Sebastien J P Lenard
email: sebastien.lenard@gmail.com

Jarrett Cruz

Christian France-Lanord

Jérôme Lavé

Brendan T Reilly

Time(Ma) V. DATA REPORT: CALCAREOUS NANNOFOSSILS AND LITHOLOGIC CONSTRAINTS ON THE AGE MODEL OF IODP SITE U1450

 and on a new continental sedimentary section in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, National Park & Tiger Reserve, Bihar, India. This manuscript consists of three introductory chapters (Chapters I-III), one methodological chapter (Chapter IV), two joint-authorship manuscripts that have been submitted to peer-reviewed international journals (Chapters V and VI), two drafts of future joint-authorship manuscripts (Chapters VII and VIII), a synthesis and conclusion (Chapter IX), and a synthesis in french (Chapter X). The data acquired during this thesis are compiled in tables at the end of the manuscript.

PLAN DE THESE

Pour approfondir le débat sur la tectonique, le climat et la dénudation, cette thèse vise à obtenir un enregistrement temporel indépendant des taux d'érosion à court terme à l'échelle orogénique et aux basses latitudes, sur la durée du Cénozoïque tardif. L'Himalaya, à la convergence des plaques indienne et eurasienne, a incarné ce débat et fera l'objet de la présente thèse, à travers des mesures géochimiques et isotopiques appliquées sur des sites sédimentaires forés en eau profonde dans la baie du Bengale (France-Lanord et al, 2016 ; Clemens et al, 2016) et sur une nouvelle section sédimentaire continentale dans la réserve naturelle protégée de Valmiki, dans l'Etat du Bihar en Inde. Ce manuscrit se compose de trois chapitres d'introduction (chapitres I à III), d'un chapitre méthodologique (chapitre IV), de deux manuscrits co-écrits et soumis à des revues internationales à comité de lecture (chapitres V et VI), de deux ébauches de futurs manuscrits co-écrits (chapitres VI et VIII), d'une synthèse et conclusion (chapitre IX) et d'une synthèse en français (chapitre X). Les données acquises durant cette thèse sont compilées dans des tableaux à la fin du manuscrit.

ABSTRACT

An intense debate animates the Earth Sciences community about the impact of the Glaciations on mountain ranges. Mountains develop their relief from the interaction of tectonics with climate through erosion. Erosion breaks rocks in the highland, and rivers and submarine gravity flows (turbidites) transfer the waste material to sedimentary basins. Erosion results from the action of rainfall, rivers or glaciers.

Studies suggest that changes in the rainfall amplitude or seasonality, and changes in the extent of glaciers have triggered a worldwide and considerable increase of erosion rates for the last millions of years.

However, this hypothesis is debated because past erosion rates are estimated with indirect approaches.

Here, I focus on the Himalaya, the iconic mountain range at the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates. There, the highests summits and the deepest valleys on Earth grow. Landslides and glacial erosion supply one of the highest sedimentary fluxes to the oceans. To determine the past erosion rates, I measured the amount of the 10 Be cosmogenic isotope accumulated in the quartz sediment. These isotopes are produced at Earth's surface by the interaction of cosmic rays with matter. Isotopes gradually accumulate in rocks close to the surface, depending on the elevation and the erosion rates. The isotopic concentration in sediment gives access to the average erosion rate of the source drainage basin. To My results yield an unprecedented insight in the variation of erosion in a mountain range over the last seven million years. They imply that average erosion rates have been steady since at least three million years in the Himalaya, despite the variations in sediment transfer or the locus of erosion, and despite intense late Cenozoic Glaciations.

RESUME

La communauté des sciences de la Terre est animée d'un intense débat sur l'impact des Glaciations sur les chaînes de montagnes. Les montagnes forment leur relief à partir des interactions entre la tectonique, le climat et l'érosion. L'érosion détruit les roches en altitude et les rivières et les écoulements gravitaires sous-marins (turbidites) en transfèrent les débris vers les bassins sédimentaires. L'érosion résulte de l'action des précipitations, des rivières ou des glaciers. Des études suggèrent que les changements dans l'amplitude ou la saisonnalité des précipitations et les changements dans l'étendue des glaciers ont provoqué une augmentation mondiale et considérable des taux d'érosion sur les derniers millions d'années. Cependant, cette hypothèse est débattue car les taux d'érosion passés sont estimés avec des approches indirectes.

Ici, je me concentre sur l'Himalaya, la chaîne de montagne par excellence située à la convergence des plaques indiennes et eurasiennes. C'est là que se développent les plus hauts sommets et les vallées les plus profondes de la Terre. Les glissements de terrain et l'érosion glaciaire fournissent l'un des flux sédimentaires les plus élevés aux océans. Pour déterminer les taux d'érosion passés, j'ai mesuré la quantité d'isotope cosmogénique 10 Be accumulée dans le sédiment de quartz. Ces isotopes sont produits à la surface de la Terre par l'interaction des rayons cosmiques avec la matière. Les isotopes s'accumulent progressivement dans les roches proches de la surface, en fonction de l'altitude et des taux d'érosion. La concentration isotopique du sédiment donne accès au taux d'érosion moyen du bassin versant à la source de celui-ci. Pour déterminer la source des sédiments et le paléoenvironnement de dépôt, j'ai effectué des mesures complémentaires sur les isotopes Sr-Nd et C-O. J'ai réalisé mes mesures sur deux sites. Le site A est constitué de turbidites sableuses sédimentées dans les fonds marins de la baie du Bengale et recueillies par les expéditions 353 et 354 du programme scientifique IODP. Le site B est constitué de molasses déposées au front de l'Himalaya, dans les collines des Siwaliks, au sein du sanctuaire animalier de Valmiki en Inde. Le site A intègre l'érosion des bassins versants du Gange et du Brahmapoutre, couvrant l'Himalaya central et oriental. Le site B intègre l'érosion du bassin Narayani-Gandak, qui couvre le centre du Népal.

Mes résultats donnent un aperçu sans précédent de la variation de l'érosion dans une chaîne de montagnes au cours des sept derniers millions d'années. Ils impliquent que les taux d'érosion moyens sont stables depuis au moins trois millions d'années dans l'Himalaya, malgré les variations dans le transfert sédimentaire ou sur le lieu de l'érosion, et malgré les glaciations intenses de Figure II-33. 10 Be erosion rates in Asian foreland basins since 8 Ma. Figure In-situ denudation rates 2-0 Myr ago / denudation rates 6-4 Myr ago for the Himalaya. Figure VIII-82. 10 Be paleoconcentration and erosion rates.

TABLES

Tables SII Tables SVI Table SVI-1. Sample information, dating, 10 Be and Sr-Nd isotopic results.

Table SVI-2. 10 Be duplicate results.

Table SVI-3. 10 Be blanks Table Major and trace element results.

Table . Chemical analyses of river sediment.

Table Sr-Nd and 10Be data from river sediment used for the f G and K(t) computation.

Tables SVII Table SVII-1. Paleomagnetism results.

Table Clayey to fine sand sample information, magnetostratigraphic correlation results.

Table Medium to coarse sandy samples information, oxygen-carbon isotope, major and trace elements results.

Table Clayey to fine sand bulk carbonate oxygen -carbon isotopic results.

Tables SVIII

Table SVIII-1. Sample information, dating, 10 Be, Sr-Nd isotopic results.

Table SVIII-2. 10 Be results for duplicate samples.

Table SVIII-3. 10 Be blanks.

Table Parameters used for the flood plain transfer model.

Table SVIII-5. 10 Be contribution in the flood plain calculated using the transfer flood plain model for the Narayani river.

Table Major and trace elements results on the feldspar fraction.

Table . Feldspar fraction 36 Cl results.

Table Recent exposure computation with 36 Cl results.

Table Recent exposure model.

X.1. CONTEXTE X.1.1. Changement climate et estimation des taux d'érosion

Les décennies précédentes de recherche ont vu l'émergence d'un intense débat sur les interactions entre la tectonique et le climat au travers de la dénudation. Une question clé et sans réponse est de savoir si le changement climatique a un impact sur les taux d'érosion et affecte le développement des chaînes de montagnes indépendamment de leur configuration tectonique. Et l'un des principaux problèmes pour répondre à cette question est que les taux d'érosion passés ne peuvent être déterminés que par des approches indirectes. Un nombre significatif d'études montre une augmentation globale et considérable des taux d'érosion au cours du Cénozoïque tardif (p. ex. [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]. Cette augmentation apparente est synchrone avec un changement climatique global caractérisé par une aridification et l'émergence des cycles glaciaires/interglaciaires avec les glaciations de l'hémisphère nord.

Cette augmentation apparente touche plusieurs chaînes de montagnes de façon indiscriminée. Ainsi, le lien entre le changement climatique et cette augmentation apparente des taux d'érosion devrait être évident.

Mais les approches utilisées pour déterminer les taux d'érosion requièrent des hypothèses fortes qui n'ont pas été régulièrement vérifiées. Les bilans sédimentaires ou les taux d'accumulation dépendent des contraintes de datation individuelles de chaque site. Mais ces contraintes de datation sont difficiles à acquérir, en particulier dans les séries continentales grossières du Pléistocène. Dans ce cas, les travailleurs sont tentés de corréler temporellement les couches de chaque site les unes aux autres à l'aide de leurs caractéristiques sédimentaires (les faciès). Mais ces faciès sédimentaires, plutôt que de varier en fonction du climat, varient en fonction de la distance au front de propagation du gravier (Dubille et Lavé, 2015) ou en fonction de l'errance du lit de la rivière, qui sont des paramètres locaux. Les travaux de Charreau et al (2009) contredisent les résultats de Zhang et al (2001) en Asie centrale en montrant que les formations grossières du front du Tianshan sont diachrones et illustrent cette situation. Les bilans sédimentaires dépendent également de la résolution spatio-temporelle des sites de forage. Un bilan sédimentaire réalisé sur les sédiments glaciogènes déposés sur la marge norvégienne qui a été largement explorée (Dowdeswell et al., 2010) a plus de valeur qu'un bilan sédimentaire réalisé dans la baie du Bengale qui possède peu de données en eau profonde [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF]Clift et Gaedicke, 2002;[START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016).

La thermochronométrie in situ repose sur l'hypothèse forte que le géotherme a une configuration simple et moyennée régionalement, classiquement selon une seule dimension (par exemple, [START_REF] Fox | A linear inversion method to infer exhumation rates in space and time from thermochronometric data[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]. Mais le champ thermique dans les chaînes de montagnes actives est tout sauf simple. Des variations latérales se produisent avec l'advection horizontale [START_REF] Whipp | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 2. Thermokinematic and thermochronometer age prediction model[END_REF]Herman et al., 2010a;[START_REF] Van Der Beek | Inversion of thermochronological ageelevation profiles to extract independent estimates of denudation and relief history -II: Application to the French Western Alps[END_REF]. Des variations spatiales se produisent avec le flux thermique hydrothermal (Copeland et al., 1991 ;Derry et al., 2009) et le flux d'eau souterraine provoqué par le relief de haute montagne (Whipp et Ehlers, 2007). Le géotherme peut être instable dans le temps et différent selon thermochronomètres appliqués sur le même échantillon. Le risque est de combiner des données provenant d'échantillons distincts et de thermochronomètres distincts qui ne présentent pas la même histoire de dénudation [START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF].

X.1.2. Hypothèses associées à l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques terrestres

Dans cette thèse, nous avons démontré que l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques terrestres pour estimer les taux moyens d'érosion dans un bassin versant requiert des hypothèses qui pourraient être plus facilement vérifiées que pour les autres approches, du moins dans l'Himalaya. Alors que le flux cosmique est resté stable depuis 10 Ma [START_REF] Leya | The production of cosmogenic nuclides in stony meteoroids by galactic cosmic-ray particles[END_REF], nous montrons que les fluctuations du dipôle géomagnétique influencent les taux de production cosmogénique dans une marge de 20%. L'altitude passée du bassin versant peut être estimée à l'aide des isotopes de l'oxygène et est probablement restée stable dans le centre de l'Himalaya depuis 10 Ma (Garzione et al., 2000 ;[START_REF] Gébelin | The Miocene elevation of Mount Everest[END_REF]. L'exposition récente des échantillons aux rayons cosmiques peut être évaluée à l'aide d'un couple d'isotopes cosmogéniques de demi-vies distinctes. Comme précédemment démontré [START_REF] Lauer | Steady state reachscale theory for radioactive tracer concentration in a simple channel/floodplain system[END_REF], l'exposition pendant le transfert des sédiments dans la plaine inondable peut être déterminée au moyen d'un modèle de transfert. Le recyclage affecte les concentrations des isotopes cosmogéniques parce que les échantillons ont conservé une histoire d'érosion plus ancienne. Ce recyclage peut être évalué à l'aide des éléments majeurs. La géométrie du bassin détermine l'altitude moyenne qui affecte le calcul des taux moyens de production. La stabilité de cette géométrie peut être estimée par une analyse de provenance à l'aide des isotopes du strontium et du néodyme.

X.2. RESULTATS

Dans ce contexte, l'objectif de cette thèse était d'obtenir un enregistrement temporel des taux d'érosion dans l'Himalaya, qui soit indépendant des autres méthodes. Cet objectif est atteint grâce à deux nouveaux enregistrements.

X.2.1. L'enregistrement du cône du Bengale

Le premier enregistrement consiste en une série de 28 concentrations en 10 Be extraites du sable quartzeux du cône du Bengale et intègre l'érosion sur des échelles de temps de 1 à 10 ka dans le bassin versant du Gange-Brahmapoutre depuis 6,2 Ma, avec une haute résolution depuis le dernier million d'années (Chapitre VI). L'acquisition de concentrations à partir de ces anciens échantillons dans les sédiments marins a été possible grâce à l'abondance de sable dans les turbidites du cône du Bengale. Pour mieux déterminer les séries temporelles, nous fournissons de nouvelles contraintes sur des nanofossiles ainsi qu'un nouveau modèle d'âge pour le site U1450 foré par l'expédition IODP 354 (chapitre V).

Nous complétons nos concentrations par une analyse de provenance basée sur les isotopes Sr-Nd mesurés sur les échantillons de sable en vrac. Cette analyse tire parti des signatures isotopiques distinctes

Les résultats de notre étude sur le δ 13 C pourraient permettre d'établir de nouvelles contraintes temporelles précises sur la transition vers une domination des plantes C 4 dans les plaines de l'Himalaya central. Ces nouvelles contraintes montreraient que le changement se produit de manière synchrone dans l'Himalaya central et occidental (nos résultats ; [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Vögeli et al., 2017a). De plus, ils fourniraient la première preuve jamais dévoilée d'un retour à une végétation mixte en C 3 et C 4 à l'aube des glaciations de l'hémisphère nord. Nos résultats sur le δ 18 O détectent qu'au moins la partie inférieure des sections Valmiki est affectée par la diagenèse précoce. Pour la partie supérieure, ils montreraient une aridification et/ou une augmentation de la saisonnalité au cours de la période, en dépit des glaciations de l'hémisphère nord, et contrairement à l'Himalaya occidental [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]. Ces résultats impliqueraient que l'intensité de la mousson sud-asiatique a varié au Cénozoïque tardif, avec un affaiblissement initial et un renforcement partiel ultérieur à l'aube des glaciations de l'hémisphère nord. Pour être validées, ces interprétations sur les signaux du δ 13 C et du δ 18 O demandent une analyse pétrographique approfondie des échantillons.

Notre analyse de provenance Sr-Nd combinée à nos concentrations en 10 Be implique que le bassin versant de la Narayani-Gandak demeure stable de

I. INTRODUCTION I.1. EARLY WORK

Tectonics and climate operate the processes at the origin of the Earth's surface modelling and controlled the dispersion and evolution of life before the advent of human beings on Earth. The interest in the role of climate emerged in the 19th century, with the early studies about glacial erosion [START_REF] Agassiz | Etudes sur les glaciers[END_REF], chemical and biological weathering [START_REF] Ebelmen | Sur les produits de la décomposition des espèces minérales de la famille des silicates[END_REF]Branner, 1896) and the decisive evidence that CO 2 can impact the atmospheric temperatures through the greenhouse effect [START_REF] Arrhenius | On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground[END_REF]. With the link between climate, weathering and erosion established at the turn of the 20th century [START_REF] Chamberlin | An attempt to frame a working hypothesis of the cause of glacial periods on an atmospheric basis[END_REF], geomorphologists (e.g. [START_REF] Davis | The Geographical Cycle[END_REF][START_REF] Penck | Morphological analysis of landforms[END_REF] developed landscape evolution models mainly focused on the interactions between these factors, with a role of tectonics that remained not fully appraised and limited to the brief and occasional supply of an initial elevated topography (e.g. [START_REF] Dana | On some Results of the Earth's Contraction from cooling, including a discussion of the Origin of Mountains, and the nature of the Earth's Interior[END_REF]Suess, 1883Suess, -1908)). Deep Sea Drilling Project (1968[START_REF] Tipper | Rates of sedimentation, and stratigraphical completeness[END_REF]), Ocean Drilling Program (1985-2003 and International Ocean Drilling.

I.2. DISCOVERIES FROM THE OCEAN FLOOR EXPLORATION

However, since the 1950s onwards, the thorough exploration of the oceans (Figure I-1) has completely reshaped the field of Earth Sciences. The exploration was performed through international expeditions, the most important being part of the Deep Sea Drilling Program, DSDP, and its successors the Ocean Drilling Project, ODP and the International Ocean Drilling Project, IODP. This work has led to a worldwide collection of geophysical surveys, drilled bedrock and sedimentary cores, geochemical and isotopic analyses. The systematic survey led rapidly to the revolutionary discovery of sea-floor spreading (e.g. [START_REF] Dietz | Continent and ocean basin evolution by spreading of the sea floor[END_REF], considered as a concrete evidence of the precursory hypothesis of plate tectonics by [START_REF] Wegener | Die entstehung der kontinente[END_REF]. The older fixist ideas about mountain building (e.g. [START_REF] Dana | On some Results of the Earth's Contraction from cooling, including a discussion of the Origin of Mountains, and the nature of the Earth's Interior[END_REF]Suess, 1883Suess, -1908) ) progressively let place to the model of a planet where deep earth processes impact the Earth's surface, with continents drifting over time and tectonics interacting with erosion over long periods.

The analysis of the marine sedimentary record led to additional and fundamental discoveries. The Global compilation of δ 13 C and δ 18 O extracted from benthic foraminifera, corrected to Cibicidoidesequivalent values (‰ VPDB). The global best fit trend is presented in black and separate fits for each ocean are in colours. The Indian Ocean is not included. (modified from [START_REF] Cramer | Ocean overturning since the Late Cretaceous: Inferences from a new benthic foraminiferal isotope compilation[END_REF].

isotopic results present unexpectedly large and global variations. The stable isotopes of O highlight that the climate of the Earth has passed through alternating phases of warming and cooling for a long time, and has been subject to a long phase of cooling since 50 Ma (δ 18 O applied on benthic foraminifera, early studies of [START_REF] Shackleton | Late Cenozoic oxygen and carbon isotopic changes at DSDP Site 284: Implications for glacial history of the Northern Hemisphere and Antarctica[END_REF]1984;global compilations by Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992;[START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF][START_REF] Hansen | Target atmospheric CO2: Where should humanity aim?[END_REF][START_REF] Cramer | Ocean overturning since the Late Cretaceous: Inferences from a new benthic foraminiferal isotope compilation[END_REF][START_REF] Mudelsee | Cenozoic climate changes: A review based on time series analysis of marine benthic δ18O records[END_REF] with an acceleration in the late Cenozoic, from 8 millions of years (Ma) to modern times, and the formation of large ice-sheets in the Northern Hemisphere. In parallel, the strontium (Sr) radiogenic isotopes have similarly presented a long increasing trend since 40 Ma, which might be interpreted as an acceleration of silicate chemical weathering, or a shift in weathered sources [START_REF] Koepnick | Construction of the seawater 87Sr86Sr curve for the cenozoic and cretaceous: Supporting data[END_REF][START_REF] Richter | Large-scale development of the mid-Norwegian margin during the last 3 million years[END_REF], or in shift the Sr isotopic composition of the source (modern times [START_REF] Edmond | Himalayan Tectonics, Weathering Processes, and the Strontium Isotope Record in Marine Limestones[END_REF]; Neogene times: [START_REF] Derry | Neogene growth of the sedimentary organic carbon reservoir[END_REF]. This increase in chemical weathering rates could have been triggered by a global acceleration of erosion, as suggested by compilations of detrital sediment accumulation rates since 35 , with a 3 to 4-fold increase for the late Cenozoic [START_REF] Davies | Estimates of Cenozoic Oceanic Sedimentation Rates[END_REF]Hay et al., 1988b;[START_REF] Olson | Variation of ocean sediment thickness with crustal age[END_REF].

I.3. THE "TECTONICS, CLIMATE AND DENUDATION" DEBATE

On the basis of these discoveries, Raymo and Ruddiman (1992) and [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF] laid the foundations for the present debate upon the interactions between tectonics, climate and denudation (review e.g. in [START_REF] Champagnac | Late-Cenozoic relief evolution under evolving climate: A review[END_REF]. [START_REF] Raymo | Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles[END_REF], [START_REF] Raymo | Geochemical evidence supporting TC Chamberlin's theory of glaciation[END_REF] and [START_REF] Raymo | Geochemical evidence supporting TC Chamberlin's theory of glaciation[END_REF]Ruddiman (1992a, 1992b) advanced that uplift of mountain ranges could have triggered climate cooling through the consumption of CO 2 by silicate chemical weathering, supposedly favoured by enhanced erosion due to relief increase. Their hypothesis was given even more weight with the findings that mountain uplift also favoured carbon burial [START_REF] Derry | Neogene growth of the sedimentary organic carbon reservoir[END_REF][START_REF] France-Lanord | Organic carbon burial forcing of the carbon cycle from Himalayan erosion[END_REF][START_REF] Galy | Efficient organic carbon burial in the Bengal fan sustained by the Himalayan erosional system[END_REF], because of erosion and rapid burial in anoxic conditions.

In contrast, [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF] revive the hypothesis of [START_REF] Donnelly | Worldwide continental denudation and climatic deterioration during the late Tertiary: Evidence from deep-sea sediments[END_REF] and dispute the premise of Raymo and Ruddiman (1992) by proposing that climate cooling was the primary driver of accelerated erosion. They advance as a cause that glacial processes should be more efficient to erode rocks than fluvial processes. Accelerated erosion would have led in turn to the uplift of mountain peaks and increase in relief. The two positions led to an explosion of studies about the potential links between climate, tectonics and erosion. The debate culminated for the late Cenozoic, with the revealed contradiction between evidences of the drop of greenhouse gases [START_REF] Lüthi | High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000-800,000 years before present[END_REF][START_REF] Beerling | Convergent Cenozoic CO2 history[END_REF][START_REF] Foster | Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years[END_REF], evidences for climate cooling and ice-sheet development [START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF][START_REF] Lisiecki | A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records[END_REF][START_REF] Hansen | Target atmospheric CO2: Where should humanity aim?[END_REF], evidences of a global and substantial acceleration of erosion [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF], all of them apparently opposing to evidences of stable silicate chemical weathering rates [START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF][START_REF] Misra | Lithium Isotope History of Cenozoic Seawater: Changes in Silicate Weathering and Reverse Weathering[END_REF]. Accumulation rates are presented in function of the age of the underlying oceanic crust, with 1 Myr age-bin means and standard deviations. The data are compared with two models: a steady-state accumulation model considers an accumulation rate depending on ocean crust age and uniform in time;

a time-dependent model considers an accumulation rate depending on time and uniform in space (from [START_REF] Olson | Variation of ocean sediment thickness with crustal age[END_REF]; including data compiled by Hay et al., 1988).

I.4. THIS THESIS

To further investigate the debate about tectonics, climate and denudation, this thesis aims to obtain an independent temporal record of short-term erosion rates at the orogen-scale and at low-latitudes over the late Cenozoic time span. The Himalaya, at the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates, has epitomized this debate and will be the object of the present thesis, through geochemical and isotopic measurements applied on deep sea sedimentary sites drilled in the Bengal Bay (France-Lanord et al., 2016a;[START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF] ) is a fold-and-thrust belt that has developed since the collision at the early Cenozoic between the Indian and Eurasian plates [START_REF] Patriat | India-Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates[END_REF][START_REF] Meng | India-Asia collision was at 24 N and 50 Ma: palaeomagnetic proof from southernmost Asia[END_REF][START_REF] Decelles | Paleocene-Eocene foreland basin evolution in the Himalaya of southern Tibet and Nepal: Implications for the age of initial India-Asia collision[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | Direct stratigraphic dating of India-Asia collision onset at the Selandian (middle Paleocene, 59 ± 1 Ma)[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | The timing of India-Asia collision onset-Facts, theories, controversies[END_REF]. The Himalaya forms an NW-SE trending 2,400 km-long and 300-400 km-wide arc, with two corners termed western and eastern syntaxes, and is classically divided in subparallel elongated physiographic and geologic units potentially homogeneous along strike [START_REF] Gansser | Geology of the Himalayas[END_REF]Le Fort, 1986; syntheses of [START_REF] Hodges | Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives[END_REF]Goscombe et al., 2006;[START_REF] Decelles | Alongstrike continuity of structure, stratigraphy, and kinematic history in the Himalayan thrust belt: The view from Northeastern India[END_REF]review in Valdiya, 2015;[START_REF] Garzanti | The Himalayan Foreland Basin from collision onset to the present: a sedimentary-petrology perspective[END_REF].

At the south of the Himalaya (Figure lies the foreland sedimentary basin, consisting in the Ganga and Brahmaputra floodplains (avg. < 120 m.a.s.l.). The floodplains extend to the Bengal delta (avg.

< 20 m.a.s.l.), with the sedimentary system continuing in the Indian Ocean, through the submarine delta on the Bengal shelf to the turbiditic Bengal Fan (e.g. [START_REF] Curray | The Bengal Fan: morphology, geometry, stratigraphy, history and processes[END_REF]. The Neogene cover of the foreland basin has been exhumed and folded at the front of the Himalaya, in the Siwalik hills (avg.

Figure II-4. Geography of the Himalayan region.

Previous page.

The limits of the Ganga-Brahmaputra catchment are indicated in red. The Exp. 354 sites analyzed in this thesis and the new Siwalik section (Valmiki) along with a published Siwalik section (Surai) are indicated. Sediment thickness (compilation of [START_REF] Dasgupta | Seismotectonic atlas of India and its environs[END_REF][START_REF] Radhakrishna | Thin oceanic crust below Bay of Bengal inferred from 3-D gravity interpretation[END_REF] including data of [START_REF] Curray | Possible greenschist metamorphism at the base of a 22-km sedimentary section, Bay of Bengal[END_REF] have poor resolution along the eastern coast of India and in the Nicobar Fan. Modern glaciers compiled in [START_REF] Armstrong | GLIMS glacier database[END_REF]Raup et al., 2007. Asian South Lambert Conformal conic projection.

500 m.a.s.l.), bound to the south by the Main Frontal Thrust (e.g. [START_REF] Mugnier | The Siwaliks of western Nepal: I. Geometry and kinematics[END_REF][START_REF] Lavé | Active folding of fluvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF]. The Cenozoic cover of the southeastern flank of the basin has also been exhumed in the Indo-Burman fold-belt (avg. 1,300 m.a.s.l., with high relief; e.g. Maurin and Rangin, 2009), along with Mesozoic marine sediments and ophiolitic assemblages [START_REF] Mitchell | Cretaceous-Cenozoic tectonic events in the western Myanmar (Burma)-Assam region[END_REF][START_REF] Allen | Provenance of the Tertiary sedimentary rocks of the Indo-Burman Ranges, Burma (Myanmar): Burman arc or Himalayanderived?[END_REF], in the continuity of the Sunda subduction Trench. Remnants of the Cretaceous traps and Indian Precambrian craton (< 1,000 m.a.s.l.) rise at the southern limits of the Ganga floodplain and along the Brahmaputra (the Shillong or Meghalaya plateau, avg. 1,300 m.a.s.l., and the Mikir hills).

Separated from the Siwaliks by the Main Boundary Thrust [START_REF] Gansser | Geology of the Himalayas[END_REF][START_REF] Meigs | Middle-late Miocene (> 10 Ma) formation of the Main Boundary thrust in the western Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Decelles | Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal[END_REF], rises the Lesser Himalaya (avg. 2,000 m). The Lesser Himalaya consist of low-to medium-grade metasediments, mainly of Precambrian age and with an inverted metamorphic gradient, with occasional crystalline or sedimentary nappes of lithologically similar to the High Himalaya and the Tethyan unit respectively (e.g. Célérier et al., 2009;Yu et al., 2015).

Separated from the Lesser Himalaya by the Main Central Thrust (e.g., [START_REF] Gansser | Geology of the Himalayas[END_REF][START_REF] Fort | Himalayas: the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc[END_REF] rises from 3,000 m to more than 8,000 m.a.s.l. the High Himalaya, also coined Greater Himalaya, with avg.

elevation > 6,000 m.a.s.l. and relief occasionally > 5,000 m. The High Himalaya consists in medium to high-grade metasedimentary and meta-igneous rocks, with an inverted metamorphic gradient, intruded by synorogenic leucogranites [START_REF] Fort | Crustal generation of the Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF].

Separated from the High Himalaya by the South Tibetan Detachment [START_REF] Burg | Deformation of leucogranites of the crystalline Main Central Sheet in southern Tibet (China)[END_REF][START_REF] Burchfiel | The South Tibetan detachment system, Himalayan orogen: Extension contemporaneous with and parallel to shortening in a collision mountain belt., in: The South Tibetan Detachment System, Himalayan Orogen: Extension Contemporaneous with and Parallel to Shortening in a Collision Mountain Belt[END_REF][START_REF] Searle | Shisha Pangma Leucogranite, South Tibetan Himalaya: Field Relations, Geochemistry, Age, Origin, and Emplacement[END_REF] the Tethyan formations partly cover the north of the high range, with a relief similar to the High Himalaya, and the south of the Tibetan plateau, with avg. elevation northwards progressively decreasing to 4,500 m. The Tethyan unit consists in the Precambrian to Eocene low-grade metasedimentary succession deposited at the north of the Indian margin, and occasionally contains granitoid intrusions or older crystalline rocks.

Separated from the Tethyan realm by the ophiolitic suture, an assemblage of sediments and ophiolitic complexes, the Transhimalayan formations extend northwards on the Tibetan plateau, and are derived from the magmatic arcs linked to the Cretaceous to Paleocene subduction of the Neotethys.

II.1.2. Precipitations and hydrography

Asia is subject to two seasonal monsoons, the South Asian monsoon and the East Asian monsoon (review in [START_REF] Wang | The Asian Monsoon[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Orographic Controls on Climate and Paleoclimate of Asia: Thermal and Mechanical Roles for the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF], which produce a contrast between dry winter and wet late spring/summer seasons. The South Asian monsoon, which includes the regional Indian monsoon, results from the cross equatorial heat transfer between the Southern Hemisphere, dominated in the region by the Indian Ocean and the Northern Hemisphere partly covered by the Asian continent. This heat transfer is partly controlled by the orographic effect of the Himalayan range (modelling of Boos andKuang, 2010, 2013; discussion in [START_REF] Molnar | Orographic Controls on Climate and Paleoclimate of Asia: Thermal and Mechanical Roles for the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF].

At the time of the debate between Raymo and Molnar, Asian monsoons were supposed to have appeared or strengthened in the late Cenozoic [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF] but they revealed to be as old as ca. 24

Ma [START_REF] Clift | Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity[END_REF][START_REF] Clift | Reconstructing chemical weathering, physical erosion and monsoon intensity since 25 Ma in the northern South China Sea: A review of competing proxies[END_REF][START_REF] Clift | A history of the Asian monsoon and its interactions with solid Earth tectonics in Cenozoic South Asia[END_REF], potentially dating back to ca. 34 Ma [START_REF] Licht | Asian monsoons in a late Eocene greenhouse world[END_REF][START_REF] Gupta | Evolution of the South Asian monsoon wind system since the late Middle Miocene[END_REF] or earlier [START_REF] Caves | Role of the westerlies in Central Asia climate over the Cenozoic[END_REF][START_REF] Caves Rugenstein | The evolution of hydroclimate in Asia over the Cenozoic: A stable-isotope perspective[END_REF].

The Himalaya receives heavy precipitations , mainly (80%) during the monsoon (Bookhagen et al., 2006a(Bookhagen et al., , 2006b;;[START_REF] Bookhagen | Toward a complete Himalayan hydrological budget: Spatiotemporal distribution of snowmelt and rainfall and their impact on river discharge[END_REF]Anderman et al., 2011). In Nepal, precipitations according to rain gauge stations vary from 150 mm/yr to 4,700 mm/yr, with the majority of reported stations being in valleys and receiving 1,000-2,000 mm/yr (Anderman et al., 2011). A strong contrast exists between the wet southern flank and the drier areas in the rain shadow of the higher summits, such as the Mustang area, and the Tibetan plateau (450 mm/yr in Lhasa). Similar observations can be made for the eastern Himalaya which is probably subject to precipitations more intense than the Central Himalaya (Bookhagen et al., 2006a(Bookhagen et al., , 2006b)).

The Himalayan hydrographic network (Figure organizes around three main rivers, from west to east, the Indus, the Ganga, and the Brahmaputra, the two latter joining into the Lower Meghna in the Bengal delta plain. Several significant transversal Himalayan tributaries join the network, among them the Karnali-Ghaghara, the Narayani-Gandak and the Arun-Kosi, as well as cratonic tributaries, the Chambal and the Son. The majority of the river discharge occurs during the monsoonal season. Marked differences The map is interpolated from gauge station annual data of the Aphrodite Network. The swath profile presents for central Nepal the annual precipitations interpolated from different datasets, along with topography. Minimum-maximum are represented by shaded curves. Gauged data are plotted with an error-bar corresponding to the 30 yrs maxima and minima (modified from [START_REF] Andermann | Evaluation of precipitation data sets along the Himalayan front[END_REF].

exist between the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The rivers present distinct morphologies (meandering Ganga vs braided Brahmaputra), which characterizes a different capacity to transport sediments, indicated by the Brahmaputra discharge double of the Ganga one [START_REF] Grdc | Freshwater Flux from the Continents into the World Oceans based on the Data of the Global Runoff Data Base[END_REF], quotation of Lupker, 2011) and a floodplain 5 times smaller than the Ganga one. Suspended sediment flux present variability, but are potentially of comparable order,  500 -600 Mt/yr (1966[START_REF] Martini | Standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous nannoplankton zonation[END_REF]measurements, RSP, 1996, quotation of Lupker, 2011).

II.1.3. Glaciations

The Himalayan glaciers (Figure presently cover 2% of the Lower Meghna drainage basin and 5% of the Himalayan part of the catchment (including the eastern syntaxis, Figure . The Himalayan glaciers might have increased their extent to 20% of the mountain range during the Last Glacial Maximum [START_REF] Shi | Characteristics of late Quaternary monsoonal glaciation on the Tibetan Plateau and in East Asia[END_REF]. The hypothesis of an extensive ice-sheet during the last 500 ka was proposed by Kuhle (e.g. Kuhle, 1995;[START_REF] Kuhle | The High Glacial (Last Ice Age and Last Glacial Maximum) Ice Cover of High and Central Asia, with a Critical Review of Some Recent OSL and TCN Dates[END_REF] but contradicted by geochronologic constraints (e.g. [START_REF] Lehmkuhl | Late Quaternary glacial history of northeast Tibet[END_REF]review in Owen and Dortch, 2014). According to Owen and Dortch, 2014's review, in the central and eastern range, including the SE Tibetan plateau, maritime glaciers are dominantly fed by monsoons and have a warm-based sole, whereas in the western range, continental glaciers are fed by monsoons and rainfalls caused by westerlies and have a mix-based sole. Accumulation is favoured by frequent snow avalanches during the summer and a protecting debris cover originated from tectonics, which varies according to locations.

In their review, [START_REF] Owen | Nature and timing of Quaternary glaciation in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen[END_REF] exposed that the Himalaya were subject to alternate phases of increases and decreases of ice extent during the Quaternary, although there is no direct evidence before 300-400 ka. Evidences consist in the identification and dating of moraines, using 14 C, OSL and cosmogenic nuclides. Moraine identification is not straightforward, because of a possible confusion with landslides or rock avalanches [START_REF] Hewitt | Quaternary moraines vs catastrophic rock avalanches in the Karakoram Himalaya, northern Pakistan[END_REF]. Additionally, in the central and eastern Himalaya, intense rainfall combined with tectonics rapidly erases the older moraines.

There is some debate whether glacial advances were synchronous or not across the orogen during the last glacial cycle, i.e. since 120 ka, particularly between the drier western part and the wetter central and eastern part (e.g. [START_REF] Owen | Nature and timing of Quaternary glaciation in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen[END_REF].

II.2. TECTONICS VIEWED BY THERMOCHRONOMETRY

The Himalayan tectonic structures were described by the early works of [START_REF] Gansser | Geology of the Himalayas[END_REF] and Le [START_REF] Fort | Himalayas: the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc[END_REF].

A definition of tectonics could cover all processes of deformation and transfer of energy that affect the crustal rocks (e.g. [START_REF] Burbank | Tectonic Geomorphology[END_REF]. At the Earth's surface, the most common type of deformation is brittle deformation, when rocks fracture and eventually slip along faults, resulting in earthquakes, the majority of them being small, and a minority being of large magnitude (e.g. 2008s

Wenchuan earthquake, Sichuan, China, moment magnitude M w 7.9, [START_REF] Parker | Mass wasting triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake is greater than orogenic growth[END_REF]2015s Gorkha earthquake, Nepal, M w 7.8, Elliott et al., 2016). At greater depths, because of pressure and temperature, rocks deform by sliding in a ductile way, without producing significant fractures.

II.2.1. Tectonic drivers and elevation change

Tectonics find energy from the deep Earth's mechanisms, through the coupling of mantle convection and plate motion. Plate subduction and collision form mountain ranges by elevating topography and increasing relief. In turn, topography and relief are secondary drivers for tectonics, as they redistribute crustal masses over a region and alter the stress field with gravity (e.g. [START_REF] Molnar | Some simple physical aspects of the support, structure, and evolution of mountain belts[END_REF][START_REF] Beaumont | Erosional control of active compressional orogens[END_REF][START_REF] Avouac | Erosion as a driving mechanism of intracontinental mountain growth[END_REF][START_REF] Willett | Thermo-Mechanical Models of Convergent Orogenesis: Thermal and Rheologic Dependence of Crustal Deformation[END_REF].

At the Earth's surface, erosion and climate can load and unload the crust by large bodies of matter, and act as complementary drivers of deformation. Erosion and sedimentation, by the removal of rocks from elevated area and their accumulation in basins alter the stress field [START_REF] Willett | Mechanical model for the tectonics of doubly vergent compressional orogens[END_REF][START_REF] Beaumont | Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation[END_REF][START_REF] Calais | Triggering of New Madrid seismicity by late-Pleistocene erosion[END_REF] with among others, some regional isostatic effects. Climate also impacts the state of stress by the regular redistribution of water [START_REF] Bettinelli | Seasonal variations of seismicity and geodetic strain in the Himalaya induced by surface hydrology[END_REF][START_REF] Bollinger | Hydrological triggering of the seismicity around a salt diapir in Castellane, France[END_REF] and ice masses [START_REF] Hampel | Postglacial slip-rate increase on the Teton normal fault, northern Basin and Range Province, caused by melting of the Yellowstone ice cap and deglaciation of the Teton Range?[END_REF][START_REF] Doser | A seismotectonic study of the Southeastern Alaska Region[END_REF].

Independently of its drivers, tectonics act as the primary control of the Earth's topography.

Earthquakes have a direct impact on elevation through uplift or subsidence, e.g. for the 2015s Nepalese Gorkha earthquake [START_REF] Elliott | Himalayan megathrust geometry and relation to topography revealed by the Gorkha earthquake[END_REF]. In parallel, earthquakes heavily fracture rocks and precondition them to their removal by co-or postseismic landslides (Molnar et al., 2007, Clarke andBurbank, 2011).

Landslides may fully compensate the elevation gain of earthquakes, e.g. for the 2008s Wenchuan earthquake [START_REF] Parker | Mass wasting triggered by the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake is greater than orogenic growth[END_REF], but this question remains debated [START_REF] Molnar | Isostasy can't be ignored[END_REF][START_REF] Densmore | Reply to "Isostasy can't be ignored[END_REF] modelling in [START_REF] Marc | The mass balance of earthquakes and earthquake sequences[END_REF].

II.2.2. Evolution of tectonics in the Himalaya

The spatial and temporal evolution of tectonics is a major question [START_REF] Burbank | Tectonic Geomorphology[END_REF], in particular for the Himalaya (e.g. review in [START_REF] Avouac | Dynamic processes in extensional and compressional settingsmountain building: from earthquakes to geological deformation[END_REF]. The Indian and Eurasian plates (Figure II -7) have converged until their collision at ca. 50 Ma, according paleomagnetic data [START_REF] Patriat | India-Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates[END_REF][START_REF] Meng | India-Asia collision was at 24 N and 50 Ma: palaeomagnetic proof from southernmost Asia[END_REF] or potentially earlier at ca. 59 Ma, as told by sedimentary data [START_REF] Decelles | Paleocene-Eocene foreland basin evolution in the Himalaya of southern Tibet and Nepal: Implications for the age of initial India-Asia collision[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | Direct stratigraphic dating of India-Asia collision onset at the Selandian (middle Paleocene, 59 ± 1 Ma)[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | The timing of India-Asia collision onset-Facts, theories, controversies[END_REF]. From ca. 50 to 35 Ma, the convergence has slowed down [START_REF] Patriat | India-Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates[END_REF][START_REF] Meng | India-Asia collision was at 24 N and 50 Ma: palaeomagnetic proof from southernmost Asia[END_REF], potentially because of the building of topography (Tapponier et al., 2001;[START_REF] Copley | India-Asia collision and the Cenozoic slowdown of the Indian plate: Implications for the forces driving plate motions[END_REF]. Since 35 Ma onwards, the convergence has continued thereafter at steady rates of 4-5 cm/yr [START_REF] Patriat | India-Eurasia collision chronology has implications for crustal shortening and driving mechanism of plates[END_REF][START_REF] Meng | India-Asia collision was at 24 N and 50 Ma: palaeomagnetic proof from southernmost Asia[END_REF], with elevations in the Himalaya and in the Tibet probably similar to present ones, as told by paleoaltimetry from stable isotopes [START_REF] Garzione | High times on the Tibetan Plateau: Paleoelevation of the Thakkhola graben, Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Rowley | A new approach to stable isotope-based paleoaltimetry: implications for paleoaltimetry and paleohypsometry of the High Himalaya since the Late Miocene[END_REF][START_REF] Spicer | Constant elevation of southern Tibet over the past 15 million years[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | The paleoaltimetry of Tibet: An isotopic perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Gébelin | The Miocene elevation of Mount Everest[END_REF][START_REF] Hoke | Stable isotopes reveal high southeast Tibetan Plateau margin since the Paleogene[END_REF], but still discussed in view of the fossil record (e.g. [START_REF] Deng | Paleoaltimetry reconstructions of the Tibetan Plateau: progress and contradictions[END_REF].

The convergence between India and Asia is accommodated by crustal shortening and strike slip faulting (shown by geodetic measurements, Molnar and Tapponier, 1975;[START_REF] Larson | Kinematics of the India-Eurasia collision zone from GPS measurements[END_REF]Tapponier et al., 2001;[START_REF] Zhang | Continuous deformation of the Tibetan Plateau from global positioning system data[END_REF], but the contribution of each mechanism is still debated. Deformation is potentially not uniformly distributed along the orogenic wedge, as shown for instance by the gravity dataset compiled by Hetényi et al., 2016 (Figure II-8), or by thermochronometric data in Nepal (Figure II-9, van der Beek et al., 2016).

On short timescales (< 100 kyr), it is still unclear whether rates of deformation remain constant or if earthquakes happen by clusters interspersed of quiet periods. On longer timescales (> 100 kyr -1 Myr), deformation and denudation could spatially shift its focus. With a compilation of in situ thermochronometric data, [START_REF] Thiede | Large spatial and temporal variations in Himalayan denudation[END_REF], showed that denudation rates differ consistently along the Himalaya and from south to north. They also show that denudation rates could have increased in some areas since 4 Ma, but they let the debate open concerning the causes of this shift (either climatic or tectonic causes).

India/Eurasia convergence velocity (mm/yr)

Figure II-7. Indo-Eurasian plate convergence.

The map reconstructs the northward movement of the Indian plate from geomagnetic data [START_REF] Royer | L'inde part a la derive[END_REF]. Convergence rates are computed for points attached at the Indian plate and located at the eastern and western syntaxes (Figure in modern times (modified from [START_REF] Avouac | Dynamic processes in extensional and compressional settingsmountain building: from earthquakes to geological deformation[END_REF].

Late Cenozoic shifts in deformation patterns are possibly evidenced in the eastern Himalaya. In situ thermochronometric data show a decrease in the denudation rates in eastern Bhutan since 6 Ma [START_REF] Grujic | Climatic forcing of erosion, landscape, and tectonics in the Bhutan Himalayas[END_REF]. This decrease was attributed to convergence partitioning [START_REF] Vernant | Clockwise rotation of the Brahmaputra Valley relative to India: Tectonic convergence in the eastern Himalaya, Naga Hills, and Shillong Plateau: New GPS velocity field Bhutan[END_REF][START_REF] Coutand | Late Miocene-Pleistocene evolution of India-Eurasia convergence partitioning between the Bhutan Himalaya and the Shillong Plateau: New evidences from foreland basin deposits along the Dungsam Chu section, eastern Bhutan[END_REF] into the uplift of the Shillong plateau [START_REF] Najman | Evolving strain partitioning in the Eastern Himalaya: The growth of the Shillong Plateau[END_REF], although the timing of this uplift can be debated [START_REF] Biswas | Exhumation and uplift of the Shillong plateau and its influence on the eastern Himalayas: New constraints from apatite and zircon (U-Th-[Sm])/He and apatite fission track analyses: UPLIFT OF THE SHILLONG PLATEAU[END_REF]Clark and Bilham, 2008). Conversely, an increase in denudation rates was observed in the eastern syntaxis , close to the Namche Barwa, since 4 Ma, through the interpretation of in situ [START_REF] Burg | Exhumation during crustal folding in the Namche-Barwa syntaxis[END_REF][START_REF] Seward | Growth of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis and associated evolution of the Tsangpo Gorge: Constraints from structural and thermochronological data[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Exhumation and topographic evolution of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis, eastern Himalaya[END_REF] and detrital thermochronometric data (Bracciali et al., 2016), in particular from the Bengal Fan (Najman et al., 2019), although the timing remains discussed (Zeitler et al., 2014). In addition, rather than an increase, a simple shift of denudation patterns could have occured, as suggested by the in-situ OSL results of King et al., 2016a, which highlight a potential northward migration of the locus of high erosion rates in the eastern APaGa are obtained by subtracting the average arc perpendicular profile to the gravity dataset. The map presents the spatial results. The chart presents the difference of APaGa between the north and south of the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT). The data are interpreted as showing 4 segments with different plate flexure geometry (modified from [START_REF] Hetényi | Segmentation of the Himalayas as revealed by arc-parallel gravity anomalies[END_REF].

syntaxis. AFT ages are presented along 2 N-S transects in Nepal.They present a distinct pattern, reflecting the mean elevation (grey curve, with minimum-maximum in the shaded area) and the corresponding structural regional cross-sections (modified from [START_REF] Van Der Beek | Contrasting tectonically driven exhumation and incision patterns, western versus central Nepal Himalaya[END_REF]Trisuli transect data from [START_REF] Robert | Assessing Quaternary reactivation of the Main Central thrust zone (central Nepal Himalaya): New thermochronologic data and numerical modeling[END_REF]; structural sections from [START_REF] Jouanne | Current shortening across the Himalayas of Nepal[END_REF]. 1km in 50 km in the area of high stream power. Average erosion rates were inversed for the 2-0 Ma period using the code of [START_REF] Fox | A linear inversion method to infer exhumation rates in space and time from thermochronometric data[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Mid-latitude glacial erosion hotspot related to equatorial shifts in southern Westerlies[END_REF] (modified from King et al., 2016).

II.3. CLIMATE

Regional or global climate is defined by a set of statistics on weather parameters, as temperature and precipitation. These statistics are computed over a period that makes it possible to smooth rare and extreme events ( 10-30 yr). Past climate is reconstructed from various proxies, stable isotopes, e.g. δ 18 O, or palynology among others, in ice or sedimentary records (e.g. review in [START_REF] Aitken | Climatostratigraphy[END_REF][START_REF] Hartmann | Global Physical Climatology[END_REF]. These proxies show that the Earth's climate regularly moved between greenhouse and icehouse states [START_REF] Fisher | Long-term climatic oscillations recorded in stratigraphy[END_REF].

II.3.1. Greenhouse gases

The incoming solar radiation constitutes the primary source of heat on the Earth's surface (full review of the climatic processes in [START_REF] Hartmann | Global Physical Climatology[END_REF]. Secondary radiations, exchanged between the ground and the greenhouse gases maintain heat in the atmosphere [START_REF] Arrhenius | On the influence of carbonic acid in the air upon the temperature of the ground[END_REF]. The greenhouse effect is primarily caused by water vapor and clouds (75%) and CO 2 and CH 4 . However, because of naturally condensing in the Earth's conditions, water alone would not be able to maintain temperature, and only non-condensing CO 2 and CH 4 have an effective radiative forcing on the atmosphere temperature [START_REF] Lacis | Atmospheric CO2: Principal control knob governing Earth's temperature[END_REF].

The abundance of atmospheric CO2 is controlled by the long-term C biogeological cycle (Figure II-11, review in Kump et al., 2000 and[START_REF] Berner | The phanerozoic carbon cycle: CO₂ and O₂[END_REF]. CO2 is degassed in the atmosphere through (from [START_REF] Berner | A new look at the long-term carbon cycle[END_REF].

volcanism and metamorphism of carbonates and organic carbon in subduction zones. Conversely, CO2 is stored in the crust through chemical weathering of Ca-bearing silicate minerals (Ebelmen work in the 19th century; [START_REF] Walker | A negative feedback mechanism for the longterm stabilization of Earth's surface temperature[END_REF][START_REF] Gaillardet | Global silicate weathering and CO2 consumption rates deduced from the chemistry of large rivers[END_REF] and carbon burial [START_REF] Derry | Himalayan Weathering and Erosion Fluxes: Climate and Tectonic Controls[END_REF].

CH 4 (review in [START_REF] Beerling | Methane and the CH4 related greenhouse effect over the past 400 million years[END_REF] plays a secondary role in the greenhouse effect. CH 4 is mainly produced by the decomposition of organic matter by anaerobic bacteriae in wetlands, with minor contributions of the oceans, wildfires, termites, hydrates and volcanoes, while a minor part of CH 4 is absorbed by soils.

Positive feedbacks can enhance the drop or the rise of greenhouse gases. An expansion of ice cover increases albedo, which reflects solar radiation and subsequently enhances cooling. An expansion of permafrost at the expense of wetlands increase greenhouse gases storage and also enhances cooling.

Conversely, negative feedbacks decelerate the greenhouses gases trend. Chemical weathering is favoured by high temperatures, precipitations and runoff, vegetation, and fresh rock supply [START_REF] Gaillardet | Global silicate weathering and CO2 consumption rates deduced from the chemistry of large rivers[END_REF] with data from [START_REF] Meybeck | River discharges to the oceans: an assessment of suspended solids, major ions and nutrients[END_REF]; discussion of the relative weight of the factors in [START_REF] Kump | Chemical weathering, atmospheric CO2, and climate[END_REF]. As silicate chemical weathering consumes CO 2 , temperatures drop, atmospheric vapour condenses, precipitations drop, vegetation declines, all this leading in turn to a deceleration of silicate weathering.

Fresh rock supply is favoured by erosion and volcanism. Erosion depends on precipitations, and then, as precipitations decrease, erosion decelerates, thus limiting fresh rock supply and silicate weathering. Still erosion also depends on the volume and nature of soils, which are favoured by dry periods of low erosion rates, which ultimately make it possible an acceleration of erosion when precipitations come back (e.g. discussion in [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF]. In addition, counter-intuitively, silicate weathering of volcanic rocks, such as basalts, could fully negate the increase in greenhouse gases concentrations caused by volcanism [START_REF] Dessert | Basalt weathering laws and the impact of basalt weathering on the global carbon cycle[END_REF]. The relative importance of each of these feedbacks is still difficult to quantify, model and compare (e.g. [START_REF] Berner | The phanerozoic carbon cycle: CO₂ and O₂[END_REF]; examples of models: Geoclim model, [START_REF] Arndt | GEOCLIM reloaded (v 1.0): a new coupled earth system model for past climate change[END_REF] RokGeM model, [START_REF] Colbourn | The rock geochemical model (RokGeM) v0. 9[END_REF].

II.3.2. Heat redistribution, geography and tectonics

It appears that tectonics play a fundamental role in the long-term fluctuations of greenhouse gases (see discussion in [START_REF] Li | Evolution of the Cenozoic carbon cycle: The roles of tectonics and CO2 fertilization[END_REF]. Tectonics control mid-ocean ridge spreading and plate subduction rates [START_REF] Van Der Meer | Plate tectonic controls on atmospheric CO2 levels since the Triassic[END_REF]. As underlined by Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992, tectonics produce uplift of mountain ranges and can accelerate physical erosion because of heavy fracturing and the increased capacity of erosive agents deriving from elevation increase (e.g. review in [START_REF] Burbank | Tectonic Geomorphology[END_REF].

However, tectonic uplift alone is not sufficient to accelerate physical erosion, and neither is the abundance of fractured rocks sufficient to accelerate chemical weathering.

Redistribution of heat and water across the planet is necessary to focus warmth and precipitations along mountain ranges and subsequently enhance physical and chemical weathering. This redistribution is performed on short timescales through the atmospheric circulation, including gases, water and particles, and "longer" timescales through the oceanic circulation (e.g. [START_REF] Stommel | On the abyssal circulation of the world ocean-II. An idealized model of the circulation pattern and amplitude in oceanic basins[END_REF] and the water cycle, with the growth and demise of glaciers. This redistribution required the existence of passages and barriers, as well as climatically contrasted zones. This is primarily regulated by tectonics. Mountain ranges, in function of their geography [START_REF] Goddéris | The role of palaeogeography in the Phanerozoic history of atmospheric CO2 and climate[END_REF], can act as orogenic barriers and concentrate precipitations in one area at the expense of another (e.g. monsoon in the Himalaya, Figure vs relative "drought" in the Tibet, Boos andKuang, 2010, 2013). The opening of passages through continents can facilitate oceanic circulation (e.g. Panama closure, [START_REF] Haug | Effect of the formation of the Isthmus of Panama on Atlantic Ocean thermohaline circulation[END_REF][START_REF] Bartoli | Final closure of Panama and the onset of northern hemisphere glaciation[END_REF][START_REF] Ramírez | Exhumation of the Panama basement complex and basins: Implications for the closure of the Central American seaway: EXHUMATION OF PANAMA COMPLEX AND BASINS[END_REF]. The presence of separated continents, dispersed across the planet, in particular at the poles and near the tropics ensures climatically contrasted areas. This contrast is increased by a positive feedback during glaciations, as permanent cold and dry ice-sheets settle on land present at the Monsoonal climates are characterized by the alternation of wet and dry seasons. The SE Asian monsoon carry precipitations along the Himalaya from June to September.

For January and July, the maps show 1000 hPa height (20m contour intervals, positive heights in red)

and wind vectors (the largest: 15 m/s) for the 30°S-40°N and 30°W-120°E region in Mercator projection (from Hartmann, 2016, data from ERA Interim).

poles.

II.3.3. Orbital cycles

In superimposition to tectonics, the orbital oscillations of the planet, coined Milankovitch cycles, exert a secondary control on global climate, over short-timescales (Figure II-13, e.g. Hays et al., 1976;[START_REF] Clemens | Eccentricity forcing of Pliocene-early Pleistocene climate revealed in a marine oxygen-isotope record[END_REF]review in Zachos et al., 2001). Eccentricity characterizes the elliptical to near circular orbit around the Sun and fluctuates with periods of 100 and 400 kyr. Obliquity characterizes the tilt of planet axis relative to the ecliptic plane and fluctuates with periods of 41 kyr. Precession characterizes the wobble of the rotation axis and fluctuates with periods of 23 and 19 kyr. Obliquity and precession have a major control on seasonal contrasts between hemispheres, while eccentricity is supposed to have only a limited amplification role [START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF]. Sea surface temperature, deep sea temperature and CO 2 concentrations have been shown to evolve coevally according these orbital cycles [START_REF] Shakun | An 800-kyr record of global surface ocean δ18O and implications for ice volume-temperature coupling[END_REF].

II.3.4. Global sea-level

Climate and greenhouse concentrations seem to be the 1st order control of global sea-level [START_REF] Van Sickel | Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic sea-level estimates: backstripping analysis of borehole data, onshore New Jersey[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | The Phanerozoic Record of Global Sea-Level Change[END_REF], 2011[START_REF] Kominz | Late Cretaceous to Miocene sea-level estimates from the New Jersey and Delaware coastal plain coreholes: An error analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Cramer | Late Cretaceous-Neogene trends in deep ocean temperature and continental ice volume: Reconciling records of benthic foraminiferal geochemistry (δ18O and Mg/Ca) with sea level history[END_REF], with comments in Müller et al., 2008and Cogné and Humler, 2008;[START_REF] Foster | Relationship between sea level and climate forcing by CO2 on geological timescales[END_REF][START_REF] Rohling | Sea-level and deep-sea-temperature variability over the past 5.3 million years[END_REF], with Three orbital cycles control the position of the Earth relative to the sun and the mid-term climate of its hemispheres (see text; modified from [START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF].

global sea-level decreasing as temperatures and CO 2 concentrations decrease [START_REF] Foster | Relationship between sea level and climate forcing by CO2 on geological timescales[END_REF],

suggesting that a strong dependence to the expansion and shrinkage of ice-sheets and glaciers, at least since 100 [START_REF] Van Sickel | Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic sea-level estimates: backstripping analysis of borehole data, onshore New Jersey[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | The Phanerozoic Record of Global Sea-Level Change[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | A 180-Million-Year Record of Sea Level and Ice Volume Variations from Continental Margin and Deep-Sea Isotopic Records[END_REF].

II.3.5. Cenozoic climate change

The role of greenhouse gases is particularly highlighted in the context of the global climate cooling since 50 Ma, from evidence of the deep sea (Figure I-2, δ 18 O benthic foraminifer data global compilations, early studies of [START_REF] Shackleton | Late Cenozoic oxygen and carbon isotopic changes at DSDP Site 284: Implications for glacial history of the Northern Hemisphere and Antarctica[END_REF]1984;Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992;[START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF][START_REF] Zachos | An early Cenozoic perspective on greenhouse warming and carbon-cycle dynamics[END_REF][START_REF] Hansen | Target atmospheric CO2: Where should humanity aim?[END_REF][START_REF] Mudelsee | Cenozoic climate changes: A review based on time series analysis of marine benthic δ18O records[END_REF] and the sea surface (alkenone unsaturation data global compilation since 12 Ma, Herbert et al., 2016), and even potentially starting earlier [START_REF] Cramer | Ocean overturning since the Late Cretaceous: Inferences from a new benthic foraminiferal isotope compilation[END_REF][START_REF] Veizer | Temperatures and oxygen isotopic composition of Phanerozoic oceans[END_REF], both latter studies with [START_REF] Cramer | Late Cretaceous-Neogene trends in deep ocean temperature and continental ice volume: Reconciling records of benthic foraminiferal geochemistry (δ18O and Mg/Ca) with sea level history[END_REF][START_REF] Passchier | Ice sheets and climate: the marine geological record[END_REF] include discussions about the limits of the proxy and these compilations). Temperatures dropped coevally with atmospheric concentrations in CO 2 (Figure II-14, Royer et al., 2004;[START_REF] Lüthi | High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000-800,000 years before present[END_REF][START_REF] Beerling | Convergent Cenozoic CO2 history[END_REF]; modelling by [START_REF] Stap | CO2 over the past 5 million years: Continuous simulation and new δ11Bbased proxy data[END_REF][START_REF] Foster | Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years[END_REF]phanerozoic Blue dots show a compilation of atmospheric CO 2 sedimentary multi-proxy data along a log-time scale: leaf stomata, pedogenic carbonates δ 13 C, foraminifer δ 11 B, liverwort δ 13 C and δ 13 C of alkenones. The most likely LOESS fit (locally estimated scatterplot smoothing, a regression model, e.g. [START_REF] Chandler | Statistical Methods for Trend Detection and Analysis in the Environmental Sciences[END_REF] is shown by the blue curve, with the 68 and 95% confidence intervals in dark and light red shaded bands. (modified from [START_REF] Foster | Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years[END_REF], compilations of Foster et al., 2017).

isotopes, [START_REF] Witkowski | Molecular fossils from phytoplankton reveal secular PCO2 trend over the Phanerozoic[END_REF], although some proxies for CO 2 require calibration improvement (e.g. the compilation of [START_REF] Foster | Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years[END_REF] can show distinct trends or values depending on the proxy). CO 2 drop potentially leads to a complete compensation of the Phanerozoic increase in solar radiation (hypothesis of [START_REF] Walker | A negative feedback mechanism for the longterm stabilization of Earth's surface temperature[END_REF]compilation and interpretation of Foster et al., 2017).

Cenozoic global climate cooling favoured the progressive setup of ice sheets in polar areas (Arctic, Ma.

The panels present reconstructions for sea-level and equivalent ice volume, and deep sea temperature.

These reconstructions are based on models combining the benthic foraminifer δ 18 O bf record with other proxies, such as the New Jersey sea-level curve or benthic foraminifer Mg/Ca data. This approach is of interest because δ 18 Obf records both fluctuations of sea-level and fluctuations of ice-volumes, but is still debated (modified from Cramer et al., 2011, their Fig. S7;compilations of Cramer et al., 2009[START_REF] Katz | Traditional and emerging geochemical proxies in foraminifera[END_REF], updated in Cramer et al., 2011). [START_REF] Moran | The Cenozoic palaeoenvironment of the Arctic Ocean[END_REF]Antarctic, Carter et al., 2017;Greenland, Eldrett et al., 2007;modelling of De Conto et al., 2008) and also probably the setup of isolated ice-caps in elevated mountain ranges at lower latitudes (De Conto et al., 2008). Cooling also perturbed water redistribution through precipitations across the planet, with drier continents (e.g. Sahara, Schuster et al., 2006a, b;[START_REF] Kroepelin | Revisiting the age of the Sahara desert[END_REF][START_REF] Swezey | Revisiting the age of the Sahara desert[END_REF]Atacama, Arancibia et al., 2006;Taklimakan, Tarim, Sun et al., 2011) but also potentially wetter areas subject to monsoons (South Asia and the Himalaya, review in [START_REF] Clift | A history of the Asian monsoon and its interactions with solid Earth tectonics in Cenozoic South Asia[END_REF]; early studies of [START_REF] Clemens | Forcing mechanisms of the Indian Ocean monsoon[END_REF][START_REF] Prell | Sensitivity of the Indian monsoon to forcing parameters and implications for its evolution[END_REF]studies of Clemens et al., 2008;[START_REF] Clift | Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity[END_REF]An et al., 2011;[START_REF] Reuter | Global warming and South Indian monsoon rainfall-lessons from the Mid-Miocene[END_REF][START_REF] Clift | Reconstructing chemical weathering, physical erosion and monsoon intensity since 25 Ma in the northern South China Sea: A review of competing proxies[END_REF][START_REF] Licht | Asian monsoons in a late Eocene greenhouse world[END_REF][START_REF] Caves Rugenstein | The evolution of hydroclimate in Asia over the Cenozoic: A stable-isotope perspective[END_REF]. A drier climate could have favoured grassland over woodland , but the cause of the Cenozoic development of grassland remain debated (e.g. [START_REF] Retallack | Cenozoic Expansion of Grasslands and Climatic Cooling[END_REF]. In parallel, the drop in CO 2 could have favoured vegetation using C 4 -photosynthesis, which is more efficient than the C 3 -pathway (e.g. [START_REF] Sage | The evolution of C4 photosynthesis[END_REF]), particularly at low latitudes and low elevation since 3 to 8 Ma (using δ 13 C, [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Cerling | Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary[END_REF][START_REF] Edwards | The Origins of C4 Grasslands: Integrating Evolutionary and Ecosystem Science[END_REF]compilations of oceanic record by Shackleton, 1987;[START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF].

Global climate cooling culminates in the late Cenozoic (Figure II-15, benthic foraminifera δ 18 O data, [START_REF] Shackleton | Oxygen isotope calibration of the onset of ice-rafting and history of glaciation in the North Atlantic region[END_REF][START_REF] Lisiecki | A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records[END_REF][START_REF] Shakun | An 800-kyr record of global surface ocean δ18O and implications for ice volume-temperature coupling[END_REF], as sea-surface temperatures potentially drop of 5 to 15°C (Figure II-17, alkenone saturation data, Herbert et al., 2016;multiproxy model of Snyder, 2016), depending on the latitude, and as atmospheric CO 2 concentrations potentially decrease of 40 % from 350 ppm at ca. 4 Ma (compilations of proxies in [START_REF] Beerling | Convergent Cenozoic CO2 history[END_REF][START_REF] Foster | Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years[END_REF][START_REF] Witkowski | Molecular fossils from phytoplankton reveal secular PCO2 trend over the Phanerozoic[END_REF] to 220 ppm for the last Ma (ice-core data, [START_REF] Lüthi | High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000-800,000 years before present[END_REF][START_REF] Bereiter | Revision of the EPICA Dome C CO2 record from 800 to 600 kyr before present[END_REF]. Cool conditions, with low atmospheric concentrations have settled since [2][3][4][5][6][7][START_REF] Ma? Possibly Steady Oskin | Steady 10Be-derived paleoerosion rates across the Plio-Pleistocene climate transition, Fish Creek-Vallecito basin, California[END_REF][9][START_REF]Be data 10 Table SVI-1[END_REF][11][12][13][14][15][START_REF] Kump | Chemical weathering, atmospheric CO2, and climate[END_REF][17][18]. Large ice-sheets have grown and shrunk since ca. 3 Ma in areas where they are unstable in interglacial periods, such as in North America and North Europe, and the fluctuations between glacial and interglacial periods finally shift to longer 100 kyr-cycles dominated by glacial periods since ca. 0.8 Ma (e.g. [START_REF] Shakun | An 800-kyr record of global surface ocean δ18O and implications for ice volume-temperature coupling[END_REF]. Each inset regroups absolute sea surface temperature curves for a set of sedimentary cores, obtained using the alkenone unsaturation method. Note the temperature scale that is different for each inset.

Each region is subject to a temperature drop, even though this drop is not synchronous and it has not a uniform amplitude (modified from [START_REF] Herbert | Late Miocene global cooling and the rise of modern ecosystems[END_REF]compilation and new data from Herbert et al., 2016). a. Global average surface temperature deviation from modern temperature (averaged over 0-5 ka) in blue, modelled from a compilation of sedimentary multi-proxies [START_REF] Snyder | Evolution of global temperature over the past two million years[END_REF]. b. Stacked reconstruction of temperature change in Antarctic, in cyan [START_REF] Parrenin | Synchronous change of atmospheric CO2 and Antarctic temperature during the last deglacial warming[END_REF]. c. Stacked reconstruction of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations, in red [START_REF] Bereiter | Revision of the EPICA Dome C CO2 record from 800 to 600 kyr before present[END_REF]. d. Stack of benthic foraminifer δ 18 O, in grey [START_REF] Lisiecki | A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records[END_REF]. In all panels, the solid black lines show the median estimate and the colour shaded areas show the 95% confidence interval.

(modified from [START_REF] Snyder | Evolution of global temperature over the past two million years[END_REF].

II.4. DENUDATION

The following sub-chapters represent a synthesis of denudation processes explained in Hugget, 2011 and[START_REF] Harvey | Introducing Geomorphology[END_REF].

II.4.1. Mechanical and chemical processes

Denudation (Figure II-19, e.g. review in Hugget, 2011;[START_REF] Harvey | Introducing Geomorphology[END_REF] forms the combination of weathering and transport processes that extract and export rocks and minerals from a source to a sink, i.e. a sedimentary basin. Weathering includes mechanical and chemical processes that led to the breakdown of rocks. Until favourable transport conditions are met, the resulting material can partly remain in place as soil or regolith .

Mechanical weathering develops fractures in rocks when they expand under variations of pressure, during their approach to the surface through denudation. Mechanical weathering is particularly enhanced in tectonic contexts (see above). It is also favoured in periglacial environments where water is regularly subject to freeze-thaw conditions that enable it to penetrate the fractures and expand them when frozen.

Chemical weathering is produced by the interaction of a mildly acid water with minerals and includes dissolution, hydration, reduction-oxidation, hydrolysis and chelation. This action is favoured by vegetation and in soils rich in organic matter. Rates of chemical weathering differ according minerals and weaker minerals, such as carbonates, biotites and plagioclases, are more easily weathered than stronger minerals, such as quartz. Chemical weathering is favoured in warm and wet conditions, especially in tropical regions.

Both mechanical and chemical weathering is enhanced by erosion and a regular export of the remaining material to bring at the surface unweathered rocks. However, a too frequent removal of material tends to prevent chemical weathering. Slope processes have an impact exceeding the area they cover. By the addition of sediments to rivers, they influence its capability to erode, transport and deposit (see below). In addition, they can occasionally move a large mass of rocks and form temporary debris-dammed lakes. These lakes are at the origin of increased river discharge and related incision and transport when dam-failures occur [START_REF] Korup | Glacier and landslide feedbacks to topographic relief in the Himalayan syntaxes[END_REF].

II.4.2. Erosion

II.4.2.2. Fluvial incision

Rivers form the prime agent for the export of dissolved elements and undissolved sediment. Finer particles as clay and silt are transported as suspended load over large distances whereas coarser particles as gravel and cobble are transported in fits and starts as bedload. Depending on fluvial conditions, sand can be transported either as suspended load or bedload. The capacity of rivers to incise their channel, transfer and deposit sediments is formalized by the "stream power" and depends on water discharge, slope and the volume and nature of transported sediments. River incision occurs by the rolling and bouncing of bedload, and is favoured by high discharge, steep slopes and sufficiently large sediments. Additionally, incision also depends on the nature of the channel, the unconsolidated alluvial channels being more easily incised than bedrock channels. River incision is therefore enhanced in high-relief areas subject to active tectonics and/or seasonal intense rainfalls or snowmelt.

II.4.2.3. Glacial erosion

Glaciers form a secondary export agent. Glaciers form when snow accumulation exceeds snowmelt. The upper insets present warm-and cold-based glacier deformation. The lower inset presents glacial quarrying. Transport of sediments can occur for both glaciers, but erosion by is supposed to be limited for cold-based glaciers. A glacier can shift from warm-based to cold-based regularly, and can also have different regimes depending on the part of the glaciers (modified from Bennet and Glasser, 2011, their Fig. 3.9 and 5.6).

They

close to zero or when the base is close to pressure melting point. Conversely, the base of "cold-based" glaciers remains frozen to the rock basal moves are limited when ice thickness is thin and atmospheric temperatures low. Glaciers transport and embed sediments originating from rockfalls and mass movements. They erode rocks either by the plucking/quarrying of rocks frozen into the bed, or by the action of subglacial meltwater, or by the abrasion by rocks embedded in ice. Therefore, the erosive capabilities of glaciers may be favoured by temperatures close to zero, an ice sufficiently thick and the availability of weathered sediments.

The impact of glaciers on the sedimentary flux far exceeds the area they cover. Seasonal snowmelt induces downstream discharge of high amplitude. As greenhouse progresses, ice melts and forms icedammed lakes that can cover a significant area (e.g. lake Agassiz-Ojibway in North America, [START_REF] Lajeunesse | The subglacial origin of the Lake Agassiz-Ojibway final outburst flood[END_REF][START_REF] Nicholl | A Laurentide outburst flooding event during the last interglacial period[END_REF][START_REF] Lajeunesse | Palaeoclimate: A history of outbursts[END_REF] or in the Himalaya, [START_REF] Montgomery | Evidence for Holocene megafloods down the tsangpo River gorge, Southeastern Tibet[END_REF][START_REF] Scherler | Tectonic control on 10Be-derived erosion rates in the Garhwal Himalaya, India[END_REF]. Dam-failures then lead to glacial lake outburst floods (GLOF) that intensely temporally increase river discharge and thus incision and transport. Furthermore, as glaciers grow to form ice-caps, the topography of landscape becomes progressively hidden by the ice topography, which allow the shift of drainage divides, as it was the case during the last glacial cycles in Scandinavia (e.g. [START_REF] Mangerud | Ice-dammed lakes and rerouting of the drainage of northern Eurasia during the Last Glaciation[END_REF][START_REF] Kleman | Patterns of Quaternary ice sheet erosion and deposition in Fennoscandia and a theoretical framework for explanation[END_REF] and North America (e.g. [START_REF] Dyke | The Laurentide and Innuitian ice sheets during the last glacial maximum[END_REF][START_REF] O;2 Hodder | Sedimentary record of ice divide migration and ice streams in the Keewatin core region of the Laurentide Ice Sheet[END_REF].

II.4.2.4.

Complementary erosive processes

Aeolian processes produce mechanical weathering and transport in arid areas. In combination with glaciers, they are at the origin of the glacial loess deposits (e.g. [START_REF] Tm Muhs | Quaternary loesspaleosol sequences as examples of climatedriven sedimentary extremes[END_REF]. Coastal processes also produce erosion and transport.

II.4.3. Sedimentary flux at modern times

In modern times, the regions presenting the higher denudation rates are located at low latitudes, in particular in South Asia (Figure II-22, Milliman and Meade, 1983;Milliman and Farnworth, 2011). Except the Amazon and the Mississippi basins, these areas are all subject to active tectonics, which favour mechanical weathering and landslides. The majority of them are also subject to seasonal intense precipitations, in particular the S. Asian Monsoon. Even though the glacial sedimentary yields from

Greenland and Antarctica remain difficult to measure [START_REF] Andrews | Sediment fluxes along high latitude glaciated continental margins: Northeast Canada and Eastern Greenland[END_REF], these glacial regions appear to be globally negligible providers of sediments (Milliman and Farnworth, 2011).

II.5. THE SEDIMENTARY RECORD

The (from [START_REF] Boggs | Principles of sedimentology and stratigraphy[END_REF], his Fig. 14, p. 265, after Stow et al., 1994). At t0, the levees of the channel are stable. At t1, an event produces a failure in the levee (a crevasse).

The theoretical model implies that if sediment load is sufficient, the levee progressively repairs (c), but if transport is important, the levee is progressively incised and lead to an avulsion (d). Sediment transport is driven by stochastic processes (e.g. Figure , unsteady and intermittent by nature, and even under stable conditions, instantaneous deposition and erosion rates vary in time and space. Sediments can be exported by pulses rather through a continuous flux, especially in contexts with frequent landslides (e.g. Gabet et al., 2004a;[START_REF] Gallo | Evolution of a large landslide in the High Himalaya of central Nepal during the last half-century[END_REF], or in arid regions subject to rare storms (e.g. [START_REF] Bookhagen | Abnormal monsoon years and their control on erosion and sediment flux in the high, arid northwest Himalaya[END_REF]. Discharge conditions also control the intermittence of bedload transport [START_REF] Singh | Experimental evidence for statistical scaling and intermittency in sediment transport rates[END_REF]. Because of sediment deposition, rivers and the submarine flows tend to frequently avulse , and channels and deltas tend to migrate [START_REF] Jerolmack | Complexity in a cellular model of river avulsion[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | The pulse of calm fan deltas[END_REF][START_REF] Hajek | Simplified process modeling of river avulsion and alluvial architecture: connecting models and field data[END_REF].

Over longer timescales, unsteadiness and intermittence are smoothed, and deposition and erosion are controlled by the accommodation space (definition discussed in [START_REF] Muto | The accommodation concept in sequence stratigraphy: some dimensional problems and possible redefinition[END_REF], modulated by the sedimentary flux, subsidence and sea-level. Each factor does not present comparable time -scale, as subsidence varies at long timescales (0.1-1 Ma) whereas the sedimentary flux varies at short timescales and sea-level varies at mid-timescales (10-100kyr). When the sediment flux exceeds accommodation space, it spills over into another basin. The basins presenting high accumulation rates are notably subject to this phenomenon [START_REF] Sommerfield | On sediment accumulation rates and stratigraphic completeness: Lessons from Holocene ocean margins[END_REF]. In addition, accommodation space can vary markedly across the sedimentary basin, markedly close to the edges, in case of tectonics or growth by progradation onto sediment-free areas (discussion in [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF]. Therefore the ability of sediments to locally record the full sedimentary flux is limited [START_REF] Sadler | The influence of hiatuses on sediment accumulation rates[END_REF], particularly in shallow platforms impacted by the sea-level fluctuations, such as continental shelves, or in contexts susceptible to rare and long hiatuses, such as the continental record.

II.5.2. The provenance topic

II.5.2.1. Recycling

Sediments can originate from recycling of sediments temporarily stored in the catchment, and in that case, they contain a second history in superimposition of the first one. Unravelling these two stories may be possible in some cases with the use of combined isotopic markers (Whitmann et al;, 2011), but it is still impossible to formulate any conclusion from sedimentary accumulation rates. This problem is acute for foreland basins exhumed at their margin by the frontal thrust of a fold and thrust belt (e.g. the Siwaliks in their later record, the upper Siwaliks, from 3-1 Ma onwards, [START_REF] Ojha | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Chirouze | Magnetostratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group in the far eastern Himalaya: Kameng section, Arunachal Pradesh, India[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Détermination des paléo-taux d'érosion par l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques[END_REF][START_REF] Coutand | Late Miocene-Pleistocene evolution of India-Eurasia convergence partitioning between the Bhutan Himalaya and the Shillong Plateau: New evidences from foreland basin deposits along the Dungsam Chu section, eastern Bhutan[END_REF].

II.5.2.2. Drainage evolution

Because of their capacity to transport sediments, river and glacial networks, along with aeolian processes in arid regions, form an essential component of the landscape modelling and the filling of sedimentary basins. The area that they drain, the catchment, can evolve in geometry and topography over time, which therefore alter the volume and the characteristics of the sediments transported to the basins.

These networks dynamically evolve to equilibrium between crustal moves produced by tectonics, glaciations, and basin water filling/flushing, and topographic changes produced by erosion and sedimentation. Channels move laterally and retreat headward, and drainage divides migrate (e.g. [START_REF] Bishop | Drainage rearrangement by river capture, beheading and diversion[END_REF][START_REF] Willett | Dynamic reorganization of river basins[END_REF]. Streams can be diverted by divide breaching, either in a "bottom-up" way [START_REF] Bishop | Drainage rearrangement by river capture, beheading and diversion[END_REF], when a river actively capture a part of a neighbouring catchment (stream piracy) or in a "top-down" way when a stream join another catchment, following a diversion caused by tectonics or glaciers.

Drainage evolution is studied through the morphology of the fluvial and glacial network and the regional elevation differences (e.g. [START_REF] Bishop | Drainage rearrangement by river capture, beheading and diversion[END_REF][START_REF] Willett | Dynamic reorganization of river basins[END_REF], in combination with mineralogic and isotopic provenance analyses and dating of the sedimentary record. The interpretation of this work is usually not straightforward, because continental sedimentary records have usually loose dating constraints and provenance signatures are not always associated to a unique source, the problem being exacerbated in case of recycling.

Although avulsions and channel migration are frequent in alluvial floodplains (e.g. shift of the course of the Brahmaputra from the 1700s, Bristow, 1999, Figure II-25, evolution of the Bengal delta over the Holocene, Allison et al., 2003;[START_REF] Goodbred | Piecing together the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River delta: Use of sediment provenance to reconstruct the history and interaction of multiple fluvial systems during Holocene delta evolution[END_REF], the frequency of these changes in bedrock contexts is still debated (e.g. [START_REF] Bishop | Drainage rearrangement by river capture, beheading and diversion[END_REF][START_REF] Willett | Dynamic reorganization of river basins[END_REF]. This is highlighted by the debate around Compilation by [START_REF] Bristow | Gradual Avulsion, River Metamorphosis and Reworking by Underfit Streams: a Modern Example from the Brahmaputra River in Bangladesh and a Possible Ancient Example in the Spanish Pyrenees[END_REF](modified from Best et al., 2007, their Fig. 19.3, p. 400).

the drainage reorganisation in the Himalayan eastern syntaxis (e.g. [START_REF] Seeber | River profiles along the Himalayan arc as indicators of active tectonics[END_REF][START_REF] Brookfield | The evolution of the great river systems of southern Asia during the Cenozoic India-Asia collision: rivers draining southwards[END_REF][START_REF] Clark | Surface uplift, tectonics, and erosion of eastern Tibet from large-scale drainage patterns[END_REF][START_REF] Cina | Gangdese arc detritus within the eastern Himalayan Neogene foreland basin: Implications for the Neogene evolution of the Yalu-Brahmaputra River system[END_REF]Chirouze et al., 2013;[START_REF] Robinson | Large rivers and orogens: The evolution of the Yarlung Tsangpo-Irrawaddy system and the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF], with several studies pointing to an early connection of the Brahmaputra to the Tibetan plateau (Figure II-26, Lang and Huntington, 2014;Bracciali et al., 2015, see Bengal Fan chapter). [START_REF] Bishop | Drainage rearrangement by river capture, beheading and diversion[END_REF] argues that in absence of consistent crustal moves and a significant elevation difference combined with a low divide between two catchments, drainage reorganisation is probably rare.

As illustrated in the Himalaya (e.g. [START_REF] Lang | Antecedence of the Yarlung-Siang-Brahmaputra River, eastern Himalaya[END_REF]NW Himalaya in Sinclair et al., 2017), tectonics yield the primary source of crustal moves. Although of lower intensity, crustal deformation and flexure in passive margins, caused by the weight of sediments, can control the organisation of the fluvial network (e.g. Brazilian margin, Amazon, [START_REF] Driscoll | Flexural deformation due to Amazon Fan loading: A feedback mechanism affecting sediment delivery to margins[END_REF] and Willett

et al., 2014 demonstrated for the NE Atlantic margin that fluvial networks can be in disequilibrium even far from tectonic plate boundaries.

In contrast with the potentially slow evolution of fluvial networks by tectonics, glaciations probably induce frequent, rapid and large drainage modifications. The complex network of icestreams and supraglacial/subglacial rivers and lakes (e.g. [START_REF] Smith | Efficient meltwater drainage through supraglacial streams and rivers on the southwest Greenland ice sheet[END_REF] is sensitive to minor changes in glacial thickness [START_REF] Vaughan | Flow-switching and water piracy between Rutford ice stream and Carlson inlet, West Antarctica[END_REF][START_REF] Carter | Evidence of rapid subglacial water piracy under Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica[END_REF], occurring during glacial advances and retreat [START_REF] Shugar | River piracy and drainage basin reorganization led by climate-driven glacier retreat[END_REF], especially in areas of low basal relief [START_REF] Carter | Evidence of rapid subglacial water piracy under Whillans Ice Stream, West Antarctica[END_REF]. This was illustrated by the shifts of drainage divides during the last glacial cycles in Scandinavia (e.g. [START_REF] Mangerud | Ice-dammed lakes and rerouting of the drainage of northern Eurasia during the Last Glaciation[END_REF][START_REF] Kleman | Patterns of Quaternary ice sheet erosion and deposition in Fennoscandia and a theoretical framework for explanation[END_REF] and North America (e.g. [START_REF] Dyke | The Laurentide and Innuitian ice sheets during the last glacial maximum[END_REF][START_REF] O;2 Hodder | Sedimentary record of ice divide migration and ice streams in the Keewatin core region of the Laurentide Ice Sheet[END_REF]. IYSZ: Indus-Yarlung-Tsangpo suture (modified from [START_REF] Lang | Antecedence of the Yarlung-Siang-Brahmaputra River, eastern Himalaya[END_REF]their data and Robinson et al., 2014's data).

II.5.3. Accumulation rates and sedimentary budgets

To a first approximation and keeping the previous topics in mind, the accumulation rate of terrigenous sediment in the stratigraphic record should be a proxy for the physical erosion rates of the land surface.

But early work [START_REF] Barrell | Rhythms and the measurements of geologic time[END_REF][START_REF] Schuchert | Geochronology, or the Age of the Earth on the Basis of Sediments and Life[END_REF] observed that preservation of sediments decreased with age, notably because older sediments are recycled into young sediments [START_REF] Gilluly | Distribution of mountain building in geologic time[END_REF]. Consequently, sediment accumulation rates have a strong dependency on the timespan used for their averaging, with short-term rates tending to be faster than long-term rates (compilation of Saddler, 1981;[START_REF] Tipper | Rates of sedimentation, and stratigraphical completeness[END_REF].

