Csaba Csáki
email: csaki.csaba@uni-corvinus.hu

An Attempt to Build an eParticipation Program from Scratch: the Case of a District Municipality

Keywords: eParticipation, deliberative democracy, municipal government, local democracy, participation platform

The use of electronic tools to support the democratic process through inclusive participation has almost a two decades history -but not in all countries. There are regions where eParticipation projects are still in their infancy. Albeit there are mature "best practices", they mostly address issues faced by developed countries with strong tradition of democracy in general, where transition to online, technology based solution is on a normal trajectory. On the other hand, there is a growing collection of case studies from all over the world with very differing views on the option -and diverging needs how to proceed and how to make ePart projects successful. This paper reports on research that addressed technology related challenges a district authority in the capital of Hungary faced when decided to embark on a program of extended democratic decision making -with the possibility to utilize digital technologies.

Introduction

The ideal of inclusive deliberative democracy aims at greater public participation in political and administrative decision making, but it also requires appropriate channels, methods and tools for it to become a successful practice [START_REF] Bohman | Survey article: The coming of age of deliberative democracy[END_REF]. With the emergence of electronic government (eGov) on the back of the Internet, digital technology has become an option for citizen participation: eParticipation (ePart) now has a history of a bit over fifteen years [START_REF] Macintosh | Characterizing e-participation in policy-making[END_REF]. Scientific interest in these areas have also increased. On the one hand, various theoretical frameworks have been proposed to analyze ePart projects (including evaluation models covering a set of criteria), on the other hand numerous case studies had been published offering critical success factors (CSF) and best practices how to run such projects [START_REF] Loukis | Evaluating eParticipation projects and lessons learnt[END_REF][START_REF] Panopoulou | eParticipation initiatives in Europe: Learning from practitioners[END_REF][START_REF] Parycek | Evaluation of an E-participation project[END_REF][START_REF] Primus | Innovative public participation in the twenty-first century[END_REF][START_REF] Smith | A three-layered framework for evaluating e-participation[END_REF]. Already in 2004 Macintosh warned [START_REF] Macintosh | Characterizing e-participation in policy-making[END_REF], that at the start of an ePart project there is a need to "clearly characterize the stage in the policy-making process, the level of participation, the technology used, and various issues and constraints, including the potential benefits online participation offers" (p. 2). Participation, however, is not a selfserving goal: eParticipations initiatives usually aim at creating a climate of transparency, trust and creative interaction in the government-citizen relationship using technology [START_REF] Panopoulou | eParticipation initiatives in Europe: Learning from practitioners[END_REF] which could bring benefits for both parties over the long run.

Although, there is a slowly growing set of practical evidence how to start such projects locally when there is no visible civic engagement and involvement of civil society in political matters is not welcomed by national politics (e.g. [START_REF] Kabanov | Electronic "Pockets of Effectiveness": E-governance and Institutional Change in St. Petersburg, Russia[END_REF][START_REF] Kneuer | Diffusion of e-government and e-participation in Democracies and Autocracies[END_REF][START_REF] Wakabi | When SNS use doesn't trigger e-Participation: Case study of an African Authoritarian Regime[END_REF]), there appears to be no comprehensive summary of best ePart practice specifically addressed to newcomers who operate in a controversial political context. Such need has arisen when one of the campaign promises of the (opposition) coalition who won the local elections in one of the Districts of Budapest in October 2019 was to extend participation and open up the municipal decision making process. To translate their task into a research challenge the following (pragmatic) research objective was formulated: What practical advice may be concluded from ePart literature that could be used by a local municipality to strengthen participation in a climate of political division and general public apathy; and what strategy to follow regarding the utilization of technology.

This paper, reporting on the research that has ensued is organized as follows. First the case and its context is presented briefly to set the stage. The third section presents basic concepts and definitions of participatory democracy and electronic participation followed by a short review of tools applied and a brief overview of best practices and evaluation frameworks. This leads to our research questions and the methodology applied. The analysis of the case study focuses on questions faced and tools investigated followed by a detailed discussion of the findings and main messages. The paper is closed by a discussion of results and planned future work.

Introduction to the case (as research motivation)

During the October 2019 local elections in one of the Districts of Budapest a coalition formed mostly by opposition parties and civil organizationswon: they got the major position and majority in the municipal assembly. One of the campaign promises was to improve transparency and allow local residents more say in district matters. The goal of the new leadership was to extend participation, improve fairness, and open up the municipal decision making process including better access to information. They were determined to improve both width and depth of reach, funnel ideas from local civilians, and co-create selected policy (by allowing for involvement, discussion, and feedback). They intended to do participatory planning and design in revitalization of public places. However, they had to face a deep political division, high level of nepotism by the outgoing office, and a general level of (political) apathy. There were only a few active individuals and NGOs backing their agenda. There were several ongoing planning projects drawing civil attention -albeit reactions had been mostly fueled by anger and motivated by frustration as important decisions were made without consultations. Civil engagement thus were mostly protest-based against the way city-level projects were planned and executed.

To improve participation the major's office planned to investigate options of ICTbased solutions. Our group was invited as eGov experts to help define the tasks ahead and offer best practices. As personal connections do matter, they needed to balance authority and legitimacy, while broadening public participation through gradually allowing more room for citizen control.

3

Participatory democracy and electronic participation

Key ideas behind eParticipation with focus on the local level

Participatory democracy is the broad participation of constituents in the direction-setting and operation of political systems [START_REF] Bohman | Survey article: The coming of age of deliberative democracy[END_REF]. There appears to be a need to open up representative democracy to achieve a higher involvement of civil society so people may bring their divergent views and interests to solve public issues [START_REF] Macintosh | Characterizing e-participation in policy-making[END_REF]. Such participatory initiatives may be the results of top-down engagements, or may come from ground-up efforts where citizens seek empowerment in support of various causes [START_REF] Baguma | Is there hope in ICTs for Africa? Developing an e-Participation model to improve the status of public service delivery in Uganda[END_REF]. However, inclusion of citizens and organizations requires new forums, methods and procedures [START_REF] Held | Models of democracy[END_REF] as all interested parties should have access to relevant data and be able to contribute. The expected outcome is not only a wider, yet well-informed debate (avoiding reliance on emotional arguments only), but also transparent decisions that may be better accepted [START_REF] Santamaría-Philco | Advances in e-Participation: A perspective of Last Years[END_REF]. From this point of view eParticipationas part of eDemocracy along eVotingis the use of information technology to support democratic decision-making [START_REF] Grönlund | Introduction to the Special Issue on E-democracy in Practice: Methods, Infrastructures and Discourse[END_REF]. ePart implies the use of info-communication technologies (ICT) to form innovative practices that enable various stakeholders to take part in policy making processes [START_REF] Chadwick | Bringing e-democracy back in: Why it matters for future research on e-governance[END_REF]. Main objectives of ePart include [START_REF]OECD: Promises and problems of edemocracy; Challenges of Citizen on-line Engagement[END_REF] broader participation and support of more efficient participation (by offering a selection of tools addressing citizen groups of differing technical and communication skills), and creating a well-informed deliberative debate in support of deeper contributions. This is expected to increase legitimacy and quality of the decision, whether concluded during the process or based on the input originated from the participatory initiative. Regarding participants the agreement in the literature is that the widest possible involvement of stakeholders would be ideal (spanning demographic groups and reaching out to civil organizations).

One arena where citizen participation in democratic decision-making processes can be realized with immediate visible results is local governments and municipalities (of different levels) [START_REF] Pratchett | Local autonomy, local democracy and the 'new localism[END_REF]. The key is to allow citizens/residents to engage with the local political establishment in their decision-making processes affecting societal groups or involving issues of public interest in the given locality. ePart at the local level provides municipalities with ICT-based opportunities for consultation and dialogue while minimizing logistical and communication constraints associated with traditional engagement methods [START_REF] Pflughoeft | Social media as E-participation: Can a multiple hierarchy stratification perspective predict public interest?[END_REF]. Booher [START_REF] Booher | Collaborative Governance Practices and Democracy[END_REF] summarizes five reasons for the participation of citizens in municipal decision making: 1) information gathering: decision-makers can find out what the public's preferences are and consider them in their decisions; 2) local expertise: decisions can be improved by incorporating citizens' local knowledge; 3) democratic values: public participation can advance fairness and justice; 4) democratic process: public participation helps getting legitimacy for public decisions; 5) regulatory conformance: participation is offered by public officials because the law requires it (p. 422). However, there are reports and arguments that ePart initiatives did not always achieve a more participatory process [START_REF] Norris | E-democracy at the American grassroots: Not now… not likely?[END_REF] or at least not automatically. Hepburn [START_REF] Hepburn | Local democracy in a digital age: Lessons for local government from the Manchester congestion charge referendum[END_REF] warns of political challenges and the influence of vested economic interests local governments have to deal with. Consequently, if local governments intend to use electronic tools in order to strengthen local democracy they have to develop strategies to tackle such issues. They also have to prepare their organization through reformed internal processes and structure augmented with education that is prepared to enable and support local citizenship (including youth, social workers and NGOs) enacting their interests online [START_REF] Steinbach | Administrators' identities and strategies in the e-participation innovation process[END_REF]. They also need to choose fitting tools.

