] the evaluation dimensions were presented from the external view (interactions with citizens, private companies and other relevant non-governmental actors) and from the internal view (interactions within the local government). Identifying and measuring the public value of IoT is complicated as different stakeholders may have different attitudes on what is regarded a successful outcome of an IT initiative [START_REF] Teo | Trust and electronic government success: an empirical study[END_REF]. As a result, public value creation was studied from the perspective of public organizations. Similarly to this study, most research on IT value studies the outcome of past IT investments through a post hoc analysis [START_REF] Kohli | Business Value of IT: An essay on expanding research directions to keep up with the times[END_REF]. As the study is concerned with how IoT solutions add value to local governments and public, broader economic factors are not considered unless they directly relate to governmental or public impact. Concentrates on the efficiency of producing and delivering services.

Effectiveness

Concentrates on the quality of internal management.

Concentrates on the quality of services delivered.

Intrinsic enhancements

Concentrates on the changing environment or circumstances for governmental stakeholders.

Concentrates on the changing environment or circumstances for non-governmental parties.

Transparency

Concentrates on the access of information or processes inside the local government.

Concentrates on the external access to information and processes regarding service provision and delivery.

Participation

Concentrates on the frequency and intensity of direct involvement of internal stakeholders in decision making or operation of government.

Concentrates on the frequency and intensity of direct involvement of external stakeholders in decision making or operation of government.

Collaboration

Concentrates on the improvement of collaboration inside the local government in terms of sharing responsibility or authority for governmental processes and actions.

Concentrates on the collaboration between governmental and nongovernmental parties in terms of sharing responsibility or authority for governmental processes and actions.

Research Design

To understand how IoT creates public value, a qualitative study was carried out on the use of IoT in Estonian municipalities. The following section provides information on the research domain, data collection and analysis.

Data Collection

To paint a thorough picture of the use of IoT in public sector, the research concentrated on the use of IoT in Estonian municipalities. The data was collected between March and December 2017 through semi-structured interviews and supporting documentation reviews.

The research participants were found by first contacting all 202 municipalities in Estonia via e-mail regarding the use of IoT in public sector, the municipalities that had implemented IoT solutions were included to the study and the municipalities who were in the planning phase of IoT implementation or who had not implemented IoT solutions were excluded. Thus, ex ante descriptions of the predicted outcome of IoT were not included in the study. In total 81 municipalities replied, of whom 46 were included in the study. From those 46 municipalities, 67 participants were contacted and interviewed regarding the implemented IoT solutions. In some municipalities, more than one public official was interviewed due to a lack of involvement of the interviewee with other IoT solutions.

The interviews were conducted in person where possible, and over the phone in other circumstances. An interview guide was used to determine the course of the interviews, which included open-ended questions that allowed to include topics that were not predetermined by the interview guide. The type of questions in the interview guide included the type of solutions implemented, the outcomes of the solutions, collaboration with other stakeholders, the role of IoT, measurement techniques for the outcomes etc. In Table 2 an overview of the interview questions is presented. The interview guides were iteratively changed, according to the research conducted prior to the interviewspublicly available information on each municipality was gathered to determine the type of solutions introduced.

Interview question examples:

What IoT solutions have been implemented? What has been the guiding principle behind the deployment of IoT? What benefits has the IoT brought? How has the IoT affected municipal processes? How do you verify the integrity of the collected data? Why did the municipality decide to use the devices? Would it be financially beneficial for other municipalities to use these devices?

The interviews lasted between 20 and 120 minutes, with an average of 57 minutes. All interviews were audio recorded and later transcribed. The participants had been using IoT solutions from five months to five years -providing enough time to realize the value of IoT initiatives [START_REF] Marchand | Information orientation: People, technology and the bottom line[END_REF]. A summary of all interviews will be presented in Table 3. Supporting documentation such as procurement documents, public documents, and technical files were collected from governmental databases and online sources, e.g. municipal websites and from technology providers. Technical documentation was attained on both the system and the device where possible. Procurement documents which allowed to better understand the reasons and granularities of the implementation of any device were studied where possible. Public documents used included governmental reports, public statements etc. Secondary data sources were used to prepare for interviews, map government priorities etc. A summary of all additional procedures for data collection are presented in Table 4.