One can circumvent this dependency with the acquisition of accumulation rates measured over a constant time interval [START_REF] Gardner | Geomorphic and tectonic process rates: Effects of measured time interval[END_REF]. This acquisition remains delicate because dating constraints become spaced with the age of sediments. Additionally, continental clastic series are usually more challenging to date compared with marine series, because of the scarcity of biostratigraphic markers. One can also constrain the maximum time of hiatuses from the structure, geomorphology and the geometry of the deposition environment, it may be still possible to get reliable average accumulation rates if averaged on long timespans [START_REF] Schumer | Real and apparent changes in sediment deposition rates through time[END_REF]. One can also favour a 2-D approach (e.g. [START_REF] Sadler | Scaling laws for aggradation, denudation and progradation rates: the case for time-scale invariance at sediment sources and sinks[END_REF] or source to sink sedimentary budgets, including continental and marine basins (review in [START_REF] Hinderer | From gullies to mountain belts: A review of sediment budgets at various scales[END_REF], instead of limiting studies to individual sites, as it is still frequently the case.

Another common topic concerns the consideration of compaction and its correction: as the sediment is buried, its interstitial porosity is progressively squeezed. Rates of compaction not only depends on mechanical processes but also on chemical processes linked to pressure dissolution (e.g. [START_REF] Suetnova | 1-D modelling rock compaction in sedimentary basins using a visco-elastic rheology[END_REF], which make their assessment not simple.)

But a central issue for accumulation rate estimation and sedimentary budgets, which is not evoked by critics of this method (e.g. [START_REF] Sadler | Sediment accumulation rates and the completeness of stratigraphic sections[END_REF][START_REF] Schumer | Real and apparent changes in sediment deposition rates through time[END_REF][START_REF] Willenbring | The null hypothesis: globally steady rates of erosion, weathering fluxes and shelf sediment accumulation during Late Cenozoic mountain uplift and glaciation[END_REF], is to confirm that catchments remained stable over the period of study (e.g. [START_REF] Bishop | Drainage rearrangement by river capture, beheading and diversion[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF], otherwise mass balance cannot be reached and variations would be misinterpreted.

II.6. LATE CENOZOIC EVOLUTION OF THE DENUDATION RECORDS

II.6.1. Accumulation rates and sedimentary budgets II.6.1.1.

The deep sea basins

With the systematic exploration of the deep sea distal basins, workers unexpectedly observed marked coeval variations in carbonaceous and terrigenous average accumulation rates (compilations of [START_REF] Davies | Estimates of Cenozoic Oceanic Sedimentation Rates[END_REF]Hay et al., 1988a;review in Hay et al., 1988b;[START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF]reinterpretation in Olson et al., 2016). Terrigenous sediments are transported downslope from the marginal basin to the deep sea floor by turbidity currents and current transport. They can also be transferred from continents to ocean (and other continents) through aeolian transport. The deep sea records show that terrigenous accumulation rates are subject to a global increase since ca. 35 Ma [START_REF] Davies | Estimates of Cenozoic Oceanic Sedimentation Rates[END_REF]Hay et al., 1988a), with a 3-fold acceleration since 5 Ma (Hay et al., 1988a). A coeval and at least 2-fold increase in the Al content of sediments from individual sites corroborate these observations, at least since 15 Ma [START_REF] Donnelly | Worldwide continental denudation and climatic deterioration during the late Tertiary: Evidence from deep-sea sediments[END_REF].

Lower accumulation rates in the past are partly caused by the higher frequency of hiatuses in the sedimentary record [START_REF] Montgomery | Valley formation by fluvial and glacial erosion[END_REF], but these hiatuses, which depend on the activity of the bottom water flow, present a large spatial variability in the oceans [START_REF] Moore | Cenozoic hiatuses in pelagic sediments[END_REF], as the individual accumulation rates also do (remark by [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF]. Although classically interpolated with an exponential curve (Hay et al., 1988a;[START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF], the global deep sea terrigenous record presents more subtle variations, with a peak around 40-50 Ma, a low at 25-35 Ma, and a relative stability at 5-20 Ma (Hay et al., 1988a).

In a recent study, Olson et al., 2016 (Figure I-3, Figure II-27) reappraise the early work of [START_REF] Davies | Estimates of Cenozoic Oceanic Sedimentation Rates[END_REF]Hay et al., 1988a and show that global terrigenous average accumulation rates roughly follow a steady-state accumulation model, except since 0-5 Ma. Interestingly, they present average accumulation rates for each ocean (excepted for the Arctic and Antarctic oceans), and none of the oceans presents an increase in sediment volume of amplitude similar to the global average. In particular, average accumulation has been steady since 25 Ma for the North Atlantic and since ca. 15 Ma for the Indian Ocean [START_REF] Olson | Variation of ocean sediment thickness with crustal age[END_REF]. This highlights the statistical limits of this kind of global approach, which gathers largely heterogeneous areas, with very different accumulation rates (results of [START_REF] Olson | Variation of ocean sediment thickness with crustal age[END_REF][START_REF] Straume | GlobSed: Updated Total Sediment Thickness in the World's Oceans[END_REF]. For each panel, mean accumulation rate and standard deviation are presented in function of crustal age, by 1-Myr timespan. Note the different scales for the y-axis in panels (from [START_REF] Olson | Variation of ocean sediment thickness with crustal age[END_REF]; based on the early work of Hay et al., 1988;DSDP site data).

Accumulation

Since the 1980s, a thorough exploration of turbiditic fans, continental margins and foreland basins, including endorheic basins (Figure II-28, compilation in Zhang et al., 2001;[START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF] has completed the deep sea record and make it possible to investigate individual source-to-sink systems. Accumulation rates and sedimentary budgets (not exhaustive compilation in Table SII-3) present an impressive increase since 2-5 Ma in most areas [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF]. [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF] assert that this increase is independent from latitude. This point is critical because the low-latitude regions yield presently the majority of sedimentary flux [START_REF] Milliman | River discharge to the coastal ocean: a global synthesis[END_REF], noting that the sedimentary flux in

Greenland and Antarctica remains difficult to constrain (e.g. [START_REF] Andrews | Sediment fluxes along high latitude glaciated continental margins: Northeast Canada and Eastern Greenland[END_REF]. In case that these regions have not been subject to a consistent acceleration of accumulation, the scenario of a global increase in erosion rates in the late Cenozoic should fall apart.

The work of [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF][START_REF] Métivier | On the use of sedimentation rates in deciphering global change[END_REF] seems to be a convincing argument for an acceleration of accumulation at low latitudes, by showing a 2-to 3-fold global increase in the accumulation rates in South Asia. Regrettably, because it is based on proprietary data [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF], this work was never fully reproduced (Clift and Gaedicke, 2002;Clift et al., 2002;[START_REF] Clift | Controls on the erosion of Cenozoic Asia and the flux of clastic sediment to the ocean[END_REF]. Additionally, [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF] acknowledge themselves the potentially "large but unquantifiable uncertainties" linked to their reconstructions, which might explain why previous workers [START_REF] Curray | Sediment volume and mass beneath the Bay of Bengal[END_REF][START_REF] Einsele | The Himalaya-Bengal Fan denudationaccumulation system during the past 20 Ma[END_REF] did not try to reconstruct the evolution at "high" resolution. They are chiefly based on the shelf stratigraphy (discussion in [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF]) since most of Asian Cenozoic basins have only limited deep sea drillings, rarely reaching the basement, or located on ridges or at the edges of the fans (Clift and Gaedicke, 2002).

We will therefore not discuss exhaustively about the [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF]s study and focus on other studies.

The overall picture for low-latitudes regions is probably different than the one described in Métivier et al., 1999, as recently shown by the Expeditions 353 and 354 on the Bengal Fan [START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016) and 362 on the Nicobar Fan [START_REF] Mcneill | Understanding Himalayan erosion and the significance of the Nicobar Fan[END_REF]. Several basins present an absence of increase, either in Asia (Figure : the Ganga foreland basin [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF], the Gulf of Thailand basin and the Mekong delta [START_REF] Clift | Controls on the erosion of Cenozoic Asia and the flux of clastic sediment to the ocean[END_REF], North Borneo basin [START_REF] Hall | Cenozoic sedimentation and tectonics in Borneo: climatic influences on orogenesis[END_REF][START_REF] Morley | Estimating hinterland exhumation from late orogenic basin volume, NW Borneo[END_REF] or in Africa: the Niger delta [START_REF] Grimaud | Cenozoic sediment budget of West Africa and the Niger delta[END_REF]. Some basins (the Indus Fan, the Red River and Pearl River Basins, [START_REF] Clift | Controls on the erosion of Cenozoic Asia and the flux of clastic sediment to the ocean[END_REF]; Andean foreland basin, [START_REF] Uba | Increased sediment accumulation rates and climatic forcing in the central Andes during the late Miocene[END_REF] are effectively subject to an increase, but only appear to recover from a previous decelerating phase at ca. [START_REF] Walford | Solid sediment load history of the Zambezi Delta[END_REF]Amazon Fan, Dobson et al., 2001;[START_REF] Harris | Climate and tectonic influences on continental erosion of tropical South America, 0-13 Ma[END_REF][START_REF] Figueiredo | Late Miocene onset of the Amazon River and the Amazon deep-sea fan: Evidence from the Foz do Amazonas Basin[END_REF] although this latter can be debated), a shift of their sedimentary depocenter (Angola, Congo, Lavier et al., 2001;[START_REF] Ferry | Morphogenesis of Congo submarine canyon and valley: implications about the theories of the canyons formation[END_REF] or when there are several close sources, can have an alternation of sediments from distinct sources (e.g. S. Chinese sea, with the Pearl River basin, dominated by Taiwanese sediments from 3

Ma onwards, [START_REF] Wan | Increased contribution of terrigenous supply from Taiwan to the northern South China Sea since 3 Ma[END_REF]. Tibet (Charreau et al., 2009a, see text) (from [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF]; initial work by [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF].

The impact of the shift in the partitioning of sediments might be illustrated with the Ganga-Brahmaputra catchment: accumulation may have decelerated in the Ganga basin (ca. 5 Ma, Métivier et al., 1999) and in the Nicobar Fan (ca. 2 Ma, McNeill et al., 2017), while accelerating in the Bengal Fan (ca. 5 Ma, Métivier et al., 1999), even though with the previous caveats and the remarks of Clift and Gaedicke, 2002, this acceleration is still unconfirmed.

Figure II-29. Compilation of accumulation rates in Asia.

All insets present sediment budgets for Asian catchments, with y-axis as accumulation rate (1,000 km3/Myr). Note that the budget for the Pearl River includes Taiwanese sediments from 3 Ma onwards [START_REF] Wan | Increased contribution of terrigenous supply from Taiwan to the northern South China Sea since 3 Ma[END_REF]. (modified from [START_REF] Clift | Controls on the erosion of Cenozoic Asia and the flux of clastic sediment to the ocean[END_REF], excepted for the Gange inset modified from [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF].

At higher latitudes, an acceleration of accumulation in the late Cenozoic is more strongly evidenced (see Table SII -3), except in Central Asia [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF] for which the timing has been evidenced to be diachronous over the region, from 15 to 0.7 Ma [START_REF] Charreau | Magnetostratigraphy and rock magnetism of the Neogene Kuitun He section (northwest China): implications for Late Cenozoic uplift of the Tianshan mountains[END_REF][START_REF] Charreau | Magnetostratigraphy of the Yaha section, Tarim Basin (China): 11 Ma acceleration in erosion and uplift of the Tian Shan mountains[END_REF](Charreau et al., , 2009;;[START_REF] Lu | Late Cenozoic structural and stratigraphic evolution of the northern Chinese Tian Shan foreland[END_REF]. All of the studied systems include areas that were submitted to late Cenozoic glaciations (e.g. Scandinavia, Dowdeswell et al., 2010;North Sea, Anell et al., 2010;European Alps, Kuhlemann et al., 2002;New Zealand, Carter and Carter, 1996) although one of the systems, the Mississippi delta (e.g. Hay et al., 1989;Galloway et al., 2011) has a catchment that largely covers never-glaciated areas. Scandinavia, North Sea and the Mississippi deltas have been subject to regular and massive drainage reorganisations (e.g. [START_REF] Kuhlmann | Provenance of Pliocene sediments and paleoenvironmental changes in the southern North Sea region using Samarium-Neodymium (Sm/Nd) provenance ages and clay mineralogy[END_REF]Galloway et al., 2011;[START_REF] Komatsu | Catastrophic flooding, palaeolakes, and late Quaternary drainage reorganization in northern Eurasia[END_REF][START_REF] Carson | Late Cenozoic evolution of the upper Mississippi River, stream piracy, and reorganization of North American Mid-Continent drainage systems[END_REF] or potential post tectonic moves that may have modified depocenters (Overeem et al., 2001;Galloway et al., 2011). Even though New Zealand is located at a plate boundary, a potential impact seems limited since modern denudation and uplift appear in steady-state (Adams, 1980).

II

Sr

Early workers (e.g. [START_REF] Raymo | Influence of late Cenozoic mountain building on ocean geochemical cycles[END_REF]Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992) considered the marine carbonate Sr isotopic data as a proxy for continental silicate chemical weathering. Global compilations (Figure II-30, Koepnick et al., 1985;[START_REF] Richter | Large-scale development of the mid-Norwegian margin during the last 3 million years[END_REF] present a rapid increase in the seawater 87 Sr/ 86 Sr at 40-15 Ma, followed by a slower increase from 15 Ma afterwards, which was interpreted by Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992 as an increase in silicate weathering, potentially caused by the Cenozoic Tibetan-Himalayan uplift. However, Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992 acknowledge that the proxy might not be able to represent the real amplitudes of the fluctuations of the silicate weathering flux. First, it is delicate to separate the silicate contribution of Sr from the carbonate contribution, this latter not impacting CO 2 concentrations (see discussion in [START_REF] Berner | The phanerozoic carbon cycle: CO₂ and O₂[END_REF], p. 37, based on Blum et al., 1998and Jacobson et al., 2003's data). Second, the variations of the ratio may be caused by variations of the isotopic ratios of the source rocks (discussion in [START_REF] Kump | Chemical weathering, atmospheric CO2, and climate[END_REF].

The interpretation of the marine 87 Sr/ 86 Sr as a proxy for silicate chemical weathering was strongly contested in the 1990s and several works argued that the increase of the ratio was caused by the erosion of a continental crust enriched in 87 Sr as the Himalayan one [START_REF] Edmond | Himalayan Tectonics, Weathering Processes, and the Strontium Isotope Record in Marine Limestones[END_REF], Derry and France-Lanord, 1996[START_REF] Galy | The strontium isotopic budget of Himalayan rivers in Nepal and Bangladesh[END_REF].

II

Li

Twenty years after the Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992's work, two new silicate weathering proxies, δ 7 Li (review in [START_REF] Tang | Review of the lithium isotope system as a geochemical tracer[END_REF] and 10 Be/ 9 Be (Brown et al., 1992b;[START_REF] Von Blanckenburg | Global distribution of beryllium isotopes in deep ocean water as derived from Fe / Mn crusts[END_REF] yielded a contradictory view to this work. Misra and Froelich, 2012, complemented extending on a broader period, 60 to 6 Ma, with quiet and more active episodes. From 6 Ma onwards, the δ 7 Li record (limited for this period to data of ODP site 758 in the Bengal bay), is relatively stable.

Willenbring and von Blanckenburg, 2010, compiled 10 Be/ 9 Be measurements from ocean cores and Fe-Mn crusts from the Arctic, the Atlantic and the Pacific, which cover similar periods .

While 10 Be is a cosmogenic nuclide mainly derived from the atmosphere through rain and is supposed constant over the last 10 Ma (Leya et al., 2000), 9 Be is derived from continents mainly through fluvial input, and is supposed to have increased if silicate weathering has accelerated over time. The method relies on the hypothesis that both isotopes homogenize at least the basin scale (early formulation in von Blanckenburg and [START_REF] Von Blanckenburg | Lateral mixing and advection of reactive isotope tracers in ocean basins: observations and mechanisms[END_REF]modelling in Iger and von Blanckenburg, 2000). It was later confirmed that the homogenization was also valid at a global scale [START_REF] Von Blanckenburg | River fluxes to the sea from the ocean's 10Be/9Be ratio[END_REF]Wittmann et al., 2017) if sites were sufficiently remote from the coast [START_REF] Wittmann | The competition between coastal trace metal fluxes and oceanic mixing from the 10Be/9Be ratio: Implications for sedimentary records[END_REF]. [START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF] interpret their compilation as showing that oceanic 10 Be/ 9 Be fluctuate in the range of modern ratios since 10 Ma, knowing that modern ratios can vary up to a factor of 2 (compilation of von Foraminifer and nanofossil 87 Sr/ 86 Sr from DSDP cores in the Atlantic, Pacific, Indian oceans and the Caribbean Sea (data from [START_REF] Koepnick | Construction of the seawater 87Sr86Sr curve for the cenozoic and cretaceous: Supporting data[END_REF]. The panels present in y-axis seawater 10 Be/ 9 Be corrected from decay for sediment cores and Fe-Mn crusts from the Pacific, Arctic and Atlantic. The drill sites are indicated for each panel. Data compiled by [START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF] (including sediment core data from Bourlès et al., 1989 andFranck et al., 2008). [START_REF] Von Blanckenburg | Global distribution of beryllium isotopes in deep ocean water as derived from Fe / Mn crusts[END_REF]. This absence of a continuous decreasing trend appears as a compelling argument against a significant increase in silicate chemical weathering rates over the late Cenozoic. Berner and shown by chemical budgets using major elements, (the Himalaya, [START_REF] Derry | Himalayan Weathering and Erosion Fluxes: Climate and Tectonic Controls[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012b) and by δ 44/40 Ca and Ca/Na (New Zealand (schists), [START_REF] Moore | Tracking the relationship between mountain uplift, silicate weathering, and long-term CO2 consumption with Ca isotopes: Southern Alps, New Zealand[END_REF]Iceland (basalts), [START_REF] Jacobson | Silicate versus carbonate weathering in Iceland: New insights from Ca isotopes[END_REF]. However, this observation appears debatable for glacial areas [START_REF] Moore | Tracking the relationship between mountain uplift, silicate weathering, and long-term CO2 consumption with Ca isotopes: Southern Alps, New Zealand[END_REF][START_REF] Jacobson | Silicate versus carbonate weathering in Iceland: New insights from Ca isotopes[END_REF].

Second, as global cooling accelerated [START_REF] Herbert | Late Miocene global cooling and the rise of modern ecosystems[END_REF], the kinetics of weathering became less favorable, as shown in India by the Indus Fan record [START_REF] Clift | Controls on the erosion of Cenozoic Asia and the flux of clastic sediment to the ocean[END_REF]. The importance of kinetics was highlighted in the Himalaya by West (2012) and Lupker et al. (2012b), who evidence that chemical weathering mainly occurs during the floodplain transfer, as previously suggested by [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF], potentially because at higher elevations, weathering kinetics are limited by temperature [START_REF] Norton | Silicate weathering of soil-mantled slopes in an active Alpine landscape[END_REF], although this might be not the case in tectonically active mountains [START_REF] Larsen | Rapid soil production and weathering in the Southern Alps[END_REF]. In addition, [START_REF] Lupker | Increasing chemical weathering in the Himalayan system since the Last Glacial Maximum[END_REF] show strongly different weathering flux between the Holocene and the Last Glacial Maximum, a period when weathering flux could have been reduced by 90%.

However, these apparently less favourable kinetics seem to contradict the view of stable silicate chemical weathering rates [START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF][START_REF] Von Blanckenburg | Stable runoff and weathering fluxes into the oceans over Quaternary climate cycles[END_REF] and let open the suggestion that some regions may have seen an acceleration of silicate weathering whereas others, as India have witnessed a deceleration.

II.6.3. The 10

Be/ 9

Be detrital record

Cosmogenic nuclides produced in crystals, in particular 10 Be in quartz, can be used as a proxy for short-term denudation rates. They can either be measured in situ, i.e. on the bedrock, or in sediments, and in that case they give access to denudation rates averaged across a catchment (see 0.

Methodologic overview

). This method is widely employed to obtain modern erosion rates (e.g. The panels present for Tianshan, NE Tibet (Yaha, Kyutun, Jingu section and Ebi Nor cores, Puchol et al., 2017) and Himalaya (Surai section, Puchol, 2013) the 10 Be erosion rates in y-axis in function of ages in x-axis. For the Himalayan panel, the data are interpreted in 2 scenarios: the red dots show the rates at catchment staying stable over the period; the blue squares propose that the catchment might differ before 4 Ma (see text, Puchol, 2013).

compilation in [START_REF] Portenga | Understanding Earth's eroding surface with 10Be[END_REF] but more rarely for past erosion rates, and only a limited number of studies present data covering the late Cenozoic, mainly for catchments < 5,000 km 2 .

Additionally, only a few number of studies discuss about the effect of a potential shift of provenance, recycling, or recent exposure.

At low latitudes, two studies in Central Himalaya (Figure II-33, Surai section) and in the Andes yield contradictory results. In Central Himalaya, for a small unglaciated catchment in front of the range (Surai section), [START_REF] Puchol | Détermination des paléo-taux d'érosion par l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques[END_REF] shows that erosion progressively accelerated since 6.5 Ma onwards, with a rapid shift at 3-4 Ma (3-fold increase in the rates in total). Contrastingly, modern denudation rates are similar to rates before 4 Ma. The workers acknowledge that the 3-4 Ma shift might have been caused by a change of provenance from a major Transhimalayan river to the present interfluvial river, but no provenance data sustain such a sudden shift over the period [START_REF] Huyghe | Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence[END_REF]. At similar latitudes in the east of the South Central Andes, [START_REF] Val | Reconciling tectonic shortening, sedimentation and spatial patterns of erosion from 10Be paleo-erosion rates in the Argentine Precordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Amidon | Mio-Pliocene aridity in the south-central Andes associated with Southern Hemisphere cold periods[END_REF]Pingel et al., 2019 show a deceleration of erosion from 7 Ma to 2 Ma, even though the rates are variable for the smaller catchments. [START_REF] Amidon | Mio-Pliocene aridity in the south-central Andes associated with Southern Hemisphere cold periods[END_REF]Pingel et al., 2019 interpret this deceleration as the result of an increased aridity, but the abrupt decreases observed in some basins might have been caused by drainage reorganisation (e.g. [START_REF] Val | Reconciling tectonic shortening, sedimentation and spatial patterns of erosion from 10Be paleo-erosion rates in the Argentine Precordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Pingel | Neotectonic basin and landscape evolution in the Eastern Cordillera of NW Argentina, Humahuaca Basin (∼ 24 S)[END_REF].

At high latitudes, only one study is available (offshore record, [START_REF] Bierman | A persistent and dynamic East Greenland Ice Sheet over the past 7.5 million years[END_REF] and shows that E. Greenland was subject to a consistent increase in erosion rates since 7.5 Ma onwards. However, it is difficult to constrain the catchment over time, since the provenance can remain undetermined because of the fluctuations of drainage divides with ice growth or the nature of the record, the ice raft debris (IRD) deposited by icebergs.

The rest of the studies were obtained at mid latitudes. In Central Asia, Tianshan (Figure II-33), [START_REF] Charreau | Paleo-erosion rates in Central Asia since 9Ma: A transient increase at the onset of Quaternary glaciations?[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF] show an acceleration of erosion since 9 Ma onwards for 4 catchments. This acceleration seems to slow down after 3-4 Ma with an increase in the variability of denudation rates. Importantly [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF] show that accumulation rates in these foreland basins, which increased in 3 of the catchments at ca. 11 Ma [START_REF] Charreau | Magnetostratigraphy and rock magnetism of the Neogene Kuitun He section (northwest China): implications for Late Cenozoic uplift of the Tianshan mountains[END_REF][START_REF] Charreau | Magnetostratigraphy of the Yaha section, Tarim Basin (China): 11 Ma acceleration in erosion and uplift of the Tian Shan mountains[END_REF]Charreau et al., 2009b) are decorrelated from erosion rates, contrarily to the assumption of [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF] In North America and West Europe (early compilation of [START_REF] Granger | Cosmogenic Nuclides and Erosion at the Watershed Scale[END_REF], there is no global acceleration of erosion rates, even if several studies do show an acceleration (Europe: Alps, [START_REF] Haeuselmann | Abrupt glacial valley incision at 0.8 Ma dated from cave deposits in Switzerland[END_REF]Meuse rivers, Schaller et al., 2004;Vltava and Guadalquivir rivers, Schaller et al., 2016; North America: Cumberland plateau: [START_REF] Anthony | A new chronology for the age of Appalachian erosional surfaces determined by cosmogenic nuclides in cave sediments[END_REF]Rocky Mountains, Refsnider et al., 2010) in particular at 0.7 -1 Ma [START_REF] Haeuselmann | Abrupt glacial valley incision at 0.8 Ma dated from cave deposits in Switzerland[END_REF].

II.6.4. The detrital thermochronometric record II.6.4.1.

A few words about thermochronometry

Thermochronometry (review in Reiners and [START_REF] Reilly | Deciphering Quaternary geomagnetic, glacial, and depositional[END_REF], also coined thermochronology, gives access to long-term denudation rates. Radioactive decay and spontaneous fission of the isotopes of certain father elements, such as U or K, produce daughters such as noble gases and damage trails in crystals, and the measurements of fathers and daughters yield apparent ages. These ages depend on the natural diffusion or annealing of daughters over time, which occur when the crystals are above a certain closure temperature. This closure temperature depends on the isotopic system and the denudation path of the c. Three possible lag-time trends that reflect trends in denudation (figures modified from Bernet et al., 2006). rocks. As rocks exhume, they cool down across the Earth's temperature field and this travel can be inversely reconstructed from the thermochronometric ages, which led to long-term denudation rates.

Thermochronometry can be applied in situ, i.e. on bedrock or on sediments, and in that case is coined detrital thermochronometry. To better constrain the evolution of erosion rates, several thermochronometers can be measured. Low temperatures systems include luminescence apatite (U-Th)/He (40-60 to 120°C, Flowers et al., 2009;[START_REF] Gautheron | Effect of alpha-damage annealing on apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronology[END_REF] and the complementary method 4 He/ 3 He (20-70°C, [START_REF] Shuster | 4He/3He thermochronometry[END_REF], apatite fission track (60-120°C, [START_REF] Gallagher | Fission track analysis and its applications to geological problems[END_REF], zircon (U-Th)/He (140-220°C, [START_REF] Guenthner | Helium diffusion in natural zircon: Radiation damage, anisotropy, and the interpretation of zircon (U-Th)/He thermochronology[END_REF], zircon fission tracks (240-300 °C, [START_REF] Rahn | A zero-damage model for fission-track annealing in zircon[END_REF]. Luminescence, which includes optically stimulated luminescence (OSL) and thermoluminescence (TL) thermochronometry, complement these methods (OSL: 30-100°C, King et al., 2016b). The principle of luminescence is based on the trapping and thermal release of electrons in crystals, in reaction to in situ radiation and rock cooling (review in [START_REF] Herman | Luminescence Thermochronometry: Investigating the Link between Mountain Erosion, Tectonics and Climate[END_REF]. Its application is currently limited to rocks subject to erosion rates > 2-3 mm/yr, i.e. in tectonically active regions.

Conversely to 10 Be/ 9 Be which yields denudation rates averaged across a catchment, detrital thermochronology (e.g. [START_REF] Bernet | Detrital Thermochronology -Provenance Analysis, Exhumation, and Landscape Evolution of Mountain Belts[END_REF] usually gives access to long-term maximum denudation rates from a catchment. The denudation rates are obtained from the lag-time , i.e. the difference between the thermochronological and depositional ages of the sample [START_REF] Garver | Exhumation history of orogenic highlands determined by detrital fissiontrack thermochronology[END_REF][START_REF] Bernet | Steady-state exhumation of the European Alps[END_REF]Bernet et al., , 2006;;[START_REF] Van Der Beek | Late Miocene-recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal[END_REF], with the assumption that transport time is negligible compared to the cooling time of minerals, and frequently employing a numerical thermal model (e.g. [START_REF] Brandon | Late Cenozoic exhumation of the Cascadia accretionary wedge in the Olympic Mountains, northwest Washington State[END_REF][START_REF] Rahl | Quantifying transient erosion of orogens with detrital thermochronology from syntectonic basin deposits[END_REF]Whipp et al., 2007;[START_REF] Braun | Quantifying rates of landscape evolution and tectonic processes by thermochronology and numerical modeling of crustal heat transport using PECUBE[END_REF]. A steady lag-time would point to steady denudation; a decrease in the lag-time would point to an acceleration of denudation, and conversely for an increase in the lag-time.

Detrital thermochronology requires several points to be taken into consideration. Sediment samples typically contain multiple age components, and the youngest component is frequently the only one considered for interpretation in lag-times. These age components are determined by inverse modelling the population of single grain ages of a sample (e.g. [START_REF] Brandon | Decomposition of mixed grain age distributions using Binomfit[END_REF]brief review in Naylor et al., 2015). As demonstrated in [START_REF] Naylor | Bias in detrital fission track grain-age populations: Implications for reconstructing changing erosion rates[END_REF] and classically overlooked in studies, the resolution of this modelling can be different along the stratigraphic record, with in particular lower resolution for older samples. In that case, the modelling can induce artificial shifts in lag-times that which prevent a correct interpretation.

Denudation rates derived from detrital thermochronometry are maximum denudation rates (e.g. [START_REF] Van Der Beek | Late Miocene-recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal[END_REF]) and they characterize only the area that erodes the more rapidly, independently of the evolution of the location and the relative size of this area. Superimposed to this consideration, mineral fertility may be variable across the catchment (e.g. central Himalaya, [START_REF] Amidon | U-Pb zircon ages as a sediment mixing tracer in the Nepal Himalaya[END_REF]Alps, Malusà et al., 2017;central Europe, Glotzbach et al., 2018), and lagtimes might reflect only a limited part of the catchment. In addition, some thermochronometers are subject to hydraulic sorting (e.g. muscovite 40 Ar/ 39 Ar, [START_REF] Gemignani | Downstream evolution of the thermochronologic age signal in the Brahmaputra catchment (eastern Himalaya): Implications for the detrital record of erosion[END_REF] or abrasion during transport (e.g. apatite (U-Th)/He, [START_REF] Rosenkranz | Understanding Geodynamic Processes from Sediments: Detrital Thermochronology and Cosmogenic Nuclide Analyses from the Himalayas[END_REF], which can influence the results.

For the thermochronometers sensitive to the lowest temperatures, in particular apatite fission tracks and apatite (U-Th)/He, samples may have been thermally partly reset during burial and present thermochronometric ages younger than depositional ages, thus preventing the determining of lag-times (e.g. Gavillot et al., 2018).

Furthermore, a shift in denudation involves a progressive modification of the thermal field. As explained in [START_REF] Rahl | Quantifying transient erosion of orogens with detrital thermochronology from syntectonic basin deposits[END_REF] modification is non-linear, and time of several Myr can be required to allow the unreset rocks to be denuded and the thermal field to get back to a steady state. Therefore, the thermochronometers sensitive to the lowest temperatures present an improved ability to determine the erosion history, even though all thermochronometers produce histories with large uncertainties in case of rapid changes in denudation rates [START_REF] Rahl | Quantifying transient erosion of orogens with detrital thermochronology from syntectonic basin deposits[END_REF]. Additionally, the resolution of most thermochronometers in environments with low denudation rates ( 0.5 mm/yr, [START_REF] Rahl | Quantifying transient erosion of orogens with detrital thermochronology from syntectonic basin deposits[END_REF] is undoubtedly too low to detect changes that happened in the late Cenozoic.

II.6.4.2. Detrital thermochronometric data

A not exhaustive compilation of detrital thermochronometric data is presented Table SII-4. To our knowledge, no dataset in Central Himalaya (e.g. Figure II-35, van der Beek et al., 2006;Chirouze et al., 2013) and the European Alps (e.g. Glotzbach et al., 2011) indicate an acceleration of maximum denudation in the late Cenozoic. However, a Zircon fission track and white mica 40 Ar/ 39 Ar dataset from the foreland basins close to the Himalayan eastern syntaxis (Lang et al., 2016) and a zircon fission track and rutile U-Pb dataset from the Bengal Fan (Figure II-36, Najman et al., 2019) indicate an acceleration at 3-7 Ma, which has been interpreted to be linked to the Namche Barwa denudation. These results remain presently contradicted by apatite and zircon fission tracks data from the Bengal Fan that show steady denudation since 9-12 Ma [START_REF] Huyghe | Persistent fast Himalayan exhumation since 12 Ma recorded by Apatite and Zircon Fission Track Dating from the Bengal Fan[END_REF]. Lag-times for rutile U-Pb and zircon fission tracks derived from the youngest population obtained with the algorithm of Galbraith, 2005 implemented in DensityPlotter [START_REF] Vermeesch | On the visualisation of detrital age distributions[END_REF]. Note that white mica 40 Ar/ 39 Ar and apatite U-Pb (Najman et al., 2019), along with apatite fission tracks [START_REF] Huyghe | Persistent fast Himalayan exhumation since 12 Ma recorded by Apatite and Zircon Fission Track Dating from the Bengal Fan[END_REF] extracted from the same sites do not show this shift in lagtimes observed in rutile U-Pb at 4 Ma (modified from Najman et al., 2019).

II.6.5. The in situ thermochronometric record

While detrital methods give access to the overall denudation of a catchment, in situ methods give insight on the local evolution of denudation, which may be more easily related to determined processes of erosion. This has been the case concerning regions impacted by glaciations. Acceleration of denudation was observed using low temperature thermochronometers such as apatite (U-Th)/He and 3 He/ 4 He, and sometimes apatite fission tracks. The setup of this acceleration is progressive from high latitudes to lower latitudes [START_REF] Valla | Late Cenozoic climate cooling, mountain erosion and relief evolution[END_REF]: ca. 30-35 Ma in Antarctica [START_REF] Thomson | The contribution of glacial erosion to shaping the hidden landscape of East Antarctica[END_REF] and Greenland (e.g. [START_REF] Bernard | Burial-induced oxygen-isotope reequilibration of fossil foraminifera explains ocean paleotemperature paradoxes[END_REF]), ca. 5-7 Ma in South Andes (Patagonia, Thomson et al., 2010), ca. 1.8-2 Ma in New Zealand [START_REF] Shuster | Thermochronometry Reveals Headward Propagation of Erosion in an Alpine Landscape[END_REF] and in North America (British Columbia, [START_REF] Shuster | Rapid Glacial Erosion at 1.8 Ma Revealed by 4He/3He Thermochronometry[END_REF], ca. 1 Ma in Western

European Alps [START_REF] Valla | Significant increase in relief of the European Alps during mid-Pleistocene glaciations[END_REF][START_REF] Valla | Late Neogene exhumation and relief development of the Aar and Aiguilles Rouges massifs (Swiss Alps) from lowtemperature thermochronology modeling and 4He/3He thermochronometry[END_REF]; but the acceleration may have initiated earlier, [START_REF] Vernon | Increase in late Neogene denudation of the European Alps confirmed by analysis of a fission-track thermochronology database[END_REF] and potentially in Central Himalaya [START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Blythe | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon fission track and apatite [U-Th]/He analyses: CENTRAL NEPAL PLIO-QUATERNARY EXHUMATION[END_REF], although this latter case might be unrelated to glaciations (e.g. [START_REF] Thiede | Large spatial and temporal variations in Himalayan denudation[END_REF]. show their results when their resolution parameter > 0.25. Herman et al., 2013 (Figure II-37) compiled 18,000 thermochronometric data of various thermochronometric systems and derived worldwide denudation rates using a linear inversion method [START_REF] Fox | A linear inversion method to infer exhumation rates in space and time from thermochronometric data[END_REF]. This linear inversion method has been debated because it may combine samples with separate denudation histories, which may led to artificial changes in denudation rates [START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Does spatial averaging of thermochronometric data contain a bias towards acceleration?[END_REF]. The work of [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] shows that the majority of thermochronometric datasets do not have the resolution to determine whether a global acceleration in denudation occurred, because of low spatial resolution, an insufficient number of thermochronometers measured, or because of low denudation rates, which concern all not tectonically active regions. However, this work also evidences that active orogens, among them the European Alps, the Andes, the Rocky Mountains and the Himalaya have locally experienced a coeval 1-to 4-fold increase in erosion rates at ca. 2-4 Ma. To explain the variations of sediment deposition, some workers advanced that global sea-level fluctuations may have alter the partitioning of sediments between the shelf, the slope and rise and the deep sea [START_REF] Worsley | Sea-level fluctuations and deep-sea sedimentation rates[END_REF]Hay, 1988a, b). This hypothesis has a link with the emergence of sequence stratigraphy (e.g. [START_REF] Posamentier | Eustatic controls on clastic deposition II-sequence and systems tract models[END_REF]Vail, 1988, Vail et al., 1991) and the research about turbiditic fans (review in [START_REF] Bouma | Fine-grained turbidite systems[END_REF]; e.g. Congo-Zaire fan, [START_REF] Savoye | Geological overview of the Angola-Congo margin, the Congo deep-sea fan and its submarine valleys[END_REF]Bengal Fan, Curray et al., 2003). Deposition on the continental margins or their erosion is driven by accommodation space, which originates from the balance between the sedimentary flux, subsidence, and sea-level. The global sea-level controls this balance at 10-100 kyr timescales (e.g. Hay et al., 1988b). A high sea-level favours deposition on the continental margin whereas a low sea-level favours incision of the shelf and produces the bypass of sediments and their export to the deep sea .

The growth of ice-sheets in the Northern Hemisphere produced the late Cenozoic global drop of average sea-level [START_REF] Miller | The Phanerozoic Record of Global Sea-Level Change[END_REF][START_REF] Miller | A 180-Million-Year Record of Sea Level and Ice Volume Variations from Continental Margin and Deep-Sea Isotopic Records[END_REF]. Coevally the sea-level variations in elevation increased (100-140 m, [START_REF] Miller | The Phanerozoic Record of Global Sea-Level Change[END_REF] with the variations of the shoreline position (100 km). This would have induced both an acceleration of shelf denudation, progradation of deltas and an acceleration of accumulation in the deep sea.

However, the sediment export to the deep sea is probably not limited to periods of low-stand, contrary to the predictions of the early sequence stratigraphic models (e.g. [START_REF] Posamentier | Eustatic controls on clastic deposition II-sequence and systems tract models[END_REF]Vail, 1988, Vail et al., 1991). [START_REF] Burgess | Rates of delta progradation during highstands: consequences for timing of deposition in deep-marine systems[END_REF] show that the timespan to form a delta is longer than periods of high-stands, which suggests that deposition also occurs during high-stands, as shown during the Holocene for the Bengal Fan (Figure II-40, Bergmann, 2018, and earlier studies of Weber et al., 1997, 2003;Mitchell et al., 2003).

The sea-level fluctuations also trigger drainage reorganisation, particularly in wide continental margins, when low-stands favour large drainage basins (e.g. North Sea, Overeem et al., 2001; Barent's sea, [START_REF] Laberg | Late Pliocene-Pleistocene development of the Barents Sea Ice Sheet[END_REF]. As seen above, these reorganisations have an impact on accumulation. In this model, a large turbiditic fan, such as the Bengal Fan, is fed mainly during low sea-level, when the submarine canyon may be directly connected to the delta. During high sea-level, only the upper part of the fan is fed (from [START_REF] Curray | The Bengal Fan: morphology, geometry, stratigraphy, history and processes[END_REF]. in 1994and SO125 in 1997(from Bergmann, 2018).

II.7.2. Active tectonics

To explain the global increase in the atmospheric CO 2 concentrations in absence of a change in mid-ocean ridge spreading [START_REF] Sclater | Oceans and continents: similarities and differences in the mechanisms of heat loss[END_REF]Cogné and Humler, 2008), Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992, considered the tectonic uplift of the Himalaya and the Tibetan plateau which still was temporally poorly constrained at the end of the 20th century (e.g. Tapponier et al., 2001, see subchapter Himalaya). The modern Himalaya yields a large proportion of dissolved flux (e.g. [START_REF] Milliman | River discharge to the coastal ocean: a global synthesis[END_REF], which might suggest that relief and precipitations had a stronger control on chemical weathering than temperature (Raymo and Ruddiman, 1992) Opposing the [START_REF] Raymo | Geochemical evidence supporting TC Chamberlin's theory of glaciation[END_REF]Ruddiman, 1992's thesis, Molnar and[START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF] demonstrated that the paleobotanical markers point to climate change instead of increase in elevation. Similarly, the geomorphological and stratigraphic markers that point to supposedly "youthful landscapes" and that are classically used to sustain late Cenozoic mountain uplift only involve accelerated physical erosion and incision, which decrease mean elevation. Erosion produces in turn uplift of mountain ridges and peaks by isostatic rebound, which cannot fully negate the impact of erosion on mean elevation. In opposition to Raymo et al., 1988, Molnar and[START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF] posited that climate cooling was the original driver of a potential acceleration of erosion and not the reverse, and that accelerated erosion only further degraded climate by a positive feedback.

This topic of isostatic-flexural response of mountain ridges to acceleration of denudation has also been used to explain the apparent reduction of accumulation in the Ganga Himalayan foreland basin (Figure II-41, Burbank, 1992). However, [START_REF] Whipple | Geomorphic limits to climate-induced increases in topographic relief[END_REF] show that the formation of relief linked to this process is probably limited in active tectonic mountain ranges.

Even though there is neither global tectonic uplift or any major tectonic uplift to explain a possible increase in denudation rates in the late Cenozoic, one can only observe that tectonics and climate often combine to produce ones of the regions with the highest denudation rates, such as the Himalaya, Taiwan (e.g. [START_REF] Dadson | Links between erosion, runoff variability and seismicity in the Taiwan orogen[END_REF] and Borneo (Milliman and Farnworth, 2011). Shifts in tectonic patterns of different types have been evidenced for the late Cenozoic in the eastern Himalaya (e.g. Zeitler et al., 2014;Bracciali et al., 2016;King et al., 2016a; see chapter above), in New Zealand (review in [START_REF] Jiao | Late Cenozoic exhumation model of New Zealand: Impacts from tectonics and climate[END_REF], in Taiwan (review in [START_REF] Beyssac | Late Cenozoic metamorphic evolution and exhumation of Taiwan[END_REF] and in the European Alps (e.g. [START_REF] Baran | The late Miocene to Holocene erosion pattern of the Alpine foreland basin reflects Eurasian slab unloading beneath the western Alps rather than global climate change[END_REF][START_REF] Fox | Rapid exhumation in the Western Alps driven by slab detachment and glacial erosion[END_REF].

All of these examples show an apparent acceleration of denudation during the late Cenozoic, but the respective roles between tectonics and climate remain delicate to disentangle (King et al., 2016a;[START_REF] Jiao | Late Cenozoic exhumation model of New Zealand: Impacts from tectonics and climate[END_REF].

II.7.3. A shift to dry and stormy climate?

With their thesis, Molnar and England, 1990 followed early workers who assumed that global climate change rather than tectonics was the driver of these variations of sediment accumulation in the deep sea. In their seminal paper, [START_REF] Davies | Estimates of Cenozoic Oceanic Sedimentation Rates[END_REF] acknowledge that continental denudation in modern times is lower in arid regions such as Australia than elsewhere and advance that a potentially wetter climate in the late Cenozoic may have accelerated denudation. Even though wetter conditions, following an arid period, were effectively observed in some regions as in SW North America [START_REF] Antevs | Cenozoic climates of the Great Basin[END_REF][START_REF] Chapin | Interplay of oceanographic and paleoclimate events with tectonism during middle to late Miocene sedimentation across the southwestern USA[END_REF]Galloway et al., 2011), the hypothesis of a global amplification of precipitations coeval with global cooling is contradicted by the progressive expansion of grasslands over woodlands since 24 Ma (review in [START_REF] Retallack | Cenozoic Expansion of Grasslands and Climatic Cooling[END_REF]compilation in Edwards et al., 2010) and the drying of Africa (review in [START_REF] Demenocal | Plio-pleistocene African climate[END_REF] and Asia (Detmann et al., 2001;review in Clift and Webb, 2018). Molnar and[START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Climate change, flooding in arid environments, and erosion rates[END_REF] advance that a stormier climate caused by the increase in the latitudinal gradient of atmospheric temperatures could explain that erosion may have accelerated in spite of a worldwide increased aridity. They reconsider the frequent "thick deposits of conglomerates dated from the Cenozoic [which] surround steep mountain ranges", a potential evidence of a change of frequency and intensity of fluvial discharges. In areas where tectonics and ice are absent, river incision becomes the dominant process in mechanical denudation. River incision is controlled by the capacity of the river to transport bedload, which is favoured during high discharge caused by heavy storms or upstream snowmelt. In modern and late Pleistocene times, arid climates are characterized by rarer and more intense floods than wet climates (Turcotte and Green, 1993;[START_REF] Molnar | Climate change, flooding in arid environments, and erosion rates[END_REF] and Dead Sea Pleistocene lacustrine deposits, [START_REF] Frostick | Climatic versus tectonic controls of fan sequences: lessons from the Dead Sea, Israel[END_REF]. This suggests that climate cooling and drying may have [START_REF] Bookhagen | Abnormal monsoon years and their control on erosion and sediment flux in the high, arid northwest Himalaya[END_REF]. increased the intensity and the frequency of rare floods, and thus increased erosion rates, despite a decrease in average discharge [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Climate change, flooding in arid environments, and erosion rates[END_REF].

# * # * Kali Gandaki Sutlej E N W S
It should be noted that the hypothesis of a higher capacity of fluvial transport of sediments is compatible with the sea-level cause hypothesis, and would have enhanced the effects of lowstands with large volumes of sediments exported to the deep sea.

However, this hypothesis that a drier climate favours erosion is not sustained by the sedimentary record of continental margins, for which accumulation decelerate during the drier episodes at ca. 5-10 Ma (NW Gulf of Mexico, Hay et al., 1989;Galloway et al., 2011;Indus Fan and Pearl River mouth basin, Clift et al., 2002;[START_REF] Clift | Controls on the erosion of Cenozoic Asia and the flux of clastic sediment to the ocean[END_REF]Red River, Clift, 2006;Indo-Gangetic floodplain, Métivier et al., 1999).

Additionally, the modern global sedimentary load is not dominated by arid regions, such as Australia, but by South Asia (compilation in Milliman and Farnsworth, 2011, p. 28 and p. 43), characterized by the combination of active tectonics and a warm and wet climate.

II.7.4. A shift to variable climate?

In contrast with [START_REF] Davies | Estimates of Cenozoic Oceanic Sedimentation Rates[END_REF][START_REF] Donnelly | Worldwide continental denudation and climatic deterioration during the late Tertiary: Evidence from deep-sea sediments[END_REF] advances that climatic conditions by themselves, either wet or glacial/periglacial conditions, cannot have such a large and global impact on denudation rates. With an analogy with erosion processes in Australia [START_REF] Douglas | Man, vegetation and the sediment yields of rivers[END_REF], his thesis posits that the increase in the climatic variability during the late Cenozoic effectively favoured an acceleration of denudation. [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF] [START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF][START_REF] Lisiecki | A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records[END_REF][START_REF] Cramer | Ocean overturning since the Late Cretaceous: Inferences from a new benthic foraminiferal isotope compilation[END_REF] presents a progressive increase in the peak to peak variations, from 0.5‰ at 4 Ma to 2‰ at ca. 1 Ma, through the start of glaciations in the Northern Hemisphere at ca. 2. 6 Ma (Shackleton et al., 1975).

In addition to the deep sea δ 18 O record, [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF] also observe the aeolian sedimentary record in North China, consisting in loess interlayered by paleosols [START_REF] Porter | Cyclic Quaternary alluviation and terracing in a nonglaciated drainage basin on the north flank of the Qinling Shan, central China[END_REF]review in Zhang et al., 2001 and[START_REF] Tm Muhs | Quaternary loesspaleosol sequences as examples of climatedriven sedimentary extremes[END_REF]. They advance that both records show a switch from a stable climate to a climate rapidly evolving from dry and cold to wet and warm extreme conditions, i.e. icehouse to greenhouse, and reversely. According to them, greenhouse might precondition bedrock by periglacial fractures, landslides or soil production. Icehouse in turn might favour transport either by glaciers or by stormy floods. Because the landscape response time to a change in denudation is too long (0. 5-2.5 Myr, Whipple, 2001) compared to the length of orbital cycles (see above, Figure eccentricity: 100 and 400 kyr,obliquity: 41 kyr,precession: 19 and 23 kyr), this switch might prevent any steady state between relief evolution and denudation, and thus lead to an acceleration of denudation. This thesis appears appealing because it suggests that glacial erosion is not the main driver of the acceleration of denudation. This could explain why accumulation rates do not increase coevally with climate cooling from 15 Ma onwards (δ 18 O curve of [START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF]) and why accumulation rates remain low at 25-35 Ma, despite a cool period characterized by the setup of the Antarctic ice-sheet and the related initiation of bottom cold water currents in the Southern Hemisphere.

However, the very foundations of this thesis can be debated. When they write "the change from a virtually unchanging climate to one that has been changing rapidly, as dictated by Milankovitch forcing", [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF] implicitly suggest that the deep sea δ 18 O variations increase in frequency over time, i.e. from an almost null frequency to a high frequency, which is incorrect (Figure II-18, Zachos et al., 2001;[START_REF] Cramer | Ocean overturning since the Late Cretaceous: Inferences from a new benthic foraminiferal isotope compilation[END_REF]. They are based on 19-23 kyr precession cycles in the early Cenozoic and shift to 40 kyr obliquity cycles at ca. 33 Ma, coeval with the setup of the Antarctic ice-sheet. Furthermore they are dominated by 100 kyr eccentricity since 0.7-0.8 Ma (Liesiecki and Raymo, 2005). In addition, from 33 Ma onwards, the δ 18 O record is dominantly impacted by the volume of ice-sheets and thus the increase in amplitude does not necessarily imply an increase in amplitude of temperatures. The compilation of sea surface temperatures by [START_REF] Herbert | Late Miocene global cooling and the rise of modern ecosystems[END_REF] shows that an increase in the amplitude of temperatures effectively occurs regionally, but not globally. Although some areas such as North China [START_REF] Porter | Cyclic Quaternary alluviation and terracing in a nonglaciated drainage basin on the north flank of the Qinling Shan, central China[END_REF]review in Zhang et al., 2001 and[START_REF] Tm Muhs | Quaternary loesspaleosol sequences as examples of climatedriven sedimentary extremes[END_REF] and Scandinavia (e.g. Hjelstuen et al.,1999;[START_REF] Rise | Large-scale development of the mid-Norwegian margin during the last 3 million years[END_REF]Dowdeswell et al., 2010) were subject to extreme variations, others, such as Borneo [START_REF] Hall | Cenozoic sedimentation and tectonics in Borneo: climatic influences on orogenesis[END_REF][START_REF] Morley | Estimating hinterland exhumation from late orogenic basin volume, NW Borneo[END_REF], appear to have been subject to steady climatic conditions over the late Cenozoic.

II.7.5. Enhanced glacial erosion?

Even though early workers [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF] raised the possibility that glaciations produced an acceleration of erosion, the thesis that glacial erosion had a severe impact on worldwide mountain ranges was only developed since the paper of [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] In tectonically active mountain ranges, fluvial and glacial erosion rates can reach similar values [START_REF] Hallet | Rates of erosion and sediment evacuation by glaciers: A review of field data and their implications[END_REF]Koppes et al., 2012), probably because tectonics already supply a consistent volume of fractured rocks.

But it is not systematically the case (e.g. [START_REF] Montgomery | Valley formation by fluvial and glacial erosion[END_REF]. In general, glacial erosion , produced by quarrying and abrasion, presents spatially highly variable rates and depends on the ice-sliding velocity (e.g. compilation of [START_REF] Hallet | Rates of erosion and sediment evacuation by glaciers: A review of field data and their implications[END_REF]Central Nepal, Godard et al., 2012). The velocity is controlled by snow accumulation, which increases with precipitation and steep relief, as shown for the Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand (Figure II-43, Herman et al., 2015). As demonstrated in Herman et al., 2015, the control of snow accumulation and slope on velocity and the control of velocity on erosion are non-linear. This means that in areas of fast sliding (i.e. mainly in glacial valleys), a minor change in climate or relief delivers a substantial impact on erosion rates.

The impact of glacial erosion goes beyond glacial valleys. Using numerical modelling, [START_REF] Steer | Bimodal Plio-Quaternary glacial erosion of fjords and low-relief surfaces in Scandinavia[END_REF][START_REF] Pedersen | Controls of initial topography on temporal and spatial patterns of glacial erosion[END_REF][START_REF] Egholm | Formation of plateau landscapes on glaciated continental margins[END_REF] showed that the elevated plateaux at high latitudes were the product of glacial erosion rather than preserved remnants of a preglacial topography, as classically presumed. As proposed by [START_REF] Egholm | Formation of plateau landscapes on glaciated continental margins[END_REF], glacial erosion may increase or decrease relief in function of "the wavelength of the underlying topography". In addition, glacial erosion has the ability to limit mountain elevation and shape relief above snowline, through the so-called "glacial buzzsaw", evidenced in c. Erosion rates computed from the suspended load measured with a gauge downstream the glacier terminus from nov, 2013 to apr. 2014, with the (verified) assumption that the volume of sediments stored in the glacier is constant. Erosion rates and velocities integrated on a 1-km bin size. Error bars originate from the temporal variability of the suspended load (modified from Herman et al., 2015). [START_REF] Brozović | Climatic Limits on Landscape Development in the Northwestern Himalaya[END_REF]. The timing of this buzzsaw can be debated, as [START_REF] Sternai | Spatial and temporal variations of glacial erosion in the Rhône valley (Swiss Alps): Insights from numerical modeling[END_REF] suggest with numeric modelling calibrated on the Alps that the buzzsaw may occur only lately in glaciations, after the headward propagation of glacial erosion. The impact of glacial erosion is not limited to the region above snowline, as the glaciers also modify the hypsometry below the snowline [START_REF] Egholm | Glacial effects limiting mountain height[END_REF], hence causing a side effect on fluvial incision even during the interglacial period (potential cause of the results of Herman et al., 2010b in New Zealand).

North West Himalaya by

Even though glacial erosion rates were probably important in mountain ranges in the late Cenozoic,

there is an open debate about the evolution of glacial erosion at the timescale of several million years.

Numerical modelling (Figure II-44, Pedersen and Egholm, 2013) and geomorphologic studies (Alps, Norton et al., 2010) show that early glaciations precondition topography so that the following glaciations expand more rapidly and colonize more easily previously unglaciated areas with minimal climate forcing (e.g. glacial valleys below snowline)). With this thesis, we would expect that as cooling deepens and glaciations extend, glacial erosion rates should increase. However, compilations of short-term and longterm erosion rates (Koppes et al., 2012), along with thermochronometric studies [START_REF] Tochilin | Erosional history of the Prydz Bay sector of East Antarctica from detrital apatite and zircon geo-and thermochronology multidating[END_REF][START_REF] Christeleit | Miocene development of alpine glacial relief in the Patagonian Andes, as revealed by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF] suggest that the acceleration effect of glaciations on erosion vanishes after several Myr.

The whole reasoning about the acceleration of erosion caused by glaciations may be not valid for tectonically active and wet regions located at low latitudes, in particular in South Asia. Temperatures decrease has been limited compared to mid and high latitudes. Even though glaciations were extensive in the last glacial cycles (e.g. [START_REF] Owen | Nature and timing of Quaternary glaciation in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen[END_REF], tectonics combined with the monsoonal climate might rapidly correct during the interglacial period the modification of the hypsometry realised during the glacial period, thus limiting the preconditioning effect that favours large extension of ice-sheets and glacial erosion.

II.8. TABLES

In Tables attached to the manuscript 2008) or later at ca. 2-3 Ma (e.g. [START_REF] Najman | Evolving strain partitioning in the Eastern Himalaya: The growth of the Shillong Plateau[END_REF], followed by its later abutment by the Indo-Burman wedge after 2 Ma (Maurin and Rangin, 2009). The Himalayan distal turbiditic system was impacted by the Sunda subduction, which probably cuts the Himalayan supply of the Nicobar Fan at ca. 2 Ma (McNeill et al., 2017) and lets the Bengal Fan the main distal system.

III.1.2. Climate

The late Cenozoic global climate cooling is neither synchronous nor homogeneous across the planet. Cooling starts at ca. 10-6 Ma at the high latitudes (and possibly earlier in the Southern Hemisphere)

and progressively expands to reach the lower latitudes at ca. 4-2 Ma (Herbert et al., 2016). The amplitude of cooling is larger in high-than in low-latitudes [START_REF] Herbert | Late Miocene global cooling and the rise of modern ecosystems[END_REF], thus increasing the latitudinal temperature gradient over time. This cooling was associated with the early formation of ice-caps or even ice-sheets at high latitudes [START_REF] Christeleit | Miocene development of alpine glacial relief in the Patagonian Andes, as revealed by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF]Biermann et al., 2017). Without evidence of early glaciations at low latitudes (e.g. [START_REF] Owen | Nature and timing of Quaternary glaciation in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen[END_REF] and considering the global benthic δ 18 O record [START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF][START_REF] Hansen | Target atmospheric CO2: Where should humanity aim?[END_REF], ice caps might develop only after 2.8 Ma at lower latitudes.

Along with the orbital fluctuations of temperatures and of ice-sheet growth and demise [START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF], the amplitude of sea-level fluctuations progressively increases from 30-40 m before 6.4 Ma to > 100 m since 0.8 Ma [START_REF] Miller | The Phanerozoic Record of Global Sea-Level Change[END_REF].

The possible impact of the late Cenozoic cooling on aridity is not clear, since the Cenozoic as a whole is subject to an increased aridity which begins with the expansion of grasses at 24-10 Ma [START_REF] Edwards | The Origins of C4 Grasslands: Integrating Evolutionary and Ecosystem Science[END_REF] and continues with the probable formation of deserts at 9-5 Ma (Schuster et al., 2006;[START_REF] Arancibia | K-Ar and 40Ar/39Ar geochronology of supergene processes in the Atacama Desert, Northern Chile: tectonic and climatic relations[END_REF]. The expansion of C 4 plants, more adapted to low CO 2 atmospheric concentrations, is potentially linked to multiple causes [START_REF] Edwards | The Origins of C4 Grasslands: Integrating Evolutionary and Ecosystem Science[END_REF]. Even though a coeval decrease and stabilisation of atmospheric CO 2 concentrations can now be evidenced (compilation of [START_REF] Foster | Future climate forcing potentially without precedent in the last 420 million years[END_REF] and data of [START_REF] Lüthi | High-resolution carbon dioxide concentration record 650,000-800,000 years before present[END_REF], the origin of the late Cenozoic cooling remains unknown.

In the Himalaya, even though the Indus region potentially underwent a reduction of weathering since 8-10 Ma [START_REF] Clift | Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity[END_REF], the record of the Bengal Fan at 8°N point to a stable low weathering regime in the Central and Eastern region [START_REF] France-Lanord | Neogene Himalayan erosion regime and climate recorded in the Bengal Fan at 8•N (IODP Exp. 354)[END_REF], which probably indicates that monsoonal conditions remain stable over the period.

III.1.3. Chemical denudation

Global silicate chemical weathering rates seems to have been subject only to limited 2-σ variations below 40% since 10 Ma according the seawater 10 Be/ 9 Be record [START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF] but only 6 Ma according the seawater δ 7 Li record [START_REF] Misra | Lithium Isotope History of Cenozoic Seawater: Changes in Silicate Weathering and Reverse Weathering[END_REF]. These limited variations seem at odds with the previous significant increase in chemical weathering rates at 6-15 Ma [START_REF] Misra | Lithium Isotope History of Cenozoic Seawater: Changes in Silicate Weathering and Reverse Weathering[END_REF], despite global cooling and increased aridity [START_REF] Zachos | Trends, Rhythms, and Aberrations in Global Climate 65 Ma to Present[END_REF][START_REF] Edwards | The Origins of C4 Grasslands: Integrating Evolutionary and Ecosystem Science[END_REF].

The places where these past variations occur are undetermined, but might not concern some tropical and tectonically active regions such as the Himalayan region [START_REF] Clift | Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity[END_REF][START_REF] France-Lanord | Neogene Himalayan erosion regime and climate recorded in the Bengal Fan at 8•N (IODP Exp. 354)[END_REF].

This stability of silicate chemical weathering rates might imply that global erosion rates remained also stable in the late Cenozoic. However, the relationship between silicate weathering and erosion are not linear (e.g. Lupker et al., 2012b;[START_REF] Moore | Tracking the relationship between mountain uplift, silicate weathering, and long-term CO2 consumption with Ca isotopes: Southern Alps, New Zealand[END_REF]discussion in Norton and Schlunegger, 2017) and it appears that silicate weathering rates may have decreased during glacial periods even in tectonic areas (Himalaya, Lupker et al., 2013).

III.1.4. Physical denudation

III.1.4.1. Sediment accumulation rates

A global acceleration of erosion remains presently unevidenced by sediment accumulation rates, or their more evolved version, the sedimentary budgets. Because of the statistical approach, the deep sea record can present an artificial global increase in accumulation rates which is not seen when focussing each oceanic basin (Hay et al., 1988;[START_REF] Olson | Variation of ocean sediment thickness with crustal age[END_REF]. Accumulation rates and sedimentary budgets are impacted by the capacity of tectonics and glaciations to shift drainage divides (e.g. [START_REF] Kuhlmann | Provenance of Pliocene sediments and paleoenvironmental changes in the southern North Sea region using Samarium-Neodymium (Sm/Nd) provenance ages and clay mineralogy[END_REF][START_REF] Lang | Antecedence of the Yarlung-Siang-Brahmaputra River, eastern Himalaya[END_REF] and may be not reliable when not including a provenance study, or a geomorphologic study on the continent (e.g. [START_REF] Grimaud | Cenozoic sediment budget of West Africa and the Niger delta[END_REF]. They are also impacted by incorrect dating of formations, as shown for Central Asia [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF]Charreau et al., 2009a). For the Central and Eastern Himalaya, despite previous attempts [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF], a sedimentary budget is almost impossible to resolve presently because only a limited number of drilled cores are available at the core of the turbiditic Bengal Fan (Exp. 354, France-Lanord et al., 2016a) andNicobar Fan (Exp. 362, McNeill et al., 2016). In addition, the Himalayan sedimentary basins were impacted by tectonics in the late Cenozoic (see above).

III.1.4.2. Detrital thermochronometry

The limited number of detrital thermochronometric studies do not suggest an acceleration of erosion in mountain ranges in the late Cenozoic (e.g. [START_REF] Van Der Beek | Late Miocene-recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal[END_REF]Glotzbach et al., 2011;[START_REF] Huyghe | Persistent fast Himalayan exhumation since 12 Ma recorded by Apatite and Zircon Fission Track Dating from the Bengal Fan[END_REF]. Only two studies have been realised at the orogen-scale (Central and West Himalaya, Bengal Fan at 8°N, Najman et al., 2019;[START_REF] Huyghe | Persistent fast Himalayan exhumation since 12 Ma recorded by Apatite and Zircon Fission Track Dating from the Bengal Fan[END_REF] but they yield divergent results. The present methodology (see e.g. [START_REF] Braun | Extracting information on the spatial variability in erosion rate stored in detrital cooling age distributions in river sands[END_REF] only detect the variation of erosion of the places denuding the fastest and cannot check without a provenance study if these places move, change of extent and if erosion rates change in areas eroding more slowly (e.g. Najman et al., 2019, who interpret their results as the shift of Himalayan fast denudation to the eastern syntaxis in the late Cenozoic).

III.1.4.3. Detrital cosmogenic nuclides

In contrast with detrital thermochronometry, detrital cosmogenic nuclides, such as 10 Be/ 9 Be (e.g. [START_REF] Schaller | Paleoerosion Rates from Cosmogenic 10Be in a 1.3 Ma Terrace Sequence: Response of the River Meuse to Changes in Climate and Rock Uplift[END_REF] yield erosion rates averaged across a catchment on short-timescales. Although no study has been realised at the orogen-scale, published studies give relevant yet divergent results. Greenland (ODP sites 987 and 918, [START_REF] Bierman | A persistent and dynamic East Greenland Ice Sheet over the past 7.5 million years[END_REF], Central Asia (Tianshan foreland basin, [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF] and Central Himalaya (Siwalik foreland basin, Surai section, [START_REF] Puchol | Détermination des paléo-taux d'érosion par l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques[END_REF] show an acceleration of erosion from 9-6 to 3-4 Ma, followed by a stabilisation since 3-4 Ma along with a high variability in some regions (ODP 918, Tianshan, Surai section). Conversely, East Central Andes (NW Argentina, [START_REF] Val | Reconciling tectonic shortening, sedimentation and spatial patterns of erosion from 10Be paleo-erosion rates in the Argentine Precordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Amidon | Mio-Pliocene aridity in the south-central Andes associated with Southern Hemisphere cold periods[END_REF]Pingel et al., 2019) show a deceleration of erosion since 7-4 Ma to 2 Ma, with no available data for the 2-0 Ma period (except modern ones). Against these results, one can raise the rarely discussed problem of a shift of drainage basins and provenance (e.g. [START_REF] Puchol | Détermination des paléo-taux d'érosion par l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques[END_REF], but the problem concerns all the studies), recycling, or recent exposure (except the marine record of [START_REF] Bierman | A persistent and dynamic East Greenland Ice Sheet over the past 7.5 million years[END_REF].

However, these studies reinforce the idea that global climate cooling did not have comparable effects across the Earth's surface.

III.1.4.4. In situ thermochronometry

Even though in situ thermochronometry can only yield local erosion rates, this approach makes it possible to determine which surface processes might have accelerate erosion in the late Cenozoic. A set of studies demonstrated a late Cenozoic acceleration of erosion in glaciated tectonically active mountain ranges, with an early phase at 10-5 Ma in South Andes, followed by a deceleration [START_REF] Thomson | Glaciation as a destructive and constructive control on mountain building[END_REF][START_REF] Christeleit | Miocene development of alpine glacial relief in the Patagonian Andes, as revealed by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF], an acceleration phase at 1.8-2 to 0 Ma in the Northern Rocky Mountains [START_REF] Shuster | Rapid Glacial Erosion at 1.8 Ma Revealed by 4He/3He Thermochronometry[END_REF] and in the Southern Alps, New Zealand [START_REF] Shuster | Thermochronometry Reveals Headward Propagation of Erosion in an Alpine Landscape[END_REF] and more recently at 1-0 Ma in the Western European Alps [START_REF] Valla | Significant increase in relief of the European Alps during mid-Pleistocene glaciations[END_REF][START_REF] Valla | Late Neogene exhumation and relief development of the Aar and Aiguilles Rouges massifs (Swiss Alps) from lowtemperature thermochronology modeling and 4He/3He thermochronometry[END_REF][START_REF] Valla | Multi-phase late-Neogene exhumation history of the Aar massif, Swiss central Alps[END_REF] and in Central Himalaya [START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF], although the effective start is less constrained in this area (between 2.5 and 0.9, [START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF]. [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] assemble a worldwide compilation > 17,000 thermochronometric data and realise a 1-D inversion to obtain an evolution of denudation rates across the Earth. A recent debate has arisen concerning the justification of this inversion [START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Does spatial averaging of thermochronometric data contain a bias towards acceleration?[END_REF] but it does not appear to challenge the two main results of their study. First, thermochronometry do not have the resolution to detect a late Cenozoic change in erosion in places subject to low erosion rates, included in some tectonically active regions. This concerns the majority of places on Earth. Second, they show that a majority of places where an acceleration of erosion is detected are in tectonic glaciated mountain ranges, whatever the latitude. [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] interpret their results as pointing to a global acceleration of erosion in mountain ranges caused by glaciations. However, complementary thermochronometric studies (King et al., 2016a;[START_REF] Jiao | Late Cenozoic exhumation model of New Zealand: Impacts from tectonics and climate[END_REF] highlight the difficulty to disentangle the role of tectonics and climate in a change of erosion rates in regions of high erosion rates. In addition, other thermochronometric data suggest that the potential acceleration was probably not coeval worldwide and rather followed a latitudinal progression [START_REF] Valla | Late Cenozoic climate cooling, mountain erosion and relief evolution[END_REF]. [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] acknowledge that their approach does not have resolution on locations where tectonics are absent, and in particular the places which were/are subject to the largest extent of glaciations, i.e. the Arctic and Antarctic regions, where thermochronometric data suggest an early acceleration at 30-20 Ma [START_REF] Tochilin | Erosional history of the Prydz Bay sector of East Antarctica from detrital apatite and zircon geo-and thermochronology multidating[END_REF][START_REF] Thomson | The contribution of glacial erosion to shaping the hidden landscape of East Antarctica[END_REF][START_REF] Bernard | Burial-induced oxygen-isotope reequilibration of fossil foraminifera explains ocean paleotemperature paradoxes[END_REF]. Notably, the phase of acceleration of erosion caused by glaciations may lead after several Myr to a slowing of the acceleration and stable erosion rates, as observed in Antarctica since 20-10 Ma [START_REF] Tochilin | Erosional history of the Prydz Bay sector of East Antarctica from detrital apatite and zircon geo-and thermochronology multidating[END_REF], locally in the South Andes since 5 Ma [START_REF] Christeleit | Miocene development of alpine glacial relief in the Patagonian Andes, as revealed by lowtemperature thermochronometry[END_REF] and potentially in the Southern Alps of New Zealand since 0.1-1 Ma (Herman et al., 2010b;[START_REF] Jiao | Late Cenozoic exhumation model of New Zealand: Impacts from tectonics and climate[END_REF].

III.2. AIM OF THE THESIS

The aim of this thesis is to obtain an independent temporal record of erosion rates that covers the scale of an orogen located at low-latitudes for the late Cenozoic. This record would make it possible to further investigate the topics developed in the following.

III.2.1. A record of erosion at an orogenic scale

From the synthesis above, it emerges that orogens have a central place in the debate about the relationship between climate change and erosion. Their erosion rates are sufficiently high to make it possible to detect variations. Tectonics favour physical erosion of rocks and erosion processes are only limited by climatic variations. However, tectonics also appear as a drawback since disentangling the tectonic and climatic roles remains a challenge. Further understanding on the relationship between tectonics, climate change and erosion requires a temporal record (1) that aggregates erosion rates at the orogen-scale, (2) that contrary to sediment budgets is independent of transport processes, and (3) which signal is not subject to interferences of the areas with the highest erosion rates, as detrital thermochronometry is.

Such a record still does not exist. Although evidence of accelerated erosion in the late Cenozoic is available for several orogens, this evidence remains limited to the parts of an orogen that exhume the fastest and we still do not know if this acceleration was compensated by a slowdown in the rest of the orogen. This prevents further understanding of the orogenic response and deformation to climate change.

III.2.2. A new erosion record for South Asia

The acquisition of an erosion record for South Asia is necessary to constrain the potential impact of the global increase in sediment export on carbon burial and atmospheric CO 2 consumption. South Asia is the locus of tectonically active mountain ranges and high precipitations. In modern times, as it was probably the case over the late Cenozoic, the global sedimentary flux is dominated by South Asia. Even if erosion may have accelerated elsewhere, an absence of acceleration of erosion in this region would imply that the increase in sediment export may have only been limited and carbon burial probably had a limited impact on the atmospheric CO 2 variations of the late Cenozoic.

III.2.3. A check on erosion patterns and increased variability at low latitudes

A new erosion record will make it possible to further investigate the spatial and temporal patterns of the change of erosion rates during climate cooling.

In situ thermochronometric datasets and detrital 10 Be/ 9 Be datasets show that climate cooling can induce a change in erosion rates (e.g. [START_REF] Shuster | Rapid Glacial Erosion at 1.8 Ma Revealed by 4He/3He Thermochronometry[END_REF][START_REF] Schaller | Paleoerosion Rates from Cosmogenic 10Be in a 1.3 Ma Terrace Sequence: Response of the River Meuse to Changes in Climate and Rock Uplift[END_REF]. This change can be an acceleration, as occurred during the glacial carving of formerly unglaciated valleys. Erosion may have accelerated in glaciated areas because of the possible ability of glaciations to precondition landscapes and favour a larger extent of ice in the following glaciations [START_REF] Pedersen | Glaciations in response to climate variations preconditioned by evolving topography[END_REF]. However, this preconditioning may have been limited at low latitudes when precipitations and active tectonics rapidly change landscapes during interglacial periods. Without the ability to rapidly cover unglaciated areas, it is uncertain that erosion would have accelerated.

Periglacial areas have been probably of larger extent than glacial areas during the late Cenozoic.

There is still no clear status for an acceleration of erosion in these areas. In situ thermochronometry does not have much information to provide (e.g. [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]. Detrital 10 Be/ 9 Be datasets diverge, some indicating an acceleration, others indicating a deceleration (e.g. [START_REF] Granger | Pliocene-Pleistocene incision of the Green River, Kentucky, determined from radioactive decay of cosmogenic 26Al and 10Be in Mammoth Cave sediments[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF] see also [START_REF] Delunel | Frost-cracking control on catchment denudation rates: Insights from in situ produced 10Be concentrations in stream sediments (Ecrins-Pelvoux massif, French Western Alps)[END_REF]. The conditions to enhanced periglacial erosion require sufficient water, rocks sufficiently fractured and an area that is sufficiently large and subject to subfreezing temperatures.

Low latitude regions, with high precipitations and active tectonics fit to the two first conditions but not particularly to the third one, because of their high relief. This would raise the question if periglacial processes were sufficient at these latitudes to accelerate erosion.

It is also delicate to obtain a status on areas that were not subject to glacial and periglacial processes, which form a large part of the low-latitude orogens. Late Cenozoic cooling is supposed to have increased aridity, which already increased since the Miocene (e.g. [START_REF] Edwards | The Origins of C4 Grasslands: Integrating Evolutionary and Ecosystem Science[END_REF]. It is uncertain that this late increase would have occurred in South Asia (e.g. Vögeli et al., 2017a) and if it was sufficient to impact erosion rates.

Last, in places subject to an acceleration of erosion, this acceleration seems temporary and lead to a new equilibrium with steady average erosion rates [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]. Detrital 10 Be/ 9 Be also shows that this acceleration seems to lead to a higher variability of erosion rates. However, it is uncertain that this phenomenon be limited to glacial and periglacial areas or could be generalized. The first archive is analysed from a set of sand samples from turbidites of the Bengal Fan. The samples were collected during IODP Exp. 354 (France-Lanord et al., 2016a) and 353 [START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]. Exp. 354 followed an acquisition of high-resolution seismic data along 4 E-W profiles in the Bengal Fan (Spiess et al., 1998;[START_REF] Schwenk | Architecture and stratigraphy of the Bengal Fan as response to tectonic and climate revealed from highresolution seismic data[END_REF]. These profiles revealed numerous channel-levees systems [START_REF] Schwenk | Architecture and stratigraphy of the Bengal Fan as response to tectonic and climate revealed from highresolution seismic data[END_REF][START_REF] Bergmann | The Bengal Fan on different temporal and spatial scales[END_REF] along with unchannelled deposits [START_REF] Bergmann | The Bengal Fan on different temporal and spatial scales[END_REF].

III.3. DEVELOPED APPROACH

The Bengal Fan has been probably fed even during sea-level rises and high stands [START_REF] Weber | Active growth of the Bengal Fan during sea-level rise and highstand[END_REF]2003;[START_REF] Michels | Sediment transport in the shelf canyon 'Swatch of No Ground' (Bay of Bengal)[END_REF]. To take into account the spatial depocenter variability, Exp. 354 drilled an E-W transect of 7 sites at 8°N (France-Lanord et al., 2016a). Exp. 353 drilled a complementary site at 16°N [START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]. The continuity of this site with the sites of Exp. 354 are evidence by 14 C dating constraints by [START_REF] Hein | Post-glacial climate forcing of surface processes in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin and implications for carbon sequestration[END_REF]. The retrieved cores consist of turbiditic unconsolidated sand and silt interlayered by hemipelagic intervals. All sites were dated by biostratigraphy, magnetostratigraphy and occasionally tephrostratigraphy (France-Lanord et al., 2016a;[START_REF] Blum | Allogenic and Autogenic Signals in the Stratigraphic Record of the Deep-Sea Bengal Fan[END_REF]). An age-model covering the last Ma and using high-resolution multichannel seismic data was recently realised for the Exp. 354 sites (Reilly, 2018). These data were also analysed by Bergmann, 2018, who described the migration of the channel deposits during the late Pleistocene. Her results show a return of turbiditic sedimentation at 8°N since ca. 0.5 Ma, after an abandonment caused by the migration of the depocentre. Additionally, they suggest that deposition might be independent of global sea-level variations (p.99).

Detrital Zircon U-Pb provenance data [START_REF] Blum | Allogenic and Autogenic Signals in the Stratigraphic Record of the Deep-Sea Bengal Fan[END_REF] show that sediments chiefly derive from the Himalaya with a potential variation of the proportion of Ganga and Brahmaputra sediments. Detrital thermochronometric data do not converge to a unique evolution, as rutile U-Pb and some zircon fission tracks (Najman et al., 2019) show a shift to higher maximum erosion rates at 7-5 Ma linked to the eastern syntaxis (Namche Barwa) and white mica 40 Ar/ 39 Ar, apatite U-Pb and some zircon fission tracks (Najman et al., 2019) point to stable maximum erosion rates.

III.3.1.2. Siwalik sections in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar, India

The second archive is analysed from a previously unstudied group of Siwalik sections in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, National Park & Tiger Reserve, Bihar, North India. The sections are located in the front of the Himalayan range and consist of sediments from the Indo-Gangetic foreland basin that has been exhumed since 1-3 Ma in the Siwalik folds. The sections presently outcrop along several rivers incising the Siwalik Hills. The sections are close to the outlet of the Nepalese Narayani river. The Narayani catchment includes the massifs of the Annapurnas, the Dhaulagiri, the Manaslu, the Ganesh and the Langtang. The Narayani flows into India under the name of Gandak. The paleo-Gandak alluvial fan has been studied by Morin, 2015. Three drilled cores cover the last 20 ka and potentially up to the last 100-50 ka. 10 Be denudation rates present a range of variations of 50-80% and were possibly lower than modern The three selected Holes for sampling are indicated on an interpreted seismic profile of the Bengal Fan at 8°N, Expedition 354 [START_REF] Schwenk | Architecture and stratigraphy of the Bengal Fan as response to tectonic and climate revealed from highresolution seismic data[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016). Note that the other holes of the Expedition are not indicated. A fourth Hole was selected from Expedition 353 at 16°N.

The map of the Holes is in Chapter VI. The Holes are rich in sand, as shown in the stratigraphic log Chapter V, which makes possible 10 Be measurements in quartz.

rates during the last glacial period. No important shift of provenance neither in chemical weathering is observed.

Several other Siwalik sections have been already described, dated and investigated, in particular the Surai section located at this West of the Valmiki sections, for which 10 Be denudation rates [START_REF] Puchol | Détermination des paléo-taux d'érosion par l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques[END_REF], detrital zircon and apatite fission tracks (Bernet et al., 2006;[START_REF] Van Der Beek | Late Miocene-recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal[END_REF] and Sr-Nd isotopic provenance data are available. With the advisors of this thesis, I made the choice to focus on new Siwalik sections for several reasons.

The archives should record the sediments of a Himalayan catchment rather than an interfluvial catchment (such as the thoroughly investigated Surai section), so as to obtain erosion rates averaged on a full N-S Himalayan transect, from the Tibetan plateau to the frontal thrust. The Narayani catchment has been probably the most studied Himalayan catchment in Central and Eastern Himalaya, in particular by the CNRS workers since the opening of Nepal in 1951 (e.g. [START_REF] Bordet | Donnees nouvelles sur la geologie de la Thakkhola (Himalaya du Nepal)[END_REF][START_REF] Fort | Himalayas: the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc[END_REF]. The lithology and the isotopic signature of the formations are well constrained (e.g. Morin, 2015). The catchment yields a consistent part of the Himalayan sedimentary flux (Lupker et al., 2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF]. The Narayani catchment also presents the advantage that it was potentially unimpacted by a shift in tectonic dynamics in the late Cenozoic, contrary to catchments in the Eastern Himalaya (e.g. [START_REF] Grujic | Climatic forcing of erosion, landscape, and tectonics in the Bhutan Himalayas[END_REF][START_REF] Seward | Growth of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis and associated evolution of the Tsangpo Gorge: Constraints from structural and thermochronological data[END_REF]. Last, the Siwalik fold limb at the Valmiki national park is potentially younger (i.e.

< 1 Ma, Jérôme Lavé pers. comm.) than elsewhere in the Siwaliks (ca. [2][3][4]. This might ensure that the major part of the record is unaffected by recycling.

III.3.2. Methodology

To obtain denudation rates averaged at the catchment scale, I measure in situ 10 Be concentrations contained in fine sand quartz, which is almost ubiquitous in the Himalaya, and derive apparent 10 Be denudation rates. 10 Be is a radioactive cosmogenic nuclide produced in matter by the cosmic rays. When rocks are exhumed to the Earth's surface, their crystals get progressively enriched in cosmogenic nuclides, at a rate which depends on denudation rates and the geographical location and elevation of rocks.

Deriving denudation rates from 10 Be concentrations require complementary dating constraints. For the Bengal Fan samples, I used the published and unpublished biostratigraphic and magnetostratigraphic constraints, along with an age model using high-resolution seismic data. I established a new age model for the part of the U1450 site older than 1.2 Ma. For the Siwalik samples, Julien Charreau established the magnetostratigraphic age model.

Interpreting these apparent 10 Be denudation rates into a story of erosion of the catchment requires several considerations. The provenance of sediments may have shifted over time, either by the capture or loss of subcatchments or by the displacement of the outlet of the river at the front of the range or by the reconfiguration of the fluvial network, in the alluvial plain and delta. When catchments have contrasted elevations as for the Narayani and the Ganga-Brahmaputra, this shift of provenance impacts the 10 Be concentrations, even though denudation remains stable. Here, exploiting the fact that the Himalaya consists in subparallel E-W formations of different isotopic signatures, I perform a provenance study with the measurement of Sr and Nd isotopes in the bulk silicates of the samples.

The Siwaliks may consist of recycled sediments in their upper part. These sediments combine two denudation histories that are delicate to disentangle. The systematic measurement of 26 Al, another cosmogenic nuclide might have helped to better constrain these histories, but I have not managed to obtain 26 Al results coherent with 10 Be results (in Appendix). I detect recycled sediments using the major elements, with a strong depletion in Na and Al as indicated in the modern Siwalik river sediment.

Transport time may have also impacted 10 Be concentrations. Again, this contribution could have been constrained by the measurement of 26 Al in combination with 10 Be. However, transport has been shown to be rapid in the Himalaya, at least for sand [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF]2012a).

Last, recent exposure to cosmic rays, during the Siwalik denudation, may have also impacted 10 Be concentrations. We performed 36 Cl measurements, 36 Cl being a cosmogenic nuclide of half-life shorter than 10 Be, on a limited number of samples to check this exposure.

Cosmogenic nuclides such as 10 Be are produced through the interactions between the cosmic flux and matter at the Earth's surface. The "meteoric" production, in the atmosphere, dominates the "in-situ" production, in minerals. The method described below consists in measuring the concentration of in-situ nuclides in the minerals. When applied to rocks and with the knowledge of cosmogenic production rates, this concentration gives access to local denudation rates. The method also gives access to basin-scale denudation rates when applied to river sediments (Figure IV-46, Brown et al., 1995;[START_REF] Granger | Spatially Averaged Long-Term Erosion Rates Measured from in Situ-Produced Cosmogenic Nuclides in Alluvial Sediment[END_REF].

The use of in-situ 10 Be has become common to study modern erosion rates (presently more than 200 studies, live updated compilation in https://earth.uow.edu.au/, [START_REF] Codilean | OCTOPUS: An open cosmogenic isotope and luminescence database[END_REF] A catchment consisting of a slowly eroding high plateau, rapidly eroding mountain range and slowly eroding low elevated area is considered. As denudation progress, minerals (quartz) get impacted by cosmic rays and produce in situ 10 Be. 10 Be concentrations differ according denudation rates and elevation. When minerals reach the surface, they are extracted and transported by rivers to their sink, a sedimentary basin. After burial, 10 Be production stop and 10 Be begin to decay (information in Lupker et al., 2012a;[START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]half-life from Chmeleff et al.,2010;[START_REF] Korschinek | A new value for the half-life of 10Be by Heavy-Ion Elastic Recoil Detection and liquid scintillation counting[END_REF]. 10 Be is commonly used to measure denudation rates because all production pathways are cosmogenic and the 9 Be stable isotope is commonly unfound in nature. This allows fixing the 10 Be/ 9 Be at the dissolution with a carrier of a known concentration, and limiting the uncertainties for 9 Be measurements. Quartz is a ubiquitous mineral, and meteoric 10 Be is easily removed from minerals.

The following synthesizes the approach to determine the necessary production rates to derive denudation rates from 10 Be concentrations. A production rate is the quantity of a certain cosmogenic nuclide produced in a certain mineral during a given time. The production rates vary in function of the target nuclei and/or the cosmogenic nuclide species, the type of cosmic particles, and the intensity (i.e.

abundance of particles) and energy spectrum of the secondary cosmic flux, which both evolve spatially and temporally [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF]review in Dunai, 2010).

IV.1. THE COSMIC FLUX AND ITS QUANTIFICATION

IV.1.1. The neutron cosmic flux

The primary cosmic flux mainly consists of low to high-energy protons (90%) and in less proportion α-particles. The flux originates from the galaxy, and is supposed to have been stable over the last 10 Ma, according to measurements from meteorites [START_REF] Vogt | Cosmogenic nuclides in extraterrestrial materials[END_REF][START_REF] Leya | The production of cosmogenic nuclides in stony meteoroids by galactic cosmic-ray particles[END_REF]. When approaching the Earth, the flux is partially deflected against the geomagnetic field [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF] and only a portion of the flux penetrates the atmosphere downwards to the surface [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF].