Tools of eParticipation

ICT-based participatory tools may take many forms from online petition, public opinion polls, surveys, or complaint portals to electronic discussion forums, online policy consultation projects or even talking to officials directly online [START_REF] Panopoulou | eParticipation initiatives in Europe: Learning from practitioners[END_REF]. General Internet solutions such as social media, Web portals, alert services, groupware tools, webcasts, wikis, podcasts or blogs may also be utilized [START_REF] Smith | A three-layered framework for evaluating e-participation[END_REF]; while on the other end of the spectrum there are dedicated complex platforms of deliberative participation developed (i.e. ourspace, yrpri.org, consul, b-involved, decidim). In judging the usefulness of any ePart tool one key characteristic is if it allows one way or two way communication or something in between (restricted two-way).

Regarding usability, some tools may fit certain purposes but could fail to support others. For example social media now has a wide reach and is good for information dispatch or mobilization (especially against something [START_REF] Pflughoeft | Social media as E-participation: Can a multiple hierarchy stratification perspective predict public interest?[END_REF] and may even offer platform for discussion, but not fit for participation because people do not use it to express political opinion, arguments may become simplified and emotional, and it is questionable whether such positions would reach the administration. Opinions seem to converge that effective ePart programs that have a long term impact in mind should consider the use of a deliberative platform dedicated to give space to diverging opinions and help contradicting standpoints to reach a conclusion.

Theoretical and evaluation frameworks of eParticipation

Based on the main goals of eParticipation a number of descriptive models as well as analytical and evaluation frameworks have been proposed [START_REF] Scherer | Reference framework for E-participation projects[END_REF]. The layered model of Macintosh and Whyte [START_REF] Macintosh | Towards an evaluation framework for eParticipation[END_REF] addresses three perspectives: democratic, project, and sociotechnicalcomposed of 20 single evaluation criteria. The 7Ps of sustainable eParticipation implementation by Islam [START_REF] Islam | Towards a sustainable e-Participation implementation model[END_REF] covers policy and capacity building, planning and goal setting, programs and contents development, process and tools, promotion, participation, and post-implementation analysis (in this order as they form a process, where the participation stage has its own internal steps). The participatory action research (PAR) model [START_REF] Baguma | Is there hope in ICTs for Africa? Developing an e-Participation model to improve the status of public service delivery in Uganda[END_REF] simplifies the above into 5 stages for developing countries and accommodates both top-down and bottom-up initiation. However, Dahler-Larsen [START_REF] Dahler-Larsen | From programme theory to constructivism. on tragic, magic and competing programmes[END_REF] points out that a too much program and process centered mindset can lead to neglect of the often complex interaction of these with their context. Evaluation frameworks offer a set of dimensions (such as fairness, competence, acceptance, quality of process etc.) covering a wide range of criteria (for reviews see [13, 18, or 20]).

As for unsupportive contexts, Kabanov and Chugunov [START_REF] Kabanov | Electronic "Pockets of Effectiveness": E-governance and Institutional Change in St. Petersburg, Russia[END_REF] starts with the assumption that autocracies in general have ineffective institutional performance regarding civic relationships, then show that e-projects can still survive in case of local political patronage and may achieve somealbeit limitedinstitutional changes. Kneuer and Harnisch, [START_REF] Kneuer | Diffusion of e-government and e-participation in Democracies and Autocracies[END_REF] argue that while autocratic regimes may actually establish efficient webbased bureaucratic processes, they do so "without institutionalized distributions of democratic powers to those affected" (p. 550). Wakabi and Grönlund [START_REF] Wakabi | When SNS use doesn't trigger e-Participation: Case study of an African Authoritarian Regime[END_REF] show that low belief of citizens that they may influence change and fear of backlash limits their interest in e-Participation, and keeps them away from political matters.

Practical research questions and methodology

Despite all these frameworks it is not straightforward how eParticipation projects should be initiated and how to take into consideration specific characteristics of local democracy and civic engagement, or lack thereof. This was the challenge local authorities in Hungary faced late 2019 (after civil organizations working with opposition parties have won local elections in several cities). To support the efforts of one capital district government the following research questions have been put forward: 1) What strategy may a local authority utilize to mobilize a wider constituency when they have to combat historical apathy? 2) What requirements follow against technological (ICT) support of the above goal? 3) What tool(s) would meet the expectations best and in what order tools/features/services/functions should be introduced? This is essentially an exploratory qualitative case study using a mixture of data collection methods. Desk work included literature review on frameworks and cases in order to collect CSFs, and this was augmented with online search of potential ePart tools. Field work consisted of interviews with 4 municipal leaders and 4 participatory democracy experts, and observation of 4 participatory (face-to-face) forums to collect requirements. Interviews lasted approximately one hour each and formed of open ended questions, while at the forums detailed minutes were taken and citizen opinion was collected using a simple questionnaire. The conclusion was a report to the ePart officer regarding CSFs and an evaluation of potential solutions. Analysis was conducted based on this data and was contrasted with findings of the literature review.

Useful literature: Critical Success Factors to consider

The first step was to review preconditions of effective ePart projects and critical success factors in achieving a legitim process along with potential barriers. The structural model of participation initiatives by Kubicek and Aichholzer [START_REF] Kubicek | Closing the evaluation gap in e-participation research and practice[END_REF] offers CSFs to judge if there were strong links from the given project to formal political decision making. Panopoulou et al. [START_REF] Panopoulou | eParticipation initiatives in Europe: Learning from practitioners[END_REF] distil seven CSFs that makes a difference: commitment by the government; usability of tools; combining online with offline channels; a thorough communication and promotion plan; ensuring security and privacy; addressing organizational issues; and handling complexity of the topic and quality of participation. Smith et al. [START_REF] Smith | A three-layered framework for evaluating e-participation[END_REF] claim that external factors (including the choice of technology, institutional setting, and elements of political and societal context) need to be carefully investigated as they may act either as drivers or barriers. Their main message is that eParticipation is essentially a relationship-building process. Consequently, the goals of participatory initiatives evolve from providing (building tools and offering methods) to using (utilizing the tools and methods available) to practicing (making it to be the norm to consider and integrate these solutions). Furthermore, "it is necessary to identify the external factors in the environment within which a project exists and the wider processes with which it must co-exist" (p. 310). Primus et al., [START_REF] Primus | Innovative public participation in the twenty-first century[END_REF] is a comprehensive example of best practice recommendations as it defines 36 CSFs along 6 dimensions. Based on a cross-cultural perspective Parycek et al. [START_REF] Parycek | Evaluation of an E-participation project[END_REF] offered the following lessons and CSFs: select topics carefully; integrate affected decision makers into the discussion, but also provide moderation (both on-and off-line with the intent that neither politicians nor expert should overdominate the discourse); manage community (especially for the long-run); use a mix of channels (augment the discussion tool with social media channels or even blogs carrying background information); offer social media features so participants can connect beyond the topic at hand (or could create links to such known services like user profiles or groups). Panopoulou et al. [START_REF] Panopoulou | Success factors in designing eParticipation initiatives[END_REF] proposed success factors specifically tailored for designing eParticipation initiatives, where each factor had a set of activities associated with them. Many of these factors, practices and barriers are reinforced by case studies (a good example is [START_REF] Steinbach | Administrators' identities and strategies in the e-participation innovation process[END_REF]).

Analysis: Conflicting goals and challenges faced

Several of the issues raised by literature was indeed present in the district case. It was clear to municipal leaders that they need to make changes to internal rules along with reorganizing the structure and processes of the administration. But the success of these ongoing changes do depend on a deeper cultural change requiring education of staff. Such a sweeping change is not an ideal setting for initiating ePart projects -but more opportunities for participation and a wider access to municipal decision making was a major campaign promise that the major and elected officials were keen on keeping. The stake is also high, because in case of failure the desire to participate in future projects may meet resistance.

Based on the findings of the previous section the following CSFs were recommended: committed champion; prepared staff; mix of channels (in communication and participation alike); intuitive tool(s); careful selection of individual projects; detailed promotion and communications strategy of those projects; balance the level of privacy and the degree of anonymity allowed; managing the process; participant preparation; apply moderation for online discussions.

They have appointed a "participatory advisor" and our first task was to review current projects and existing communication channels as well as to collect requirements against ICT and compare them to potential ePart tool options. Most of the ongoing projects of civic engagement were planning activities, revitalization initiatives or policy related to traffic, parking, or regulating shop facades. They have also considered participatory budgeting but it was decided to delay it until later in the year (influencing budget of next year). For dissemination and engagement these ongoing projects utilized public displays at the local Old Market; email lists; Facebook posts; as well as community forums at the local cultural center. Also needed to rely on a few existing, active civil groups.

The solution had to support different phases of the participatory process (i.e.: 1) collect project ideas; 2) project selection; 3) promotion and dissemination of background information; 4) ideas, comments on solutions; 5) discussion, deliberation; 6) voting,; 7) implementation control; 8) feedback about results) and other activities (such as communication channels, authenticated registration, community building, links to social media, moderation, or special access for more senior officers). The divergent types of projects (above) posed a wide range of challenges as each had different target audience and had different civil organizations who supported or initiated them, thus they required different design and evaluation frameworks and as a result had different e-Tool needs.

After discussions with municipal leaders the following was concluded. There was strong will to reach a large constituency face-to-face (as that was the factor that brought them the election results). They need tools that have a high chance to be successfully applied in increasing activity of residents. But there is a risk associated with complex tools: (their use, management, time to implement and test), versus existing tools with limited scope and functionality but readily usable and known to the public. On the other hand it would be hard to later transfer to an integrated platform. Technology should help in limiting the influence of negative contextual factors (such as anger, trolls, and deep political divide) -without being politically or administratively too restrictive. Staff had a limited ePart IT knowledge and the offices had limited financial resources. Even running existing systems and updating the website strained IT operations personnel. Overall, they need to use a mix of technology and other methods, as building connections was more important than using technology.