Data Analysis

To analyse the data, the recommended procedures for qualitative research were followed to guide through the three steps of coding [7; 28]. During the first round of coding an initial coding scheme was developed. As the research was concerned with identifying what public value IoT generates, the coding scheme was based on public value framework (See Table 1). During the second round of coding, examples of IoT generated public value were identified. As the study focused on how IoT has generated public value for the municipalities, the perspective of citizens and other stakeholders were considered through municipal perspective. The different dimensions were recorded altogether 2644 times. From the mentioned segments, 1481 concentrated on the external view. The remaining segments were divided between the internal dimensions. A summary of coded segments can be seen in Table 5. The third round of coding compared previously coded segments to summarize shared features and variance within and across research sites. Multiple data sources allowed to compare, contrast and triangulate data [START_REF] Miles | Qualitative Data Analysis: A Methods Sourcebook[END_REF]. ATLAS.ti was used throughout the study for data analysis. Findings are presented in the following section.

Empirical Analysis

In recent years, IoT has gained traction in public discourse as IoT solutions are increasingly implemented. This research concentrates on the use of IoT in Estonian municipalities -studying the public value created by these solutions.

Mapping the Estonian IoT Solutions

IoT solutions can be implemented for virtually any purpose, however the study identified some core areas in which the implementation of IoT was more common, namely buildings and transportation. In total, 158 IoT solutions were implemented, from those, the study identified 30 different IoT solution types. Table 6 will present an overview of the implemented solutions and the number of municipalities that implemented those. Table 7 presents a summary of solutions where public value was identified. A solution could simultaneously provide public value in many dimensions, for example there were 75 solutions which generated efficiency, from those solutions, 68 produced public value for management and 36 solutions produced public value in service delivery. The following part presents how IoT impacted the six public value mechanisms, drawing on specific IoT implementation examples for illustration, see Table 6.

Efficiency

The study identified that 64.5 percent of solutions (102 solutions) had efficiency as their primary desired outcome. From all solutions, 47.5 percent of solutions (75 solutions) identified efficiency as an achieved outcome. While reducing costs was the main consideration during the procurement, it was difficult for municipalities to isolate the effects and measure the outcome. Consequently, improvements in efficiency were visible in terms of productivity, most commonly through reduced time and improved communication. The devices allowed municipal employees to work everywhere at any time without physically being present. This allowed to get a better and timelier overview of work processes, coordinate and reduce the workload. The devices allowed to verify whether service contractors and systems worked as needed. Through automatic analyzation it was possible to identify deviations that would have otherwise remained unnoticed. Even though IoT in some instances increased the hourly rate of work, the number of hours spent decreased. For instance, the fleet telematics enabled maintenance managers to re-route optimal vehicles, better maintain roads, and reduce the time vehicles were standing idle. Commonly implemented solutions included fleet telematics which helped to resolve disputes among stakeholders and reduced strain on municipalities to provide timely information to citizens. At the forefront of cost cutting were solutions related to energy consumption reduction, however the use of motion and CO2 sensors were difficult to utilize to their fullest potential due to the human element which interfered with the automatization, i.e. people opened windows instead of allowing the ven-tilation system to operate independently. To counter the human element, various approaches were taken, from employee training to changes in the physical environment, i.e. making it impossible to open windows. Still, cost efficiency remained difficult to achieve and often even harder to measure due to the changing environmental elements, e.g. changing weather conditions made it hard to compare changes on yearly basis.