The initiation of a nuclear cascade through interactions with matter (Figure IV-47, Serber, 1947) converts the flux in a secondary flux composed of high-energy/fast neutrons and muons. Because of their strong interactions with matter [START_REF] Simpson | Properties of the Low Energy Nucleonic Component at Large Atmospheric Depths[END_REF]Simpson et al., 1953;[START_REF] Lal | In situ-produced cosmogenic isotopes in terrestrial rocks[END_REF], nuclear reactions caused by neutrons dominate in the atmosphere down to several meters below surface, before being overwhelmed by nuclear reactions caused by muons down to depths of several kms [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF].

The geomagnetic field regulates the abundance and energy of cosmic protons that can penetrate the atmosphere, according to the spatial location of the incident particles and the temporal evolution of the geomagnetic field. The geomagnetic field is typically approximated as a virtual axial dipole [START_REF] Acton | A test of the geocentric axial dipole hypothesis from an analysis of the skewness of the central marine magnetic anomaly[END_REF] over a millennial timescale, but have complementary components over shorter timescales.

Classically, the intensity and energy of the cosmic flux are considered to decrease towards lower latitudes while above 60° the variation is negligible [START_REF] Shea | A study of vertical cutoff rigidities using sixth degree simulations of the geomagnetic field[END_REF][START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF][START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF]. However, the spatial variations of the geomagnetic field do not fit exactly latitudes. Another criterion, the effective vertical cutoff rigidity R c , also written as P (Figure IV-48, Elsasser et al., 1956;[START_REF] Shea | A study of vertical cutoff rigidities using sixth degree simulations of the geomagnetic field[END_REF]discussion in Lifton et al., 2008) is considered. The rigidity of a particle corresponds to its momentum per charge and is a function of its energy. Only the particles with a rigidity > the local R c pass through the atmosphere. R c is computed numerically. The cosmic flux also depends temporally on the intensity and orientation of the geomagnetic dipole [START_REF] Dunai | Influence of secular variation of the geomagnetic field on production rates of in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides[END_REF][START_REF] Pigati | Geomagnetic effects on time-integrated cosmogenic nuclide production with emphasis on in situ 14C and 10Be[END_REF][START_REF] Lifton | Implications of two Holocene timedependent geomagnetic models for cosmogenic nuclide production rate scaling[END_REF]discussion in Nishiizumi et al., 1989), which fluctuated over the last million yrs in a ±30% margin [START_REF] Valet | Geomagnetic field intensity and reversals during the past four million years[END_REF][START_REF] Carcaillet | Geomagnetic dipole moment and 10Be production rate intercalibration from authigenic 10Be/9Be for the last 1.3 Ma[END_REF][START_REF] Muscheler | Geomagnetic field intensity during the last 60,000 years based on 10Be and 36Cl from the Summit ice cores and 14[END_REF][START_REF] Ménabréaz | The geomagnetic dipole moment variation between 250 and 800 ka BP reconstructed from the authigenic 10Be/9Be signature in West Equatorial Pacific sediments[END_REF]. Nuclear reactions produce cosmogenic nuclides and secondary particles. The production is dominated by meteoric nuclides produced in the atmosphere and a small proportion is produced in situ in the rocks (modified from Dunai andLifton, 2014 andGosse andPhillips, 2001).

Soil

Once the cosmic high-energy protons penetrate the atmosphere, they are converted into highenergy neutrons through spallation. Spallation is the most frequent nuclear reaction in the atmosphere and consists in the off-sputtering of particles of lower energy through collision with atomic nuclei, such as O and N. From the top atmosphere to the subsurface, the intensity of the neutron flux is related to its energy spectrum [START_REF] Simpson | Properties of the Low Energy Nucleonic Component at Large Atmospheric Depths[END_REF]Simpson et al., 1953;[START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF]. As neutrons move downwards, they gradually loose energy through spallation [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF]Masarik andBeer, 1999, 2009). In parallel, the overall abundance of neutrons gradually decreases through a reaction complementary to spallation, known as the thermal neutron capture [START_REF] Liu | Cosmogenic 36Cl accumulation in unstable landforms: 1. Effects of the thermal neutron distribution[END_REF][START_REF] Liu | Correction to 'Cosmogenic 36Cl Accumulation in Unstable Landforms: 1. Effects of the Thermal Neutron Distribution' by B[END_REF][START_REF] Phillips | An improved approach to calculating low-energy cosmic-ray neutron fluxes near the landratmosphere interface 13[END_REF]. Thermal neutrons are slow/low-energy neutrons which are naturally absorbed by atoms. Close to ground-level and in the first cms below surface, neutrons are majoritarily thermal neutrons and are absorbed in a few meters below surface [START_REF] Liu | Cosmogenic 36Cl accumulation in unstable landforms: 1. Effects of the thermal neutron distribution[END_REF][START_REF] Liu | Correction to 'Cosmogenic 36Cl Accumulation in Unstable Landforms: 1. Effects of the Thermal Neutron Distribution' by B[END_REF][START_REF] Phillips | An improved approach to calculating low-energy cosmic-ray neutron fluxes near the landratmosphere interface 13[END_REF].

The neutron flux approximately decreases according to an exponential law inversely correlated to the mass length [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF][START_REF] Lal | In situ-produced cosmogenic isotopes in terrestrial rocks[END_REF]discussion in Dunai, 2000), as formulated in [START_REF] Gosse | Terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides: theory and application[END_REF] exp with : intensity of the flux, : the vertical mass length or vertical cumulative length, and : a parameter known as effective attenuation length, attenuation coefficient, e-folding length or absorption free mean path . The mass length (in g.cm -2 ) is the product of the path length of the flux through the medium and the density of the traversed medium. When the medium is the atmosphere, the mass length is coined the atmospheric depth and is a function of the local pressure, which itself is a function of elevation. The attenuation length is a linear function of the length required to stop the particle and therefore only depends on the velocity/energy of the particle. Hence, the attenuation length evolves spatially: the length increases with the cutoff rigidity R c (i.e. roughly decreases with the latitude) and decreases with atmospheric depth (increases with elevation) (Brown et al., 1992a;[START_REF] Dunai | Scaling factors for production rates of in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides: a critical reevaluation[END_REF][START_REF] Gosse | Terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides: theory and application[END_REF][START_REF] Sato | Development of PARMA: PHITSbased analytical radiation model in the atmosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Marrero | Cosmogenic nuclide systematics and the CRONUScalc program[END_REF]. Attenuation lengths in the atmosphere are in the 120-160 g.cm -2 range (compilation in [START_REF] Dunai | Scaling factors for production rates of in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides: a critical reevaluation[END_REF][START_REF] Gosse | Terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides: theory and application[END_REF]). In the subsurface, attenuation lengths are longer, in the 150-190 g.cm -2 range (compilation in [START_REF] Gosse | Terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides: theory and application[END_REF]computation by Sato et al., 2008 and[START_REF] Marrero | Cosmogenic nuclide systematics and the CRONUScalc program[END_REF].

The flux of thermal neutrons punctually diverges from this exponential law as it is anomalously depleted in the first 10's of cms below surface. This depletion is caused by the diffusion of thermal neutrons out of the surface and their trapping by nitrogen, which is abundant in atmosphere [START_REF] Liu | Cosmogenic 36Cl accumulation in unstable landforms: 1. Effects of the thermal neutron distribution[END_REF][START_REF] Liu | Correction to 'Cosmogenic 36Cl Accumulation in Unstable Landforms: 1. Effects of the Thermal Neutron Distribution' by B[END_REF][START_REF] Phillips | An improved approach to calculating low-energy cosmic-ray neutron fluxes near the landratmosphere interface 13[END_REF]. Water content in subsurface tends to limit this diffusion [START_REF] Phillips | An improved approach to calculating low-energy cosmic-ray neutron fluxes near the landratmosphere interface 13[END_REF]. c. The 2 insets present soil vertical profile measurements and model of nuclide concentrations (logarithmic scale) versus the depth. (modified from Argento et al., 2015).

IV.1.2. The muon cosmic flux

Muons are tertiary charged products resulting from spallations by protons in the top atmosphere.

Muons interact weakly with matter [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF]review in Charalambus, 1971;[START_REF] Fabryka-Martin | Production of radionuclides in the earth and their hydrogeologic significance, with emphasis on chlorine-36 and iodine-129[END_REF][START_REF] Stone | Cosmogenic chlorine-36 production in calcite by muons[END_REF]Heisinger et al., 2002aHeisinger et al., , 2002b;;[START_REF] Braucher | In situ produced 10Be measurements at great depths: implications for production rates by fast muons[END_REF][START_REF] Braucher | Production of cosmogenic radionuclides at great depth: A multi element approach[END_REF][START_REF] Braucher | Determination of muon attenuation lengths in depth profiles from in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides[END_REF][START_REF] Balco | Production rate calculations for cosmic-ray-muon-produced 10 Be and 26 Al benchmarked against geological calibration data[END_REF].

Muons are roughly as abundant as neutrons at ground-level and dominate cosmic particles a few meters below surface [START_REF] Lal | In situ-produced cosmogenic isotopes in terrestrial rocks[END_REF], review in Fabryka-Martin, 1988;[START_REF] Stone | Cosmogenic chlorine-36 production in calcite by muons[END_REF][START_REF] Gosse | Terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides: theory and application[END_REF]. At a depth of 1,000g.cm -2 , 300-400 m, fast muons overwhelm other particles [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF]Heisinger et al., 2002a;[START_REF] Braucher | Determination of muon attenuation lengths in depth profiles from in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides[END_REF]. Muons penetrate several kilometers in the deep subsurface [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF]Heisinger et al., 2002a;[START_REF] Braucher | Determination of muon attenuation lengths in depth profiles from in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides[END_REF]. Muons gradually loose energy through γ-radiations at the origin of photodisintegration reactions. Slow negative muons, coined as stopping negative muons, are subject to muon capture by atoms, while positive muons capture electrons to form a pseudo-isotope of H. Muon nuclear reactions are dominated by negative muon captures in the first meters of the subsurface and photodisintegration at greater depths (review in [START_REF] Balco | Production rate calculations for cosmic-ray-muon-produced 10 Be and 26 Al benchmarked against geological calibration data[END_REF]. Negative muon captures and photodisintegration reactions produce neutrons that are themselves subject to spallation and thermal neutron capture.

At ground-level, the flux of muons depends only marginally on the geomagnetic field (review in [START_REF] Stone | Cosmogenic chlorine-36 production in calcite by muons[END_REF] but the atmospheric depth, i.e. the elevation has an influence on the flux. According to physical laws (Heisinger et al., 2002a, b;discussion in Balco, 2017;[START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF], the muon flux does not evolve similarly than the neutron and in particular does not follow an exponential law or a combination of exponential laws. Indeed, as the abundance of muons progressively decreases in the depths, the flux get concentrated in high-energy muons (discussion in [START_REF] Balco | Production rate calculations for cosmic-ray-muon-produced 10 Be and 26 Al benchmarked against geological calibration data[END_REF]. As a result, muons have an attenuation length which increases with depth, and determining the flux intensity requires advanced computing of an integral.

IV.1.3. Quantification of the cosmic flux

The quantification of the cosmic flux makes it possible to determine the cosmogenic production rates for a place of study. The cosmic flux is quantified through complementary approaches: irradiation experiments [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray produced radioactivity on the Earth[END_REF], geological calibration [START_REF] Fuse | Aluminum-26 in meteorites[END_REF][START_REF] Nishiizumi | Cosmic ray production rates of 10Be and 26Al in quartz from glacially polished rocks[END_REF], or numeric simulation based on physical laws [START_REF] Masarik | Terrestrial cosmogenic-nuclide production systematics calculated from numerical simulations[END_REF]. Irradiation experiments are a way to assess the variations of modern cosmic flux, through the measurement of nuclear reactions using photographic emulsions [START_REF] Powell | The study of elementary particles by the photographic method: an account of the principal techniques and discoveries illustrated by an atlas of photomicrographs[END_REF], neutron detectors [START_REF] Simpson | Neutrons Produced in the Atmosphere by the Cosmic Radiations[END_REF] and neutron monitors [START_REF] Hatton | The neutron monitor[END_REF]. Photographic emulsions record the tracks generated by the charged products of nuclear reactions while neutron detectors and monitors count the neutrons produced. Monitors are an evolved version of detectors, that sample fixed portions of the energetic spectrum of neutrons. In that way, neutron monitors present an energy bias known as the multiplicity effect [START_REF] Hatton | The neutron monitor[END_REF][START_REF] Lifton | Scaling in situ cosmogenic nuclide production rates using analytical approximations to atmospheric cosmic-ray fluxes[END_REF], which tends to overestimate the high-energy portion of the spectrum (discussion in [START_REF] Lifton | Scaling in situ cosmogenic nuclide production rates using analytical approximations to atmospheric cosmic-ray fluxes[END_REF]. This overestimation requires a difficult correction to determine.

Geological calibration [START_REF] Nishiizumi | Cosmic ray production rates of 10Be and 26Al in quartz from glacially polished rocks[END_REF]review in Gosse and Phillips, 2001;[START_REF] Balco | A complete and easily accessible means of calculating surface exposure ages or erosion rates from 10Be and 26Al measurements[END_REF]discussion in Martin et al., 2017) consists in measuring the concentration of cosmogenic nuclides of a subaerial surface which age was measured independently by another method. The history of the surface should be simple and the surface must have been stable for the period, without erosion and shielding from cosmic rays by cliffs or ice. Radiocarbon is classically used as an independent dating method. Calibrated data are reported to sea level and high latitude (SLHL) and are frequently updated, at least for the most common cosmogenic nuclides (Martin et al., 2017, through the ICE-D database).

Numerical simulations [START_REF] Masarik | Terrestrial cosmogenic-nuclide production systematics calculated from numerical simulations[END_REF] use models to simulate physical processes such as the particle interactions and transport.

IV.2. COMPUTATION OF DENUDATION RATES IV.2.1. Determination of production rates

In practice, geological calibration forms presently the basis for the neutron production rate determination, at least for 10 Be and 26 Al [START_REF] Phillips | The CRONUS-Earth project: a synthesis[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF][START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF].

When available, workers select data calibrated close to the study location. However, because of the difficulty to get an independent dating constraint, calibrated sites are not available on all continents, for instance in Asia, and in that case, an average of calibrated production rates on Earth is considered. For 10 Be, the calibration dataset remains limited (Figure IV-49, 20 sites reviewed for 10 Be spallation, [START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF]; only a few sites for muonic reactions, [START_REF] Braucher | Production of cosmogenic radionuclides at great depth: A multi element approach[END_REF].

In contrast, the determination of the muon production rate is still debated [START_REF] Balco | A complete and easily accessible means of calculating surface exposure ages or erosion rates from 10Be and 26Al measurements[END_REF] Figure IV-49. 10 Be geological calibration site map.

Data retrieved from the ICE-D database June, 2019 (http://calibration.ice-d.org/; [START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF]. [START_REF] Phillips | The CRONUS-Earth project: a synthesis[END_REF][START_REF] Balco | Production rate calculations for cosmic-ray-muon-produced 10 Be and 26 Al benchmarked against geological calibration data[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF][START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF], with experimental measurements (Heisinger et al., 2002a(Heisinger et al., , 2002b) overpredicting empirical production rates [START_REF] Braucher | In situ produced 10Be measurements at great depths: implications for production rates by fast muons[END_REF][START_REF] Braucher | Production of cosmogenic radionuclides at great depth: A multi element approach[END_REF][START_REF] Braucher | Determination of muon attenuation lengths in depth profiles from in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Profiles of in situ 10Be and 26Al at great depths at the Macraes Flat, East Otago, New Zealand[END_REF]. [START_REF] Braucher | Determination of muon attenuation lengths in depth profiles from in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides[END_REF] assume that the 2 discrete energies (for so-called fast and slow muons) selected for these experiments may not represent the natural muon energy spectrum. [START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF] performed a benchmark of muon computations for several catchments, according 2 methods, either with a constant muon attenuation length or with an attenuation length varying with denudation rate. This second method requires iterative computation, which is computer-time consuming. They found out that the first method gave similar or better results than the second one.

The determination of production rates requires translating the SLHL calibrated data to the area of study using a scaling model [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF][START_REF] Stone | Air pressure and cosmogenic isotope production[END_REF]review in Dunai, 2010;[START_REF] Phillips | The CRONUS-Earth project: a synthesis[END_REF] CronusCalc code of [START_REF] Marrero | Cosmogenic nuclide systematics and the CRONUScalc program[END_REF]; CREp code of [START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF]Basinga code of Charreau et al., 2019). To determine the overall production rate of a catchment, a recent approach consists in computing cell by cell production rates with a digital elevation model (DEM) (e.g. [START_REF] Godard | Impact of glacial erosion on 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012a;Basinga code of Charreau et al., 2019).

IV.2.2. Scaling models

The scaling models (Figure IV-50) are elaborated using irradiation experimental data and numerical simulations. The original time-independent model of [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF], later modified by [START_REF] Stone | Air pressure and cosmogenic isotope production[END_REF] and [START_REF] Balco | A complete and easily accessible means of calculating surface exposure ages or erosion rates from 10Be and 26Al measurements[END_REF], is still largely used in studies. The model, called "Lm", has only 2 input parameters, the geographic latitude, replaced by the cut-off rigidity in [START_REF] Balco | A complete and easily accessible means of calculating surface exposure ages or erosion rates from 10Be and 26Al measurements[END_REF], and the atmospheric pressure. The relatively time-efficient algorithm usually makes reliable predictions on the number of nuclear reactions.

However, the model does not include the temporal variations of the geomagnetic field, which effect can be consistent for slowly eroding areas [START_REF] Lifton | Implications of two Holocene timedependent geomagnetic models for cosmogenic nuclide production rate scaling[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF]. Other models were developed using the neutron monitor data [START_REF] Lifton | Addressing solar modulation and long-term uncertainties in scaling secondary cosmic rays for in situ cosmogenic nuclide applications[END_REF][START_REF] Lifton | Scaling time-integrated in situ cosmogenic nuclide production rates using a continuous geomagnetic model[END_REF][START_REF] Dunai | Scaling factors for production rates of in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides: a critical reevaluation[END_REF][START_REF] Dunai | Influence of secular variation of the geomagnetic field on production rates of in situ produced cosmogenic nuclides[END_REF][START_REF] Desilets | Spatial and temporal distribution of secondary cosmic-ray nucleon intensities and applications to in situ cosmogenic dating[END_REF][START_REF] Desilets | Extended scaling factors for in situ cosmogenic nuclides: New measurements at low latitude[END_REF], but because of the multiplicity effect of neutron monitors, these models do not have predictions at the level of the Lal-Stone model. A new approach based on numerical simulations of physical processes was developed separately by [START_REF] Lifton | Scaling in situ cosmogenic nuclide production rates using analytical approximations to atmospheric cosmic-ray fluxes[END_REF], with the work of Sato et al. (2008), and by Argento et al. (2015aArgento et al. ( , 2015b)).

The main challenges for scaling models remain presently computing time and reliable predictions.

The use of "Lm" and "LSD" [START_REF] Lifton | Scaling in situ cosmogenic nuclide production rates using analytical approximations to atmospheric cosmic-ray fluxes[END_REF]) models for catchment production rate scaling was thoroughly benchmarked by [START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF], through the use of the Basinga code. According to their results, differences on production rates are negligible, except for catchments of high latitude and high elevation or low latitude and low elevation, 20-30% difference, as previously shown by [START_REF] Phillips | The CRONUS-Earth project: a synthesis[END_REF]. The impact on denudation rates is insignificant for the majority of catchments, except when denudation rates are very low (<10% difference, [START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF]. Therefore the "Lm" model, which has a rather rough approach compare with the "LSD" model, which better represents physical processes, still appears at its advantage. b. Scaling factor versus the atmospheric depth (i.e. elevation), computed with the 2 models. The inset focus on elevations below 2,600 m (modified from [START_REF] Dunai | The Nuts and Bolts of Cosmogenic Nuclide Production[END_REF].

IV.2.3. Analytical computation of quartz in

The following description synthesizes the approach of [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF], with the help of reviews in [START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF] and in the Basinga code, [START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF]. It is supposed that the computation is realized on areas containing quartz.

At any location of the Earth, the impacts of the particles (neutrons and muons) with matter produce cosmogenic nuclides according different pathways. The rates of production, depends on the pathway and are normalized to sea level high latitude (see above). Local production rates are formulated as below:

and are obtained by computing local scaling factors using a model. These factors depend on the latitude , the atmospheric pressure (at sea-level, 1030 g.cm -2 ), and time . The latest codes [START_REF] Marrero | Cosmogenic nuclide systematics and the CRONUScalc program[END_REF][START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF][START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF] replace by the cut-off rigidity , which depends on the magnetic moment [START_REF] Elsasser | Cosmicray intensity and geomagnetism[END_REF], which itself depends on .

The exponential attenuation of the cosmic flux leads to the expression of the production rate of in situ nuclides in subsurface minerals as a function of the depth and time , for the cosmic particle : 0 where : production rate at the surface, : density of rocks and : attenuation length of the particle. It should be note that this function is theoretically not valid for all pathways. As explained below and in [START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF], even though muons have attenuation lengths varying with depth, the approximation of their attenuation length to a constant induce only negligible variations for catchments having erosion rates sufficiently high (i.e. > 0.01 -0.001 mm/yr).

For radioactive nuclides of disintegration constant , such as 10 Be, the concentration is given by:

The depth is linked to erosion this way:

Two key assumptions have to be made to analytically resolve this equation: (a) the erosion rate should stay steady over the period of accumulation , and (b) the secular equilibrium should have been attained

. If these assumptions are valid, the concentration of nuclides in minerals at the surface can be approximated as:

, , and in the case of steady-state erosion:

, which leads, by neglecting to the equation: ,

IV.2.4. Topographic and glacial shielding

The computation above requires some correction when rocks are partly or fully shielded from cosmic rays, either by topography [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF][START_REF] Gosse | Terrestrial in situ cosmogenic nuclides: theory and application[END_REF][START_REF] Dunne | Scaling factors for the rates of production of cosmogenic nuclides for geometric shielding and attenuation at depth on sloped surfaces[END_REF][START_REF] Codilean | Calculation of the cosmogenic nuclide production topographic shielding scaling factor for large areas using DEMs[END_REF] or by ice cover [START_REF] Wittmann | Relation between rock uplift and denudation from cosmogenic nuclides in river sediment in the Central Alps of Switzerland[END_REF][START_REF] Godard | Impact of glacial erosion on 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Guillon | Improved discrimination of subglacial and periglacial erosion using 10Be concentration measurements in subglacial and supraglacial sediment load of the Bossons glacier (Mont Blanc massif, France)[END_REF]. Topographic shielding can be caused by relief or local slope and is assumed consistent in steep areas (corrections up to 20%, [START_REF] Norton | Effects of terrain smoothing on topographic shielding correction factors for cosmogenic nuclidederived estimates of basin-averaged denudation rates[END_REF]. However, Dibiase, 2018 suggests through a simple model that the present corrections [START_REF] Codilean | Calculation of the cosmogenic nuclide production topographic shielding scaling factor for large areas using DEMs[END_REF] overestimate the effect of shielding, because they do not properly take into account the effect of oblique pathways on slopes, which increase the attenuation length at depth, counterbalancing the effect of topographic shielding. [START_REF] Dibiase | Short Communication: Increasing vertical attenuation length of cosmogenic nuclide production on steep slopes negates topographic shielding corrections for catchment erosion rates[END_REF] proposes that these corrections should be limited to areas with very steep slopes, with heterogeneous quartz distribution, but the topic probably requires further investigation.

Shielding also occurs for areas covered by ice [START_REF] Wittmann | Relation between rock uplift and denudation from cosmogenic nuclides in river sediment in the Central Alps of Switzerland[END_REF][START_REF] Godard | Impact of glacial erosion on 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Guillon | Improved discrimination of subglacial and periglacial erosion using 10Be concentration measurements in subglacial and supraglacial sediment load of the Bossons glacier (Mont Blanc massif, France)[END_REF]. For 10 Be and 26 Al, ice cover is usually considered as enough thick to fully shield the cosmic rays [START_REF] Wittmann | Relation between rock uplift and denudation from cosmogenic nuclides in river sediment in the Central Alps of Switzerland[END_REF], leading to null production rates. Nevertheless, it has been shown that sediments transferred by glaciers often include supra-glacial sediments with not null concentrations [START_REF] Godard | Impact of glacial erosion on 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Guillon | Improved discrimination of subglacial and periglacial erosion using 10Be concentration measurements in subglacial and supraglacial sediment load of the Bossons glacier (Mont Blanc massif, France)[END_REF]. In addition, muon production still continues at great depths.

It has been shown that snow cover could also produce shielding, although of less importance (5-10% impact of production rates, [START_REF] Schildgen | Simulation of snow shielding corrections for cosmogenic nuclide surface exposure studies[END_REF][START_REF] Scherler | Tectonic control on 10Be-derived erosion rates in the Garhwal Himalaya, India[END_REF].

As for muon production, it appears that shielding corrections probably require further work to fully reproduce the natural processes. In addition, these corrections assume a certain permanence of relief and ice cover, and are therefore delicate to apply for production rates of the past.

IV.3. LIMITS OF THE 10 BE METHOD

The following synthesizes the potential limits of the 10 Be method to precisely determine denudation rates of a catchment. Several of these limits are systematically overlooked in studies, giving the false feeling that erosion rates are given with low uncertainties, when in fact they are potentially underestimated.

IV.3.1. Analytic measurements

The concentrations of radioactive cosmogenic nuclides are measured with an accelerator mass spectrometer (e.g. [START_REF] Arnold | The French accelerator mass spectrometry facility ASTER: Improved performance and developments[END_REF] and analytical uncertainties are now usually below 5% for the majority of studies (compilation in https://earth.uow.edu.au/, [START_REF] Codilean | OCTOPUS: An open cosmogenic isotope and luminescence database[END_REF]. However, this is not the case for studies with past samples, which contain low concentrations because of radioactivity and potentially because of high erosion rates. The problem probably originates from the preparation of the samples and the separation of cosmogenic nuclides. The classic approach is to extract Be from large quantities of quartz for old samples. This approach was of limited success for our studies, with the majority of our samples having 26 Al below detection level and 10 Be having still high uncertainties for some samples. Large quantities of quartz also increase the natural 9 Be concentration, which can interfere with the 9 Be volume added as a carrier. In addition, no systematic study of potential impacts of these larger quartz quantities on the steps of separation was ever performed.

According observations performed by A. Mariotti (pers. comm.) after the measurements performed in this work, one can improve consistently the yields of the Be and Al extraction by checking the pH with an electronic device instead of a pH paper.

IV.3.2. Reproducibility

Given our results on replicates (up to 30% of difference), without systematic bias related to grain sizes (size < 500 m) as previously observed by Lupker et al. (2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF] for the Himalaya, one can argue than reproducibility is not as good as expected and increase uncertainties. This potentially means that the Be extraction has an impact on concentrations, speculatively during the quartz dissolution and evaporation of the solution. This topic of reproducibility needs further investigation, to determine if is limited on certain areas of the Earth, or to some laboratories, or is more general.

IV.3.3. 10

Be production rates, geography of the catchment, provenance and recycling 10 Be production rates are delicate to determine spatially and temporally. We saw above that only a limited number of calibration sites existed. Calibrated data close to the study make it possible to reduce the inherent uncertainties of the scaling model. There is presently no available calibrated data anywhere in Asia, which prevent to validate the scaling models in this continent.

Quartz fertility may impact 10 Be production rates at the catchment scale. No study has been performed to validate the simplification of a complete absence of quartz in basaltic and calcareous lithologies, which often contain either small acid intrusions (rhyolites) or a siliceous component (either detrital or recrystallisation following diagenesis).

Production rates are also delicate to determine for the past. The computing codes take into account the temporal variability of the magnetic field for modern production rates, but there is presently no similar code for past production rates.

In addition, one hypothesizes that the geography of the catchment remains stable in the past, i.e. with a constant topography and extent. This is debatable, especially in tectonic and glacial contexts, where subcatchments can be captured or disconnected. This can be discussed when a complementary provenance study, for instance using Sr-Nd isotopes, is available. The basis of a provenance study lays on the fact that geological formations in a catchment can have distinct isotopic signatures, which can be found out in the mixed sediment. We can then follow if certain formations yielded more sediment, which may induce a shift of the geography, or a shift in the location of high erosion rates.

One of the potentially biggest problem found in detrital studies, and sometimes overlooked, is that the catchment changed completely (example proposed in [START_REF] Puchol | Détermination des paléo-taux d'érosion par l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques[END_REF]. In active ranges, this can occur in particular in the foreland basin, which boundary is progressively exhumed by the frontal thrust. This implies that a the recent part of the record might be recycled from older sediments, thus making it impossible to reconstruct erosion rates for this period.

Finally, the present shielding corrections for topography and ice/snow cover probably do not represent all natural processes and require further investigation, in particular in mountainous areas.

IV.3.4. Steady-state landscape

To analytically solve the equation of the denudation rates, the assumption of a steady-state landscape is made [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF]. This induces that denudation rates were constant during the accumulation of cosmogenic nuclides in the rocks, in the subsurface. [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF] proposes to systematically measure two cosmogenic nuclides having a distinct half-life to check this hypothesis, but it is not systematically possible.

Complex histories, with pulses of erosion, because of climate change or tectonics, interspersed with quiet periods, induce an unsteady state.

In tectonic areas with high erosion rates, like in the Himalaya, concentrations are integrated over periods < 1,000-5,000 yrs, which may be too short a time to integrate two different histories. But the question remains for the areas surrounding the Himalaya, the Indian craton and the Tibetan plateau, which supply sediment to the Ganga and the Brahmaputra.

IV.3.5. Impact of stochastic events

Landslides represent the dominant factor of erosion in active tectonic ranges [START_REF] Hovius | Sediment flux from a mountain belt derived by landslide mapping[END_REF] Khudi catchment in central Nepal: [START_REF] Gallo | Evolution of a large landslide in the High Himalaya of central Nepal during the last half-century[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Grain-size dependent concentration of cosmogenic 10Be and erosion dynamics in a landslidedominated Himalayan watershed[END_REF]. Contrary to fluvial incision or glacial abrasion, landslides extract rocks of contrasted concentrations (Figure IV-51, Puchol et al., 2014): rocks originating from depths with low to null cosmogenic nuclide concentration and rocks originating from ridges with high concentration. Landslides can also trigger consistent variations between concentrations for different grain-sizes, in particular between gravel and sand [START_REF] Puchol | Grain-size dependent concentration of cosmogenic 10Be and erosion dynamics in a landslidedominated Himalayan watershed[END_REF]. [START_REF] Puchol | Grain-size dependent concentration of cosmogenic 10Be and erosion dynamics in a landslidedominated Himalayan watershed[END_REF] put into question the validity of the Lal (1991)'s equation to determine erosion rates in such contexts, since instantaneous erosion rates can substantially differ from long term erosion rates. They particularly contradict the threshold in area proposed by [START_REF] Niemi | Effects of bedrock landslides on cosmogenically determined erosion rates[END_REF] and [START_REF] Yanites | Numerical and analytical models of cosmogenic radionuclide dynamics in landslide-dominated drainage basins[END_REF] which allows considering that the variations caused by landslides are smoothed. [START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF] propose an abrasion model (Figure to simulate the evolution of concentrations in sediments along the Brahmaputra, downstream the Namche Barwa, location of frequent and large landslides. They show that abrasion could homogenize concentrations after a distance of 50-150 km.

Since major landslides occur locally at a frequency of 5,000 -10,000 yrs [START_REF] Puchol | Grain-size dependent concentration of cosmogenic 10Be and erosion dynamics in a landslidedominated Himalayan watershed[END_REF] Model of the median grain size (D50), the 250-500 m fraction and the 10 Be concentration profile following collapse from the rim of the landslide (from [START_REF] Puchol | Grain-size dependent concentration of cosmogenic 10Be and erosion dynamics in a landslidedominated Himalayan watershed[END_REF].

can only suppose that for large catchments as the Ganga or the Brahmaputra, the stochastic effect of local landslides is smoothed over the very large area of the catchments. However, after a course of > 800 km in the floodplain, the large variations of concentrations of the Brahmaputra and the Lower Meghna at their outlets, might put into question this hypothesis even for large systems.

IV.3.6. Exposure during transport to sink or recent exposure

Post-erosion exposure leads to an underestimation of denudation rates, because cosmogenic nuclides accumulate in sediment located at a place different from the location of denudation.

As previously said, complex histories question the validity of the [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF] to determine denudation rates.

They can be detected through the combined measurement of several cosmogenic nuclides [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF][START_REF] Wittmann | From source to sink: Preserving the cosmogenic 10Be-derived denudation rate signal of the Bolivian Andes in sediment of the Beni and Mamoré foreland basins[END_REF].

The assessment of transport time can be realized with dating measurements or modelling (Lupker et al., 2012a). This assessment in modern times and in the past is difficult because of potential different behaviours for grains of different sediment size and possibly different river capacity to transport sediments in the past. Burial time is potentially easier to determine by dating stratigraphy.

Recent exposure occurs for continental outcrops and depends on river incision rates. Workers often assume that collecting samples at the bottom of a cliff allow to make recent exposure negligible, but this hypothesis remains to be more thoroughly checked through a model (like [START_REF] Dibiase | Short Communication: Increasing vertical attenuation length of cosmogenic nuclide production on steep slopes negates topographic shielding corrections for catchment erosion rates[END_REF].

IV.3.7. Dating

Dating constraints have an impact on paleodenudation rates, in particular for old samples. This impact is limited when several dating methods are applied, which is not possible in all detrital contexts.

Dating uncertainties are complex to determine, and in our view often underestimated. When minerals reach the surface (1), their concentration (Ndenud) depends on local 10 Be production rates and denudation rates. Minerals are then transported and deposited. They get progressively shielded from cosmic rays during their burial (2). Then the concentration decreases over time because of radio-active decay. At last, minerals may be subject to a later phase of denudation (3) and reexposure to cosmic rays. (from [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF].

V.1. ABSTRACT

International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Expedition 354 Site U1450 was drilled at the center of a transect of seven sites across the Bengal Fan at 8°N where long-term accumulation rate are the highest. Site U1450 primarily consists of sandy and silty-sandy turbidites deposited at a rate above 20 cm/ky. During periods when depocenter shifted away from Site U1450, calcareous clay hemipelagic sediment was deposited at lower accumulation rate around 1-2 cm/ky. The dating of the Lower Pleistocene and Pliocene sequences is hindered by the scarcity of microfossil in turbidites and the restriction of paleomagnetic data to the upper 190 m. This report presents the identification of new calcareous nannofossils collected from hemipelagic and turbiditic intervals between 218 and 687 m CSF-A.

V.2. INTRODUCTION

The Bengal Fan forms a record of the past erosion of the Himalaya at the orogen-scale and has been explored through a 320 km E-W transect of 7 sites cored by the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Expedition 354 at 8°N (France-Lanord et al., 2016a). The fan sediments dominantly consist of turbidites that derive from the northern Bay of Bengal shelf and are the product of the Himalayan erosion conveyed by the Brahmaputra and Ganga rivers. At 8°N, Neogene fan sediments have a thickness larger than two kilometers and represent an archive of the past erosion and environment of the Himalayan orogen [START_REF] Galy | Sr-Nd-Os evidence for a stable erosion regime in the Himalaya during the past 12Myr[END_REF][START_REF] Blum | Allogenic and Autogenic Signals in the Stratigraphic Record of the Deep-Sea Bengal Fan[END_REF]Najman et al., 2019). While parameters such as provenance, erosion rate, vegetation and precipitation can be derived from turbidite mineralogical, chemical and isotopic compositions, the interpretation of the record is highly dependent on the determination of deposition age at each site. The accumulation of turbidites in the fan is discontinuous as the depocenter migrates from east to west and vice versa, depending on the course of the primary channel of transport [START_REF] Schwenk | Architecture and stratigraphy of the Bengal Fan as response to tectonic and climate revealed from highresolution seismic data[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016a). Turbidites are sediments delicate to date as microfossils are scarce and occasionally recycled. Therefore, age determination chiefly relies on the carbonate-rich hemipelagic horizons accumulated during periods of absence of turbiditic deposition.

There, paleo-magnetic, biostratigraphic and sediment lightness allow refining the age model of the transect (Weber and Reilly, 2016). Furthermore, Reilly (2018) refined the age model of the Pleistocene transect through a statistical approach using direct age constraints combined to lithological constraints on accumulation rates and seismic stratigraphy correlations. In the Miocene-Pliocene part of the record, age determination is more difficult as there are no or rare paleo-magnetic constraints because of non-oriented coring.

Site U1450 (France-Lanord et al., 2016b) is located in the axial part of the transect and has been delicate to date as it was the locus of a high accumulation of thick sandy interlevee deposits and, compared to Site U1451, limited hemipelagic intervals during the Pliocene and Early Pleistocene. This led to the accumulation of more than 400 m of sand-rich turbidites over a period of less than 3 My. This corresponds to an average accumulation rate of 15 cm/ky over this period (France-Lanord et al. 2016b).

Based on new biostratigraphic data, [START_REF] Blum | Allogenic and Autogenic Signals in the Stratigraphic Record of the Deep-Sea Bengal Fan[END_REF] reported even higher accumulation rate around 38 cm/ky between 335 and 605 m CSF-A (core depth below seafloor) and 2.9 and 3.6 Ma. However, the presence of more than 50 m of hemipelagic sediment deposited during this depth interval suggests that this interval should correspond to a longer age span. Assuming an accumulation rate in the order of 1-2 cm/ky for hemipelagic sediment implies 2 to 5 Mys that is incompatible with the proposed 0.7 My duration of the interval. A refined age model for Site U1450 requires complementing biostratigraphic datums and accounting for lithological constraints on accumulation rates. This report presents (1) new calcareous nannofossil datums between 218 and 687 m CSF-A, and ( 2) an age model taking into account available biostratigraphic data and lithostratigraphic constraints on accumulation rates.

V.3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

V.3.1. Calcareous Nannofossils

Standard smear-slide techniques were utilized for biostratigraphic examination. To process a sample, sediment is placed into a cup with water and mixed. A drop of the sediment-water solution is then added to the cover slip. The cover slip is dried on a hot plate, then a mixture of jet dry and water is added to the cover slip. The sediment is then evenly spread across the coverslip using a toothpick. The coverslip is then placed back on a hot plate to remove excess moisture. After drying, the cover slip is mounted using a labelled glass microscope slide with Norland optical adhesive (Number 61). The slide is then placed back onto the hot plate for the glue to spread evenly under the cover slip. The slide is then placed under a UV light bulb until the adhesive has cured and hardened.

Samples were examined using a Zeiss Axiostar+ light microscope. The microscope is equipped with oil immersion lenses with magnifications of 40x, 63x and 100x. They are capable of viewing samples under brightfield phase contrast and cross-polarized light. They are also equipped with a trinocular head and imaging equipment for documentation of marker species.

Samples were analyzed for the presence or absence of marker species. Background taxa were also recorded as present or absent using estimates of abundances. The standard nannofossil zonation of [START_REF] Martini | Standard Tertiary and Quaternary calcareous nannoplankton zonation[END_REF], [START_REF] Bukry | Low-latitude coccolith biostratigraphic zonation[END_REF][START_REF] Okada | Supplementary modification and introduction of code numbers to the low-latitude coccolith biostratigraphic zonation (Bukry, 1973; 1975)[END_REF][START_REF] Okada | Supplementary modification and introduction of code numbers to the low-latitude coccolith biostratigraphic zonation (Bukry, 1973; 1975)[END_REF] were utilized evaluate nannofossil age datums. These zonal schemes have been correlated with the Gradstein et al.

(2012) geological timescale and a published study by [START_REF] Denne | Applied Biostratigraphix Gulf of Mexico Biostratigraphic Chart Neogene Calcareous Nannofossils[END_REF], referenced under the ABX acronym.

V.3.2. Age model

The age model is constructed using a Monte-Carlo approach. Following Reilly (2018), the approach consists in predicting the potential age models by the cross-checking of random age models with observed constraints. These random models are produced by making an initial assumption on the probability distribution of accumulation rates. In Bayesian statistics, this assumption is coined the prior distribution or "prior". The core log is divided into intervals that are classified according to their lithology. For each interval, a random set of individual accumulation rates is drawn following realistic ranges of accumulation rates depending on the lithology. These constraints are "the prior" in the Monte-Carlo approach. The sets of interval individual accumulation rates are then assembled to form a set of random accumulation rate temporal series. Then the set of random temporal paths is constructed using an initial time constraint. The random temporal paths are subsequently cross-checked with the available age datums and all paths not respecting these constraints are rejected. The approach is iterated until a statistically sufficient number of solutions is found.

Here for Site U1450, the split intervals correspond to the core units. The intervals are classified as turbiditic, hemipelagic, or undetermined units, based on the lithostratigraphic log in France-Lanord et al., 2016b. Each first (FO), first common (FCO) and last occurrence (LO) dating marker of Table SV-1-Table SV-2 is associated to the closest interval above the depth of the marker. An uncertainty of ±0. 01 Ma is affected to each marker. An initial age of 1.185 Ma for the 175.9 m CSF-A depth is determined by the position of the top of the C1r.3r (middle Matuyama) polarity zone of the 2012 Geologic Timescale (France-Lanord et al., 2016b;Gradstein et al., 2012). The following "prior" is selected for accumulation rates: (1) a uniform distribution in the 10-230 cm/ky for turbiditic intervals (2) a uniform distribution in the 1-5 cm/ky range for hemipelagic intervals. These ranges were selected from the average accumulation rates of all seven Expedition 354 sites computed in Reilly (2018) for the 0-1.2 Ma period. For intervals below 474.7 m CSF-A, core recovery was lower, which generates more uncertainty in the lithology. To let the model accept solutions with accumulation rates diverging from the range affected to each lithology, we apply a bimodal distribution. The first mode is the uniform distribution previously selected, weighed by a factor of 0.7 and the second mode is a uniform distribution in the 5-35 cm/ky, weighed by a factor of 0.3.

As a consequence, it allows turbiditic intervals to present accumulation rates lower than average and hemipelagic intervals to present accumulation rates higher than average. Numerical sampling of accumulation rates includes a compaction term with separate laws for turbiditic and hemipelagic intervals [START_REF] Baldwin | Compaction Curves[END_REF]. This compaction correction is applied to the prior accumulation rates given above in function of the sampling depth, considering that the reference rates were defined at a mean depth of 100 m (Reilly, 2018). Numerical sampling was performed million times over the 175.6-811.9 m CSF-A depth range until that 10,000 paths respect the micropaleontological constraints were obtained.

V.4. RESULTS

V.4.1. Calcareous Nannofossils identifications

For this study we prepared and observed 125 new samples (Table SV-3). Key nannofossils identifications are presented Figure V-54 and Table SV-1. Due to the nature of sampling at this site, the analyses of Top events (Last Occurrence) are mainly utilized. Without continuous sampling to trace abundance shifts it is difficult to assign First Occurrence events. 18 events are presented in sample depths from 218 to 687 m. The first event Scyphosphaera pulcherrima is assigned "Within" to signify the sample is older than 1.03 but younger than 1.6 Ma, likely below the actual Top of this zone. The remaining 17 events are marked with Top, this signifies the first observation considered to be in situ of the marker species. Due to the nature of the study site, its significant turbidite activity and rarity of some marker species, the events likely do not signify the true top. This is considered in the range of error mentioned previously. Another important factor that needs to be considered when assigning an absolute age is the diachronous characteristic of nannoplankton. The ABX age values assigned are from a study of Gulf of Mexico nannofossil events, therefore ages may differ from Indian Ocean events. The model is better constrained in the central interval, 390-700 m CSF-A corresponding to 2.9-6.7 Ma.

One couple of LO-FO datums at 700 mm CSF-A strongly control the age model. Because of the limited number of FO datums, the prior distribution of accumulation rates exerts a control complementary to the LO datums on the age model.

The age model displays a stepwise shape reflecting the alternation of short and thick sand and silt turbidites with long and thin hemipelagic episodes. The accumulation rate prior distribution that was selected for the model is compatible with the datums. As expected, the predicted turbiditic accumulation rates are fully controlled by the "prior" and therefore are only indicative. They do not diverge from 110±100 cm/ky for the 175-475 m CSF-A interval and only occasionally diverge from cm/ky for the 475-805 m CSF-A interval. Contrary to the turbiditic intervals, the hemipelagic intervals present predicted accumulation rates that seem independent of the "prior", with on average .

INTRODUCTORY PARAGRAPH

The onset of the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations with prevailing glacial-interglacial cycles is suggested having triggered a global increase in continental erosion rates during the late Cenozoic.

However, the effect of the climate variability on erosion rates is not sustained by all proxies and has sparked an intense debate on the potential biases of the approaches. Here, we measured the concentrations of the cosmogenic nuclide 10 Be contained in the detrital quartz deposited over the last 6

Ma in the Bengal Fan to quantify how the Himalayan erosion responded to this climate transition. The

VI.1. INTRODUCTION

In mountain ranges, a substantial increase in physical and chemical erosion rates has been attributed to an amplified climate variability and repeated glaciations during the late Cenozoic [START_REF] Kuhlemann | Post-collisional sediment budget history of the Alps: tectonic versus climatic control[END_REF][START_REF] Thiede | Large spatial and temporal variations in Himalayan denudation[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF][START_REF] Pedersen | Glaciations in response to climate variations preconditioned by evolving topography[END_REF]. However, the hypothesis of a long-term climate forcing of erosion rates is at odds with global proxies such as the seawater 10 Be/ 9 Be, which suggests steady chemical weathering and erosion rates over the same time span [START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF]. These contradictions have fostered a debate on the biases affecting the respective proxies for erosion rates [START_REF] Schumer | Real and apparent changes in sediment deposition rates through time[END_REF][START_REF] Moore | Tracking the relationship between mountain uplift, silicate weathering, and long-term CO2 consumption with Ca isotopes: Southern Alps, New Zealand[END_REF][START_REF] Norton | Lack of a weathering signal with increased Cenozoic erosion?[END_REF][START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF] and contributing to this debate requires new, independent approaches.

In this study, we quantified the paleoerosion rates of the Himalaya since the late Miocene with the measurement of cosmogenic nuclides accumulated in terrigenous sediment [START_REF] Brown | Denudation rates determined from the accumulation of in situ-produced 10Be in the luquillo experimental forest, Puerto Rico[END_REF][START_REF] Granger | Pliocene-Pleistocene incision of the Green River, Kentucky, determined from radioactive decay of cosmogenic 26Al and 10Be in Mammoth Cave sediments[END_REF]Schaller et al., 2002;[START_REF] Bierman | A persistent and dynamic East Greenland Ice Sheet over the past 7.5 million years[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]. The Himalaya were subject to a variation of the glacial cover between less than 5% in modern times (GLIMS Database, [START_REF] Raup | The GLIMS geospatial glacier database: A new tool for studying glacier change[END_REF] and up to 20% in the Last Glacial Maximum [START_REF] Shi | Characteristics of late Quaternary monsoonal glaciation on the Tibetan Plateau and in East Asia[END_REF], and to an increased variability of the precipitations of the Indian Summer Monsoon (An et al., 2011)

.). The Bengal

Fan is represented by the marine isopachs in km [START_REF] Curray | Possible greenschist metamorphism at the base of a 22-km sedimentary section, Bay of Bengal[END_REF][START_REF] Radhakrishna | Thin oceanic crust below Bay of Bengal inferred from 3-D gravity interpretation[END_REF]. Several geographical features are indicated, among them the Lower Meghna River (LM), the Yarlung-Tsangpo River (YT), the Shillong Plateau (S).

VI.2. APPROACH FOR EROSION RATE QUANTIFICATION

The sediment eroded from the Central and Eastern Himalaya is conveyed by the Ganga and the Brahmaputra rivers respectively, and after their confluence, by the Lower Meghna river to the Bengal Shelf, and dispersed across the Bengal Fan by a 3000 km-long turbiditic system [START_REF] Curray | The Bengal Fan: morphology, geometry, stratigraphy, history and processes[END_REF]Schwenk and Spiess, 2009) (Figure II-8). Samples were obtained by the drilling of the Bengal Fan by the International Ocean Discovery Program (IODP) Expeditions 353 and 354 at latitudes of 16°N and 8°N respectively [START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016a) and by the sampling of the Lower Meghna modern sand.

These drillings returned an unprecedented record of Himalayan erosion, including sand-rich turbidites suitable for in situ 10 Be cosmogenic nuclide measurements in the quartz fine sand fraction. The 10 Be concentrations were corrected for radioactive decay using the sediment deposition age [START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016a;Reilly, 2018; this thesis, Chapter V), and interpreted in terms of average paleoerosion rates for the whole Central and Eastern Himalayan arc. Because the modern river sediment of the Ganga and Brahmaputra exhibit distinct Sr and Nd isotopic compositions in their bulk silicate fraction [START_REF] Galy | Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes[END_REF][START_REF] Singh | Tracing the distribution of erosion in the Brahmaputra watershed from isotopic compositions of stream sediments[END_REF][START_REF] Singh | Sr and Nd isotopes in river sediments from the Ganga Basin: Sediment provenance and spatial variability in physical erosion[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF], the measurement of isotopic compositions in the Bengal fan samples provides additional constraints to identify the relative contributions of the Central and Eastern Himalaya over time.

VI.3. 10 BE CONCENTRATIONS

Four drill sites of the Bengal Fan were selected to limit the effect of turbiditic sedimentation gaps caused by the migration of the turbiditic channels (France-Lanord et al., 2016a;Reilly, 2018; this thesis, Chapter V). The 10 Be concentrations reflect erosion rates across the source basin of the sandy sediment of the Bengal Fan. They average the signal of several million grains of quartz eroded over ~1 ka on mountain hillslopes, even if the signal can be damped over periods of 1-10 ka during the sediment transfer through the floodplain (Lupker et al., 2012a). Here, the 10 Be corrected concentrations, i.e. paleoconcentrations, for the Bengal Fan reach on average 31±11x10 3 atom/g over the last 6.2 Ma, with fluctuations between 12x10 3 and 64x10 3 atom/g (Figure VI-57b, Table SVI- The Bengal Fan paleoconcentrations do not follow a long-term decreasing trend that would indicate a long-term increase in erosion rates. We observe that before ca. 4.5 Ma (2 values) and after 1.8

Ma (17 values), the paleoconcentrations are close to the average value of 31±11x10 3 atom/g. For these periods, the dispersion is smaller than the one observed on the modern sand of the Brahmaputra [START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF] and the Lower Meghna (Figure VI-57b). In contrast, the 4.5-1.8 Ma period (7 values) is affected by the largest dispersion.

VI.4. APPARENT EROSION RATES

From our 10 Be paleoconcentrations , we derived the apparent Himalayan mean erosion rates ̅ using the simplified equation (Supplementary Information 4 and8 The so-derived paleoerosion rates (Table SVI-1 column AH) are found similar on average to the modern value of ~1 mm/y derived from the concentrations of the Ganga and Brahmaputra (Lupker et al., 2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF]. Nevertheless, before any further interpretation of this apparent erosion stability, a fourth condition must be verified in the case of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra: the sediment of these two large

Himalayan rivers has to be mixed in proportion of their erosional fluxes downstream to the drilling sites in the Bengal Fan. This latter condition is further examined with our provenance analyses.

VI.5. SR-ND ISOTOPES

The 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and Nd values for the Bengal Fan present an organized trend, with covariations from respectively 0.721 and -12.6 to 0.756 and -16. If the sediments of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra are fully exported to the Bengal Fan, the variations of reflect changes in erosion rates either in the Ganga basin or in the Brahmaputra basin.

Alternatively, the variations of reflect changes in sand sequestration in the floodplains of both rivers or changes in the system routing sediments from both rivers to turbidites. In that case, extreme compositions are explained by the sequestration of most of the Ganga sand as in modern times, or by distinct outlets and distinct turbiditic systems for the Ganga and Brahmaputra [START_REF] Curray | The Bengal Fan: morphology, geometry, stratigraphy, history and processes[END_REF][START_REF] Contreras-Rosales | Origin and fate of sedimentary organic matter in the northern Bay of Bengal during the last 18ka[END_REF][START_REF] Blum | Allogenic and Autogenic Signals in the Stratigraphic Record of the Deep-Sea Bengal Fan[END_REF], resulting in cores that recorded turbidites derived from the Brahmaputra. The computation of paleoerosion rates should include these alternative conditions.

VI.6. TEST OF THE CLIMATE FORCING HYPOTHESIS

To explore how this variable export of the Ganga and Brahmaputra sand impacts our preliminary conclusions on the stability of the Himalayan erosion rates during the late Cenozoic, we developed a test for the climate forcing hypothesis (detailed computation in Supplementary Information). The mixing of two end-members with 10 Be concentrations and yields a final concentration that is a function of as shown below (the indices and indicating the Ganga and Brahmaputra respectively):

At steady state, and depend on the undetermined mean erosion rates and of each drainage basin.

In case of sequestration in the floodplains or distinct turbiditic systems, the equation ( 2) cannot be simplified, and the mean Himalayan erosion rate remains undetermined. This indetermination can be waived under the assumption that most Himalayan landscapes respond similarly to a global climate forcing [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF]. In that case, we can test the simplified configuration for which and co-vary over time. The mean Himalayan erosion rate ̅ is then determined from the modern mean erosion rate ̅ through ̅ ̅ with the regional climatic amplification factor of erosion relative to modern conditions , , ⁄ , and with , and , the modern 10 Be concentrations in the sand of each river.

The resulting mean Himalayan erosion rate displays a signal (Figure VI-58b, Table SVI-1 column AV) similar to that of the paleoconcentration, i.e. a constant mean erosion rate over the last 6.2 Ma, between 0.8 and 1.3 mm/y, close to the modern values of ~1 mm/y. Although some scenarios more complex than this uniform climate forcing hypothesis would be worth developing with additional constraints, this demonstrates that despite the variable mixing of the Ganga and Brahmaputra sand, the primary conclusion of our data on the absence of an increase in erosion rates seems robust.

VI.7. IMPLICATIONS

Our results suggest that the climate forcing of erosion is weak in the Himalaya, as argued on a global scale by [START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF]. The marked increase in local erosion rates documented by in situ thermochronometry in the Himalaya [START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Exhumation and topographic evolution of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis, eastern Himalaya[END_REF] is not reflected by an increase in the mean erosion rates reconstructed using cosmogenic nuclide concentrations in the Bengal Fan. This may imply that available thermochronometric data in the Himalaya are only of local tectonic or geomorphologic significance and do not reflect the average erosion of the Central and Eastern Himalaya as cosmogenic nuclides applied on sediment do.

In mountain ranges, the extension of ice during the late Cenozoic climate cooling likely produced an increase in erosion rates [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Pedersen | Glaciations in response to climate variations preconditioned by evolving topography[END_REF] or at least an increase in the variability of the erosion rates as shown by several 10 Be records [START_REF] Schaller | Paleoerosion Rates from Cosmogenic 10Be in a 1.3 Ma Terrace Sequence: Response of the River Meuse to Changes in Climate and Rock Uplift[END_REF][START_REF] Haeuselmann | Abrupt glacial valley incision at 0.8 Ma dated from cave deposits in Switzerland[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]. In the High Himalaya, prominent glacially-shaped valleys attest for the intensity of glacial erosion. However, our results do not indicate any significant increase in erosion rates since 6.2

Ma, and they even point to a slight decrease since 0.45 Ma. The amplitude of the variations in the 10 Be erosion rates is paradoxically lower during the intensification of the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations (since ~0.8 Ma) than during the previous period, even if this might partly arise from buffering effects caused by glacio-eustatic variations and temporary sediment storage in the delta, as shown since 11 ka (Goodbred and Kuehl, 2000). In any case, our results suggest that glacial erosion had no manifest impact on the global volume of the sediment exported from the Central and Eastern Himalaya.

In absence of a clear climate control on Himalayan erosion, the large fluctuations of paleoconcentrations and provenances documented in this study between could reflect transient responses to regional changes in tectonics. Such changes are documented during that period for the Eastern Syntaxis [START_REF] Burg | Exhumation during crustal folding in the Namche-Barwa syntaxis[END_REF]Zeitler et al., 2014;[START_REF] Yang | Exhumation and topographic evolution of the Namche Barwa Syntaxis, eastern Himalaya[END_REF] and in the foreland sedimentary basin with the rise of the Shillong Plateau [START_REF] Najman | Evolving strain partitioning in the Eastern Himalaya: The growth of the Shillong Plateau[END_REF] and the development of the Indo-Burman wedge (Maurin and Rangin, 2009). Further studies with an approach similar to ours applied in the Himalayan foreland basin should help in specifying those possible tectonic imprints.

VI.8. METHODS

The samples were selected from the sand sediment of four sites drilled in the Bengal Bay during the IODP Expeditions 353 and 354 (Figure II-8, Table SVI-1) [START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016a). The 10 Be/ 9 Be ratios were measured at the ASTER national Accelerator Mass Spectrometer facility (CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France) [START_REF] Arnold | The French accelerator mass spectrometry facility ASTER: Improved performance and developments[END_REF][START_REF] Braucher | Preparation of ASTER in-house 10Be/9Be standard solutions[END_REF] and the Sr-Nd isotopes were measured at CRPG-CNRS-UL (Nancy, France) [START_REF] Hein | Post-glacial climate forcing of surface processes in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin and implications for carbon sequestration[END_REF]. The samples were prepared and decontaminated from the atmospheric 10 Be contribution at CRPG-CNRS-UL (Nancy, France) following standard procedures [START_REF] Brown | Examination of surface exposure ages of Antarctic moraines using in situ produced 10Be and 26Al[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF][START_REF] Hein | Post-glacial climate forcing of surface processes in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin and implications for carbon sequestration[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF].

The 10 Be paleoconcentrations were computed [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF] assuming that they reflect, to the first order, the mean concentration at the outlet of the Himalayan range, i.e. accounting only for radioactive decay and neglecting any additional 10 Be production during the sediment transfer in the foreland basins, and any recent exposure since the Bengal Fan sediment are lying below a >2,000 m water column. The fraction f G was computed from the modern Ganga and Brahmaputra sediment isotopic signatures, under the assumption that these compositions have remained stable since 7 Ma. The full formulation of and the regional climatic amplification factor of erosion relative to modern conditions , along with the paleoerosion rates is developed in the Supplementary Information.

VI.9. EXTENDED METHODS

VI.9.1. Material

The sample locations are presented in Figure II-8 and complementary information is in Table SVI-1.

The IODP Expedition 354 drilled a transect of seven holes extending from the late Pleistocene to the Miocene at 8°N (Figure II-8) (France -Lanord et al., 2016a). The cores consist of sand and silt turbidites interbedded with hemipelagic calcareous clay. Another hole drilled during Expedition 353 also provides a turbiditic record in the northwestern Bay of Bengal at 16°N [START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]. The abundance in nano/microfossils and the presence of clayey material appropriate for paleomagnetic dating contributed to yield dating constraints over the full period up to recent times [START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016a;Reilly, 2018, this thesis, Chapter V).

The abundance in quartz-rich sand in the turbidites makes possible the application of in-situproduced 10 Be measurement. We selected 28 samples from the inter-levee and sand lobe turbidites from 4 drilled sites: U1450, U1451 and U1454 at 8°N, and U1444 at 14°N . Overall, the samples cover the 0.07 -6.6 Ma range, with a higher density in the 0.07 -0.7 Ma range. We also selected five The samples were prepared and decontaminated from the atmospheric 10 Be contribution at CRPG-CNRS-UL (Nancy, France) following standard procedures [START_REF] Brown | Examination of surface exposure ages of Antarctic moraines using in situ produced 10Be and 26Al[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]. The measurement of the 10 Be/ 9 Be ratios for a selected granulometric fraction (125-250 μm except for four samples, Table SVI-1) was performed at the ASTER national Accelerator Mass Spectrometer facility (CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France) [START_REF] Arnold | The French accelerator mass spectrometry facility ASTER: Improved performance and developments[END_REF], with a normalization to the in-house standard STD-11, using an assigned 10 Be/ 9 Be ratio of (1.191 ± 0.013) x 10 -11 [START_REF] Braucher | Preparation of ASTER in-house 10Be/9Be standard solutions[END_REF].

We used a sufficient amount of quartz (i.e. > 100 g, Table SVI- In addition, we performed a check on a potential natural 9 Be content in the quartz that could interfere with the 9 Be content of the carrier (see discussion in [START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF]. After evaporation and dissolution of the residue in HCl, an aliquot was collected for 9 Be measurement using ICP-MS at CRPG, Nancy. We found 9 Be concentrations of the same order as the 9 Be concentrations predicted from the added mass of the carrier, which confirms that the natural 9 Be content is negligible in the analyzed samples.

VI.9.3.

10

Be paleoconcentrations

The 10 Be paleoconcentrations and erosion rates results are presented in Figure VI-57b and in Table SVI

-1.
As the Bengal Fan samples have been shielded from cosmic rays since deposition, the 10 Be concentrations (Figure VI-59) are only corrected for radioactive decay using a 10 Be half-life of 1.387±0.012×10 6 y [START_REF] Korschinek | A new value for the half-life of 10Be by Heavy-Ion Elastic Recoil Detection and liquid scintillation counting[END_REF][START_REF] Chmeleff | Determination of the 10Be half-life by multicollector ICP-MS and liquid scintillation counting[END_REF] to obtain 10 Be paleoconcentrations SVI-1). These paleoconcentrations integrate the initial 10 Be signal acquired during erosion and the possible additional exposure to cosmic rays during sediment transport to the Bay of Bengal. They are inversely correlated to erosion rates. In the modern system, the exposure during sediment transfer represents less than 10-15% of the initial signal in the Ganga plain [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF](Lupker et al., , 2012a) ) and is within the concentration analytical uncertainties of this study. In the following, we assume that the 10 Be paleoconcentrations reflect to the first order the mean concentration at the outlet of the Despite a limited set of analysis in two different size fractions (75-125 μm) and (125-250 μm) (Table SVI-1-Table SVI-2), the grain size does not have a major influence on 10 Be concentration. One sample (U1444A-7H) displays a larger value for the coarsest fraction and might be explained by a larger proportion of Brahmaputra coarse sediment in this fraction (modern 10 Be concentrations of the Ganga and Brahmaputra sand in Table SVI -6). The overall agreement between the (75-250 μm) and (125-250 μm) fractions makes it possible to plot and discuss on the same graphs the data issued from these two size fractions.

(Figure VI-57b, Table

Next page.

One might prefer dividing the period of study according to different averaging intervals than the ones we selected . For instance, one could merge the 4.5-3.5 Ma interval with the 6.5-4.5 Ma interval. This new division does not alter the evolution of the mean 10 Be paleoconcentration (a.), the mean f G (b.) and the mean paleoerosion rate (c.), and associated conclusions. c.

VI.9.4. Production rates and erosion rates

The apparent mean erosion rates ̅ over the whole basin is computed using the simplified equation (e.g. [START_REF] Brown | Denudation rates determined from the accumulation of in situ-produced 10Be in the luquillo experimental forest, Puerto Rico[END_REF]: Himalaya [START_REF] Huyghe | Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | The kinematic evolution of the Nepalese Himalaya interpreted from Nd isotopes[END_REF] and Eastern Himalaya (Chirouze et al., 2013;Bracciali et al., 2016), and given the paleoaltimetry along northern Himalaya [START_REF] Gébelin | The Miocene elevation of Mount Everest[END_REF][START_REF] Garzione | High times on the Tibetan Plateau: Paleoelevation of the Thakkhola graben, Nepal[END_REF]. Condition C is verified because the 10 Be concentration increase by less than 20% during sediment transfer within the Ganga foreland basin (Lupker et al., 2012a).

̅
The 10 Be production rates were computed using Basinga [START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF] with the Lal-Stone scaling model [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF][START_REF] Stone | Air pressure and cosmogenic isotope production[END_REF]modified by Charreau et al., 2019). Basinga considers three pathways: neutrons, slow muons and fast muons, with constant attenuation lengths. We set the sea level high latitude production rate at 4.18 atom/g [START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF], with factors of 0.9886, 0.0027 and 0.0087 for the neutron, slow and fast muonic contributions respectively [START_REF] Braucher | Production of cosmogenic radionuclides at great depth: A multi element approach[END_REF]. We took into account the glacial cover with the GLIMS database [START_REF] Raup | The GLIMS geospatial glacier database: A new tool for studying glacier change[END_REF] but we did not include topographic shielding, following the suggestion of [START_REF] Dibiase | Short Communication: Increasing vertical attenuation length of cosmogenic nuclide production on steep slopes negates topographic shielding corrections for catchment erosion rates[END_REF]. We also did not include paleomagnetic variations.

The drainage basins of the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Lower Meghna were delimited by removing the plains covered by Quaternary deposits (approximate elevation lower than 200 m) and the quartzlacking areas (the Cretaceous basaltic formations overlying the Indian Craton). For the production rates limited to the Himalayan part of the basins (Figure , we also removed the southern sub-basins covering the Indian Craton, the Shillong Plateau and the Indo-Burman Range (see Lupker et al., 2012a).

The sediment flux of the southern sub-basins is limited to ~1% of the Himalayan derived flux, based on 10 Be measurements in rivers draining these sub-basins (Lupker et al., 2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF][START_REF] Rosenkranz | Coupling erosion and topographic development in the rainiest place on Earth: Reconstructing the Shillong Plateau uplift history with in-situ cosmogenic 10 Be[END_REF].

Consequently, we approximated the Himalayan erosion as follows:

̅ ̅ ̅ ≅ ̅ ,
with ̅ and the mean erosion rates and areas of the full basin ( ), the Himalayan part of the basin ( ) and the southern sub-basins ( ).

The areas, production rates and erosion rates of the basins are summarized in Table SVI-6.

VI.9.5. Sr-Nd isotopic measurements on bulk silicate samples

The Sr-Nd isotopic results are presented in Figure VI-57a and in Table SVI-1. The samples were prepared and measured for Sr-Nd isotopes at CRPG-CNRS-UL (Nancy, France)

after acetic acid leaching [START_REF] Hein | Post-glacial climate forcing of surface processes in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin and implications for carbon sequestration[END_REF]. Bulk aliquots of the samples were collected before 10 Be sample preparation and rinsed with milli-Q water to reduce sea salt contributions. They were then powdered and leached with 10% acetic acid [START_REF] Galy | The Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Himalayan belt Constraints deduced from isotopic compositions of Early Miocene turbidites in the Bengal Fan[END_REF] and prepared to obtain a silicate residue.

87 Sr/ 86 Sr was measured on this residue using a Triton Plus(TM) multi-collector thermal ionization mass spectrometer with NBS-987 as a standard and quality control. 143 Nd/ 144 Nd was measured using a Neptune plus multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. 143 Nd/ 144 Nd was first normalized to 146 Nd/ 144 Nd = 0.7219 using an exponential law and then to the JNdi-1 following a pseudo-standard sample-bracketing method (one standard for each 4-5 samples, [START_REF] Yang | Eolian dust forcing of river chemistry on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau since 8 Ma[END_REF].

VI.9.6. Computation of the fraction f G

The results for the fraction are presented in Figure VI-58a and Table SVI-1.

The sediment of the Bengal Fan and the Lower Meghna is expected to reflect a mixing between Ganga and Brahmaputra sediment. Since the two rivers drain lithologies with a distinct isotopic signature [START_REF] Galy | Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes[END_REF], their sediment also present a distinct signature (Table SVI-6) [START_REF] Galy | Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes[END_REF][START_REF] Singh | Tracing the distribution of erosion in the Brahmaputra watershed from isotopic compositions of stream sediments[END_REF][START_REF] Singh | Sr and Nd isotopes in river sediments from the Ganga Basin: Sediment provenance and spatial variability in physical erosion[END_REF][START_REF] Goodbred | Piecing together the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River delta: Use of sediment provenance to reconstruct the history and interaction of multiple fluvial systems during Holocene delta evolution[END_REF]. Based on the results from the late Cenozoic foreland sediment in Central Himalaya [START_REF] Huyghe | Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Huyghe | Tectonic and climatic control of the changes in the sedimentary record of the Karnali River section (Siwaliks of western Nepal)[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | The kinematic evolution of the Nepalese Himalaya interpreted from Nd isotopes[END_REF] and Eastern Himalaya (Chirouze et al., 2013;Bracciali et al., 2016), we assume that the Ganga and Brahmaputra poles have remained stable since 7 Ma. Therefore, the sediment of the Bengal Fan is presumed to follow a mixing trend between these two poles.

The fraction of Bengal Fan or Lower Meghna sand issued from the Ganga basin can be determined applying an equation similar to (1) either on the Nd or Sr isotopes. For instance, for Sr:

and

The combination of both equations leads to (Morin, 2015, p. 319):

and similarly for Nd:

Because the inversion of f G is overdetermined by the two mixing equations on 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and Nd, we compute the probability density function of for each sample according to [START_REF] Tarantola | Inverse problem theory and methods for model parameter estimation[END_REF]:

with and the mean uncertainties on the isotopic signatures of the Ganga and Brahmaputra poles (Table SVI-6), and and the multivariate density function of each pole. The above expression does not account for the analytic uncertainties on the sample measurements (Table SVI-1), which are negligible compared to the uncertainties of each pole.

Then, for each sample, the mean and 1-σ uncertainty on was computed from its respective pdf. b. Sr concentration as a function of Al/Si, a proxy for granulometry [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF], for the Ganga, Brahmaputra and Lower Meghna bulk sediment, dataset in Table SVI -5 (this study;[START_REF] Lupker | Increasing chemical weathering in the Himalayan system since the Last Glacial Maximum[END_REF]. The coarser fraction, i.e. the sandy bedload, of the Lower Meghna sediment overlaps with the composition of Brahmaputra sediment whereas the finer fraction, i.e. the suspended load, corresponds to a mixing of sediment between the Ganga and the Brahmaputra sediment.

a.

b. For a few samples, isotopic measurements were not performed. In that case, the marked difference of the Sr concentration between the Ganga and Brahmaputra sediment and the resulting close relationship between the Sr concentration and 87 Sr/ 86 Sr [START_REF] Goodbred | Piecing together the Ganges-Brahmaputra-Meghna River delta: Use of sediment provenance to reconstruct the history and interaction of multiple fluvial systems during Holocene delta evolution[END_REF] are used as a proxy to estimate .

1 -f G (isotope-based) 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 1 -f G (Sr-

Negative values of :

Each main Himalayan formation, from north to south, the Transhimalaya, the Tethyan Sedimentary Series, the High Himalaya Crystalline and the Lesser Himalaya, has a distinct Sr-Nd isotopic signature, as shown in the Figure 10 situations for which only the Brahmaputra was at the origin of the recorded turbidites. We assume that extreme events could lead to direct pulses of sediment from the range outlet to Bangladesh, without minimum dilution by Himalayan s.s. tributaries. Alternatively, this may reflect erosion conditions that favour strongly the erosion of the Transhimalaya compared to the Himalaya s.s..

VI.9.7. Modern geochemical and granulometric budgets in the Ganga

The combination of a geochemical budget with a granulometric budget makes it possible to assess the overall sequestered flux of Ganga sediment in the Ganga floodplain and highlight the preferential sequestration of the sand fraction. Here, these budgets are focused on the Narayani-Gandak to Ganga system, the Gandak being a tributary of the Ganga .

Geochemical budget:

Following [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF], we compared the sediment content in the immobile elements (i.e.

for which the dissolution flux can be neglected) Al and Fe at the mountain range outlet and the plain Here, the geochemical signature of Himalayan rivers at the range outlet is estimated from data acquired in the Narayani-Gandak at the Himalayan front during the 2010s monsoon [START_REF] Morin | Annual Sediment Transport Dynamics in the Narayani Basin, Central Nepal: Assessing the Impacts of Erosion Processes in the Annual Sediment Budget[END_REF], and integrated over time and channel cross-section, following the methods of [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF]. The signature of the plain outlet was estimated by [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF] for the Ganga at Harding Bridge . The signature of the sediment deposited in the plain is defined from ~80 samples of sediment of the Gandak Fan drilled cores (Morin, 2015), which correspond to sediment deposition since ca. 50 ka, and from ~30 samples of Siwalik sandstone deposited by the Narayani-Gandak system since the late Miocene (this thesis, Chapter VII).

While our assessment of the geochemical signatures for the range outlet and the deposited sediment (Figure VI-64a) falls within the error bars of the poles approximated by [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF] (their Figure 15), we obtain sediment budget values significantly higher: ~30% (instead of their ~10%) of the sediment issued from the range (~165 Mt/y) would be sequestered in the Ganga plain.

Granulometric budget:

Discrete granulometric measurements have been conducted for variable depth and discharge values in the Narayani [START_REF] Morin | Annual Sediment Transport Dynamics in the Narayani Basin, Central Nepal: Assessing the Impacts of Erosion Processes in the Annual Sediment Budget[END_REF] and the Ganga [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF]. Through adequate interpolation 1) data of the Ganga at Harding Bridge [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF], we estimated the other poles (Extended Methods) with ( 2) data from the Narayani-Gandak at the Himalayan front [START_REF] Morin | Annual Sediment Transport Dynamics in the Narayani Basin, Central Nepal: Assessing the Impacts of Erosion Processes in the Annual Sediment Budget[END_REF] and ( 3) data from the Gandak megafan (Morin, 2015) and from a new Siwalik section (this thesis, Chapter VII). For comparison, the shaded black stars and envelopes represent the previous approximations of [START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF] for these poles.

b.

By the addition of the higher sequestration than previously estimated and the preferential sequestration of the coarse fraction, we estimate that ~60% of the coarse fraction (>125 μm) of the sediment issued from the central Himalaya is deposited in the Ganga plain, and therefore does not reach the confluence with the Brahmaputra. This could explain that bedload with a Ganga isotopic signature is absent in the lower Meghna bedload sediment.

Because of a lack of data, we cannot perform similar geochemical and granulometric budgets for the Brahmaputra plain. Nevertheless, we assume that the sequestration of sand is more limited in the Brahmaputra plain because the Brahmaputra plain has little accommodation space (Figure II-8, e.g. Hetényi et al., 2016). In that case, the Brahmaputra sand would dilute the Ganga sand, an effect reinforced by the fact that the Brahmaputra has a sediment load 1.75 to 2 times higher than the Ganga according to the measured fluxes of suspended load (Delft Hydraulics and Danish Hydraulics Institute, 1996;[START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF] or 10 Be derived erosional fluxes (Lupker et al., 2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF]. This configuration of the Brahmaputra plain might have been different before the rise of the Shillong Plateau [START_REF] Najman | Evolving strain partitioning in the Eastern Himalaya: The growth of the Shillong Plateau[END_REF] and the growth of the Indo-Burman wedge (Maurin and Rangin, 2009), which might have favoured a higher sequestration of the coarse fraction in the Brahmaputra plain than in modern times.

VI.9.8. Test of the climate forcing hypothesis

The results of the test are presented in Figure VI-58b and in Table SVI-1. In case of a variable mixing in the foreland plain (differential sequestration) or in the shelf (separate turbiditic systems), the 10 Be concentration of the sandy fraction of the Lower Meghna river or the concentration of the Bengal Fan turbidites can be written from a mixing perspective: with and the 10 Be concentrations of the Ganga and Brahmaputra sand respectively.

At steady state, these concentrations depend on the mean erosion rates in the basins of these rivers according to:

∑ and ∑ , with Λ the attenuation lengths of nucleons or muons, the density of eroded rocks, and the mean nucleogenic and muogenic cosmogenic nuclide production rates in the respective drainage basins, and and the mean erosion rates in the basins (e.g. [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]. It follows:

∑ (S1).
If the Ganga and Brahmaputra sediments are fully exported to the Bengal Fan, the proportion , and being the areas of the basins, and the above equation simplifies to the classical equation ̅ ∑ with and ̅ the mean nucleogenic and muogenic production and erosion rates over the whole basin of the Lower Meghna. Otherwise, the expression (S1) cannot be simplified and leads to the indetermination of the mean erosion rate.

To overcome the indetermination, we chose to test a scenario in which all the Himalayan landscapes would similarly respond to a regional forcing [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF], i.e. in which and covary:

and , with and the modern erosion rates of the Ganga and Brahmaputra basins respectively and the regional amplification factor.

In that case, assuming that the temporal variability of the production rates remains negligible over the period of study (further section, However, these equations are difficult to verify when . In that case, we should expect the 10 Be concentration of the mixing to be larger than the concentration of the Brahmaputra before the confluence at 31x10 3 atom/g. Since the 10 Be concentration of the Brahmaputra in Dibrugarh (Figure is poorly defined, as well as the concentrations of the Himalayan tributaries of the Brahmaputra that display variable values between 8 and 41x10 3 atom/g [START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF], we chose to consider f G =0 in (S3) for those cases (i.e. for six samples of the Bengal Fan in the time span 0.5-0 Ma and for two older samples, and for three samples of the Lower Meghna).

VI.9.9. Temporal variability of cosmogenic nuclide production rates

The cosmogenic nuclide production rates depend on the solar activity, stable over the last 10 Ma (Leya et al., 2000), and the intensity of Earth's magnetic field [START_REF] Lifton | Implications of two Holocene timedependent geomagnetic models for cosmogenic nuclide production rate scaling[END_REF]. We explored the impact of the temporal variations of Earth's magnetic dipole intensity on production and erosion rates in Figure Using different databases of dipole paleointensity, the continuous Muscheler et al.'s (2005) database from 0 to 60 ka, the SINT2000 continuous database [START_REF] Valet | Geomagnetic dipole strength and reversal rate over the past two million years[END_REF] from 60 to 2000 ka, and the PINT lava flow discrete database [START_REF] Biggin | Paleointensity database updated and upgraded[END_REF], having a low resolution for the record older than 4 Ma, we computed the 10Be production rate normalized to modern values as a function of time, for a basin with a hypsometry close to the Himalayan s.s. and Transhimalayan part of the Ganga-Brahmaputra basin, at a mid-latitude of 28°N, and according to the magnetic correction in the Lal-Stone model [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF][START_REF] Stone | Air pressure and cosmogenic isotope production[END_REF]. Since 2 or 4.5 Ma, the nucleogenic production rate displays significant variations (Figure VI-65) and a 10% higher average than in modern times, with a standard deviation of 15-17%, which remains in the uncertainties of our 10 Be results.

Remarkably, the extreme variations in production rates ( Muscheler-SINT sediment database [START_REF] Muscheler | Geomagnetic field intensity during the last 60,000 years based on 10Be and 36Cl from the Summit ice cores and 14[END_REF][START_REF] Valet | Geomagnetic dipole strength and reversal rate over the past two million years[END_REF] and ( 2) the discrete PINT lava flow database [START_REF] Biggin | Paleointensity database updated and upgraded[END_REF]. A 100 ka-long averaging sliding window is applied to the PINT record to buffer the data dispersion and fill the data voids. The resulting curve with the 1-σ uncertainty envelope is presented.

b. 10 Be normalized production rate distribution for the two databases. Despite distinct periods (0-2 Ma vs 0-5 Ma) and resolution (0.5 ka vs ~50 ka), the distribution for both databases is similar for low frequency (period > 100 ka) signal variations.

VI.10. TABLES

In Tables attached to this manuscript.

VII. THE VALMIKI SECTIONS: A NEW SEDIMENTARY RECORD OF THE CENTRAL HIMALAYA (DRAFT)

VII.1. INTRODUCTION

VII.1.1. The South Asian Monsoon during the late Cenozoic

Mountain ranges develop from the interaction of tectonics and climate through erosion [START_REF] Beaumont | Himalayan tectonics explained by extrusion of a low-viscosity crustal channel coupled to focused surface denudation[END_REF][START_REF] Whipple | The influence of climate on the tectonic evolution of mountain belts[END_REF]. This is illustrated by the breathtaking relief of the Himalaya. There, at the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates, the action of the South Asian Monsoon (SA Monsoon)

and the late Cenozoic Glaciations have modeled the relief of the mountain range. The SA Monsoon is defined by the seasonal alternation of surface winds. Summer south westerlies bring warm and moist air from the Indian Ocean towards the front of the Himalaya where precipitations fall. Winter north easterlies produce dry to arid conditions, particularly in Central and Western Himalaya [START_REF] Bookhagen | Toward a complete Himalayan hydrological budget: Spatiotemporal distribution of snowmelt and rainfall and their impact on river discharge[END_REF][START_REF] Andermann | Evaluation of precipitation data sets along the Himalayan front[END_REF]. The SA Monsoon is favoured by the elevation of the Himalayan range, which insulate the warm and moist air from the cold and dry air of Central Asia [START_REF] Boos | Dominant control of the South Asian monsoon by orographic insulation versus plateau heating[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Orographic Controls on Climate and Paleoclimate of Asia: Thermal and Mechanical Roles for the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF].

Since the early work of [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF], [START_REF] Kroon | Onset of monsoonal related upwelling in the western arabian sea as revealed by planktonic foraminifers[END_REF] and Prell et al. (1992), we know that the amplitude and frequency of the monsoonal precipitations evolved over long timescales during the last eight million years. The past SA monsoon has been investigated by indirect approaches applied on fossils, paleosoils or organic matter. Such material is available in the deep sea sediment as in the Arabian Sea or in the Bengal Bay and in the continental sediment deposited in the Himalayan foreland basin and later exhumed in the Siwalik Hills. A significant dataset points to an increased seasonality of precipitations at ca. 8-7 Ma. The shift in the abundance of marine siliceous and calcareous nanofossils in the Arabian Sea was interpreted as the consequence of a shift in the marine upwelling caused by an intensification of the surface winds (Kroon et al. 991;Prell et al., 1992). The shift in oxygen and carbon isotopes in pedogenic carbonates and fossils of the Siwaliks show the expansion and prevalence of C 4 plants that are more adapted to aridity than C3 plants [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995;[START_REF] Cerling | Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary[END_REF]. Weathering proxies as clay mineralogy or major elements point to increased weathering linked to a potential amplification of the precipitation seasonality [START_REF] Derry | Neogene growth of the sedimentary organic carbon reservoir[END_REF][START_REF] Huyghe | Tectonic and climatic control of the changes in the sedimentary record of the Karnali River section (Siwaliks of western Nepal)[END_REF][START_REF] Huyghe | Significance of the clay mineral distribution in fluvial sediments of the Neogene to Recent Himalayan Foreland Basin (west-central Nepal)[END_REF] or major elements [START_REF] Clift | Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity[END_REF].

However, supplementary data put in question the hypothesis of an evolution of the SA Monsoon in the late Cenozoic and the spatial and temporal pattern of this evolution remains controversial [START_REF] Dettman | Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 m.y[END_REF][START_REF] Ghosh | Stable isotopic studies of palaeosol sediment from Upper Siwalik of Himachal Himalaya: evidence for high monsoonal intensity during late Miocene? Palaeogeography[END_REF][START_REF] Sanyal | Mio-Pliocene monsoonal record from Himalayan foreland basin (Indian Siwalik) and its relation to vegetational change[END_REF][START_REF] Sanyal | Chemical diagenesis of Siwalik sandstone: Isotopic and mineralogical proxies from Surai Khola section, Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Sanyal | Intensification of monsoon, microclimate and asynchronous C4 appearance: Isotopic evidence from the Indian Siwalik sediments[END_REF]Behrensmeyer et al., 2007a, b;[START_REF] Huang | Large-scale hydrological change drove the late Miocene C4 plant expansion in the Himalayan foreland and Arabian Peninsula[END_REF][START_REF] Rodriguez | The Owen Ridge uplift in the Arabian Sea: implications for the sedimentary record of Indian monsoon in late Miocene[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016a;[START_REF] Ghosh | Evolution of C4 plants and controlling factors: Insight from n-alkane isotopic values of NW Indian Siwalik paleosols[END_REF]Vögeli et al., 2017a, b;[START_REF] Ghosh | Substrate control of C4 plant abundance in the Himalayan foreland: A study based on inter-basinal records from Plio-Pleistocene Siwalik Group sediments[END_REF]. Using O isotopes on fossil freshwater shells, [START_REF] Dettman | Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 m.y[END_REF] demonstrate that, even if the yearly amplitude of precipitations may have decreased, the frequency of precipitations remains steady on average over the period, in contradiction to the interpretation of previous studies [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995). Using C isotopes on bulk organic matter, Vögeli et al. (2017a) goes farther: the yearly amount of monsoonal precipitations would have remained steady in the Eastern Himalaya, preventing the prevalence of the C4 plants, contrary to Western Himalaya [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Vögeli et al., 2017a). And the final blow is struck by the results of the Expedition 354 in the Bengal Fan at 8°N (France-Lanord et al., 2016a), which clay mineralogy does not show increased weathering at 8-7 Ma, contrary to the results at 1°S [START_REF] Derry | Neogene growth of the sedimentary organic carbon reservoir[END_REF].

To overcome these contradictions, a C-O record on pedogenic carbonates from the Surai Section in Central Himalaya could help to make a comparison and understand this difference [START_REF] Harrison | Isotopic preservation of Himalayan/Tibetan uplift, denudation, and climatic histories of two molasse deposits[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995;[START_REF] Ojha | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Ojha | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal[END_REF]. But this comparison is difficult because data are variable after 6 Ma and lack of temporal resolution (Quade et al., 1995). To add to the confusion, neither Western nor Central Himalaya is dominated by C4 plants in modern times [START_REF] Still | Global distribution of C3 and C4 vegetation: Carbon cycle implications: C 4 PLANTS AND CARBON CYCLE[END_REF].