Options: Evaluation of tools considered

As a starting point the municipality had a (registration-based) email distribution list, a website, and a Facebook page. The questions were how to utilize these in the future and whether the district should operate its own participatory platform. Due to financial, technical and personnel restrictions it was not an option to design and develop a new ePart platform. However, they could install and run a freeware solution, while there was also discussion about the opportunity to collaborate with other districts to share one. Ultimately, they could wait for the technology platform contemplated by the city level municipality (and utilize that once available). The municipal website was under redesign, with first offering static capabilities (but being more informative, and regularly updated with fresh news) and later potentially being augmented with 2.0 features. There were issues with social media integration. There was a clear need to foster community and there indeed was a municipal Facebook (FB) page with small but active group of participants. But the future role of Facebook as a readily available communication channel was not straightforward. Although FB definitely falls short of a deliberative platform the options were: a) do not use; b) use only for dissemination; c) use for basic group discussions or d) rely more on it through forums, votes, and community building. While FB is global and widely used, the question remains whether it would be beneficial (or even possible) to build a new, local social media solution. They could perhaps utilize Twitter for offering fast access to interesting bits of up-to-date information and collecting issues. Furthermore, the applicability of social media tools in deliberation is questionable (in general). On the other hand, social interaction has benefits for participatory engagement in general -and is encouraged by municipal leaders. Besides, local authorities wanted to take advantage of the existing civil group on FB. However, if FB is used for such goal then data would be controlled by a third party and integration with a (potential future) local deliberative platform might become difficult (beyond linking from the platform to Facebook and other SM sites). Table 1 presents an overview of evaluating the technology options considered by the municipality. If they delay the decision on a platform, but release the new website, there are pressing questions to face: a) what features the website should have and b) how a later deployment of a platform would be influenced by the website (if successful) or a strengthened Facebook presence. IT-based tools and techniques thus could be a useful addition to the repertoire, but with the current goals of reaching out and perceived extra work to be done, district authorities did not make it a priority. Furthermore, given the complexity of running their own platform (as an alternative to the popular social media riddled with disadvantages or augmenting the existing web sites with 2.0 capabilities), districts decided to wait if there is a platform offered at the capital level they could utilize.

Discussion: Status of Critical Success Factors

This Section reviews the CSFs (and related barriers) as summarized in Section 5. One of the key political factors is "Commitment by the government". Indeed, the new district major had acted fast. The first step towards participatory involvementjust a few weeks after the election -was the appointment of a "participation" consultant with the job to set the direction and who had a (small) budget to assemble a part-time team.

Following our recommendation, the municipal "Participation" team first considered potential issues and identified the following main barriers. Most importantly, there was no substantial history of civil participation in the works of the municipalitynot only online, but in general: apart from a few active individuals and a handful of civil organizations resident engagement had to be built up from scratch. This has made it even more difficult to engage in an ePart program. Alsoand consequentlythere were no accepted norms and ways how to get civil players involved and how to collaborate with them successfully. There was no routine at either side, and it was not in the thinking of citizens. In addition, even after the first meetings there was clear resistance on the side of administration. Not only new policies and internal rules were required but there appeared to be a clear need for a culture change and related education.

The previous Section has reviewed the external factors related to technology and thus covered the corresponding CSF as concluded from the literature (i.e. Usability of tools). It was recognized that the key to success is building relationships quickly, relying on existing connections and basic communication channels. They organized townhall meetings advertised through old-fashioned ways of using public displays as well as through FB and by sending out emails to existing receiver lists. Although it was more out of necessity, it still fits the requirement of combining online with offline channels for communication. Again, the desire to act fastand thus take advantage of the political momentum of winning the election from the position of being in oppositionhad resulted in a situation when there was no "[t]horough communication and promotion plan" ready yet.

Regarding security and privacy it was a tough choice between anonymous posting that allows privacy and using names for credibility. It was decided, thatirrespective the actual technological solution to be selectedparticipation in certain discussions should definitely require proof of local residence (and this capability was enlisted as an important requirement).

To address organizational issues the major initiated the revision of all internal policies dealing with resident services. Although this is not directly related to participation, this was decided to the first step in changing the cultureand to see individual reactions. No training of sensitivity have been initiated yet. Interestingly, why there was a participation project initiated and a participation officer role established whose task was to set the strategy and organize training, there was no participation policy created.

As mentioned in Section 2 there were several ongoing projects which had already gathered (albeit limited) civil attention. The decision was made to built on these ongoing cases to expand reach. As suitable technology was not yet available, exhibitions and face-to-face meetings were organized where the municipality invited not only local residents but representatives of the city level and experts from the architect teams who were involved in the revitalization projects. These meetings were quite successful and allowed the participatory team to collect online data. Meetings were video recorded and made available to further advertise the cause and to show they take their promise seriously. Strictly speaking however, these open, general meetings do not provide the best way of handling the complexity inherent in many of the topics addressed. Quality of participation is hard to judge as there were question-answer sections, but no smallgroup discussion or voting took place, neither there were any actual decisions made at any of the meetings. However, the participatory advisor had a novel idea of collecting ideas using an offline method of a display: at the local market a large poster was installed with the map of a street to be revitalized and passersby could use post its to add recommendations, ideas or suggestions to the map (see Fig. 1). Regarding future projects a process management framework has been put together (based on literature case study recommendations)but it has not been used yet. Based on best practice advice, beyond the current ongoing projects the rules for new initiatives recommend planning with generous timescales; establishing clear project boundaries and goals (as much as possiblebut with flexibility), focused definition of tasks, preparation of participants (e.g. providing ample information through a diverse selection of channels). Also, for online discussions the use of a facilitator is consideredalthough at the current time there are no trained people available locally. Internal communication has to be improved. Projects that get a go ahead need to come with contingency plans.

Conclusions, limitations and future research

In the case presented contextual readiness seemed, as predicted by literature, just as important as technology itself. Indeed, while there are reasonable options to step on the "electronic" avenue of participation, the local authority had not only limited resources and expertise, their priority under the given political-social circumstances was to meet people directly. The main, stated goal was to rebuild trust in local political leadership. The use of technology took a back seat, at least for now. Furthermore, considering the efforts required to install, run, and manage a full-blown participation platform, it should be done when critical mass is reachable, may be through sharing the work with other district municipalities. This path of introducing ICT was further reinforced by the expected cost relative to the limited budget available. Beyond the lack of trust another disadvantage of moving towards ePart is the expected complexity (and lack of expertise) of combining off-and online solutions. A gradual shift would also allow time for municipal leaders to experiment with incentives offered to citizens or motivators that could help shift culture from face-to-face to online, or at least mixed participation.

The research reported has only covered one municipality for a few months. More information collection is needed about the exact nature of local context especially in relation to the anecdotal "apathy" (no reliable scientific source investigating the issue have been located dealing with the attitude of residents in the capital or its districts). This research is planned to be continued for several more years and the intention is to monitor both the offline and online progress of the participatory initiative and a deeper understanding of the motivation of the various stakeholders is a priority along with an analysis of tool use. In addition, there are four more districts, who appear to be on the same track and face the same questions: contact has been made with them too, and successful collaboration could help shad even more light on what a new ePart initiative may encounter especially in a difficult political context.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Offline idea collection for the revitalization of a local street (photo by Author)

Table 1 .

 1 Overview of tool options

	Tool	Main Functionality(s)	Reach	Complexity	Costs
	delibera-	form assemblies, run	younger,	running: medium	high
	tive plat-	projects, deliberation	active resi-	managing: high
	form		dents
	shared	form assemblies, run	younger,	running: medium shared
	platform	projects, deliberation	active resi-		(me-
			dents		dium)
	discussion	idea generation; moder-	need to be	low	medium-
	forum (2.0)	ated discussion and	advertised		low
	on website	sharing opinion;
	web site	disseminating infor-	those al-	medium	medium
		mation; sharing project	ready
		ideas;	online
	email list	disseminating infor-	older gen-	low	low
		mation	eration
	general so-	disseminating infor-	those al-	low	low
	cial media	mation; raising opin-	ready
		ions; non-moderated	online -age
		discussion;	dependent


Linett Simonsen
email: linetts@ifi.uio.no

Tina Steinstø

Guri Verne
email: guribv@ifi.uio.no

Tone Bratteteig

"I'm disabled and married to a foreign single mother". Public service chatbot's advice on citizens' complex lives

Keywords: chatbot, domain knowledge, digitalization

This paper describes a study of citizens' chats with a chatbot of a public agency. We have analyzed chat logs and identified citizens' lack of domain knowledge as a source of inadequate or failed chatbot responses. We identify three types of lack of domain knowledge: lack of the right vocabulary, uncertainty if a regulation fits the citizen's situation or the "shape sorting box" problem, or citizen's misunderstanding the regulations. The most serious failure is when a misunderstanding is not detected and corrected during the chat. The chatbot we studied is not able to make sense of badly formed questions from citizens. As implications for design we suggest making the chatbot limitations visible by not presenting it as a human-like avatar with a name. We also suggest to enable domain knowledge learning through its conversations.