Effectiveness

Improved effectiveness was the most commonly achieved outcome from the use of IoT, identified as an achieved outcome in 59.5 percent of solutions (94 solutions). Although the implementation of IoT systems commonly had a goal to gain efficiency, especially in financial terms, most highly valued outcomes identified by the municipalities were derived from improved effectiveness. The devices allowed public officials to reduce unnecessary work (avoid personal interaction, provide easier access to information, allow for increased control, and offer convenience), and improve decision making and work outcomes (services could be personalized and provided in timely manner, investments were more targeted). Data provided by the sensors allowed to evaluate the work of devices, e.g. heating systems and private contractors, e.g. garbage disposal providers.

In case of deviations, municipalities were notified of the changes. This allowed to improve the quality of service delivery and through that reduce costs as it took less time to achieve the intended outcome. Controversially, the devices often proved to be more efficient in identifying the shortcomings in effectiveness rather than aiding in improving them. For example, the pothole identifying system allowed to map the problematic roads, however the information did not necessarily lead to improvements as the processes surrounding the road management were not improved to reflect the capabilities of the data generated by IoT. As an example, a municipality used the system to identify potholes, but made no changes to organizational operation and road management strategy.

Intrinsic Enhancements

Intrinsic enhancements were identified as the least important outcome from the use of IoT, only identified in 12 percent of solutions (19 solutions) as an achieved outcome.

In majority of cases intrinsic enhancements were not considered during the implementation, but rather emerged as unexpected outcomes during the use of the devices. Intrinsic enhancements considered here, i.e. less redundant work practices regarding communication, were by nature silent outcomes, as they were experienced by all, but the highest improvements would be expected at service level and for consumers, but not necessarily by service providers -in this case municipalities. This in turn contributed to the low priority of intrinsic enhancements.

Transparency

Improved transparency was identified as an achieved goal of IoT in 42.4 percent of solutions (67 solutions). IoT allowed municipalities and their employees to defend their decision making, overcome false accusations (reduce the impact of political loyalty), and helped to avoid unethical and unlawful actions, i.e. provide equal treatment for all stakeholders and protect individual rights. Through making information available for the public, municipalities could reduce their workload, make more calculated decisions, foster trust and accountability, and receive valuable feedback on their services. When citizens demanded information, the public official could rely on IoT generated data to provide up-to-date information. Municipalities could further control whether service contractors worked in an agreed upon amount and according to contracts -helping to contribute to reliability and stability of service provision. This allowed to avoid conflicts between the municipality and the service contractors, paved the way towards a trusting relationship and enhanced cooperation. However, transparency remained the most controversial outcome of IoT implementation, as improvements in transparency generated countless unforeseen difficulties that resulted in reversing the improved work practices to the previous mode of operation. To illustrate, citizens started to ambush winter road maintenance vehicles when the information of the vehicle movement was made available online. This resulted in an overall stigma for improvements in transparency, as failures in municipal management could have given a political disadvantage in upcoming elections, or provided a competitive advantage for neighboring municipalities.

Participation

Improved participation was identified as an outcome of IoT implementation in 20.3 percent of solutions (32 solutions). Improved participation was never the primary intent of IoT implementation, however municipalities experienced improved participation both from local government and from external stakeholders. From the improvements in the dimension of participation, 24 solutions identified improvements on an internal level, improvements on an external level were visible in 17 solutions. However, silos existed whereby internal actors from different departments were not invested in the improvement of government operation even if capabilities to support it were created. Circumstances where internal stakeholders were involved consisted of instances where the system directly affected them in terms of their private or working life. While external stakeholders were more highly interested in decision making and in the operation of government, it was generally not welcomed by the government officials. Instead the generated data was used to support the sole decisions of managers involved with the IoT implementation, leaving out the external actors -mistrust and uncooperative behaviors remained wide-spread.