Therefore, these irreconcilable contradictions require obtaining a new, high-resolution record in Central Himalaya to check the potential variability of the SA Monsoon evolution through the late Cenozoic.

VII.1.2. Approach

Here, we unveil a new Siwalik group of sections located in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar, India. The Valmiki Sections form an almost continuous series of molasses thick of 4,000 m. They record the deposits of the Narayani-Gandak river, which outlet sits 50 km west of the sections and 160 km west of the Surai Section. The Narayani-Gandak form the major river draining Central Nepal and is the prime tributary of the Ganga.

Dating constraints were provided for the deepest 3,600 m series, corresponding to the 8.2 -0.7

Ma time span, using paleomagnetic analyses and stochastic magnetostratigraphic correlations [START_REF] Lallier | Management of ambiguities in magnetostratigraphic correlation[END_REF]. The geometry and age of the Siwalik folds at this location were determined. The formations were analyzed with field observations. Granulometry, weathering and a potential recycling were estimated using major and trace elements. We measured the O and C stable isotopes on the fine silts and selected the samples richer in carbonates than the Narayani sand. Therefore, the signal we measured partly originates from detrital carbonates but also from pedogenic carbonates. The variation of this signal makes it possible to explore the local variations of proportions between C3 and C4 plants and the local variations of precipitations.

VII.2. CONTEXT VII.2.1. Geology, physiography and precipitation distribution

The Himalayan range is characterized by several distinct physiographic units. From North to South:

Figure VII-67

The geology roughly follows the physiography. The Himalaya is divided into four subparallel main lithologic units (Figure VII-66, Gansser, 1964;[START_REF] Fort | Himalayas: the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc[END_REF], 1986;[START_REF] Hodges | Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives[END_REF] from north to south:

the Tethyan sedimentary series (TSS) consisting in medium to low-grade detrital and carbonate metasediments; the High Himalaya Crystalline (HHC) consisting in high-grade crystalline metamorphic units; the Lesser Himalaya (LH), consisting in low-to medium grade metasediments; the Siwalik series, which consist in exhumed synorogenic sediment and extend southwards in the Ganga plain.

The Himalaya in Central Nepal is characterized by a large south to north variation in precipitations.

In the Ganga Plain, annual rainfall range between 1 and 1.5 m/y. A sharp increase is observed in the Siwaliks Hills and the Mahabarat [START_REF] Bookhagen | Toward a complete Himalayan hydrological budget: Spatiotemporal distribution of snowmelt and rainfall and their impact on river discharge[END_REF]. The precipitations drop when arriving in the LH to 1.5-2 m/y, before rising along the southern flank of the high Himalayan peaks with 2 to 5 m/y monsoonal precipitations (Burbank et al., 2003;[START_REF] Andermann | Evaluation of precipitation data sets along the Himalayan front[END_REF]. Finally, as one penetrates northwards in the precipitation shadow behind the higher summits, precipitations become rarer (<0.4 m/y).

VII.2.2. The Siwalik molasses

The north of the foreland basin has been exhumed in the Siwalik Hills along successive fold and thrust belts at the front of the Himalaya. In Central Himalaya, the Siwalik Hills present a low elevation (< 1,000 m) with a sharp relief. Himalayan rivers as well as local rivers have deeply incised the Siwalik uplifting folds and exposed kilometric and continuous sections as old as ca. 15 Ma [START_REF] Gautam | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of Siwalik Group sediments of Karnali River section in western Nepal[END_REF]. The molasses form a sedimentary succession thicker than 6 km [START_REF] Dasgupta | Seismotectonic atlas of India and its environs[END_REF], with accumulation rates at 0.3-0.5 mm/y [START_REF] Appel | Magnetostratigraphy of the Miocene-Pleistocene Surai Khola Siwaliks in West Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Harrison | Isotopic preservation of Himalayan/Tibetan uplift, denudation, and climatic histories of two molasse deposits[END_REF].

The Cenozoic synorogenic continental deposits of the Siwalik molasses present sedimentary facies similar to the modern facies of the Indian foreland basin. The Siwalik molasses are divided into three units (e.g. Quade et al., 1995;[START_REF] Decelles | Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal[END_REF]: the Lower Siwaliks (fine-grained sandstone, mudstone and clays), the Middle Siwaliks (medium to coarse sandstone alternating with occasional clay and mudstone layers) and Upper Siwaliks (conglomeratic alluvial fans and gravely braided river deposits). These changes of facies point to changes in fluvial styles: first from a meandering to a deep braided system at ca. 10-6 Ma, then to a shallow braided system at ca. 6.5 Ma and finally to a gravelly braided system after ca. 3.0-2.5 Ma [START_REF] Nakayama | Evolution of fluvial style in the Siwalik Group in the foothills of the Nepal Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Huyghe | Tectonic and climatic control of the changes in the sedimentary record of the Karnali River section (Siwaliks of western Nepal)[END_REF]. As indicated by δ 13 C in paleosoil carbonates, the deposition environment shifted at ca. 7-4 Ma from a C 3 -dominated to a potentially C 4 -dominated vegetation, probably indicating more arid or seasonal conditions (Quade et al., 1995;[START_REF] Ojha | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal[END_REF].

But as previously noted, Quade et al. (1995)'s dataset lack resolution.

The change of fluvial styles has classically been interpreted as resulting from the facies evolution caused by the southward migration of the mountain wedge during the Himalayan orogeny. The Himalayan foreland basin has developed by flexural subsidence along the thrust belt, so that the mountain wedge migration produces a southward migration of the sediment pinch out in the southern part of the basin. In Central Himalaya, this migration has reached between 15 ± 5 mm/y (Lyon-Caen and [START_REF] Lyon-Caen | Gravity anomalies, flexure of the Indian Plate, and the structure, support and evolution of the Himalaya and Ganga Basin[END_REF] and19 ± 5 mm/y since ca. 15 Ma [START_REF] Mugnier | Ganges basin geometry records a pre-15 Ma isostatic rebound of Himalaya[END_REF]. This range of values is consistent with the shortening rates determined by geodetic measurements [START_REF] Bettinelli | Plate motion of India and interseismic strain in the Nepal Himalaya from GPS and DORIS measurements[END_REF], the Holocene slip rate on the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) [START_REF] Lavé | Active folding of fluvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF], or the average shortening rates since ca. 15

Ma [START_REF] Avouac | Mountain Building: From earthquakes to geological deformation[END_REF][START_REF] Mugnier | Episodicity and rates of thrust-sheet motion in the Himalayas (western Nepal)[END_REF].

Therefore, the facies have been deposited diachronously along the Himalaya and transversely to the foreland basin and probably only describe the lithostratigraphic variations associated to the migration of the thrust wedge (Lyon-Caen and [START_REF] Lyon-Caen | Gravity anomalies, flexure of the Indian Plate, and the structure, support and evolution of the Himalaya and Ganga Basin[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995;[START_REF] Ojha | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal[END_REF] and the gravel front (Dubille and Lavé, 2015).

The molasses are of fluvial or lacustrine origin. As indicated by paleocurrent analyses, they were deposited by southward-flowing rivers in Central Himalaya [START_REF] Tokuoka | Stratigraphy and Geologic structures of the Churia (Siwalik) Group in the Tinau Khola-Binai Khola Area, West Central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Decelles | Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal[END_REF] and derive from sediment eroded in one of the major Himalayan drainage basins, e.g. the Karnali-Ghaghara or the Narayani-Gandak, or in a smaller basin of the Lesser Himalaya, e.g. the western Rapti (Charreau et al., in prep.). The biostratigraphic constraints of the Siwaliks are limited but not absent, particularly in the Surai [START_REF] Corvinus | Biostratigraphy and geology of the neogene Siwalik group of the Surai Khola and Rato Khola areas in Nepal[END_REF]. Since the 1980s, magnetostratigraphic studies have significantly improved the age models of the Siwalik sections (e.g. [START_REF] Appel | Magnetostratigraphy of the Miocene-Pleistocene Surai Khola Siwaliks in West Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Harrison | Isotopic preservation of Himalayan/Tibetan uplift, denudation, and climatic histories of two molasse deposits[END_REF][START_REF] Ojha | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal[END_REF]Charreau et al., in prep.) but in most cases, no dating constraints are available in the Pleistocene, which mainly consist of coarse sediment in the available Siwalik sections.

VII.2.3. The Narayani-Gandak drainage basin

The Himalayan drainage network is organized in several N-S transverse rivers which originate in the south Tibet or in the northern flank of the range and join into a few major rivers in the Lesser Himalaya . These chief rivers deposit sediment in alluvial megafans (fan areas of 10 4 -10 5

km 2 , DeCelles et al., 1998; Gupta, 1997) in the foreland basin. Smaller rivers draining only the Siwalik and the Lesser Himalaya alternate with the trans-Himalayan rivers and deposit smaller interfans [START_REF] Decelles | Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Gupta | Himalayan drainage patterns and the origin of fluvial megafans in the Ganges foreland basin[END_REF][START_REF] Wells | Shifting of the Kosi river, northern India[END_REF].

The Narayani-Gandak drainage basin covers Central Nepal and is drained at the west by the Kali Gandaki and the Marsyandi, which drain the Annapurna range, and at the east by the Buri Gandaki and the Trisuli. The Narayani initiates at the confluence of the Kali Gandaki and the Trisuli and after cutting the Siwaliks, becomes the Gandak in the Indian plain. The Gandak is a braided river wide of one to six kilometers that deposits sediment along an alluvial megafan. After a southeastward course of 230 km, the Gandak join the Ganga in its floodplain.

In its central part, south of the Annapurnas, the drainage basin is characterized by the largest rainfall amount up to 5 m/y [START_REF] Andermann | Evaluation of precipitation data sets along the Himalayan front[END_REF]. At this location, it also presents considerable relief (7,500 m over a 30 km distance). As one penetrates northwards in the precipitation shadow behind the higher summits of the Annapurnas or the Manaslu, precipitations become rarer (< 0.4 m/y).

VII.3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

VII.3.1. Description of the Valmiki Sections

The In both folds (CR and VR), we collected clayey to fine sand samples for paleomagnetism and stable isotope measurements. We also collected medium to coarse sand samples for geochemical measurements and future cosmogenic nuclide measurements (which results are presented in this thesis, Chapter VIII).

VII.3.3. Magnetostratigraphy and stochastic correlation dating

A total of 382 samples collected in the Dwarda, the Ganguli and the Patalaia sections were measured for paleomagnetic analyses and 185 samples yielded stable results (Table SVII-1). We sampled only the finer silty to sandy horizons by drilling, except for a few samples extracted by hand with Polyvinyl chloride (PVC) cubes. Bedding attitude, sun correction and GPS coordinates were measured at each sampling location. The thickness between two successive sites was taped when possible and if not, estimated from the GPS coordinates. In parallel, we logged down the stratigraphic succession and measured strikes and dips along the sections. All sampling sites were stratigraphically replaced according to the stratigraphic depth estimated during logging. This depth was recalculated with the tape measurements, the strike and dips of the strata and the GPS coordinates. The start of the sections was placed at 100 m below the Ganga plain. The samples from the VR sections have been attributed depths by translating the series and the geometry of the fold of the CR area.

To isolate the characteristic and primary magnetic remanence directions, the samples were demagnetized using an alternating field and 10 to 12 steps, in the paleomagnetism laboratory of the Institut du Globe de Paris. The remanences at each step were measured using a three-axis DC Squid in the same laboratory. We established the magnetic polarity sequence of the three sections by selecting magnetic intervals based on a minimum of two successive horizons possessing the same polarity. Samples were not assigned a polarity if they possessed transitional directions (i.e., directions that fall outside our 60° criteria.

The magnetostratigraphic column was then correlated to the reference scale of [START_REF] Ogg | Geomagnetic Polarity Time Scale[END_REF] to establish the depositional ages of the sections. To better address the ambiguities and uncertainties related to the correlations, we used a numerical method based on the Dynamic Time Warping algorithm and automatically calculated 10,000 of reasonably likely correlations. In this approach the correlations are computed in order to minimize the local variation of the accumulation rate [START_REF] Lallier | Management of ambiguities in magnetostratigraphic correlation[END_REF].

VII.3.4. Major and trace element measurements

Major element data trace sediment sorting since Al/Si and Fe/Si ratios in the Himalayan system are related to grain size (Lupker et al., 2012b). Because Na and K are mobile elements, the K/Si or Na/Si can be used to characterize the apparent weathering intensity [START_REF] Galy | Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes[END_REF][START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF]. The covariation of major and trace elements can also be used to determine the provenance of sediment, since the main Himalayan units (the TSS, HHC and LH) are characterized by distinct geochemical signatures. But because of the mobility of certain elements, this approach should be considered to be complementary of an isotopic approach not included in this study.

Major and trace element measurements were performed at SARM (Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France) on a fraction of powdered aliquots of fine sandy samples after LiBO2 fusion [START_REF] Carignan | Routine Analyses of Trace Elements in Geological Samples using Flow Injection and Low Pressure On-Line Liquid Chromatography Coupled to ICP-MS: A Study of Geochemical Reference Materials BR, DR-N, UB-N, AN-G and GH[END_REF], using ICP-OES iCap6500 for major element and Sc concentrations, and ICP-MS iCapQ for trace elements (Table SVII-3).

VII.3.5. Stable isotope measurements

Since the carbon in the soil carbonate (i.e. pedogenic carbonate) forms in isotopic equilibrium with local soil CO 2 , which is determined by the local plant cover, the carbon isotopes in pedogenic carbonates yield information on the local paleovegetation (e.g. [START_REF] Cerling | The stable isotopic composition of modern soil carbonate and its relationship to climate[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]. C 3 and C 4 plants have different 13 C/ 12 C ratios because of their different photosynthetic pathways for carbon sequestration (e.g. O' Leary, 1981;review in Sage et al., 2018). C 3 plants include almost all trees and grasses favoured by cool and wet conditions and present δ 13 C composition in the 35-20 ‰ range (O' Leary, 1981). C 4 plants mainly consist in grasses favoured by warmth and the alternation of drought and seasonal/monsoonal precipitation, and average at -13 ‰. The isotopic composition of soil organic matter and soil CO 2 is then related to the proportion of C 3 :C 4 plants in the local vegetation. Gaseous diffusion and exchange increase δ 13 C of 15 ‰ in pedogenic carbonate with respect to soil CO 2 [START_REF] Cerling | Carbon isotopes in soils and palaeosols as ecology and palaeoecology indicators[END_REF], which means that δ 13 C in pedogenic carbonate would have values -12 ‰ when formed under a C 3 vegetation, and +2 ‰ when formed under a C 4 vegetation.

The measurements on C and O isotopes were performed on the drilled samples used for magnetostratigraphy, which have a clayey to fine sand composition. Carbonates in these samples have a detrital and a secondary pedogenic component. Since the proportion of detrital carbonates in the modern Narayani sediment amounts to 10-20 %, we assume that this proportion is similar in our samples.

Practically, the proportion is probably lower because the detrital carbonates are easily weathered compared to the indurated pedogenic carbonates. We therefore considered the samples having a proportion of carbonates higher than 20 % to effectively trace the δ 13 C signature of pedogenic carbonates.

Oxygen isotopes in soil carbonates are considered to be correlated with the seasonality of precipitations, i.e. the alternation between wet and dry seasons and to be inversely correlated to the amount of precipitations [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]. The isotopic value partly depends on the degree of water evaporation in the soil. Evaporation fractionates the oxygen isotopes and enrich the δ 18 O ratio of the residual soil water and of the soil carbonates formed in presence of this water. Precipitations focused in the summer would therefore increase the δ 18 O whereas less seasonal precipitations, i.e. an increase in winter precipitations relatively to summer precipitations would have the opposite effect. But the δ 18 O in soil carbonates is also determined by temperature and by the value of meteoric water, which can bias the proxy [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]. An increase in soil temperature would probably not have a major effect, but in depth, diagenesis could modify the ratio in a larger extent than for δ 13 C (Quade et al., 1995). An increase in the temperature of the local air masses would increase the δ 18 O of precipitations and of soil carbonates. This effect may be offset by the gradual depletion of δ 18 O of the seasonal precipitations caused by the moisture cooling and the related reduction of evaporation. The intepretation of δ 18 O is difficult because the time of the formation of the soil carbonate during the season remains undetermined.

The δ 18 O of precipitation changes by 8-10‰ from dry to wet season [START_REF] Gajurel | C and O isotope compositions of modern fresh-water mollusc shells and river waters from the Himalaya and Ganga plain[END_REF]. Then there is a potential for a large bias. Since there are no real good data on the condition of cristallisation of these carbonates, their interpretation remain hampered by uncertainties.

Carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of calcite were measured using an auto sampler Gasbench coupled with a Thermo Scientific MAT253 isotope ratio mass spectrometer (IRMS) at CRPG-CNRS-UL (Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France). For each sample, an aliquot between 250 and 300 μg of carbonate was reacted with 2 mL of supersaturated orthophosphoric acid at 70°C for at least 5 h under a He atmosphere. The carbon and oxygen isotopic compositions of the produced CO 2 were then measured with a Thermo Scientific MAT253 continuous flow isotope ratio mass spectrometer. Values are quoted in the delta notation in % relative toV-PeeDeeBelemnite (V-PDB) for carbon and to V-SMOW for oxygen.

All sample measurements were adjusted to the internal reference calibrated on the international standards IAEA CO-1, IAEA CO-8 and NBS 19. The results are presented Table SVII-4. Along with the 211 drilled samples, we also measured the stable isotopes for a set of coarser samples used for 10 Be measurements. The results (Table SVII-3) are compared with available data on modern river sand and kankars in the Gandak Fan (Morin, 2015).

VII.4. RESULTS

VII.4.1. Description of the Valmiki Sections

The cumulated thickness of the CR sections amounts to 3,850 m, with the Dwarda section exposing a continuous section thick of 3,500 m and the other sections, which overlap at the top of the Dwarda section, exposing 380 m (the Ganguli) and 210 m (the Patalaia).

For their major part, the CR series consist in south-dipping beds with an inclination of 55-65°.

Along the southern part (< 210-250 m) bedding flattens down to 30° over a distance of 400 m (Figure . Bedding in the northern part (>2,600 m) also flattens down to 25°, but more gradually and accompanied by a counterclokwise rotation of the bedding strike (from South dipping toward SE dipping).

No stratigraphic duplication, major unconformities or faults were identified.

VII.4.2. The frontal Churia (CR) fold

The determination of the geometry and age of the fold (Figure VII-68) was performed using our dip measurements in the southern limb of the fold, from the front of the fold up to close to the fold axis, combined with satellite imagery (available in Google Earth©).

While the CR ridge culminates at 500 m above the Ganga plain, the sections show 4,000 m of exhumed rocks, which attests to the deep exhumation of the range. The CR fold develops over a width of 12 km as an anticline with a steep south frontal limb of 61± 5°. The geometry and possible asymmetry of the fold are difficult to assess because of the lack of published data and visible strata in satellite imagery.

Therefore, finite shortening remains undetermined. The absence of a frontal tectonic scarp underlines that the MFT does not reach surface at this location and alluvial terraces at the fold front 10 km east of the Ganguli display bedding-parallel shear zones. These two observations suggest that the CR fold might correspond to a fault propagation fold.

VII.4.3. The Valmiki Nagar (VR) fold

The determination of the geometry and age of the fold (Figure VII-69) was performed using our limited dip measurements in the southern limb of the fold, from the front of the fold up the fold axis, combined with satellite imagery (available in Google Earth©).

Despite deep erosion, the VR ridge culminates at 60-100 m above the plain, with 25-50 m of local relief, which points to a low-scale tectonic uplift. The VR fold develops over 9.5 km as an asymmetric anticline with a 75° steep south frontal limb and a gentler northern limb. Finite shortening is assessed to be of 750 m for the southern limb and likely > 1.5 km for the total fold. Although a detachment fold is not to be excluded, the VR fold is more probably a fault propagation fold. SVII-1-Table SVII-2. Remark: this section requires further development. SVII-1-Table SVII-3). Only the samples having yielded results are indicated. The sandy samples are coloured whether they are from the Dwarda (red) and the Ganguli (blue), or from the VR Sections (green). No sample from the Patalaia has geochemical or isotopic measurements. SVII-1). d. Magnetostratigraphic correlation results using the algorithm of [START_REF] Lallier | Management of ambiguities in magnetostratigraphic correlation[END_REF]. Magnetic intervals were selected based on a minimum of two successive horizons possessing the same polarity.

c. Paleomagnetism declination and inclination (Table

Samples were not assigned a polarity if they possessed transitional directions. The best fit age model is indicated by the red curve (resulting ages for the samples in Table SVII

-1-Table SVII-3.

VII.4.5. Sedimentology

The series can be divided into five facies . From 3,950 to 3,470 m (8.2 to 7.5 Ma), the series are dominated by metric fine sand -silty beds fining upwards, with rare clay and few paleosoils. Several massive and decametric fine-to medium sandstone bodies intercalate in the series. They present rare cross-bedding and contain few thin pebble or mud ball thin beds and occasional silt lenses.

From 3,470 to 2,880 m (7.5 to 6.1 Ma), the series gradually become dominated by massive and plurimetric to decametric fine-to medium sandstone bodies similar to the previous group. The transition is not regular, and thin fine sand -silty beds fining upwards occur even in the top of this group. Several centimetric coarse to gravelly beds with an erosional base intercalate in the bodies close to the top of the group.

From 2,880 to 1,930 m (6.1 to 4.2 Ma), the series present almost continuous and pluridecametric massive medium-to coarse sandstone bodies having a "salt and pepper" type. Close to the top of the group thinner beds of decimetric to plurimetric thickness occur but massive bodies are still present. These bodies present occasional cross-bedding, lenses of silt and occasional indurated calcareous nodules. They regularly incorporate mud balls, either isolatedly or in metric pebbly beds. Metric fining-up thin beds and clayey beds are very rare. At 2,723 m, a neat 3-D cross-bedding yields a flowing direction of N160 to N200.

From 1,930 to 670 m (4.2 to 1.4 Ma), the series are dominated by plurimetric to decametric massive medium-to coarse "salt and pepper" sandstone bodies, which can occasionally be with fine grain size or gravelly/pebbly, and which often display cross-bedding and more rarely, coarser lenses. In the lower part of the group, several metric fine sand -silty beds fining upwards and some metric to rarely decametric silty/clayey horizons are present. All over the 1,930 -670 m group, metric beds with mud balls or gravels/pebbles, intraformational conglomerates (puddingstones) and channel lag deposits occasionally intercalate with other layers.

From 670 to 100 m (< 1.4 Ma), the three sections differ. The Dwarda (up to 430 m) is dominated by massive yellow-grey unconsolidated siltstone, intercalated by metric pebbly beds. The lower part of the Ganguli has several gaps, but can be described as dominated by decametric sets of pebbly beds intercalated with massive silty to fine sand. The upper part of the Ganguli is dominated by metric gravelly to pebbly beds intercalated with massive silty to medium sand occasionally containing fine gravelly lenses.

The Patalaia is dominated by massive yellow to red silty to fine sand, occasionally containing gravelly lenses, and discontinuously intercalated by pebbly beds, made of finer and somehow more angular clasts than the conglomerates observed along the Dwarda. Over the three sections, conglomerates represent 20 to 40% of the strata in the 670 -100 m group.

VII.4.6. Age estimate of the frontal Churia (CR) fold

Crustal shortening in this area is shared by a second anticline (SECR) at the north of the CR fold, both having a similar topography and relief . Given that the relief ratio between both structures is close to 1 (with lateral variations) and that uplift rates correlate to relief or elevation in the Siwaliks [START_REF] Hurtrez | Investigation of the relationships between basin morphology, tectonic uplift, and denudation from the study of an active fold belt in the Siwalik Hills, central Nepal[END_REF], shortening should be roughly distributed equally between the CR and the SECR. With a total shortening on the MFT close to 20 mm/y over the Holocene [START_REF] Lavé | Active folding of fluvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF], we assess that the CR fold accommodates 10 mm/y of shortening. By hypothesizing fault ramp at 30°, the common value for thrust faults which has been generally verified in the Siwaliks, uplift rate in the CR range should be at 5 mm/y. This rough assessment is of an order of magnitude similar to the uplift rate of an alluvial terrace at the fold front close to the Ganguli. This terrace, with an elevation of 25 m, presents a 2 m weathering front of orange color. Using the approach developed in [START_REF] Lavé | Active folding of fluvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF] we estimated that the age of the terrace is ca. 10 ka, giving an uplift rate 2.5 mm/y.

The initiation age of the CR folding is determined by the observation of the syn-folding sediments.

The compilation of the dips obtained along the Ganguli and the Patalaia sections shows a gradual decrease from 61° to 30°. The shift starts at 385±35 m from the front, close to the G25 sample ( 317 m depth), which indicates a start of the CR folding at 0.74±0. 06 Ma. Our results imply that the samples of the Ganguli and the Patalaia above 317 m, including Ggcos1 and Ggcos2, originate from recycled sediment.

VII.4.7. Age estimate of the Valmiki Nagar (VR) fold

Crustal shortening in this area is shared by a second anticline (SWCR) at the north of the VR fold . This anticline is deeply eroded and present a relief and topography higher than the VR fold by a factor three to four (ridge elevation: 250-320 m above the plain, local relief: 100-200 m), which points to an intermediate-scale tectonic uplift. Using the same approach as for the CR fold, we assess that the uplift of the SWCR fold is three to four times higher than the uplift of the VR fold. Therefore, the SWCR fold accommodates three to four times more shortening, which implies that the VR fold accommodates 4-5 mm/y of shortening.

Given this rate and the amount of finite shortening, we deduct that the VR fold initiation age should roughly be at ca. 0.3 -0.4 Ma. With a 0.5 mm/y average sedimentation rate, this corresponds to a stratum 150 to 200 m below surface. This value is consistent with a maximal thickness of 250 m, based on the location of Site A at ~260 m from the front and on a dip of strata of 75° like in A.

Our results imply that one sample of the VR sections (Ca17i08) has probably a recycled origin.

VII.4.8. Major and trace elements

The major element results for our sandy samples divide the sections into three periods (Figure . From 7.4 to ca. 2-2.5 Ma, the Al/Si ratio, a proxy for grain size (Lupker et al., 2012b), stays in the range of the modern Narayani sand, with a small decrease from 0.16 to 0.14. The Na/Si, a proxy for chemical weathering (Lupker et al., 2012b), is steady at lower values than the Narayani, 0.03, with more variable and higher values before 6 Ma. The Na/Si ratio presents subtle variations of a 2 My period, with lows at ca. 3 and 5 Ma. Other ratios, Fe/Si, Mg/Si, K/Si (which is also a proxy for chemical weathering) and Ti/Si present a decreasing trend, and Fe/Si presents second-order variations similar to Na/Si. from ca. 2-2.5 to 1.2 Ma, the Al/Si increases to 0.17, with more variable values after 1.5

Ma. Na/Si follows the same pattern, with three samples higher than 0.05. Other majors, Fe/Si, K/Si and Ti/Si also present more variable and higher values whereas Mg/Si continues to decrease. After 1.2 Ma, all ratios suddenly drop. Al/Si reaches 0.08 and Na/Si is below 0.01, values which characterize the local Siwalik rivers.

The trace element results (Table SVII-3) chiefly reflect the same trends as the major elements, although with a variable amplitude and including for some of them the second-order variations (Figure . This is particularly the case for some alkali metals (Rb, Cs), alkaline earth metals (Sr which traces chemical weathering of carbonates, Ba), metals (Co, Cr, Ga, Nb, Ni, Sc, V, W, Zn) and some rare earth elements (notably Eu).

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Major elements normalized to Si, following Lupker et al. (2012b). Trace elements normalized to the Upper Continental Crust (UC) (Taylor and McLennan). The Valmiki samples are presented in black circles except the two samples younger that the initiation ages of the folds, which are in red. References are presented for comparison: the values of the Narayani sand (N, in blue), the Gandak Megafan sand and silt (GR, in magenta), the Rapti in the Chitwan Dun (in yellow), with the averages of the TSS, HHC and LH (Morin, 2015). For clarity, the y-axis is cut at the top, which prevents the display of the upper values of the references. The results are available in Table SVII- Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Age (Ma)

VII.4.9. C and O isotopes

The sandy samples (Table SVII-3) present a low carbonate content of 3±3 %, with the samples above -750 m (< 1.6 Ma) and also several samples below completely depleted in carbonates. For the samples still having carbonates (> 1%), δ 13 C has stable values at 2 ‰ and δ 18 O increases of two units above 1,700 m (< 3.6 Ma) from stable values at 14 ‰. Even if the carbonate content is lower than for the modern Narayani at 10-20%, weathering was limited and did not remove completely the carbonates, except in the upper part. The isotopic compositions are similar to the ones of the Himalayan rivers (Lupker et al., 2012b) and compatible with the isotopic signature of Himalayan rocks [START_REF] Galy | The strontium isotopic budget of Himalayan rivers in Nepal and Bangladesh[END_REF]. SVII-4). The results are compared with available data measured on pedogenic carbonates from the Surai Section ( 160 km west of the Valmiki Sections, Quade et al., 1995). Note that the ages of the Surai samples have not been updated with the new available age model (Charreau et al., in prep.). Data measured on pedogenic kankars (pink diamonds) from the Gandak Megafan, along with data measured on bulk carbonates on the Narayani sediment (blue diamonds) are also presented for comparison (Morin, 2015; unpublished data from C. France-Lanord and T. Rigaudier). The δ 13 C signatures of a mix dominated by 100% of C4 plants or by 100% of C3 plants are indicated by black lines (Quade et al., 1995). The range of values from Himalayan rocks is indicated by the grey-shaded area [START_REF] Galy | The strontium isotopic budget of Himalayan rivers in Nepal and Bangladesh[END_REF].

b. Available δ 13 C data measured on pedogenic carbonates in Western Himalayan sections, in Northern India (Vögeli et al., 2017a).

c. Available δ 13 C data measured on pedogenic carbonates in Western Himalayan sections, in Pakistan [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]. Note that the ages are the same than the ones used in [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF] . The silty samples (Table SVII-4) present a high carbonate content of 25±14 %, except in the upper part of the record (< 650 m / 1.4 Ma) and 126 samples out of 182 have a content higher than the detrital content of the modern Narayani (i.e. > 20 %). These 126 samples are enriched in secondary carbonates.

These secondary carbonates may be composed of post-burial diagenetic cement or syn-deposition pedogenic carbonates. As developed in the Methods, one can assume that the evolution of our isotopic values reflect the evolution of the signature of the diagenetic cement and/or pedogenic carbonates and not the detrital carbonates. For reference, the modern Narayani sediment, which contains exclusively detrital carbonates, has a δ 13 C of  -1‰ (Morin, 2015;unpublished The high carbonate content of the silty samples confirms that weathering was limited for the majority of the record, except in its youngest part (< 1.4 Ma), and therefore preserves the soil carbonate isotopic signature. SVII-4). Ou results are compared with available data measured on pedogenic carbonates for the Surai Section and the kankars of the Gandak Megafan or on bulk carbonates of the Narayani sand (Quade et al., 1995;Morin, 2015; unpublished data from C.

France-Lanord and T. Rigaudier). The range of the δ 18 O values of modern precipitations at this latitude and elevation are indicated by a light-blue-shaded area [START_REF] Bowen | Spatial distribution of δ18O in meteoric precipitation[END_REF]. b. Available δ 18 O data measured on pedogenic carbonates in Western Himalayan sections, in Northern India (Vögeli et al., 2017a). c. Available δ 18 O data measured on pedogenic carbonates in Western Himalayan sections, in Pakistan [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF].

VII.5. DISCUSSION

VII.5.1. Fluvial style evolution

The CR sedimentary facies dominantly characterize an active wide braided alluvial system, with occurrence of high flood conditions (presence of mud balls) and are related to the Middle Siwalik group.

The facies associated to a meandering system (overbank deposits) are mainly restricted to the lower part (> 3,470 m -ca. 7. 5 Ma), but make occasional appearances in the other parts. The facies of the upper part (< 670 m -ca. 1.4 Ma) characterize an environment closer to the gravel front of the main river (Dubille and Lavé, 2015) and/or may indicate the input of local rivers (this latter assumption requiring further validation).

The facies of the upper part marks a contrast with other Siwalik sections (e.g. the Surai Section, [START_REF] Corvinus | Biostratigraphy and geology of the neogene Siwalik group of the Surai Khola and Rato Khola areas in Nepal[END_REF]the Haripur Section, Thomas et al., 2002). Conglomeratic beds are present but they are not continuous. Therefore, following the definition of (Quade et al., 1995), we propose that the upper part of the described series do not present the facies of the Upper Siwalik group stricto sensu and should be considered to be the continuation of the Middle Siwalik group.

VII.5.2. Recycling

The period younger than 1.2 Ma is marked by quartz-dominated sand (low Al/Si), which potentially point to successive weathering episodes. This SiO 2 enrichment may derive from recycling sands from the Siwaliks, as shown in modern Siwalik river sediment and also by the samples determined as recycled by the geometry of the CR and VR folds (Ca17i08 and Ggcos2). The recycling hypothesis is sustained by the depletion of Na and other elements, which points to advanced chemical weathering.

Therefore, the age of 1.2 Ma might be the turning point when the Narayani channel did not reoccupy the CR location to deposit sand. This shift was sudden and probably linked to the regional development of the Siwalik ranges which may have impacted the course of the Narayani (e.g. the model described in Figure 17 in Divyadarshini and Singh, 2019, which detail is however not supported by our data).

To our knowledge, the only other Siwalik Section for which a recycling investigation has been performed is the Surai Section (Charreau et al., in prep.), which show recycling starting at ca. 3.5 Ma. This might indicate that the Valmiki Section is one of the rare Siwalik Sections that record the original Himalayan erosion signal until the middle Pleistocene. But further work is required to determine recycling in other Siwalik Sections, which more generally has an incidence on the interpretation of previous results in provenance (e.g. [START_REF] Huyghe | Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | The kinematic evolution of the Nepalese Himalaya interpreted from Nd isotopes[END_REF] or erosion (Bernet et al., 2006;[START_REF] Van Der Beek | Late Miocene-recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal[END_REF].

VII.5.3. Detection of a shift of provenance?

Before 2.3 Ma, the coeval evolution in sands of elements with Al/Si suggests that granulometry controls the elemental content. The small decrease in Al/Si before 2.3 Ma fits well with the increase in grain size related to the progression of the gravel front (Dubille and Lavé, 2015). But this explanation does not explain the shift at ca 2-2.5 Ma.

A shift of provenance may have affected the elemental composition. The geochemical signature of the HHC, and in particular of leucogranites (Morin, 2015) is enriched in the majority of elements (other than Si) compared to the TSS and the LH. Then, the coeval increase in these elements at ca. 2-2.5 Ma may be caused by the relative increase in the contribution of the HHC compared to the contribution of the TSS and LH in our samples. This evolution may be realized by a shift of the focus of erosion. This has been proposed for the Pleistocene with amplified glacial erosion on the High Himalayan peaks, therefore mostly eroding the HHC and the TSS units [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Thiede | Large spatial and temporal variations in Himalayan denudation[END_REF].

VII.5.4. Evolution of precipitations

The following interpretation is based on the possibility that the signal we observe partly represents the signal of the pedogenic carbonates. However this signal probably includes the signal of diagenetic cements, which requires further petrographic investigation.

Our δ 18 O record initiates the trend with an average of -16‰, which is a value unseen in modern conditions at these latitudes and elevation. Additionally, the initial values are distinct from the -10.5‰ average in Western Himalaya and the -9‰ average in the Surai Section at 8 Ma [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995). In contrast, the average of all sections at ca. 1 Ma is close to -6‰. Values below -11‰ are unseen in modern precipitations at this latitude [START_REF] Bowen | Spatial distribution of δ18O in meteoric precipitation[END_REF]. Therefore, it is probable that the δ 18 O signal older than 5.5 Ma has been depleted by early diagenesis, at similar depths (> 2,500 m) that what has been observed from clays in the Karnali Section, Western Nepal [START_REF] Huyghe | Tectonic and climatic control of the changes in the sedimentary record of the Karnali River section (Siwaliks of western Nepal)[END_REF]. However, reaching values of -16‰ only with early diagenesis requires that original values were already very low.

From 5.5 Ma (until 1.7Ma, the end of the record), our δ 18 O record in pedogenic carbonates presents a clear increasing trend until 1.7 Ma. This trend points to a gradual decrease in precipitations and/or an amplifed rainfall seasonality in the Central Himalaya.

Even though a regional shift in the δ 18 O of the meteoric precipitations caused by the late Cenozoic global climate change cannot be excluded, its impact should have remained limited [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF].

Our results confirm the clay mineralogy dataset in Central Himalaya [START_REF] Huyghe | Tectonic and climatic control of the changes in the sedimentary record of the Karnali River section (Siwaliks of western Nepal)[END_REF][START_REF] Huyghe | Significance of the clay mineral distribution in fluvial sediments of the Neogene to Recent Himalayan Foreland Basin (west-central Nepal)[END_REF] but not the O isotopic dataset on freshwater bivalves and mammal teeth [START_REF] Dettman | Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 m.y[END_REF]. We note that the record of [START_REF] Dettman | Seasonal stable isotope evidence for a strong Asian monsoon throughout the past 10.7 m.y[END_REF] has a limited resolution and maybe do not display the full variability of the δ 18 O signal as studies in pedogenic carbonates. This would require further analyses which may have been prevented by the rarity of the fossil record in the Siwaliks.

VII.5.5. Late Miocene shift to C4-dominated vegetation

Similar preliminary remark than for the previous section.

Contrary to the δ 18 O signal, early diagenesis has a limited impact on the δ 13 C signal [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995). We note additionally that the record is in the spectrum of values for pedogenic carbonates.

While the previous studies [START_REF] Harrison | Isotopic preservation of Himalayan/Tibetan uplift, denudation, and climatic histories of two molasse deposits[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995;[START_REF] Ojha | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Ojha | Magnetic polarity stratigraphy of the Neogene Siwalik Group at Khutia Khola, far western Nepal[END_REF] yielded limited constraints on the timing and the pattern of the shift to the C 4 plant prevalence in the Ganga plain during the late Miocene, we show that the shift occurred suddenly at ca. 6.9 Ma, after a 6-9 -8.2 Ma period of competition between the C 3 and C 4 pathways, even though we cannot define the start of this transition in the Ganga plain.

Our results might confirm the synchronicity at ca. 7 Ma predicted by Quade et al. (1995) between Western and Central Himalaya (for Pakistan: [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Barry | Faunal and environmental change in the late Miocene Siwaliks of northern Pakistan[END_REF] note that results for northern India [START_REF] Ghosh | Stable isotopic studies of palaeosol sediment from Upper Siwalik of Himachal Himalaya: evidence for high monsoonal intensity during late Miocene? Palaeogeography[END_REF][START_REF] Ghosh | Substrate control of C4 plant abundance in the Himalayan foreland: A study based on inter-basinal records from Plio-Pleistocene Siwalik Group sediments[END_REF], even if they show the prevalence of C 4 plants in the Pliocene, contradict each other about the timing and the pattern of the shift). But they are in contradiction with the results of Vögeli et al. (2017a) for Eastern Himalaya.

VII.5.6. Late Pliocene shift back to mixed vegetation

Similar preliminary remark than for the previous sections.

Until ca. 4 Ma, the δ 18 O increasing trends are similar in the Western [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF] and Central Himalayan plains. In contrast, they diverge after ca. 4 Ma, with an increasing trend of δ 18 O in Central Himalaya compared to steady values in Western Himalaya.

As told by the δ 13 C signal, the vegetation shifts back to a competition between the C 3 and C 4 pathways after 3.1 Ma. Such a shift back has never been observed, in particularly in Western Himalaya, where the C 4 pathway dominates until the late Pleistocene [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF].

To explore the causes of the shifts of the C 3 -C 4 pathway competition, we can refer to the late Pleistocene to Holocene records. In the Bengal Fan, the δ 13 C on organic matter shifted to lower values during the early Holocene [START_REF] Galy | C4 plants decline in the Himalayan basin since the Last Glacial Maximum[END_REF][START_REF] Hein | Post-glacial climate forcing of surface processes in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin and implications for carbon sequestration[END_REF]. This shift is confirmed by the δ 13 C on kankars in the Narayani-Gandak Fan (unpublished data from Morin, France-Lanord and Rigaudier), which also shows a shift back to higher δ 13 C in the late Holocene.

The early to mid-Holocene in South Asia is characterized by warm and moist/wet conditions with strengthened monsoonal conditions (Goodbred and Kuel, 2000;[START_REF] Herzschuh | Palaeo-moisture evolution in monsoonal Central Asia during the last 50,000 years[END_REF] while the late Holocene is cooler and drier. Thus, two not-exclusive hypotheses could explain the Holocene δ 13 C variations: either the increase in precipitations benefits to the C 3 plant production or the focus of heavy precipitations during the summer, the growth period for C 4 plants, would reduce soil evaporation and the high water soil content would limit the development of C 4 plants.

Therefore, the full δ 13 C Himalayan dataset suggests that the competition between C 3 and C 4 pathways is controlled by the strength of the SA Monsoon. Given the δ 13 C and δ 18 O record of our samples and the Holocene analog, we propose the following scenario. The late Cenozoic climate change in the Ganga plain initially produces a sudden weakening of the SA Monsoon, with a rapid decrease in precipitations in Western and Central Himalaya, which has favoured the prevalence of C 4 plants after 6.9 Ma. The weakening is not so strong since the SA Monsoon still bring precipitations in Eastern Himalaya to prevent precipitations in competition monsoonal winds become too weak to bring precipitations to Central and Western Himalaya, but strong enough to bring precipitations to Eastern Himalaya. In other words, and contrary to the Arabian Sea record [START_REF] Kroon | Onset of monsoonal related upwelling in the western arabian sea as revealed by planktonic foraminifers[END_REF]Prell et al., 1992;[START_REF] Clift | Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity[END_REF] and to previous interpretations in the Siwaliks [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995), this suggests a weakening of the SA Monsoon at 6.9 Ma.

In a second phase starting at 3-4 Ma, the SA Monsoon regains enough strength to bring back precipitations in Central Himalaya, but not in Western Himalaya, and resets the competition between C 3 and C 4 plants. The hypothesis of an overall strengthening of the Asian Monsoons has been suggested from the Northern South China Sea record [START_REF] Wan | Development of the East Asian monsoon: Mineralogical and sedimentologic records in the northern South China Sea since 20 Ma. Palaeogeography[END_REF][START_REF] Clift | Reconstructing chemical weathering, physical erosion and monsoon intensity since 25 Ma in the northern South China Sea: A review of competing proxies[END_REF].

These observations highlight that despite a drop of temperatures of probably uniform amplitude during the late Cenozoic, climate change had a sharply different impact across the Himalaya.

VII.6. CONCLUSION

In this work, we presented the new and promising Valmiki group of Siwalik sections located in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, Bihar, India. These series, thick of 4,000 m cover almost the full late Cenozoic, from 8.2 to ca. 0.7-04 Ma. Until 1.2 Ma, the Valmiki Sections form an original and chiefly unrecycled record of erosion in the drainage basin of the Narayani-Gandak in Central Nepal, the major tributary of the Ganga. The Valmiki Sections have particularly good dating constraints for the 8.2 -0.8 Ma time span. These series make it possible to perform a deep investigation of the links between erosion and the late Cenozoic Climate Change.

The new Valmiki Sections also form a paleoenvironmental record of the Ganga plain, as demonstrated here. We demonstrate for the first time that the prevalence of C4 plants can shift as fast as it has appeared, as shown at ca. 3.2 and 6.9 Ma respectively. This prevalence is intimately related to the strength of the SA Monsoon, but unexpectedly in contradiction with the previous works [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995;Vögeli et al., 2017a). The late Cenozoic climate change produced such changes in the atmospheric circulation that the SA Monsoon was subject to a major loss of strength followed only by a partial recovery at the start of the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations. It remains to be seen if these changes had any impact on the erosion and development of the Himalaya.

VII.7. TABLES

In Tables attached to this manuscript. The late Cenozoic is characterized by a global and considerable shift of climatic conditions. From ca. 8 Ma onward, the planet experiences a gradual drop of temperatures that culminates by the settlement of large ice-sheets in the Northern Hemisphere at ca. 2.6 Ma, with an intensification of glaciations after ca.

0.8 Ma [START_REF] Lisiecki | A Pliocene-Pleistocene stack of 57 globally distributed benthic δ18O records[END_REF][START_REF] Cramer | Late Cretaceous-Neogene trends in deep ocean temperature and continental ice volume: Reconciling records of benthic foraminiferal geochemistry (δ18O and Mg/Ca) with sea level history[END_REF][START_REF] Herbert | Late Miocene global cooling and the rise of modern ecosystems[END_REF]. The late Cenozoic is also a period of large variations in the precipitation pattern. Several regions on Earth, and particularly in Asia, see a decline in precipitations and an increasing contrast between wet and dry seasons [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Caves Rugenstein | The evolution of hydroclimate in Asia over the Cenozoic: A stable-isotope perspective[END_REF]. With the onset of glacial-interglacial cycles at ca. 2.6-4.5 Ma, climate becomes unstable and long, cold, dry, and stormy periods alternate with wet and warm periods [START_REF] Cerling | Global vegetation change through the Miocene/Pliocene boundary[END_REF][START_REF] Edwards | The Origins of C4 Grasslands: Integrating Evolutionary and Ecosystem Science[END_REF].

The late Cenozoic climate change should have triggered global changes in erosion patterns. In midlatitude mountain ranges, glacial and periglacial erosional processes particularly developed [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF]. However, the question whether such a shift in climate triggers a shift in erosion rates remains one of the major unanswered questions in geomorphology [START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic uplift of mountain ranges and global climate change: chicken or egg?[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF][START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF]. The majority of the studies that show a substantial increase in erosion rates (i.e. by a factor of several units) during the last millions of years (e.g. [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] have later been contradicted. The approaches they use, either sediment accumulation rates, thermochronometry or terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides (TCN), has a distinct resolution and distinct biases [START_REF] Rahl | Quantifying transient erosion of orogens with detrital thermochronology from syntectonic basin deposits[END_REF]Charreau et al., 2009a;[START_REF] Schumer | Real and apparent changes in sediment deposition rates through time[END_REF][START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF][START_REF] Naylor | Bias in detrital fission track grain-age populations: Implications for reconstructing changing erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF]this thesis). When the results of each proxy are compared over a regional scale, they reveal inconsistencies, as it has been recently demonstrated for the Himalaya (this thesis, Chapter VI).

VIII.1.2. Approach

The investigation of the late Cenozoic erosion of mountain ranges has benefited from a recent approach based on the "fossil" TCN content in sedimentary archives. To obtain paleoerosion rates, this approach can be developed in the sediment of the foreland basin or further downstream in offshore deposits. In the case of the Himalaya, the Bengal Fan represents the distal part of the erosion and deposition system. Such record provides average erosion rates over a large scale of the range, i.e. over a wide area drained by the Ganga and Brahmaputra Rivers (this thesis, Chapter VI). But this record cannot supply a detailed view of the lateral variations in erosion along the Himalayan Arc.

The continental sediment record of the foreland basin preserved in front of the Himalaya in the Siwalik Hills is therefore fully complementary to the distal record. Still, having such a detrital record with strong dating constraints remains a challenge. In the Himalaya, most sections have been dated by magnetostratigraphy, but few of these sections provide dating constraints up to the late Pleistocene.

Indeed, conglomeratic facies dominate the upper part of the sections and these facies are unsuitable for paleomagnetism measurements. In Nepal, the Surai Section is the only section with constraints as young as ca. 1.2 -1.8 Ma [START_REF] Appel | Magnetostratigraphy of the Miocene-Pleistocene Surai Khola Siwaliks in West Nepal[END_REF]Charreau et al., in prep.). The Surai Section is located between the outlets of two major transverse Himalayan rivers and may have recorded a shift of provenance at ~3-4 Ma, from transverse Himalayan river material to sediment from frontal rivers draining the southern part of the Himalaya or the Siwaliks Hills (Charreau et al., in prep.).

Investigating the erosion of the Himalaya in the late Cenozoic therefore requires two conditions: Here, we develop an approach which may provide new directions for the debate about the interactions between tectonics, climate, and erosion. The individual biases of the proxies are overcome by their combination for the investigation of erosion rates with a focus on a limited region having a known paleoenvironmental record. We chose to explore the past erosion patterns in the Narayani-Gandak drainage basin in the Himalaya. This basin covers Central Nepal and is the prime contributor of sediment for the Ganga (Lupker et al., 2012a). Central Nepal has been extensively investigated in terms of erosion, tectonics, climate, and paleoenvironment (e.g. Quade et al., 1995;[START_REF] Lavé | Active folding of fluvial terraces across the Siwaliks Hills, Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF]Bernet et al., 2006;[START_REF] Van Der Beek | Late Miocene-recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Robert | Assessing Quaternary reactivation of the Main Central thrust zone (central Nepal Himalaya): New thermochronologic data and numerical modeling[END_REF][START_REF] Andermann | Evaluation of precipitation data sets along the Himalayan front[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012a;[START_REF] Godard | Impact of glacial erosion on 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Godard | Dominance of tectonics over climate in Himalayan denudation[END_REF]Morin, 2015;Charreau et al., in prep.; this thesis, Chapter VII).

We based our investigation on the Valmiki Sections in the Siwalik Hills, 50 km east of the range outlet of the Narayani (this thesis, Chapter VII.). The Siwaliks form the exhumed part of the foreland Himalayan basin at the front of the range. Contrary to other Siwalik sections, the Valmiki Sections consist in an original record of a major Himalayan basin that covers a time span from the late Miocene to the middle Pleistocene (8.2 -1.2 Ma). To determine the paleoerosion rates of the basin, we measured the 10 Be concentrations in the quartz sand fraction [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]. These concentrations were corrected from the recent exposure contribution using a simple model. We validated this model by measuring 36 Cl in the feldspar fraction of the samples [START_REF] Schimmelpfennig | Sources of in-situ 36Cl in basaltic rocks. Implications for calibration of production rates[END_REF] and taking advantage of the half-life of 36 Cl shorter than the one of 10 Be. We corrected the resulting concentrations for radioactive decay and deduct the 10 Be contribution associated with sediment transport using a transfer model [START_REF] Lauer | Steady state reachscale theory for radioactive tracer concentration in a simple channel/floodplain system[END_REF]. The apparent 10 Be paleoerosion rates of the Narayani basin were finally reconstructed.

To further explore the past erosion patterns, we traced the provenance of the eroded rocks by measuring Sr-Nd isotopes and taking advantage of the distinct isotopic signatures of the Himalayan lithologic units [START_REF] Galy | Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes[END_REF]Morin, 2015). In its central part, the Himalayan fold and thrust belt is structured along four majors WNW-ESEoriented faults , from north to south: the Southern Tibetan Detachment (STD), the Main Central Thrust (MCT), the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT) and the Main Frontal Thrust (MFT) at the southern limit of the Himalaya [START_REF] Gansser | Geology of the Himalayas[END_REF][START_REF] Burg | Deformation of leucogranites of the crystalline Main Central Sheet in southern Tibet (China)[END_REF]Le Fort, 1986;[START_REF] Hodges | Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives[END_REF]. The MCT, MBT and MFT are north dipping. At depth, they are assumed to join at the interface between the Indian Plate and the underthrust Asian Plate, and form the Main Himalayan Thrust (MHT) [START_REF] Schelling | Thrust tectonics, crustal shortening, and the structure of the far-eastern Nepal Himalaya[END_REF]Pandey et al., 1995;[START_REF] Lavé | Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Elliott | Himalayan megathrust geometry and relation to topography revealed by the Gorkha earthquake[END_REF], which was imaged by seismology in Central

Nepal [START_REF] Nábelek | Underplating in the Himalaya-Tibet Collision Zone Revealed by the Hi-CLIMB Experiment[END_REF].

Lithologically, the Himalaya is divided into subparallel units (Figure 1 [START_REF] Gansser | Geology of the Himalayas[END_REF][START_REF] Fort | Himalayas: the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc[END_REF], 1986;[START_REF] Hodges | Tectonics of the Himalaya and southern Tibet from two perspectives[END_REF] that are described in the following from north to south. South of the Tibetan

VIII.2.2. Long-term structural evolution

Since at least ca. 15 Ma [START_REF] Kohn | Miocene faulting at plate tectonic velocity in the Himalaya of central Nepal[END_REF], the Himalaya has exhumed with brittle deformation, with passive passive transport over the MHT and thin skinned tectonics. Duplexes developed in the LH after ca. 10 Ma [START_REF] Schelling | Thrust tectonics, crustal shortening, and the structure of the far-eastern Nepal Himalaya[END_REF]DeCelles et al., 2001;[START_REF] Huyghe | Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | Kinematic model for the Main Central thrust in Nepal 4[END_REF]Herman et al., 2010a;[START_REF] Robinson | Pulsed deformation and variable slip rates within the central Himalayan thrust belt[END_REF] and propagated southwards of the MCT, with the gradual activation of thrusts intervening between the MCT and the front of the range (Le [START_REF] Fort | Himalayas: the collided range. Present knowledge of the continental arc[END_REF] and finally activated the MBT at ca. 5 Ma (DeCelles et al., 1998, 2001, with an earlier estimate at ca. 11 Ma by [START_REF] Meigs | Middle-late Miocene (> 10 Ma) formation of the Main Boundary thrust in the western Himalaya[END_REF] and the MFT at ca. 2. 4-1.8 Ma (in Western Nepal, Mugnier et al., 1999, 2004).

The activity along the MCT is considered having ceased at ca. 15 Ma (e.g. DeCelles et al., 2001). In view of some thermochronometric and thermobarometric data, a group of workers proposed a reactivation of the MCT in the late Cenozoic, with an out-of-sequence thrusting [START_REF] Harrison | A late Miocene-Pliocene origin for the central Himalayan inverted metamorphism[END_REF][START_REF] Catlos | Geochronologic and thermobarometric constraints on the evolution of the Main Central Thrust, central Nepal Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Hodges | Quaternary deformation, river steepening, and heavy precipitation at the front of the Higher Himalayan ranges[END_REF][START_REF] Wobus | Has focused denudation sustained active thrusting at the Himalayan topographic front?[END_REF][START_REF] Wobus | Active out-of-sequence thrust faulting in the central Nepalese Himalaya[END_REF]. Modelling studies (Whipp et al., 2007;[START_REF] Robert | Assessing Quaternary reactivation of the Main Central thrust zone (central Nepal Himalaya): New thermochronologic data and numerical modeling[END_REF]Herman et al., 2010a) showed that this was not necessary to explain the data, which, by the way, have not been confirmed by other datasets [START_REF] Blythe | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon fission track and apatite [U-Th]/He analyses: CENTRAL NEPAL PLIO-QUATERNARY EXHUMATION[END_REF][START_REF] Nadin | Apatite thermochronometry within a knickzone near the Higher Himalaya front, central Nepal: No resolvable fault motion in the past one million years[END_REF].

Additionally, the recent 2015 Gorkha earthquake has not shown any displacement on the MCT [START_REF] Elliott | Himalayan megathrust geometry and relation to topography revealed by the Gorkha earthquake[END_REF], contradicted by Whipple et al., 2016).

VIII.2.3. The Narayani-Gandak drainage basin

The Himalayan drainage network is organized in several transverse rivers which originate in the north of the range and join into a few major rivers in the Lesser Himalaya [START_REF] Decelles | Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Gupta | Himalayan drainage patterns and the origin of fluvial megafans in the Ganges foreland basin[END_REF]. These chief rivers deposit sediment in alluvial megafans (fan areas of 10 4 -10 5 km 2 , DeCelles et al., 1998; Gupta, 1997) in the foreland basin. Smaller rivers draining only the Siwalik and the Lesser Himalaya alternate with the Himalayan rivers and deposit smaller interfans [START_REF] Decelles | Neogene foreland basin deposits, erosional unroofing, and the kinematic history of the Himalayan fold-thrust belt, western Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Gupta | Himalayan drainage patterns and the origin of fluvial megafans in the Ganges foreland basin[END_REF][START_REF] Wells | Shifting of the Kosi river, northern India[END_REF].

The Narayani-Gandak drainage basin covers Central Nepal and is drained at the west by the Kali Gandaki and the Marsyandi, which drain the Annapurna range, and at the east by the Buri Gandaki and the Trisuli. The Narayani initiates at the confluence of the Kali Gandaki and the Trisuli and after cutting the Siwaliks, becomes the Gandak in the Indian plain. The Gandak is a braided river wide of one to six km that deposits sediment in an alluvial megafan. After a southeastward course of 230 km, the Gandak join

Complementary information on the E-W geometry of the MHT.

Topographic, geodetic and thermochronometric show that the geometry of the MHT is probably not uniform along the range and particularly in Nepal [START_REF] Berger | Modelling the spatial distribution of present-day deformation in Nepal: how cylindrical is the Main Himalayan Thrust in Nepal?[END_REF][START_REF] Harvey | Along-strike changes in Himalayan thrust geometry: Topographic and tectonic discontinuities in western Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Beek | Contrasting tectonically driven exhumation and incision patterns, western versus central Nepal Himalaya[END_REF]. In Central and Eastern Nepal, the MHT is characterized by a major midcrustal ramp [START_REF] Schelling | Thrust tectonics, crustal shortening, and the structure of the far-eastern Nepal Himalaya[END_REF]Pandey et al., 1995;[START_REF] Lavé | Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF] below the MCT and the nearby physiographic transition from an average topography (1,000 -2,000 m) with mild relief in the south to the high range (5,000 -6,000 m) with steep relief in north. This ramp is assumed to sustain rock uplift and denudation in the High Himalaya [START_REF] Lavé | Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF]. By the focus of orographic precipitations on relief (precipitations up to 5 m/y in the flank of the Annapurnas, [START_REF] Andermann | Evaluation of precipitation data sets along the Himalayan front[END_REF], long-term denudation rates reach 2-5 mm/y values in the High Himalaya [START_REF] Lavé | Fluvial incision and tectonic uplift across the Himalayas of central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Blythe | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon fission track and apatite [U-Th]/He analyses: CENTRAL NEPAL PLIO-QUATERNARY EXHUMATION[END_REF]Herman et al., 2010a), with a possible increase in denudation rates in the late Cenozoic [START_REF] Copeland | 40Ar/39Ar ages of muscovites from modern Himalayan rivers: Himalayan evolution and the relative contribution of tectonics and climate[END_REF], compared to 0.5-1.2 mm/y in the Lesser Himalaya (Herman et al., 2010a). Contrastingly, in Western Nepal, the mid-crustal ramp is absent [START_REF] Berger | Modelling the spatial distribution of present-day deformation in Nepal: how cylindrical is the Main Himalayan Thrust in Nepal?[END_REF][START_REF] Harvey | Along-strike changes in Himalayan thrust geometry: Topographic and tectonic discontinuities in western Nepal[END_REF], the physiographic transition is more progressive, with the high topography and the MCT shifted northwards, and apparent denudation rates are lower by a factor two (van der Beek et al., 2016), with a possible decrease during the Late Cenozoic [START_REF] Copeland | 40Ar/39Ar ages of muscovites from modern Himalayan rivers: Himalayan evolution and the relative contribution of tectonics and climate[END_REF].

Using modelling, Mercier et al. ( 2017) has advanced that the lateral variations of the MHT and in the isolation of klippes were linked to the asynchronous evolution of the cycle of ramp formation along the range, which could be caused by differences in rheology between the Himalayan lithologic units. In their model, the life-time of a mid-crustal ramp would be between 2 and 5 Ma.

the Ganga in its floodplain.

The Narayani-Gandak is the prime contributor of discharge (~ 50 km 3 /y; DHM, 2003; DHM/FFS, 2004) and sediment (~150 Mt/y ; [START_REF] Morin | Annual Sediment Transport Dynamics in the Narayani Basin, Central Nepal: Assessing the Impacts of Erosion Processes in the Annual Sediment Budget[END_REF] to the Ganga. The modern erosion rates are higher than for the other sub-basins of the Ganga network [START_REF] Andermann | Connecting source and transport: Suspended sediments in the Nepal Himalayas[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012a; although this can be discussed in view of the data on the Karnali of Ojha et al. (submitted)). The average erosion rate amounts to . . . mm/y according to suspended sediment flux [START_REF] Andermann | Connecting source and transport: Suspended sediments in the Nepal Himalayas[END_REF][START_REF] Morin | Annual Sediment Transport Dynamics in the Narayani Basin, Central Nepal: Assessing the Impacts of Erosion Processes in the Annual Sediment Budget[END_REF] and at 1.7±0.4 mm/y according to in situ 10 Be concentrations in the quartz fraction of bedload sediment (Lupker et al., 2012a).

As elsewhere in the Himalayan front, Central Nepal is subject to the South Asian Monsoon (SA Monsoon). The SA Monsoon produces the alternation of a warm and moist summer with heavy precipitations and a dry to arid winter, particularly in Central and Western Himalaya [START_REF] Bookhagen | Toward a complete Himalayan hydrological budget: Spatiotemporal distribution of snowmelt and rainfall and their impact on river discharge[END_REF][START_REF] Andermann | Evaluation of precipitation data sets along the Himalayan front[END_REF]. From south to north of the Himalaya, a precipitation gradient exists and influences erosion rates. The southern flank of the high Himalayan peaks along the physiographic transition presents 1-2 m/y monsoonal precipitations [START_REF] Andermann | Evaluation of precipitation data sets along the Himalayan front[END_REF], up to 5 m/y at the south of the Annapurnas. It also presents considerable relief (5,000 m over a 100 km distance)

and 2-3 mm/y erosion rates [START_REF] Vance | Erosion and exhumation in the Himalaya from cosmogenic isotope inventories of river sediments[END_REF][START_REF] Andermann | Connecting source and transport: Suspended sediments in the Nepal Himalayas[END_REF][START_REF] Godard | Impact of glacial erosion on 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Godard | Dominance of tectonics over climate in Himalayan denudation[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012a). In contrast, the middle elevation and relief area at the south of these high peaks presents 0.1-1 mm/y erosion rates, with the same amount of precipitations [START_REF] Wobus | Active out-of-sequence thrust faulting in the central Nepalese Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Andermann | Connecting source and transport: Suspended sediments in the Nepal Himalayas[END_REF][START_REF] Godard | Impact of glacial erosion on 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Godard | Dominance of tectonics over climate in Himalayan denudation[END_REF]. As one penetrates northwards in the precipitation shadow behind the higher summits, precipitations become rarer (< 0.4 m/y) (Burbank et al., 2003), erosion rates decrease (< 0.2-0.4 mm/y) [START_REF] Gabet | Modern erosion rates in the High Himalayas of Nepal[END_REF] and relief loses amplitude (< 1,000 m).

The TSS, HHC and LH occupy 34%, 24% and 42% respectively of the total area of the drainage basin (outlet at Narayanghat). The southern Himalayan flank is covered by 70% of HHC and 30% of TSS. The southern area is covered by the LH and the northern area by the TSS. As told by Sr-Nd isotopes, the sediment of the modern Narayani is roughly approximated by a mix of 50% of TSS, 20% of HHC and 30% of LH (data and methodology of Morin, 2015).

Erosion in Central Nepal chiefly results from the landsliding activity derived from the combination of high relief and intense monsoonal precipitations (Gabet et al., 2004a,b;[START_REF] Gallo | Evolution of a large landslide in the High Himalaya of central Nepal during the last half-century[END_REF][START_REF] Morin | Annual Sediment Transport Dynamics in the Narayani Basin, Central Nepal: Assessing the Impacts of Erosion Processes in the Annual Sediment Budget[END_REF]Marc et al., 2019). With a glacial cover of 9% of the basin in modern times [START_REF] Raup | The GLIMS geospatial glacier database: A new tool for studying glacier change[END_REF], distributed for 40% in the HHC and 60% in the TSS, the modern glacial erosive flux is assumed to be comparatively negligible (Morin, 2015).

VIII.3. MATERIAL AND METHODS

VIII.3.1. Material

We collected coarse to medium size sandy samples for cosmogenic nuclide and Sr-Nd isotope measurements during three field trips: in 2012 and 2016 for the Ganguli, the Dwarda and the Gonauli samples, and in 2017 for the Maloni Naha samples. sections of the South East Churia Range (CR), i.e. the Patalaia, the Ganguli and the Dwarda sections. The sections are fully described in the Chapter VII of this thesis, who also provided dating constraints, C-O and major and trace element measurements.

VIII.3.2. Sr-Nd isotopic composition measurements

Our approach is based on the comparison of isotopic and chemical composition of past sediment with the analog modern river sediment. This approach provides information to decipher the reworking of weathered sediment and identify potential changes in the rock sources. In the Himalaya, Sr and Nd isotopic and major element analyses in past foreland sediment provide a tool to reconstruct the evolution of the rock sources through time [START_REF] Huyghe | Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence[END_REF]Mandal et al., 2019;[START_REF] Robinson | The kinematic evolution of the Nepalese Himalaya interpreted from Nd isotopes[END_REF]Szulc et al., 2006).

In complement to the numerous studies that have constrained the isotopic signatures of the Himalayan units [START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF][START_REF] France-Lanord | Evolution of the Himalaya since Miocene time: isotopic and sedimentological evidence from the Bengal Fan[END_REF][START_REF] Parrish | Isotopic constraints on the age and provenance of the Lesser and Greater Himalayan sequences, Nepalese Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | The kinematic evolution of the Nepalese Himalaya interpreted from Nd isotopes[END_REF], Morin (2015) analyzed the sediment of selected rivers draining specific lithologies, which integrate the isotopic signature of the main units. Those results provide a synthesis on the isotopic signature of the three main geological units in Central Nepal, i.e. the HHC, TSS and LH. A low Nd between -20 and -26 and a high 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio characterize the LH. In contrast, the HHC and TSS have a less negative Nd between -14 and -17 and their 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio are 0.76 for HHC and 0.72 for TSS.

The samples were prepared and measured for Sr-Nd isotopes at CRPG-CNRS-UL (Vandoeuvreles-Nancy, France) after acetic acid leaching [START_REF] Hein | Post-glacial climate forcing of surface processes in the Ganges-Brahmaputra river basin and implications for carbon sequestration[END_REF]. Bulk aliquots of the samples were collected before the 10 Be sample preparation and rinsed with milli-Q water to reduce sea salt contributions. They were then powdered and leached with 10% acetic acid [START_REF] Galy | The Late Oligocene-Early Miocene Himalayan belt Constraints deduced from isotopic compositions of Early Miocene turbidites in the Bengal Fan[END_REF] and prepared to obtain a silicate residue. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr was measured on the residue using a Triton Plus(TM) multi-collector thermal ionization mass spectrometer with NBS-987 as a standard and quality control. 143 Nd/ 144 Nd was measured using a Neptune plus multi-collector inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometer. 143 Nd/ 144 Nd was first normalized to 146 Nd/ 144 Nd = 0.7219 using an exponential law and then to the JNdi-1 following a pseudostandard sample-bracketing method (one standard for each 4-5 samples, [START_REF] Yang | Eolian dust forcing of river chemistry on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau since 8 Ma[END_REF].

143Nd/144Nd values are reported as Nd(0), using CHU(0) = 0.512638 [START_REF] Goldstein | A Sm-Nd isotopic study of atmospheric dusts and particulates from major river systems[END_REF].

Our results (Figure VIII-78, Table SVIII-1 columns AW-BB) are compared with data from the modern Narayani sediment [START_REF] Singh | Sr and Nd isotopes in river sediments from the Ganga Basin: Sediment provenance and spatial variability in physical erosion[END_REF]Morin, 2015) and from cores in the late Pleistocene Gandak Fan (Morin, 2015).

VIII.3.3. Lithological fraction computing

We followed the approach described in Morin (2015, p. 319) with the isotopic ratio measured in the sediment, and the isotopic ratio of each lithologic unit.

We resolved the set of equations with a Monte-Carlo simulation using 10,000 iterations.

The ratios and concentrations used for each unit were set from the averages obtained by Morin (2015). We propagated the analytical uncertainties of our isotopic measurements to examine the relative evolution of the respective fractions.

The lithological fractions presented here (Figure VIII-79, Table SVIII Be measurements A total of 39 samples of fine to medium consolidated or unconsolidated sandstone were prepared for analyses of 10 Be concentrations. To limit the potential contamination by a recent exposure to cosmic rays, the majority of sampling locations were selected in fresh exposure at the bottom of cliffs of several meters presently incised by the Siwalik rivers. Assuming that the 10 Be concentrations in samples were probably low because of potentially high erosion rates (> 1 mm/y), we sampled unusually large masses of sand (1 to 5 kg) to extract a sufficient amount of quartz and a measurable amount of 10 Be.

All samples except four were prepared at CRPG-CNRS-UL (Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France) for 10 Be measurements following the CEREGE (Aix-en-Provence, France) procedure, which is similar to the one used for other studies (Lupker et al., 2012a[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF][START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]Charreau et al., in prep.; This thesis, Chapter VI), and using a sufficient amount of quartz (i.e. > 100 g, representing 10 8 to 10 10 grains of quartz) to lower analytical uncertainties for older samples. Four samples were similarly prepared at CEREGE (Aix-Marseille, France). This study focused on fractions in the 125-250 μm or 140-280 μm range of grain sizes, except for two samples. For these samples, the 250-500 μm fraction was selected either because the 125-250 μm was too small (DWCOS22) or because sample purification failed (DWCOS11). Each sample was sieved under water and then underwent magnetic separation and sodium polytungstate density separation. The feldspar fraction was separated from the quartz fraction for 36 Cl measurements on five samples using flotation. The quartz fraction then underwent repeated selective leaching in H 2 SiF 6 and HCl to get quartz-enriched samples. For each sample, the quartz fraction was inserted in one Nalgen© bottle, except for samples of quartz mass > 260 g which were inserted in two or three bottles. Meteoric 10 Be was removed by 3 sequential HF etchings in stochiometric proportions to dissolve 30 wt% of the quartz in each bottle [START_REF] Brown | Examination of surface exposure ages of Antarctic moraines using in situ produced 10Be and 26Al[END_REF]. The remaining mass of quartz was

measured (Table SVIII-1 columns K-L).
A small mass of a 9 Be carrier of known concentration was added to the quartz which was subsequently dissolved in HF. For the samples with two or three bottles, the carrier was added into one bottle only. For eight samples, the carrier was taken from an industrial solution having = 1,000 ppm and = 1.4±0.3x10 -15 . To measure old samples with low 10 Be concentrations, the carrier was made in-house from phenakite minerals. The carrier presents = 2,020±83 ppm and = 4±2x10 -16 , except for the four samples prepared at CEREGE for which the carrier presents = 3,025 ppm and = 1.4±0.3x10 -15 . The dissolved solutions were evaporated in Evapoclean© 150 ml tubes at 110 °C (during several days for the oldest samples). The residue was dissolved in HCl and purified on two successive columns per sample by anion exchange, cation exchange, alkaline precipitation, and oxidation. We note that the columns have been previously calibrated for 30-50 g of quartz by CEREGE and have not recalibrated for the large masses of quartz we used, which probably induced a low-quality purification for the oldest samples and affected the precision of our measurements. Finally, the solution was precipitated as Be(OH) 2 and dehydrated to BeO at 1,000 °C.

The measurements on the BeO target were performed at the ASTER national Accelerator Mass Spectrometer facility (CEREGE, Aix-en-Provence, France) [START_REF] Arnold | The French accelerator mass spectrometry facility ASTER: Improved performance and developments[END_REF], with a normalization to the in-house standard STD-11, using an assigned 10 Be/ 9 Be ratio of (1.191 ± 0.013) x 10 - 11 [START_REF] Braucher | Preparation of ASTER in-house 10Be/9Be standard solutions[END_REF]. Ten procedural blanks were separated and measured using a similar procedure, obtaining an average = 10 -14 for the industrial carrier and 3x10 -15 for the in-house carrier. Our results are presented in

Be concentration determination

We performed a check on potential natural 9 Be content in the quartz that could interfere with the 9 Be content of the carrier (see discussion in [START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF]. After evaporation and redissolution in HCl, an aliquot was collected for 9 Be measurement using ICP-MS at CRPG-CNRS-UL (Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France). As in a previous study (This thesis, Chapter VI), we expected that the measured concentrations be slightly lower than the predicted concentrations (Table SVIII-1 columns M-R), because of the potential loss of Be after addition of the 9 Be carrier, during dissolution and evaporation. However, for the majority of samples we found 9 Be concentrations 0-60% higher than the 9 Be concentrations predicted from the added mass of the carrier, with levels > 100% for some samples with a large mass.

This might suggest that natural 9 Be content is not negligible for the Valmiki samples, as for the Bhutanese river sand [START_REF] Portenga | Erosion rates of the Bhutanese Himalaya determined using in situ-produced 10Be[END_REF]. For the computation of 10 Be concentrations (Table SVIII-1 columns AA-AD), we conservatively considered the higher 9 Be content from the predicted and measured contents.

For the samples without 9 Be measurements, we applied an 1-σ uncertainty of 25% on the 9 Be concentration.

The quartz 10 Be concentration in at/g was computed using:

1 and uncertainties were propagated using standard statistical formulas: for and for (e.g. [START_REF] Taylor | An Introduction to Error Analysis: The Study of Uncertainties in Physical Measurements[END_REF].

We performed duplicate analyses on two samples only. We found an average difference of 42% between duplicates and took the average concentration for further interpretation of these samples.

Our cores at 50-100 km east of Bettiah, Bihar, India (Morin, 2015). The data were obtained with similar procedures than ours, within the same facilities.

VIII.3.6.

36

Cl measurements and 10 Be recent exposure contribution

The recent exposure of the outcrops to cosmic rays affects the original 10 Be concentrations and requires a correction. Relying on the rapid decay of the 36 Cl that limits the inherited 36 Cl paleoconcetrations, we estimate the recent exposure by measuring the 36 Cl content of the feldspar of our samples.

The feldspar fraction of five samples was prepared for 36 Cl extraction at CEREGE following the protocol of [START_REF] Schimmelpfennig | Inter-comparison of cosmogenic in-situ 3He, 21Ne and 36Cl at low latitude along an altitude transect on the SE slope of Kilimanjaro volcano (3°S, Tanzania)[END_REF]. The samples were washed with mQ and etched in limited amounts of a HF (40%)/ HNO 3 (10%) mixture (volume ratio 1:2) to dissolve 10% of the mass. An aliquot of 1 g was then taken for chemical composition analysis at SARM (Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France).

Approximately 1.9 mg of chloride in the form of a chloride carrier (OakRidge National Laboratory), enriched in 35 Cl (99.9%), was added to the samples and the samples were dissolved with an excess amount of the HF/HNO 3 mixture. The supernatant was separated by centrifuging from the fluoric cake formed during the dissolution reaction. AgCl was precipitated by adding AgNO

Simple model (Table SVIII-9):

We used a simple computation to assess this contribution (Table SVIII-9) and compared the results with the contribution estimated from 36 Cl (Table SVIII-8).

We computed the radiogenic contribution, i.e. the 36 Cl production through the 35 Cl capture of thermal and epithermal neutrons, by hypothesizing that the samples were fully water saturated and that sandstone porosity can be approximated (Dubille, 2008) by the law of [START_REF] Baldwin | Compaction Curves[END_REF] as a function of depth, with a rock density of 2.7 g/cm 3 .

We obtained a porosity varying from 40% for the younger samples to 20% for the older ones.

We computed the estimate for the recent exposure contribution for an incision rate of 5±2 mm/y and a shielding factor of .

. .

. This contribution amounts to 200 -1,500 atom/g, which represents 10-20% of the measured concentrations for the younger samples and 30-40% for the older ones.

Contribution computed from the 36 Cl measurements (Table SVIII-8):

We computed the 10 Be concentration caused by recent exposure the following way. By the input of 36 Cl and chemical data in the Chronus calculator [START_REF] Marrero | Cosmogenic nuclide systematics and the CRONUScalc program[END_REF], we obtained the 36 Cl cosmogenic and radiogenic contributions. At the time of writing, the calculator does not take into account erosion rates for this computation. The radiogenic contribution is > 70-90% for our samples, which are rich in Cl and might be overestimated for the samples presenting negative cosmogenic contributions. Based on the 10 Be and 36 Cl decay constants, and using the production rates given by the Chronus calculator, we first estimate the residual (inherited) 36 Cl paleoconcentration, then we subtract it to the cosmogenic component to obtain the component related to the recent exposure. Then, we computed the 36 Cl production rates at the elevation of the sections (200 m) using the Chronus calculator (unfortunately, we

were not able to take into account an erosion rate of 5 mm/y), and we derived the 36 Cl/ 10 Be production rate at this elevation. Not taking into account erosion induces an underestimated muonic contribution which impacts the final results.

We finally obtained the recent exposure contribution to the 10 Be concentrations, ranging from 0 to 1200 atom/g, which validates our model.

Be floodplain exposure contribution

Exposure during sediment transport and burial affects the original 10 Be concentrations and also requires a correction. To assess the 10 Be contribution during floodplain transfer and final burial, we used the steady state and sediment mass-balance-based model of [START_REF] Lauer | Steady state reachscale theory for radioactive tracer concentration in a simple channel/floodplain system[END_REF]. In this model, sediment is carried into the floodplain with an initial concentration . While moving downstream, a fraction of sediment is deposited throughout reservoirs in the floodplain and replaced with material previously stored in these reservoirs. Each reservoir is assumed to be well-mixed off.

At a distance measured down the channel axis from the range outlet, the equation ( 6) in Lauer and Willenbring (2010) yields the average 10 Be concentration in floodplain sediment as a function of the 10 Be concentration in river sediment : We added to this model the deep muonic production once the sediment is buried below the depth of re-erosion , i.e. below the depth of the active channel at bankful discharge. The following equation provides the mean concentration gain :

Λ with the mean aggradation rate in the floodplain; the production rates and Λ the attenuation lengths of the nucleogenic or muonic contributions; the density. This equation is valid if we neglect the radioactive decay in the initial equation (valid as long as ) .

The paleoposition of the samples was estimated with their deposition ages, based on a southward migration rate of the range outlet of 15±5 mm/y (Lyon-Caen and [START_REF] Lyon-Caen | Gravity anomalies, flexure of the Indian Plate, and the structure, support and evolution of the Himalaya and Ganga Basin[END_REF].

The geomorphologic parameters for the Narayani river used as input parameters in the model are reported in Table SVIII-4. The parameters are derived from published studies or from our own measurements. The sediment aggradation rate was derived from our magnetostratigraphic results and the channel lateral migration rate and sinuosity were estimated using the channel location observed over two decades of satellite imagery, available on Google Earth©.

The computation of the floodplain exposure contribution was performed under several assumptions that do not impact the order of magnitude of our results: the active floodplain depth, aggradation rate, sinuosity and channel lateral migration rate were considered spatially uniform from the range outlet to the floodplain outlet [START_REF] Lauer | Steady state reachscale theory for radioactive tracer concentration in a simple channel/floodplain system[END_REF]Lupker et al., 2012a) and downstream sediment fining is also omitted.

The results of the contribution of the floodplain exposure are presented

VIII.3.8. Determination of paleoerosion rates

The recent exposure contribution was subtracted to the measured 10 Be concentrations and the resulting concentrations were corrected for radioactive decay using a 10 Be half-life of 1.387±0.012×10 6 y [START_REF] Korschinek | A new value for the half-life of 10Be by Heavy-Ion Elastic Recoil Detection and liquid scintillation counting[END_REF][START_REF] Chmeleff | Determination of the 10Be half-life by multicollector ICP-MS and liquid scintillation counting[END_REF] to obtain 10 Be paleoconcentrations. These paleoconcentrations were corrected from the floodplain transfer contribution.

We derived the average paleoerosion rates ̄ in the Narayani basin using the equation (e.g. [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]:

̄Λ with Λ the attenuation lengths of nucleons or muons, the density of eroded rocks, the mean nucleogenic and muogenic cosmogenic nuclide average production rates in the basin. The use of this equation is permitted under the assumptions that the temporal cosmogenic nuclide production rate variability remains within the range of the 10 Be concentration uncertainties (This thesis, Chapter VI), that the geography of the Narayani basin and the sediment provenance have remained similar since 8 Ma, and that 10 Be concentrations are not partly inherited from a previous history of erosion and sedimentation (i.e. by recycling). The paleoerosion rates uncertainties were propagated using a Monte-Carlo approach.

The 10 Be production rates were computed using Basinga [START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF] with the Lal-Stone scaling model [START_REF] Lal | Cosmic ray labeling of erosion surfaces: in situ nuclide production rates and erosion models[END_REF][START_REF] Stone | Air pressure and cosmogenic isotope production[END_REF]modified by Charreau et al., 2019). We set the sea level high latitude (SLHL) production rate at 4.18 atom/g [START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF], with factors of 0.9886, 0.0027 and 0.0087 for the SLHL neutron, slow and fast muonic contributions respectively [START_REF] Braucher | Production of cosmogenic radionuclides at great depth: A multi element approach[END_REF]. We took into account the glacial cover with the GLIMS database [START_REF] Raup | The GLIMS geospatial glacier database: A new tool for studying glacier change[END_REF] but we did not include topographic shielding, following the suggestion of [START_REF] Dibiase | Short Communication: Increasing vertical attenuation length of cosmogenic nuclide production on steep slopes negates topographic shielding corrections for catchment erosion rates[END_REF]. We also did not include paleomagnetic variations.

The Narayani drainage basin was determined by a range outlet located close to the Main Boundary Thrust (MBT, Figure VIII-74) at Narayanghat and therefore does not include the Siwalik units.

Our paleoerosion rates (Figure VIII-82, Table VIII-1 columns AS-AU) are compared with the erosion rates recomputed from the concentrations of the Narayani river sediment (Lupker et al., 2012a) and of the late Pleistocene Gandak Fan (Morin, 2015).

VIII.4. RESULTS

VIII.4.1. Sr-Nd isotopes and lithologic fractions

Our sandy samples Since both isotopic ratios are not affected by the same biases [START_REF] Garçon | Which minerals control the Nd-Hf-Sr-Pb isotopic compositions of river sediments?[END_REF], the covariation of their mean trend implies shifts of provenance over the period. When plotted one against another , the ratios are consistent with a ternary mixing between the three Himalayan units and show a dominance of the TSS and HHC components compared to the LH. The values are slightly higher than the values for the modern Narayani and for the Gandak Megafan [START_REF] Singh | Sr and Nd isotopes in river sediments from the Ganga Basin: Sediment provenance and spatial variability in physical erosion[END_REF]Morin, 2015).

This points to a lower contribution of the TSS in the mix of our samples compared to the late Pleistocene respectively. The contribution of the HHC+TSS appears higher before 1.7 Ma than afterwards, and conversely for the LH. Subtle variations of a 2 My period are also observed with a higher contribution of the LH at ca. 5 and 3 Ma. When the contribution of the HHC is separated from the TSS, we observe a decreasing HHC contribution from 7.4 to 1.7 Ma followed by an increase after 1.7 Ma, and conversely for the TSS contribution. b.

The relative first-order stability of the contribution of the HHC+TSS and of the LH suggests that the Narayani drainage remains stable over time, with only limited modifications. We will check this assertion after presenting the 10 Be results.

The respective variations of the HHC compared to the TSS contribution, along with the secondorder variations reflect the variations of major and trace elements, at least before 1. Our results are plotted using the age-dependent colour scale. The values of the Narayani and the late Pleistocene Gandak Megafan are indicated for comparison (Morin, 2015). The three poles HHC, TSS and LH are also indicated (Morin, 2015). VIII-1 columns AQ-AR) present an average of 7.8±6.0x10 3 atom/g, slightly lower than the modern Narayani average and lower than the Gandak Megafan average (the paleoconcentrations are inversely correlated to paleoerosion rates).

The 10 Be paleoconcentrations overlap the concentrations of the Narayani and the Gandak Megafan but present a much larger dispersion. The average paleoconcentration initially decreases by a factor three to four before ca. 5 Ma. After ca. 5 Ma, the average paleoconcentrations remain stable, but individual samples present a large dispersion. The paleoconcentrations do not present organized second-order variations, as would have been expected from an impact of glacial-interglacial cycles.

VIII.4.4. Evolution of the drainage basin

Converting the paleoconcentrations into erosion rates requires validating that the Narayani drainage basin remains stable since 7.4 Ma. We saw that the relative contribution of the HHC compared to the TSS varies significantly .

Under the assumption of steady erosion rates and uplift for each unit (Herman et al., 2010), the variations of the TSS/HHC contributions can be explained by the variation of their area in the drainage basin. Given the geometry of the TTS and HHC units, we can only consider that the Narayani network captured or lose TSS-dominated sub-basins occupying a significant area. But southward paleo-current analyses in the Kali Gandakhi past sediment does not favour this hypothesis [START_REF] Adhikari | Provenance evolution of collapse graben fill in the Himalaya-The Miocene to Quaternary Thakkhola-Mustang Graben (Nepal)[END_REF]. Since these sub-basins are at a higher elevation than the average elevation of the Narayani basin, a capture should trigger an increase in 10 Be production rates and a loss should trigger their decrease. But our 10 Be paleoconcentration results initially decrease and then become steady on average . (Lupker et al., 2012a;Morin, 2015).

b. Past erosion rates (paleoerosion rates) derived from our 10 Be paleoconcentrations and using the Narayani drainage basin. The grey curve represents the median of values for each time bin. b.

In the case of captures of TSS sub-basins with steady erosion rates of each unit, the initial decrease of the 10 Be paleoconcentrations requires a considerable increase of erosion rates to compensate the increase of the 10 Be production rates in this scenario. The following stability of 10 Be paleoconcentrations also requires that erosion rates continue to increase to compensate the increase of 10 Be production rates.