Introduction

Governmental digitalization includes the digitalization of public administration as well as the digitalization of public services, which is where the citizens meet this change. Digitalized public services are often self-service solutions where the citizens have to carry out parts of the service, hence they need to know how to use the self-service solution. Use of electronic services could decrease the need for "administrative literacy" but will increase the need for computer skills [START_REF] Grönlund | Inclusion in the E-Service Society -Investigating Administrative Literacy Requirements for Using E-Services[END_REF]. The government in Norway is therefore concerned with the "digital competence" of the population since low or no digital competence in (parts of) the population may make the digital public services inaccessible to these citizens [START_REF] Carretero | The Digital Competence Framework for Citizens[END_REF]. A digital divide rooted in inaccessible digital services may have severe socio-economic consequences for the affected individuals and for society [START_REF] Van Deursen | The First-level Digital Divide Shifts from Inequalities in Physical Access to Inequalities in Material Access[END_REF]. Our concern in this paper is grounded in recent studies claiming that a major reason for unsuccessful or failed use of public self-services is the lack of domain knowledge [START_REF] Breit | Making the Technological Transition -Citizens' Encounters with Digital Pension Services[END_REF][START_REF] Madsen | The efficiency of freedom: Single parents' domestication of mandatory e-government channels[END_REF][START_REF] Verne | The winners are those who have used the old paper form. On citizens and automated public services[END_REF][START_REF] Verne | Do-it-yourself services and work-like chores: on civic duties and digital public services[END_REF]. These studies emphasize that an important service from public call centers and staffed offices is the ability of public administration advisors to "translate" questions from citizens into the right categories for the public "machinery" to process their inquiry. Being able to use the self-services requires some understanding of the public service system [START_REF] Madsen | The efficiency of freedom: Single parents' domestication of mandatory e-government channels[END_REF]. In this paper we explore how a digitalized public service handles this problem by reporting from an empirical study of a particular public service where a chatbot has been designed to be the first public encounter for a citizen who seeks information and help [START_REF] Lindgren | Close Encounters of the Digital Kind: A Research Agenda for the Digitalization of Public Services[END_REF]. The study gives an in-depth description of how the chatbot functions in practice through an analysis of a set of real chatbot conversations.

The paper identifies problems occurring in practice that can act as a basis for designing improved digitalized public services.

The paper first presents the public service arrangements in Norway as well as the particular service where the chatbot has been introduced. We add a brief section about chatbots in general and this one in particular before we go on to tell about our study. We have analyzed logs from chatbot chats with citizens, and the next section describes three chats each illustrating a different type of problem concerned with lack of domain knowledge. The last section discusses what sort of domain knowledge the inquiries from the public may require; our analysis of the logs is confirmed by interview data. We also discuss how chatbots may handle the problems we have identified and hint to some implications for design. The last section concludes the paper.

2

Background: Digital public services in the welfare state

The public service we have studied is a part of a welfare state, which offers a range of benefits and services for citizens in various life situations, e.g., retirement pension, unemployment allowance, healthcare services and sick leave benefits, a right to education, and various forms of family benefits. The benefits are allowances to the citizen based on legally grounded arrangements. In this paper, we concentrate on family benefits, because this is the services that the chatbot we have studied is made for. If a child is born in Norway, the mother of the child will automatically receive a birth allowance. Approx. two months after the child is born, she will start receiving a monthly child benefit (until the child is 18 years old). Single mothers and fathers, who live alone with children, may also be entitled to extended child benefit and infant supplement.

The public service

It is the Norway's Labour and Welfare Administration (LWA) that manages the services and benefits on behalf of the welfare state, altogether approx. 60 services and benefits. LWA meets the citizens through their 456 local offices, their Contact Center (CC) or through their digital services. The CC covers all services for the whole country and is responsible for contact with citizens through telephone, chat, and social media presence. Every year the center receives about 4.500.000 telephone calls, 700.000 written documents via net-based services (logged-in), and approx. 140.000 inquiries via chat and Facebook. The CC is not involved in the LWA's case handling: their employees only answer questions about rules and regulations, case handling response times, and payment dates. In addition, they can inform the citizen about status in her/his own case and teach citizens to use the web pages and self-service solutions.

As a part of its digitalization the LWA has expanded its digital communication and reduced the opening hours of the local offices. A chatbot has been introduced in the handling of inquiries about family benefits. A citizen who initiates a chat with LWA will first meet the chatbot before the chat can be transferred to a chat with a human. The chatbot is based on Machine Learning technology (ML) and LWA hopes that this technology combined with the large amounts of data captured by the public sector may enable automated services offering just-in-time welfare services to citizens without their active participation. The current chatbot is, however, not personal in that it does not require the citizen to log in or give any personal information.

Chatbots are expected to reduce the load on manned services, in particular calls to the call centers, by taking over the task of responding to questions from the citizens. Studying use of ML in the public sector is important for understanding how such technology functions in the public encounter [START_REF] Lindgren | Close Encounters of the Digital Kind: A Research Agenda for the Digitalization of Public Services[END_REF].

Digitalization of the public encounter

The case handler or advisor, the street level bureaucrat who communicates directly with a citizen, represents the welfare state towards the citizens [START_REF] Lipsky | Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service[END_REF]. The digitalization of civil servants' work has implied that their contact with citizens and clients have changed from the "street level" contact [START_REF] Lipsky | Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service[END_REF], where they meet in person, to the "screen level", where data is entered into a screen, to the "system level", where decisions are made by a computer [START_REF] Bovens | From Street-Level to System-Level Bureaucracies: How Information and Communication Technology is Transforming Administrative Discretion and Constitutional Control[END_REF]. Several studies on channel choices and how they affect the relationship between the citizens and the government have been reported. Both Skaarup's study [START_REF] Skaarup | The Mediation of Authority[END_REF] of how different channels affect the citizens' feeling of control, and Ebbers et al.'s study [START_REF] Ebbers | Electronic government: Rethinking channel management strategies[END_REF] of how different channels are suitable for different purposes, show that the types of channel available can make a significant difference to the citizens. However, clients are increasingly being invited or forced to communicate with their advisors through online channels, but they also continue to use the traditional channels after adopting new digital service channels [START_REF] Madsen | Channel Choice Complications[END_REF]. As digital technologies are used for larger parts of the communication between the client and the agency, new challenges arise. New types of skills are required from the citizen when manual services are replaced by electronic services.

There are a number of studies about what frontline service workers do and know, and many of them report that frontline service workers like the "street-level bureaucrats" [START_REF] Lipsky | Dilemmas of the Individual in Public Service[END_REF] and the call center operators are good at "translating" callers' inquiries to internally specific categories and formats [START_REF] Wynn | Office conversation as an information medium[END_REF][START_REF] Suchman | Procedures and problems in the office[END_REF][START_REF] Bowker | Sorting Things out: Classification and Its Consequences[END_REF]. Several studies report that call center operators carry out knowledgeable and even emotional work in their response to a caller [START_REF] Maass | Uncovering the Invisible: Gender-Sensitive Analysis of Call Center Work and Software, Gender Designs IT: Construction and Deconstruction of Information Society Technologies[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | How Can I Help You? Call Centres, Classification Work and Coordination[END_REF][START_REF] Muller | Invisible Work of Telephone Operators: An Ethnocritical Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Nyberg | Computers, Customer Service Operatives and Cyborgs: Intra-actions in Call Centres[END_REF][START_REF] Svensson | Routes, Routines and Emotions in Decision Making of Emergency Call Takers[END_REF][START_REF] Tjora | The technological mediation of the nursing-medical boundary[END_REF][START_REF] Whalen | Improvisational choreography in teleservice work[END_REF]. Flexible communication and emotional work are important for the operators to create a good interaction with the caller [START_REF] Maass | Uncovering the Invisible: Gender-Sensitive Analysis of Call Center Work and Software, Gender Designs IT: Construction and Deconstruction of Information Society Technologies[END_REF] and the ability to read a caller's emotional state can also be used for interpreting the emergency of the call [START_REF] Svensson | Routes, Routines and Emotions in Decision Making of Emergency Call Takers[END_REF].

There is a large variety of problems and issues that lead a citizen to call a public agency. Earlier studies have shown that many callers know the rules and regulations but ask if the rules apply to their particular situation; what Verne [START_REF] Verne | The winners are those who have used the old paper form. On citizens and automated public services[END_REF] calls "the shapesorting box", i.e., fitting a real-life problem into one of the categories formed by the rules and regulations of the public agency. The callers need help to interpret the rules and understand how they fit their own life situation [START_REF] Verne | The winners are those who have used the old paper form. On citizens and automated public services[END_REF]. However, many callers show very little domain knowledge [START_REF] Madsen | The efficiency of freedom: Single parents' domestication of mandatory e-government channels[END_REF][START_REF] Verne | The winners are those who have used the old paper form. On citizens and automated public services[END_REF]. The call advisors often need to disentangle the callers' problems into smaller steps that the callers can take themselves [START_REF] Bratteteig | Conditions for Autonomy in the Information Society; Disentangling as a Public Service[END_REF]. A study of call center operators in a public agency shows that the operators responded differently to different callers depending on how they interpreted the caller's digital competence and domain knowledge: A caller appearing helpless received more guidance and practical help than callers who expressed themselves in more competent ways [START_REF] Verne | Two faces of autonomy: Learning from non-users of an e-service[END_REF].