Collaboration

Improved collaboration was identified as an achieved outcome in 28.5 percent of solutions (45 solutions). Collaboration was wide-spread both internally and externally. However, in majority of cases, collaboration was required for IoT implementation, but not necessarily fostered it. For instance, vehicle surveillance systems required police involvement due to the data protection acts. Collaboration was often present before the implementation of IoT, however IoT greatly enhanced the level of involvement and supported influx of more relevant information. For instance, when municipalities noticed that the quality of work was consistently worse for some drivers, e.g. garbage removal, they notified the private contractors, which allowed to improve the service delivery. Due to the availability of information, collaboration emerged between public officials and private contractors. For instance, when a technician previously had to be present to fix a biomass heating system, then following IoT implementation public officials took increasingly care of the maintenance. Similarly, when there were problems with private contractors' work, public officials directly contacted the people responsible. IoT provided capabilities that made municipalities adopt a more active role in service delivery. Indeed, municipalities had started to consider providing services without public-private collaboration. For instance, in winter road maintenance IoT created a situation where the public official became more actively invested in the maintenance than the private maintenance manager. Citizens on the other hand were involved in government operation through actively evaluating the available information, notifying of shortcomings. When services did not meet citizen expectations or citizens needed a custom service, they contacted for improvements. While citizens were involved, their participation in the governance was not wide-spread. With regards to this, citizens had limited impact, i.e. did not contribute, on the functioning of government.

Discussion

Previous research indicates that efficiency is typically the primary goal of IT initiatives [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Conceptualizing smartness in government: An integrative and multi-dimensional view[END_REF], which also holds proof here. However, the findings suggest that public organizations are increasingly focusing their attention on other dimensions besides efficiency, most commonly on effectiveness and transparency. This goes against the typical notion of IoT which is mainly articulated in terms of economic value [START_REF] Prasopoulou | A half-moon on my skin: a memoir on life with an activity tracker[END_REF]. Municipalities included in the study often considered other dimensions as the most sought after, neglecting efficiency as an important outcome even if an element of efficiency, e.g. time or cost, was stated as the primary implementation goal. By contrast other elements, most notably effectiveness and transparency, were increasingly derived as outcomes of these government initiatives. With regards to this, IoT allows to create public value beyond efficiency.

The findings suggest that while collaboration, transparency and participation generated public value, they should not be viewed as an administrative goal [START_REF] Harrison | Open Government and E-Government: Democratic Challenges from a Public Value Perspective[END_REF]. The opposing needs of stakeholders could create disturbances that could negatively affect the effectiveness and efficiency of public organizations. Harrison et al. [START_REF] Harrison | Open Government and E-Government: Democratic Challenges from a Public Value Perspective[END_REF] argued that transparency, participation and collaboration should be viewed as means toward desirable ends. The findings of this study suggest that without clear goal, public organizations should refrain from making information publically available. Controlled secrecy in some instances could prove more beneficial for deriving public value. For instance, available information was used to interfere with service provision and how the system operated, e.g. stopping winter road maintenance vehicles or opening windows to regulate temperature. Hence, each case should be closely evaluated to determine whether external and/or internal actors should be engaged in the operation of government. While it is easier to continue in secrecy, transparency and collaboration had a strong effect on achieving public values from other dimensions, e.g. effectiveness and efficiency, which otherwise were not achieved. Thus, government initiatives should be directed to stakeholders that allow to achieve the optimum public value.

The study illustrates that while some solutions are more beneficial than others, deriving public value from IoT initiatives requires public organizations to use the generated data to change how they operate. While the most substantial changes require IoT technology, management and policy changes make the biggest difference in the derived outcome of IoT. Using smart garbage bins or fleet telematics without changing how public organizations operate brought forward positive changes, but substantial benefits, required a change in management and policy. Public organizations had to change how they operate through using the devices and generated data in a unique way. For instance, they could continue to use fleet telematics for surveillance of vehicles, however when incorporating the generated data in investments, decision making or fostering closer collaboration with private organizations, the most substantial benefits occurred. As a result, the findings suggest that most public organizations are handling post-implementation phase of IoT inadequately, most notably regarding what to do with the produced data.