These requirements are incompatible with the assumption of steady erosion rates of each unit.

Alternatively, local erosion rates might have gradually increased in the TSS and/or decrease in the HHC. Since the HHC and TSS-dominated areas are subject to similar 10 Be production rates, this does not have an impact on the overall 10 Be production rate of the basin. Consequently, this may not have a disproportionate impact on 10 Be paleoconcentrations as the first scenario has.

Therefore, we assume that the combination of our Sr-Nd isotope and 10 Be concentrations imply that the Narayani basin has remained stable from 7. from the Narayani river sand and higher than the late Pleistocene paleoerosion rates from the Gandak Megafan (Lupker et al., 2012a;Morin, 2015; see also [START_REF] Godard | Dominance of tectonics over climate in Himalayan denudation[END_REF]. The erosion rates average the signal of several million grains of quartz eroded over ~1 ka on mountain hillslopes. This signal is partly damped over 1-10 ka time spans during the sediment transfer through the floodplain (Lupker et al., 2012a).

These erosion rates are valid under the verified assumptions that the cosmogenic nuclide production rate varies within the range of the 10 Be concentration uncertainties (this thesis, Chapter VI), that the geography of the Narayani basin has remained similar since 7. 4 Ma, and that 10 Be concentrations are not partly inherited from a previous history of erosion and sedimentation (i.e. by recycling).

The erosion rates reflect the evolution of 10 Be paleoconcentrations, with lower values and less dispersion before ca. 5 Ma than afterwards. An increase in the average erosion rate from 0.6 mm/y to 2 mm/y is observed before ca. 5 Ma, but afterwards, erosion rates remain steady on average at 2 mm/y.

VIII.5. DISCUSSION

VIII.5.1. Biased 10 Be concentrations for old samples?

While the preparation protocol we used was calibrated for small quantities of quartz, we had to dissolve large quantities of quartz to obtain a signal for 10 Be measurements. This approach was successful since our measured 10 Be/ 9 Be ratios are for all samples but one higher than three times the blank. But these large quantities induced a limited purification of the 10 Be target and thus an increase in uncertainties.

The addition of the 9 Be carrier make it possible to fix the 10 Be/ 9 Be ratio before dissolution and evaporation. However, this works only for samples having a negligible amount of natural 9 Be, which was not the case for our old samples (Table VIII-1 columns QR). We measured the 9 Be content after evaporation and redissolution. But a loss of 9 Be during evaporation and redissolution, although not very likely, might have occurred and would induce an artificially decreased 10 Be concentration.

These old samples present the low 10 Be concentrations ( Similarly, the correction for exposure during transport and burial of sediment may have an impact, although probably a smaller one. Two phenomenons could lead to an underestimation of exposure for the sediment deposited far from the range outlet. Channel dynamics may be different and lower lateral migration rates may affect the older samples because of their distance. The 125-250 μm fraction ratio between the river and the floodplain sediment may be higher upstream than downstream. Both phenomenons lead to a less efficient exchange between the river and the floodplain and a longer exposure to cosmic rays in the floodplain before the final deep burial of the sediments.

To fully assess the reality of the observed decreased paleoconcentrations in this study and in [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF] work, all these potential biases require a further investigation that goes beyond this study. In absence of further tests, we chose to keep the oldest samples for our interpretation.

The potential biases related to 10 Be concentrations of old samples is often an overlooked topic (e.g. this thesis, Chapter VI).

Lower Meghna modern sand

VIII.5.2. Variability of apparent erosion rates

Our 10 Be apparent erosion rates present more variability than for the modern record, in particular after ca. . Such high variability is not observed for the Narayani basin, either in modern sediment (samples that cover the last decade, Lupker et al., 2012a) or in the Late Pleistocene Gandak Fan (samples 50 ka, Morin, 2015). Large basins are assumed to smooth out stochastic processes such as landslides [START_REF] Niemi | Effects of bedrock landslides on cosmogenically determined erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Yanites | Numerical and analytical models of cosmogenic radionuclide dynamics in landslide-dominated drainage basins[END_REF][START_REF] West | Dilution of 10Be in detrital quartz by earthquake-induced landslides: Implications for determining denudation rates and potential to provide insights into landslide sediment dynamics[END_REF]. However, measurements performed in river sand (Lupker et al., 2012a) or in fluvial terrace material [START_REF] Dingle | Temporal variability in detrital 10Be concentrations in a large Himalayan catchment[END_REF] of other large Himalayan rivers (the Karnali-Ghaghara or the Kosi) demonstrate that large and transverse Himalayan rivers may also produce short-term variations of the 10 Be signal by a factor three.

VIII.5.3. Comparison with other 10 Be datasets

After ca. 5 Ma, the erosion rates in the Narayani basin are similar to the Himalayan 10 Be erosion rates recorded in the Surai section , which average at 2±1 mm/y from 5.7 to 3.6 Ma [START_REF] Puchol | Détermination des paléo-taux d'érosion par l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques[END_REF]Charreau et al., in prep.). Our erosion rates are however higher than the 10 Be erosion rates recorded in the Bengal Fan , the latter presenting a steady average at 1.0±0.3 mm/y since ca. 6.2 Ma (This thesis, Chapter VI). This implies that Central Nepal has been a major erosion hotspot in the Himalaya since at least ca. 3.2-3.8 Ma compared to other areas, as in modern times [START_REF] Godard | Impact of glacial erosion on 10Be concentrations in fluvial sediments of the Marsyandi catchment, central Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Godard | Dominance of tectonics over climate in Himalayan denudation[END_REF]. b., c., d., e. presents the average erosion rates and standard deviations for distinct sets of erosion rates.

We artificially group each local erosion rate obtained by [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] according the following sets: rates > 2 mm/y, between 1 and 2 mm/y, between 0.5 and 1 mm/y, and rates < 0.5 mm/y. Each group presents a distinct evolution (coloured curve: average rate, grey-shaded: standard deviation.

VIII.5.4. Comparison with detrital thermochronometry

Our short term erosion rates are also close to the long-term erosion rates derived from detrital thermochronometry in the Karnali and Surai section, even if they do not integrate the same Himalayan basin (van der Beek et al., 2006;[START_REF] Naylor | Bias in detrital fission track grain-age populations: Implications for reconstructing changing erosion rates[END_REF].

VIII.5.5. Comparison with in situ thermochronometry

Our erosion rates are also of the same order as the local erosion rates reconstructed from in situ thermochronometry in the Himalaya (Figure VIII-84, Herman et al., 2013). In detail, some thermochronometric studies present a similar average [START_REF] Gautam | Zircon and apatite fission-track dating of the Ampipal alkaline massif, the Nepal Lesser Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Blythe | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon fission track and apatite [U-Th]/He analyses: CENTRAL NEPAL PLIO-QUATERNARY EXHUMATION[END_REF][START_REF] Robert | Assessing Quaternary reactivation of the Main Central thrust zone (central Nepal Himalaya): New thermochronologic data and numerical modeling[END_REF]Herman et al., 2010a[START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Thiede | Large spatial and temporal variations in Himalayan denudation[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Beek | Contrasting tectonically driven exhumation and incision patterns, western versus central Nepal Himalaya[END_REF] whereas others present a higher average [START_REF] Nadin | Apatite thermochronometry within a knickzone near the Higher Himalaya front, central Nepal: No resolvable fault motion in the past one million years[END_REF][START_REF] Arita | Thrust tectonics and uplift process of the Nepal Himalaya revealed from fission-track ages[END_REF].

Our results do not sustain a significant increase in the erosion rates (i.e. x 2 to x 5) in Central Nepal since 3 Ma and contradict the models obtained from thermochronometric data for this time span [START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Blythe | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 1. Apatite and zircon fission track and apatite [U-Th]/He analyses: CENTRAL NEPAL PLIO-QUATERNARY EXHUMATION[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Thiede | Large spatial and temporal variations in Himalayan denudation[END_REF]. Consequently, our 10 Be results confirm the results obtained previously from the Bengal Fan for this period ( 2014) is assumed to overcome this limitation. One possibility is that the number of thermochronometric data is too limited to obtain reliable results. This is particularly the case for the areas covered by the LH and the TSS, which are poor in minerals fitting to low-temperature thermochronometric measurements. One can imagine a scenario where the HHC sees increased erosion rates whereas the other units see a decrease, which shall result in an average stability. However, they obtain average erosion rates for the 0-4 Ma time span lower than ours for the same time span, which suggests that they take into account low-eroding areas and that resolution may be not the source of the difference.

10 Be quantifies the span from the time when rock was impacted the first time by cosmic rays to the time when it was impacted the last. The 10 Be concentrations are affected by the geomagnetic field, the elevation of the basin, the locus of erosion (high elevation or low elevation), and erosion rates. The variation of the geomagnetic field has not induced variations larger than our uncertainties (this thesis, Chapter VI). Elevation in Central Himalaya is likely stable over the period [START_REF] Garzione | High times on the Tibetan Plateau: Paleoelevation of the Thakkhola graben, Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Gébelin | The Miocene elevation of Mount Everest[END_REF]. Our Sr-Nd data show that the basin changed only marginally, thus without a large variation of mean elevation. Therefore, we can assume that the average of our 10 Be concentrations can be simply converted in erosion rates.

In situ thermochronometry quantifies cooling rates and dates the age of the passage of the rock through an isotherm which depends on the thermochronometer and on the cooling history. The conversion of the cooling rates into denudation/erosion rates requires a thermal model, which often simplified to a 1-D model (e.g. [START_REF] Fox | A linear inversion method to infer exhumation rates in space and time from thermochronometric data[END_REF]'s model) and does not take into account lateral advection nor horizontal transport [START_REF] Whipp | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 2. Thermokinematic and thermochronometer age prediction model[END_REF]Herman et al., 2010a;[START_REF] Van Der Beek | Inversion of thermochronological ageelevation profiles to extract independent estimates of denudation and relief history -II: Application to the French Western Alps[END_REF]. In Central Nepal, both the hydrothermal heat flow (Copeland et al., 1991;Derry et al., 2009) and the groundwater flow driven by the high mountain relief (Whipp and Ehlers, 2007) might also impact local geotherms and make partly inadequate a simplified model exclusively based on heat diffusion. Obtaining a series of erosion rates from in situ thermochronometry is possible by combining measurements using thermochronometers sensitive to distinct closure temperatures and/or combining measurements on samples with distinct elevation (i.e. elevation profile). As demonstrated by [START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF], this combination of samples requires that they have undergone the same erosional history, which may be not usual.

This description of both approaches suggests that 10 Be is rather straightforward compared to in situ thermochronometry. The issues raised by in situ thermochronometry are illustrated by the sharply different results in terms of timing of an increase in erosion between Herman et al. (2010a) and ( 2013), caused by differences in the size of the dataset and in the thermal model. The fact that the three studies (this work; Herman et al., 2010a[START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]) detect increased erosion rates in Central Nepal suggests that despite all the issues raised by in situ thermochronometry, its results can partly be reproduced by 10Be.

However, the difference of several millions of years between the studies probably points to the raw imprecision of the thermal model.

VIII.6. IMPLICATIONS VIII.6.1. The late Cenozoic climate change in Central Himalaya

Previous studies demonstrated that the late Cenozoic global climate change deeply impacted the Himalayan range. Using oxygen and carbon isotopic measurements on the Valmiki Sections and other available results [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Quade et al., 1995;Vögeli et al., 2017a), this thesis, Chapter VII suggested that the South Asian Monsoon (SA Monsoon) weakens at 6.9 Ma and brings limited precipitations to Central and Western Himalaya afterwards. But this situation may have shifted at ca. 3.2

Ma with a strengthening of the SA Monsoon which brings back significant precipitations in Central Himalaya.

Our Sr-Nd isotopic results seem to reflect this evolution of the Monsoon on erosion.

A strong monsoon impacts the amount of precipitations received by the southern flank of the Himalaya, dominantly covered by the HHC. Then, the focus of precipitations seems to increase the erosion of the HHC at the expense of the TSS, as seen from ca. 7-8 Ma onwards and after ca. 1.7 Ma. Conversely, a weak monsoon brings less precipitation to the Himalayan flank and seems to produce the rebalance of erosion between the HHC and the TSS. This reasoning appears counterintuitive, because a weakening of the monsoon also reduces the amount of precipitations in the TSS, which are located further north.

Alternatively, the shift of sources at ca. 1.7 Ma may be explained by an expansion of glaciers and a related global amplification of extensive glaciations [START_REF] Shi | Characteristics of late Quaternary monsoonal glaciation on the Tibetan Plateau and in East Asia[END_REF] that could have induced a consistent increase in the erosion rates [START_REF] Vance | Erosion and exhumation in the Himalaya from cosmogenic isotope inventories of river sediments[END_REF][START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF]. But the timing and intensity of the late Cenozoic Glaciations remains poorly determined in the Himalaya. Few clues are available about ice expansion before ca. 0.3-0.4 Ma [START_REF] Owen | Nature and timing of Quaternary glaciation in the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen[END_REF] and even before the last glacial cycle for the Central Himalaya (Finkel et al., 2003;Zech et al., 2009). The drop of temperatures in the late Cenozoic might be limited at these latitudes compared to higher latitudes [START_REF] Herbert | Late Miocene global cooling and the rise of modern ecosystems[END_REF]. The intensity of glaciations during the Last Glacial Maximum has been underlined, with an extent of glacial cover up to 20% of the Himalaya compared to 5% in modern times (9% in the Narayani basin) [START_REF] Shi | Characteristics of late Quaternary monsoonal glaciation on the Tibetan Plateau and in East Asia[END_REF][START_REF] Raup | The GLIMS geospatial glacier database: A new tool for studying glacier change[END_REF], but could be debated for the Central Himalaya in view of available data (Duncan et al., 1998;Fort, 2000;Zech, 2003;Pratt-Sitaula et al., 2011). One of the major problems is that many geomorphologic features have been considered early as moraines while they were remnants of debris flows or rock avalanches [START_REF] Hewitt | Quaternary moraines vs catastrophic rock avalanches in the Karakoram Himalaya, northern Pakistan[END_REF]. Additionally, it seems unclear why the HHC would be more affected than the TSS, except if the development of glaciers has been facilitated by higher precipitations in the southern flank than in the northern area.

However, in absence of a non climatic cause to explain the variations of HHC and TSS proportions, we assume that our Sr-Nd results are compatible with a local increase of erosion caused by glaciations.

VIII.6.2. The late Cenozoic climate change and erosion rates

Our 10 Be data from the Valmiki Sections demonstrate for the first time that average erosion rates do not increase in Central Nepal during the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations. This contrasts with the indirect evidence we provide from our Sr-Nd isotopic measurements and available data (This thesis, Chapter VII) that extensive glaciers likely settle and grow in the High Himalaya at ca. 1.7 Ma. These glaciers either produced increased erosion rates in the HHC, as previously advanced by the interpretation of in situ thermochronometric data [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Thiede | Large spatial and temporal variations in Himalayan denudation[END_REF], using among others the data of [START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF] or induced a decrease in the erosion rates elsewhere. Whatever the case, the main impact of our results is that for an orogen presumed in tectonic steady-state such as the Himalaya (DeCelles et al., 2001;[START_REF] Lyon-Caen | Gravity anomalies, flexure of the Indian Plate, and the structure, support and evolution of the Himalaya and Ganga Basin[END_REF], a local increase in the erosion rates induces a decrease elsewhere in the orogen. A possible explanation is that the impacted rocks may have not yet reached the surface [START_REF] Naylor | Bias in detrital fission track grain-age populations: Implications for reconstructing changing erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Willenbring | The null hypothesis: globally steady rates of erosion, weathering fluxes and shelf sediment accumulation during Late Cenozoic mountain uplift and glaciation[END_REF].

Since climate does not have an impact on average erosion rates in the Narayani basin after ca. 5 Ma, and because erosion rates as recorded in the Bengal Fan are steady on average since 6.2 Ma (this thesis,

Chapter VI), we can doubt that climate has an impact for the ca. 5 -7.4 Ma time span. If we follow our results for the first period and our discussion about the late Cenozoic climate change in Central Himalaya, a decrease in precipitations would have decreased erosion rates in the HHC and triggered increased erosion rates. But this balancing mechanism probably works only if the range is in tectonic steady state.

Therefore, if the biases we listed for old samples are contradicted by further measurements and refining of the various corrections, our 10 Be results imply that Central Nepal was not in tectonic steady state at ca. 5 -7.4 Ma.

These results for the 5 -7.4 Ma time span, if confirmed, might also imply that the mean elevation of the Narayani-Gandak was lower at 7.4 Ma than at 5 Ma. As a consequence, the production rates and erosion rates would be lower at 7. 4 Ma than what has been computed, and the amplitude of the increase in erosion rates would be lower than what we obtained. One could argue that this hypothesis is contradicted by the δ 18 O data of the Thakhola Graben, in the northern area (Garzione et al., 2010). They based their δ 18 O elevation gradient using Quade et al. (1995)'s data at low elevation in the Surai Section. However, this dataset has not sufficient resolution over the 7 -1 Ma time span, compared to the new δ 18 O record of the Valmiki Sections (this thesis, Chapter VII). This contradiction therefore requires further investigation using a model combining [START_REF] Garzione | High times on the Tibetan Plateau: Paleoelevation of the Thakkhola graben, Nepal[END_REF]'s data and the data of the Valmiki Sections.

VIII.7. CONCLUSION

In this work, we measured the 10 Be concentrations and Sr-Nd isotopic ratios on the erosion record of the drainage basin of the Narayani-Gandak, the Valmiki Sections. Our results cover the 8.2 -1.2 Ma time span (7.4 -1.2 Ma for erosion rates) and demonstrate that Central Nepal was not subject to increased average erosion rates during the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations. This absence of increase occurs in spite of the probable increase in the erosion rates in the High Himalaya, associated to amplified monsoonal precipitations and, to a lesser extent, amplified glacial erosion. Our results imply that the Himalaya in Central Nepal was in steady state between tectonic uplift and erosion during this period.

Contrary to Western Nepal ( Robinson et al., 2001[START_REF] Robinson | Kinematic model for the Main Central thrust in Nepal 4[END_REF][START_REF] Huyghe | Propagation of the thrust system and erosion in the Lesser Himalaya: Geochemical and sedimentological evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | Pulsed deformation and variable slip rates within the central Himalayan thrust belt[END_REF] or to Eastern Nepal [START_REF] Schelling | Thrust tectonics, crustal shortening, and the structure of the far-eastern Nepal Himalaya[END_REF]

VIII.8. TABLES

In Tables attached to this manuscript.

IX.1. CONTEXT IX.1.1. Climate change and erosion rate estimates

The previous decades of research have seen an intense debate about the interactions between tectonics and climate through denudation. One key and unanswered question is whether climate change impacts erosion rates and affects the development of mountain ranges independently of their tectonic pattern. And one key issue to answer this question is that past erosion rates can only be determined through indirect approaches. A significant number of studies shows an apparent global and considerable increase in erosion rates in the Late Cenozoic (e.g. [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]. This apparent increase is coeval with a global climate change characterized by an increase in aridity and the rise of glacial/interglacial cycles along with the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations. This apparent increase affects several mountain ranges indiscriminately. Thus, the link between climate change and this apparent increase in erosion rates should be obvious.

The approaches used to determine erosion rates require strong assumptions, which have been regularly unverified. Sediment budgets or accumulation rates depend on the individual dating constraints of each site. These dating constraints are difficult to obtain, particularly in the coarse Pleistocene continental series. In that case, workers are tempted to temporally correlate the layers of each site with each other by using their sedimentary characteristics (facies). But these sedimentary facies, rather than showing that the coarse formations at the front of the Tianshan are diachronous. Sedimentary budgets also depend on the spatio-temporal resolution of drill sites. A sedimentary budget performed on the glaciogenic sediments deposited on the extensively explored Norwegian margin (Dowdeswell et al., 2010) has more value than a sedimentary budget performed in the Bengal Bay which has few data in the deep sea [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF]Clift and Gaedicke, 2002;[START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016).

In situ thermochronometry depend on the strong assumption that the geotherm has a simple configuration averaged regionally, classically in one dimension (e.g. [START_REF] Fox | A linear inversion method to infer exhumation rates in space and time from thermochronometric data[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF].

But the thermal field in active mountain ranges is all but simple. Lateral variations occur with horizontal advection [START_REF] Whipp | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 2. Thermokinematic and thermochronometer age prediction model[END_REF]Herman et al., 2010b;[START_REF] Van Der Beek | Inversion of thermochronological ageelevation profiles to extract independent estimates of denudation and relief history -II: Application to the French Western Alps[END_REF]. Spatial variations occur with the hydrothermal heat flow (Copeland et al., 1991;Derry et al., 2009) and the groundwater flow driven by the high mountain relief (Whipp and Ehlers, 2007). The geotherm can be unsteady through time and different for distinct thermochronometers applied on the same sample. The risk is to combine data from distinct samples and distinct thermochronometers which do not tell the same history of denudation [START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF].

IX.1.2. Assumptions associated to the use of terretrial cosmogenic nuclides

In this thesis, we demonstrated that the use of terrestrial cosmogenic nuclides to estimate average erosion rates in a drainage basin requires assumptions that could be more easily verified compared to other approaches, at least in the Himalaya. While the cosmic flux has remained steady since 10 Ma (Leya et al., 2000), we show that the geomagnetic dipole fluctuations influence the cosmogenic production rates within a 20% margin. The past elevation of the drainage basin may be estimated using oxygen isotopes and has probably remained steady in Central Himalaya for the last 10 Ma [START_REF] Garzione | High times on the Tibetan Plateau: Paleoelevation of the Thakkhola graben, Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Gébelin | The Miocene elevation of Mount Everest[END_REF]. Recent exposure of samples to cosmic rays can be assessed using a couple of cosmogenic nuclides of distinct half-lives. As shown before [START_REF] Lauer | Steady state reachscale theory for radioactive tracer concentration in a simple channel/floodplain system[END_REF], exposure during the transfer of sediment through the floodplain can be determined through a transfer model. Recycling affects cosmogenic nuclide concentrations because the samples have kept an older erosional history. Recycling can be assessed using major elements. The geometry of the basin determines the mean elevation which affects the computation of the mean production rates. The stability of this geometry can be estimated with a provenance analysis using strontium and neodymium isotopes.

IX.2. RESULTS

In this context, the aim of this thesis was to obtain an independent temporal record of erosion rates in the Himalaya. This aim is achieved thanks to two new records.

IX.2.1. The Bengal Fan record

The first record consists in a series of 28 10 Be concentrations extracted from the quartz sand of the deep sea Bengal Fan and integrates erosion over 1-10 ka timescales in the Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage basin since 6.2 Ma, with a high resolution for the last million year (Chapter VI). The acquisition of concentrations from such old samples in marine sediment was possible thanks to the abundance of sand in the Bengal Fan turbidites. To better determine the temporal series, we provide new nanofossil constraints along with a new age model for Expedition 354 U1450 Drill Site (Chapter V).

We supplement our concentrations with a provenance analysis based on Sr-Nd isotopes measured on the bulk sandy samples. This analysis takes advantage of the distinct isotopic signatures of the Ganga and the Brahmaputra sediment [START_REF] Galy | Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes[END_REF]. We demonstrate that the provenance of the sandy turbidites is affected by floodplain sequestration or possible distinct turbiditic systems for the Ganga and the Brahmaputra. The sandy turbidites younger than 0.45 Ma in the Expedition 354 drill sites originate only from the Brahmaputra.

The key result deriving from the measurements in the Bengal Fan is the absence of increase or decrease in the average erosion rates in the Central and Eastern Himalaya since 6.2 Ma, despite climate change and despite clear geomorphologic evidence in the Himalaya for past intense glaciations. The average erosion rates in the Ganga and Brahmaputra basin remains close to modern values, at 1 mm/y.

IX.2.2. The Valmiki Section record

The second record consists in a series of 36 10 We supplement our results with a paleoenvironmental study based on oxygen and carbon isotopes on bulk silts, with a provenance analysis based on on Sr-Nd isotopes applied on the bulk sandy samples,

along with an analysis of recent cosmogenic exposure with 36 Cl measurements. The paleoenvironmental study benefits from the high secondary carbonate content of our silty samples. These secondary carbonates partly consist in diagenetic cement and partly in pedogenic carbonates. The δ 13 C ratio in pedogenic carbonates varies as a function of the environmental prevalence of C 3 or C 4 plants, both groups having a distinct pathway to absorb CO 2 and growing under distinct climatic conditions. The δ 18 O ratio varies as a function of the amount of precipitations and seasonality. The Sr-Nd provenance analysis takes advantage of the distinct isotopic signatures of the main Himalayan units (Morin, 2015).

Our δ 13 C results may yield new and precise timing constraints on the shift to a prevalence of C4 plants in the plains of Central Himalaya. These new constraints may evidence that the shift occur synchronously in the Central and Western Himalaya (our results; [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]Vögeli et al., 2017a). Additionally, they may yield the first evidence ever found of a shift back to a mix of C 3 and C 4 vegetation at the dawn of the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations. Our δ 18 O results detect that at least the lower part of the Valmiki Sections is impacted by early diagenesis, as previously observed for the Surai Section [START_REF] Sanyal | Chemical diagenesis of Siwalik sandstone: Isotopic and mineralogical proxies from Surai Khola section, Nepal[END_REF]. For the upper part, they might show an increase in aridity and/or seasonality over the period, in spite of the initiation of the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations and in contrast with Western Himalaya [START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]. These results might imply that the South Asian Monsoon varied in intensity during the late Cenozoic, with an initial weakening and a later partial restrengthening at the dawn of the Northern Hemisphere Glaciations. To be validated, these interpretations on the δ 13 C and δ 18 O signals require further petrographic observations of the samples.

Our Sr-Nd provenance analysis combined with our 10 Be concentrations imply that the Narayani-Gandak drainage basin remains stable from 7.4 Ma to 1.2 Ma with only marginal modifications. Our Sr-Nd results suggest a relative stability of erosion in the lower mountain range, covered by the Lesser Himalaya, despite the ongoing duplexing. They also suggest an initial decrease in erosion rates in the southern flank and the higher summits, mainly covered by the High Himalaya Crystalline (HHC) and to a lesser extent by the Tethyan Series (TSS), followed by a recover after 1.7 Ma. This variability might be attributed to the fluctuations of the South Asian Monsoon or to the Glaciations.

Our 36 Cl results imply that recent exposure to cosmic rays is limited for the major part of the Valmiki Sections. Extending this implication to the older samples requires new measurements.

The key result deriving from the measurements in the Valmiki Sections is the absence of increase or decrease in the average erosion rates in Central Nepal since ca. 5 Ma, despite climate change and despite clear geomorphologic evidence in Central Nepal for past intense glaciations. This stability, compared to the variations of the contributions of the HHC and the TSS, implies that the decrease or increase in erosion rates in the High Himalayan part of the Narayani-Gandak basin should be compensated by a decrease or an increase elsewhere. The average erosion rates in the Narayani-Gandak basin remains close to modern values, at 2 mm/y. These values are higher than the Bengal Fan average erosion rate and imply that some Himalayan segments have erosion rates much lower than 1 mm/y.

The secondary result is the increase in erosion rates during the 7.4 -5 Ma time span.

We underline that this increase need to be confirmed by further measurements and modelling.

When confirmed, this increase may imply that the initiation of duplexing was later in Central Nepal than in Western Nepal and that landscapes took several millions of years to adapt to the new tectonic configuration. This questions the assumption that the Himalaya in Central Nepal has been in steady state since 10 Ma, at least until 5 Ma, which should have an impact on erosional studies in this region.

As the last point about the Valmiki record, the apparent erosion rates derived from our 10 Be concentrations display a high variability since 3.2 Ma. This confirms previous results that show the overwhelming weight in sediment of deep-seated landslides or landslides affecting the ridges of mountain ranges [START_REF] Puchol | Grain-size dependent concentration of cosmogenic 10Be and erosion dynamics in a landslidedominated Himalayan watershed[END_REF][START_REF] Dingle | Temporal variability in detrital 10Be concentrations in a large Himalayan catchment[END_REF]. We note however that the past variability is much higher than in modern times, suggesting that no modern analog of the landslides we may detect in our record would have existed in recent history. This variability does not affect the evolution of the average erosion rate and our conclusions.

IX.3. CONCLUSION

Our results demonstrate that average erosion rates in the Himalaya have not increased since at least ca. 5 Ma, despite a large change of climatic conditions, as suggested by our isotopic record in addition to the 10 Be concentrations. This implies that climate change alone cannot increase or decrease average erosion rates in the Himalaya, and that tectonics is the main driver for the fluctuations of average erosion rates. However, this does not contradict local variations of erosion rates depending on climate, as possibly

shown by our provenance analysis on the Valmiki Sections, or by some in situ thermochronometric studies [START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF]. To obtain a steady average erosion rate in the basin, a local increase in erosion rates should be compensated by a local decrease in erosion rates elsewhere. But this concept requires further measurements and modelling to be explored.

The one-million-dollar question now is: can we extend our approach and conclusions to other mountain ranges in the world? We took advantage of the abundance of sand, originated from the considerable volume of sediment provided by the Himalayan range, the good dating constraints, the large size of the drainage basin buffering the marginal changes of drainage network, and the significant differences in the isotopic signature of the formations covering the drainage basin. Such an ideal configuration may not be available elsewhere, as shown by the early work of [START_REF] Bierman | A persistent and dynamic East Greenland Ice Sheet over the past 7.5 million years[END_REF] offshore Greenland.

The Andes is another mountain range where an apparent increase in erosion rates has been interpreted [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Mid-latitude glacial erosion hotspot related to equatorial shifts in southern Westerlies[END_REF]. Several studies investigated the Andes foreland basin in Northwestern Argentina measuring 10 Be in quartz sediment [START_REF] Val | Reconciling tectonic shortening, sedimentation and spatial patterns of erosion from 10Be paleo-erosion rates in the Argentine Precordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Amidon | Mio-Pliocene aridity in the south-central Andes associated with Southern Hemisphere cold periods[END_REF]Pingel et al., 2019). Two studies show a decrease in erosion rates that they attribute to the increasing aridity, either linked to the range uplift creating a rain shadow (Pingel et al., 2019) or to the late Cenozoic climate change [START_REF] Amidon | Mio-Pliocene aridity in the south-central Andes associated with Southern Hemisphere cold periods[END_REF]. However, these studies might not bear the same significance as ours because of the limited size of the drainage basins and uncertainties about a potential recycling.

Another study [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF] investigated the Tianshan, a mountain range where an apparent increase in erosion rates has also been interpreted [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF]. Even though the Tianshan is at 1,700 km and 15° N of the Valmiki Sections, in a distinct tectonic context, the trend of their average erosion rates appear roughly similar to our Valmiki record, i.e. an increase in rates from ca. 8 to 3-4 Ma followed by stable rates. Even though the early apparent increase in erosion rates require further measurements and modelling for the Tianshan Sections and the Valmiki Sections, the combination of their study and ours forms a strong argument against an increase in erosion rates during the Northern

Hemisphere Glaciations, at least in active orogens.

This argument is further reinforced by an earlier study that demonstrates, using Optically Stimulated Luminescence (OSL), that erosion rates remained steady during the last glacial cycle in the Southern Alps of New Zealand (Herman et al., 2010b) and are similar to the long-term erosion rates derived from thermochronometry. But we note that their results may not be extended to the full Pleistocene, because of a different trend shown by results obtained by using 4 He/ 3 He thermochronometry [START_REF] Shuster | Thermochronometry Reveals Headward Propagation of Erosion in an Alpine Landscape[END_REF].

Do our conclusions extend to extinct orogens? Recent results from the Var Submarine Fan, which collects sediment from the Southwestern Alps in Europe suggests a negative answer [START_REF] Mariotti | Impact du dernier cycle glaciaireinterglaciaire sur la dénudation dans les Alpes du Sud[END_REF].

Their results, extending over the last glacial cycle demonstrate that erosion rates increased in the Last Glacial Maximum. However, this might be an exceptional case, and unfortunately, neither our study nor the study of [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF]'s has this resolution to confirm such an exceptional situation at the Last Glacial Maximum in the Himalaya or in the Tianshan. Therefore, the response of extinct orogens to climate change requires further investigation on timescales of millions of years. This response may be different that the response of active orogens, which our results show as dominated by tectonics. données en eau profonde [START_REF] Métivier | Mass accumulation rates in Asia during the Cenozoic[END_REF]Clift et Gaedicke, 2002;[START_REF] Clemens | Expedition 353 summary[END_REF]France-Lanord et al., 2016).

La thermochronométrie in situ repose sur l'hypothèse forte que le géotherme a une configuration simple et moyennée régionalement, classiquement selon une seule dimension (par exemple, [START_REF] Fox | A linear inversion method to infer exhumation rates in space and time from thermochronometric data[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]. Mais le champ thermique dans les chaînes de montagnes actives est tout sauf simple. Des variations latérales se produisent avec l'advection horizontale [START_REF] Whipp | Plio-Quaternary exhumation history of the central Nepalese Himalaya: 2. Thermokinematic and thermochronometer age prediction model[END_REF]Herman et al., 2010a;[START_REF] Van Der Beek | Inversion of thermochronological ageelevation profiles to extract independent estimates of denudation and relief history -II: Application to the French Western Alps[END_REF]. Des variations spatiales se produisent avec le flux thermique hydrothermal (Copeland et al., 1991 ;Derry et al., 2009) et le flux d'eau souterraine provoqué par le relief de haute montagne (Whipp et Ehlers, 2007). Le géotherme peut être instable dans le temps et différent selon thermochronomètres appliqués sur le même échantillon. Le risque est de combiner des données provenant d'échantillons distincts et de thermochronomètres distincts qui ne présentent pas la même histoire de dénudation [START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF].

X.1.2. Hypothèses associées à l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques terrestres

Dans cette thèse, nous avons démontré que l'utilisation des isotopes cosmogéniques terrestres pour estimer les taux moyens d'érosion dans un bassin versant requiert des hypothèses qui pourraient être plus facilement vérifiées que pour les autres approches, du moins dans l'Himalaya. Alors que le flux cosmique est resté stable depuis 10 Ma [START_REF] Leya | The production of cosmogenic nuclides in stony meteoroids by galactic cosmic-ray particles[END_REF], nous montrons que les fluctuations du dipôle géomagnétique influencent les taux de production cosmogénique dans une marge de 20%. L'altitude passée du bassin versant peut être estimée à l'aide des isotopes de l'oxygène et est probablement restée stable dans le centre de l'Himalaya depuis 10 Ma [START_REF] Garzione | High times on the Tibetan Plateau: Paleoelevation of the Thakkhola graben, Nepal[END_REF][START_REF] Gébelin | The Miocene elevation of Mount Everest[END_REF]. L'exposition récente des échantillons aux rayons cosmiques peut être évaluée à l'aide d'un couple d'isotopes cosmogéniques de demi-vies distinctes. Comme précédemment démontré [START_REF] Lauer | Steady state reachscale theory for radioactive tracer concentration in a simple channel/floodplain system[END_REF], l'exposition pendant le transfert des sédiments dans la plaine inondable peut être déterminée au moyen d'un modèle de transfert. Le recyclage affecte les concentrations des isotopes cosmogéniques parce que les échantillons ont conservé une histoire d'érosion plus ancienne. Ce recyclage peut être évalué à l'aide des éléments majeurs. La géométrie du bassin détermine l'altitude moyenne qui affecte le calcul des taux moyens de production. La stabilité de cette géométrie peut être estimée par une analyse de provenance à l'aide des isotopes du strontium et du néodyme.

X.2. RESULTATS

Dans ce contexte, l'objectif de cette thèse était d'obtenir un enregistrement temporel des taux d'érosion dans l'Himalaya, qui soit indépendant des autres méthodes. Cet objectif est atteint grâce à deux nouveaux enregistrements.

X.2.1. L'enregistrement du cône du Bengale

Le premier enregistrement consiste en une série de 28 concentrations en 10 Les Andes sont une autre chaîne de montagnes pour laquelle on a interprété une augmentation apparente des taux d'érosion [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Mid-latitude glacial erosion hotspot related to equatorial shifts in southern Westerlies[END_REF]. Plusieurs études ont porté sur le bassin d'avant-pays des Andes au nord-ouest de l'Argentine et ont mesuré les concentrations en 10 Be dans des sédiments quartzeux [START_REF] Val | Reconciling tectonic shortening, sedimentation and spatial patterns of erosion from 10Be paleo-erosion rates in the Argentine Precordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Amidon | Mio-Pliocene aridity in the south-central Andes associated with Southern Hemisphere cold periods[END_REF]Pingel et al., 2019). Deux études montrent une diminution des taux d'érosion qu'elles attribuent à l'augmentation de l'aridité, produite soit par le soulèvement tectonique créant une ombre pluviométrique (Pingel et al., 2019) soit par le changement climatique du Cénozoïque tardif [START_REF] Amidon | Mio-Pliocene aridity in the south-central Andes associated with Southern Hemisphere cold periods[END_REF]. Cependant, ces études n'ont probablement pas la même portée que les nôtres en raison de la taille limitée des bassins versants et des incertitudes quant à un éventuel recyclage.

Une autre étude [START_REF] Puchol | Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia[END_REF] a porté sur le Tianshan, une chaîne de montagnes pour laquelle une augmentation apparente des taux d'érosion a aussi été interprétée [START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF]. Bien que le Tianshan soit situé à [START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF][START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF][START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF][START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF][START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF]0.511819 15 -16.0 Deniel et al., 19870.5119 2 -14.4 Deniel et al., 1987;[START_REF] Vidal | Geochemical comparison between Himalayan and Hercynian leucogranites[END_REF]0.51189 40 -14.6 Deniel et al., 1987[START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF][START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF][START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF][START_REF] Deniel | Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites[END_REF] et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 19960.512248 -7.6 Turner et al., 19960.512323 -6.1 Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 19960.512318 -6.2 Turner et al., 19960.512331 -6.0 Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 19960.512324 -6.1 Turner et al., 19960.512333 -5.9 Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 1996Turner et al., 19960.51265 0.2 Turner et al., 19960.51248 -3.1 Turner et al., 19960.51247 -3.3 Turner et al., 19960.5127 1.2 Turner et al., 19960.51271 1.4 Turner et al., 19960.51207 -11.1 Turner et al., 19960.51203 -11.9 Turner et al., 19960.51204 -11.7 Turner et al., 1996 Table SII- 9 Gao et al., 2007Gao et al., 2007Gao et al., 2007Gao et al., 20070.511866 12 -15.1 Gao et al., 2007Gao et al., 2007Gao et al., 20070.511867 12 -15.0 Gao et al., 2007Gao et al., 20070.511865 11 -15.1 Gao et al., 2007Gao et al., 20070.511856 11 -15.3 Gao et al., 20070.511883 8 -14.7 Ding et al., 2003Ding, L., Kapp, P., Zhong, D., Deng, W., 2003. Cenozoic volcanism N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB 99-5-4-2 N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB ND-3-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB 99-5-2-1a N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB ND-15-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB 99-5-5-4d N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB ND-14-00bN. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB 99-5-9-4a N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB 99-5-7-2a N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB ND-22-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB 99-5-11-1aN. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB 99-5-7-3b N. Lhasa30N 90E Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex THB 99 -7-26-1bN N.E. Lhasa E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-D2-Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-D2-Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-D2-Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-D1-Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-D1-Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-D1-Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-14-1Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-14-1Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-14-6Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-14-6Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-14-6Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0580-14-9Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0934-13 Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith THB T0934-14-1Nyingchi 0.511952 -13.4 Harrison et al., 1999Harrison et al., 1999Harrison et al., 19990.511952 -13.4 Harrison et al., 19990.511911 -14.2 Harrison et al., 1999Harrison et al., 19990.511912 -14.2 Harrison et al., 1999Harrison et al., 19990.511894 -14.5 Harrison et al., 1999Harrison et al., 1999Harrison et al., 1999Inger and Harris, 1993Inger, S., Harris, N., 1993. Geochemical Harris, 19930.5119 -14.4 Inger and Harris, 1993Inger and Harris, 19930.51205 -11.5 Inger and Harris, 1993Inger and Harris, 1993Inger and Harris, 1993Inger and Harris, 19930.51174 -17.5 Inger and Harris, 1993Inger and Harris, 19930.51183 -15.8 Inger and Harris, 1993Inger and Harris, 1993 [START_REF] Curray | Sediment volume and mass beneath the Bay of Bengal[END_REF][START_REF] Einsele | The Himalaya-Bengal Fan denudationaccumulation system during the past 20 Ma[END_REF]discussion in Zhang et al., 2001;[START_REF] Molnar | Late Cenozoic increase in accumulation rates of terrestrial sediment: how might climate change have affected erosion rates?[END_REF] No inclusion of the Nicobar fan sedimentary record, originating from the same area, which shows a rapid deceleration of accumulation rates since Charreau et al., 2009[START_REF] Lu | Late Cenozoic structural and stratigraphic evolution of the northern Chinese Tian Shan foreland[END_REF]).

In addition, magnetic studies show constant accumulation rates since ca 10 Ma [START_REF] Charreau | Magnetostratigraphy and rock magnetism of the Neogene Kuitun He section (northwest China): implications for Late Cenozoic uplift of the Tianshan mountains[END_REF][START_REF] Charreau | Magnetostratigraphy of the Yaha section, Tarim Basin (China): 11 Ma acceleration in erosion and uplift of the Tian Shan mountains[END_REF](Charreau et al., , 2009) ) Other magnetic studies show local decrease of accumulation rates, caused by tectonics (e.g. ---------------------- For the Bengal Fan samples, the measurements of major and trace elements were performed at SARM (Nancy, France), following [START_REF] Carignan | Routine Analyses of Trace Elements in Geological Samples using Flow Injection and Low Pressure On-Line Liquid Chromatography Coupled to ICP-MS: A Study of Geochemical Reference Materials BR, DR-N, UB-N, AN-G and GH[END_REF] procedure and using ICP-OES iCap6500 for major element and Sc concentrations, and ICP-MS iCapQ for trace elements. For the Lower Meghna sand, data for major elements are from [START_REF] Lupker | Increasing chemical weathering in the Himalayan system since the Last Glacial Maximum[END_REF] and data for trace elements are unpublished data from France-Lanord and Galy and measured similarly than our data. An intense debate animates the Earth Sciences community about the impact of the Glaciations on mountain ranges. Mountains develop their relief from the interaction of tectonics with climate through erosion. Erosion breaks rocks in the highland, and rivers and submarine gravity flows (turbidites) transfer the waste material to sedimentary basins. Erosion results from the action of rainfall, rivers or glaciers. Studies suggest that changes in the rainfall amplitude or seasonality, and changes in the extent of glaciers have triggered a worldwide and considerable increase of erosion rates for the last millions of years. However, this hypothesis is debated because past erosion rates are estimated with indirect approaches.

Here, I focus on the Himalaya, the iconic mountain range at the convergence of the Indian and Eurasian plates. There, the highest summits and the deepest valleys on Earth grow. Landslides and glacial erosion supply one of the highest sedimentary fluxes to the oceans. To determine the past erosion rates, I measured the amount of the 10Be cosmogenic isotope accumulated in the quartz sediment. These isotopes are produced at Earth's surface by the interaction of cosmic rays with matter. Isotopes gradually accumulate in rocks close to the surface, depending on the elevation and the erosion rates. The isotopic concentration in sediment gives access to the average erosion rate of the source drainage basin. To determine the source of sediment and the deposition paleoenvironment, I performed supplementary measurements on Sr-Nd and C-O isotopes.

I conducted my measurements on two sites. Site A consists in sandy turbidites sedimented on the deep sea floor of the Bengal Bay and collected by Expeditions 353 and 354 of the International Ocean Discovery Program. Site B consists in molasse sediment deposited at the front of the Himalaya, in the Siwalik Hills, within the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary in India. Site A integrates the erosion of the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainage basins, covering Central and Eastern Himalaya. Site B integrates the erosion of the Narayani-Gandak basin, covering Central Nepal.

My results yield an unprecedented insight in the variation of erosion in a mountain range over the last seven million years. They imply that average erosion rates have been steady since at least three million years in the Himalaya, despite the variations in sediment transfer or the locus of erosion, and despite intense late Cenozoic Glaciations. ____________________________________________________ La communauté des sciences de la Terre est animée d'un intense débat sur l'impact des Glaciations sur les chaînes de montagnes. Les montagnes forment leur relief à partir des interactions entre la tectonique, le climat et l'érosion. L'érosion détruit les roches en altitude et les rivières et les écoulements gravitaires sous-marins (turbidites) en transfèrent les débris vers les bassins sédimentaires. L'érosion résulte de l'action des précipitations, des rivières ou des glaciers. Des études suggèrent que les changements dans l'amplitude ou la saisonnalité des précipitations et les changements dans l'étendue des glaciers ont provoqué une augmentation mondiale et considérable des taux d'érosion sur les derniers millions d'années. Cependant, cette hypothèse est débattue car les taux d'érosion passés sont estimés avec des approches indirectes.

Ici, je me concentre sur l'Himalaya, la chaîne de montagne par excellence située à la convergence des plaques indiennes et eurasiennes. C'est là que se développent les plus hauts sommets et les vallées les plus profondes de la Terre. Les glissements de terrain et l'érosion glaciaire fournissent l'un des flux sédimentaires les plus élevés aux océans. Pour déterminer les taux d'érosion passés, j'ai mesuré la quantité d'isotope cosmogénique 10 Be accumulée dans le sédiment de quartz. Ces isotopes sont produits à la surface de la Terre par l'interaction des rayons cosmiques avec la matière. Les isotopes s'accumulent progressivement dans les roches proches de la surface, en fonction de l'altitude et des taux d'érosion. La concentration isotopique du sédiment donne accès au taux d'érosion moyen du bassin versant à la source de celui-ci. Pour déterminer la source des sédiments et le paléoenvironnement de dépôt, j'ai effectué des mesures complémentaires sur les isotopes Sr-Nd et C-O.

J'ai réalisé mes mesures sur deux sites. Le site A est constitué de turbidites sableuses sédimentées dans les fonds marins de la baie du Bengale et recueillies par les expéditions 353 et 354 du programme scientifique IODP. Le site B est constitué de molasses déposées au front de l'Himalaya, dans les collines des Siwaliks, au sein du sanctuaire animalier de Valmiki en Inde. Le site A intègre l'érosion des bassins versants du Gange et du Brahmapoutre, couvrant l'Himalaya central et oriental. Le site B intègre l'érosion du bassin Narayani-Gandak, qui couvre le centre du Népal.

Mes résultats donnent un aperçu sans précédent de la variation de l'érosion dans une chaîne de montagnes au cours des sept derniers millions d'années. Ils impliquent que les taux d'érosion moyens sont stables depuis au moins trois millions d'années dans l'Himalaya, malgré les variations dans le transfert sédimentaire ou sur le lieu de l'érosion, et malgré les glaciations intenses de la fin du Cénozoïque.

  determine the source of sediment and the deposition paleoenvironment, I performed supplementary measurements on Sr-Nd and C-O isotopes. I conducted my measurements on two sites. Site A consists in sandy turbidites sedimented on the deep sea floor of the Bengal Bay and collected by Expeditions 353 and 354 of the International Ocean Discovery Program. Site B consists in molasse sediment deposited at the front of the Himalaya, in the Siwalik Hills, within the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary in India. Site A integrates the erosion of the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainage basins, covering Central and Eastern Himalaya. Site B integrates the erosion of the Narayani-Gandak basin, covering Central Nepal.

Figure I- 2 .

 2 Figure I-2. Benthic foraminiferal isotopes since 80 Ma.

Figure I- 3 .

 3 Figure I-3. Deep sea average sediment accumulation rate since 150 Ma.

Figure II- 4 .

 4 Figure II-4. Geography of the Himalayan region.

Figure II- 5 .

 5 Figure II-5. Geological map of the central and eastern Himalayan region.

Figure II- 6 .

 6 Figure Precipitations in the Himalaya.

Figure II- 7 .

 7 Figure II-7. Indo-Eurasian plate convergence.

Figure II- 8 .

 8 Figure II-8. Arc Parallel gravity anomalies (APaGa) along the Himalaya.

Figure II- 9 .

 9 Figure In situ apatite fission tracks (AFT) different patterns in Central Himalaya.

Figure II- 10 .

 10 Figure In situ thermochronometry in the eastern syntaxis.

Figure

  Figure II-11. Long-term carbon cycle.

Figure

  Figure II-12. Seasonal atmospheric configuration for the Afro-Asian monsoon region.

Figure

  Figure II-13. Orbital cycles.

Figure

  Figure II-14. Atmospheric CO 2 reconstruction for the Phanerozoic.

Figure

  Figure II-15. Deep ocean temperature, sea-level and ice volume reconstruction since 16 Ma.

Figure II- 16 .

 16 Figure II-16. Forest to grassland and C 3 to C 4 vegetation shift since 24 Ma.

Figure II- 17 .

 17 Figure II-17. Sea surface temperature by region since 12 Ma.

Figure

  Figure II-18. Atmospheric CO 2 , benthic δ 18 O and global change in surface temperature since 2 Ma.

Figure II- 19 .

 19 Figure II-19. Hillslope system and weathering profile.

Figure

  Figure II-20. Some mass movements.

Figure II- 21 .

 21 Figure II-21. Deformation of warm-and cold-based glaciers and glacial quarrying.

Figure

  Figure II-22. Worldwide total suspended sediment (TSS) flux and calculated yield.

Figure

  Figure II-23. Deep sea sediment transfer and deposition.

Figure

  Figure II-24. Concept of avulsion.

Figure

  Figure II-25. Historic evolution of the Brahmaputra-Jamuna course in Bangladesh.

Figure II- 26 .

 26 Figure II-26. Possible evolution of drainage in the Himalayan eastern syntaxis.

Figure

  Figure II-27. Deep sea average accumulation rates by oceanic basin.

Figure

  Figure II-28. Compilation of continental margin and foreland accumulation rates.

Figure

  Figure II-29. Compilation of accumulation rates in Asia.

Figure

  Figure II-30. Seawater 87 Sr/ 86 Sr curve since 70 Ma.

Figure

  Figure II-31. Seawater δ 7 Li curve since 70 Ma.

Figure

  Figure II-32. Seawater 10 Be/ 9 Be compilation since 12 Ma.

Figure

  Figure II-34. Principle of detrital thermochronometry.

Figure

  Figure. Thermochronometric peak denudation rates in Central Himalaya since 14 Ma.

Figure

  Figure II-36. Thermochronometric lag-times from the Bengal Fan Exp. 354 since 14 Ma.

Figure

  Figure Worldwide in-situ denudation rates 2-0 Myr ago vs denudation rates 6-4 Myr ago.

Figure

  Figure II-39. Classic turbiditic deposition model fluctuating with sea-level.

Figure

  Figure II-40. Turbiditic deposition in Exp. 354 site U1454 during the Holocene sea-level rise.

Figure

  Figure II-41. Foreland deposition patterns depending on tectonic loading or erosional unloading.

Figure

  Figure II-42. Himalayan precipitation swath profiles with the effect of abnormal monsoon years.

Figure

  Figure II-43. Distribution of glacial surface velocity and link with erosion, Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand Southern Alps.

Figure

  Figure II-44. Ice volumes preconditioned by topography during glaciations, as shown by numerical modelling.

Figure

  Figure III-45. Sampling in the Bengal Fan Figure IV-46. Source to sink evolution of 10 Be concentrations in Himalayan rocks and sediments.

Figure

  Figure IV-47. Cosmic nuclear cascade.

Figure

  Figure IV-48. Cosmogenic nuclide production, vertical cutoff rigidity and mass depth.

Figure

  FigureIV-49. 10 Be geological calibration site map.

Figure

  Figure IV-50. Cosmic flux scaling models.

Figure

  Figure IV-51. Evolution with depth of grain size and 10 Be concentration.

Figure

  Figure IV-52. Evolution of the sediment 10 Be signal in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra.

Figure IV- 53 .

 53 Figure IV-53. Evolution of 10 Be from rock denudation to sediment burial and later denudation phase.

Figure

  Figure V-54. Nannofossil Markers in plain and polarized light.

Figure V- 55 .

 55 Figure V-55. Age model of Site U1450.

Figure

  Figure VI-56. Setting of the Bengal Fan.

Figure

  FigureVI-57. 10 Be and Sr-Nd isotopic results.

Figure

  Figure VI-58. Fraction f G and erosion rates.

Figure

  FigureVI-59. 10 Be concentration results.

Figure

  Figure VI-60. Grain size influence on the 10 Be concentration.

Figure

  Figure VI-61. Influence of the averaging interval.

Figure

  Figure VI-62. Estimate of f G based on the Sr concentration.

Figure

  FigureVI-63. 10 Be paleoconcentration vs f G .

Figure

  Figure VI-64. Modern geochemical and granulometric budgets in the Ganga plain.

Figure

  Figure VI-65. Effect of the variations of the geomagnetic dipole on the 10 Be production rate.

Figure

  Figure VII-66. Lithologic map of Central Himalaya.

Figure

  Figure VII-67. Topographic map of the Outer Siwalik Hills.

Figure

  Figure VII-68. Southwest Churia Range Sections (CR).

Figure

  Figure VII-69. Valmiki Nagar Range Sections (VR).

Figure

  Figure VII-70. Sedimentary log and magnetostratigraphic correlation.

Figure VII- 71 .

 71 Figure Major and trace element results from medium to coarse sand.

Figure

  Figure VII-72. δ 13 C results and comparison with other Siwalik sections.

Figure

  Figure VII-73. δ 18 O results and comparison with other Siwalik sections.

Figure

  Figure VIII-74. Lithologic map of Central Himalaya.

Figure VIII- 75 .

 75 Figure Sections in the Outer Siwalik Hills.

Figure

  Figure VIII-76. Magnetostratigraphic log and position of samples.

Figure VIII- 77 .

 77 Figure VIII-77. Sr-Nd results.

Figure

  Figure VIII-78. Sr-Nd isotopic results plotted one against another.

Figure

  Figure VIII-79. Lithologic fractions in a ternary mix.

Figure

  Figure VIII-80. Recent exposure computed using the 36 Cl measurements or the model.

Figure

  FigureVIII-81. 10 Be concentration results.

Figure

  Figure VIII-83. Complementary Himalayan 10 Be erosion rates.

Figure

  Figure Himalayan erosion rates derived from in situ thermochronometry.

7 , 4

 74 Ma à 1,2 Ma et n'a pas capturé d'affluents au nord. Nos résultats en Sr-Nd suggèrent une relative stabilité de l'érosion dans la chaîne inférieure, couverte par le Lesser Himalaya, malgré le duplexage en cours. Ils suggèrent également une diminution initiale des taux d'érosion sur le flanc sud et les sommets plus élevés, principalement couverts par le High Himalaya Crystalline (HHC) et dans une moindre mesure par les séries téthysiennes (TSS), suivie d'une réaugmentation après 1,7 Ma. Cette variabilité peut être attribuée aux fluctuations de la mousson sudasiatique ou aux glaciations. Nos résultats en 36 Cl impliquent que l'exposition récente aux rayons cosmiques est limitée pour la majeure partie des sections Valmiki. L'extension de ce résultat aux échantillons plus anciens nécessite de nouvelles mesures. Le principal résultat des mesures effectuées sur les sections Valmiki est l'absence d'augmentation ou de diminution des taux moyens d'érosion dans le centre du Népal depuis environ 5 Ma, en dépit du changement climatique et en dépit de preuves géomorphologiques montrant clairement l'intensité des glaciations passées dans le centre du Népal. Cette stabilité, comparée aux variations des contributions du HHC et du TSS, implique que la diminution ou l'augmentation des taux d'érosion dans la partie Haut Himalaya du bassin de la Narayani-Gandak devrait être compensée par une diminution ou une augmentation ailleurs. Les taux d'érosion moyens dans le bassin Narayani-Gandak restent proches des valeurs modernes, à 2 mm/an. Ces valeurs sont supérieures au taux d'érosion moyen du Cône du Bengale et impliquent que certains segments de l'Himalaya ont des taux d'érosion bien inférieurs à 1 mm/an.

Figure I- 1 .

 1 Figure I-1. DSDP, ODP, IODP worldwide drill sites.

Figure I- 2 .

 2 Figure I-2. Benthic foraminiferal isotopes since 80 Ma.

Figure I- 3 .

 3 Figure I-3. Deep sea average sediment accumulation rate since 150 Ma.

1 .

 1 and on a new continental sedimentary section in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, National Park & Tiger Reserve, Bihar, India. Physiographic and geological units The Himalaya (Figure II-4-Figure II-5

Figure II- 5 .

 5 Figure II-5. Geological map of the central and eastern Himalayan region. Asian South Lambert Conformal conic projection (map drawn from compilations Tables SII-1 and SII-2). Published complementary structural sections are provided in Figure II-9.

Figure II- 6 .

 6 Figure II-6. Precipitations in the Himalaya.

  Figure II-8. Arc Parallel gravity anomalies (APaGa) along the Himalaya.

0 Figure II- 9 .

 09 Figure II-9. In situ apatite fission tracks (AFT) different patterns in Central Himalaya.

Figure II- 10 .

 10 Figure II-10. In situ thermochronometry in the eastern syntaxis. Compilation of biotite 40 Ar/ 39 Ar, zircon (U-Th)/He (ZHe), zircon fission tracks (ZFT) and apatite fission tracks (AFT). The eastern syntaxis (Figure II-4) is crossed by the Tsangpo -Yarlung -Dihang that continues as the Brahmaputra in the Indian floodplain. The stream profile of the Yarlung drops of

Figure

  Figure II-11. Long-term carbon cycle.

Figure II- 12 .

 12 Figure II-12. Seasonal atmospheric configuration for the Afro-Asian monsoon region.

Figure

  Figure II-13. Orbital cycles.

  Figure II-14. Atmospheric CO 2 reconstruction for the Phanerozoic.

  Figure II-15. Deep ocean temperature, sea-level and ice volume reconstruction since 16

Figure II- 16 .

 16 Figure II-16. Forest to grassland and C 3 to C 4 vegetation shift since 24 Ma.For 6 regions, the evolution of forest to grassland is shown by the green-yellow transition bands. The proxies showing the expansion of C 4 plants is shown by orange shaded areas for paleosol data and dotshaded areas for tooth enamel data (modified from[START_REF] Edwards | The Origins of C4 Grasslands: Integrating Evolutionary and Ecosystem Science[END_REF], compilation in Edwards et al., 2010).

Figure II- 17 .

 17 Figure II-17. Sea surface temperature by region since 12 Ma.

Figure

  Figure II-18. Atmospheric CO 2 , benthic δ 18 O and global change in surface temperature since 2 Ma.

Figure II- 19 .

 19 Figure II-19. Hillslope system and weathering profile. a. hillslope sediment production system: weathered rocks can temporarily stay in the "waste mantle" or exported by erosion and debris transport to the channel. b. typical weathering profile in granitic rocks. The weathering front separates the fresh bedrock from the regolith (from Hugget, 2011, his Fig. 2.1 and 7.3).

Figure

  Figure II-20. Some mass movements. (from Hugget, 2011, his Fig. 8.1).

Figure II- 21 .

 21 Figure II-21. Deformation of warm-and cold-based glaciers and glacial quarrying.

Figure

  Figure II-22. Worldwide total suspended sediment (TSS) flux and calculated yield. The upper right inset synthesizes the annual sedimentary flux for each region.The other panels show the flux with arrows and figures and the sedimentary yield by colours (modified from Milliman and Farnworth, 2011, their Fig. 2.31).

  Figure II-23. Deep sea sediment transfer and deposition.

Figure

  Figure II-24. Concept of avulsion.a. Source to sink system (from[START_REF] Sadler | Scaling laws for aggradation, denudation and progradation rates: the case for time-scale invariance at sediment sources and sinks[END_REF]. The catchment is the source and the basin the sink. In a delta environment, depending on short-term (avulsions) and mid-term (accommodation, depending on sea-level and the sedimentary flux) conditions, deposition can be done vertically (aggradation) or horizontally (progradation), thus impacting local accumulation rates independently of the effective volume of sediments exported. b. Model of a avulsing delta (from Edmonds et al., 2009). At a certain limit, deposition transit from prograding on the mouth bar (RMB) to aggradation upstream, thus increasing the overbank flows and pressure on the levees. The levees fail and the river avulses. c. Model of a crevasse development in an alluvial channel (modified from Dalman and Weltje, 2008).

Figure II- 25 .

 25 Figure II-25. Historic evolution of the Brahmaputra-Jamuna course in Bangladesh.

Figure II- 26 .

 26 Figure II-26. Possible evolution of drainage in the Himalayan eastern syntaxis. The course of the Yarlung-Tsangpo-Siang-Brahmaputra shifts as the deformation propagates northeastwards, resulting in drainage modification.

Figure

  Figure II-27. Deep sea average accumulation rates by oceanic basin.

  Figure II-28. Compilation of continental margin and foreland accumulation rates. The lower panel is a focus on Asia of the upper panel. For each region is shown a chart y=accumulation rate, x=Age (Ma) with age rightwards decreasing. Red diagrams present mass accumulation rates compaction corrected, blue ones show point measurement, without compaction corrected except Pearl River. Note that several of these studies, including the Mississippi record have been amended by new data afterwards or require revisions in view of new data, in particular in NE

  the work of Hathorne and James, 2006 by measuring δ 7 Li on planktonic foraminifera tests samples from sites covering distinct periods since 70 Ma (Figure II-31). Their work confirms a global acceleration of silicate weathering,

  Figure II-32. Seawater 10 Be/ 9 Be compilation since 12 Ma.

  Figure II-33. 10 Be erosion rates in Asian foreland basins since 8 Ma.

  Figure II-34. Principle of detrital thermochronometry. a. Lag-time concept for simple vertical denudation path. t c , time of closure of the thermochronometric system; t e , time of erosion; t d , time of deposition.b. Example of probability density plot, yielding best fit peaks that may be derived from the coloured areas in a.

Figure

  Figure II-35. Thermochronometric peak denudation rates in Central Himalaya since 14 Ma.Zircon and apatite fission track peak denudation rates for the Karnali and Surai Siwalik sections. The rates are derived from lag-times with a modified version of the 1-D thermal model of[START_REF] Brandon | Late Cenozoic exhumation of the Cascadia accretionary wedge in the Olympic Mountains, northwest Washington State[END_REF] Uncertainties are computed from 2-σ uncertainties of peak or central ages (modified from van derBeek et al., 2006).

Figure

  Figure II-36. Thermochronometric lag-times from the Bengal Fan Exp. 354 since 14 Ma.

Figure

  Figure II-37. Worldwide in-situ denudation rates 2-0 Myr ago vs denudation rates 6-4 Myr ago.The panels present the results of the 1-D thermal inversion of[START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]. Each panel presents the locations where the ratio of denudation rates 2-0 Myr ago on denudation rates 6-4 Myr ago is  1 (i.e. steady state or deceleration of denudation), and where this ratio is > 1 (i.e. acceleration), with several class values displayed. Note that the regions with enough resolution can locally present a large variation of the ratio.[START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] applied the code of[START_REF] Fox | A linear inversion method to infer exhumation rates in space and time from thermochronometric data[END_REF] to their compilation of multi-thermochronometer measurements, then spatially interpolated their results and computed a spatial resolution parameter. They compute the denudation rates by bins of 2 Myr. The panels only

1 .

 1 Figure II-38. In-situ denudation rates 2-0 Myr ago / denudation rates 6-4 Myr ago for the Himalaya.Focus on the Himalaya of the results of[START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] We re-interpolated their denudation rates with ordinary kriging for display, excluding their areas with a limited number of data or having their resolution parameter < 0.25.

Figure II- 39 .

 39 Figure II-39. Classic turbiditic deposition model fluctuating with sea-level.

Figure II- 40 .

 40 Figure II-40. Turbiditic deposition in Exp. 354 site U1454 during the Holocene sealevel rise. A. very-high-resolution parametric sediment echosounder (Parasound) data along with the stratigraphic log of U1454 (France-Lanord et al., 2016a; location in Figure II-4) and the levee units. B. same profile showing the high-resolution multichannel seismic (MCS) data along with the log, with a different vertical scale. Not the vertical exaggeration of the profiles. Parasound and MCS data were obtained during the cruisesSO93 in 1994 and SO125 in 1997 (from Bergmann, 2018).

  , a hypothesis which remained unsustained (e.g.[START_REF] Willenbring | Longterm stability of global erosion rates and weathering during late-Cenozoic cooling[END_REF] Lupker et al., 2012a). Not only the Himalayan uplift would have caused an acceleration of physical and chemical weathering, but the combined uplift of the Tibetan plateau would have produced intense monsoonal precipitations, which would have in turn reinforce this acceleration.

Figure

  Figure II-41. Foreland deposition patterns depending on tectonic loading or erosional unloading. a. Tectonic deformation produces regional uplift of the mountain range and asymmetric subsidence (arrows) in the foreland basin and wedge-shaped sedimentary strata thicken towards the thrust front. b. Erosional unloading reduces the mean elevation and the crustal thickness below the mountain rang, which leads as a reaction to peaks and the foreland basin uplift (dashed arrows). New sedimentary are strata are tabular. c. and d. This difference in uplift also produce different drainage networks, dominated by longitudinal rivers flowing close to the range for the case a., and by transverse rivers which prograde across the foreland and restrict the longitudinal rivers to the distal part. (from Burbank, 1992).

  Figure II-42. Himalayan precipitation swath profiles with the effect of abnormal monsoon years. The precipitation profiles are centered along 2 transversal Himalayan valleys, and derived from passive microwave data (1992-2001) acquired from the Special Sensor Microwave/ Imager (SSM/I) of the polar-orbiting Defense Meteorological Satellite Program (DMSP). (modified from[START_REF] Bookhagen | Abnormal monsoon years and their control on erosion and sediment flux in the high, arid northwest Himalaya[END_REF].

  further developed this theory by contending that a potential absence of a steady state between relief evolution and denudation might lead to an acceleration of denudation in the late Cenozoic. They observe that the deep sea δ 18 O record (Figure I-2, Figure II-18, e.g.

  Figure II-43. Distribution of glacial surface velocity and link with erosion, Franz Josef Glacier, New Zealand Southern Alps. a. and b. Average 3-D surface velocity reconstructed from the measurement of the 3-D displacement of the glacier surface using Worldview stereo images, integrated over 10 (a) and 12 (b) respectively, with 1σ uncertainty of 0.007 m/day.

  Figure II-44. Ice volumes preconditioned by topography during glaciations, as shown by numerical modelling. a.(Bear creek catchment, 46.4°N 114.4°W), b. (Aldeire catchment, 37.1°N 3.1°W), c (9°N71°W) represent modern hypsometric distributions of glacial and fluvial landscapes, normalized to the local base level. Dashed lines show the minimum level of the snowline at 50 kyr. The hypsometry varies in function of the past glaciations. d. Time evolution of the ice volume (solid and dashed black curves) and snowline altitude (solid and dashed grey curves) for the a. and b. landscapes. The ice volume grows faster for the glacial landscape a. than for the fluvial landscape b., despite a similar evolution in snowline altitude. e. Time evolution of the rate of ice volume fluctuation for the a. and b. landscapes. (insets a., b., d., e. modified from Pedesen et al., 2013 and inset c. modified from Egholm et al., 2009).

  Figure III-45. Sampling in the Bengal Fan

Figure IV- 46 .

 46 Figure IV-46. Source to sink evolution of 10 Be concentrations in Himalayan rocks and sediments.

Figure

  Figure IV-47. Cosmic nuclear cascade.

Figure IV- 48 .

 48 Figure IV-48. Cosmogenic nuclide production, vertical cutoff rigidity and mass depth. a. The vertical cutoff rigidity (the geomagnetic latitude) controls the reflection of the cosmic flux at the top of the atmosphere. A higher rigidity (at low latitude) decrease production rates. b. The 2 sets of curves correspond to 2 different rigidities and present the variation of attenuation length, a proxy for the rate of decrease in production rates, versus the atmospheric mass depth, i.e. the elevation.

  Figure IV-50. Cosmic flux scaling models. a. Scaling factor versus the cutoff rigidity R c , computed according to the model of Lal(1991)-Stone(2000) and the model of Lifton et al. (2014) (LSD).

  Figure IV-51. Evolution with depth of grain size and 10 Be concentration.

  Figure IV-52. Evolution of the sediment 10 Be signal in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra. a. Transfer to the river of concentrated sediments from the slowly eroding Tibetan plateau b. Transfer of coarse sediments, poor in 10 Be, from the rapidly eroding and landslide prone eastern syntaxis c. Grain abrasion and homogenizing of the 10 Be signal (from Lupker et al., 2017).

  Figure IV-53. Evolution of 10 Be from rock denudation to sediment burial and later denudation phase.

Figure V- 54 .

 54 Figure V-54. Nannofossil Markers in plain and polarized light. Next page. 1 Amaurolithus primus, 2 Amaurolithus tricorniculatus, 3 Calcidiscus macintyrei, 4 Ceratolithus acutus, 5 Ceratolithus rugosus, 6 Discoaster asymmetricus, 7 Discoaster brouweri, 8 Discoaster pentaradiatus, 9 Discoaster quinqueramus, 10 Discoaster tamalis, 11 Discoaster triradiatus, 12 Nicklithus amplificus, 13 Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus, 14 Triquetrorhabdulus rugosus.

..

  cm/ky for the 175-475 m CSF-A interval. Predicted values are slightly higher for the 475-630 m CSF-A interval, at .8 .. cm/ky and higher for the 657-800 m CSF-A interval at 8... cm/ky.

Figure

  Figure V-55. Age model of Site U1450.Next page.Reconstructed in this study, with the 0-175.9 m CSF-A part fromReilly (2018). For clarity, the cores of Hole U1450B that overlap the cores of Hole U1450A are not indicated. The lithostratigraphic log is fromFrance-Lanord et al. (2016b).

  P. Lenard* 1 § , Jérôme Lavé 1 , Christian France-Lanord 1 , ASTER Team 2 † 1 CRPG, Université de Lorraine, UMR 7358, 15 rue Notre Dame des Pauvres, 54500 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France 2 Université Aix-Marseille, CNRS-IRD-Collège de France, UM 34 CEREGE, Technopôle de l'Environnement Arbois-Méditerranée, BP80, 13545 Aix-en-Provence, France *Correspondence to: sebastien.lenard@gmail.com § now at IC2MP, HydrASA, Université de Poitiers, 4 rue Michel Brunet, 86000 Poitiers, France † Georges Aumaître, Didier L Bourlès, Karim Keddadouche.

  Figure VI-56. Setting of the Bengal Fan. Geographical map of the Himalaya and the Bengal Bay. The Bengal Fan IODP Sites and the sampling sites of modern river sand, G: Ganga at Harding Bridge, B: Brahmaputra at Sirajganj/Jamuna Bridge, Bangladesh, BD: upstream Brahmaputra at Dibrugarh, close to the range outlet, LM: Lower Meghna are indicated. The basins of the rivers are contoured in red. They include the Himalaya, which is divided with dashed black lines into the Transhimalaya and the Himalaya stricto sensu (s.s.). The Bengal

  1 column AE). The 10 Be concentrations measured in the modern sand of the Lower Meghna present a similar average value at 38±8x10 3 atom/g within uncertainties, but a lower dispersion compared to the Bengal Fan paleoconcentrations with values ranging between 29x10 3 and 50x10 3 atom/g.

Figure

  Figure VI-57. 10 Be and Sr-Nd isotopic results. a. Sr-Nd isotopic composition results. The results for the Bengal Fan and the Lower Meghna sand plot along a mixing trend between the Ganga and the Brahmaputra sand, with the fraction fG indicated and with distinct symbols for the four IODP Sites and the Lower Meghna (LM). The trend with the Brahmaputra at Dibrugarh (BD, Figure II-8) is also indicated. b. Evolution of the 10 Be paleoconcentrations in the Bengal Fan and concentrations in the Lower Meghna sand, with an inset focusing on the 0 -0.4 Ma time span. The 10 Be concentrations are inversely correlated to erosion rates. The 1-σ uncertainty is represented by ellipses surrounding the dots. The concentrations of the Ganga (Lupker et al., 2012a) and the Brahmaputra (Lupker et al., 2017) are indicated for comparison. We selected intervals with homogeneous Sr-Nd isotopic composition and computed the average and standard deviations of the paleoconcentrations, which are represented by orange bars and rectangular areas respectively.

  production rate of the modern Himalayan part of the basin (Figure II-8), Λ the nucleon attenuation length and the crustal rock density. The use of this equation is permitted under three verified conditions (Supplementary Information): (A) the temporal variability of the cosmogenic nuclide production rate, caused by Earth magnetic dipole variations, has remained within the range of uncertainties of the 10 Be concentrations; (B) the geography and elevation of the contributing area, i.e. the Himalayan part of the Ganga and Brahmaputra basins, have remained stable; (C) the exposure of the sediment to cosmic rays during the transfer through the floodplain has a negligible impact on the 10 Be concentrations.

2 (

 2  AO). This trend suggests that the Bengal Fan sand originates from a simple binary mixing. Compared with the compositions of the modern Brahmaputra and Ganga river sediment, the low Nd / high 87 Sr/ 86 Sr endmember tends towards the composition of the Ganga in Bangladesh[START_REF] Singh | Sr and Nd isotopes in river sediments from the Ganga Basin: Sediment provenance and spatial variability in physical erosion[END_REF], corresponding to the erosion of the formations of the Himalaya s.s. (sensu stricto, Figure II-8) (Lesser Himalaya, High Himalaya Crystalline and Tethyan Sedimentary Series). The high Nd / low 87 Sr/ 86 Sr endmember overlaps the composition of the Brahmaputra in Bangladesh[START_REF] Galy | Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes[END_REF][START_REF] Singh | Tracing the distribution of erosion in the Brahmaputra watershed from isotopic compositions of stream sediments[END_REF] and reaches the composition of the Brahmaputra sampled upstream close to the mountain range outlet (BD pole on FigureVI-57a, Singh and France-Lanord, 2002). The composition of the Brahmaputra sediment reflects a mixing between the Himalaya s.s., the Transhimalaya and the mantle-derived formations drained by the Yarlung-Tsangpo and the Eastern tributaries of the Brahmaputra[START_REF] Singh | Tracing the distribution of erosion in the Brahmaputra watershed from isotopic compositions of stream sediments[END_REF].The modern bedload Sr-Nd isotopic composition of the Lower Meghna (Figure VI-57a) is similar to that of the Brahmaputra and suggests an absence of a Ganga sand contribution. This is further confirmed by the Sr concentration of the bulk sediment (Figure showing that the sandy bedload composition of the Lower Meghna overlaps with the composition of the Brahmaputra sediment, whereas the suspended load composition corresponds to a mixing between the Ganga and the Brahmaputra sediment. This implies a sharp difference in sand sequestration and export between the Ganga and the Brahmaputra floodplains in modern times, with most of the Ganga sand sequestered in the Ganga floodplain as demonstrated by the geochemical and granulometric budgets developed in the Supplementary Information.We derived the proportion of the Bengal Fan and Lower Meghna sediment issued from the Ganga basin, called fraction , from a projection on a Ganga-Brahmaputra mixing trend and obtained values ranging from 75% to -40% (Figure VI-58a, Table SVI-1 column AQ). The negative fractions correspond to compositions with a lower contribution of the Himalaya s.s. than the one observed in the modern Brahmaputra in Bangladesh. While the provenance appears to be independent from the Site position, displays a clear decrease since 0.45 Ma.

  Figure VI-58. Fraction f G and erosion rates. a. Fraction f G of the Bengal Fan and Lower Meghna sand issued from the Ganga basin as a function of time. The black-contoured dots are computed from Sr-Nd isotopes and the blue-contoured dots are computed from the Sr concentration. The average f G and the deviation are indicated as in b. Three samples measured for Sr-Nd isotopes were not measured for 10 Be concentrations. A chart presenting the 10 Be paleoconcentrations as a function of f G is also available (Figure VI-63). b. Himalayan erosion rates in the case of a regional climate forcing of erosion, determined on the Himalayan s.s. and the Transhimalayan part of the basin, with an inset similar to b. The average erosion rate and the deviation are indicated as in b.

9

 9 modern bedload samples from the Lower Meghna representing the modern export of the Ganga and Brahmaputra to the Bay of Bengal. All Bengal Fan and modern samples are unconsolidated sediment. The majority of samples are rich in the coarse fraction (> 125 μm). Be information and results are presented in Figure VI-59, and in Table SVI-1.

  1) to lower analytical uncertainties for the older samples. A 75-250 μm fraction was selected for the four samples with little coarse material > 125 μm. The mean difference in 10 Be concentrations between the 75-125, 125-250 and 75-250 μm fractions (duplicate analyses on five samples) reaches 17% and therefore indicate that the granulometry of the analyzed fraction plays a minor role in the dispersion of data (Figure VI-60).

Figure

  Figure VI-59. 10 Be concentration results. The theoretical radioactive correction curve from the average 10 Be concentration of the Lower Meghna is indicated. Same symbols as Figure VI-57.

Figure VI- 61 .

 61 Figure VI-61. Influence of the averaging interval.

Λ

  with the mean production rate of the modern Himalayan part of the basin (Figure II-8), Λ the nucleon attenuation length and the crustal rock density. The use of this equation is permitted under three conditions: (A) the temporal variability of the cosmogenic nuclide production rate, caused by Earth magnetic dipole variations, has remained within the range of the 10 Be concentration uncertainties; (B) the geography and elevation of the contributing area, i.e. the Himalayan part of the Ganga and Brahmaputra basins, have remained stable; (C) the exposure of the sediment to cosmic rays during the sediment transfer through the floodplain has a negligible impact on the 10 Be concentrations. Because the average cosmogenic nuclide production rate has remained in a range of -10% to 30% of the modern value (Figure VI-65), Condition A is fulfilled since ca. 4 Ma. Condition B is verified since the late Miocene, given the provenance analyses within foreland folded sediment series in Central

Figure VI- 62 .

 62 Figure VI-62. Estimate of f G based on the Sr concentration. Next page. a. Calibration of the f G obtained using Sr concentration versus the f G obtained using Sr-Nd isotopic data, for the Bengal Fan and Lower Meghna samples having both measurements. Thanks to the distinct Sr concentrations of the Ganga and Brahmaputra sediment (TableSVI-6), this calibration makes it possible to derive a fraction f G for samples having a Sr concentration measurement without a Sr-Nd isotopic measurement.

  of Hein et al. (2017). The Brahmaputra sediment at Dibrugarh (BD location in Figure II-8), close to the range outlet, presents a signature enriched in Transhimalayan formations and mantle-derived formations drained by the Yarlung-Tsangpo and the Eastern tributaries of the Brahmaputra. This signature is progressively diluted downstream with the aggregation of the other rivers draining solely Himalayan s.s. formations and reaches values closer to the Brahmaputra at Jamuna Bridge (B location in Figure II-8). The late Pleistocene samples with values below 0-20% likely reflect

  Figure VI-63. 10 Be paleoconcentration vs f G . The chart shows the distribution of 10 Be paleoconcentrations of the Bengal Fan and the Lower Meghna sand as a function of (1) the fraction f G of the Bengal Fan and Lower Meghna sand issued from the Ganga basin (on the x-axis) and (2) the age of sand (in color, blue for the Lower Meghna sand, red to yellow for the Bengal Fan sand younger than 0.5 Ma and white to black for the older sand). Each sample is represented by a small dot of color. Uncertainties are not presented for clarity and are visible in Figure VI-57b. The average for each interval defined in Figure VI-57-Figure VI-58 is displayed by square dots with 1-σ uncertainty bars. The modern Ganga (G) and Brahmaputra (B) poles are shown by pink stars. The zone of potential values obtained by a mixing of modern Ganga and Brahmaputra sand is shown by the pink polygon. Despite some scattering at ca. 2-4 Ma, the values averaged over the intervals seem independent from the fraction of Ganga sand and appear stable.

(

  see above respective references for the methods), we performed integrations over time and channel cross-sections and provide the average grain size distribution of the whole sediment transported by each river (Figure VI-64b). The coarse sediment fraction (> 125 μm) represents ~40% of the sediment exported by the Narayani at the range outlet. Contrastingly, the coarse fraction represents only ~20% of the sediment transported by the Ganga at Harding Bridge, i.e. the plain outlet.

Figure

  Figure VI-64. Modern geochemical and granulometric budgets in the Ganga plain. Next page. a. Geochemical budget: Fe/Si vs Al/Si distribution of sediment in the Ganga plain. The geochemical poles for the (1) plain outlet, the (2) range outlet and the (3) plain deposits are represented by colorfilled stars surrounded by border-colored 1-σ uncertainty envelopes. While the (1) plain outlet was previously assessed from (1) data of the Ganga at Harding Bridge[START_REF] Lupker | A Rouse-based method to integrate the chemical composition of river sediments: Application to the Ganga basin[END_REF], we estimated

b.

  Granulometric budget: cumulative distribution of grain size (logarithmic scale) for the Ganga and Narayani measured at variable depth and discharge values. The granulometric fraction favoured for 10Be measurements in this study (125-250 m) is indicated.

  Figure VI-65), the mean erosion rate of the Lower Meghna basin can be derived from equation (mean modern erosion rate of the Lower Meghna basin. These equations are also valid when we restrict the Lower Meghna basin to the Himalayan s.s. and Transhimalayan part to determine the Himalayan erosion rate, as proposed by Lupker et al. (2012a) and (2017).

  Figure VI-65. Effect of the variations of the geomagnetic dipole on the 10 Be production rate. a. 10 Be production rate normalized to modern values as a function of time, for a basin of Himalayan hypsometry at a latitude of 28°N. Two dipole temporal databases are explored: (1) the continuous

  Figure VII-66. Lithologic map of Central Himalaya. The main Himalayan units and main thrusts are delimited: MFT (Maint Frontal Thrust), MBT (Main Boundary Thrust) and MCT (Main Central Thrust). The Quaternary alluvial megafans are underlined , along with several geographic features, among them the drainage basin of the Narayani in red, the Nepalese boundaries in black, cities: K: Kathmandu; N: Narayanghat, and summits: A: Annapurnas; D: Daulaghiri; E: Everest; L: Langtang; M: Manaslu. A frame precise the location of the Valmiki Sections and the Surai Section (S) is also indicated. For clarity, the tributaries of the Karnali and the Kosi are not indicated (geological map compiled by the Department ofMines and Geology, Kathmandu, 1994)

  Figure VII-67. Topographic map of the Outer Siwalik Hills. The folds are represented, along with the Narayani river and the locations of the CR (Churia Range) and VR (Valmiki Range) Sections (Local Siwalik range names from Divyardashini and Singh, 2019).

Figure

  Figure VII-68 Figure VII-69

  Figure VII-68. Southwest Churia Range Sections (CR). a. The Dwarda, Ganguli and Patalaia Sections are presented with a background satellite image (Google Earth©). The location of the transect BB' is indicated. b. Projection of the dip-measurements for the three sections on the BB' transect.

Figure

  Figure VII-69. Valmiki Nagar Range Sections (VR). a. The locations of the discontinuous Gonauli and Maloni Naha Sections are represented by dots where samples were collected, with a background satellite image (Google Earth©). The location of the transect AA' is indicated. b. Projection of the dip-measurements and the samples for the three sections on the AA' transect.

Figure

  Figure VII-70. Sedimentary log and magnetostratigraphic correlation. Next page. a. Sedimentary logs of the CR Sections (c: clay, s: silt, S: sand, f: fine sand, m: medium sand, c: coarse sand, G: gravel, P: pebble). Location of the CR Sections is indicated in Figure VII-67-Figure VII-68. The discontinuous VR Sections are not represented for clarity. b. Stratigraphic position of the silty and sandy samples for geochemical and isotopic measurements (TableSVII-1-Table SVII-3). Only the samples having yielded results are indicated. The sandy samples

Figure VII- 71 .

 71 Figure VII-71. Major and trace element results from medium to coarse sand.

Figure

  Figure VII-72. δ 13 C results and comparison with other Siwalik sections. Next page. a. Our results on bulk carbonates from the Valmiki Sections. Only the results from clayey to fine sand are presented (TableSVII-4). The results are compared with available data measured on pedogenic

  data from C. France-Lanord and T. Rigaudier). For these samples, the δ 13 C evolution is divided into three phases (Figure VII-72). Below 3,250 m (8.2 -6.9 Ma), the δ 13 C display variable values in the  -3 --9 ‰ range; in the 3,250 -1,540 m interval (6.9 -3.1 Ma), the δ 13 C values are restricted in the  -2 --5 ‰ range; in the 1,540 -520 m interval (3.1 -1.1 Ma), the δ 13 C has again variable values in in the  -3 --9 ‰ range. Contrastingly, the δ 18 O show a clear and gradual increase over the full period from  -10 --18 ‰ to  -4 --12 ‰ (Figure VII-73).

Figure

  Figure VII-73. δ 18 O results and comparison with other Siwalik sections. Next page. a. Similarly to Figure VII-72, our results on bulk carbonates from the Valmiki Sections. Only the results from clayey to fine sand are presented (TableSVII-4). Ou results are compared with available data

  sedimentary sections with silty or sandy facies included in the upper part of the sections and with sediment having a steady provenance from the High Himalaya. The first condition is satisfied by selecting a Siwalik fold sufficiently far from the Main Boundary Thrust (farther than 15-20 km, Figure VIII-74), i.e. beyond the gravel-sand transition observed in the Himalayan rivers (Dubille et Lavé, 2015; Dingle et al., 2017). The second condition is fulfilled by selecting a location in front of the outlet of a large and transverse Himalayan river and assuming it was stable through time. The folds developed south of the Chitwan Dun, the largest piggy-back basin in Nepal, and in the axis of the Narayani/Gandak outlet (Figure VIII-74-Figure VIII-75), represent one of the targets that fulfill both conditions in Nepal. Because detailed sedimentologic, structural or magnetostratigraphic studies of this area are absent, we had to conduct a completely new study and to document a new dedicated section (this thesis, Chapter VII).