Chatbots

A chatbot is an automatic system to which a user can text or "chat" in real time over the Internet [START_REF] Brandtzaeg | Chatbots: Changing User Needs and Motivations[END_REF]. Today, chatbots are able to communicate with people in natural language [START_REF] Liao | All Work and No Play? Conversations with a Questionand-Answer Chatbot in the Wild[END_REF]. From the very first chatbot Eliza [START_REF] Weizenbaum | Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgment to Calculation[END_REF][START_REF] Shevat | Designing bots: creating conversational experience[END_REF], most chatbots have a limited vocabulary and repertoire based on preset keywords. The Eliza program first analyzed the syntax of the user's statement then formed a response from simple pattern recognition in addition to replacing keywords. Even if chatbots are able to "seemingly reply in intelligent ways to many queries, they still cannot understand a basic sentence in natural language" [START_REF] Holmquist | Intelligence on Tap: Artificial Intelligence as a New Design Material[END_REF][START_REF] Hill | Real conversations with artificial intelligence: A comparison between human-human online conversations and human-chatbot conversations[END_REF]. Moreover, Hill et al [START_REF] Hill | Real conversations with artificial intelligence: A comparison between human-human online conversations and human-chatbot conversations[END_REF] found that users adapt their language by using simpler messages when interacting with a chatbot: the users they studied were very aware that they were communicating with a robot. Today most chatbots are based on Machine Learning (ML), which is a special area within AI where statistical methods are used for identifying patterns in large data sets, to recognise patterns and produce results [START_REF] Jordan | Machine learning: Trends, perspectives, and prospects[END_REF][START_REF] Russell | Artificial Intelligence: A modern approach[END_REF]. ML is different from traditional programming where the machine performs predetermined operations. By being exposed to a number of examples or tasks with given answers, i.e., correct data, the machine is "trained". "Learning" is central in ML: the machine has to "be trained" by a set of training data and tested with a different set of test data [START_REF] Holmquist | Intelligence on Tap: Artificial Intelligence as a New Design Material[END_REF][START_REF] Jordan | Machine learning: Trends, perspectives, and prospects[END_REF][START_REF] Broussard | Artificial unintelligence: how computers misunderstand the world[END_REF]. The quality of the ML depends of the quality of the training data and the test data as well as how relevant these data sets are for the real data that the ML will meet when in operation. The algorithms will in principle give better results as the ML learns by processing more data. However, the development of a ML-based system like a chatbot needs to be monitored by people. A well-known example of a chatbot failure is the Microsoft chatbot Tay, which was designed to "learn" through dialogues with Twitter users and did not have security mechanisms to avoid "false teaching". Within 24 hours Tay got out of control and had to be removed from the open net due to "trolling" from the Twitter users [START_REF] Hendler | Social Machines: The Coming Collision of Artificial Intelligence, Social Networking, and Humanity (1st)[END_REF].

3.1

The LWA chatbot

The LWA chatbot is named Anna (a pseudonym). Anna went public in the fall of 2018 and answered chats from approximately 400 users each day in the beginning of 2019. 40 % of the users got an answer in this first encounter, 40 % were transferred to chat with a human advisor, and 20 % went to another channel (e.g., telephone) to communicate with LWA. Anna is not expected to respond to very complicated questions, as neither the technology nor the users are considered "good enough" yet.

Anna is based on ML technology and the aim is that it will learn and improve its responses through interactions with users. The ML analyses the users' questions to recognize what they are asking for. Once identified, the ML selects the corresponding response. ML is only used to identify questions: the answer the users receive to a question has been designed to adhere to the laws and regulations for that question, theme or keyword. The concrete formulation of the answers is designed by the advisors, who know what kind of replies the callers need to receive on particular questions.

In response to a question from a user, Anna pre-processes the text and classifies it as belonging to a category of questions, where all questions will match a predefined general answer. The ML performs several steps starting with correcting spelling errors and wrong words used. Then the ML identifies the question by trying to identify what the user wants to know by asking this question: the "intention" of this input. Based on the input the ML calculates which intention seems most probable. The system will match this intention with the set of predefined intentions. If the system finds the user's intention to be similar enough to a predefined intention, the predefined answer to this intention (i.e., question) will be given as the chat response. If the system does not find a sufficiently similar predefined intention, a standard fall-back message will be given, such as "Please rephrase your question in simpler terms".

Anna is constantly trained. LWA's chatbot trainers are constantly monitoring Anna, using reports generated by Anna in addition to reviewing chat conversations and feedback on Anna's performance from advisors. The chatbot trainers create training data based on this and run training sessions to improve Anna's responses. Training the chatbot means that more questions are classified, and new answers are added to the vocabulary of the system.

Method: studying chatbot logs

The main material for this interpretive qualitative case study [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative Research in Business & Management[END_REF] is a segment of chat logs retrieved from chats between users and the LWA's chatbot Anna from more than 6 months in 2019, each week including approx. 3000 chats. For this study we extracted approximately 8000 unique chat logs from four of these weeks: two weeks in May and two weeks in September (more detailed studies in [START_REF] Simonsen | Når brukerdialogen automatiseres -hva blir vanskelig? En kvalitativ studie av sekvensen av handlinger mellom menneske og chatbot[END_REF][START_REF] Steinstø | Bruk av chatbot i praksis. En kvalitativ studie av utfordringer ved bruk av chatbot i offentlige tjenester[END_REF]). We studied documents: LWA's plans and reports as well as the chatbot developers' documentation, and we interviewed and observed advisors and chatbot trainers at two CC's units. We carried out four semi-structured interviews with three different advisors in addition to observing them as they chatted with citizens. This gave us insight into typical questions and issues that the citizens ask about. We had three semi-structured interviews with two chatbot trainers working with Anna improvements, and observed them while they worked.

We took a hermeneutic approach [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative Research in Business & Management[END_REF] to analyzing the data, focusing on making sense of the log data. We used Suchman's analytical framework [START_REF] Suchman | Human-machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions[END_REF] as a starting point for interpreting and understanding chat logs where difficulties had occurred. The framework (see Figure 1) distinguishes between the user's "actions available to the machine" (i.e. input) and actions not available to the machine, and the machine's response ("effects available to the user") as well as the machine's rationale or inner workings. In this paper we are concerned with the machine's responses to the users' actions and how Suchman´s framework allows us to include the user's life circumstances, both those available and not available to the machine. We started by analyzing each chat to see if it was successful or not. We followed up the unsuccessful ones with a more detailed analysis of the questions and responses where we coded the challenges they illustrated into different categories. In this analysis we looked for communication breakdowns and used this as a basis for understanding how the chatbot worked. Examples that we considered difficult were discussed with chatbot trainers and advisors in the LWA. In the examples given below, the questions and answers are translated by us, taking care to preserve the nuances of the legal terminology and the user's original (mis)spelling.

5

Chatting with Anna

In the material we have analyzed we have found many chat logs that appear to have been successful: The user does not follow up with more questions, and our interpretation of Anna's answer indicates that it is correct and relevant. LWA's criteria for a successful answer from Anna is a "sufficient" answer, where the chatbot gives relevant and correct information as a response to the user input. Some of the chat logs indicate an unsuccessful chat session. In some obvious cases, the user leaves the chat after swearing or expressing dissatisfaction with Anna's responses, e.g., by writing "This is hopeless" before leaving. In other chats, the user does not express dissatisfaction but leaves the chat abruptly. In this section we present and discuss three examples of chat conversations that illustrate different challenges to the use of chatbots in a legal setting. We focus on lack of domain knowledge as a reason for lack of success, i.e., chat conversations where a user applies the wrong word or inconsistent terms or shows lack of knowledge about the rules and regulations. In the following three subsections, we present different chat sessions that illustrate how weak domain knowledge of the user leads to challenges in getting good answers.

Lack of key concept

In this category, the user formulates a question where the wrong terms are used. In this example the user asks a question about the amount of child benefit and writes the word "child bennefit' (translated from Norwegian with the misspelling preserved). Despite the spelling mistake, Anna recognizes that the question is about child benefits. Anna does, however, not recognize that the user asks about the amount. This user seems to understand that the first term s/he uses does not give the wanted answer and tries to rephrase the question using the term "rate". The user gets a different answer, which s/he seems to be satisfied with.

5.2

The "shape-sorting" box

In this category, Anna cannot link the user's question to the relevant services and benefits this user asks for. The result is that Anna does not recognize what the user asks for, and therefore cannot help. The question formulated by the user in this example indicates weak domain knowledge, as the user does not know what the different services and benefits are called, or who is entitled to what. We call this a problem with "the shape-sorting box": matching a citizen's life situation to the various services and benefits. The user leaves the chat without asking further questions. If this user had asked explicitly to be transferred to chat with an advisor, it would have been visible in the chat log. S/he may have changed the contact to another channel or given up without the chat log giving any indication.

A logical/legal flaw

In this category, the terms used indicate a weak understanding of the rules and regulations for LWA's benefits and services. In this chat, the user asks the question "can a young disabled person married to a foreign single mother receive child benefit and child supplement". The question contains the legally inconsistent phrase "married to a ... single mother": the rules are that if you are married you are not categorized as a single parent. Anna's response concerns benefit for single parents, which does not match the user's stated life situation. The user follows up with asking whether a "foreign single mother" can receive child benefit and child supplement. Anna does not recognize that the user expresses a legal inconsistency and responds by providing more information about the rights of single parents. Nowhere in this conversation does Anna explain that you cannot be categorized as a single mother if you are married. As the user continues to ask about benefits for single mothers, this misunderstanding is not detected, and Anna continues to answer about benefits for single mothers without explaining that the mother in question may not be eligible for such benefits. The user selects the button "I mean child benefit" and is given a response that Anna has already provided earlier in the conversation. Since Anna's reply contains the buttons "I mean child benefit" and "I mean transitional benefit", it may look as if the system recognizes the user's weak domain knowledge. However, the answers the user receives may be completely irrelevant if the mother in question actually is married. In the worst case, this user is misled by the chatbot into believing that the mother he is married to is eligible for benefits for single mothers, which she is not.