The research indicates that public organizations are not evaluating the outcome of IoT implementation. Throughout the study, rather few organizations had performed a formal evaluation of an IoT initiative. Similarly, the study by Jones & Hughes [START_REF] Jones | Understanding IS evaluation as a complex social process: A case study of UK local authority[END_REF] identified that public organizations tended to rely on an assessment whether the technology works, rather than considering the social impact or value of the technology. If the outcome was evaluated, it was done through the prism of efficiency in an abstract manner. Without the formal assessment, it becomes difficult for public organizations to demonstrate the public value of IoT. Relying on abstract measurement systems, such as the number of complaints by citizens, could be a viable predictor of the success of an initiative, but it neglects the more substantial outcomes the technology could produce. There thus remains a need to explore how IoT created public value can be measured and is measured by public organizations. As the previous findings suggest, other aspects besides efficiency are gaining traction in IoT generated public value, the study concludes that the analysis of IoT should also consider other value generators besides efficiency when evaluating the solution. Evaluation and presentation of the different forms of public value generated by IoT could allow public organizations to avoid public scrutiny and improve the utilization of IoT. Especially, as many IoT projects were sealed off from external stakeholders due to the fear of criticism and political harm.

Conclusion

To conclude, IoT has the capability to create public value and the intended public value dimensions have widened from the goal of improved efficiency. There has been a shift in value creation with other goals and outcomes such as effectiveness, transparency and collaboration gaining increased presence. Furthermore, the data suggest that the evaluation of IoT remains largely insufficient, and is mostly done abstractly or through financial metrics alone, which inhibits capturing the full potential of IoT. Public value derivation cannot rest on the implementation of IoT solutions alone, but must include improvements in management and policy according to the ample data generated by the devices.

Finally, there are limitations to be acknowledged. First, the research studied public value through the perspective of public organizations, however public values are rarely identical for stakeholders. Thus, additional research is required to study public value from the perspective of stakeholders like citizens and private organizations. Secondly, evaluating public value is never an easy task and more longitudinal studies could offer further in-depth understanding of public value created by IoT.

Table 1 .

 1 Public value framework.

	Dimensions	Management (internal view)	Service delivery (external view)
		Concentrates on the internal man-
		agerial efficiency in terms of ob-
	Efficiency	taining increased outputs, work-
		loads, activities, processes and
		goal attainment.

Table 2 .

 2 Overview of interview questions.

Table 3 .

 3 Summary of interviews.

	Public Sector Representatives	Total number of respondents
	Chief information officer	7
	Environmental and municipal advisor	3
	Head of economics department	9
	Head of public administrative unit

Table 4 .

 4 Summary of data collection.

	Supporting Documentation
	Procurement documents	118
	Public documents	173
	Technical documents	131

Table 5 .

 5 Summary of coded segments.

	Dimensions	Management (internal view)	Service delivery (external view)
	Efficiency	431	339
	Effectiveness	298	405
	Intrinsic enhancements	67	74
	Transparency	113	301
	Participation	143	185

Table 6 .

 6 Summary of IoT solutions.

		Number of so-
	Area	lutions (per-centage of all	Overview of the solutions	Examples (number of solutions)
		solutions)
	Buildings	29 (18.3%)	Systems that include simple motion sensors to regulate lightning to more complex systems that regulate window canopies depending on lightning and temperature.	Heating system (9); Smart lightning (10); Ventilation system (8); Window canopies (2);
			Systems that include simple motion
	Infrastructure 21 (13.3%)	sensors to turn on and regulate lightning, to more complex systems that regulate lightning depending on vehicle speed and depending on public transportation movement.	Pothole identification system (1); Intelligent lightning (20);
			Pothole identification system al-
			lows to identify and map the condi-
			tion of roads.

Table 7 .

 7 Number of solutions with identified public value.

	Dimensions	Number of solutions Management (inter-	Service delivery (ex-	Total number of solu-tions
		nal view)	ternal view)
	Efficiency	68	36	75
	Effectiveness	64	53	94
	Intrinsic enhance-ments	16	7	19
	Transparency	28	64	67
	Participation	24	17	32
	Collaboration	38	42	45