Figure

  Figure VIII-74. Lithologic map of Central Himalaya. The main Himalayan units and main thrusts are delimited: MFT (Maint Frontal Thrust), MBT (Main Boundary Thrust) and MCT (Main Central Thrust). The Quaternary alluvial megafans are underlined, along with several geographic features, among them the drainage basin of the Narayani in red, the Nepalese boundaries in black, cities: K: Kathmandu; N: Narayanghat, and summits: A: Annapurnas; D: Daulaghiri; E: Everest; L: Langtang; M: Manaslu. A frame precise the location of the Valmiki Sections and the Surai Section (S) is also indicated. For clarity, the tributaries of the Karnali and the Kosi are not indicated (geological map compiled by the Department ofMines and Geology, Kathmandu, 1994)

  plateau, the Tethyan sedimentary series (TSS) consist in medium to low-grade detrital and carbonate metasediments of Paleozoic to Mesozoic age. The STD separates these series from the High Himalaya Crystalline (HHC) that consists in high-grade crystalline metamorphic units. The two units are intruded by Miocene leucogranites. The HHC overthrusts the Lesser Himalaya (LH) along the MCT, with an inverted metamorphic sequence. The LH consists in low-to medium grade metasediments of Precambrian age and, excepted in Central Nepal, several subsisting klippes of lithology similar to the HHC overlain by a Tethyan sedimentary component. The front of the Himalaya is bound by the MBT and the MFT and consist in exhumed synorogenic sediments, the Siwalik series, which extend in the Ganga plain southwards from the MFT.

Figure VIII- 75 .

 75 Figure VIII-75. Valmiki Sections in the Outer Siwalik Hills. a. Topographic map of the Outer Siwalik Hills. The folds are represented, along with the Narayani -Gandakl river, and the frames indicate the locations of the West Churia Sections (CR) and the Valmiki Nagar Sections (VR). b. Sample map of the VR Sections, the Gonauli and the Maloni Naha. Dips from this thesis, Chapter VII. c. Sample map of the CR Sections, the Dwarda and the Ganguli. Background satellite images provided by Google Earth©

Figure

  Figure VIII-76. Magnetostratigraphic log and position of samples. Next page. a. Sedimentary logs of the CR Sections (c: clay, s: silt, S: sand, f: fine sand, m: medium sand, c: coarse sand, G: gravel, P: pebble). The discontinuous VR Sections are not represented for clarity (this thesis, Chapter VII). b. Stratigraphic position of the sandy samples measured for Sr-Nd isotopes and 10 Be content. Samples without a 10 Be measurement are indicated by a star. Only the samples having yielded results are indicated. The samples are coloured whether they are from the Dwarda (red) and the Ganguli (blue), or from the VR Sections (green). The names of the samples were abbreviated. No sample from the Patalaia has isotopic measurements. c. Magnetostratigraphic correlation, using the timescale of Gradstein et al. (2012) (this thesis, Chapter VII).

  results (Figure VIII-81-Figure VIII-82, Table VIII-1 columns AC-AD (before plain exposure and recent exposure corrections, and AO-AR) are compared with published 10 Be data obtained from modern sands of the Narayani, 125-250 m fractions collected at Narayanghat, Nepal (Lupker et al., 2012a) and late Pleistocene sand from the Gandak megafan, 125-400 m fractions collected from 3 drilled

  accumulate a mass of 10 Be in the floodplain sediment if sediment concentration amounts to ; the time to rework by lateral exchange the mass stored in the floodplain; the time to transfer the mass stored in the floodplain to another location; the 10 Be decay constant.

  and modern times. Our older (> 4 Ma) and younger samples (< 2 Ma) seem closer to the HHC than the intermediate samples. The inversion of our results through a ternary mixing model highlight the evolution of the respective contribution of each unit (Figure VIII-79, Table SVIII-1 columns BC-BH). The contributions of the HHC and TSS combined (HHC+TSS) and of the LH vary around stable averages of 74 and 26%

Figure

  Figure VIII-77. Sr-Nd results. Next page. a. The 87 Sr/ 86 Sr values of the Valmiki Sections are indicated by black dots and are compared with the values of the Narayani and the late Pleistocene Gandak Megafan(Morin, 2015). Some Valmiki samples are considered recycled (because of the age of the folds) or probably recycled (because of major elements) (this thesis, Chapter VII). These samples are indicated by red and orange dots respectively.The grey curve represents the median of values for each time bin. The three poles HHC, TSS and LH are indicated(Morin, 2015).b. The Nd values of the Valmiki Sections are represented using the same colours as in a.

2

 2 Figure VIII-78. Sr-Nd isotopic results plotted one against another.

Figure VIII- 79 .

 79 Figure VIII-79. Lithologic fractions in a ternary mix.Next page.Our HHC, TSS, HHC and LH fractions (a., b., and c. respectively) derived from a ternary mix between the average poles yielded byMorin, 2015 and with the input of our Sr-Nd results, are presented. The grey curve represents the median of values for each time bin. For comparison, the values of the modern Narayani sand and the late Pleistocene Gandak Megafan are indicated(Morin, 2015)

The 10

 10 Be contribution by recent exposure and assessed from the 36 Cl measurements is indicated by red dots. Note that no sample older than ca. 4 Ma has 36 Cl measurements. The 10 Be contribution assessed using the model is indicated by the red curve.

Figure

  Figure VIII-81. 10 Be concentration results. Our 10 Be concentrations from the Valmiki Sections are indicated by black dots. The recycled or probably recycled samples are indicated by red and orange dots. The presented concentrations include the floodplain exposure and recent exposure corrections. The theorical concentration derived from the average modern Narayani 10 Be concentration (Lupker et al., 2012a) and corrected from radioactive decay is indicated by the blue curve and the blue-shaded area represents 1-σ uncertainties.

Figure

  Figure VIII-82. 10 Be paleoconcentration and erosion rates. Next page. a. The paleoconcentration results of the Valmiki Sections are presented, with the same colour codes as in Figure VIII-77. The grey curve represents the median of values for each time bin. The part of the curve before 5 Ma is dashed, because of the potential biases described in the discussion. The values of the modern Narayani sand and of the late Pleistocene Gandak Megafan are indicated for comparison

Figure

  Figure VIII-83. Complementary Himalayan 10 Be erosion rates.a. Erosion rates obtained from the Surai Section, at 160 km west of the Narayani Section(Charreau et al., in prep.). These rates integrate erosion in a basin similar to the Narayani basin. b. Erosion rates obtained from turbidites of the Bengal Fan (this thesis, Chapter VI). These rates integrate erosion in the Ganga and Brahmaputra basin (Central and Eastern Himalaya). The grey curve represents the median of values for each time bin.

Figure

  Figure VIII-84. Local Himalayan erosion rates derived from in situ thermochronometry. Next page. a. Erosion rates obtained from a compilation of in situ thermochronometric data and inverted using Fox et al. (2014) 1-D thermal code (data and inversion from Herman et al., 2013). The yellow curve indicates the average erosion rate for 2-Ma time bin and the grey-shaded area represents the standard deviation.

  Figure VIII-83, this thesis, Chapter VI). However, our average 10 Be signal evolves differently from the signal of the Bengal Fan before ca 3.2 -3.8 Ma (this thesis, Chapter VI). Our signal implies increased erosion rates by a factor four in Central Nepal during the 7 to ca. 3.2 -3.8 Ma time span. This again contradicts Herman et al. (2013)'s and Thiede and Ehlers (2013)'s models which do not predict such an early increase. It also contradicts Herman et al. (2010a)'s model which predicted a rapid increase in the erosion rates at ca. 10 Ma lasting just one million year and associated to the initiation of the midcrustal duplex (p. 24 of their work). VIII.5.6. Possible causes of the difference between 10 Be and in situ thermochronometry As previously noted, erosion rates can be measured only by indirect approaches which have distinct resolution and distinct biases. The erosion rates estimated from 10 Be represent erosion rates averaged throughout the drainage basin of the Narayani whereas the rates from in situ thermochronometry estimate local erosion rates. However, the method used by Herman et al. (2013) and detailed in Fox et al. (

  varying in function of climate, vary as a function of the distance to the gravel front (Dubille andLavé, 2015) or of the wandering of the river channel, which are local parameters. This was illustrated by the work ofCharreau et al. (2009) who contradicting the results of[START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF] in Central Asia by

  Be concentrations extracted from the quartz sand of the foreland basin continental Siwalik sediment located in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, National Park & Tiger Reserve, Bihar, India (Chapter VIII). This series integrates erosion in the Narayani-Gandak basin in Central Nepal from 7.4 to 1.2 Ma. The acquisition of a signal distinct from the blank for such old samples was possible thanks to the large mass of quartz we prepared for measurements. We provide the field observations of the new Valmiki Sections, from east to west, the Patalaia, the Ganguli, the Dwarda, the Gonauli and the Maloni Naha Sections, the full series having a described thickness of 4,000 m (Chapter VII). We determine magnetostratigraphic constraints that cover the 8.1 -0.78 Ma time span. Hence, the Valmiki Sections are part of a very limited set of the Siwalik Sections covering the almost full late Cenozoic. We estimate the initiation of the local Siwalik folds at 0.74±0.06 Ma for the Dwarda, Ganguli and Patalaia and at 0.3-0.4 Ma for the Gonauli and the Maloni Naha. These ages are significantly younger than elsewhere in the Siwalik Hills.

1 .

 1 Changement climate et estimation des taux d'érosionLes décennies précédentes de recherche ont vu l'émergence d'un intense débat sur les interactions entre la tectonique et le climat au travers de la dénudation. Une question clé et sans réponse est de savoir si le changement climatique a un impact sur les taux d'érosion et affecte le développement des chaînes de montagnes indépendamment de leur configuration tectonique. Et l'un des principaux problèmes pour répondre à cette question est que les taux d'érosion passés ne peuvent être déterminés que par des approches indirectes. Un nombre significatif d'études montre une augmentation globale et considérable des taux d'érosion au cours du Cénozoïque tardif (p. ex.[START_REF] Zhang | Increased sedimentation rates and grain sizes 2-4 Myr ago due to the influence of climate change on erosion rates[END_REF][START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]. Cette augmentation apparente est synchrone avec un changement climatique global caractérisé par une aridification et l'émergence des cycles glaciaires/interglaciaires avec les glaciations de l'hémisphère nord.Cette augmentation apparente touche plusieurs chaînes de montagnes de façon indiscriminée. Ainsi, le lien entre le changement climatique et cette augmentation apparente des taux d'érosion devrait être évident.Mais les approches utilisées pour déterminer les taux d'érosion requièrent des hypothèses fortes qui n'ont pas été régulièrement vérifiées. Les bilans sédimentaires ou les taux d'accumulation dépendent des contraintes de datation individuelles de chaque site. Mais ces contraintes de datation sont difficiles à acquérir, en particulier dans les séries continentales grossières du Pléistocène. Dans ce cas, les travailleurs sont tentés de corréler temporellement les couches de chaque site les unes aux autres à l'aide de leurs caractéristiques sédimentaires (les faciès). Mais ces faciès sédimentaires, plutôt que de varier en fonction du climat, varient en fonction de la distance au front de propagation du gravier (Dubille etLavé, 2015) ou en fonction de l'errance du lit de la rivière, qui sont des paramètres locaux. Les travauxde Charreau et al (2009) contredisent les résultatsde Zhang et al (2001) en Asie centrale en montrant que les formations grossières du front du Tianshan sont diachrones et illustrent cette situation. Les bilans sédimentaires dépendent également de la résolution spatio-temporelle des sites de forage. Un bilan sédimentaire réalisé sur les sédiments glaciogènes déposés sur la marge norvégienne qui a été largement explorée(Dowdeswell et al., 2010) a plus de valeur qu'un bilan sédimentaire réalisé dans la baie du Bengale qui possède peu de

  Be extraites du sable quartzeux du cône du Bengale et intègre l'érosion sur des échelles de temps de 1 à 10 ka dans le bassin versant du Gange-Brahmapoutre depuis 6,2 Ma, avec une haute résolution depuis le dernier million d'années (Chapitre VI). L'acquisition de concentrations à partir de ces anciens échantillons dans les sédiments marins a été possible grâce à l'abondance de sable dans les turbidites du cône du Bengale. Pour mieux déterminer les séries temporelles, nous fournissons de nouvelles contraintes sur des nanofossiles ainsi qu'un nouveau modèle d'âge pour le site U1450 foré par l'expédition IODP 354 (chapitre V).Nous complétons nos concentrations par une analyse de provenance basée sur les isotopes Sr-Nd mesurés sur les échantillons de sable en vrac. Cette analyse tire parti des signatures isotopiques distinctes des sédiments du Gange et du Brahmapoutre[START_REF] Galy | Higher erosion rates in the Himalaya: Geochemical constraints on riverine fluxes[END_REF]. Nous démontrons que la provenance des turbidites sableuses est affectée par la séquestration du sable dans lees plaines d'inondation ou par des systèmes turbiditiques éventuellement distincts pour le Gange et le Brahmapoutre.Les turbidites sableuses d'âge inférieur à 0,45 Ma dans les forages de l'expedition 354 proviennent uniquement du Brahmapoutre.Le principal résultat découlant des mesures effectuées dans le cône du Bengale est l'absence d'augmentation ou de diminution des taux moyens d'érosion dans l'Himalaya central et oriental depuis 6,2 Ma, en dépit du changement climatique et en dépit de preuves géomorphologiques claires indiquant l'intensité des glaciations passées dans l'Himalaya. Les taux d'érosion moyens dans le bassin du Gange et du Brahmapoutre restent proches des valeurs modernes, à 1 mm/an.X.2.2. L'enregistrement des sections ValmikiLe deuxième enregistrement consiste en une série de 36 concentrations en10 Be extraites du sable quartzeux des sédiments continentaux Siwalik du bassin d'avant-pays de l'Himalaya, dans la zone naturelle protégée de Valmiki, dans l'Etat du Bihar en Inde (chapitre VIII). Cette série intègre l'érosion dans le bassin de la Narayani-Gandak au Népal central de 7,4 à 1,2 Ma. L'acquisition d'un signal distinct du blanc pour de tels échantillons anciens a été possible grâce aux grandes masses de quartz que nous avons préparées pour les mesures. Nous fournissons les observations de terrain sur les nouvelles sections Valmiki, d'est en ouest, les sections Patalaia, Ganguli, Dwarda, Gonauli et Maloni Naha, la série complète ayant une épaisseur décrite d'environ 4.000 m (Chapitre VII). Nous déterminons les contraintes magnétostratigraphiques qui couvrent la période de 8,1 à 0,78 Ma. Par conséquent, les sections Valmiki font partie de la famille réduite des sections Siwalik couvrant la presque totalité du Cénozoïque tardif. Nous estimons l'initiation des plis Siwalik locaux à 0,74±0,06 Ma pour le Dwarda, Ganguli et Patalaia et à 0,3-0,4 Ma pour les Gonauli et le Maloni Naha. Ces âges sont beaucoup plus jeunes qu'ailleurs dans les collines Siwalik.Nous complétons nos résultats par une étude paléoenvironnementale à l'aide des isotopes de l'oxygène et du carbone sur des silts en vrac, une analyse de provenance à l'aide des isotopes Sr-Nd mesurés sur les échantillons de sable en vrac, ainsi qu'une analyse de l'exposition cosmogénique récente par des mesures de concentrations en 36 Cl. L'étude paléoenvironnementale bénéficie de la forte teneur en carbonates secondaires de nos échantillons limoneux. Ces carbonates secondaires se composent en partie de ciment diagénétique et de carbonates pédogéniques. Le ratio δ 13 C dans les carbonates pédogéniques varie en fonction de la domination environnementale des plantes C 3 ou C 4 , les deux groupes ayant un mode d'absorption du CO 2 distincte et se développant dans des conditions climatiques distinctes. Le ratio δ 18 O varie en fonction du volume de précipitations et de leur saisonnalité. L'analyse de provenance Sr-Nd bénéficie des signatures isotopiques distinctes des principales unités géologiques de l'Himalaya(Morin, 2015).Les résultats de notre étude sur le δ 13 C pourraient permettre d'établir de nouvelles contraintes temporelles précises sur la transition vers une domination des plantes C 4 dans les plaines de l'Himalaya central. Ces nouvelles contraintes montreraient que le changement se produit de manière synchrone dans l'Himalaya central et occidental (nos résultats ;[START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF] Vögeli et al., 2017a). De plus, ils fourniraient la première preuve jamais dévoilée d'un retour à une végétation mixte en C 3 et C 4 à l'aube des glaciations de l'hémisphère nord. Nos résultats sur le δ 18 O détectent qu'au moins la partie inférieure des sections Valmiki est affectée par la diagenèse précoce. Pour la partie supérieure, ils montreraient une aridification et/ou une augmentation de la saisonnalité au cours de la période, en dépit des glaciations de l'hémisphère nord, et contrairement à l'Himalaya occidental[START_REF] Quade | Development of Asian monsoon revealed by marked ecological shift during the latest Miocene in northern Pakistan[END_REF]. Ces résultats impliqueraient que l'intensité de la mousson sud-asiatique a varié au Cénozoïque tardif, avec un affaiblissement initial et un renforcement partiel ultérieur à l'aube des glaciations de l'hémisphère nord. Pour être validées, ces interprétations sur les signaux du δ 13 C et du δ 18 O demandent une analyse pétrographique approfondie des échantillons.Notre analyse de provenance Sr-Nd combinée à nos concentrations en10 Be implique que le bassin versant de la Narayani-Gandak demeure stable de 7,4 Ma à 1,2 Ma et n'a pas capturé d'affluents au nord. Nos résultats en Sr-Nd suggèrent une relative stabilité de l'érosion dans la chaîne inférieure, couverte par le Lesser Himalaya, malgré le duplexage en cours. Ils suggèrent également une diminution initiale des taux d'érosion sur le flanc sud et les sommets plus élevés, principalement couverts par le High Himalaya Crystalline (HHC) et dans une moindre mesure par les séries téthysiennes (TSS), suivie d'une réaugmentation après 1,7 Ma. Cette variabilité peut être attribuée aux fluctuations de la mousson sudasiatique ou aux glaciations. Nos résultats en 36 Cl impliquent que l'exposition récente aux rayons cosmiques est limitée pour la majeure partie des sections Valmiki. L'extension de ce résultat aux échantillons plus anciens nécessite de nouvelles mesures. Le principal résultat des mesures effectuées sur les sections Valmiki est l'absence d'augmentation ou de diminution des taux moyens d'érosion dans le centre du Népal depuis environ 5 Ma, en dépit du changement climatique et en dépit de preuves géomorphologiques montrant clairement l'intensité des glaciations passées dans le centre du Népal. Cette stabilité, comparée aux variations des contributions du HHC et du TSS, implique que la diminution ou l'augmentation des taux d'érosion dans la partie Haut Himalaya du bassin de la Narayani-Gandak devrait être compensée par une diminution ou une augmentation ailleurs. Les taux d'érosion moyens dans le bassin Narayani-Gandak restent proches des valeurs modernes, à 2 mm/an. Ces valeurs sont supérieures au taux d'érosion moyen du Cône du Bengale et impliquent que certains segments de l'Himalaya ont des taux d'érosion bien inférieurs à 1 mm/an.montrent les premiers travauxde Bierman et al (2016) au large du Groenland.

  .E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung Demulha batholith THB ET219B2 F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung Demulha batholith THB ET220B F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung Demulha batholith THB ET221B F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung Demulha batholith THB ET222B F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung Demulha batholith THB ET113A F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung Chayu batholith THB ET115F1 F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung Chayu batholith THB ET116B F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung Chayu batholith THB ET203B F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung Chayu batholith THB ET203D F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung Chayu batholith THB 73-73 F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung Chayu batholith THB RAW11 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW12 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW13 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW15 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW17 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW20 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW22 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW24 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW25 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW26 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW29 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks THB RAW30 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung Ranwu volcanic rocks Locality THB T212

  Seven samples and one blank were measured. Columns B-C indicate the mass of decontaminated feldspar, columns D-I: the data of the added Cl carrier, columns J-M: the ASTER measurements, columns N-U: the computations to obtain the Cl concentration of the sample, columns V-AE: the computations to obtain the 36 Cl concentration and paleoconcentration in the sample. Columns AH-AO indicate the parameters necessary for these computations(Schimmelpfenning, 2009).

Table SII -

 SII 1. Compilation of geological map references.Table SII-2. Compilation of bedrock Sr-Nd isotopic measurements. Table SII-3. Compilation of accumulation rate and sedimentary budgets. Table SII-4. Compilation of detrital thermochronometry studies. Table SII-5. Compilation of 10 Be paleoerosion studies.

	Tables SV

Table SV -

 SV 1. Biostratigraphy of samples from Site 1450A. Table SV-2. Published age datums considered for the age model of the site U1450. Table SV-3. List of observed samples. Table SV-4. Predicted age model of the site U1450.

.6.2. The seawater continental silicate chemical weathering record II.6.2.1. The seawater 87 Sr/ 86

.6.2.2. The seawater 10 Be/ 9 Be and δ 7

30. Seawater 87 Sr/ 86 Sr curve since 70 Ma.

	0.7092
	0.7086
	0.7081
	0.7075
	Figure II-

31. Seawater δ 7 Li curve since 70 Ma.

		34
		32										Modern δ 7 Li 31 ±0.5‰
		30
		28
	δ 7 Li (‰)	24 26
		22
		20
		18							758	926	757	588
									1265	1263	1262	1267
		16
		0	5	10	15	20	25	30	35	40	45	50	55	60	65	70
									Age (Ma)
	Figure II-

Foraminifer δ

7

Li measurements from deep ocean, with 2-σ error linked to reproducibility (compilation from

Misra and Froelich, 2012, including their data)

.

Consequences for the causes of the CO 2 fluctuations in the late Cenozoic These

  Similarly, von[START_REF] Von Blanckenburg | Stable runoff and weathering fluxes into the oceans over Quaternary climate cycles[END_REF] compiled data of the same proxy from high-resolution marine records covering the last 2 Ma and confirm stable average silicate weathering over the period. They also highlight that fluctuations of silicate weathering potentially do not follow a simple correlation to the variations of temperature during the Quaternary, as told by δ 18 O on benthic foraminifera. new results suggest that the marked fluctuations of CO 2 observed during the late Cenozoic cannot be explained by global fluctuations in silicate weathering. The limited global variations of silicate weathering may originate from two causes. First, the lithology of the rocks subject to physical erosion is important. When eroded silicate rocks have a low Ca-content, silicate contribution to chemical weathering is superseded by carbonate contribution in environments subject to high physical erosion, as suggested by

	II.6.2.3.

Table SII -1. Compilation of geological map references. Table SII-2. Compilation of bedrock Sr-Nd isotopic measurements. Table SII-3. Compilation of accumulation rate and sedimentary budgets. Table SII-4. Compilation of detrital thermochronometry studies. Table SII-5. Compilation of 10 Be paleoerosion studies. III. AIM OF THE THESIS III.1. SYNTHESIS OF THE TOPIC

 SII

	The previous decades of research have demonstrated interactions between tectonic, climate and
	denudation, but have not yielded a global and marked evidence of an acceleration of denudation coeval
	with the late Cenozoic climate change.
	III.1.1. Tectonics
	Over the late Cenozoic, active tectonics do not have undergone substantial global change (Cogné
	and Humler, 2008) but tectonic patterns have evolved locally even though some mechanisms are still
	unclear presently. In the Central and Eastern Himalaya, the changes probably consist in the focus of
	denudation on the eastern syntaxis at ca. 4-10 Ma (e.g. Seward and Burg, 2008) apparently at the expense
	of western Bhutan (e.g. Grujic et al., 2006). The question of a tectonic change in Central Himalaya remains
	open since in situ (e.g. Huntington et al., 2006; compilation and reinterpretation in Thiede and Ehlers,
	2013) and detrital (e.g. van der Beek et al., 2006) thermochronometry do not converge. The Bengal delta
	may have coevally been impacted by the rise of the Shillong plateau at ca. 10 Ma (e.g. Clark and Bilham,

III.3.1. Sedimentary archives

	I consider for this thesis two sedimentary archives, a distal archive at the orogen-scale and a
	proximal archive at a scale of a large Himalayan catchment. The comparison of these two distinct and
	complementart scales should yield relevant information.

III.3.1.1. Bengal Fan Exp. 353 -354

  The computed age model with its uncertainties is presented in Figure All solutions respect the constraints given by our new calcareous nannofossil datums (TableSV-1) and the published biostratigraphic datums (TableSV-2, France-Lanord et al., 2016b;[START_REF] Blum | Allogenic and Autogenic Signals in the Stratigraphic Record of the Deep-Sea Bengal Fan[END_REF]. Twosigma uncertainties vary between ±0.2 and 0.4 Ma depending on the configuration of age and lithological constraints.The younger boundary of the age envelope is constrained by 24 last occurrence (LO) or last common occurrence (LCO) datums, and the oldest boundary is constrained by first 4 occurrence (FO) datums only.

	V.4.2. Age Model
	Amaurolithus primus	Amaurolithus tricorniculatus	Calcidiscus macintyrei	Ceratolithus acutus
	Ceratolithus rugosus	Discoaster asymmetricus	Discoaster brouweri	Discoaster pentaradiatus
	Discoaster quinqueramus	Discoaster tamalis	Discoaster triradiatus	Nicklithus amplificus
		10 µm
	Reticulofenestra pseudoumbilicus		Triquetrorhabdulus rugosus

Table SVI -1. Sample information, dating, 10 Be and Sr-Nd isotopic results. Table SVI-2. 10 Be duplicate results. Table SVI-3. 10 Be blanks Table SVI-4. Major and trace element results. Table SVI-5. Chemical analyses of river sediment. Table SVI-6. Sr-Nd and 10 Be data from river sediment used for the f G and K(t) computation.

 SVI

Table SVII -1. Paleomagnetism results. Table SVII-2. Clayey to fine sand sample information, magnetostratigraphic correlation results. Table SVII-3. Medium to coarse sandy samples information, oxygen-carbon isotope, major and trace elements results. Table SVII-4. Clayey to fine sand bulk carbonate oxygen -carbon isotopic results. VIII. LATE CENOZOIC EVOLUTION OF EROSION RATES IN THE NARAYANI- GANDAK BASIN, CENTRAL HIMALAYA (DRAFT) VIII.1. INTRODUCTION VIII.1.1. Has climate forced erosion rates in the late Cenozoic?

 SVII

  to compute the fractions of TSS, HHC and LH in the sediment. Considering 1, 2 and 3 the different lithologies and their respective fractions, the concentration of each isotope in the ternary mixing is defined by the equation:Because the range in isotopic compositions of Sr or Nd is small, 86 Sr and 144 Nd are close to a constant fraction of total [Sr] and [Nd] respectively. After combination of the respective equations for each member of the coupled isotopes ( 86 Sr and 87 Sr, or 144 Nd and 143 Nd), and arranging a linear relationship with respect to , , , the following equation is obtained for the two couples of isotopes, 87 Sr/ 86 Sr or 143 Nd/ 144 Nd:

  3 , redissolved in dilute NH 4 OH, and Ba(NO 3 ) 2 was added to precipitate BaSO4/BaCO 3 , in order to reduce the isobaric interference of 36 S during the 36 Cl AMS measurements. The AgCl was again precipitated with HNO 3 and collected by centrifuging. The AgCl precipitates were rinsed and dried.The 35 Cl/ 36 Cl and 36 Cl/ 37 Cl were measured from isotope dilution AMS measurements at ASTER-CEREGE, normalized to a 36 Cl standard prepared by K. Nishiizumi[START_REF] Sharma | Development of 36Cl standards for AMS[END_REF], assuming a natural 35 Cl/ 37 Cl ratio of 3.127. The results are presented in Table

Complementary geochemical measurements were performed in the feldspar fractions by SARM (Vandoeuvre-les-Nancy, France). The results are presented in Table

  These results are presented with the simple model in Figure VIII-80 and the results are reported for our samples in Table SVIII-1 columns AE-AK.

	VIII.3.7.

10

  (Figure VIII-78-Figure VIII-77, Table SVIII-1 columns AW-BB) present 87 Sr/ 86 Sr at 0.766±0.012 and Nd at -17.7±0.8, with a distribution in the upper range of the values for the modern Narayani. Their evolution is divided into two periods. From 7.4 to ca. 1.7 Ma, the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr decreases from 0.775 to 0.76, with apparent fluctuations with a 2 My period. The Nd decrease coevally from -17.4 to -18.5, with values presenting a large dispersion. Isotopic trends shift from ca. 1.7 Ma to 0.465 Ma and the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr and Nd increase to 0.770 and -17.4 respectively, with again a large dispersion for Nd.

  4 Ma to 1.2 Ma (start of recycling of our sections, this thesis, Chapter VII).

VIII.4.5. Erosion rates Our apparent paleoerosion rates of the Narayani basin (Figure VIII-82, Table VIII-1 columns AS-AU) average at 2±3 mm/y over the 7.4 -1.2 Ma time span. This average is close to the modern values

  , the LH duplex would have initiated later in Central Nepal. Our low erosion rates at 7 Ma (0.5 mm/y) may contradictHerman et al. (2010a)'s model which obtains a ca. 10 Ma initiation age of the duplex in Central Nepal and a steady state reached in one million year. Our results, if confirmed, may yield the evidence that the Himalayan range in Central Nepal took several millions of years to reach steady state between tectonic uplift and erosion after the initiation of the duplex. These results may partly confirm the 40 Ar/ 39 Ar results of[START_REF] Copeland | 40Ar/39Ar ages of muscovites from modern Himalayan rivers: Himalayan evolution and the relative contribution of tectonics and climate[END_REF] who advanced that erosion rates increased since 10 Ma in Central Nepal but not in Western Nepal. The steady state in Central Nepal might have been paradoxically reached when Central Himalaya began to receive more precipitations and when glaciers began to settle and grow there.But, if our10 Be results are confirmed for the older samples, this assumption of steady state was probably not the case before ca.5 Ma. From 7.4 to ca. 5 Ma, average erosion rates would have increased by a factor of four. This suggests that the LH duplex was still in early development during this period in Central Nepal.Our contribution supplies a new and full dataset. By the comparison with the extensive previous work on erosion, this dataset makes it possible to have deeper insight on the past erosion in Central Nepal and yield a significant advance to better understand the subtle links between climate, tectonics and erosion in active mountain ranges.

Table SVIII -1. Sample information, dating, 10 Be, Sr-Nd isotopic results. Table SVIII-2. 10 Be results for duplicate samples. Table SVIII-3. 10 Be blanks. Table SVIII-4. Parameters used for the flood plain transfer model. Table SVIII-5. 10 Be contribution in the flood plain calculated using the transfer flood plain model for the Narayani river. Table SVIII-6. Major and trace elements results on the feldspar fraction. Table SVIII-7. Feldspar fraction 36 Cl results. Table SVIII-8. Recent exposure computation with 36 Cl results. Table SVIII-9. Recent exposure model.

 SVIII

Table SII -1. Compilation of geological map references.

 SII 1 700 km et 15°N des sections Valmiki, dans un contexte tectonique distinct, la tendance de leurs taux d'érosion moyens semble étonnamment similaire à notre enregistrement à Valmiki, soit une augmentation des taux d'environ 8 à 3-4 Ma suivie de taux stables.Zhang, J.J., 2007. A review on the extensional structures in the northern Himalaya and southern Tibet. Geological Bulletin ofChina 26,[639][640][641][642][643][644][645][646][647][648][649]

	histories using paleomagnetism in tandem with other chronostratigraphic and Table SII-1 (…/…) Authors Table SII-1 (…/…) Authors Reference Authors Table SII-1 (…/…) Zhang et al., 2007
	sedimentological approaches. Corvallis, Or.:
	Oregon State University.
	Reilly, B.T., 2018. Deciphering Quaternary
	Geomagnetic, Glacial, and Depositional
	Histories Using Paleomagnetism in Tandem
	with Other Chronostratigraphic and
	Sedimentological Approaches, phD Thesis.
	Oregon State University
	Reilly, B.T., 2018. Deciphering Quaternary
	geomagnetic, glacial, and depositional
	histories using paleomagnetism in tandem
	with other chronostratigraphic and
	sedimentological approaches. Corvallis, Or.:
	Oregon State University.
	BIBLIOGRAPHY
	Nos conclusions peuvent-elles s'étendre aux orogènes éteints ? De récents résultats obtenus sur le
	cône turbiditique du Var, qui recueille des sédiments provenant des Alpes du sud-ouest, en Europe,
	suggèrent une réponse négative (Mariotti, 2020). Leurs résultats, qui s'étendent sur le dernier cycle glaciaire,
	montrent que les taux d'érosion ont augmenté dans le dernier maximum glaciaire. Cependant, il pourrait
	s'agir d'un cas exceptionnel, et malheureusement, ni notre étude ni celle de Puchol et al (2017) n'ont cette
	résolution pour confirmer une situation aussi exceptionnelle au dernier maximum glaciaire dans l'Himalaya
	ou dans le Tianshan. Par conséquent, la réponse des orogènes éteints au changement climatique nécessite
	une étude plus approfondie sur des échelles de temps de plusieurs millions d'années. Cette réponse peut
	être différente de celle des orogènes actifs, que nos résultats montrent comme étant dominés par la
	tectonique.

Même si l'augmentation apparente initiale des taux d'érosion exige des mesures et une modélisation plus poussées pour les sections Tianshan et Valmiki, la combinaison de leur étude et de la nôtre constitue un argument de poids en défaveur d'une augmentation des taux d'érosion pendant les glaciations de l'hémisphère Nord, du moins pour les orogènes actifs.

Cet argument est encore renforcé par une étude précédente qui démontre, à l'aide de la luminescence optiquement stimulée (LSO), que les taux d'érosion sont demeurés stables au cours du dernier cycle glaciaire dans les Alpes du Sud de la Nouvelle-Zélande

(Herman et al., 2010b)

et sont similaires aux taux d'érosion à long terme déduits de la thermochronométrie. Mais nous notons que leurs résultats peuvent ne pas être étendus à l'ensemble du Pléistocène, en raison d'une tendance différente suggérée par les résultats obtenus à l'aide de la thermochronométrie

4

He/ 3 He

[START_REF] Shuster | Thermochronometry Reveals Headward Propagation of Erosion in an Alpine Landscape[END_REF]

.

TABLES

Table SII -2. Compilation of bedrock Sr-Nd isotopic measurements.

 SII Not exhaustive. Check comment for dubious datasets. LH: Lesser Himalaya, HHC: High Himalaya Crystalline, TSS: Tethyan Sedimentary Series. BL: bedload, SL: suspended load, W.R.: whole rock

	Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River HHCDK 47 C. Nepal Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River HHCDK 242 C. Nepal Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River LH NL1* C. Nepal Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River LH 24TBLi C. Nepal Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River HHCDK 48 C. Nepal HHCDK 247 C. Nepal LH NL3f C. Nepal LH K3-99 C. Nepal		Locality Manaslu Locality Manaslu Locality Manaslu section Locality Locality Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Formation Leucogranite Formation Leucogranite Formation LH Formation Galyang Fm Formation Leucogranite Leucogranite LH Galyang Fm	Category Category Category Category Category	Type W.R. Type W.R. Type W.R. Type W.R. Type W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East phyllite Rock type North East shale	Date Date Date Date Date	Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. 12 0.76864 Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. 99.5 0.74608 Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. 114 19 17.79 0.93696 Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. 10 0.77713 56 0.76625 1 7 7.66 0.86772	Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil 10.98 65.18 Sm Sil Nd Sil 3.57 18.42	147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 0.1018 147Sm/144Nd 0.117
	HHCDK 49 HHCDK 268 LH NL4t LH DD-52	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal W. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite Leucogranite LH Sangram Fm		W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale				288	6.5 82.5 55	15.32	0.79503 0.75231 0.93943	9.31	49.94	0.1127
	HHCDK 50 HHCD 22 HHCNL 428t C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal LH 20TBSI C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite Leucogranite FII Sangram Fm		W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale				190	5 5.56 231	2.39	0.80201 0.74275 0.734586	8.72	47.63	0.1107
	TSS NAG 22 C. NepalMarsyandi source HHCDK 51 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCD 14 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCNL 623t C. Nepal Manaslu section LH 18TBBra C. Nepal	TSS Leucogranite Leucogranite FII Ranimata Fm	TSS	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale	28.786 83.964	28/11/1995	218 5	93.6 66 7.29 772	0.018	0.7219 0.75147 0.74562 0.714109	10.1 6.7	64.3 38.76	0.1044
	TSS MAR-50 C. NepalMarsyandi Temang HHCDK 52 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCD 37 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCD77* C. Nepal Manaslu section LH K2-99 C. Nepal	TSS Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Ranimata Fm	TSS HHC granite HHC granite	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	phyllite	28.53 84.316		327	82.5 13.28 104	9.08	0.7315 0.74967 0.74444 0.78959	6.62	4.3 34.82	0.1148
	TSS MAR-45 C. NepalNaar k. HHCDK 53 C. Nepal HHCD 45 C. Nepal HHCD94* C. Nepal LH AG-103 E. Nepal		RG Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	TSS Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Ranimata Fm	TSS HHC granite	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	phyllite	28.561 84.257		391	146.5 14.7 62	18.13	0.722066 0.74416 0.75478 0.83959	6.75	35.31	0.1155
	TSS MO 501 C. NepalKali HHCDK 54 C. Nepal HHCDK 200 C. Nepal HHCM84* C. Nepal LH AG-104 E. Nepal		Tukuche Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section	TSS Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Ranimata Fm	TSS HHC granite HHC granite	SL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	phyllite	28.703 83.635	26/07/1998 172.5 156.5 216 108.5 343 43	23.1	0.723111 0.74328 0.74711 0.88141	3.9	30.3 13.7 11.6 21.22	0.1112
	TSS NAG 33 C. NepalKali HHCDK 54 C. Nepal HHCDK 202 C. Nepal HHCNA 116| C. Nepal LH SR-30 W. Nepal		Koketani Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section	TSS Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Ulleri	TSS HHC granite	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	gneiss	28.647 83.594	02/12/1995 136.7 270	95.8 216 106 66	11.91	0.729111 0.74328 0.74865 0.80357	6.8 5.26	38.4 11.7 25.11	0.1266
	TSS NAG 36 C. NepalKali HHCDK 55a C. Nepal HHCDK 203 C. Nepal HHCNA 155* C. Nepal LH AG-111 E. Nepal		Kopchepani Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section	TSS Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Ulleri	TSS HHC granite	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	gneiss	28.647 83.594	02/12/1995 223.7 153.2 204 105 209 78	7.782	0.724852 0.74292 0.749 0.77686	6.7 4.82	38.5 11.8 21.96	0.1327
	TSS LO2 HHCDK 55b HHCDK 204 HHCNA 156* C. Nepal C. NepalKali C. Nepal C. Nepal LH AG-112 E. Nepal		Kagbeni Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Ulleri		BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	gneiss	28.841 83.784	16/05/1993 159.3 300	95.9 72 105 62	13.97	0.73196 0.74428 0.74873 0.81281	5.3 5.15	30 25.72	0.121
	TSS NAG 20 C. NepalKali HHCDK 56 C. Nepal HHCDK 205 C. Nepal HHCNA 216* C. Nepal		Kagbeni Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII		BL W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.841 83.784	25/11/1993	157 377	96 104 107.5 21	51.55	0.731627 0.74476 0.74887 1.06315	3.6	19.3
	TSS NAG 25 C. NepalKali HHCDK 57 C. Nepal HHCDK 206 C. Nepal HHCNA 218* C. Nepal		Jomoson Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII		BL W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.785 83.734	01/12/1995	248 162.4 4.5 106.5 252 67	10.85	0.722487 0.80125 0.74868 0.7902	8.5	47.5
	TSS MO 504 C. NepalYamkim HHCDK 58 C. Nepal HHCDK 207 C. Nepal HHCNL 478t C. Nepal		outlet Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section	TSS Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII	TSS HHC granite HHC granite	SL W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.711 83.641	26/07/1998	296	56.3 4 104.5 44	19.63	0.7594 0.77126 0.74895 0.88366	29.5 13.4
	TSS MO 516 C. NepalKali HHCDK 59 C. Nepal HHCDK 207 C. Nepal HHCT200* C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII	HHC granite HHC granite	SL W.R. W.R. W.R.		83.636 28.558	27/07/1998	399	195.9 65 104.5 161	7.17	0.72198 0.74554 0.74895 0.75552	34.9 4.3 13.4
	TSS NAG 38 C. NepalKali HHCU 464 C. Nepal HHCDK 208 C. Nepal HHCU203t C. Nepal THB K89G185		Dana Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section I	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Tibetan lava	HHC granite	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.558 83.636	03/12/1995	157 185	135 53.5 108.5 113	4.76	0.730227 0.76458 0.74819 0.76802	5.9	32.2 15.4
	TSS NAG 42 C. NepalKali HHCU 464 C. Nepal HHCDK 208 C. Nepal HHCU284* C. Nepal THB K89G186		Tatopani Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section I	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Tibetan lava	HHC granite	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.496 83.654	05/12/1995 153.2 142.9 54 108.5 280 61	13.22	0.729763 0.76389 0.74819 0.80069	5.2	28.9 15.4
	TSS MAR-52 C. NepalDudh k. HHCU 464 C. Nepal HHCDK 209 C. Nepal HHCU308* C. Nepal THB K89G191		Darapani Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1 Manaslu section I	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Tibetan lava	HHC granite	BL Muscovite W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.535 84.366		340	5 102 56	17.6	0.731861 0.98037 0.75061 0.83973	13
	TSS MAR-57 C. NepalMarsyandi Tal depot de terasse pour tester la variabilité temixed TSS basin HHCU 464 C. Nepal Manaslu Leucogranite HHCDK 210 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 Leucogranite HHCU725* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII THB K89G192 I Tibetan lava		BL Apatite W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.465 84.373		257	81 109 74	10.13	0.729856 0.75998 0.74781 0.78487
	TSS MAR-55 C. NepalMarsyandi Tal HHCU 464 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 244 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCU925* C. Nepal Manaslu section THB K89G193 I	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite FIII Tibetan lava		BL Apatite W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.467 84.373		289	79 111.8 83	10.1	0.731092 0.75995 0.74857 0.79627
	TSS HF 10 HHCU 464 HHCDK 168 THB K89G197	C. NepalSeti C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2 I	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC granite	BL K Feldspar W.R. W.R.					128.6	47.3 146 39.5		0.737782 0.7662 0.77162	3.8	22.3 7
	HHCMO 50 HHCU 464 HHCDK 168 THB K89G200	C. NepalChepe C. Nepal C. Nepal		Vallon Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2 I	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite	BL K Feldspar W.R. W.R.				06/05/1997		105.5 39.5		0.753712 0.76652 0.77162	7
	HHCMAR-26 C. NepalChepe HHCU 476 C. Nepal HHCDK 169 C. Nepal THB KP23-1		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2 II	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC	BL W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.112 84.427			44.2 40		0.754397 0.76477 0.77081
	HHCKN 101 HHCU 476 HHCDK 170 THB KP23-3	C. NepalLikhu C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2 II	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC	BL Muscovite W.R. W.R.		27.891 85.249		301.9 106.4 10.2 42.5		0.750994 0.84969 0.76817	6.1	31.7
	HHCKN 83 HHCU 476 HHCDK 171 HHCU277 THB KP24-1	C. NepalTadi C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2 Manaslu III	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC	BL Muscovite W.R. W.R. W.R.	27.891 85.249 Rb and Sr bulk	06/05/1997	117	131 10.8 71		0.75086 0.85424 0.76479	29.5
	HHCCA11215CC. NepalKhudi k. N Branche Nord HHCX 12 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 172 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 2 HHCN 67 C. Nepal Manaslu THB KP12-2 IV	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite	Sand/Gravels W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	28.318 84.356	14/11/2011		52 63.5		0.755024 0.00001 0.76385 0.7651	6.7
	HHCCA10112A C. NepalKhudi k. W Branch W HHCX 12 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 173 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 2 THB KP12-5 IV	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC	Bank Muscovite W.R. W.R.		28.365 84.305	15/11/2010		10 52		0.757583 0.8171 0.76592	8E-06
	HHCSKD71 HHCX 12 HHCDK 174a C. Nepal C. NepalKhudi k. C. Nepal THB KP12-7		Khudi Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2 IV	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite	SL Muscovite W.R. W.R.		28.306	84.33	23/08/2010		10 63		0.762701 1.1E-05 0.81487 0.75957
	HHCCA11212A C. NepalKhudi HHCDK 157 C. Nepal HHCDK 175 C. Nepal HHCM 102 C. Nepal THB K705		Nord W basin Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2 Manaslu IV	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite FI Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite	Sand/Gravels W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	28.405 84.263	10/11/2011	170	71.5 54.5 35.3	13.93	0.748403 1.1E-05 0.75525 0.76522 0.78067	10.7
	HHCCA10113 C. NepalKhudi basin HHC Trib HHCDK 157 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCNL 219 (1) C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 4 HHCM 114 C. Nepal Manaslu THB K708 IV	HHC Leucogranite granite dyke FI Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite	Bank Muscovite W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.365 84.305	15/11/2010	182	3 104 58.3	2.75	0.756553 1.2094 0.74841 0.76189	7E-06
	HHCCA954 HHCDK 195 HHCNL 222 (2) C. Nepal C. NepalKhudi basin Landslide C. Nepal Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4 HHCL 12 C. Nepal Manaslu THB K713 IV	HHC Leucogranite granite dyke FI Tibetan lava	HHC	Bank W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.372 84.294	11/11/2009	126	135.5 39.5 67.8	5.37	0.761857 0.74357 0.76961 0.77409	7E-06
	HHCGA 32 HHCDK 195 HHCNL 223 (2) C. Nepal C. NepalMailung C. Nepal HHCM 108 C. Nepal THB K716		Paigutang Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4 Manaslu IV	mixed HHC basin Leucogranite granite dyke FI Tibetan lava		Bank W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.222 85.188	06/10/1999 127.4 163	127 39 140	3.38	0.754785 0.74355 0.77031 0.7647
	HHCCA10116 C. NepalKhudi k. HHCDK 195 C. Nepal HHCNL 224 (2) C. Nepal HHCU 124 C. Nepal THB K718		Khudi Power house Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4 Manaslu IV	mixed HHC basin Leucogranite granite dyke FI Tibetan lava	HHC granite	Bank Muscovite W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.288 84.345	16/11/2010	181	19.5 54.5 199	2.63	0.761467 1.1E-05 0.76484 0.76949 0.73959	6.2
	HHCCA11111 C. NepalKhudi k. HHCDK 195 C. Nepal HHCNL 225 (2) C. Nepal HHCM 107 C. Nepal THB K720		Khudi Power house Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4 Manaslu IV	mixed HHC basin Leucogranite granite dyke FI Tibetan lava	HHC granite	SL Biotite W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.289 84.345	29/07/2011	50.6	17 26.5 190	0.77	0.762997 1.7E-05 0.76641 0.76776 0.73962	2.4
	HHCB106 HHCD 22 HHCNL 226 (3) C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal THB K723	6.1	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4 IV	0.8 HHC bedrock Leucogranite granite dyke Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.						131 37		0.76506 0.74275 0.7707
	HHCB114 HHCD 22 HHCNL 227 (3) C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal THB K731	3	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4 IV	0.8 HHC bedrock Leucogranite granite dyke Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite	W.R. Muscovite W.R. W.R.						11 22.5		0.75794 0.78023 0.78163	2.2
	HHCNL43 HHCD 22 HHCNL 206 THB K732	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	3.9	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 5 IV	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite	W.R. Muscovite W.R. W.R.						12 77		0.747452 0.77709 0.74204	4.6
	HHCNL58 HHCDK 65 HHCNL 207 TSS 87 28 THB K738	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	3.1	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 5 IV	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite TSS Cretaceous Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite TSS	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.					42	49.5 71.5 61	1.9	0.745126 0.76053 0.75136 0.71266	9.1	4.9 45.5
	HHCNL59 HHCDK 67 HHCNL 208 TSS 87 32 THB KP12-4	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	1.1	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 5 IV	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite TSS Trias Tibetan lava	HHC HHC granite TSS	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.					19	83 36 45	1.19	0.733112 0.74343 0.75917 0.70899	3.6	2.3 18.6
	HHCNL74 HHCDK 72 HHCNL 234 TSS LA 194 THB KP10-3	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal W. Himalaya N. Lhasa Plutonic beltV 2 Manaslu Manaslu Indus	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite TSS Indus margin Tibetan lava	HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.					11	100 299	0.1	0.733546 0.74519 0.70981 0.70896	5.9	6.5 33.2
	HHCNL75 HHCDK 98 HHCU 862 TSS LA 158 THB KP10-6	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal W. Himalaya N. Lhasa Plutonic beltV 5.5 Manaslu Manaslu Indus	0.8 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite TSS Indus margin Tibetan lava	HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.					96	64 50	5.29	0.75495 0.75415 0.72903 0.70792	5	23.2
	HHCNL76 HHCDK 102 HHCNL 43a TSS 25 1 THB BG121	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal W. Himalaya	1.4	Manaslu Manaslu Ladakh VI	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite FI Gneiss TSS Suture Ladak Tibetan lava	HHC HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.					7	61 157.5 662	0.03	0.733218 0.75589 0.74745 0.70762	1.6	39.6 6.4
	HHCNL85 HHCDK 111 HHCNL 58a TSS 89 1 THB BG124	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal W. Himalaya	2	Manaslu Manaslu Ladakh VI	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite FI Gneiss TSS Suture Ladak Tibetan lava	HHC HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.					44	56 132.5 258	0.47	0.745317 0.75794 0.74513 0.70606	3	35.8 13.9
	HHCNL93 HHCDK 112 HHCNL 59a THB KP35-10	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	0.4	Manaslu Manaslu VII	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite FI Gneiss Tibetan lava	HHC HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.						53 267		0.734352 0.75055 0.73311	39.9
	HHCNL420 HHCDK 116 HHCNL 74 THB BB94-2	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal N. Lhasa Plutonic beltVIII 19.2 Manaslu Manaslu	0.8 HHC bedrock Leucogranite FI Gneiss Tibetan lava	HHC HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.						54 220		0.806501 0.75407 0.73355 0.70823	37.7
	LH NAG 4 HHCDK 136 HHCNL 75 THB BB104	C. NepalBijaipur C. Nepal C. Nepal N. Lhasa Plutonic beltVIII Kundahar Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Tibetan lava	LH HHC	BL W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.245	84	11/11/1995 106.8	44.8 54 48.5		0.879796 0.75257 0.75495 0.70798	5.4	30.1 22.9
	LH MO 112 C. NepalIsul k. HHCDK 138 C. Nepal HHCNL 76 C. Nepal THB K9006		Bhuri G. Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Tibetan lava	LH HHC	BL W.R. W.R. W.R.		28.048 84.808	12/05/1997		55.5 249.5		0.874814 0.7518 0.73322	30.2
	LH MO 102 C. NepalMarsel k. HHCDK 139 C. Nepal HHCNL 81 C. Nepal TSS 1TBkag C. Nepal THB K9007	Darondi Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Chukh Fm Tibetan lava	LH	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	sandstone	28.041 84.669	11/05/1997		48.9 65.5 156.5		0.840096 0.7469 0.74596	16.5	84.95	0.1174
	LH MO 109 C. NepalMati k. HHCDK 140 C. Nepal HHCNL 85 C. Nepal TSS 2TBpha C. Nepal THB K9008		Bhuri G. Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Dogger Fm Tibetan lava	LH HHC	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale	28.045 84.806	12/05/1997		50.2 58.5 163		0.853771 0.74872 0.74532	4.75	24.2 33.22	0.0864
	LH MO 207 C. NepalAndi HHCDK 141 C. Nepal HHCNL 86 C. Nepal TSS 3TBjom C. Nepal THB K9016		Kali Gandaki Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Jomson Fm Tibetan lava	LH	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale	28.043	83.79	18/05/1997		65.5 181.5		0.892148 0.75162 0.73799	9.05	53.17	0.1028
	LH GA 99 HHCDK 151 HHCNL 93 TSS 4TBSya C. Nepal C. NepalMailung C. Nepal C. Nepal THB K9018		landslide Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Tilicho Fm Tibetan lava	LH HHC	Bank W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	phyllite	28.148 85.199	11/10/1999		74.8 70.5 269.5		0.822903 0.75347 0.73435	10.35	31.6 20.1 63.38	0.0987
	LH GA 112 HHCDK 151 HHCNL 100 TSS 5TBMar C. Nepal C. NepalMailung C. Nepal C. Nepal THB K9021		Camp Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Tilichio Fm Tibetan lava	LH	Bank W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	phyllite	28.082 85.207	12/10/1999		62.2 70.5 210.5		0.855181 0.75317 0.73113	11.8	30.1 64.5	0.1105
	LH MAR28 HHCDK 152 HHCNL 100 TSS DD-31 THB K9026	C. NepalPaudi k. C. Nepal C. Nepal W. Nepal		RG Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Melmura Fm Tibetan lava	LH	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale	28.123 84.408			25.5 210.5		0.824 0.76741 0.73114	5.84	29.59	0.1193
	LH MAR64 HHCDK 157 HHCNL 172 TSS DD-33 THB K9028	C. NepalNgadi Khola RG C. Nepal Manaslu C. Nepal Manaslu W. Nepal VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Melmura Fm Tibetan lava	LH	BL W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale	28.31 84.404			71.5 225.5		0.814 0.75525 0.72899	6.71	35.99	0.1128
	LH GA 50 HHCDK 160 HHCNL 499 HHCAG-106 E. Nepal C. NepalMailung Col C. Nepal C. Nepal THB K9031	Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss Formation I Tibetan lava	LH	bedrock Bank W.R. W.R. W.R. paragneiss W.R.	28.218 85.181	08/10/1999		19.8 66 104		0.885761 0.75571 0.74425	6.48	32.7 35.16	0.1113
	HHCDK 161 HHCNL 512 HHCAG-109 E. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal THB K9032		Manaslu Manaslu VII	Leucogranite FI Gneiss Formation I Tibetan lava		W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	paragneiss					72.5 90.5		0.75563 0.74872	6.97	38.69	0.1089
	HHCDK 162 HHC9TBkal THB K9038	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu VII	Leucogranite Formation III Tibetan lava		W.R. W.R. W.R.	orthogneiss					43.5		0.76173	7.08	27.92	0.1533
	HHCDK 167 HHC12TBgh C. Nepal C. Nepal THB K9024 N. Lhasa Plutonic beltIX Manaslu	Leucogranite Formation I Tibetan lava		W.R. W.R. W.R.	paragneiss					63		0.76498 0.708374	7.26	37.85	0.116
	HHCDK 180 HHCβ 106a HHC13TBru THB K9027	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal N. Lhasa Plutonic beltV-IX Manaslu Manaslu	Leucogranite FI Gneiss Formation II Tibetan lava	HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	paragneiss				193	107 92	6.08	0.7439 0.76506 0.708189	8.36	25.3 41.77	0.1209
	LH AP 346 HHCDK 185 HHCβ 114a HHCAG-105 E. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal THB K9001		Manaslu section Manaslu Manaslu VII	LH Kuncha pelites Leucogranite FI Gneiss Formation I Tibetan lava	LH HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	paragneiss				252 71.1	21 111 68.2	38.07 3.02	1.6809 0.74938 0.75794	8.08 2.17	44 25.5 8.85	0.1483
	HHCDK 186 HHCβ 114a HHCDDG-98 W. NepaGreater Himalayan klippen C. Nepal Manaslu C. Nepal Manaslu THB K9041 VII	Leucogranite FI Gneiss C-O granite, DT Tibetan lava	HHC	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	granite				71.8	103.5 69.9	2.98	0.7495 0.75743	6.02	25.5 26.6	0.1369
	HHCDK 188 HHCU 48 HHCDD-40 THB COUL311 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI C. Nepal Manaslu C. Nepal Manaslu W. NepaGreater Himalayan klippen	Leucogranite FI Gneiss Kalikot Schist, Dt Tibetan lava	W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. HHC	schist				163	87.5 172	2.75	0.74885 0.75037 0.70797	3.88	18.74	0.125
	LH AP 385 HHCDK 191 LH K1-99 THB COUL326 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI C. Nepal Manaslu section C. Nepal Manaslu C. Nepal	LH Kuncha pelites Leucogranite Benighat Fm Tibetan lava	LH Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale				236	63 69	13.48	1.0301 0.75269 0.7059	6.58 3.97	36.6 29.93	0.0801
	TSS NA 178 HHCDK 195 LH SR-37 THB COUL328 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI C. Nepal Manaslu section C. Nepal Manaslu W. Nepal	TSS Jurassic schist Leucogranite Benighat Fm Tibetan lava	W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R.	shale					135		0.74359 0.70641	3.99 3.83	20.33 20	0.1159
	TSS NA 181 HHCDK 211 LH SR-35 THB COUL338 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI C. Nepal Manaslu section C. Nepal Manaslu W. Nepal	TSS Cretaceous (volcaniclastic) Leucogranite Benighat Fm Tibetan lava	W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R.	shale					78		0.74533 0.70493	12.61 5.05	58.97 27.79	0.1098
	HHCDK 213 LH AP9* LH DD-58 THB COUL339 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI C. Nepal Manaslu C. Nepal Manaslu section W. Nepal	Leucogranite LH Benighat Fm Tibetan lava	W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R.	shale				143	63.5 11	40.08	0.76337 1.5098 0.7048	7.37	42.22	0.1055
	HHCDK 214 LH AP440* LH 23TBtu THB K89G159 S. Tibet Karakorum X C. Nepal Manaslu C. Nepal Manaslu section C. Nepal	Leucogranite LH Syangia Fm Tibetan lava		W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale				98	54 83	3.48	0.76126 0.83318 0.71481	5.82	33.15	0.1062
	HHCDK 217 LH AP 524* C. Nepal C. Nepal LH 23TBSe C. Nepal THB K89G162 S. Tibet Karakorum X Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite LH Syangia Fm Tibetan lava		W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	phyllite				321	48.5 76	12.52	0.74851 0.96411 0.71552	6.23	37.03	0.1016
	HHCDK 43 HHCDK 220 LH AP 825* C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal LH CH-1 W. Nepal THB K89G163 S. Tibet Karakorum X Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite Leucogranite LH Galyang Fm Tibetan lava		W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	phyllite				123	8 60 74	4.82	0.77822 0.74633 0.82573	12	3.04	16.16	0.1138
	HHCDK 45 HHCDK 237 LH AP 874* C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal LH DD-15 W. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite Leucogranite LH Galyang Fm	HHC granite HHC granite	W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	phyllite				366	4.5 46.5 56	19.58	0.83248 0.76792 1.01761	26	10.1	52.32	0.1167
	HHCDK 46 HHCDK 240 LH AP 888* C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal LH 22TBPu C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite Leucogranite LH Galyang Fm		W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R.	shale				126	6.5 68 44	8.48	0.78704 0.74735 0.89964	15	7.36	37.77	0.1177

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	Category	Type	Rock type North East	Date	Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d.	Sm Sil Nd Sil	147Sm/144Nd
	THB ET103A F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Deformed granite		770	145	3.39	0.717494	5.54	33.4	0.1
	THB ET104B F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		176	105	4.86	0.716762	2.53	0.109
	THB ET105A F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		161	163	2.86	0.715423	2.9	0.114
	THB ET105B F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		240	94.2	7.38	0.714782	4.4	21.9	0.121
	THB ET107A F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		330	63.9	14.9	0.741119	10.1	52.5	0.116
	THB ET117A F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		177	229	2.24	0.713866	4.2	2.2	0.12
	THB ET120A F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		204	230	2.57	0.706863	2.57	10.95	0.809
	THB ET122A F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granodiorite		91.8	723	0.367	0.711866	0.71	31.9	0.125
	THB ET125A F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Deformed granite		181	195	2.69	0.722641	6.92	37.3	0.112
	THB ET105G F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong enclaves	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Enclave		58.8	220	0.774	0.706562	4.83	20.9	0.14
	THB ET119A F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong enclaves		W.R.	Enclave		139	694	0.58	0.706447
	THB ET120C F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong enclaves	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Enclave		55.7	546	0.295	0.706237	5.71	27.1	0.127
	THB ET120D F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong enclaves	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Enclave		31.1	425	0.212	0.706173	8.27	33.8	0.148
	THB ET120E F.E. Transhimalaya Along Parlung	Azhagong enclaves	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Enclave		50.2	273	0.532	0.706092	4.11	17.1	0.145
	THB ET106A2 F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung	Demulha batholith	High alkali E. TrW.R.	Granite		491	6.46	120	0.977088	8.22	25.1	0.198
	THB ET219B2 F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung	Demulha batholith	High alkali E. TrW.R.	Granite		644	8.9	210	0.974909	10.6	36.6	0.175
	THB ET220B F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung	Demulha batholith	High alkali E. TrW.R.	Granite		713	11.5	180	0.949798	11.8	49.8	0.143
	THB ET221B F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung	Demulha batholith	High alkali E. TrW.R.	Granite		675	9.57	204	0.955354	12.6	52.3	0.146
	THB ET222B F.E. Transhimalaya NE. Of Parlung	Demulha batholith	High alkali E. TrW.R.	Granite		658	9.15	208	0.960528	13.5	54.7	0.149
	THB ET113A F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung	Chayu batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		226	214	3.06	0.716425	9.38	46.1	0.123
	THB ET115F1 F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung	Chayu batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		396	69.7	16.4	0.749173	7.05	41.3	0.103
	THB ET116B F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung	Chayu batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		345	81.5	12.2	0.750538	5.04	22.2	0.137
	THB ET203B F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung	Chayu batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		207	221	2.71	0.707888	5.8	27	0.13
	THB ET203D F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung	Chayu batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		221	156	4.1	0.707959	7.47	35.8	0.126
	THB 73-73	F.E. Transhimalaya S. of Parlung	Chayu batholith	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		385	129	8.68	0.760712	5.61	23.7	0.143
	THB RAW11 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Andesite		89.4	185	1.4	0.708774	6.41	30.7	0.126
	THB RAW12 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basaltic_andesite		96.8	146	1.92	0.709886	6.59	30.9	0.129
	THB RAW13 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Andesite		124	108	3.31	0.712819	8.61	41.3	0.126
	THB RAW15 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basaltic_andesite		30.7	319	0.278	0.706806	6.19	29.1	0.128
	THB RAW17 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Dacite		157	64.3	7.08	0.717157	4.46	22.4	0.12
	THB RAW20 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basaltic_andesite		56.6	279	0.588	0.707451	6.76	31.5	0.13
	THB RAW22 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basaltic_andesite		134	265	1.46	0.707820	10.3	48.7	0.127
	THB RAW24 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basaltic_andesite		95.6	273	1.02	0.707072	8.51	41	0.125
	THB RAW25 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basalt		91	223	1.18	0.707405	5.67	26.6	0.129
	THB RAW26 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basaltic_andesite		57.6	290	0.575	0.706797	5.8	27.3	0.129
	THB RAW29 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basaltic_andesite		77.5	293	0.765	0.706974	5.84	28.1	0.126
	THB RAW30 F.E. Transhimalaya Center of Parlung	Ranwu volcanic rocks	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Basalt		69.3	243	0.827	0.707362	7.18	32.2	0.135
	Locality
	THB T212	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.00° N 93.31° E		90.3	622		0.705239	3.03	16.8
	THB T027	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.00° N 93.32° E		41.3	622		0.70472	2.51	14.41
	THB T213	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.04° N 93.34° E		45.1	688		0.704591	2.68	13.92
	THB T215	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.10° N 93.41° E		54.5	757		0.7047	2.09	14.53
	THB T026	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.12° N 93.44° E		53.3	626		0.704693	2.61	17.61
	THB T216A	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLilong	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.17° N 93.61° E		35.9 768.0		0.7	2.2	14.4
	THB T217	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLilong	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.14° N 93.64° E		49.9	780		0.704655	2.17	13.25
	THB T024	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLilong	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.14° N 93.75° E		40.9	738		0.704562	1.62	10.23
	THB T218B	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLilong	Gangdese batholith	Gangdese belt W.R.	Granite adak 29.14° N 93.75° E		42.6	719		0.704581	1.63	9.44
	THB CY1-01	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		203	144	4.0862	0.72546 1.4E-05	8.21	47.8	0.1037
	CY1-02	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese		W.R.	Granite		275	108			11.2	59
	CY1-02R F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese		W.R.	Granite		269	109			10.2	52.1
	CY1-1	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		248	101	7.0855	0.730375 1.2E-05	9.86	43.8	0.1361
	CY2-1	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese		W.R.	Granite		203	58.5			6.42	33.7
	CY3-1	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		312	51.7	17.4673	0.744253 0.00001	10.6	55.8	0.1153
	CY4-1	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		191	77.7	7.1293	0.729346 1.4E-05	7.43	44.9	0.1001
	CY6-1	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese	E. TranshimalayW.R.	Granite		189	73.3	7.4785	0.730475 1.1E-05	6.43	37.6	0.1033
	Linzizong successions:

B -Basalt, BA -Basaltic andesite, A -Andesite, D -Dacite, R -Rhyolite.