Discussion

Chatbots as a frontline in public services

Previous research about call centers has shown that the operators do more than merely answer questions about facts and information. The operators' expertise and knowledge about their work add value to their clients' inquiries [START_REF] Muller | Invisible Work of Telephone Operators: An Ethnocritical Analysis[END_REF]. Whalen et al. [START_REF] Whalen | Improvisational choreography in teleservice work[END_REF] describe operators' work by the seemingly contradictory notions of improvisation and choreography, indicating that their work routines are craft-like practices where the operator adjusts his/her response to the situation-at-hand: the actual, concrete inquiry from the client. Verne's study of call center operators in a public agency showed that operators helped callers to formulate their inquiries in the relevant and correct terms as well as providing problem-solving steps that the caller could perform to solve the problem [START_REF] Verne | Two faces of autonomy: Learning from non-users of an e-service[END_REF].

There is no creative translation capacity in a chatbot: the chatbot only compares the words given to it through the user's input and matches these to the predefined keywords -the only pre-processing done by the chatbot is spell check. The cases above show that the chatbot often does not forgive spelling errors or use of wrong words by clients. This makes the chatbot a very strict first encounter with the welfare agency for many citizens. The chatbot becomes a representative for LWA, hence the welfare state may appear rigid when it does not provide information that the citizen is not aware of that s/he should ask for.

Domain Knowledge

Our study shows different ways that the lack of domain knowledge affects the citizens conversations with the welfare state through chatbots. We have identified three types of domain knowledge that may result in unsuccessful communication with chatbots like Anna if missing.

The first type of domain knowledge is the language: the correct terms. The user in our first case misspells a (correct) term and also uses an everyday word ("amount") that Anna does not recognize. Lack of knowledge about the correct terms is a well-documented problem that goes deeper as knowledge about the correct terms often depends on knowledge about the phenomenon that the terms refer to, i.e., the rules and regulations of the public service. Our interviews with advisors confirmed that many citizens contact them using everyday language. "It is easier for them to use the chat and say 'Hi, I am new in this. And I wonder about so-and-so'. Maybe they don't know where to start. These are the people I think contact us on the chat," said one of the advisors. Another advisor confirmed this by stating that "My experience is that many people ask like 'Hi, I plan to have kids, my due date is soon, my due date will be like so-and-so. What should I take care of? How do I apply?'" The tax call advisors in Verne's study [START_REF] Verne | The winners are those who have used the old paper form. On citizens and automated public services[END_REF] recognize weak domain knowledge by wrong or inconsistent terms used by the callers. A study among immigrants in Norway showed that even if they had lived in Norway for several decades and spoke Norwegian well, the specific terms of LWA were difficult to understand and master because the terms had no equivalents in their mother tongue [START_REF] Nguyen | Innvandreres bruk av offentlige nettbaserte tjenester[END_REF]. This also holds for native Norwegians without competence in LWA's services: the advisors told that they "normally use an oral language style to make it easier to understand for the users" in the chats and that they "break the information down to make it more understandable". Another advisor told us that "it is very rare that you can use the standard answers", so the answers have to be adjusted. "I assess every chat and adjust the information not too much and not too little to the concrete chat." Moreover, the advisors emphasized that the users ask in many different ways: "There are incredibly many nuances and incredibly many ways of solving things".

The second type of domain knowledge also seems to be a language problem, but we categorize it as a "shape sorting box" problem. The user asks if s/he is eligible for a particular benefit. This problem is discussed by Verne [START_REF] Verne | The winners are those who have used the old paper form. On citizens and automated public services[END_REF]. Her study of the tax authorities' call center concluded that many of the callers asked how their particular life situation fitted with the rules -even callers with good knowledge about the rules wanted to have their interpretation of the laws and regulations confirmed from the official view of the tax authorities. This was supported by the advisors: "Very often they want a confirmation because it is complicated regulations and many nuances" and "the users contact us to make sure they have done things right". The advisors also said that "much of the information [the users ask for] you can find at the <LWA.website>, but we understand that they chat with us. Because it is a lot of information. And they have read it, but they have not really understood it properly". They also say that "The application [for benefits] has become a lot easier, but people don't stop contacting the LWA". One advisor explained that "A challenge in LWA is that things overlap a lot. There are no strict borders, parental things flow into [other topics] ... There are a lot of terminologies that are similar, but not quite the same, but almost the same: child benefit, child allowance ...". Anna is not able to answer questions about the "shape sorting box" because the chatbot only answers general questions, referring to general rules and regulations. Anna helps people find general information but cannot relate to the actual situation of a person.

The third type of domain knowledge is a misunderstanding of the rules that looks like a "shape sorting box" question. However, as the chatbot does not detect this misunderstanding, there is a danger of mis-informing the caller, who may get an unpleasant surprise if s/he has calculated with a benefit it later turns out that s/he is not entitled to. The advisors told us that "Many people do not understand what is written at <LWA.website>". Combined with what the advisors told about adjustment of their language to the individual user and the many nuances in both questions and answers, we find that the human chat offers what call centers normally do: "I answer on their level".

Implications for design

In this study, we have found several challenges in citizens' chat with Anna that suggest shifting the focus in chatbot design from a focus on the chatbot end of the interaction to taking the whole chat conversation into consideration (in line with [START_REF] Hageback | The Virtual Mind: Designing the Logic to Approximate Human Thinking[END_REF][START_REF] Brandtzaeg | Chatbots: Changing User Needs and Motivations[END_REF][START_REF] Følstad | Chatbots and the New World of HCI[END_REF]). Our analysis of the chatbot's responses to the users' questions (cf. Figure 1, [START_REF] Suchman | Human-machine Reconfigurations: Plans and Situated Actions[END_REF]) has of course made use of our (human) interpretation of the content of the questions and what they mean as well as the assumed value and appropriateness of the chatbot's answers.

Based on this analysis we suggest some implications for the design of the chatbot end of those conversations. As users' lack of domain knowledge may cause miscommunication and communication breakdowns, we encourage chatbot designers to explore the possibility of helping users gain domain knowledge, for instance by providing cues or basic domain information as part of the chatbot communication.

Our analysis indicates that users' expectations were out of step with the practical realities of chatbot capabilities, causing frustration and dissatisfaction on the user side. One reason for the high expectations may be that LWA's chatbot Anna is presented with a human name and a human-like avatar. The chatbot logs we studied contained anthropomorphic trigger responses such as "Aww, now you are making me blush" and "I understand very well what you are saying". Our analysis suggests that not all users understand that they communicate with a computer, and we suggest designing the chatbot in a way that does not try to impersonate a human, but clearly reveal its non-human qualities. Programmed trigger responses may set unrealistic expectations framing the ongoing user experience [START_REF] Maass | Uncovering the Invisible: Gender-Sensitive Analysis of Call Center Work and Software, Gender Designs IT: Construction and Deconstruction of Information Society Technologies[END_REF][START_REF] Liao | All Work and No Play? Conversations with a Questionand-Answer Chatbot in the Wild[END_REF][START_REF] Luger | Like Having a Really Bad PA: The Gulf Between User Expectation and Experience of Conversational Agents[END_REF], hence we suggest a careful approach when implementing such features.

Reflecting on the introduction of Anna, one of the advisors say that "It has been a pronounced change -there are fewer conversations on [the human] chat but I do not know if more people get help". As of today, LWA's chatbot can only be used as a nonlogged in service. However, it is possible to imagine a future were users can communicate with the chatbot as logged in users. In this case the system may have access to personal information about the users, e.g., if they are married or have children. This may affect how the chatbot system will be able to help users in their particular situations. The chatbot can, e.g., check if the marital status mentioned in the question is in line with what is registered in their databases and respond appropriately.

The fact that the chat is the first encounter with the welfare state for the citizen makes it important that the chatbot's answers are to be trusted. We saw a small sign that the trust is fragile in a chat conversation with a human, where the user asks a question and the human chat advisor recommends a form and provides the link to the form. The user responds by asking "Is the form you linked to the right one?" The advisor had to explain the reasons for recommending this particular form. Chatbot encounters that make users lose trust in the welfare state may be a serious cost of the benefits of digitalization.

Concluding remarks

In this paper we have explored how a digitalized public service in the form of a chatbot handles citizens' inquiries about family benefits. By analyzing logs from chatbot chats with citizens we have shown that chats where citizens lack domain knowledge may result in inadequate responses by the chatbot. Lack of domain knowledge is exemplified as lack of the right vocabulary, uncertainty if a regulation fits the citizen's situationthe "shape sorting box" problem, or misunderstanding the regulations. We find that the lack of adequate response from the chatbot is particularly problematic if a misunderstanding that the citizen has is not detected and addressed during the chat. Our studies of real chats with a chatbot show that the chatbot is not able to interpret and "translate" badly formed questions from citizens into the right categories for further advancement of their inquiry. We suggest making the limitations of the chatbot's capabilities more visible by presenting it as a computer rather than a human-like avatar as well as expanding its ability to explain and teach citizens relevant domain knowledge through its conversations. Lack of domain knowledge makes the user unaware of inconsistencies and limitations in the chatbot's answers.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Suchman's analytical framework for studying and analyzing human-machine interaction [39].

  My name is Anna and I am a chatbot. Anna: I am best adapted to answering short questions. Remember to include what type of benefit you are asking about. If you have a child under the age of 18 living with you in Norway, you may be entitled to child benefit.

	• Extended child benefit (button)
	• Payment (button)
	• Changes in family situation (button)
	• Apply for child benefit (button)
	User: What is the rate of the child benefit?
	Anna: Ordinary child benefit is 1054 NOK monthly
	per child.
	Anna: Extended child benefit is 1054 NOK and will
	be in addition to the child benefit you will receive for
	children living with you.
	Anna: Infant supplement is 660 NOK
	• Extended child benefit (button)
	• Infant supplement (button)
	User: Thank you, Anna J
	Anna: You are welcome!
	Conversation continues ...
	*misspelled word
	(Conversation ID: 617631 (masked code))

Anna: Anna: How can I help you? Anna: For English chat, click here (button) User: What is the child bennefit* this year? Anna: Anna: You can receive child benefit from the month after the child is born. Anna: If you are entitled to child benefit at a later point, you may receive child benefit from the month after the terms have been met. Anna: Child benefit will be paid up until the month before the child turns 18. If the right to child benefit ceases earlier than this, you will receive child benefit up until the month the terms ceases to apply. • Who is entitled to child benefit? (button)

Acknowledgements

We thank LWA Contact Center and its leader for giving us access to the chat logs and for allowing us to interview the advisors and chatbot trainers.


Sara Hofmann

Csaba Csáki

Noella Edelmann

Thomas Lampoltshammer

Ulf Melin

Peter Parycek

Gerhard Schwabe

Eds. Efthimios Tambouris

Gerhard Goos

Elisa Bertino

Wen Gao

Bernhard Steffen

Gerhard Woeginger

à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Preface

Welcome to the third joint EGOV-CeDEM-ePart 2020! The conference presents the merger of the IFIP WG 8.5 Electronic Government (EGOV), the IFIP WG 8.5 Electronic Participation (ePart), and the E-Democracy and Open Government Conference (CeDEM). The conference is a well-known international venue for exchanging ideas among researchers and also practitioners in the field of e-Government, Open Government, eParticipation, and e-Democracy, as well as the role of social media, digital transformation in society, artificial intelligence, policy information, smart governance, and social innovation. This year's preparation and execution of the conference have been heavily influenced by the COVID-19 pandemic. Originally planned to take place at Linköping University in Sweden, EGOV-CeDEM-ePart 2020 was held as a fully digital conference during August 31 -September 2. The authors recorded a short presentation of their paper beforehand so that during the conference the focus was on providing feedback, discussion, and learning from each other. While we lost some of the ad-hoc meetings and informal gatherings, we managed to have much interaction and participation.

EGOV-CeDEM-ePart 2020 attracted different types of submissions, including completed research, ongoing research, practitioner papers, reflections and viewpoints, posters, and workshops. In addition, the conference organized a PhD colloquium. EGOV-CeDEM-ePart welcomes individuals from academic and applied backgrounds as well as from business, public authorities, NGOs, NPOs, and education institutions. The submissions are distributed over the following tracks:

• The volume starts with eParticipation Developments and the case of a district authority in Hungary that decided to build an eParticipation program from scratch presented by Csaba Csáki. He unveils challenges of using digital technologies in extended democratic decision making. Joachim Åström and Martin Karlsson take on a new perspective of trust research in eParticipation. They analyze Swedish public managers' trust in citizens when collaborating with them in participation projects.

In the area of Digital Transformation, Efthimios Tambouris and Epameinondas Troulinos investigate the transformation of information systems in the jurisdiction. They explore how the governance structure of the Integrated Administrative Court Case Management System of Greece has affected the decisions regarding interoperability. Nitesh Bharosa, Silvia Lips, and Dirk Draheim analyze data exchange infrastructures, which are needed for transforming the public sector. In doing so, they compare the different approaches in The Netherlands and in Estonia. A more theoretical perspective on digital transformation is taken by Thomas Vogl. He discusses diverse perspectives to the study of technologically supported social innovation in the public sector.

Two papers deal with Open Government and Transparency. Noella Edelmann and Mary Francoli explore the connection between a government's membership in the Open Government Partnership initiative and their digital transformation. Another perspective of openness is pursued by Changwoo Suh, Byungtae Lee, Habin Lee, Youngseok Choi, and Sunghan Ryu. In their contribution, they identify what attributes of online games need to be disclosed to the market for policy makers.

Several papers in our volume consider the User Perspective. Charalampos Alexopoulos, Shefali Virkar, Michalis Avgerinos Loutsaris, Anna-Sophie Novak, and Euripidis Loukis analyze how to design effective and useful systems for the provision of legal information. In this context, they identify the legal information requirements of designers of public policies. Mariana S. Gustafsson, Elin Wihlborg, and Johanna Sefyrin consider the concept of citizenship and how it is mediated by technology. Their findings are based on a field study in Swedish libraries where they examine how citizenship is practiced in an advanced digital society. Karin Skill and Ahmed Kaharevic also consider the Swedish context. They explore digital participation and inclusion in eHealth in a marginalized neighborhood. The volume closes with a study on chatbots in public agencies. Linett Simonsen, Tina Steinstø, Guri Verne, and Tone Bratteteig present their findings from chat logs and identify different types of lack of domain knowledge.

We would like to thank all the contributors who have aided in making this year's conference a success. Our gratitude goes to the track chairs, the members of the Program Committee and the additional reviewers for their effort in preparing the conference as well as reviewing and selecting the accepted papers, and to the authors for submitting their papers. A special thanks goes to the local organizers at Linköping University for their preparation and their flexibility in these challenging times. The conference was only possible with the help and contribution from all of you.

August 2020

Sara Hofmann Csaba Csáki Noella Edelmann Thomas Lampoltshammer Ulf Melin Peter Parycek Gerhard Schwabe Efthimios Tambouris

  General e-Government & e-Governance Track • General e-Democracy & e-Participation Track • AI, Data Analytics & Automated Decision Making Track • Smart Cities (Government, Communities & Regions) Track • Social Media Track • Social Innovation Track • Open Data: Social and Technical Aspects Track • Digital Society Track • Cybersecurity Track • Legal Informatics Track • Practitioners' Track The ePart proceedings contain 11 completed research papers, which accounts for an acceptance rate of 33%. The papers are distributed among the General e-Democracy & e-Participation, Social Media, Legal Informatics, Digital Society, and Social Innovation tracks. Another 30 completed research papers are included in the LNCS EGOV proceedings (vol. 12219).

Laura Alcaide-Muñoz University of Granada, Spain Karin Axelsson Linköping University, Sweden Ana Alice Baptista University of Minho, Portugal Peter Bellström Karlstadt University, Sweden Flavia Bernardini Universidade Federal Fluminense, Brazil Lasse Berntzen University of South-Eastern Norway, Norway Radomir Bolgov Saint Petersburg State University, Russia Paul Brous Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Luiz Paulo Carvalho UFRJ, Brazil Walter Castelnovo University of Insubria, Italy Alexopoulos Charalampos University of the Aegean, Greece Youngseok Choi University of Southampton, UK Wichian Chutimaskul King Mongkut's University of Technology Thonburi, Thailand Antoine Clarinval Université de Namur, Belgium Andreiwid Sheffer Corrêa Federal Institute of São Paulo, Brazil J. Ignacio Criado Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Spain Joep Crompvoets KU Leuven, Belgium Peter Cruickshank Edinburgh Napier University, UK Jonathan Crusoe Linköping University, Sweden Csaba Csáki Corvinus University of Budapest, Hungary Frank Danielsen University of Agder, Norway Lieselot Danneels KU Leuven, Belgium Todd R. Davies Stanford University, USA Athanasios Deligiannis International Hellenic University, Greece Edna Dias Canedo Universidade de Brasília, Brazil Bettina Distel University of Münster, Germany Noella Edelmann Danube University Krems, Austria Montathar Faraon Kristianstad University, Sweden Margarita Fourer Danube University Krems, Austria Sabrina Franceschini Regione Emilia-Romagna, Italy Gangadharan G. R. IBM, India Yingying Gao Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Luz Maria Garcia Universidad de la Sierra Sur, Mexico Francisco García Morán European Commission's Joint Research Centre, Belgium Elisabeth Gebka University of Namur, Belgium J. Paul Gibson Institut Mines-Télécom, France J. Ramon Gil-Garcia University at Albany, SUNY, USA Dimitris Gouscos University of Athens, Greece Malin Granath Linköping University, Sweden Stefanos Gritzalis University of Piraeus, Greece Christine Große Mid Sweden University, Sweden Divya Kirti Gupta Indus Business Academy, India Martijn Hartog Delft University of Technology, The Netherlands Marcia Hino FGV EAESP, Brazil


Patrice Salzenstein
email: patrice.salzenstein@femto-st.fr

M Jelinek

Yanne K Chembo

M Pogurmirskiy

Hervé Tavernier

Kirill Volyanskiy

K Phan Huy

Mathieu Chauvet

Laurent Larger

V Kubecek

Michal Jelínek

Maxim Pogurmiskiy

Kien Phan Huy

Václav Kubeček

Resonance measurements techniques of optical whispering gallery mode mini-disc resonators for microwave photonics applications

Keywords: Optoelectronic, optical coupling, optical resonator, CaF 2, MgF 2, Fused silica

à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

INTRODUCTION

Optical resonators present interest to make optoelectronic oscillators and it can consist in either optical fiber delay lines, spherical or disc resonators [START_REF] Grudinin | Ultrahigh optical Q factors of crystalline resonators in the linear regime[END_REF][START_REF] Yao | High frequency optical subcarrier generator[END_REF][START_REF] Ilchenko | High-Q microsphere cavity for laser stabilization and optoelectronic microwave oscillator[END_REF][START_REF] Schliesser | Cavity Optomechanics with Whispering-Gallery Mode Optical Micro-Resonators[END_REF]. In this paper are presented some methods used for coupling from optical fiber to optical mini-resonators and resonance measurement technique. Although the aim of this work is to compare different techniques for coupling mini-resonators, we focus on tapered fiber realized in Prague or Besançon and describe limitation and results of these techniques, by presenting early results of this collaboration between both laboratories.