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality Locality	Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation Formation	Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category Category	Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type Type	Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East Rock type North East	Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date Date	Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d. Rb Sil Sr Sil 87Rb/86Sr 87Sr/86Sr S 2s.d.	Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil Sm Sil Nd Sil	147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd 147Sm/144Nd
	THB T404 THB 10SR-48 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa S.E. TibeNM TSS JK4/11b S. Tibet Sakya LH 402093 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi W. of Lhasa Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 12FW108 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 410009 E. Himal 92E Dala igneous complex TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E LH MC49 Central NMCTZ MCT zone LH LT-7 C. Nepal Langtang THB 111B E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa THB G016 E. Lhasa30°N 93°E THB Lz991 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou HHCSLM1 E. Nepal THB DZ13-1 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112107 E. SyntaxW. Namche Laiguo section	PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Bima Fm Sangri S. Lhasa terraneW.R. Donggong granite W.R. Kuncha W.R. Ramba dome hosting rock TSS W.R. Dala granitoids TSS granite W.R. Xiaru dome TSS W.R. MCT zone W.R. W.R. Dangru pluton / Dongru TranshimalayanW.R. 8 Jiama TranshimalayanW.R. Nianbo Linzigong lava W.R. Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Gangdese belt Laiguo S. HHC	Andesite Leucogranites schist Metabasite-amphibole plagiogneiss 28.334 84.4 Granodiorite granitic gneiss Gr-rich black phyllite adakite 29.8 91.8 Migmatites Biotite gneiss		270 72.6 230 121.1 344.3 582 329 50.9 595 20.6 80 512 401 147.6 92.3 54.4 258.2 0.8	1.343 0.6383 0.068 8.2361 54.63 0.447 422 4.625 13.89 0.0044	0.70784 0.704906 0.70623 0.718523 1.2E-05 26 1.043264 14 0.706927 1.1E-05 0.707937 14 0.710485 0.82545 0.70455 11 0.880905	4.8 5.27 6.33 4.94 5.8 3.17 29.69 10.08 2.93 3.15 5.802 3.4	29 29.5 28.59 28.95 31.4 10.5 5.12 54.75 18 23.4 30.4 14	0.1 0.1078 0.1032 0.1685 0.1118 0.19 0.1042 0.1113 0.10849 0.1154 0.1516
	T233C THB T604 THB T605 THB CHP1 THB CHP3 THB JPT3 THB 10SR-27 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa S. Tibet 1. Dianzhong Formation S.E. TibeMG Eastern syntaxis S.E. TibeMG Eastern syntaxis S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben S. Tibet W. Lhasa TSS JK4/12a S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite LH 402097 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi TSS 12FW110 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 410010 E. Himal 92E Dala igneous complex TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E LH MC69 Central NMCTZ MCT zone LH LT-10 C. Nepal Langtang THB 14 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa THB G025 E. Syntax30°N 95°E THB Lz993 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou HHCLM201 E. Nepal THB DZ07-2 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112108 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo THB 10SR-32 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa TSS JK4/12b S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB S31 SW. TibeChaxiezangbu TSS 12FW113 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 410012 E. Himal 92E Dala igneous complex LH 51x Sikkim North Sikkim Gangtok-Mangan waterwheel TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0646-2 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH MC74 Central NMCTZ MCT zone LH LT-18 C. Nepal Langtang THB 119A E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa THB LZ998 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou HHCSKM2 E. Nepal THB BD04 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112113 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo THB 10SR-39 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa TSS JK4/13g S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB S32 SW. TibeShiquan River TSS 12FW114 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 310019 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex LH 53 Sikkim North Sikkim Rang Rang TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0646-1 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC50 Central NLLHS Nawakot Group LH LT-19 C. Nepal Langtang THB 119B E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS T0837-1 S.W. Lha29°N 86°E THB Lz9913 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB T0548 Nyingchi HHCSKM3 E. Nepal THB BD13 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112115 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo	Linzigong volcanics Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Namling potassic lava Bima Fm Sangri Donggong granite Kuncha Ramba dome hosting rock Dala granitoids Xiaru dome MCT zone Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi 9 Linzhi / Nyingchi pluton Nianbo Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Laiguo S. Bima Fm Sangri Donggong granite Ramba dome hosting rock Dala granitoids Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome MCT zone Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi Nianbo Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Pei S. Bima Fm Sangri Gomdre granite Ramba dome hosting rock Yala-Xiangbo leucogranites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Kuncha Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi Xiaru leucogranite Dianzhong E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Pei S.	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. S. Lhasa terraneW.R. W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. TranshimalayanW.R. Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt HHC S. Lhasa terraneW.R. W.R. sediments Coordinates, N30°08 E83°19 B andesite Leucogranites phyllite 28.315 84.401 Metabasite-amphibole plagiogneiss Granodiorite granitic gneiss Ms white quartzite adakite 29.6 94.6 Migmatites Augen biotitegneiss Group Ι Basalt Leucogranites TSS W.R. Metabasite-amphibole plagiogneiss TSS granite W.R. Granodiorite W.R. garnet-stauroN27 25.159 E88 37.530 W.R. granitic gneiss TSS granite W.R. Two-mica granites W.R. Chl-Se phyllitic schist W.R. TranshimalayanW.R. Linzigong lava W.R. Migmatites Gangdese belt HHC Augen sillimanitebiotite gneiss Group Ι Basalt S. Lhasa terraneW.R. Group Ι Basalt TSS granite W.R. Leucogranites sediments N32°30 E80°06 TSS W.R. Metabasite-amphibolite TSS granite W.R. Leucogranite W.R. garnet schist N27 27.958 E88 31.473 W.R. granitic gneiss TSS granite W.R. Two-mica granites W.R. Bt-Ms phyllite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. tourmaline-bearing leucogranite Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt gabbro Migmatites Gangdese belt HHC Sillimanite biotitegneiss		19.1 893 720 116.2 802.9 962 704 685 2.31 278 171.4 187.2 90.5 425.8 674 21.8 114 935 84.2 165.4 97.06 31 50.2 0.55 435 234.1 12.68 113.3 548.3 696 36.9 194 192 96 980 92.91 57.51 34.9 99.3 6.5 171 211 3.35 741 171.3 183.8 151.5 128.5 694 46.5 172 148 106 848 657 36.5 35.66 486.5 45.9 35 6.2 186 140	0.057 0.236 0.29 3.781 3.133 0.42 0.024 2.332 13.6286 38.44 1003 4.936 1025 0.3657 0.0037 0.241 14.0162 2.9201 0.248 4.678 8.31 0.0244 3.59 0.0131 2.680178 0.606 2.4565 3.3586 53.99 0.212 0.1428 12.78 0.0377 2.19	0.70485 0.70734 0.70587 0.720692 0.720806 0.706694 25c 0.704191 0.712158 0.717663 2.9E-05 17 0.953378 14 0.705516 12 0.711575 0.7835 0.705956 11 1.098777 0.70411 0.719185 15 0.709596 18 0.716476 0.00001 0.745158 0.706279 8E-06 0.711971 0.80355 0.704881 14 0.746684 0.70402 0.740012 1.1E-05 0.716324 9 0.708479 17 0.715531 1.8E-05 0.745316 1.083722 1.9E-05 0.705176 0.705637 1.3E-05 0.81429 0.704618 13 0.732574	9.1 22.8 21.1 5.3 3.14 4.79 6.61 6.8 3.36 9.06 7.01 7.87 4.14 4.683 2.2 2.78 0.54 1.8 29.18 4.23 3.65 36.79 8.14 5.12 2.833 4.5 9.74 2.92 5.33 2.5 49.98 4.6 3.24 24.81 6.75 5.13 3.48 4.514 10.9 3.7 4.17	44.1 128 124 31.1 10.8 22.32 37.52 35.8 11.7 1.94 38.68 50 26.5 26.19 9 9.87 1.4 8.5 5.43 15.9 16.8 6.75 43.34 37 14.38 19.2 66.35 11.1 25.69 10.4 8.871 17.4 14.9 4.36 38.13 35 12.1 20.6 48.1 15.5 30.83	0.125 0.187 0.184 0.01104 0.01055 0.1 0.1768 0.1065 0.1723 0.1142 0.16 0.1293 0.1095 0.1082 0.1551 0.1704 0.17 0.1258 0.112024 0.1314 0.111 0.1085 0.091869 0.1192 0.1411 0.0891 0.1586 0.167 0.1426 0.10685 0.1316 0.1062 0.107 0.174 0.1325 0.137 0.1472 0.0821
	T238B THB T606 THB CHP4 THB JPT5.2 THB 10SR-28 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa S. Tibet 1. Dianzhong Formation S.E. TibeMG Eastern syntaxis S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB S33 SW. TibeNiyangqu River TSS 310021 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex HHC 57 Sikkim North Sikkim Myang TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0646-3 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC70 Central NLLHS Nawakot Group LH/HLT-20 C. Nepal Langtang THB 119C E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS T0837-2 S.W. Lha29°N 86°E THB Lz9930 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB T0878-1 Nyingchi HHCLM207 E. Nepal THB BD16 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112120 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo	Linzigong volcanics Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Namling potassic lava Bima Fm Sangri Yala-Xiangbo leucogranites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Fagfog Quartzite Syabru Bensi augen gneiss Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi Xiaru leucogranite Dianzhong E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Pei S.	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. S. Lhasa terraneW.R. sediments TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TranshimalayanW.R. TSS granite W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt HHC Gangdese belt HHC	BA dacite Group II Basalt N29°28 E94°25 Leucogranite garnet fibrolitN27 31.642 E88 36.396 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Pale-green quartzite augen gneiss tourmaline-bearing leucogranite gabbro Migmatites Sillimanite biotitegneiss		5.2 751 206.2 206.2 638 731 1.65 275 630.2 74.9 674 43.7 171 146 107 976 712 36.8 52.44 390.1 41.7 24 3.8 33 213	0.023 0.202 3.063 1.26 0.0174 0.3472 3.3849 0.273 58.07 0.3891 0.1506 17.81 0.008 19.24	0.705082 0.7078 0.720856 0.706945 8b 0.705074 0.719489 0.808553 1.7E-05 8 0.746425 0.707024 1.6E-05 1.088746 2.3E-05 0.705671 0.705683 1.1E-05 0.83052 0.704334 10 0.90654	4.7 22.6 4.7 5.14 3 38.56 3.97 5.27 13.96 2.21 5.28 3.53 3.945 9.5 5.653 3.6 12.21	21.2 129 30 22.9 8.5 7.687 14.7 24.8 2.38 10.51 39 13.3 18.61 36.8 28.8 15.5 63.28	0.132 0.185 0.01086 0.09 0.1356 0.2138 0.12001 0.1286 0.103 0.1273 0.085206 0.161 0.1282 0.1562 0.119 0.1434 0.1171
	T239 THB T607 THB CHP6 THB JPT8 THB 10SR-33 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa S. Tibet 1. Dianzhong Formation S.E. TibeMG Eastern syntaxis S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB S34 S. Tibet Lhasa River TSS 310037 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex LH 59a Sikkim North Sikkim Singhik TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0646-4 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC71 Central NLLHS Nawakot Group LH/HLT-33 C. Nepal Langtang THB 119D E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS T0837-3 S.W. Lha29°N 86°E THB Lz9924 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB T0878-2 Nyingchi HHCLM209 E. Nepal THB YB5-2 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112125 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo	Linzigong volcanics Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Namling potassic lava Bima Fm Sangri Yala-Xiangbo leucogranites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Fagfog Quartzite Syabru gneiss Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi Xiaru leucogranite Dianzhong E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Namche Barwa S.	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. S. Lhasa terraneW.R. sediments TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt Gangdese belt HHC	A rhyolite Group II Basalt N29°23 E90°53 Leucogranite garnet-stauroN27 30.956 E88 33.454 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Chl-Bt-Ms phyllite nonmigmatitic, kyanitebearing pelitic gneiss tourmaline-bearing leucogranite gabbro Migmatites Garnet sillimanitebiotite gneiss		31.1 721 314.6 314.6 527 688 5.29 578 400.3 128.3 690 36.5 182 166 118 905 693 42 65.58 355.7 31.7 46 2.5	0.171 1.497 3.124 5.75 0.0264 0.9284 3.1686 49.3 0.5336 0.107 15.66 0.0121	0.706282 0.71114 0.720617 0.711373 25c 0.704609 0.714446 0.715601 1.2E-05 11 0.745396 1.041412 1.5E-05 0.705883 0.705705 1.4E-05 0.83156 0.704553 13 0.883291	4.2 22.7 1.6 4.64 1.1 31.07 1.77 3.58 35.37 7.59 4.76 3.32 4.273 9 3.3	20.2 131 11.4 19.1 4.1 5.789 5.68 17.7 6.72 39.01 33 11.6 21.46 33 14.7	0.127 0.184 0.01074 0.08 0.1469 0.1567 0.112165 0.1224 0.1149 0.1177 0.173 0.1204 0.1654 0.1491
	T136B THB T608 THB CHP7 THB 10SR-41 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa S. Tibet 1. Dianzhong Formation S.E. TibeMG Eastern syntaxis S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben THB S35 Lhasa Xiangqu River TSS 310038 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex HHC64a Sikkim North Sikkim Toong TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0646-5 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC72 Central NLLHS Nawakot Group LH/HLT-34 C. Nepal Langtang THB 120A E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS T0837-4 S.W. Lha29°N 86°E THB Lz9922 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB T0878-3 Nyingchi HHCLM211 E. Nepal THB YB5-3 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112201 E. SyntaxW. Namche Baga	Linzigong volcanics Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Bima Fm Sangri Yala-Xiangbo leucogranites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Kuncha Syabru gneiss Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi Xiaru leucogranite mafic dike E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Namche Barwa S.	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. S. Lhasa terraneW.R. sediments TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TranshimalayanW.R. TSS granite W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt Gangdese belt HHC	R Group II Basalt N29°31 E89°05 Leucogranite sillimanite m N27 33.637 E88 39.152 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Bt-Ms phyllite nonmigmatitic, kyanitebearing pelitic gneiss tourmaline-bearing leucogranite gabbro Migmatites Garnet biotitegneiss		242 709 11 274.9 649 181 97 558 21.02 113 45 0.5	53.3 607 500 29.6 48.8 150 785 82.2 1100	13.17 0.276 3.482 0.0634 0.312 3.4873 0.324 19.91 0.05533 0.3869 19.54 0.0056	0.739981 0.70913 0.720817 0.70415 0.715149 0.729187 2.1E-05 9 0.746377 0.70745 1.3E-05 0.848154 1.3E-05 0.705002 0.706055 1.5E-05 0.87698 0.704289 15 0.958788	58.8 19.3 2.58 1.7 46.48 3.36 3.46 25.16 2.26 6.08 6.22 9.593 9.7 3.9	142 112 9.38 4.6 8.818 12.6 15.8 4.65 11.87 38 29 47.73 47.4 17.4	0.251 0.176 0.01068 0.1665 0.223 0.114209 0.1325 0.1118 0.1153 0.115409 0.13 0.1216 0.1238 0.1457
	T134 THB CHP8 THB 10SR-43 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa S. Tibet 1. Dianzhong Formation S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben Lithology (PVR : potassic, UPVR : ultra potassic) Linzigong volcanics Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Bima Fm Sangri THB S36 Lhasa Geerzangbu TSS D6344-B1 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E Cuonadong granitic gneiss TSS JK3/15 S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome Kuday dykes TSS 310008 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex Yala-Xiangbo pelites HHC 66 Sikkim North Sikkim Chungthang-Lachung TSS T0835-LG1S. Tibet 86°E Xiaru dome TSS T0647-1 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E Malashan gneiss dome LH LC73 Central NLLHS Nawakot Group Kuncha HHCLT-21 C. Nepal Langtang Gosainkund gneiss THB 120B E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi TSS T0659-T-1 S.W. Lha28.°N 85°E Paiku leucogranite THB T0878-4 Nyingchi E. Gangdese batholith HHCSM201 E. Nepal Langtang metamorphic THB DZ09-1 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese Yeba fm HHC 112202 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo Namche Barwa S.	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. S. Lhasa terraneW.R. sediments TSS W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt Gangdese belt HHC	R Group II Basalt N32°27 E80°10 Latite Pelite garnet gneissN27 37.233 E88 39.729 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Bt-Ms phyllite gneiss tourmaline-bearing leucogranite gabbro Schists Garnet sillimanite gneiss		206 751 6.29 330 84 240.5 152.9 443 682 614 64 1595 733 19.2 184 168 108 834 459 32.4 40.6 120 7.1	1.348 3.283 0.0296 14.9213 0.15 1.842 3.1652 0.1512 4.99 0.0722	0.713115 0.72077 0.704164 0.71222 0.830656 1.7E-05 11 0.7077 7E-06 0.718011 1.6E-05 0.745724 0.705754 1.5E-05 0.75768 0.705249 14 1.172496	11.7 21.9 3.1 8.66 7.78 7.8 39.97 1.53 3.88 29.2 6.77 6.67 0.79 12.5 3.7	64.5 128 12.3 44 45.51 44.8 7.802 3.14 17.6 5.48 34.99 42 2.02 53.5 15.5	0.109 0.01061 0.153 0.119 0.103 0.105 0.117508 0.1334 0.1135 0.1169 0.1412 0.1412
	T136A THB CHP10 THB 10SR-23 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa S. Tibet 1. Dianzhong Formation S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben TSS T71 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya gneiss THB S37 Lhasa Yarlung zangbu TSS D6344-B7 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E TSS JK3/17 S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome TSS 310013 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex LH 94 Sikkim North Sikkim Sangkalang TSS T0835-LG2S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0647-2 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC53 Central NULHS Nawakot Group HHCLT-22 C. Nepal Langtang THB 120E E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS T0659-T-2 S.W. Lha28.°N 85°E THB T0878-5 Nyingchi HHCSM203 E. Nepal THB DZ11-1 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112203 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo	Linzigong volcanics Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Bima Fm Sangri Kangmar gneiss Cuonadong granitic gneiss Kuday dykes Yala-Xiangbo pelites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Nourpul Gosainkund gneiss Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi Paiku leucogranite E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Namche Barwa S.	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. S. Lhasa terraneW.R. TSS W.R. sediments TSS W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt Gangdese belt HHC	R Volcanic tuff bt Gneiss Latite Pelite garnet mica sN27 31.965 E88 30.591 N29°19 E89°06 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Ms siliceous sandstone gneiss tourmaline-bearing leucogranite gabbro Schists Garnet sillimanite gneiss		275 713 35.9 159 377 74 144.3 174.5 46.5 676 500 43 64.9 1572 665 27.7 175 156 101 808 488 10.8 32.7 180 81.6	17.11 3.144 0.2078 10.78 16.8048 0.13 3.5038 69.38 3.242 0.0847 4.96 0.3406	0.737603 0.72072 0.705515 0.77277 0.00001 0.713761 8 0.841679 1.4E-05 0.70784 7E-06 0.719065 1.2E-05 1.172756 15 0.74592 0.705537 1.5E-05 0.75043 0.707272 9 0.87613	17.1 21.3 11.2 3.65 10.1 7.61 5.1 55.03 3.02 4.2 10.37 8.96 8.23 1.51 8.9 3.5	101 124 52.3 16.3 53.2 44.33 26.7 9.828 11.1 19.5 1.9 45.54 71 4.06 37.7 14.8	0.103 0.01065 0.1291 0.135 0.114 0.104 0.1154 0.107513 0.16 0.1303 0.1108 0.119 0.1425 0.1416
	T234C THB CHP12 TSS T72 THB S38 TSS D1542-B2 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E S. Tibet 2. Nianbo Formation S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya gneiss Lhasa Yarlung zangbu TSS TO3/14i S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome TSS 310015 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex LH 97 Sikkim North Sikkim Mangan petrol pump TSS T0835-LG3S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0647-3 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC54 Central NULHS Nawakot Group HHCLT-24 C. Nepal Langtang THB 138A E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang THB T0878-6 Nyingchi HHCSM202 E. Nepal THB BD19 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112204 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo	Linzigong volcanics Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Kangmar gneiss Cuonadong granitic gneiss Kuday dykes Yala-Xiangbo pelites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Benighat Slates Gosainkund gneiss Lengduo pluton E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Namche Barwa S.	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. sediments TSS W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. Gangdese belt HHC Gangdese belt HHC	D bt Gneiss Dacite Pelite mica schist N27 29.534 E88 31.686 N29°20 E90°16 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Black phyllite gneiss gabbro Schists Garnet sillimanite gneiss		46.5 685 141 489 133 151.7 202.2 1120 692 34 65.4 1269 777 35.6 196 162 184 750 25.2 132 0.8 264 119	0.12 2.951 11.91 21.6344 0.3 3.8598 63.08 3.4965 0.641 0.0565 3.04 0.0059 1.31	0.705179 0.720608 0.77305 0.00002 0.712849 9 0.877716 1.4E-05 0.70789 6E-06 0.716368 1.6E-05 1.081933 14 0.74593 0.707537 8E-06 0.705592 7E-06 0.75294 0.704843 9 0.723834	6.2 20.6 2.94 8.08 7.78 4.8 41.12 4.51 3.64 35.78 8.35 3.08 5.4 6.38 4.9 10.01	35.2 120 12.5 45.9 52.58 23.8 7.305 19.1 16.5 7 43.54 18 22.4 29.29 21.2 55.36	0.107 0.01064 0.142 0.106 0.089 0.1213 0.106946 0.14 0.1335 0.1182 0.1159 0.102882 0.1449 0.132 0.1388 0.1098
	T235B THB CHP13 THB DJC1302 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite S. Tibet 2. Nianbo Formation S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben TSS T97-61 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya gneiss THB S39 before E Yarlung zangbu TSS D1536-B2 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E TSS SD51 S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome TSS 310029 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex LH 82 Sikkim Kalimpong h Pedong TSS T0835-LG4S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0658 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC55 Central NULHS Nawakot Group HHCLT-29 C. Nepal Langtang THB 138B E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang THB T0289 N.E. Lhasa HHCSM206 E. Nepal THB YB5-1 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112301 E. SyntaxW. Namche S. Baga	Linzigong volcanics Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Dajia Co Kangmar gneiss Cuonadong granitic gneiss Kuday dykes Yala-Xiangbo pelites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Nourpul Gosainkund gneiss Lengduo pluton E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Pei S.	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. sediments TSS W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. Gangdese belt HHC Gangdese belt HHC	R trachyte bt Gneiss Dacite Pelite garnet mica sN27 07.153 E88 35.209 29°50.2985°45.988' N29°19 E94°20 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Chl-Se phyllite gneiss basaltic dyke Schists Biotite gneiss		116 772 134 144 374 75 275.4 237.4 108 701 86 63.6 1672 613 30.4 205 162 229 581 28.8 91 48.3 65 110	3.088 3.283 4.84 17.0303 0.13 2.4966 58.28 3.6571 1.028 0.1938 3.58 0.1285 4.91	0.708966 0.720679 0.707263 0.00001 0.77305 0.00002 0.713521 9 0.843617 1.7E-05 0.70784 1.1E-05 0.715313 1.6E-05 1.112372 16 0.749062 0.710662 1.1E-05 0.705469 1.4E-05 0.75263 0.704958 10 0.763553	n/d	7.3 23.1 4.81 4.59 9.25 7.11 6.4 36.71 2.28 3.81 25.75 5.7 6.73 3.5 5 6.56	n/d	39.2 131 27.2 23.1 46.7 44.77 34.2 6.699 8.45 16.6 4.62 30.53 43 16.3 23 33.08	0.112 0.01093 0.12 0.120 0.096 0.1135 0.109856 0.16 0.1389 0.1084 0.11 0.097812 0.1312 0.130* 0.1406 0.1204
	T042D THB CHP15 THB DJC1303 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben TSS T136 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya gneiss THB T1 Lhasa Sand TSS D6304-B2 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E TSS JK3/16 S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome TSS 310034 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex HHC 106 Sikkim Kalimpong h Rishop TSS T0835-LG5S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0661-1A S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC56 Central NULHS Nawakot Group THB 138D E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang THB 09TB21-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-D2-Nyingchi HHCSSM6 E. Nepal THB DZ01-2 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112302 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo	Linzigong volcanics Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Dajia Co Kangmar gneiss Cuonadong granitic gneiss Kuday dykes Yala-Xiangbo pelites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Benighat Slates Lengduo pluton Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Pei S.	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. TSS W.R. sediments TSS W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt HHC Gangdese belt HHC	B trachyte bt Gneiss Dacite Pelite garnet mica sN27 06.357 E88 38.734 29°53.8285°44.547' N29°23 E90°49 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Black phyllite Diorite basaltic dyke Schists Dacite Sillimanite biotite gneiss		29.6 563 125 173 319 97 222.2 658 187 219 30.5 27.8 111.3 26	487 513 44 65.5 885 55.1 30.4 172 578 479	0.176 3.272 11.31 14.1127 0.31 0.7279 62.55 3.142 0.1844 0.0994 515 0.1732	0.703779 0.727212 0.78009 0.00001 0.714176 12 0.823222 1.7E-05 0.70714 1.1E-05 0.845424 1.9E-05 1.05725 20 0.743283 0.704579 0.706371 1.2E-05 0.76231 0.704811 13 1.121539	4.6 21.1 4.53 3.3 10.3 3.82 4.8 42.6 3 3.74 34.4 14.44 2.79 10.5 7.81 5.3	20.9 117 26.1 15.3 53.4 20.55 25.4 8.381 10.9 15.3 6.11 181 12.6 58 38.07 24.6	0.132 0.01118 0.13 0.116 0.113 0.1154 0.118436 0.17 0.1479 0.1074 0.1342 0.1094 0.124 0.1303
	T006B2 S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite THB 09NDS-11 S.E. Tibet Lhasa THB CHP17 S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben THB DJC1304 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS T100 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite THB T2 Lhasa Sand TSS D6304-B3 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E TSS T108 S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome TSS 310039 E. Himal 92E Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex LH 123 Sikkim Kalimpong h Neora valley TSS T0835-LG6S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0661-2A S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LC57 Central NULHS Nawakot Group THB 140A E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang TSS LZH1101a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB22 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-D2-Nyingchi HHCRM201 E. Nepal THB DZ02-1 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112303 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo	Linzigong volcanics Nuri intrusive rocks Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Dajia Co Kuday granite Cuonadong granitic gneiss Kuday dykes Yala-Xiangbo pelites Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Benighat Slates Damu pluton Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Pei S.	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. sediments TSS W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt HHC	B Granite porphyry trachyte 29°50.2985°45.988' bt-mu Gr+gt N29°27 E90°55 Dacite Pelite fibrolite mica N27 06.170 E88 40.405 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Phyllitic slate Tg Diorite basaltic dyke Schists Dacite Sillimanite biotite gneiss		41 57.1 568 119 156 345 59 275.4 111.1 473 535 537 61 63.3 1458 647 16.9 172 193 200 582 430 72 21.7 551 45.7 150 80.9 313 18	0.251 0.3093 3.153 7.33 15.7879 0.12 1.1691 2.5755 0.849 17.8085 0.1138 0.1591 2.69 0.717 0.16	0.707243 0.706387 0.728115 0.76605 0.00003 0.711504 12 0.835659 1.3E-05 0.71059 8E-06 0.718509 1.3E-05 0.742167 0.707686 1.1E-05 0.730355 9E-06 0.704521 0.706069 9E-06 0.76075 0.705833 12 0.706741	4.6 2.53 20.9 4.68 1.34 7.81 5.7 5.5 43.24 0.72 4.08 23.16 4.98 2.71 2.44 8.5 4.7 4.36	20.9 15.8 116 26 4.9 41 35.72 30.9 8.217 1.66 18.4 4.99 29 9.1 10.5 35.6 23.6 13.87	0.133 0.0971 0.01117 0.167 0.115 0.096 0.1074 0.114399 0.1342 0.1303 0.1798 0.141 0.1447 0.1909
	T116A THB 09NDZ-12 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite Lhasa THB CHP18 S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben THB DJC1305 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS D1614 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T101 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite HimaS40 Xiangquan River TSS SD50 S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome TSS 310014 E. Himal 92E LH 147 Sikkim Kalimpong h Lava road TSS T0839-LG1S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0661-3A S. Tibet 29°N 86°E HHCHW8 Western HHC Himalayan gneisses THB 140B E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang TSS LZH1102a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB38-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-D2-Nyingchi HHCSNM2 E. Nepal THB DZ03-1 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112402 E. SyntaxW. Namche W. Luxia	Linzigong volcanics Nuri intrusive rocks Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Kuday granite Kuday dykes Tethyan mafic Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Formation I Damu pluton Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Dongjiu S.	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS granite W.R. sediments TSS volcanics W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Gangdese belt HHC	B Granite porphyry trachyte 29°50.2985°45.988' granodiorite bt-mu Gr+gt N31°30 E79°48 Rhyolite Mafic kyanite-fibrol N27 01.742 E88 42.062 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Grt-Ms-Bt gneiss Tg Diorite basaltic dyke Augen gneiss Dacite Two-mica quartziteschist		73 33.9 562 123 149.55 242.57 327 778 561 180 60 93 676 0.6 297.9 604 44.6 176 180 163 509 280 63.5 25.8 498 49.5 131.4 234.7 149 49 71	0.647 0.1261 2.986 1.7865 8.64 0.39 1436.8 39.14 2.8258 0.825 0.1495 0.1938 5.2 2.4112 4.2	0.708556 0.7063 0.728712 0.72372 0.77149 0.00002 0.732 10 0.70731 1.1E-05 0.708029 1.4E-05 0.98783 15 0.74061 0.707945 3.3E-05 0.704561 0.706088 1.4E-05 0.76609 0.709351 12 0.74611	7.3 2.82 22.3 3.96 12.73 1.85 2.89 3 37.36 3.02 3.84 30.51 7.98 2.23 3.92 9.2 4.1 3.49	32.3 17.6 122 22.1 67.01 6.9 13.98 9.9 7.244 12.2 17.2 6.7 113 5.56 19 49.6 20.5 17.57	0.138 0.0973 0.01133 0.1148 0.162 0.125 0.1808 0.116726 0.15 0.1351 0.1327 0.1246 0.1121 0.1156 0.1206
	T083C THB 09NDZ-15 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite Lhasa THB DJC1306 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS D1616 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T104 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite TSS T109 S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome LH 149 Sikkim Kalimpong h Lava road TSS T0839-LG2S. Tibet 86°E TSS T0661-4 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E HHCHW9 Western HHC Himalayan gneisses THB 12PD01-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks THB 140C E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang TSS LZH1103a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB39 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-D1-Nyingchi HHCNM203 E. Nepal THB DZ03-2 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112404 E. SyntaxW. Namche E. Deyiang	Linzigong volcanics Nuri intrusive rocks Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Kuday granite Kuday dykes Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Formation I Pana formation Damu pluton Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm Pei S.	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Gangdese belt HHC	B Granodiorite trachyte Quartz monzonite 29°50.2985°45.988' bt-mu Gr+gt Rhyolite or microgranite ? chlorite-muscN27 00.124 E88 41.876 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Ky-Grt-Ms-Bt gneiss Basalt Tg Diorite basaltic dyke Augen gneiss Dacite Garnet sillimanitegneiss		85.9 282 123 42.91 918.93 294 433 119 41 40 366 554 43.6 185 180 92.3 1305 55 812 350 67.9 22.7 592 36.6 79 68.4 99 219	0.846 1.885 1.0728 8.38 0.31 36.72 2.9703 0.2041 15.3662 0.1108 0.2618 8.81 0.4621 6.42	0.705341 0.707606 0.70725 1.2E-05 0.71906 0.78518 0.00004 0.7076 0.00002 0.986412 15 0.739806 0.705197 1.3E-05 0.73109 6E-06 0.70443 0.705913 1.2E-05 0.77203 0.705466 12 0.799306	5.7 4.41 4.62 6.58 1.08 2.18 38.31 3.17 3.76 29.62 10.6 3.73 3.7 2.76 16.4 3.9 9.68	24.7 31.2 27.2 25.27 3.8 10.12 7.192 12.4 17.4 5.86 50.4 22 11.8 13.2 105 18.2 50.8	0.139 0.0856 0.1197 0.173 0.13 0.113014 0.16 0.1307 0.1197 0.1272 0.1901 0.127 0.0944 0.128 0.1157
	T047 THB 09NDZ-19 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite Lhasa THB DJC1307 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS D1617 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T105 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite HHC22D C. Nepal TSS G40 S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome HHC 156 Sikkim Kalimpong h Lolaygoan TSS T0839-LG3S. Tibet 86°E TSS TMLS-09A S. Tibet 29°N 86°E HHCHW36 Western HHC Himalayan gneisses THB 12PD05-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks TSS LZH1107a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB41-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-D1-Nyingchi THB DZ05-1 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112601 E. SyntaxW. Namche S. Layue	Linzigong volcanics Nuri intrusive rocks Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Kuday granite Manaslu granite Nyainqentanglha gneisses Xiaru dome Malashan gneiss dome Formation I Pana formation Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Yeba fm Namche Barwa S.	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Gangdese belt HHC	B Felsophyre trachyte Gabbro bt-mu Gr+gt Gneiss garnet mica sN27 04.290 E88 36.886 29°50.2985°45.988' granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Grt-Bt gneiss Basaltic andesite Tg Diorite basaltic dyke Dacite Garnet sillimanitemigmatite		120 82 123 43.83 679.22 445 282 145 70 299 210 593 42.1 203 187 104 526 385 70.6 14.2 571 36.1 80.2 66 180	0.783 0.8424 0.1351 6.03 5.98 4.07 40.71 3.1373 0.5728 16.2554 0.072 0.325 0.7963 7.9	0.705841 0.707072 0.707417 1.4E-05 0.70667 0.78308 0.00002 0.74332 40 0.70903 1.1E-05 1.002769 15 0.749162 0.706662 7E-06 0.731431 5E-06 0.704427 0.706022 1.4E-05 0.706303 12 0.804812	5.8 2.88 5.09 8.43 1.72 8.23 32.32 2.61 4.27 29.04 7.38 2.96 3.3 14.2 3.5 8.53	27.6 19.3 28.9 33.3 5.7 58.36 6.182 10.5 20.3 5.95 35.7 10.1 15.7 87 17.6 45.37	0.127 0.0902 0.1574 0.183 0.141 0.085 0.115147 0.15 0.1273 0.1239 0.1251 0.1763 0.1269 0.0987 0.1209 0.1141
	T006B1 S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite THB 09NDS-17 S.E. Tibet Lhasa THB DJC1308 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS D1618-2 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T110 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite HHCA404 C. Nepal TSS G38E S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome LH 159 Sikkim Kalimpong h Lolaygoan TSS T0777-A1 S. Tibet 88°E TSS TMLS-09B S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH MW7 Western MCTZ MCT zone THB 12PD05-2 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks TSS LZH1111a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB45-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-D1-Nyingchi THB DZ07-4 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese	Linzigong volcanics Nuri intrusive rocks Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Kouwu Kouwo granite Palung granite Nyainqentanglha gneisses Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome MCT zone Pana formation Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Yeba fm	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Gangdese belt	BA Quartz diorite porphyrite trachyte 29°50.2985°45.988' Gabbro bt-mu Gr Gneiss fibrolite mica N27 01.117 E88 33.829 granitic gneiss Two-mica granites Grt-Bt banded gneiss Basaltic andesite Tg Diorite basaltic dyke Dacite		36.1 134 121 23.78 624.16 409 715 41 64 237 360 178 153 203 173 151 1008 350 71.3 21.3 516 33.4 113	0.256 0.544 0.1867 1.84 37.8 1.71 3.37 3.3912 0.1191 0.2602 1.8614	0.705951 0.705164 0.707391 1.4E-05 0.70637 0.73848 0.00001 0.82131 50 0.70921 1.2E-05 0.737192 8 0.748864 0.704448 0.705967 1.2E-05 0.708627 12	4.1 4.64 4.72 7.61 2.73 8.7 38.33 3.29 4.69 35.24 7.54 2.73 3.45 14.6 4	19.9 27.2 25.9 30.78 12.2 63.12 7.282 14 21.8 6.93 36.3 9.17 14.4 94.2 20.4	0.124 0.1033 0.1529 0.135 0.084 0.114369 0.14 0.1302 0.1188 0.1444 0.0937 0.1205
	T056B THB 08ND-4 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite Lhasa THB DJC1309 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS D1619 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T111 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite HHC 132 C. Nepal THB QC4 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHC214x Sikkim West Sikkim Yoksom TSS T0777-A2 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0659-3 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH/HMW35 Western MCTZ MCT zone THB 12PD05-3 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks TSS LZH1113a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB46-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-14-1Nyingchi	Linzigong volcanics Nuri intrusive rocks Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Kouwu Kouwo granite Makalu granite Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome MCT zone Pana formation Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Transhimalaya gW.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt	BA Quartz diorite (southern) trachyte 29°50.2985°45.988' Gabbro bt-mu Gr two-mica-granite garnet-kyanitN27 21.362 E88 13.237 granitic gneiss Leucogranites Grt-Bt-Ms phyllitic schist Basaltic andesite Tg Diorite mafic enclave		12 89.2 117 36.24 733.03 266 702 87 123 335 37.4 191 171 369 38.9 157 940 410 83.9 37.1 509 54.4	0.131 0.3678 0.1102 2.04 26.03 3.23 27.4141 0.4826 0.2109 0.2178	0.706038 0.704553 0.707358 1.3E-05 0.7061 0.73843 0.00001 0.75283 0.736636 8 0.763382 0.70644 1.1E-05 0.704496 0.705972 7E-06	3.6 3.05 4.32 7 3.35 2.3 49.6 3.67 0.94 47.12 7.33 3.77 3.23 10.4	15.7 17.2 24.5 27.38 14.9 7.5 9.486 16 3.36 9.46 36 13 15.1 41.7	0.139 0.1073 0.1495 0.136 0.121 0.115133 0.14 0.1693 0.1213 0.1232 0.1294 0.1508
	T049B THB 09nds-2 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite Lhasa THB SRD08-05 S.E. TibeE. Lhasa N. Gangdese THB DJC1310 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS D1620 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T113 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite HB68 Ladakh granodiorite THB BD-7-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E LH 246a Sikkim West Sikkim Dentam TSS T0777-A3 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0659-4 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH MW38 Western MCTZ MCT zone THB 12PD05-4 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks HHCZB06-80M E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1114 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB47-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-14-1Nyingchi THB LKA-01 Lhasa	Linzigong volcanics Nuri intrusive rocks Sharang granitoids Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Kouwu Kouwo granite Ladakh Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome MCT zone Pana formation Zhibai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. HHC W.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava	BA Monzogranite Quartz monzonite trachyte 29°50.2985°45.988' Gabbro bt-mu Gr none sillimanite m N27 16.456 E88 10.333 granitic gneiss Leucogranites Ep-Ms-Bt mylonitic gneiss Basaltic andesite pelitic migmatite 2mg Diorite dioritic enclave basaltic andesite		70.3 156 151.01 567.28 643 310 123 33.09 558.9 66 131 236.0 336.0 186 151 338 38.1 133 963 128 44.5 237 111 3.05 907 51.9 23.5	0.317 1.451 0.7704 0.143 1.44 0.17 53.18 3.56 25.6383 0.3971 8.4071 6.3538 0.0097 0.214	0.706418 0.705445 0.706185 0.70579 0.7377 0.00001 0.705 1 0.71493 0.737548 16 0.761717 0.706448 1.3E-05 0.809799 0.763556 6E-06 0.704231 0.705992 1.4E-05 0.704528 12	4.7 4.78 1.89 4.88 9.63 5.05 3.9 53.43 3.47 0.98 38.44 7.6 7.03 2.52 1.43 10.6 3.79	25.5 25.8 36.9 26.7 39.09 23.3 25.8 9.852 14.3 3.37 7.5 36.9 35.4 8.53 6.95 49.3 16.8	0.112 0.1122 0.0311 0.1545 0.131 0.108 0.111003 0.15 0.1759 0.1179 0.1247 0.1201 0.1788 0.1241 0.13
	T054A THB 08ND-15 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite Lhasa THB SRD08-10 S.E. TibeE. Lhasa N. Gangdese THB DJC1311 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS D1631-1 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T114 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite THB T849 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites HB74 diorite THB BD-8-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHC 267 Sikkim West Sikkim Kabur TSS T0777-A4 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0659-6 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH MW61 Western MCTZ MCT zone THB 12PD02-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks HHCZB06-66M E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1115 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB47-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-14-6Nyingchi THB LKA-02 Lhasa	Linzigong volcanics Nuri intrusive rocks Sharang granitoids Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Kouwu Kouwo granite Bolonggong#3 Granite Ladakh Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome MCT zone Pana formation Pai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics	Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. HHC W.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt	BA Quartz diorite (northern) Quartz diorite trachyte 29°50.2985°45.988' Diabase bt-mu Gr epidote-bearing granodiorite none garnet-2nd s N27 15.512 E88 09.255 granitic gneiss Leucogranites Chl-Se phyllite Dacite pelitic migmatite 2mg Diorite mafic enclave basaltic andesite		33.6 76.99 756.96 557 123 26.57 686.81 70 139 188 190 97 243 118 348 37.3 338 482 276 50.7 487 63.1 28 468 113 21.1	0.174 0.2943 0.1713 1.45 0.966 0.352 3.91 5.96 26.963 2.025 15.8668 23.0395 0.173 0.2255	0.705779 0.70613 0.70589 0.73732 0.00001 0.720927 6E-06 0.7048 1 0.71369 0.738734 12 0.7602 0.708328 1.1E-05 0.78399 0.745409 7E-06 0.704451 0.706373 6E-06	5.5 5.9 4.65 6.7 4.4 5.68 3.06 36.8 2.82 1.19 41.38 7.96 5.81 4.32 3.35 19.5 3.75	23.8 28.9 26.5 26.54 20.1 39.2 18 7.117 11.3 4.12 7.84 45.2 27.8 15.7 15.4 114 16.3	0.139 0.1233 0.1489 0.132 0.0877 0.617 0.116425 0.15 0.1747 0.1145 0.1066 0.1264 0.1662 0.1316 0.1034
	T062B THB SRD-6 THB DJC1312 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite S.E. TibeE. Lhasa N. Gangdese TSS D1631-2 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T117 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite THB T850 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS T0659-3 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome THB QC5 N. Lhasa30N 90E LH 275 Sikkim West Sikkim Pelling TSS T0777-A5 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0659-11 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LW4 Western LLHS Quartzose Sandstone Fm. THB 12PD03-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks HHCZB06-35M E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1116 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB50 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-14-6Nyingchi THB LKA-03 Lhasa LH KR38 Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sharang granitoids Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Mabja granite Bolonggong#3 Granite Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome Kuncha Fm Pana formation Pai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Outer LH	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya gW.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt	A Granite trachyte Diabase mu-bt Gr+and 29°50.2985°45.988' epidote-bearing granodiorite Tourmaline leucogranite two-mica-granite garnet fibrolitN27 18.308 E88 12.495 granitic gneiss Leucogranites Chl-Se phyllite Dacite pelitic migmatite 2mg Diorite mafic enclave basaltic andesite Shale		83.8 204.03 224.5 404 30.97 671.98 276 33 190.0 541.0 369 38.9 599 115 184 166 327 70.9 359 496 183 296 459 12.4 41.6 480 86.2 47.2	0.6 2.6308 0.1119 1.016 27.414 15.09 3.21 13.3291 1.7949 0.2501 0.4782 11.22	0.705532 0.709077 0.70559 0.721176 0.763382 0.72379 0.74188 0.732263 0.742286 0.704564 0.706519 1.4E-05 6E-06 13 12 0.82303	6.6 6.3 8.48 1.96 5.1 3.36 2.4 50.81 4.68 2.11 17.72 9.67 7.03 2.23 2.78 7.4 3.71	32.1 35.5 34.46 7.8 29.1 0.94 9 9.461 22 7.29 3.68 56.5 39 6.61 12.8 28 16.6	0.124 0.1073 0.1525 0.1049 0.169 0.112095 0.13 0.1751 0.1256 0.1091 0.1307 0.1589 0.1176
	T063 THB SRZK0905S.E. TibeE. Lhasa S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite N. Gangdese THB DJC1313 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS D1631-3 S.E. TibeS. Lhasa close STDS TSS T118 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite THB T1047 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS T0659-4 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome THB 99-5-11-2 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHC 278 Sikkim West Sikkim Pelling TSS T0777-B1 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0659-12 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LW5 Western LLHS Phyllite Fm. THB 12PD04-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks HHCZB09-18M E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1125 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB51-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-14-6Nyingchi THB LKA-04 Lhasa THB T519 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR40 Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sharang granitoids Dajia Co Laguila Fm intrusion Comei LIP Mabja granite Bolonggong#2 Granite Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome Dandagaon Phyllites Pana formation Zhibai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya granite	A Prophyritic granite trachyte 29°50.2985°45.988' Diabase bt-mu Gr+tm Foliated granite Tourmaline leucogranite granite garnet-stauroN27 18.015 E88 13.286 granitic gneiss Leucogranites Bt-Ms-gr black phyllite Dacite pelitic migmatite 2mg Diorite mafic enclave basalt 2 mica Gr Sst		83.1 283.91 118.81 667 122 31.1 671 257 36 173 338 38.1 326.67 121.48 212 45.9 292 119 352 475 209 111 267 207 17.5 560 111 0.736 94.6	0.361 6.9192 0.1333 20.82 1.467 25.638 6.38 7.0914 5.4604 0.0904 0.202 0.842 5.8	0.705562 0.71132 0.707278 1.3E-05 0.70689 0.85328 0.00003 0.72061 6E-06 0.761717 13 0.7099 0.747446 0.76686 0.704346 0.706258 1.4E-05 0.706168 12 0.706755 3E-06 0.77091	4.7 5.37 4.7 8.56 1.76 5.91 3.37 5.61 47.13 2.08 1.5 30.42 8.14 7.77 4.05 2.12 17.6 3.46 12.8	22.8 31.8 26 34.7 7.4 37.4 0.98 28.96 9.431 6.02 5.42 6.92 45.5 35.8 19.6 10.6 99.4 13.4 2.32	0.124 0.102 0.1487 0.144 0.0956 0.176 0.120464 0.1674 0.1209 0.1312 0.1203 0.107 0.1099 0.1109
	T055A THB SRZK0205S.E. TibeE. Lhasa S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite N. Gangdese THB DJC1314 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS T120 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite THB T1066 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS T0659-6 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome THB 99-5-9-3 N. Lhasa30N 90E TSS T0777-B2 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0659-13 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LW62 Western LLHS Quartzite Fm. THB 12PD06-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks HHCZB06-80L E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1126 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB36 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0580-14-9Nyingchi THB LKA-05 Lhasa THB T520 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR41 Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sharang granitoids Dajia Co Mabja granite Bolonggong#4 Granite Yangying potassic volcanic rocks Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome Fagfog Quartzite Pana formation Zhibai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. HHC W.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya granite	A Granite porphyry trachyte 29°50.2985°45.988' bt-mu Gr+tm porphyritic granite Tourmaline leucogranite mylonite-gneiss granitic gneiss Leucogranites White quartzite Dacite pelitic migmatite 2mg Granodiorite mafic enclave basalt 2 mica Gr Shale		17.5 214.72 395.96 417 85.4 297 26 163 348 37.3 318.62 235.71 230 49 349 75.6 410 249 8 129 221 212 35.2 511 47.8 0.267 105.3	0.121 1.5696 32.94 1.147 26.963 2.85 13.3414 4.7497 0.1809 3.10851 0.1992 0.1311 0.859 10.01	0.705156 0.707406 0.8532 0.00001 0.717421 6E-06 0.7602 16 0.70757 0.747321 0.709955 1.1E-05 0.790428 0.739152 7E-06 0.704668 0.705896 1.5E-05 0.705815 10 0.706746 3E-06 0.80036	4.5 4.03 4.56 1.25 6.49 4.12 3.58 1.79 1.89 5.89 8.66 4.29 4.25 2.84 11.9 3.05 12.9	21 22.8 25.6 5.1 49.6 1.19 19.17 4.86 6.16 1.15 48.8 23.4 20 14.4 62.7 11.8 2.46	0.131 0.1071 0.149 0.0792 0.175 0.1856 0.1181 0.1074 0.1109 0.1288 0.1194 0.1147 0.1149 0.128
	T040A THB SRZK0107S.E. TibeE. Lhasa S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite N. Gangdese THB DJC1315 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite TSS T121 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite THB T1067 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS T0659-11 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome THB QC2 N. Lhasa30N 90E TSS T0777-C1 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0659-14 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LW64 Western LLHS Quartzite Fm. THB 12PD07-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks HHCZB06-66L E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1127 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB38-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0934-13 Nyingchi THB LKA-06 Lhasa THB T521 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR44 Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sharang granitoids Dajia Co Mabja granite Bolonggong#4 Granite Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome Fagfog Quartzite Pana formation Pai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya gW.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalaya granite	D Granite porphyry trachyte 29°50.1985°46.037' bt-mu Gr+tm, ky porphyritic granite Two-mica granite biotite-granite granitic gneiss Leucogranites Calcareous white quartzite Dacite pelitic migmatite 2mg Granodiorite mafic enclave alt. 2 mica Gr Shale		110 185.1 235.1 453 55.6 321 30 162 327 70.9 331 122 192 145 333 63.5 340 587 122 78.5 273 165 29.2 517 137 264 117.8	0.704 2.2788 31.17 1.07 13.329 7.85 3.83 15.1554 1.6731 4.5297 0.1632 1.0831 1.115 10.07	0.70597 0.708328 0.706916 1.2E-05 0.85474 0.00001 0.717396 7E-06 0.732263 14 0.71431 0.741996 16 0.748351 0.70757 1.2E-05 0.784105 0.704559 0.708454 1.2E-05 0.706903 3E-06 0.81505	5.4 3.62 4.6 2.33 8.05 7.29 16.2 4.59 1.9 1.51 8.19 1.79 4.04 2.55 2.4 2.61 12.8	27.5 20.4 25.5 9.2 56.7 2.11 98.5 20.5 6.85 0.32 45.4 9.95 17.7 12.8 10.1 9.64 2.39	0.118 0.1076 0.153 0.0857 0.175 0.14 0.1678 0.1276 0.1091 0.1088 0.1201 0.1437 0.1128 0.1212
	T038F THB SRZK0107S.E. TibeE. Lhasa S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite N. Gangdese THB YY1101 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa PVR TSS T73 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite THB T847 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS T0659-12 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome THB QC14 N. Lhasa30N 90E TSS T0777-C2 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0647-4 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LW65 Western LLHS Phyllite Fm. THB 12PD08-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks HHCZB06-35L E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1128 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB41-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0934-14-1Nyingchi THB LKA-07 Lhasa THB T522 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR50 Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sharang granitoids Yangying Lhagoi Kangri granite Bolonggong#4 Granite Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome Dandagaon Phyllites Pana formation Pai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids E. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya gW.R. TSS W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya granite	D Granite porphyry trachyte 29°43.3190°22.321' bt Gr+sill porphyritic granite Two-mica granite two-mica-granite granitic gneiss Graphite-bearing schists Bt-Ms-Gr black phyllite Dacite pelitic migmatite 2mg Granodiorite mafic enclave alt. 2 mica Gr Shale		248 188.6 284.9 65.4 286 227 68 148 292 119 435 290 264 85.6 40.1 798 327 547 22.9 324 354 107 21 598 63.5 200 115.3	10.99 1.9167 9.64 0.891 7.091 4.34 8.92 0.1452 0.2051 9.8323 0.1017 0.119 1.171 5.13	0.715798 0.707964 0.71217 0.74063 0.00002 7E-06 0.711953 5E-06 0.747446 16 0.70791 0.745986 12 0.708424 0.74073 0.728101 9E-06 0.704411 0.705544 0.00001 0.706888 10 0.706874 4E-06 0.74993	6 4.97 16.1 1.84 7.39 5.42 6.3 3.84 2.84 27.53 7.77 1.47 4.52 2.03 8.4 2.6 12.6	31 28.5 105 8.1 43.8 1.5 49.3 14.8 15.1 4.96 43.9 7.82 18 10.5 48 9.62 2.44	0.117 0.1054 0.137 0.102 0.167 0.16 0.1138 0.1088 0.1136 0.1522 0.1168 0.1059 0.1174 0.1252
	T051C THB SRZK003-S.E. TibeE. Lhasa S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite N. Gangdese THB YY1102 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa PVR HHCJ-G4 S. Tibet 28.5N 85.2E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T74 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya granite THB T1034 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites THB YY-07 W. Lhasa29.5N 90.5E Pujiemu TSS T0659-13 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome THB ND-4-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-220 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0777-C3 S. Tibet 88°E TSS T0647-5 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E LH LW68 Western LLHS Quartzite Fm. THB 12PD09-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Gangdese belt HHCZB09-18L1E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1129 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB45-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0594-B1 Lhasa THB LKA-08 Lhasa THB T523 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR146 Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sharang granitoids Yangying Gyirong Leucogranite Lhagoi Kangri granite Bolonggong#1 Granite Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Malashan gneiss dome Fagfog Quartzite Nuoco formation ? Zhibai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	Linzigong lava W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalaya granite	R Granite porphyry trachyte 29°43.3190°22.302' Tourmaline granite bt-mu Gr+sill porphyritic granite trachyte Two-mica granite garnet-two-mica-granite granitic gneiss Graphite-bearing schists White quartzite Sandstone pelitic migmatite 2mg Granodiorite gabbro alt. 2 mica Gr Shale		170 190.3 232.3 178 263 568.42 37.81 216 58 145 275 1262 349 75.6 427.52 381.68 0.34 14 185 132 49.6 794 233 165 80.5 397 365 84.4 38.8 380 6.8 313 115.1	2.754 2.3707 10.62 0.459 0.6293 13.341 37.18 4.06 0.1805 4.0736 0.588 0.2954 0.0293 1.162 14.31	0.70736 0.708573 0.71214 1.8E-05 0.805152 0.74066 0.00002 0.706997 6E-06 0.712153 1.1E-05 0.747321 17 0.70444 0.743093 20 0.708496 0.743454 1.4E-05 0.765146 0.704592 0.703998 1.1E-05 0.706894 3E-06 0.7993	3.3 5.12 15.3 0.66 1.95 5.81 14.6 6.16 3.6 0.06 4.17 3.18 4.2 6.28 1.75 4.23 2.01 3 2.52 12.6	19.2 28.7 100 2.73 8.6 43.4 99.4 1.89 33.62 0.1 19.8 18.1 0.77 33.1 6.73 16 10 13.3 9.34 2.52	0.105 0.1082 0.137 0.081 0.0889 0.186 0.13 0.1063 0.1105 0.1048 0.1573 0.1214 0.1377 0.1208 0.1157
	T065B TSS SXI (12)-2 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Forma. Calc-alkaline suite S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB SRZK0704S.E. TibeE. Lhasa N. Gangdese THB YY1105 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa PVR HHCJ-G7 S. Tibet 28.5N 85.2E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T75 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB T1035 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites THB YY-08 W. Lhasa29.5N 90.5E Qialagai TSS T0659-14 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome THB BD-3-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-274 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0777-C4 S. Tibet 88°E LH LW39 Western ULHS Laminated Slate Fm. THB 12PD11-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Gangdese belt HHCZB09-18L2E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa TSS LZH1130 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB45-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0594-B2 Lhasa THB LKA-09 Lhasa THB T524 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR1 Garhwal Deoban 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Sharang granitoids Yangying Gyirong Leucogranite Lhagoi Kangri granite Bolonggong#1 Granite Yangying potassic volcanic rocks Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Benighat Slates Grayish slate Nuoco formation ? Zhibai fm Lhozag granite Milin granitoids C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Inner LH	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalaya granite	R Felsic volc. Dacite porphyry trachyte 29°43.2290°22.161' Tourmaline granite bt-mu Gr+sill porphyritic granite trachyte Two-mica granite none granitic gneiss Spotted loess Sandstone pelitic migmatite 2mg Granodiorite gabbro alt. 2 mica Gr Calc-sil		183 110.7 126.9 131 255.1 153.74 267 321.71 41.35 137 104 131.0 1057.0 350 1333 333 63.5 444 144 8 6 166 172 195 270 62.3 311 245 262 46.4 387 6.6 320 67.4	4.046 2.53 4.8057 3.79 0.358 0.7607 15.155 14.69 2.79 2.0843 0.5809 0.3472 0.0286 0.41 1.89	0.707747 0.726431 0.71363 0.764437 0.74128 0.00002 0.7064 6E-06 0.712093 0.00001 0.748351 21 0.71597 0.739012 15 0.728382 1.2E-05 0.764965 0.704645 0.703938 1.5E-05 0.706694 7E-06 0.73309	5.5 12.71 9.83 13.2 1.15 3.83 7.7 16.2 6.85 7.15 5.23 31.53 7.1 2.02 4.91 2.02 2.9 2.99 17.6	30.7 68.15 59.4 86.2 3.91 17.4 51.3 110 1.9 41.2 24 5.62 36.3 9.72 23.6 10.6 12.9 11.6 2.75	0.109 0.1128 0.1 0.133 0.091 0.089 0.168 0.13 0.1077 0.1185 0.1257 0.1157 0.1368 0.0944 0.1073
	T036D TSS SXI (9)-1 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Formb. Low-K suite S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB SRZK0905S.E. TibeE. Lhasa N. Gangdese THB YY1106 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa PVR HHCJ-G16 S. Tibet 28.5N 85.2E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T76 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB T830 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites THB YY-10 W. Lhasa29.5N 90.5E Pujiemu THB QC17 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-175A NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0777-C5 S. Tibet 88°E LH LW40 Western ULHS Laminated Slate Fm. TSS LZH1131 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB 09TB48-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T0594-B3 Lhasa THB LKA-11 Lhasa THB T634 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR4 Garhwal Deoban 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Sharang granitoids Yangying Gyirong Leucogranite Dingge leucogranite 52K Granite Yangying potassic volcanic rocks Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Lhagoi Kangri dome Benighat Slates Lhozag granite Milin granitoids C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Lunan granodiorite Inner LH	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. Transhimalaya gW.R. W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya granite	B Felsic volc. Granodiorite porphyry trachyte 29°43.2090°22.079' Tourmaline granite mu-bt Gr granite trachyte granite granitic gneiss Black slate 2mg Granodiorite gabbro alt. 2 mica Gd Carb		19.7 128.9 129.7 746 330.8 200.5 321 452.2 68.33 238 21 162 306 1317 392 106 5.38 132 240 97.1 452 35.5 29.5 495 6 218 75.3	0.076 2.883 4.7761 31.94 1.263 0.6724 10.7 7.15 38.0091 0.1727 0.0271 0.305 0.88	0.704302 0.729021 0.708128 0.712216 1.1E-05 0.789032 0.77956 0.00002 0.707276 4E-06 0.712146 1.3E-05 0.71155 0.744359 22 0.763744 7E-06 0.704475 0.703876 1.2E-05 0.707244 11 0.706058 4E-06 0.74123	3 13.25 3.02 15.5 1.13 1.25 2.45 15 5.5 4.48 3.11 16.81 3.89 2 3.6 3.33 30.1	12.6 70.27 19.7 100 3.97 3.8 25.6 103 25.9 13.94 11.3 2.82 13.5 10 15.3 13.8 4.57	0.147 0.114 0.0929 0.201 0.0579 0.0884 0.17 0.1013 0.1741 0.1203 0.1426 0.0919 0.1145
	T041H TSS SXI (8)-3 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Formb. Low-K suite S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB SRZK0304S.E. TibeE. Lhasa N. Gangdese THB YY1108 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa PVR HHCJ-G2 S. Tibet 28.5N 85.2E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T77 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB T831 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites THB YY-12 W. Lhasa29.5N 90.5E Pujiemu THB QC18 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-254 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0526-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH LW43 Western ULHS Lower Variegated Rock Fm. TSS LZH1133 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E THB T0594-B4 Lhasa THB LKA-12 Lhasa THB T636 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR85 Garhwal Berinag 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Sharang granitoids Yangying Gyirong Leucogranite Dingge leucogranite 52K Granite Yangying potassic volcanic rocks Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Benighat Slates? Lhozag granite C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Lunan granodiorite Inner LH	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. Transhimalaya gW.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya granite	B Felsic volc. Granodiorite porphyry trachyte 29°43.1390°22.026' Tourmaline granite mu Gr+tm granite trachyte biotite-granite granitic gneiss Brick-colored sandstone 2mg gabbro alt. 2 mica Gd Phyllite		10.8 121.9 73.78 926 487.55 214.64 319 510.17 34.71 302 12 153 289 1289 335.0 113.0 103 106 303 61.8 400 59.4 4.3 257 92.8	0.034 4.793 6.5749 73.4 1.706 0.6487 8.58 0.019 0.36 0.58	0.704054 0.731036 0.70785 0.796708 0.77106 0.00002 0.710117 5E-06 0.712189 1.1E-05 0.71125 0.703897 1.3E-05 0.707807 14 0.707156 3E-06 0.73292	3.2 13.64 3.78 14.9 1.18 0.59 5.29 14 4.6 4.21 1.69 22.93 2.67 5.3 2.8 33.5	13 72.77 23.7 96.8 4.34 1.7 30.7 96.3 21.8 12.49 6.26 4.63 9.38 21.3 8.48 5.73	0.146 0.1134 0.0967 0.209 0.1042 0.0876 0.1221 0.151 0.1033 0.1336
	T041F TSS SXI (1)-2 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Formb. Low-K suite S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB SRD08-01 S.E. TibeE. Lhasa N. Gangdese THB YY1111 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa PVR HHCNL-12 S. Tibet 28.4N 86.5E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T78a S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB T1010 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites THB QC19 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-256 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0526-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH/HGMH 1 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E LH LW63 Western ULHS Lower Variegated Rock Fm. THB T0594-B5 Lhasa THB LKA-13 Lhasa THB T637 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR102 Garhwal Deoban 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Sharang granitoids Yangying Nyalam Leucogranite Dingge leucogranite Meiri Granite Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Benighat Slates? C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Lunan granodiorite Inner LH	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Linzigong lava W.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. Transhimalaya gW.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya granite	BA massive basalt Lamporphyre trachyte 29°43.1090°21.990' Tourmaline granite mu-bt Gr granitoids biotite-granite granitic gneiss schist Calcareous grey quartzite gabbro alt. 2 mica Gr Calc-sil		21.3 8.49 387.6 703 274.2 800.9 272 381.32 27.09 277 17 75 409 56.6 23.14 68 382 68.3 177.9 83.3 6.1 175 64.2	0.088 0.0634 0.9914 0.485 20.92 6.207584 0.0241 0.366 9.72	0.704031 0.710024 0.712778 0.712476 2.5E-05 0.761095 0.707481 6E-06 0.71305 0.756428 0.703841 1.4E-05 0.706414 11 0.706122 3E-06 0.93085	2.9 9.46 10.44 15.8 1.58 1.82 3.68 5.3 2.39 2.26 5.7295 n.d. 3.9 2.89 51.3	n.d.	12.1 42.36 62.4 101 5.56 5.5 17.2 20.6 7.84 7.51 41.623 15.9 11.2 6.77	n.d.	0.142 0.1351 0.1013 0.201 0.1293 0.083204 0.1483 0.0797 0.1152
	T034A TSS SXI (1)-1 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Formb. Low-K suite S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB SRD08-02 S.E. TibeE. Lhasa N. Gangdese THB CZ1301 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR HHCNL-25 S. Tibet 28.4N 86.5E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T97-26 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB T1014 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS T0474-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-5-4-2 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-203 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0526-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH/HGMH 2 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E THB CM10-04-0N.W. Lhasa THB DY-7 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 THB T1031-NR S.W. Lhasa THB LKA-14 Lhasa THB T638 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR106 Garhwal Berinag 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Sharang granitoids Chazi Nyalam Leucogranite Yaddon leucogranite Meiri Granite Yardoi gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Mibale 1 Garwa C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Lunan granodiorite Inner LH	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya granite	A massive basalt Lamporphyre trachyte 29°50.7786°44.803' Tourmaline granite mu-bt Gr+tm granitoids Two-mica granite biotite-granite granitic gneiss gneiss Ultrapotassic trachyte to trachyandesite potassic lava norite basalt 2 mica Gd Qtz-schist		10.1 1.07 753.4 280 247.13 731.15 642 479.52 77.11 256 72 69 114 373 272.01 402.42 22.93 55 330 28.1 212.3 154 753.9 838.8 21.3 18.5 83.9	0.104 0.0041 0.9788 10.29 0.768 0.8833 12.47 4.004667 2.6 0.073 0.291 43.39	0.703814 0.709135 0.712655 0.720771 0.00001 0.776032 0.77294 0.00001 0.706188 4E-06 0.715565 14 0.71303 0.749965 0.719233 14 0.712847 0.704306 1.3E-05 0.705745 13 0.706282 4E-06 1.17645	2.9 9.28 8.84 19.5 0.96 2.28 3.96 4.32 9.58 3.17 2 4.9638 20.13 4 2.2 17	11.7 41.42 56.5 110 3.11 9.6 21.2 21.5 59.81 11.68 6.41 29.427 138.1 18 8.13 3	0.151 0.1355 0.0946 0.145 0.1129 0.1214 0.10196 0.09 0.135 0.1096 0.1144
	ST055C S. Tibet 3. Pana Formc. Shoshonitic suite TSS SXII (1)-1 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB CZ1302 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR HHCNL-36 S. Tibet 28.4N 86.5E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T97-57 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB T1015 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS T0474-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB ND-3-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-217A NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0526-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH/HGMH 3 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E THB CM10-04-0N.W. Lhasa THB DC2 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 THB T1031-NR2S.W. Lhasa THB LKA-15 Lhasa THB T529 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH KR132 Garhwal Berinag 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Chazi Nyalam Leucogranite Yaddon leucogranite Meiri Granite Yardoi gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Mibale 1 Garwa C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Confluence granite Inner LH	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya granite	BA massive basalt trachyte 29°50.7786°44.748' Tourmaline granite mu-bt Gr granitoids Two-mica granite granite granitic gneiss gneiss Ultrapotassic trachyte to trachyandesite potassic lava norite basalt Bt Gr Phyllite		160 11.1 196.1 1066 593 472.65 98.79 309 36 66 110 398 244 334 109.05 50 332 28.2 219.2 69.6 604.1 984.5 17.1 33.1 129.0 106.6	0.434 0.1639 24.72 0.683 0.7987 9.155453 1.8 0.0683 1.015 0.12	0.70648 0.70768 0.719659 1.1E-05 0.755964 0.76081 0.00002 0.706615 5E-06 0.714672 15 0.757327 0.719124 19 0.718046 0.704256 1.3E-05 0.706101 13 0.707299 3E-06 0.71582	8.2 10.27 16.3 1.75 1.02 3.57 4.43 8.1 8.69 2.49 2.9721 18.53 4 2.2 26.4	41.3 45.45 94.6 5.83 3.8 21.7 22.7 44.9 35.84 8.06 29.017 128.6 17.4 8.2 4.75	0.12 0.1366 0.162 0.0996 0.1179 0.141523 0.061912 0.09 0.1397 0.1088 0.1336
	ST061A S. Tibet 3. Pana Formc. Shoshonitic suite TSS SXII (9)-3 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB CZ1303 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR HHCNL-03 S. Tibet 28.4N 86.5E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T107 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan metasediments THB T691 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS T0474-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-5-2-1a N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-219 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0526-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH GMH 4 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E THB CM10-04-1N.W. Lhasa THB D509 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 THB 09TB68 S.E. Lhasa I THB T1031-NR3S.W. Lhasa THB LKA-16 Lhasa THB/T525 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR52 Garhwal Ramgarh 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Chazi Nyalam Leucogranite Kuday metasediments Beibeng Granite Yardoi gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Mibale 1 Garwa Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Nyingchi gneiss Ramgarh group	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS volcanics W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya gW.R. W.R. W.R. LH W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya	BA pillow basalt trachyte Tourmaline granite 29°50.7786°44.693' mu-bt-gt migmatite biotite granite Two-mica granite granite granitic gneiss migmatite (L) Ultrapotassic trachyte to trachyandesite potassic lava Amphibole gabbro norite basalt Schist		392 1.63 273.7 393 758 656.61 112.18 126 152 150 158 317 5.35 39 206 50.3 198.3 147.9 504.3 999.8 15.4 566 32.3 42.6	2.886 0.0173 2.39 2.084 1.4404 5.67 3.953733 1.5 0.0789 0.1041 5.01 7.64	0.708851 0.707788 0.720539 0.772143 0.74846 0.00001 8E-06 0.707048 4E-06 0.716349 12 0.71143 0.905126 0.71961 10 0.716054 0.704393 0.704297 1.5E-05 0.70591 14 0.731138 3E-06 0.92238	10.3 9.94 21.7 1.03 8.81 7.93 4.52 1.87 3.89 3.4786 14.62 1.3 3.5 2.96	46.7 42.64 118 3.66 45.5 50.3 23 6.91 17.6 12.722 82.07 5.29 16.2 11.4	0.133 0.141 0.117 0.0953 0.1187 0.158144 0.16528 0.11 0.1483 0.1314 0.1119 0.1223
	ST057A S. Tibet 3. Pana Formc. Shoshonitic suite THB SXI(2)-1 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB CZ1304 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR HHCNL-31 S. Tibet 28.4N 86.5E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T125 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan metasediments THB T979 E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites TSS LKZ-1 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0686-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB ND-15-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-245 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0526-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH GMH 5 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E TSS AY06-29-0 S. Lhasa THB CM10-04-1N.W. Lhasa THB DG43 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0319-06 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB72-1 S.E. Lhasa I THB T1031-NR4S.W. Lhasa THB LKA-17 Lhasa THB/T527 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR57 Garhwal Ramgarh 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Chazi Nyalam Leucogranite Kangmar schists Beibeng Granite Langkazi leucogranite Yardoi gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Langjiexue Group Mibale 1 Garwa Yardoi gneiss dome Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Nyingchi gneiss Ramgarh group	Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS W.R. E. TranshimalayW.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. LH W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava Transhimalaya	A massive basalt trachyte 29°50.8086°44.800' Tourmaline granite mu-bt schist biotite granite Two-mica granite none granitic gneiss migmatite (L) coarse-gd ss28°58.2791°39.571 E Ultrapotassic trachyte to trachyandesite potassic lava Two-mica granite Amphibole gabbro norite alt. Schist		252 624 320.16 39.74 805 207 85 119 170 249 192 337 278 334 35.22 125 212 50.3 433.1 25.7 1335.1 556.1 188.1 334.6 16.2 493 64.3 270	0.905 7.07 0.888 1.977 50.0705 7 1.6238 0.095 0.2418 0.595 80.04	0.708656 0.767136 0.79031 0.00001 0.710589 5E-06 0.730955 12 0.983977 0.722064 13 0.714758 0.716362 14 0.704934 0.704367 1.3E-05 0.706421 13 0.713515 3E-06 0.93	8.6 10.01 18.1 1.46 7.97 6.32 3.58 4.34 5.71 28.78 3.25 1.9202 5.21 9.09 3.61 1.36 3.5 2.56	46.6 45.97 104 5.21 40.1 35.7 17 20.7 31.9 64 14.2 10.607 28.99 60.5 18.17 5.1 14.5 9.53	0.112 0.1317 0.12 0.1071 0.127301 0.10943 0.1087 0.09 0.1202 0.1609 0.1468 0.1046 0.1128
	ST059A S. Tibet 3. Pana Formc. Shoshonitic suite THB SXI(1)-1-(2S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB CZ1305 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR HHCN-702 S. Tibet 28.4N 86.5E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T129 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan metasediments TSS LKZ-2 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0686-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-5-5-4d N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-246 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0527-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH GMH 6 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E TSS AY06-29-0 S. Lhasa THB CM10-04-2N.W. Lhasa THB YE51 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0319-07 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB73 S.E. Lhasa I THB T1031-NR5S.W. Lhasa THB LKA-19 Lhasa THB/T528 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR82 Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Chazi Nyalam Leucogranite Kangmar schists Langkazi leucogranite Yardoi gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Langjiexue Group Mibale 2 Yaqian Yardoi gneiss dome Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Nyingchi gneiss Munsiari goup	Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. W.R. LH W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalaya	D massive basalt trachydacite 29°50.8086°44.800' 2 mica granite bt-mu schist Two-mica granite none granitic gneiss migmatite (M) siltstone 28°58.2791°39.571 E Ultrapotassic trachyte to trachyandesite potassic lava Two-mica granite Amphibole gabbro norite alt. Gneiss		120 686 268.17 108.41 130 131 32 176 249 185 324 203 168 42.62 429 288 56.9 175.1 149.2 403 786.2 244.2 318.7 16.3 510 8.4 419	4.907 2.046 3.5 3.42965 1.5 2.2144 0.0925 0.0286 2.189 3.8	0.708236 0.748326 0.726953 0.70906 0.81149 0.720573 0.718364 0.717262 0.704467 0.704205 1.2E-05 15 10 14 0.734012 3E-06 0.82451	8 9.81 20.1 3.54 5.57 4.59 3.87 4.9 2.58 2.22 1.5545 7.96 10.94 5.16 1.48 3.4 2.74	43.7 43.8 108 14.26 25.7 21.9 18.9 27.8 9.36 7.58 10.723 45.06 80.05 25.1 5.88 15.4 10.2	0.11 0.1354 0.126697 0.087627 0.1068 0.08 0.1233 0.1526 0.1343 0.1174 0.1231
	ST053 THB Pyroxene i S.E. Tibet S. Tibet 3. Pana Formc. Shoshonitic suite S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo THB Tl/10 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB CZ1306 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR HHCNL-07 S. Tibet 28.4N 86.5E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T135 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan metasediments TSS LKZ-3 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0686-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB ND-14-00bN. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-249 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0527-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH GMH 7 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E TSS AY06-29-0 S. Lhasa THB CM10-04-2N.W. Lhasa THB YC08 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0319-08 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB76 S.E. Lhasa I THB T1033-NR S.W. Lhasa THB L012 Lhasa HHCT600 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR113 Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Sangxiu Fm Mibale ultrapotassic lava Chazi Nyalam Leucogranite Kangmar schists Langkazi leucogranite Yardoi gneiss dome Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Langjiexue Group Mibale 2 Yaqian Yardoi gneiss dome Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. LH W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava HHC	D massive basalt trachyte 29°55.1186°42.112' 2 mica granite bt-mu-st-gt schist Two-mica granite granite granitic gneiss migmatite (M) fine-grained 28°56.9991°38.927 E Ultrapotassic trachyte to trachyandesite potassic lava Two-mica granite Amphibole gabbro gabbro Gneiss		321 790 466 218.69 89.02 641 1421 127 57 182 258 192 311 218 281 51 101 305 61.2 251.5 182.5 450.8 997.4 155.1 315.3 7.45 798 24.9	1.448 6.41 2.041 4.023178 1.3 1.4207 0.027 0.103 7.37 44.45	0.708107 0.719154 0.724798 0.741938 0.77871 0.00001 9E-06 0.726967 15 0.801073 0.720746 14 0.718469 0.719715 20 0.704663 0.704308 1.1E-05 0.707951 13 0.77102 5E-06 1.047	9.1 9.96 31.2 16.2 3.23 7.25 4.71 5.19 2.81 1.2 3.5288 8.89 10.79 6.98 1.84 4.4	52.8 44.17 218.7 89.8 11.08 37.3 22.9 24.9 11.7 21 4.23 30.85 50.53 78.32 35.1 7.11 19.5	0.104 0.1363 0.118 0.124332 0.069142 0.1063 0.08 0.1193 0.1562 0.1373 0.1182 0.12
	ST062 THB Tl/11 THB CZ1307 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR S. Tibet 3. Pana Formc. Shoshonitic suite S. Tibet W. Lhasa HHCDZ-15 S. Tibet S 28.4N 87.7E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS T137 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan metasediments TSS LKZ-4 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T391 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-5-9-4a N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-252 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0527-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH/HGMH 8 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E TSS AY07-03-0 S. Lhasa THB CQQ4-04-0N.W. Lhasa THB YG13 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0320-06 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB79 S.E. Lhasa I THB T1033-NR2S.W. Lhasa THB L014 Lhasa HHCT602 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR122 Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Mibale ultrapotassic lava Chazi Dinggye Leucogranite Kangmar schists Langkazi leucogranite Dala Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Langjiexue Group Maiga 2 Yaqian Yardoi gneiss dome Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Dazi volcanics Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt Transhimalayan lava HHC	D trachyte 2 mica granite 29°55.1286°42.103' bt-mu-gt-st schist Two-mica granite orthogneiss granitic gneiss granite sill meta-greywa29°05.5690°23.602 E Ultrapotassic trachyandesite potassic lava Two-mica granite Amphibole gabbro gabbro Qtzite		454 550 460 95.86 57.28 350 1564 114 49 185 272 175 388 164 73 84 173 302 33.6 288.2 63.8 368.8 1167.2 25.9 1322 15.7 852 21.3	3.758 6.65 1.97 1.4404 6.51 13.13539 0.9 0.0566 0.0533 0.0792 2.193 1.07	0.709576 0.718477 0.724383 0.00001 0.776943 0.77034 0.00001 0.72715 16 0.712092 14 0.72415 0.760196 0.722189 12 0.717351 0.711977 18 0.704516 0.704226 1.1E-05 0.707718 12 0.75298 0.00001 0.73692	11.4 31 15.2 1.97 5.3 6.38 4.35 4.25 2.42 5.3513 6.31 26.83 1.16 1.57 4.1	68.3 217.1 83.8 6.12 26.5 31.7 22 20.5 14 7.88 14.236 30.96 127.9 4.6 6.16 17.3	0.101 0.121 0.121663 0.1194 0.22721 0.1232 0.13 0.1522 0.1539 0.1447 0.1243 0.1064
	ST060C S. Tibet 3. Pana Formc. Shoshonitic suite THB Tl/18 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB CZ1308 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR HHCDG-2 S. Tibet S 28.4N 87.7E High Himalaya leucogranite TSS LKZ-5 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0391-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-5-7-2a N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-253 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0527-LG-S. Tibet 90°E LH GMH 9 N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E TSS AY07-01-0 S. Lhasa THB CQQ4-04-0N.W. Lhasa THB YF12 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0317-01 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB67-1 S.E. Lhasa II THB T1034-GR-S.W. Lhasa HHCT603 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR124 Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Mibale ultrapotassic lava Chazi Dinggye Leucogranite Langkazi leucogranite Dala Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex Lhakang Formation Maiga 2 Yaqian Dala pluton Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. LH W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt HHC	D trachyte 2 mica granite 29°55.1286°42.103' Two-mica granite granite granitic gneiss granite sill slate 28°15.6091°13.699 E Ultrapotassic trachyandesite potassic lava Two-mica granite Amphibole gabbro gabbro Gneiss		426 576 464 102.37 44.43 378 1196 177 367 156 374 266 20 45.63 237 291 63.2 340.2 25 327.1 1165.7 176.6 344 33.1 532 52	3.259 1.395 1.3035 38.58 40.07249 0.8 1.4836 0.18 0.1536 6.231 6.65	0.70887 0.719612 0.797401 0.716426 0.712044 0.73617 0.890723 0.722129 0.719673 0.7185 0.705024 0.704009 1.7E-05 15 16 13 16 0.7638 1.6E-05 0.92049	10.7 32 16.2 1.72 3.83 3.31 7.45 3.71 4.46 4.4079 4.83 22.7 4.43 3.05 7.1	62.1 196.1 88 5.44 18.5 15.4 20.5 16.62 21.8 29.488 27.23 100.8 22.07 13.5 32	0.104 0.125148 0.1298 0.090355 0.1072 0.14 0.1214 0.1366 0.1334 0.1205 0.1101
	ST055A S. Tibet 3. Pana Formc. Shoshonitic suite THB Tl/13 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB CZ1309 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR HHCDG-08 S. Tibet S 28.4N 87.7E High Himalaya leucogranite HHC 502068 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola TSS LKZ-10 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0391-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB ND-22-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-255 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0527-LG-S. Tibet 90°E TSS AY07-01-0 S. Lhasa THB YA32 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0317-02 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB69 S.E. Lhasa II THB T1034-GR-S.W. Lhasa HHCT617 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR126 Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Mibale ultrapotassic lava Chazi Dinggye Leucogranite Formation I Langkazi leucogranite Dala Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Lhakang Formation 2 Yaqian Dala pluton Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt HHC	R trachyte Tourmaline granite 29°55.1086°42.105' paragneiss 28.428 83.826 Two-mica granite none granitic gneiss meta-pelite 28°10.4091°14.165 E potassic lava Two-mica granite Amphibole gabbro gabbro Gneiss		416 391.0 1633.0 160 469 325.9 59.58 153 341 221 57 10 107 322 25.1 159.9 405.2 30.1 861 42.7	7.523 1.2055 1.1405 0.1009 0.1353 6.995 4.05	0.717727 0.716764 0.724757 0.783094 0.718918 0.719041 0.718617 0.70469 0.703986 1.3E-05 9E-06 24 15 0.80988 1.3E-05 0.87794	9.8 24.6 16.4 1.35 6.96 3.8 6.99 2.04 6.95 4.56 4.1 7.6	57.9 168.6 88.2 4.46 35.38 16.9 27.1 17 6.11 44.37 22.78 19.8 32.9	0.102 0.1189 0.1358 0.0947 0.1211 0.1252 0.1391 0.1176 0.1192
	T155 THB Tl/03 THB CZ1310 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR S. Tibet 3. Pana Formd. High-REE suite S. Tibet W. Lhasa HHCDG-24 S. Tibet S 28.4N 87.7E High Himalaya leucogranite HHC 502069 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola TSS LKZ-6 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0391-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-5-11-1aN. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-257 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0527-LG-S. Tibet 90°E TSS AY07-01-0 S. Lhasa THB MH78 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0317-03 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB71 S.E. Lhasa II THB T1034-GR-S.W. Lhasa HHCT618 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR128 Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Mibale ultrapotassic lava Chazi Dinggye Leucogranite Formation I Langkazi leucogranite Dala Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Kangmar dome Lhakang Formation 3 Mibale Dala pluton Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	Linzigong lava W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt HHC	R trachyte Tourmaline granite 29°55.3286°41.695' metasandsto 28.427 83.8 Two-mica granite biotite-granite granitic gneiss quartz arenit 28°10.4091°14.165 E potassic lava Two-mica granite Amphibole gabbro gabbro Gneiss		203 611 440 416.36 53.74 393 1260 175 382 149 361 352 517 47.55 103 351 31.1 162.8 412.3 29.9 439 65.8	1.499 1.327 1.2967 1.97 1.1411 0.1968 0.1604 11.274 11.56	0.706855 0.719945 0.723 0.00001 0.802116 0.716782 15 0.715153 15 0.70964 0.719877 0.718494 15 0.70504 0.704003 1.2E-05 0.79822 5E-06 0.98043	7.9 28.2 12.8 0.74 3.85 4.16 3.33 4.46 3.06 2.1 6.63 4.48 2.98 7.6	43.3 182.8 69.2 3.25 20.23 20.8 15.8 29.5 13.18 7 35.57 22.77 10.5 32.8	0.11 0.115 0.1209 0.1273 0.1128 0.1189 0.1721 0.1408 0.1078 0.1139
	T082B THB YZS-1 THB Tl/08 THB CZ1311 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR S. Tibet 3. Pana Formd. High-REE suite S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze S. Tibet W. Lhasa HHCGP-05 S. Tibet S 27.5N 89E High Himalaya leucogranite THB L-72 E. Aruna Lohit riv HHC 502070 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola TSS LKZ-8 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0685-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-5-7-3b N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-266 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0898-1 S. Tibet 88°E TSS AY07-02-0 S. Lhasa THB MH69 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0317-04 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB78-1aS.E. Lhasa THB T1034-GR-S.W. Lhasa HHCT611 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR130 Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yarlung Tsanpo suture Mibale ultrapotassic lava Chazi Gaowu Leucogranite Lohit batholith Formation I Langkazi diorite enclave Dala Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Mabja dome Lhakang Formation 3 Mibale Dala pluton Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Duoxiongla migmatite Munsiari goup	Linzigong lava W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt HHC	R ophiolites trachyte 2 mica granite 29°55.2786°41.707' Diorite 28°20 32 97°10 41 schist 28.419 83.82 Two-mica granite granite granitic gneiss phyllite 28°07.2791°05.805 E potassic lava Two-mica granite Amphibole gabbro gabbro Gneiss		115 5.53 118.9 153 598 1207 433 281.27 76.8 8.86 113.78 262 655 136 388 210 134 45 81 333 83.1 148.5 378.9 76.6 589 45.2	2.181 0.1344 0.208 1.157 4.54 1.1327 0.3758 0.1173 12.023 4.45	0.707916 0.70418 0.719518 0.723353 0.00001 0.770283 0.704671 0.0002 0.714415 13 0.71164 0.721486 0.718526 14 0.7074 0.70393 9E-06 0.99018 9E-06 0.8294	3.2 1.515 30.8 12.8 2.27 6.39 12.4 5.01 4.08 10.6 7.81 4.39 3.17 6.6	20.4 4.005 189.6 70.5 6.91 33.01 66 25.8 24.2 14 43.8 46.06 21.65 12.6 28.4	0.094 0.2287 0.117 0.113573 0.1025 0.1227 0.1527 0.1407 0.1169 0.1246
	T103 THB YZS-2 THB Tl/17 THB YR1101 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet 3. Pana Formd. High-REE suite S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR HHCGP-09 S. Tibet S 27.5N 89E High Himalaya leucogranite THB L-45 E. Aruna Lohit riv HHC 502071 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola TSS LKZ-12 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0685-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-7-26-1bN. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-292 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0898-2 S. Tibet 88°E HHCHE 5 Far-east HHC Kangchenjunga Migmatite TSS AY07-02-0 S. Lhasa THB MG-3 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0317-05 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB78-2 S.E. Lhasa THB T1034-GR-S.W. Lhasa THB T993 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang HHCT612 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi LH? KR134 Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Lizigong volcanics Yarlung Tsanpo suture Mibale ultrapotassic lava Yare Gaowu Leucogranite Lohit batholith Formation I Langkazi diorite enclave Dala Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Mabja dome Formation I Lhakang Formation 3 Mibale Dala pluton Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite C. Gangdese batholith Motuo Duoxiongla migmatite Munsiari goup	W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. Gangdese belt E. Transhimalayan batholiths Hb-gabbro R ophiolites trachydacite 31°56.1081°07.476' 2 mica granite Diorite 28°02 14 96°56 55 schist 28.417 83.821 Two-mica granite two-mica-granite granitic gneiss Sil-Grt-Bt banded gneiss sandy phyllite28°13.1491°00.510 E potassic lava Two-mica granite Diorite gabbro HHC Gneiss		307 4.14 105.8 61.8 939 1004 437 349.14 89.37 174.98 120.61 186 679 156 355 415.0 62.0 10 88 252 74.2 149.6 376.3 171 130 52 15	14.39 X 0.1132 5.683 0.791 19.48 1.1489 3.8242 0.1531 0.041765 5.122 6.94	X 0.727566 1.6E-05 0.70428 0.72658 0.788309 0.703876 0.0003 0.709741 20 0.77006 0.719649 0.71844 16 0.756998 0.704006 0.00001 0.706654 4E-06 0.84919 1.2E-05 1.04368	10.1 2.274 42.7 11.9 2.54 7.1 5.63 4.46 3.4 6.49 20.23 6.26 4.41 6.96 6.1 4.63	55.6 6.246 241.3 76.6 8.43 36.52 26.9 22.4 14.4 11 28.7 4.03 33.64 22.17 32 25.7 22.4	0.109 0.22 0.1176 0.126754 0.172029 0.1203 0.1125 0.1202 0.1316 0.1428 0.125187 0.1022 0.1361
	ST058 THB YZS-3 THB Tl/06 THB YR1102 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet 3. Pana Forme. Evolved suite S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR HHCGU-8 S. Tibet S 27.5N 89E High Himalaya leucogranite THB L-70 E. Aruna Lohit riv HHC 502072 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola TSS LKZ-13 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0684-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB QC3b N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCBH-268 NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang TSS T0898-3 S. Tibet 88°E HHCHE13 Far-east HHC Mahabharat Crystallines TSS AY07-02-0 S. Lhasa THB DJB98-11 S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Dajiweng THB MY1 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0317-06 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB T998 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang HHCT613 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi HHCC42/97 Garhwal uncertain 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yarlung Tsanpo suture Mibale ultrapotassic lava Yare Gaowu Leucogranite Lohit batholith Formation I Langkazi diorite enclave Ridang Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Mabja dome Formation I Lhakang Formation Yarlung Tsangbo suture 3 Mibale Dala pluton Motuo Duoxiongla migmatite Vaikrita thrust	Linzigong lava W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC	D ophiolites trachydacite 31°56.0881°07.425' 2 mica granite Granodiorite 28°18 20 97°06 25 psammitic sc 28.415 83.817 Subvolcanic porphyritic leucogranite orthogneiss granitic gneiss Sil-Grt-Bt banded gneiss phyllite 28°13.1491°00.510 E Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite Hb-gabbro Schist		325 11.2 130.9 578 441 1371 413 212.71 138.09 121.09 314.04 269 666 241 34.9 68.37 48 189 72.7 4.06 1425 165.7 403.1 7	1.628 0.2485 1.116 1.169 19.9567 3.79 0.0083 1.188 3.818 9.54	0.754776 0.70446 0.719806 0.733469 0.707093 0.0003 0.70941 16 0.729162 12 0.76973 0.70824 0.722672 0.718532 15 0.80611 7E-06 0.77685	8.6 1.603 22.9 12.4 2.62 6.51 1.05 12.56 8.96 13.97 10.94 5.15 4.59 8.77	49.8 4.224 185.6 80.1 7.69 25.4 3.57 55.48 43.3 3.16 61.92 20.95 23.31 37.3	0.104 0.2294 0.154933 0.1779 0.1369 0.1068 0.1486 0.1191 0.1196 0.1346
	T065A THB YZS-6 THB Tl/59 THB YR1103 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet 3. Pana Forme. Evolved suite S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR HHCGG-2 S. Tibet S 27.5N 89E High Himalaya leucogranite THB L-71 E. Aruna Lohit riv 502073 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola TSS LKZ-15-1 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0684-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB QC7 N. Lhasa30N 90E TSS T0898-4 S. Tibet 88°E HHCHE14 Far-east HHC Mahabharat Crystallines THB L S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Dajiweng THB MK09 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-4 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB T1000 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang HHCT614 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi HHCC4B Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yarlung Tsanpo suture Mibale ultrapotassic lava Yare Gaowu Leucogranite Lohit batholith Lower foreland basin Langkazi diorite enclave Ridang Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Mabja dome Formation I Yarlung Tsangbo suture 3 Mibale Quedang Motuo Duoxiongla migmatite Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. W.R. W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths Gabbro-diorite R ophiolites trachydacite 31°56.0881°07.425' 2 mica granite Granodiorite 28°19 43 97°08 48 quartzite 28.414 83.814 Subvolcanic porphyritic leucogranite biotite-granite granitic gneiss Grt-Bt migmatitic gneiss Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite HHC Schist	131 4.07 130.3 108 442 930 392 294.55 126.74 53.94 346.44 210 737 212 78.6 320 86.5 Ms 9.29 504.8 213.2 246.6 37	3.5 0.0905 0.4503 0.825 7.7949 7.55 0.0533 2.4986 0.102274 1.678 3.07	0.760054 0.7041 0.71824 0.725098 1.2E-05 0.757376 0.704698 0.0002 0.709377 13 0.720797 14 0.70958 0.70692 0.720948 0.717158 12 0.707713 5E-06 0.74643 4E-06 0.7488	5.5 3.173 21.8 12.2 4.14 5.28 1.21 9.6 32.35 2.193 4.19 2.52	29.1 9.214 165.4 78 15.07 25.1 3.52 46.6 6.74 7.338 20.75 14.5	0.113 0.2082 0.127162 0.208 0.1261 0.1807 0.1221 0.104971 0.1222 0.1199
	T072A THB YZS-7 THB CHZ-1 THB YR1104 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet Northern Province: S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR HHCGF-6 S. Tibet S 27.5N 89E High Himalaya leucogranite THB L-69 E. Aruna Lohit riv LH 502075 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola TSS LKZ-15-2 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0684-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB QC8 N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCT0812-A-1 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE17 Far-east HHC Junbesi Paragneiss THB DJB98-18 S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Dajiweng THB MR21 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-5 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB T1008 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang HHCT616 E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi HHCC7 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yarlung Tsanpo suture Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Gaowu Leucogranite Lohit batholith Kuncha Langkazi diorite enclave Ridang Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Gyirong Formation I Yarlung Tsangbo suture 3 Mibale Quedang Motuo Duoxiongla migmatite Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths Hb-gabbro B ophiolites rhyolite Tourmaline granite 31°56.0881°07.425' Granite 28°15 44 97°01 38 psammitic ph 28.412 83.807 Subvolcanic porphyritic leucogranite granodiorite granitic gneiss Ky-Grt-Bt-Ms gneiss Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite HHC Schist		120 6.56 109.5 330 880 810 409 446.9 118.05 66.08 89.149 199 709 196 40.8 213 71.3 1.59 611.3 195.5 346.5 11	1.052 0.1734 1.6795 0.812 13.8833 5.53 8.63 0.0075 1.6306 0.039414 5.354 6.41	0.713173 0.70421 0.736476 0.768546 0.714987 0.0001 0.709409 17 0.724812 15 0.71398 0.781718 20 0.70461 0.725133 0.71605 15 0.706862 6E-06 0.83374 7E-06 0.77797	7 2.793 46.4 13 1.01 1.71 5.44 0.91 6.6 28.42 1.237 3.96 8.18	38.8 7.922 244 83.5 4.03 8.32 27 2.79 30.4 6.37 3.677 19.75 31.3	0.109 0.2131 0.1244 0.121796 0.1973 0.13 0.1355 0.2033 0.1211 0.157815 0.1224 0.117
	T129A THB YZS-11 THB CHZ-2 THB YR1105 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet Northern Province: S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR HHCGZ-7 S. Tibet S 27.5N 89E High Himalaya leucogranite THB D-62 E. Aruna Dibang riv HHC 502104 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi TSS LKZ-16 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0684-4 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB QC11a N. Lhasa30N 90E HHCT0812-A-2 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE18 Far-east HHC Junbesi Paragneiss HHCB45 Bhutan THB DJB98-20 S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Dajiweng THB MA75 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-6 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi HHCDK89 C. Nepal Larkya phase THB T1009 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang HHCC200 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yarlung Tsanpo suture Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Gaowu Leucogranite Lohit batholith Formation I Langkazi diorite enclave Ridang Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Gyirong Formation I HHS (N. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 3 Mibale Quedang Manaslu granite Motuo Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. W.R. W.R. HHC granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R.	BA ophiolites trachydacite 31°56.0881°07.425' Tourmaline granite Diorite 28°50 78 96°50 48 paragneiss 28.38 83.972 Subvolcanic porphyritic leucogranite granulite granitic gneiss Ky-Grt-Bt-Ms gneiss Bt gneiss 27° 35.0391° 29.89' Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite 2M Hb-gabbro Qtzite		107 7.66 116.3 276 702 798 416 269.52 23.71 104.55 201.49 317 840 202 47 273 86.6 133 4.71 369.2 176 323.3 311 50	1.124 0.1904 1.5009 1.093 12.4209 3.99 9.11 3.13 0.0369 1.5733 10.35 n.d. 0.727732 0.70425 0.723609 0.794827 0.705863 0.0002 7E-06 0.71385 14 0.723606 14 0.72691 0.780233 18 0.75348 0.00002 0.70403 0.720861 0.717009 18 1.79 0.75782	4 2.846 45.7 12.1 1.13 5.94 12.2 1.11 7.49 24.73 5.85 7.359 3.88 6.35	17.5 8.16 247 79.7 3.89 29.63 73.2 4.21 33.8 5.35 28.02 35.1 18.95 22.7	0.139 0.2148 0.1213 0.10075 0.1595 0.13 0.1309 0.126 0.1268 0.124 0.116
	T072E THB CHZ-3 THB YR1106 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet Northern Province: S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR TSS LG-17 S. Lhasa28.3N 91.0E Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB D-63 E. Aruna Dibang riv HHC502105A C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi TSS LKZ-17 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0684-5 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB QC12b-a N. Lhasa30N 90E TSS CN1341 S.E. Lhasa HHCT0812-A-3 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE24 Far-east HHC Junbesi Paragneiss HHCB87 Bhutan THB BAR98-1 GS.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Bar THB MX5 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-7 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi HHCU315 C. Nepal Larkya phase THB T1016 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang THB T684 E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa HHCC230 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Luozha Leucogranite Lohit batholith Formation I Langkazi diorite enclave Ridang Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Cuonadong gneiss dome Gyirong Formation I HHS (N. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 3 Mibale Quedang Manaslu granite Motuo Beibeng granite Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. Transhimalaya W.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC granite E. Transhimalayan batholiths Gabbro-diorite A trachyte 31°54.3081°10.199' 2 mica granite Granite 28°50 77 96°50 45 paragneiss 28.377 83.97 Subvolcanic porphyritic leucogranite orthogneiss leucogranite granitic gneiss Grt-Bt banded gneiss Bt gneiss 27° 29.8389° 21.25' Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite 2M E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite Granite		50.7 784 393 223.14 106.7 371 704 113.2 139.9 315 592 196 62 516.3 30.01 251 79.5 164 5.9 218.7 186.8 295.7 393 51.4 127 84	0.396 2.34072 1.541 9.1361 10.36 49.77 9.12 2.61 0.078 1.8257 22.2 0.521171 0.59 6.66	0.712857 0.736849 1.1E-05 0.744316 0.706152 0.0002 0.710628 17 0.722347 15 0.71106 0.72762 1.9E-05 0.779024 14 0.74394 0.00001 0.70413 0.718768 0.716942 15 0.759326 0.708538 7E-06 0.706734 6E-06 0.7844	5.5 42.9 9.9 3.81 6.79 5.21 1.17 2.39 7.91 18.73 8.84 3.292 4.14 2.41 4.93 3.79	28.5 231 61.5 12.78 34.09 24.1 3.46 6.47 36 4.13 45.81 9.096 21.13 7.91 21.6 23.66	0.116 0.1203 0.130682 0.2046 0.2248 0.13 0.1332 0.117 0.2188 0.1005 0.1848 0.138186 0.0969 0.1612
	T131A THB CHZ-4 THB YR1107 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet Northern Province: S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR TSS LG-02 S. Lhasa28.3N 91.0E Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB D-69 E. Aruna Dibang riv HHC502105B C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi TSS LKZ-19 S. Lhasa29N 90E TSS T0684-6 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-5-5-4c N. Lhasa30N 90E TSS CN1341-1 S.E. Lhasa HHCT0812-A-4 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE25 Far-east HHC Kangchenjunga Migmatite HHCBh3 Bhutan THB BAR98-3 GS.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Bar THB 2003T534 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-8 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB21-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCXG43 C. Nepal Larkya phase THB T1017 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang THB T686 E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa HHCC235 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Luozha Leucogranite Lohit batholith Formation I Langkazi diorite enclave Ridang Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Cuonadong gneiss dome Gyirong Formation I HHS (N. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 4 Yiqian Quedang Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite Motuo Beibeng granite Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths Hb-gabbro R trachyte 2 mica granite 31°54.3081°10.199' Granodiorite 28°50 78 96°50 50 schist 28.377 83.97 Subvolcanic porphyritic leucogranite none leucogranite granitic gneiss Bt banded augen gneiss Bt-sill gneiss 27° 51.9789° 43.55' Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite Norite T E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite Qtzite		15 712 378 169.37 145.67 143 660 108.29 411.82 297 775 275 44.4 522.3 30.11 351 97.6 77 69.4 448.1 179.1 300.4 3.22 551 438 87 82	0.303 0.76061 1.108 17.8998 3.07 50.18 10.39 0.4481 1.723 0.0169 25.63 0.346836 0.48 10.51	0.713131 0.749258 0.705601 0.0003 0.708667 14 0.729088 24 0.70916 0.746102 1.3E-05 0.778114 15 0.70485 0.71991 0.716621 21 0.704384 0.773818 0.708877 4E-06 0.706656 5E-06 0.79023	6.4 36.8 10.7 6.15 7.3 6.33 0.89 2.26 5.68 34 4.75 1.966 3.51 1.68 6.66 1.85	34 199 68.9 28.48 37.89 24.9 2.69 6.16 25.2 7.46 23.11 5.38 16.98 6.59 30.9 10.2	0.113 0.1164 0.153674 0.2002 0.2233 0.14 0.1327 0.124 0.2208 0.1399 0.1545 0.130175 0.1093 0.1133
	T169A THB CHZ-5 THB YR1108 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet Northern Province: S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR TSS LG-29 S. Lhasa28.3N 91.0E Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite HHC 502106 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi TSS T0684-7 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome THB 99-7-27-3cN. Lhasa30N 90E TSS CN1353 S.E. Lhasa HHCT0812-B-1 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE26 Far-east HHC Kangchenjunga Migmatite HHCB39 Bhutan THB BAR98-6 S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Bar THB 2003T536 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-9 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB30-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCXG46 C. Nepal Larkya phase THB T1220 E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang THB T690 E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa HHCC34/97 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Lizigong volcanics Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Luozha Leucogranite Formation I Ridang Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex Cuonadong gneiss dome Gyirong Formation I HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 4 Yiqian Quedang Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite 52K Beibeng granite Vaikrita group	W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths Bi-gabbro R trachyte 2 mica granite 31°54.3081°10.199' schist 28.373 83.969 Subvolcanic porphyritic leucogranite dike leucogranite granitic gneiss Sil-Grt-Crd-Bt migmatitic gneiss Ky schist 27° 20.3 91° 32.76' Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite Norite 2MT E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite Qtzite		431 781.0 739.0 33.7 401 186.42 134.58 160 27.2 365.7 66.81 219 82 227 7.37 147.7 183.8 319.5 1.48 84.4 306 68 81	37.06 X 17 10.92 15.83 7.72 17.68 0.1442 1.6625 0.0507 22.14 0.232077 0.498 1.85	X 0.732684 1.4E-05 0.730948 0.746031 0.726391 16 0.72107 0.73087 0.00001 0.785905 16 0.83617 0.00002 0.70443 0.72066 0.716946 15 0.70445 0.771027 0.706638 4E-06 0.706108 6E-06 0.74143	8.4 40.6 11.1 5.93 5.74 0.61 1.52 5.61 11.22 9.08 7.33 3.93 1.21 8.12 2.57	43.7 215.0 70.2 23.16 28.86 1.76 5.13 23.8 2.46 45.69 34.42 19.37 4.25 38.8 13.87	0.116 0.1203 0.2097 0.1803 0.14 0.1326 0.12 0.1287 0.1002 0.1715 0.126634 0.1119 0.113
	T079B THB CHZ-6 THB YR1109 W. Tibet Xungba S. Tibet Sangri Group: S. Tibet W. Lhasa PVR TSS LG-06 S. Lhasa28.3N 91.0E Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite HHC 502107 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi TSS T0471-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome TSS CN1353-1 S.E. Lhasa HHCT0812-B-2 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE32 Far-east HHC Kangchenjunga Migmatite HHCB41 Bhutan THB DQ98-9 G S.W. Tib 30°N 83°E Dangqiong THB 2003T539 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-11 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB30-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCXG56 C. Nepal Larkya phase THB T1222 E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang THB T692 E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa HHCKR116 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Luozha Leucogranite Formation I Yardoi gneiss dome Cuonadong gneiss dome Gyirong Formation I HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 4 Yiqian Quedang Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite 52K Beibeng granite Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. HHC granite E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite B trachydacite 31°54.3081°10.199' 2 mica granite quartzite 28.369 83.967 Leucogranite leucogranite granitic gneiss Sil-Crd-Grt-Bt migmatitic gneiss Bt gneiss 27° 25.9391° 34.18' Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite Norite 2M Bi-gabbro Gneiss		139 785 388 204.69 74.72 620 688 103 38.5 354.9 66.02 241 68 182 0.182 191.2 170.5 298.7 1.58 803 433 41.6 75 112	0.649 7.7317 15.55 10.24 4.47 0.0028 1.6496 0.0057 30.27 0.708 8.49	0.705626 0.730714 0.725625 0.7205 0.730832 1.3E-05 8E-06 15 0.790804 15 0.77531 0.00003 0.70321 0.72093 0.717176 13 0.704337 0.76509 0.706474 4E-06 0.75149	5.2 40.4 10.1 3.05 2.87 1.26 6.46 57.99 10.15 3.143 3.21 1.54 1.86 10.62 1.6	22.2 221 64.5 12.45 4.23 4.07 27.8 9.95 50.69 8.239 15.06 5.22 5.76 62.4 9.93	0.142 0.4105 0.188 0.14 0.1037 0.121 0.2306 0.1289 0.1782 0.1967 0.0972 0.1293
	ET021B S. Tibet Sangri Group: TSS 0319-02 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB CHZ-7 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB YR1111 W. Tibet Xungba PVR TSS ZF-31 S. Lhasa29N 90E Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite LH 502108 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi TSS T0471-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome TSS CN1354 S.E. Lhasa HHCT0812-B-3 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE68 Far-east HHC Junbesi Paragneiss HHCB50 Bhutan THB DQ98-12 GS.W. Tib 30°N 83°E Dangqiong THB G8 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-12 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB32 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCXG102 C. Nepal Larkya phase THB T1224 E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang THB T697 E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa HHCKR118 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yardoi gneiss dome Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Quzhen Leucogranite Kuncha Yardoi gneiss dome Cuonadong gneiss dome Gyirong Formation I HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Quedang Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite 52K Damu granite Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. HHC granite E. Transhimalayan batholiths Diorite B Gt-Bi-gneiss trachyte 2 mica granite 31°54.3081°10.199' phyllite 28.362 83.961 Leucogranite leucogranite granitic gneiss Ky-St-Grt-Bt-Ms-Chl gneiss Sill schist 27° 20.8491° 37.08' Ophiolites potassic lava Two-mica granite Norite 2M E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite Gneiss		10.3 229.3 39.11 341 871 844 387 289.44 116.52 107 45.1 317.6 91.23 249 86.2 163 0.294 137 152.3 310.1 3.26 421 470 44.7 122 137	0.087 17.393 6.8565 10.07 8.35 10.46 0.0062 1.4194 0.0224 30.55 0.52912 0.315 2.35	0.704563 0.96378 0.731571 1.5E-05 0.768905 0.715486 15 0.727906 9E-06 0.786131 14 0.77506 0.00002 0.70307 0.729418 0.717117 14 0.704267 0.761066 0.707225 4E-06 0.70658 5E-06 0.74513	2.4 4.67 45 10.5 4.63 6.58 0.81 3.01 6.47 28.69 7.74 3.017 2.99 0.979 2.37 7.79 3.73	9.3 22.45 236 67 22.57 35.16 2.52 10.82 30 6.01 37.9 8.123 14.26 3.7 7.67 40 23.15	0.155 0.1259 0.1131 0.1945 0.1695 0.13 0.1266 0.124 0.2245 0.127 0.1602 0.1856 0.117659 0.0794 0.121
	ST119A S. Tibet Sangri Group: TSS 0319-03 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB CHZ-8 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB YR1112 W. Tibet Xungba PVR TSS ZF-26 S. Lhasa29N 90E Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite LH 502097 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi TSS T0471-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome HHCT0814--1 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE71 Far-east HHC Junbesi Paragneiss HHCB51 Bhutan THB DQ98-14 DS.W. Tib 30°N 83°E Dangqiong THB C10 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0389-17 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB41-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCXG270 C. Nepal Larkya phase THB T698 E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa HHCKR120 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yardoi gneiss dome Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Quzhen Leucogranite Kuncha Yardoi gneiss dome Gyirong Formation I HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite Damu granite Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite B Gt-Bi-gneiss trachyte 31°54.3081°10.199' 2 mica granite graphitic phy 28.347 83.962 Leucogranite granitic gneiss Sil-Ky-Grt-Bt gneiss Mica schist 27° 20.8291° 37.62' Ophiolites potassic lava Amphibolite Norite 2M Gneiss		2.2 280.3 40.19 520 564 1072 424 327.58 67.85 130 55.7 224 80.4 92 0.4 204.6 126.8 79.3 1.68 544 349 168	0.012 20.534 6.7451 8.05 17.8 0.0056 4.638 0.0089 15.55 1.419 32.57	0.703481 0.884871 0.731065 0.729351 0.71536 0.772889 0.83681 0.00001 15 14 0.70295 0.735896 0.736184 11 0.704241 0.760331 0.706827 4E-06 0.90621	4.7 4.91 43.7 11.5 3.59 4.63 1.63 10.6 29.17 6.1 6.068 9.54 1.45 5.19	20.7 25.37 234 74.8 18.23 25.98 6.48 47.8 5.66 30.25 16.91 51.82 5.13 36.06	0.138 0.1171 0.1077 0.1522 0.13 0.1167 0.122 0.2169 0.1114 0.1705 0.087 0.147
	ST122 TSS 0319-07 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet Sangri Group: S.E. Lhasa THB CHZ-9 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB YR1113 W. Tibet Xungba PVR TSS ZF-18 S. Lhasa29N 90E Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite HHC 502128 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi TSS 09FW115 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS T0471-4 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome LH o NBH-22 Bhutan HHCT0814--2 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE76 Far-east HHC Kangchenjunga Migmatite HHCB68 Bhutan THB XL98-10 D S. Tibet 29°N 89°E Xialu THB CV5 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0321-08 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB44-5 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCXP130 C. Nepal Larkya phase THB T1018 E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa HHCKR143 Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yardoi gneiss dome Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Quzhen Leucogranite Formation I Ramba dome Yardoi gneiss dome Paro formation Gyirong Formation I HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite Damu granite Vaikrita group	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. HHC granite E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite B Gt-Bi-gneiss trachydacite 31°54.3081°10.199' 2 mica granite paragneiss 28.315 84.092 porphyritic two-mica granite gneiss dykes Leucogranite Schist granitic gneiss Sil-Grt-Bt-Chl migmatite Bt gneiss 27° 14.2 91° 33.12' Ophiolites potassic lava Amphibolite Norite 2M Qtzite		1.1 383.4 24.97 482 538 911 382 335.8 116.72 149 300 104 106 243 78.3 166 2.11 166.3 1.89 236.2 4 803 369 49.8 119	0.007 45.183 1.44 2.8355 8.97 4.71 0.0366 0.0232 0.0144 21.52 1.967 2.68	0.703776 0.880607 0.729528 0.736713 0.717417 0.715106 0.771145 0.76448 0.00002 7E-06 22 14 13 0.70345 0.733316 0.712084 16 0.704648 0.752333 0.721502 7E-06 0.76172	5.2 2.79 47.5 10.1 3.11 7.93 2.94 0.78 6.62 9.48 45.49 6.69 2.705 9.6 0.786 1.69 6.44	25.6 12.76 247 66.6 15.76 41.3 14 3.17 24.86 43.4 8.77 31.6 8.011 36.52 2.75 5.85 35.24	0.124 0.1322 0.1161 0.1272 0.1489 0.13 0.1166 0.128 0.2041 0.1589 0.173 0.174 0.1105 0.1112
	ST101B S. Tibet Sangri Group: TSS 0321-021 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB CHZ-10 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB YR1114 W. Tibet Xungba PVR TSS ZF-38 S. Lhasa29N 90E Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite THB 07TB33a-1S. Lhasa, N. Suture HHC 502129 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi TSS 12FW111 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS T0471-5 S.E. Lha 29N 92E Yardoi gneiss dome LH o BU07-73 Bhutan HHCT0814--3 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E HHCHE77 Far-east HHC Junbesi Paragneiss HHCB71b Bhutan THB DZ98-1 G S. Tibet 29°N 89°E Dazhuqu Dazhuka THB C76 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0321-09 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB49-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCDK203 C. Nepal Bimtang phase THB T866 E. SyntaxN.E. Namche Barwa TSS C29/97 Garhwal TSS 30.2°N 79-80°E	Linzigong volcanics Yardoi gneiss dome Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Quzhen Leucogranite Kelu intrusive rock Formation I Ramba dome Yardoi gneiss dome Paro formation Gyirong Formation I HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite Bomi granite TSS	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths foliated granite A Gt-Mus gneiss trachyte 31°54.3081°10.199' Tourmaline granite Q-monzonite paragneiss 28.31 84.094 porphyritic two-mica granite gneiss dykes Leucogranite Quartzite granitic gneiss Grt-Ms-Bt gneiss Quartzite 27° 17.8991° 28.48' Ophiolites potassic lava Amphibolite Norite 2M Shale		24.9 183.3 529 380 362.11 109.46 607 6.91 861 91.4 716 141 223 126 90.2 213 77.6 77 0.728 180.7 2.41 246.2 6.51 640 303 108	0.119 78.634 0.369 1.828 4.037 13.08 0.0117 0.0283 0.0294 8.38 0.468 27.7	0.704472 0.961299 0.736455 0.731207 1.3E-05 0.741164 0.704298 1.3E-05 0.717975 21 0.715393 15 0.92056 0.00002 0.70356 0.730484 0.712669 14 0.704327 0.748998 0.712603 6E-06 0.77229	4 6.1 45.7 10.7 4.15 5.05 7.06 4.43 0.82 2.282 10.6 30.26 2.39 2.446 9.66 3.75 3.16	21.7 30.51 243 66.2 20.35 29.2 35.95 21.6 3.27 8.165 47.5 5.92 11.78 6.66 36.65 17.1 16.23	0.113 0.1209 0.105 0.1188 0.1241 0.1517 0.1183 0.122 0.222 0.1593 0.1326 0.1177 0.1213
	ST102B S. Tibet Sangri Group: TSS 0321-12 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB CHZ-11 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB YR1115 W. Tibet Xungba PVR THB 07TB33a-2S. Lhasa, N. Suture HHC 502133 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi TSS 12FW112 S.W. Lha30N 90E LH o BU07-75 Bhutan TSS T0832-GN S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0814--4 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E LH/HME11 Far-east MCTZ Sun Kosi Phyllite HHCB81 Bhutan THB DZ98-12 DS. Tibet 29°N 89°E Dazhuqu Dazhuka THB CH4 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0394-10 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB30-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCDK208 C. Nepal Bimtang phase THB T1037 E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Linzigong volcanics Yardoi gneiss dome Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Kelu intrusive rock Formation I Ramba dome Paro formation Xiaru dome Gyirong MCT zone HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite Bolonggong granite	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. HHC granite E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite A Gt-Bi-gneiss trachyte 31°54.3081°10.199' Diorite schist 28.307 84.092 porphyritic two-mica granite gneiss dykes Quartzite granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Bt-Ms schist Gnt phyllite 27° 27.4 90° 22.07' Ophiolites potassic lava Amphibolite Hornblendite 2M		50.3 156.7 811 404 41.3 209 585 242 283 0.301 425 1.67 316 125	367 7.11 855 937 696 71.1 98.9 128 428 270	0.396 65.249 0.128 0.869 23.78 21.4 0.0068 2.8697 0.0179 8.44 0.853	0.704574 0.93649 0.704147 0.00001 0.708604 20 0.85541 15 0.80052 0.00001 0.70451 0.733043 0.714429 12 0.704352 0.748189 0.70719 5E-06	3.1 3.48 45.1 10.8 4.03 5.99 2.77 7.552 1.95 11.9 24.89 9.65 2.677 7.82 2.2 4 1.82	14.3 16.93 237 70 21.9 29.84 15.1 28.97 7.39 54.6 5.48 47.12 7.654 34.46 7.91 15.4 9.75	0.133 0.1243 0.111 0.1214 0.1111 0.16 0.1332 0.124 0.2114 0.1372 0.1678 0.159 0.1128
	ET021C S. Tibet Sangri Group: TSS 0321-011 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB CHZ-12 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB YR1116 W. Tibet Xungba PVR THB 07TB33b-2S. Lhasa, N. Suture HHC 502132 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi TSS 09FW116 S.W. Lha30N 90E LH o BU07-76 Bhutan TSS T0832-GN2S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0814--5 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E LH/HME12 Far-east MCTZ Sun Kosi Phyllite HHCB83 Bhutan THB L S. Tibet 29°N 89°E Dazhuqu Dazhuka THB CH7 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0394-21 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB35-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCXG162 C. Nepal Bimtang phase THB T1038 E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Linzigong volcanics Yardoi gneiss dome Chazi ultrapotassic lava Yare Kelu intrusive rock Formation I Ramba dome Paro formation Xiaru dome Gyirong MCT zone HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite Bolonggong granite	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite A Gt-graphite gneiss trachyte 31°54.3081°10.199' Q-monzonite psammitic sc 28.306 84.09 2 mica granite pluton Quartzite granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Grt-St-Bt-Ms schist Gnt schist 27° 30.9 90° 17.74' Ophiolites potassic lava Amphibolite Hornblendite 2M		65.7 182.5 795 406 87.1 299 851 219 247 0.359 169.7 333 86.8 790 735 141 52.6 74.6 8.98 160.2 3.26 127 114 102	0.572 6.091 0.343 6.163 8.48 4.31 0.0061 0.1623 0.0743 2.9 0.594	0.704639 0.722345 0.736385 0.704272 1.7E-05 0.73218 20 0.761903 16 0.72775 0.00001 0.7044 0.726819 0.711551 13 0.704495 0.746491 0.706287 5E-06	3.8 6.95 48 11.5 5.24 5.93 3.9 1.014 5.72 5.13 67.81 13.77 2.162 10.14 1.75 2.33	17 36.75 254 72 30.4 29.91 16.9 5.283 22.6 20 13 67.7 5.595 58.94 5.93 13.07	0.135 0.1144 0.104 0.1199 0.1396 0.16 0.1159 0.123 0.2355 0.104 0.1787 0.1076
	ET022A S. Tibet Sangri Group: TSS 0321-08 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB YR1117 W. Tibet Xungba PVR THB 07TB33d S. Lhasa, N. Suture LH 502130 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi TSS 09FW118 S.W. Lha30N 90E LH o BU07-77 Bhutan TSS T0832-GN3S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0814--6 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E LH/HME15 Far-east MCTZ Khare Phyllite HHCB85b Bhutan THB DZ98-19 S. Tibet 29°N 89°E Dazhuqu Dazhuka THB C03 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0394-1 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB42-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCXL24 C. Nepal Bimtang phase THB T699 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang THB T1041 E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Linzigong volcanics Yardoi gneiss dome Yare Kelu intrusive rock post-Kuncha Nawakot Ramba dome Paro formation Xiaru dome Gyirong MCT zone HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Manaslu granite Damu Bolonggong granite	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. HHC W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths quartz-monzonite intruded by two-mica granite R Gt amphibolite trachyte 31°54.3081°10.199' Diorite graphitic phy 28.301 84.093 2 mica granite pluton Quartzite granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Ms-Chl phyllite Gnt schist 27° 23.4089° 35.24' Ophiolites potassic lava Amphibolite Hornblendite 2MT E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite		75.9 1.89 236.2 195 398 20.2 745 427 99.1 587 53.8 218 56.6 144 1.82 158.1 27.88 186.2 1.5 72 276 74.7 126	1.125 0.0232 0.0785 12.51 31.53 11.13 10.32 0.0333 0.3772 0.0601 9.63 0.774	0.707115 0.712084 0.704224 1.7E-05 0.740026 25 0.894211 15 0.787114 14 0.78961 0.00002 0.70433 0.723169 0.714183 13 0.704402 0.744458 0.708733 4E-06 0.708319 5E-06	2.2 9.6 10.5 2 5.45 3.95 0.848 4.3 2.94 40.2 8.24 2.896 6.23 1.42 6.08 3.42	12 36.52 66 12.4 29 19.2 3.235 17.3 9.93 8.07 41.68 8.642 28.8 4.94 39.1 18.83	0.109 0.1589 0.122 0.1136 0.1245 0.15 0.18 0.1213 0.119 0.2026 0.1308 0.1734 0.1097
	ET024 TSS 0321-09 S.E. Tibet S. Tibet Sangri Group: S.E. Lhasa THB YR1118 W. Tibet Xungba PVR THB 07TB33e S. Lhasa, N. Suture LH 502134 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi TSS 09FW120 S.W. Lha30N 90E HHC 602008 E. Himal 92E LH o BU07-83 Bhutan TSS T0832-GN4S. Tibet 86°E HHCZC10-04 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E LH/HME16 Far-east MCTZ Sisne Khola Augen Gneiss HHCB88b Bhutan THB LC98-3 S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Langceling THB CX38 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0394-6 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB43-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T700 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang THB T1043 E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Linzigong volcanics Yardoi gneiss dome Yare Kelu intrusive rock post-Kuncha Nawakot Ramba dome Arunachal leucogranites Paro formation Xiaru dome Gyirong MCT zone HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Damu Bolonggong granite	Linzigong lava W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. HHC W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths quartz-monzonite intruded by two-mica granite R Gt amphibolite trachyandesi 31°54.3081°10.199' Q-monzonite phyllitic quar 28.299 84.092 2 mica granite pluton Leucogranite Orthogneiss granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Ms-Bt augen gneiss Gnt schist 27° 18.8889° 32.92' Ophiolites potassic lava Amphibolite Hornblendite E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite		92.2 2.41 246.2 225 157 82.4 762 337 134 279.4 190.5 567 79.8 266 90.1 163 3.35 98.84 39.09 176.7 1.94 89.2 102 102	1.188 0.0283 0.313 7.29 4.294 20.53 3.01 0.098 0.5254 0.0628 0.644	0.707376 0.712669 0.707932 1.9E-05 0.704273 1.7E-05 0.742221 13 0.824754 1.3E-05 0.835204 15 0.75981 0.00001 0.70472 0.721648 0.711257 14 0.704486 0.707209 6E-06 0.706681 4E-06	2.2 9.66 11.2 4.84 4.87 10.6 4.492 1.87 5.59 20.95 8.21 1.706 3.99 2.79 8.59 4.86	13.1 36.65 Nd weird … 61.4 28.2 23.6 46 17.027 6.75 27.1 4.64 40.42 4.639 19.04 9.98 57 29.31	0.104 0.1593 0.104 0.1247 0.1398 0.17 0.1338 0.123 0.2223 0.1268 0.1688 0.1003
	TSS 0321-031 S.E. Tibet THB ZB1101 W. Tibet N. Maiga TSS JK3/05 S. Tibet Sakya LH 502131 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi S.E. Lhasa PVR Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 09FW121 S.W. Lha30N 90E HHC 602009 E. Himal 92E TSS T0832-GN5S. Tibet 86°E HHCZC10-06 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E LH ME19 Far-east MCTZ Khare Phyllite HHCBh6 Bhutan THB LC98-4 S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Langceling THB C25 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3 TSS T0394-8 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB43-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB T1019 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang THB T1059 E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Yardoi gneiss dome Zabuye Kuday granite post-Kuncha Nawakot Ramba dome Arunachal leucogranites Xiaru dome Gyirong MCT zone HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture 5 Chazi Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Damu Bolonggong granite	TSS granite TSS granite TSS granite TSS granite Yarlung TsangbW.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. K-rich TranshimW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite leucogranite trachyandesi 31°22.3384°23.459' Leucogranites graphitic phy 28.295 84.093 2 mica granite pluton Leucogranite granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Ep-Ms-Bt-Chl gneiss Bt gneiss 27° 37.7689° 49.23' Ophiolites potassic lava Amphibolite Hornblendite quartz-monzonite intruded by two-mica granite	64.24 155.5 499 136.4 165.2 331 130 169.5 108 468 84.1 304 79.4 Ms and Bt, Chl replacing Grt 1.198 2.379854 7.368 4.5826 16.08 268 10.3 130 0.2291 7.71 83.3 0.2758 2 75.2 0.0768 106 117 0.889	0.718102 0.711192 1.5E-05 0.763193 0.00001 0.739637 15 0.799797 1.7E-05 0.803396 15 0.70485 0.736552 0.714926 12 0.70445 0.706876 5E-06	1.24 16.1 2.88 2.87 4.33 7.2 3.97 6.84 46.03 3.94 1.477 4.2 1.81 8.05 3.91	5.08 83.4 14.01 15.34 21.7 32.9 13 30.4 9.05 19 3.534 21.07 6.68 58.1 23.12	0.1481 0.113 0.1205 0.133 0.19 0.1188 0.125 0.2525 0.1205 0.1638 0.1022
	TSS 0321-041 S.E. Tibet THB 99T53 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB ZB1103 W. Tibet N. Maiga TSS JK3/08 S. Tibet Sakya LH 502136 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi S.E. Lhasa Tangra Yumco graben PVR Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 12FW115 S.W. Lha30N 90E HHC 602010 E. Himal 92E TSS T0832-GN6S. Tibet 86°E HHCZC10-07 N.E. NepClose to TSS86°E LH ME22 Far-east MCTZ Khare Phyllite HHCBh10b Bhutan THB LC98-6 S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Langceling TSS T0392-0 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi THB 09TB44-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo HHCSKG8 E. Nepal THB T1020 E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang THB T1061 E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Yardoi gneiss dome Wenbu potassic lava Zabuye Kuday granite post-Kuncha Nawakot Ramba dome Arunachal leucogranites Xiaru dome Gyirong MCT zone HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture Yardoi gneiss dome Milin intrusive suite Langtang granite Damu Bolonggong granite	TSS granite K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. TSS W.R. Gangdese belt W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths two-mica granite leucogranite trachyte 31°22.3384°23.459' Leucogranites phyllite 28.285 84.091 2 mica granite pluton Leucogranite granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Ms-Chl phyllite Gnt schist 27° 18.8989° 32.74' Ophiolites Augen Gneiss Hornblendite Granites quartz-monzonite intruded by two-mica granite		73.93 177.3 380 1442 440 191.7 140 364 126 99.1 66.3 563 45.8 319 84.8 114 5.22 82.2 258.5 19.5 3.25 219 115.6 250.6 226 121	1.208 0.7628 8.376 4.3621 0.1836 38.815 0.0428 6.3 0.868	0.71916 0.72216 0.736043 0.804067 1.4E-05 23 0.70483 0.853244 14 0.704621 0.75394 0.706425 4E-06	1.26 27.5 14.4 2.49 3.8 4.28 3.2 3.8 6.13 32.65 6.34 1.023 4.75 4.07 6.65 4.01	4.45 206.6 76.1 9.35 21.94 21.2 12.8 14.7 28.6 5.72 30.65 2.413 23.48 12.3 48.6 21.48	0.1709 0.08056 0.1044 0.122 0.151 0.1059 0.122 0.2561 0.1224 0.2009 0.1129
	TSS 0323-02 S.E. Tibet THB 99T56 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB ZB1104 W. Tibet N. Maiga TSS JK3/12a S. Tibet Sakya HHC 502152 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge S.E. Lhasa Tangra Yumco graben PVR Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 12FW116 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS T263 E. Himal 92E TSS T0832-GN S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0512-2 Bhutan 90°E LH ME23 Far-east MCTZ Khare Phyllite HHCBh12 Bhutan THB LB98-1 G S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Luobusha TSS T0392-1 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi HHCSKG9 E. Nepal THB T829 E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang TSS/T856 E. Syntaxis	Yardoi gneiss dome Wenbu potassic lava Zabuye Kuday granite Formation I Ramba dome Tsona leucogranites Xiaru dome Yadong MCT zone HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust) Yarlung Tsangbo suture Yardoi gneiss dome Langtang granite 52 K Bomi Group (metam)	TSS granite K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. TSS W.R. E. Transhimalayan batholiths biotite granite and porphyritic quartz-monzonite leucogranite trachyandesi 31°22.3484°23.442' Leucogranites paragneiss 28.306 84.302 2 mica granite pluton Leucogranite granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Ep-Ms-Bt mylonitic schist Gnt schist 26° 55.0589° 28.45' Ophiolites Augen Gneiss Granites Transhimalaya garnet-biotite-plagioclase gneiss	244.2 288.7 504 1155 501 261.2 96.61 332 155 408.9 64.2 780 69 228 56 153 13.1 294 278.9 14.8 331.2 85.3 175	2.45 1.261 6.228 18.547 32.67 0.1287 56.149 0.75 4.252	0.717262 0.72218 0.711194 1.4E-05 0.73837 25 0.764508 2.4E-05 0.888121 14 0.70621 0.99585 15 0.76201 0.707657 4E-06 0.748429 5E-06	0.99 33.9 16 2.47 5.73 5.19 4.6 1.74 4.06 27.71 6.61 3.86 5.62 5.81	3.17 253.5 81.2 9.22 28.85 25.9 17.2 6.38 20.8 6.08 32.18 10.94 25.79 37.1	0.1897 0.08091 0.12 0.121 0.1612 0.17 0.1325 0.124 0.2134 0.1319 0.1041
	TSS 0322-01 S.E. Tibet THB 99T57 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB ZB1105 W. Tibet N. Maiga TSS JK3/13b S. Tibet Sakya HHC 502149 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge S.E. Lhasa Tangra Yumco graben PVR Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 09FW114 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS T264 E. Himal 92E TSS T0833-1 S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0512-3 Bhutan 90°E LH ME75 Far-east MCTZ Sisne Khola Augen Gneiss LH B29a Bhutan THB L S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Luobusha TSS T0392-3 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi HHCSKG12 E. Nepal THB T836 E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang TSS/T865 E. Syntaxis	Yardoi gneiss dome Wenbu potassic lava Zabuye Kuday granite Formation I Ramba dome Tsona leucogranites Xiaru dome Yadong MCT zone Daling-Shumar Formation Yarlung Tsangbo suture Yardoi gneiss dome Langtang granite 52 K Bomi Group (metam)	TSS granite K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. LH W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. TSS W.R. HHC granite E. Transhimalayan batholiths biotite granite and porphyritic quartz-monzonite leucogranite trachyandesi 31°22.3484°23.442' Leucogranites paragneiss 28.304 84.301 garnet-bearing granite dykes Leucogranite granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Ms-Bt gneiss Quartzite 27° 16.3291° 14.87' Ophiolites Augen Gneiss Granites Transhimalaya garnet-biotite-plagioclase gneiss	278 333 464 137.3 60.46 105 1847 476 19 436 36.7 526 98.4 274 31 198 17 340.3 345.8 21.3 120.9 194.7 148	7.672 1.282 72.64 34.5645 10.87 0.1328 48.397 4.68 4.318	0.719373 0.72438 0.730147 0.766703 1.3E-05 20 0.91818 0.00002 0.7061 0.998985 15 0.75322 0.707632 9E-06 0.740547 5E-06	3.64 36.4 15.4 1.71 7.21 0.65 3.6 2.17 2.41 44.27 1.05 4.707 8.22 2.71 4.3	10.5 253.5 78.9 3.86 36.33 1.7 12.1 8.68 10.9 8.7 6.23 13.46 38.64 9.677 26.8	0.2097 0.07813 0.12 0.2321 0.1779 0.1188 0.102 0.2114 0.1287 0.169 0.1155
	TSS 0322-04 S.E. Tibet THB 99T60 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB ZB1107 W. Tibet N. Maiga TSS TO3/29x S. Tibet Sakya TSS 11SN16-1 S. Lhasa, S. of Suture HHC 502148 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge S.E. Lhasa Tangra Yumco graben PVR Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 09FW119 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS T265 E. Himal 92E HHCBKS-2A N. KathmBhote Koshi TSS T0833-2 S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0512-6 Bhutan 90°E LH ME76 Far-east MCTZ Khare Phyllite LH B29b Bhutan THB LB98-3 G S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Luobusha THB ZF09 S.W. Tib 33°N 80°E TSS T0395-01 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi HHCSKG13 E. Nepal THB T1223 E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang TSS/T867 E. Syntaxis	Yardoi gneiss dome Wenbu potassic lava Zabuye Lijun granite Comei granite Formation I Ramba dome Tsona leucogranites Xiaru dome Yadong MCT zone Daling-Shumar Formation Yarlung Tsangbo suture 1 Shiquanhe Yardoi gneiss dome Langtang granite 52 K Bomi Group (metam)	TSS granite K-rich TranshimW.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. TSS granite W.R. TSS granite W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. W.R. LH W.R. Yarlung TsangbW.R. TranshimalayanW.R. TSS W.R. Transhimalaya	leucogranite trachyandesi 31°22.3484°23.442' Leucogranites Granite porphyry graphitic sch 28.304 84.302 garnet-bearing granite dykes Leucogranite Garnetiferou 27.973 85.963 granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Ms-Bt siliceous schist Phyllite 27° 16.3291° 14.87' Ophiolites adakite 33.5 80.2 Augen Gneiss Granites biotite granite and porphyritic quartz-monzonite garnet-biotite-plagioclase gneiss	273.2 88.85 497 1122 416 113.9 28.57 77.4 68.1 365 92.2 289.6 43.4 19.1 20.7 312 18 42 0.897 118.8 135 464.6 2.9 41.9 214.4 130	8.907 0.521 3.29 11.472 19.4479 12.07 0.0218 819 491.06 14.87 2.061	0.719471 0.71845 0.730404 0.714106 0.782315 1.6E-05 6 17 0.88034 0.00001 0.703 0.708124 1.4603 4 0.74971 0.733837 7E-06	1.77 27.1 14.1 3.04 12.6 8.4 0.76 3 7.8417 2.05 2.92 n.d. 5.68 2.047 5.47 3.87 9.3	5.29 210 72.8 10.6 67.6 43.6 2.02 9.8 40.9026 6.72 7.84 n.d. 31.93 5.732 26.9 10.53 53	n.d.	0.2027 0.08677 0.113 0.1165 0.2282 0.1877 0.107 0.2159 0.2221 0.1113
	THB T358 TSS 0323-01 S.E. Tibet S.E. TibeTGP THB 99T62 S. Tibet W. Lhasa THB ZB1110 W. Tibet N. Maiga TSS TO3/31ix S. Tibet Sakya TSS 11SN17-1 S. Lhasa, S. of Suture HHC 502147 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge W. of Lhasa S.E. Lhasa Tangra Yumco graben PVR Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 12FW103 S.W. Lha30N 90E HHC 602005 E. Himal 92E HHCBKS-2B N. KathmBhote Koshi TSS T0833-3 S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0252-1 E. syntaxis LH LE20 Far-east LLHS Taplejung Group LH B36a Bhutan THB GUO62 S.W. Tib 32°N 82°E TSS T0395-03 S.E. Lhasa Yardoi HHCSKG15 E. Nepal THB T1225 E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang TSS/T837 E. Syntaxis THB T379 S.E. TibePG W. of Lhasa TSS 0323-03 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB 99T132 S. Tibet W. Lhasa Xurruco graben TSS TO3/33x S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 11SN18-2 S. Lhasa, S. of Suture LH 502146 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge TSS 12FW104 S.W. Lha30N 90E HHC 602011 E. Himal 92E HHCBKS-3 N. KathmBhote Koshi TSS T0833-4 S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0252-2 E. syntaxis LH LE21 Far-east LLHS Taplejung Group LH B75 Bhutan THB GUO51 S.W. Tib 32°N 82°E THB 09TB61 S.E. Lhasa HHCSKG3 E. Nepal THB T1226 E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang THB T380 S.E. TibePG W. of Lhasa TSS 0323-04 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB 99T134 S. Tibet W. Lhasa Xurruco graben TSS JK4/07a S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 11SN19-2 S. Lhasa, S. of Suture LH 602002 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge TSS 12FW105 S.W. Lha30N 90E HHC 602012 E. Himal 92E HHCBKS-4 N. KathmBhote Koshi TSS T0833-5 S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0252-12-1E. syntaxis LH LE28 Far-east LLHS Taplejung Group LH Bh13 Bhutan THB GUO48 S. Tibet 30°N 85°E THB 11SR10-6 S.E. Lhasa HHCSKG4 E. Nepal THB T381 S.E. TibePG W. of Lhasa TSS 0321-07 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB 99T145 S. Tibet W. Lhasa Xurruco graben TSS JK4/08 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 11SN20-2 S. Lhasa, S. of Suture HHC 402086 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi TSS 12FW106 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 405008 E. Himal 92E Dala igneous complex HHCBKS-23 N. KathmBhote Koshi TSS T0833-6 S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0252-12-2E. syntaxis LH LE78 Far-east LLHS Taplejung Group THB 19 S.E. Lhasa THB GUO37 W. Lhasa30°N 90°E THB 11SR10-7 S.E. Lhasa HHCKG211 E. Nepal THB T399 S.E. TibeNMP W. of Lhasa TSS 0319-06 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa THB 99T152 S. Tibet W. Lhasa Xurruco graben TSS JK4/09a S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 09TB116-1S. Lhasa, S. of Suture HHC 402088 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi TSS 12FW109 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 405011 E. Himal 92E Dala igneous complex HHCBKS-22 N. KathmBhote Koshi TSS T0833-7 S. Tibet 86°E HHCT0252-12-3E. syntaxis LH LE79 Far-east LLHS Taplejung Group THB 110 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa THB G09 W. Lhasa30°N 90°E THB 09TB63 S.E. Lhasa HHCKG208 E. Nepal HHC 111920 E. SyntaxW. Namche Qiangna THB T400 S.E. TibeNMP W. of Lhasa THB 99T154 S. Tibet W. Lhasa Xurruco graben TSS JK4/09b S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 09TB116-4S. Lhasa, S. of Suture HHC 402090 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi TSS 12FW101 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 405013 E. Himal 92E Dala igneous complex LH BKS-10 N. KathmBhote Koshi TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E T0748 LH LE10 Far-east ULHS Taplejung Group THB 109A E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa THB ZFG17 W. Lhasa30°N 90°E THB Lz9915 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB 09TB64 S.E. Lhasa HHCKG210 E. Nepal HHC 112101 E. SyntaxW. Namche Laiguo THB T401 S.E. TibeNM W. of Lhasa THB 10SR-08 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa TSS JK3/25 S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite TSS 09TB116-5S. Lhasa, S. of Suture HHC402092A C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi TSS 12FW107 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 410007 E. Himal 92E Dala igneous complex LH BKS-9 N. KathmBhote Koshi TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E HHCHC46 Central NHHC Himalayan gneisses LH LT-4 C. Nepal Langtang THB 109B E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa THB G006 S. Lhasa30°N 92°E THB Lz9914 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB 11SR10-1 S.E. Lhasa HHCKG214 E. Nepal THB BD01 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112102 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo THB T403 S.E. TibeNM W. of Lhasa THB 10SR-13 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa TSS TO3/25i S. Tibet Sakya Tethyan Himalaya leucogranite HHC402092B C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi TSS 12FW102 S.W. Lha30N 90E TSS 410008 E. Himal 92E Dala igneous complex TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E HHCHC47 Central NHHC Himalayan gneisses LH LT-6 C. Nepal Langtang THB 111A E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa THB G019 E. Lhasa30°N 93°E THB L1087-2 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB 11SR10-4 S.E. Lhasa HHCKG215 E. Nepal THB BD21 E. Lhasa S. Gangdese HHC 112104 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo	PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Yardoi gneiss dome TSS granite W.R. Wenbu potassic lava K-rich TranshimW.R. Zabuye W.R. Lijun granite W.R. Comei granite TSS granite W.R. Formation I W.R. Ramba dome TSS granite W.R. Arunachal crystalline HHC W.R. W.R. Xiaru dome W.R. Namche Barwa HHC W.R. Nawakot Group W.R. Daling-Shumar Formation LH W.R. 2 Gegar TranshimalayanW.R. Yardoi gneiss dome TSS W.R. Langtang granite HHC granite 52 K Bomi Group (metam) Transhimalaya PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Yardoi gneiss dome TSS granite W.R. Chazi potassic lava K-rich TranshimW.R. Lijun granite TSS granite W.R. Comei granite TSS granite W.R. Kuncha W.R. Ramba dome TSS granite W.R. Arunachal crystalline HHC W.R. W.R. Xiaru dome W.R. Namche Barwa HHC W.R. Nawakot Group W.R. Daling-Shumar Formation LH W.R. 2 Gegar TranshimalayanW.R. Quguosha gabbros Gangdese belt W.R. Langtang granite 52 K PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Yardoi gneiss dome TSS granite W.R. Chazi potassic lava K-rich TranshimW.R. Wing granite TSS granite W.R. Comei granite TSS granite W.R. Kuncha W.R. Ramba dome TSS granite W.R. Arunachal crystalline HHC W.R. W.R. Xiaru dome W.R. Namche Barwa HHC W.R. Nawakot Group W.R. Daling-Shumar Formation W.R. 3 Daggyai TranshimalayanW.R. Quguosha gabbros Gangdese belt W.R. Langtang granite PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Yardoi gneiss dome TSS granite W.R. Chazi potassic lava K-rich TranshimW.R. Kua granite W.R. Comei granite TSS granite W.R. Formation I W.R. Ramba dome TSS granite W.R. Dala granitoids TSS granite W.R. W.R. Xiaru dome W.R. Namche Barwa HHC W.R. Nawakot Group W.R. Sangri pluton TranshimalayanW.R. 4 Xigaze TranshimalayanW.R. Quguosha gabbros W.R. Langtang granite PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Yardoi gneiss dome TSS granite W.R. Chazi potassic lava K-rich TranshimW.R. Kua granite W.R. Comei granite TSS granite W.R. Formation I W.R. Ramba dome TSS granite W.R. Dala granitoids TSS granite W.R. W.R. Xiaru dome W.R. Namche Barwa HHC W.R. Nawakot Group W.R. Dangru pluton / Dongru TranshimalayanW.R. 5 Wuyu TranshimalayanW.R. Quguosha gabbros Gangdese belt W.R. Langtang granite HHC granite Dongjiu S. HHC PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Chazi potassic lava K-rich TranshimW.R. Kua granite W.R. Comei granite TSS granite W.R. Formation I W.R. Ramba dome hosting rock TSS W.R. Dala granitoids TSS granite W.R. W.R. Xiaru dome TSS W.R. W.R. Nawakot Group W.R. Dangru pluton / Dongru TranshimalayanW.R. 6 Majiang TranshimalayanW.R. Pana Linzigong lava W.R. Quguosha gabbros Gangdese belt W.R. Langtang granite Laiguo S. HHC PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Bima Fm Sangri S. Lhasa terraneW.R. Kouwo granite W.R. Comei granite TSS granite W.R. Formation I W.R. Ramba dome hosting rock TSS W.R. Dala granitoids TSS granite W.R. W.R. Xiaru dome TSS W.R. Formation I W.R. W.R. Dangru pluton / Dongru W.R. 7 Nanmu TranshimalayanW.R. Pana Linzigong lava W.R. Quguosha gabbros Gangdese belt W.R. Langtang granite HHC granite Yeba fm Gangdese belt Laiguo S. HHC PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph Gangdese belt W.R. Bima Fm Sangri S. Lhasa terraneW.R. Mabja granite TSS granite W.R. Formation I W.R. Ramba dome hosting rock TSS W.R. Dala granitoids TSS granite W.R. Xiaru dome TSS W.R. Formation I W.R. W.R. Dangru pluton / Dongru TranshimalayanW.R. 8 Jiama TranshimalayanW.R. Pana Linzigong lava W.R. Quguosha gabbros Gangdese belt W.R. Langtang granite Yeba fm Gangdese belt Laiguo S. HHC	TGP = Tinggongporphyry; PG = Pagu granodio leucogranite trachyte 31°22.6684°23.527' Leucogranites Granite porphyry graphitic sch 28.3 84.302 garnet-bearing granite dykes Pelite Psammitic an 27.971 85.961 granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Chl-Se phyllite Phyllite 27° 15.9 91° 23.82' adakite 31.5 81.8 Augen Gneiss Granites biotite granite and porphyritic quartz-monzonite amphibolite leucogranite Leucogranites Granite porphyry phyllite 28.293 84.304 garnet-bearing granite dykes Metagranite Garnet-kyan 27.971 85.96 granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Chl-Se siliceous phyllite Quartzite 27° 16.1091° 23.74' adakite 31.5 81.8 amphibole gabbro Granites biotite granite and porphyritic quartz-monzonite leucogranite Leucogranites Granite porphyry phyllite 28.269 84.313 garnet-bearing granite dykes Orthogneiss Garnetiferou 27.97 85.96 granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Chl-Se phyllite Phyllite 26° 54.0789° 27.00' adakite 29.6 85.6 amphibole gabbro Granites leucogranite Leucogranites Granite porphyry paragneiss 28.348 84.403 garnet-bearing granite dykes Granodiorite Kyanite-garn 27.969 85.959 granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Chl-Se schist adakite 29.3 88.8 amphibole gabbro Granites leucogranite Leucogranites Granite porphyry paragneiss 28.345 84.398 garnet-bearing granite dykes Granodiorite Micaceous q 27.969 85.959 granitic gneiss granitic gneiss Ms-Bt schist adakite 29.4 89.4 amphibole gabbro Granites Two-mica schist Leucogranites Granite porphyry paragneiss 28.341 84.398 Metasedimentary-garnet-saturolite two-mica schist 174.7 163.4 145 673 470 1513 406 15.1 28.41 371 200 408 8.29 69.8 40.7 71.2 27.3 278 108 220.0 43.0 167 429.2 12.6 159 145 153 766 178.3 157.1 799 1593 243.1 52.4 178 113 400 20.5 343.5 11.9 11.4 20.3 263 100 33 188 67.4 149 158 814 193.9 140.5 266 593 219.3 62.4 182 112 231 23.4 149.4 134.4 140 37.5 129 319 232 88.3 83 162 724 55.01 213.3 600 794 355.6 97.7 166 94.3 549 19.5 125.4 340.2 250 63.9 132 325 144 807 92.8 58 204 713 182.1 300.4 834 872 80.92 103 169 131 580 16.4 124.3 336.1 433 77.6 120 313 117 415 252 127 187 683 317 1260 71.49 210.4 169 136 Granodiorite 144.7 280.7 Garnetiferou 27.966 85.958 granitic gneiss 781 30.4 granitic gneiss 419 116 Chl-Se phyllite 118 366 adakite 29.7 89.9 188 148.2 360.4 amphibole gabbro Granites 66 Epidote biotiteschist 333 187.0 583.0 Dacite 20.8 Leucogranites 186.6 174.8 Granite porphyry 160 134 quartzite 28.338 84.399 Metasedimetary-garnet-amphibolite quartz schist Monzodiorite 122.7 478.6 Garnetiferou 27.962 85.956 granitic gneiss 540 23.2 Bt migmatitic gneiss 129 418 adakite 29.5 90.9 158 183.2 184.9 amphibole gabbro Granites 144 0.5 Muscovite quartziteschist 31 372 628 Andesite 26.8 Leucogranites 353.8 70.3 graphitic sch 28.338 84.399 Metabasite-amphibole plagiogneiss Granodiorite 116.2 348.3 granitic gneiss 589 22 Grt-Bt gneiss 97 512 adakite 29.8 91.8 369 177.53 188.4 amphibole gabbro Granites 64 9 Muscovitemylonite	0.4 3.095 0.8982 5.38 142.893 5.0497 7.5 14.92 490 98.4435 4.58 0.824 0.581 3.286 1.451 13.43815 4.57 56.548 91.5567 7.67 24.85 689 0.0994 1051 0.564 3.998 1.296 10.14899 4.72 28.644 3.2308 1.17 1024 0.0681 1018 0.651 0.747 2.183 10.49434 5.1 81.507 7.859 1.18 0.407 1133 0.0436 13.48 0.829 1.755 2.765 3.74 102.573 7.833 1.11 0.769 785 0.0981 5.4 0.795 0.7267 3.62 2.614 5.6192 54.51 0.848 889 1.19 0.3693 9.73 1.17 0.93 0.2035 3.46 0.327 11.2989 43.13 317 2.868 0.2045 4.58 0.0038 3.27 1.716 0.227 14.67104 0.144 8.6757 44.57 0.525 448 2.721 0.7447 11.08 0.0404	0.7057 0.714873 0.72052 0.710519 1.2E-05 0.736446 6 0.732946 20 0.876757 1.6E-05 0.785768 12 0.97145 0.00002 0.707423 1.26313 4 0.73724 0.721199 6E-06 0.70633 0.715995 0.72036 0.813269 3E-06 0.735865 5 0.72561 17 1.709545 2.3E-05 0.788657 13 1.05902 0.00004 0.709188 0.705768 0.74515 0.70612 0.71628 0.71843 0.782417 3E-06 0.735519 6 0.72546 17 0.752523 1.2E-05 0.72404 11 0.706812 0.705822 0.74579 0.70611 0.719715 0.7182 0.766507 1.7E-05 0.735452 6 0.732044 20 0.718534 1.5E-05 0.724118 12 0.706398 7E-06 0.706639 0.705803 0.75342 0.70693 0.716362 0.71983 0.736342 16 0.731359 17 0.718602 1.6E-05 0.724072 9 0.706865 7E-06 0.706004 0.705752 0.75781 0.939088 9 0.70699 0.71666 0.736694 13 0.714083 25 0.717773 1.7E-05 0.990181 15 0.707921 4.9E-05 0.704807 0.705718 9 0.70576 0.74969 0.711662 9 0.70835 0.706039 4 0.735685 15 0.713873 13 0.717999 2.1E-05 0.944275 18 0.704911 0.707123 25 0.705789 0.75711 0.704339 12 0.751085 10 0.70677 0.705403 6 0.878522 1.3E-05 0.70752 14 0.71858 8E-06 0.9589 15 0.707403 0.00001 0.708114 0.707431 15 0.705933 0.75106 0.704455 12 1.060312 10	3.88 1.85 28.7 14.6 1.81 29.3 7.3 0.29 5.5 7.0621 3.38 8.56 25.34 13.1 4.09 4.49 4.107 6.46 4.37 1.31 31.8 5.99 13.3 5.74 0.18 11.6 10.0598 3.62 5.23 11.7 1.68 3.55 6.67 3.58 1.32 12.9 7.22 13.6 7.53 0.34 3.4 9.2288 3.15 6.42 43.5 7.54 5.02 4 0.85 17.4 5.38 13.1 6.04 0.49 4.5 7.7469 1.99 6.49 64.81 6.07 3.77 4.48 3.61 22.2 3.01 14.1 8.88 0.78 3.9 4.6708 1.99 5.94 34.72 2.52 3.21 3.148 5.11 23.3 3.92 15.2 5.22 4.2 6.102 3.44 7.95 37.9 3.06 3.64 5.188 9.96 4.0 4.27 4.45 13 1.59 5.7 5.83 2.59 33.33 4.83 3.15 1.24 2.271 4.296 4.4 1.1 4.55 3.13 3.63 5.08 6.1 3.28 28.22 5.79 3.46 3 2.741 3.4	24.6 6.45 208.9 77.3 4.86 162 37.84 0.84 27.5 36.2985 15.5 44.1 4.73 74.3 17.2 13.93 16.09 39 27 4.49 159.9 24.07 72.6 32.08 0.56 66 53.0707 13.1 24.4 2.28 9.21 18.4 42.2 21 4.29 79.1 31.87 75.9 40.92 1.12 13.7 49.1331 14.4 32.7 7.98 49.24 25.4 23.8 3.54 98.2 23.45 71.7 30.81 1.51 22.5 38.2112 7.01 30.5 11.99 41 19.2 26.3 18.17 120.1 9.76 76.6 46.04 2.19 19.2 23.2022 7.41 27.9 7.05 14 20.7 15.19 30 129.1 19.35 80.8 28.01 20.1 33.675 10.7 49 7.95 17 19.3 29.14 44.83 24.5 22.1 20.67 71.8 8.5 29.4 31.117 8.22 6.92 26.36 18 6.22 12.88 16.92 19.3 5.93 25.7 13.9 15 26.2 29.9 10.6 6.18 31.96 21 20.8 15.871 14.8	0.1733 0.08294 0.11 0.1166 0.2125 0.1212 0.12 0.1128 0.1 0.1949 0.154 0.1014 0.098 0.1763 0.1201 0.111 0.1077 0.1918 0.1067 0.13 0.1179 0.11 0.1121 0.098 0.186 0.09859 0.109 0.1112 0.1813 0.1485 0.12 0.1109 0.092 0.1269 0.103 0.1452 0.107 0.111 0.1184 0.1963 0.1207 0.13 0.1119 0.0939 0.1201 0.102 0.1202 0.1116 0.112 0.1166 0.2151 0.1217 0.13 0.1228 0.113232 0.1075 0.125 0.103 0.1092 0.114 0.1127 0.1208 0.1248 0.16 0.1268 0.106808 0.1077 0.1124 0.1349 0.103 0.1168 0.11 0.1131 0.1155 0.1177 0.16 0.1256 0.1108 0.1067 0.1034 0.153 0.1406 0.1126 0.098 0.107 0.1358 0.1172 0.1691 0.1229 0.16 0.1324 0.1096 0.104461 0.1044 0.1301 0.1471