COUPLING PROCESS AT FEMTO-ST

Two optical disc resonators made from Fused silica and MgF 2 were used for experiments. Their diameter is in the range of 5 mm corresponding to a Free Spectral Range (FSR) in X-band around 10 GHz for 1.55 µm wavelenght. Despite the best way to couple the fiber to an optical resonator certainly consists in using a prism with a signal provided by a cut optical fiber, it was decided to use a tapered fiber method because of the smaller foot-print and of a the better coupling reproducibility. Taper is drawn with a step-by-step motor computer controlled. One can note that it is better to proceed with a symmetrical system using two motors. While fiber is heated and elongated transmission is monitored. Fig. 1 represents a view of the fiber being filed. Fiber is then fixed on a holder. On the taper, holder alloy and geometry match the thermal expansion of the glass. We proceed identically with resonators manufactured in our laboratory or in Saint-Petersburg [START_REF] Salzenstein | Compact optoelectronics oscillators using WGM modes on fused silica and MgF2 mini-disks resonators[END_REF]. In Fig. 2, we can see how the taper is positioned by a nano-positioning system in order to find the resonance modes and characterize the resonator coupled to the fiber [START_REF] Tavernier | Magnesium Fluoride Whispering Gallery Mode disk-Resonators for Microwave Photonics Applications[END_REF]. Coupling the fiber to this resonator is not obvious because of the difficulty of the alignment. Fig. 3 shows a side view during critical step of coupling the resonator to the optical fiber. In order to characterize the resonance, a signal from a 1550 nm tunable laser diode has been used. Fast digital real time 8600A-type Lecroy oscilloscope provides an analysis of the very sharp phenomena at the peak of resonance. It is necessary to use a high speed resolution oscilloscope, because we need to analyze very fast phenomena. An oscilloscope is connected to a photodiode that detects an optical signal, which is coming from the mini-disc resonator coupled to the fiber glued on the holder. The resonance peak detection corresponds to a single mode excitation. A small taper size is helpful to select a thin excitation area. The corresponding Q factor is in the range of 8.10 7 . Then coupled resonator is included into an oscillator and provides microwave oscillations stabilized to the resonator free spectral range, in the X-band region as predicted by the FSR. The delivered power is higher than 1 dBm [START_REF] Salzenstein | Optical mini-disk resonator integrated into a compact optoelectronic oscillator[END_REF][START_REF] Volyanskiy | Compact Optoelectronic Microwave Oscillators using Ultra-High Q Whispering Gallery Mode disk-Resonators and Phase Modulation[END_REF]. Such power is enough to allow characterization by optoelectronic phase noise measurements systems [START_REF] Salzenstein | Realization of a Phase Noise Measurement Bench Using Cross Correlation and Double Optical Delay Line[END_REF].

COUPLING PROCESS AT THE CZECH TECHNICAL UNIVERSITY

According means developed in the laboratory for micro-spheres [START_REF] Todorov | Preparation and characterization of optical microspheres for refractive-index sensing[END_REF], two optical disc resonators made from Fused silica and CaF2 were used for experiments. The CaF2 disc diameter is 5,5 mm and corresponds to a ~12,2 GHz (100 pm @ 1565 nm) Free Spectral Range (FSR). The Fused Silica disc diameter is 5 mm and corresponds to a ~13 GHz (10 8 pm @ 1565 nm) FSR. For the measurement a new taper (label Filip22Mar2011) was used. During the manufacturing process, a small ring (D 2 mm) accidentally appeared. This ring is clearly seen in Fig. 7 and Fig. 8. The disc was aligned as precisely as possible using red laser diode connected to the taper. Photographs of the aligned disc are shown in Fig. 7 (FS disc) and Fig. 8 (CaF 2 disc). Red light around the disc was observed, but its origin is not exactly known. The red diode is quite "largebandwidth", but probably the red light is just some scattering effect. After the precise alignment was prepared, the tunable laser diode was coupled into the fiber. When the disc was put into the contact with the taper, transmitted power drop in the order of magnitude was observed. In the transmitted power some resonance "dips" or "peaks" appear, as is described in the following sections.

FS disc :

Example of the recorded oscillogram of the transmitted power is shown in Fig. 9. When the disc was not in the contact with the taper, no such modulation was observed. In the figure can be seen the peaks, whose distance corresponds to the disc FSR. Around 60 GHz and lower the distance is little bit larger, which can be explained by the fact that the laser diode output wavelength is tuned by the current and at lower current values its dependence may not be strictly linear.

There is still a question why the peaks are observed instead of the expected dips. The situation may be interpreted as most of the power is coupled into the disc and just the resonance modes are coupled back into the fiber, but we are really not sure about this. In the next experiments the laser diode output wavelength was tuned by the temperature (using temperature controller in the range about 10° C). Repeatable shift in the spectrum was observed.

CaF 2 disc :

Example of the recorded oscillogram of the transmitted power using CaF 2 disc is shown in Fig. 15. Like in the case of FS disc, the peaks corresponding to FSR can be seen. Like in the case of FS disc, the laser diode output wavelength was tuned by the temperature (using temperature controller in the range about 10° C) and repeatable shift in the spectrum was observed. Similar spectrum was measured several times and according to the alignment, less or more peaks appear.

FIRST CONCLUSIONS

Two tapers were fabricated in Besançon, leading to first promising results for high quality factors resonators and microwaves optoelectronic oscillators. Two resonators were then also characterized in Prague. Four tapers and many experiments were performed there, but the very early results are still not as good as expected. Modulations of the tuned transmitted laser light were observed, and, resonance was found with the corresponding microwave FSR was observed.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Manufacturing of the taperered fiber. (a) and (b) respectively before and after fabrication.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Picture of the set-up to couple the light from the fiber to the disc.

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Coupling to the fiber.

  (a) and (b) shows two kind of resonators, Magnesium fluoride of Fused silica based with two different holders.

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Q = 8.10 7 .measured on a fused silica resonator.

Fig. 4

 4 Fig. 4 presents the modes measured on Fused silica mini-resonator. The resonance measurement set-up is in open loop.The corresponding Q factor is in the range of 8.10 7 . Then coupled resonator is included into an oscillator and provides microwave oscillations stabilized to the resonator free spectral range, in the X-band region as predicted by the FSR. The delivered power is higher than 1 dBm[START_REF] Salzenstein | Optical mini-disk resonator integrated into a compact optoelectronic oscillator[END_REF][START_REF] Volyanskiy | Compact Optoelectronic Microwave Oscillators using Ultra-High Q Whispering Gallery Mode disk-Resonators and Phase Modulation[END_REF]. Such power is enough to allow characterization by optoelectronic phase noise measurements systems[START_REF] Salzenstein | Realization of a Phase Noise Measurement Bench Using Cross Correlation and Double Optical Delay Line[END_REF].

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. WGM excitation in the disc -experimental setup.

  WGM modes were excited by the fiber taper. The experimental setup is schematically shown on figure5. As a laser source, the DFB telecommunication diode working at the central wavelength of 1565 nm and line-width of 3 MHz was used. Output wavelength was tuned by current change and maximal tuning range of ~1 nm was calibrated. Transmitted light through the fiber was measured by a photodiode Thorlabs FGA04 connected to the oscilloscope. The disc was aligned as precisely as possible using red laser diode connected to the taper. Photographs of the aligned disc are shown on fig.6. Red light around the disc was observed due to weak light scattering.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. The disc during alignment illuminated by the red laser diode.

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. FS disc during the alignment.

Figure 8 .

 8 Figure 8. CaF 2 disc during the alignment.

Figure 9 .

 9 Figure 9. FS disc -transmitted power during output wavelength tuning (Tek24).Detail of two (highest) peaks from Fig.9is shown in Fig.10, one single peak is shown in Fig.11. The peak width is 350 MHz corresponding to Q factor of 5.5x10 5 .

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. FS disc: detail of two peaks (Tek24).

Figure 11 .

 11 Figure 11. FS disc: detail of one single peak (Tek24). In Fig. 12, Fig. 13, and Fig. 14 are shown examples of several other tuning spectrums obtained by the alignment change of the disc and the taper.

  12. FS disc -example n.1 of transmitted power during output wavelength tuning (Tek28).

Figure 13 .

 13 Figure 13. FS disc -example n.2 of transmitted power during output wavelength tuning (Tek32).

Figure 14 .

 14 Figure 14. FS disc -example n.3 of transmitted power during output wavelength tuning (Tek43).

Figure 15 .

 15 Figure 15. FS disc -example n.3 of transmitted power during output wavelength tuning (Tek43).In Fig.16the detail of one peak is shown. The peak width is 1 GHz corresponding to Q factor of 2x10 5 .

Figure 16 .

 16 Figure 16. CaF 2 disc: detail of one single peak (Tek13).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was partly supported in France by the Agence National de la Recherche (ANR) under contract number ANR-2010-BLAN-0312-02.