Table SII -2. Compilation of bedrock Sr-Nd isotopic measurements.

 SII Not exhaustive. Check comment for dubious datasets. LH: Lesser Himalaya, HHC: High Himalaya Crystalline, TSS: Tethyan Sedimentary Se Morin, G., 2015. L'Érosion Et L'Alteration Et Leur Évolution Depuis Le Tardi-Pleistocene : Analyse Des Processus D'Érosion A Partir De Sediments De Riviere Actuels Et Passes Au Nepal Central. Université de Lorraine, Nancy, France. France-Lanord, C., Michard, A., Tiercelin, J.-J., 1990. Sedimentology and Isotopic Chemistry of the Bengal Fan Sediments: The Denudation of the Himalaya, in: Cochran, J.R., Stow, D.A.V., et al. (Eds.),

	Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River TSS NAG 22 C. NepalMarsyandi source Locality TSS MAR-50 C. NepalMarsyandi Temang TSS MAR-45 C. NepalNaar k. RG TSS MO 501 C. NepalKali Tukuche TSS NAG 33 C. NepalKali Koketani TSS NAG 36 C. NepalKali Kopchepani TSS LO2 C. NepalKali Kagbeni TSS NAG 20 C. NepalKali Kagbeni TSS NAG 25 C. NepalKali Jomoson TSS MO 504 C. NepalYamkim outlet TSS MO 516 C. NepalKali TSS NAG 38 C. NepalKali Dana TSS NAG 42 C. NepalKali Tatopani Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Locality HHCDK 47 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 48 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 49 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 50 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 51 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 52 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 53 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 54 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 54 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 55a C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 55b C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 56 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 57 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 58 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 59 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCU 464 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCU 464 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 242 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 247 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 268 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCD 22 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCD 14 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCD 37 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCD 45 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 200 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 202 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 203 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 204 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 205 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 206 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 207 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 207 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 208 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 HHCDK 208 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 Deniel et al., Table SII-2 (…/…) Formation TSS TSS TSS TSS TSS TSS mixed TSS basin mixed TSS basin mixed TSS basin TSS mixed TSS basin mixed TSS basin mixed TSS basin 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) Reference CommenFull reference 0.51179 -16.6 Morin, 2015 0.51175 -17.3 Morin, 2015 0.511807 -16.2 Morin, 2015 0.511749 -17.2 Morin, 2015 0.511758 -17.2 Morin, 2015 0.51181 -16.2 Morin, 2015 0.511837 -15.6 Morin, 2015 0.511928 -13.8 Morin, 2015 0.511898 -14.4 Morin, 2015 0.51166 -18.9 Morin, 2015 0.511816 -15.9 Morin, 2015 0.511823 -15.9 Morin, 2015 0.511775 -16.8 Morin, 2015 Formation Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) Reference CommenFull reference Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., 0.511817 24 -16.0 Deniel et al., Deniel et al., 0.51188 30 -14.8 Deniel et al., 1987; Vidal et al., 1984 0.511849 34 -15.4 Deniel et al., 0.511818 21 -16.0 Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., 0.511897 12 -14.5 Deniel et al., 0.511819 35 -16.0 Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite Ech.# Region River Locality Formation 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) Reference CommenFull reference
	TSS MAR-52 C. NepalDudh k. HHCU 464 C. Nepal HHCDK 209 C. Nepal		Darapani Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 1	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511712		-18.1 Morin, 2015
	TSS MAR-57 C. NepalMarsyandi Tal depot de terasse pour tester la variabilité temixed TSS basin HHCU 464 C. Nepal Manaslu Leucogranite HHCDK 210 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1 Leucogranite	0.511782		-16.7 Morin, 2015
	TSS MAR-55 C. NepalMarsyandi Tal HHCU 464 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 244 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 1	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511726		-17.8 Morin, 2015
	TSS HF 10 HHCU 464 HHCDK 168	C. NepalSeti C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2	mixed TSS basin Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511748		-17.4 Morin, 2015
	HHCMO 50 HHCU 464 HHCDK 168	C. NepalChepe C. Nepal C. Nepal		Vallon Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite			-12.4 Morin, 2015
	HHCMAR-26 C. NepalChepe HHCU 476 C. Nepal HHCDK 169 C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511824		-15.9 Morin, 2015
	HHCKN 101 HHCU 476 HHCDK 170	C. NepalLikhu C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511812		-16.1 Morin, 2015
	HHCKN 83 HHCU 476 HHCDK 171	C. NepalTadi C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511838		-15.6 Morin, 2015
	HHCCA11215CC. NepalKhudi k. N Branche Nord HHCX 12 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 172 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 2	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511867		-15.0 Morin, 2015
	HHCCA10112A C. NepalKhudi k. W Branch W HHCX 12 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCDK 173 C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 2	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511893		-14.5 Morin, 2015
	HHCSKD71 HHCX 12 HHCDK 174a C. Nepal C. NepalKhudi k. C. Nepal	Khudi Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511894		-14.5 Morin, 2015
	HHCCA11212A C. NepalKhudi HHCDK 157 C. Nepal HHCDK 175 C. Nepal		Nord W basin Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 2	HHC Leucogranite Leucogranite	0.511835		-15.7 Morin, 2015
	HHCCA10113 C. NepalKhudi basin HHC Trib HHCDK 157 C. Nepal Manaslu HHCNL 219 (1) C. Nepal Manaslu Sect. 4	HHC Leucogranite granite dyke	0.511862		-15.1 Morin, 2015
	HHCCA954 HHCDK 195 HHCNL 222 (2) C. Nepal C. NepalKhudi basin Landslide C. Nepal Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4	HHC Leucogranite granite dyke	0.51188		-14.8 Morin, 2015
	HHCGA 32 HHCDK 195 HHCNL 223 (2) C. Nepal C. NepalMailung C. Nepal		Paigutang Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4	mixed HHC basin Leucogranite granite dyke	0.511686		-18.6 Morin, 2015
	HHCCA10116 C. NepalKhudi k. HHCDK 195 C. Nepal HHCNL 224 (2) C. Nepal	Khudi Power house Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4	mixed HHC basin Leucogranite granite dyke	0.511871		-15.0 Morin, 2015
	HHCCA11111 C. NepalKhudi k. HHCDK 195 C. Nepal HHCNL 225 (2) C. Nepal	Khudi Power house Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4	mixed HHC basin Leucogranite granite dyke	0.511857		-15.2 Morin, 2015
	HHCB106 HHCD 22 HHCNL 226 (3) C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	6.1	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4	0.8 HHC bedrock Leucogranite granite dyke			-14.3 Morin, 2015
	HHCB114 HHCD 22 HHCNL 227 (3) C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	3	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 4	0.8 HHC bedrock Leucogranite granite dyke			-13.9 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL43 HHCD 22 HHCNL 206	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	3.9	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 5	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite			-16.2 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL58 HHCDK 65 HHCNL 207	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	3.1	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 5	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite			-14.0 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL59 HHCDK 67 HHCNL 208	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	1.1	Manaslu Manaslu Sect. 5	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite			-15.1 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL74 HHCDK 72 HHCNL 234	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	2	Manaslu Manaslu	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite			-15.5 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL75 HHCDK 98 HHCU 862	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	5.5	Manaslu Manaslu	0.8 HHC bedrock Leucogranite Leucogranite			-16.8 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL76 HHCDK 102 HHCNL 43a	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	1.4	Manaslu Manaslu	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite FI Gneiss			-15.3 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL85 HHCDK 111 HHCNL 58a	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	2	Manaslu Manaslu	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite FI Gneiss			-18.2 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL93 HHCDK 112 HHCNL 59a	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	0.4	Manaslu Manaslu	0.7 HHC bedrock Leucogranite FI Gneiss			-18.0 Morin, 2015
	HHCNL420 HHCDK 116 HHCNL 74	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal	19.2	Manaslu Manaslu	0.8 HHC bedrock Leucogranite FI Gneiss			-15.5 Morin, 2015
	LH NAG 4 HHCDK 136 HHCNL 75	C. NepalBijaipur C. Nepal C. Nepal		Kundahar Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511349		-25.1 Morin, 2015
	LH MO 112 C. NepalIsul k. HHCDK 138 C. Nepal HHCNL 76 C. Nepal		Bhuri G. Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511324		-25.6 Morin, 2015
	LH MO 102 C. NepalMarsel k. HHCDK 139 C. Nepal HHCNL 81 C. Nepal	Darondi Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss			-23.8 Morin, 2015
	LH MO 109 C. NepalMati k. HHCDK 140 C. Nepal HHCNL 85 C. Nepal		Bhuri G. Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss			-20.7 Morin, 2015
	LH MO 207 C. NepalAndi HHCDK 141 C. Nepal HHCNL 86 C. Nepal		Kali Gandaki Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511319		-25.7 Morin, 2015
	LH GA 99 HHCDK 151 HHCNL 93	C. NepalMailung C. Nepal C. Nepal		landslide Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511452		-23.0 Morin, 2015
	LH GA 112 HHCDK 151 HHCNL 100	C. NepalMailung C. Nepal C. Nepal		Camp Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511343		-25.1 Morin, 2015
	LH MAR28 HHCDK 152 HHCNL 100	C. NepalPaudi k. C. Nepal C. Nepal	RG Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511392		-24.3 Morin, 2015
	LH MAR64 HHCDK 157 HHCNL 172	C. NepalNgadi Khola RG C. Nepal Manaslu C. Nepal Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511423		-23.7 Morin, 2015
	LH GA 50 HHCDK 160 HHCNL 499	C. NepalMailung Col C. Nepal C. Nepal	Manaslu Manaslu	LH Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511587		-20.4 Morin, 2015
	HHCDK 161 HHCNL 512	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu	Leucogranite FI Gneiss
	HHCDK 162 HHCDK 167 HHCDK 180 HHCβ 106a	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu	Leucogranite Leucogranite Leucogranite FI Gneiss			Bouquillon, A., Distal Bengal Fan. Proceedings of the Ocean Drilling Program, Scientific Results, Vol. 116, pp. 43-58.
	LH AP 346 HHCDK 185 HHCβ 114a	C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu section Manaslu Manaslu	LH Kuncha pelites Leucogranite FI Gneiss	0.511397	28	-24.2 Vidal unpub., in France https://doi.org/doi:10.2973/odp.proc.sr.116.117.1990
	HHCDK 186 HHCβ 114a	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu	Leucogranite FI Gneiss			France-Lanord, C., Le Fort, P., 1988. Crustal melting and granite genesis during the Himalayan collision
	HHCDK 188 HHCU 48	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu	Leucogranite FI Gneiss			orogenesis. Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh: Earth Sciences 79, 183-195.
	LH AP 385 HHCDK 191	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu section Manaslu	LH Kuncha pelites Leucogranite	0.511331	25	-25.5 Vidal unpub., in France https://doi.org/10.1017/S0263593300014206
	TSS NA 178 HHCDK 195	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu section Manaslu	TSS Jurassic schist Leucogranite	0.511795	28	-16.4 Bouquillon et al., 1990
	TSS NA 181 HHCDK 211	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu section Manaslu	TSS Cretaceous (volcaniclastic) Leucogranite	0.512405	28	-4.5 Bouquillon et al., 1990
	HHCDK 213 LH AP9*	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite LH
	HHCDK 214 LH AP440*	C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite LH
	HHCDK 217 LH AP 524* C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite LH
	HHCDK 43 HHCDK 220 LH AP 825* C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite Leucogranite LH			1007/BF00375529
	HHCDK 45 HHCDK 237 LH AP 874* C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite Leucogranite LH	0.511827	36	-15.8 Deniel et al., 1987
	HHCDK 46 HHCDK 240 LH AP 888* C. Nepal C. Nepal C. Nepal		Manaslu Manaslu Manaslu section	Leucogranite Leucogranite LH			Deniel et al., 1987

Deniel et al., Sr-Nd bu Deniel, C., Vidal, P., Fernandez, A., Le Fort, P., Peucat, J.-J., 1987.

Isotopic study of the Manaslu granite (Himalaya, Nepal): inferences on the age and source of Himalayan leucogranites. Contributions to Mineralogy and Petrology 96, 78-92. https://doi.org/10.

  Arnaud, N.,Liu, J., Rogers, N., Hawkesworth, C., Harris, N., Kelley, S., Van Calsteren, P., Deng, W., 1996. Post-collision, Shoshonitic Volcanism on the Tibetan Plateau: Implications for Convective Thinning of the Lithosphere and the Source of Ocean Island Basalts. Journal of Petrology 37, 45-71. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/37.1.45 Turner

	0.511852 0.51188 0.511909 0.51188 0.511972 0.511961 0.511968 0.511948 0.511889 0.511932 0.511875 0.511922 0.511936 0.511909 0.511829 0.511887 0.511907 0.511873 0.511838 0.51181 0.511918 0.511866 0.511844 0.511777 0.511852 0.511706 0.511713 0.511805 0.511673 0.511671 0.51175 0.511734 0.51161 0.511619 0.511714 0.512137 0.511814 0.511946 0.511903 Table SII-2 (…/…) TSS 2TBpha C. Nepal Dogger Fm TSS 3TBjom C. Nepal Jomson Fm TSS 4TBSya C. Nepal Tilicho Fm TSS 5TBMar C. Nepal Tilichio Fm TSS DD-31 W. Nepal Melmura Fm TSS DD-33 W. Nepal Melmura Fm HHCAG-106 E. Nepal Formation I HHCAG-109 E. Nepal Formation I HHC9TBkal C. Nepal Formation III HHC12TBgh C. Nepal Formation I HHC13TBru C. Nepal Formation II THB K9008 VII Tibetan lava THB K9016 VII Tibetan lava THB K9018 VII Tibetan lava THB K9021 VII Tibetan lava THB K9026 VII Tibetan lava THB K9028 VII Tibetan lava THB K9031 VII Tibetan lava THB K9032 VII Tibetan lava THB K9038 VII Tibetan lava THB K9024 N. Lhasa Plutonic beltIX Tibetan lava THB K9027 N. Lhasa Plutonic beltV-IX Tibetan lava Ech.# Region River Locality Formation LH NL1* C. Nepal Manaslu section LH LH NL3f C. Nepal Manaslu section LH LH NL4t C. Nepal Manaslu section LH HHCNL 428t C. Nepal Manaslu section FII HHCNL 623t C. Nepal Manaslu section FII HHCD77* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCD94* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCM84* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCNA 116| C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCNA 155* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCNA 156* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCNA 216* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCNA 218* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCNL 478t C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCT200* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCU203t C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCU284* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCU308* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCU725* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCU925* C. Nepal Manaslu section FIII HHCU277 C. Nepal Manaslu Leucogranite HHCN 67 C. Nepal Manaslu Leucogranite HHCM 102 C. Nepal Manaslu FI HHCM 114 C. Nepal Manaslu FI HHCL 12 C. Nepal Manaslu FI HHCM 108 C. Nepal Manaslu FI HHCU 124 C. Nepal Manaslu FI HHCM 107 C. Nepal Manaslu FI TSS 87 28 TSS Cretaceous TSS 87 32 TSS Trias TSS LA 194 W. Himalaya Indus TSS Indus margin TSS LA 158 W. Himalaya Indus TSS Indus margin TSS 25 1 W. Himalaya Ladakh TSS Suture Ladak TSS 89 1 W. Himalaya Ladakh TSS Suture Ladak TSS 1TBkag C. Nepal Chukh Fm Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River Locality Formation LH 24TBLi C. Nepal Galyang Fm LH K3-99 C. Nepal Galyang Fm LH DD-52 W. Nepal Sangram Fm LH 20TBSI C. Nepal Sangram Fm LH 18TBBra C. Nepal Ranimata Fm LH K2-99 C. Nepal Ranimata Fm LH AG-103 E. Nepal Ranimata Fm LH AG-104 E. Nepal Ranimata Fm LH SR-30 W. Nepal Ulleri LH AG-111 E. Nepal Ulleri LH AG-112 E. Nepal Ulleri THB K89G185 I Tibetan lava THB K89G186 I Tibetan lava THB K89G191 I Tibetan lava THB K89G192 I Tibetan lava THB K89G193 I Tibetan lava THB K89G197 I Tibetan lava THB K89G200 I Tibetan lava THB KP23-1 II Tibetan lava THB KP23-3 II Tibetan lava THB KP24-1 III Tibetan lava THB KP12-2 IV Tibetan lava THB KP12-5 IV Tibetan lava THB KP12-7 IV Tibetan lava THB K705 IV Tibetan lava THB K708 IV Tibetan lava THB K713 IV Tibetan lava THB K716 IV Tibetan lava THB K718 IV Tibetan lava THB K720 IV Tibetan lava THB K723 IV Tibetan lava THB K731 IV Tibetan lava THB K732 IV Tibetan lava THB K738 IV Tibetan lava THB KP12-4 IV Tibetan lava THB KP10-3 N. Lhasa Plutonic beltV Tibetan lava THB KP10-6 N. Lhasa Plutonic beltV Tibetan lava THB BG121 VI Tibetan lava THB BG124 VI Tibetan lava THB KP35-10 VII Tibetan lava THB BB94-2 N. Lhasa Plutonic beltVIII Tibetan lava THB BB104 N. Lhasa Plutonic beltVIII Tibetan lava THB K9006 VII Tibetan lava THB K9007 VII Tibetan lava 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) 40 10 40 10 37 43 51 17 17 21 10 10 16 15 11 17 12 18 9 14 17 15 8 18 21 19 21 15 12 9 11 7 9 10 14 30 13 14 31 0.511521 11 0.511557 9 0.511822 12 0.511444 8 0.511333 42 0.511369 15 0.511518 10 0.51137 12 0.511647 8 0.511652 14 0.511571 11 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) 0.512322	al., 1987 -15.3 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.8 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.2 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.8 Deniel et al., 1987 -13.0 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 -13.2 Deniel et al., 1987 -13.1 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 -13.5 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.6 Deniel et al., 1987 -13.8 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.9 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.0 Deniel et al., 1987 -13.7 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.2 Deniel et al., 1987 -15.8 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.6 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.3 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.9 Deniel et al., 1987 -15.6 Deniel et al., 1987 -16.2 Deniel et al., 1987 -14.0 Deniel et al., 1987 -15.1 Deniel et al., 1987 -15.5 Deniel et al., 1987 -16.8 Deniel et al., 1987 -15.3 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 -18.2 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 -18.0 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 Deniel et al., 1987 -16.2 Robinson et al., 2001 -18.8 Robinson et al., 2001 -18.9 Robinson et al., 2001 -17.3 Robinson et al., 2001 -17.6 Robinson et al., 2001 -20.1 Robinson et al., 2001 -19.9 Robinson et al., 2001 -18.0 Robinson et al., 2001 -9.8 Robinson et al., 2001 -16.1 Robinson et al., 2001 -13.5 Robinson et al., 2001 -6.2 Robinson et al., 2001 Reference CommenFull reference Robinson, D.M., DeCelles, P.G., Patchett, P.J., Garzione, C.N., 2001. The kinematic evolution of the Nepalese Himalaya interpreted from Nd isotopes. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 192, 507-521. https://doi.org/10.1016/S0012-821X(01)00451-4 -21.8 Robinson et al., 2001 -21.1 Robinson et al., 2001 -15.9 Robinson et al., 2001 -23.3 Robinson et al., 2001 -25.5 Robinson et al., 2001 -24.8 Robinson et al., 2001 -21.8 Robinson et al., 2001 -24.7 Robinson et al., 2001 -19.3 Robinson et al., 2001 -19.2 Robinson et al., 2001 -20.8 Robinson et al., 2001 Turner et al., 1996 Turner, S.,
	HHCAG-105 E. Nepal THB K9001	VII	Formation I Tibetan lava	0.511836	14	-15.6 Robinson et al., 2001
	HHCDDG-98 W. NepaGreater Himalayan klippen THB K9041 VII	C-O granite, DT Tibetan lava	0.512034	15	-11.8 Robinson et al., 2001
	HHCDD-40 THB COUL311 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI W. NepaGreater Himalayan klippen	Kalikot Schist, Dt Tibetan lava	0.512248	7	-7.6 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH K1-99 THB COUL326 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI C. Nepal	Benighat Fm Tibetan lava	0.511343	14	-25.3 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH SR-37 THB COUL328 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI W. Nepal	Benighat Fm Tibetan lava	0.51163	12	-19.7 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH SR-35 THB COUL338 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI W. Nepal	Benighat Fm Tibetan lava	0.511575	11	-20.7 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH DD-58 THB COUL339 S. Tibet Lhassa Gang XI W. Nepal	Benighat Fm Tibetan lava	0.51143	11	-23.6 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH 23TBtu THB K89G159 S. Tibet Karakorum X C. Nepal	Syangia Fm Tibetan lava	0.51163	26	-19.7 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH 23TBSe C. Nepal THB K89G162 S. Tibet Karakorum X	Syangia Fm Tibetan lava	0.511339	11	-25.3 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH CH-1 THB K89G163 S. Tibet Karakorum X W. Nepal	Galyang Fm Tibetan lava	0.51146	15	-23.0 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH DD-15	W. Nepal		Galyang Fm	0.511741	25	-17.5 Robinson et al., 2001
	LH 22TBPu C. Nepal		Galyang Fm	0.511711	13	-18.1 Robinson et al., 2001

  Lin et al., 2012 Lin, I.-J., Chung, S.-L., Chu, C.-H., Lee, H.-Y., Gallet, S., Wu, G., Ji, J., Zhang, Y., 2012. Geochemical and Sr-Nd isotopic characteristics of Cretaceous to Paleocene granitoids and volcanic rocks, SE Tibet: petrogenesis and tectonic implications. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 53, 131-150. Mo, X., Wang, L., Zhao, Z., Niu, Y., Zhou, C., Yang, Y., 2009. Petrogenesis of highly fractionated Itype granites in the Zayu area of eastern Gangdese, Tibet: Constraints from zircon U-Pb geochronology, geochemistry and Sr-Nd-Hf isotopes. Sci. China Ser. D-EarthSci. 52, 1223-1239. Lee et al., 2012 Lee, H.-Y., Chung, S.-L., Ji, J., Qian, Q., Gallet, S., Lo, C.-H., Lee, T.-Y., Zhang, Q., 2012. Geochemical and Sr-Nd isotopic constraints on the genesis of the Cenozoic Linzizong volcanic successions, southern Tibet. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, The Tibetan Orogenic Evolution: Pre-to Post-Collisional GeologicRecords 53, 96-114. https://doi.org/10.1016Records 53, 96-114. https://doi.org/10. /j.jseaes.2011.08.019 .08.019

					144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference Reference CommenFull reference
					0.51202 -12.1 0.512207 -8.4 Lin et al., 2012 0.512171 -9.1 Lin et al., 2012 0.512778 6 2.7 0.512636 4 0.0 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512202 0.512489	3	-8.5 Lin et al., 2012 -2.9 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512265 0.511994	3	-7.3 Lin et al., 2012 -12.6 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512215 0.51203	4	-8.3 Lin et al., 2012 -11.9 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512376 0.512009	11	-5.1 Lin et al., 2012 -12.3 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512404 0.512667	6	-4.6 Lin et al., 2012 0.6 Lee et al., 2012
					0.511925 0.512563	7	-13.9 Lin et al., 2012 -1.5 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512372 0.512814	4	-5.2 Lin et al., 2012 3.4 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512399	11	Lin et al., 2012 -4.7 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512454 0.512522	2	-3.6 Lin et al., 2012 -2.3 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512514 0.512626	15	-2.4 Lin et al., 2012 -0.2 Lee et al., 2012
					0.51246 0.512635	13	-3.5 Lin et al., 2012 -0.1 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512091 0.512558	3	-10.7 Lin et al., 2012 -1.6 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512038 0.512662	9	-11.7 Lin et al., 2012 0.5 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512049 0.51253	10	-11.5 Lin et al., 2012 -2.1 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512047 0.512556	12	-11.5 Lin et al., 2012 -1.6 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512054 0.512587	12	-11.4 Lin et al., 2012 -1.0 Lee et al., 2012
					0.51207 0.512582	6	-11.1 Lin et al., 2012 -1.1 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512069 0.512651	3	-11.1 Lin et al., 2012 0.3 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512184 0.51256	15	-8.9 Lin et al., 2012 -1.5 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512533 0.512362	3	-2.0 Lin et al., 2012 -5.4 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512521 0.512529	5	-2.3 Lin et al., 2012 -2.1 Lee et al., 2012
					0.511944 0.512638	12	-13.5 Lin et al., 2012 0.0 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512557 0.512799	12	-1.6 Lin et al., 2012 3.1 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512583 0.512829	11	-1.1 Lin et al., 2012 3.7 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512399 0.5128	13	-4.7 Lin et al., 2012 3.2 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512607 0.512925	5	-0.6 Lin et al., 2012 5.6 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512269 0.512472	1	-7.2 Lin et al., 2012 -3.2 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512588 0.512339	6	-1.0 Lin et al., 2012 -5.8 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512578 0.512361	3	-1.2 Lin et al., 2012 -5.4 Lee et al., 2012
					0.51267 0.512647	20	0.6 Lin et al., 2012 0.2 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512738 0.512317	7	2.0 Lin et al., 2012 -6.3 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512582 0.512294	3	-1.1 Lin et al., 2012 -6.7 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512577 0.512373	10	-1.2 Lin et al., 2012 -5.2 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512597 0.512324	10	-0.8 Lin et al., 2012 -6.1 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512475	2	-3.2 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512454	13	-3.6 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512448	6	-3.7 Lee et al., 2012	Wen, D.-R., Chung, S.-L., Song, B., Iizuka, Y., Yang, H.-J., Ji, J., Liu, D., Gallet, S., 2008. Late Cretaceous
					0.511676	5	-18.8 Lee et al., 2012	Gangdese intrusions of adakitic geochemical characteristics, SE Tibet: petrogenesis and tectonic
		S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	0.512637 0.511908	8	0.0 Wen et al., 2008 -14.2 Lee et al., 2012	implications. Lithos 105, 1-11.
	THB T027	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	0.512699 0.512082	5	1.2 Wen et al., 2008 -10.8 Lee et al., 2012
	THB T213	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	0.512748 0.512269	5	2.1 Wen et al., 2008 -7.2 Lee et al., 2012
	THB T215	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	0.512664 0.511985	12	0.5 Wen et al., 2008 -12.7 Lee et al., 2012
	THB T026	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLangxian	Gangdese batholith	0.512747 0.512193	8	2.1 Wen et al., 2008 -8.7 Lee et al., 2012
	THB T216A	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLilong	Gangdese batholith	0.5 0.512225	10	1.3 Wen et al., 2008 -8.1 Lee et al., 2012
	THB T217	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLilong	Gangdese batholith	0.512673 0.512616	12	0.7 Wen et al., 2008 -0.4 Lee et al., 2012
	THB T024	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLilong	Gangdese batholith	0.512702 0.512672	12	1.2 Wen et al., 2008 0.7 Lee et al., 2012
	THB T218B	S.E. TibeS.E. of LhasaLilong	Gangdese batholith	0.512709 0.512961	10	1.4 Wen et al., 2008 6.3 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512889	7	4.9 Lee et al., 2012
					0.512725	3	1.7 Lee et al., 2012
	THB CY1-01	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese	0.511999 5E-06 0.512796 5 0.512737 15 0.51263 12 0.512495 10	-12.5 Zhu et al., 2009 3.1 Lee et al., 2012 1.9 Lee et al., 2012 -0.2 Lee et al., 2012 -2.8 Lee et al., 2012	Zhu, D., https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-009-0132-x
	CY1-02	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese
	CY1-02R F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese
	CY1-1	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu	NE. Gangdese	0.512115 8E-06	-10.2 Zhu et al., 2009
	CY2-1 CY3-1 CY4-1 CY6-1 THB T358 THB T379	F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu F.E. Transhimalaya Zayu S.E. TibeTGP W. of Lhasa S.E. TibePG W. of Lhasa	NE. Gangdese NE. Gangdese NE. Gangdese NE. Gangdese PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph	0.512177 6E-06 0.512081 5E-06 0.512072 8E-06 0.512505 3 0.512424 3	-9.0 Zhu et al., 2009 -10.9 Zhu et al., 2009 -2.6 Xu et al., 2010 -11.0 Zhu et al., 2009 -4.2 Xu et al., 2010	Xu, W.-C., Zhang, H.-F., Guo, L., Yuan, H.-L., 2010. Miocene high Sr/Y magmatism, south Tibet: Product of partial melting of subducted Indian continental crust and its tectonic implication. Lithos 114, 293-306. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2009.09.005
	THB T380 Linzizong successions: S.E. TibePG THB T381 S.E. TibePG	W. of Lhasa W. of Lhasa	PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph	0.512436 0.512449	2 2	-3.9 Xu et al., 2010 -3.7 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T399	S.E. TibeNMP	W. of Lhasa	PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph	0.51233	2	-6.0 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T400	S.E. TibeNMP	W. of Lhasa	PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph	0.512347	2	-5.7 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T401	S.E. TibeNM	W. of Lhasa	PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph	0.512215	2	-8.3 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T403	S.E. TibeNM	W. of Lhasa	PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph	0.512363	2	-5.4 Xu et al., 2010

Table SII -

 SII Zhu, D., Pan, G., Mo, X., Liao, Z., Jiang, X.,Wang, L., Zhao, Z., 2007. Petrogenesis of volcanic rocks in the Sangxiu Formation, central segment of Tethyan Himalaya: A probable example of plume-lithosphere interaction. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences, The 19th Himalaya-Karakoram-Tibet Workshop (HKT19) held at Niseko, Hokkaido, Japan,10-13 July 2004 29, 320-335. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2005.12.004

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	THB T404	S.E. TibeNM	W. of Lhasa	PG granodiorite, NM granite and their associated porph	0.512251	1	-7.5 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T604	S.E. TibeMG	Eastern syntaxis	Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis	0.512743	1	2.0 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T605	S.E. TibeMG	Eastern syntaxis	Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis	0.512769	1	2.6 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T606	S.E. TibeMG	Eastern syntaxis	Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis	0.512803	1	3.2 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T607	S.E. TibeMG	Eastern syntaxis	Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis	0.512584	1	-1.1 Xu et al., 2010
	THB T608	S.E. TibeMG	Eastern syntaxis	Mafic granulite from eastern Himalayan syntaxis	0.512672	2	0.7 Xu et al., 2010
								Chen, L., Qin, K.-Z., Li, G.-M., Li, J.-X., Xiao, B., Zhao, J.-X., Fan, X., 2015. Zircon U-Pb ages,
								geochemistry, and Sr-Nd-Pb-Hf isotopes of the Nuri intrusive rocks in the Gangdese area, southern Tibet:
								Constraints on timing, petrogenesis, and tectonic transformation. Lithos 212-215, 379-396.
	THB 09NDS-11 S.E. Tibet	Lhasa	Nuri intrusive rocks	0.512526		-2.2 Chen et al., 2015	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2014.11.014
	THB 09NDZ-12 S.E. Tibet	Lhasa	Nuri intrusive rocks	0.512526		-2.2 Chen et al., 2015
	THB 09NDZ-15 S.E. Tibet	Lhasa	Nuri intrusive rocks	0.512403		-4.6 Chen et al., 2015
	THB 09NDZ-19 S.E. Tibet	Lhasa	Nuri intrusive rocks	0.512751		2.2 Chen et al., 2015
	THB 09NDS-17 S.E. Tibet	Lhasa	Nuri intrusive rocks	0.512742		2.0 Chen et al., 2015
	THB 08ND-4 S.E. Tibet	Lhasa	Nuri intrusive rocks	0.512762		2.4 Chen et al., 2015
	THB 09nds-2 S.E. Tibet	Lhasa	Nuri intrusive rocks	0.512793		3.0 Chen et al., 2015
	THB 08ND-15 S.E. Tibet	Lhasa	Nuri intrusive rocks
					0.511896	9	-14.5 Zhu et al., 2007; Zhu e
					0.51188	7	-14.8 Zhu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2005
					0.511892	7	-14.6 Zhu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2005
					0.512587	6	-1.0 Zhu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2005
					0.512497	11	-2.8 Zhu et al., 2007
					0.512688	7	1.0 Zhu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2005
					0.512619	10	-0.4 Zhu et al., 2007
					0.512552	12	-1.7 Zhu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2005
					0.512556	12	-1.6 Zhu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2005
					0.512527	8	-2.2 Zhu et al., 2007; Zhu et al., 2005
								Mahoney, J.J., Frei, R., Tejada, M.L.G., Mo, X.X., Leat, P.T., Nägler, T.F., 1998. Tracing the Indian Ocean
								mantle domain through time: isotopic results from old West Indian, East Tethyan, and South Pacific seafloor.
					0.513095		8.9 Mahoney et al., 1998	Journal of Petrology 39, 1285-1306.
					0.513075		8.5 Mahoney et al., 1998
					0.513098		9.0 Mahoney et al., 1998
					0.513059		8.2 Mahoney et al., 1998
					0.513066		8.3 Mahoney et al., 1998
					0.513075		8.5 Mahoney et al., 1998
								Zeng, L., Liu, J., Gao, L., Xie, K., Wen, L., 2009. Early Oligocene anatexis in the Yardoi gneiss dome,
								southern Tibet and geological implications. Chin. Sci. Bull. 54, 104. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11434-008-0362-
					0.511906	7.0	-14.3 Zeng et al., 2009	x
					0.511767	10.0	-17.0 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.512044	12.0	-11.6 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.5	10	-15.7 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.51183	6.0	-15.8 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.512266	6.0	-7.3 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.5	10	-4.7 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.5	9	-4.5 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.512032	10.0	-11.8 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.512097	5.0	-10.6 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.511936	14.0	-13.7 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.512107	12.0	-10.4 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.512105	5.0	-10.4 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.512166	8.0	-9.2 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.512175	14.0	-9.0 Zeng et al., 2009
					0.51216	14.0	-9.3 Zeng et al., 2009
				Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512116	10.0	-10.2 Zeng et al., 2009
	TSS 0319-06 S.E. Tibet	S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512033	10.0	-11.8 Zeng et al., 2009

Table SII -

 SII [START_REF] Zeng | Early Oligocene anatexis in the Yardoi gneiss dome, southern Tibet and geological implications[END_REF] Gao, Y., Wei, R., Ma, P., Hou, Z., Yang, Z., 2009. Post-collisional ultrapotassic volcanism in the Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben, south Tibet: Constraints from geochemistry and Sr-Nd-Pb isotope. Lithos 110, 129-139. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2008.

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	THB CHP1	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511973	13	-13.0 12.005
	THB CHP3	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511956	11	-13.3 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP4	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511962	13	-13.2 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP6	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.51195	11	-13.4 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP7	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511953	13	-13.4 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP8	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511963	11	-13.2 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP10	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511945	11	-13.5 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP12	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.51196	12	-13.2 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP13	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511963	11	-13.2 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP15	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511912	10	-14.2 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP17	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511923	10	-13.9 Gao et al., 2009
	THB CHP18	S.C. TibeW. Lhasa (in Tangra Yumco-Xuruco graben	Chazi felsic ultrapotassic lavas	0.511931	13	-13.8 Gao et al., 2009
								Zhao, J., Qin, K., Li, G., Li, J., Xiao, B., Chen, L., 2012. Geochemistry and Petrogenesis of Granitoids at
								Sharang Eocene Porphyry Mo Deposit in the Main-Stage of India-Asia Continental Collision, Northern
	THB SRD08-05 S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.51248	11	-3.1 Zhao et al., 2012	Gangdese, Tibet. Resource Geology 62, 84-98. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1751-3928.2011.00181.x
	THB SRD08-10 S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512581	12	-1.1 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRD-6	S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512429	13	-4.1 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRZK0905S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512405	12	-4.5 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRZK0205S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512434	13	-4.0 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRZK0107S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512382	12	-5.0 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRZK0107S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512399	11	-4.7 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRZK003-S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512372	11	-5.2 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRZK0704S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512225	10	-8.1 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRZK0905S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512464	11	-3.4 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRZK0304S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512577	12	-1.2 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRD08-01 S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.512257	12	-7.4 Zhao et al., 2012
	THB SRD08-02 S.E. TibeE. Lhasa	N. Gangdese	Sharang granitoids	0.51243	13	-4.1 Zhao et al., 2012
								Gao, Y., Hou, Z., Kamber, B.S., Wei, R., Meng, X., Zhao, R., 2007. Lamproitic rocks from a continental
								collision zone: evidence for recycling of subducted Tethyan oceanic sediments in the mantle beneath
	THB Tl/10	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.511956	12	-13.3 Gao et al., 20Nd proba	southern Tibet. Journal of Petrology 48, 729-752.
	THB Tl/11	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.511946	13	-13.5 Gao et al., 2007
	THB Tl/18	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.511817	12	-16.0 Gao et al., 2007
	THB Tl/13	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.511979	12	-12.9 Gao et al., 2007
	THB Tl/03	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.511959	9	-13.2 Gao et al., 2007
	THB Tl/08	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.51188	13	-14.8 Gao et al., 2007
	THB Tl/17	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.511832	12	-15.7 Gao et al., 2007
	THB Tl/06	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.511943	9	-13.6 Gao et al., 2007
	THB Tl/59	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Mibale ultrapotassic lava	0.511963	9	-13.2 Gao et al., 2007
	THB CHZ-1	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava	0.511876	11	-14.
	THB CHZ-2	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-3	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-4	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-5	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-6	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-7	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-8	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-9	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-10 S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-11 S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB CHZ-12 S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Chazi ultrapotassic lava
	THB 99T53	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Tangra Yumco graben	Wenbu potassic lava
	THB 99T56	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Tangra Yumco graben	Wenbu potassic lava
	THB 99T57	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Tangra Yumco graben	Wenbu potassic lava
	THB 99T60	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Tangra Yumco graben	Wenbu potassic lava
	THB 99T62	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Tangra Yumco graben	Wenbu potassic lava
	THB 99T132	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Xurruco graben	Chazi potassic lava
	THB 99T134	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Xurruco graben	Chazi potassic lava
	THB 99T145	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Xurruco graben	Chazi potassic lava
	THB 99T152	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Xurruco graben	Chazi potassic lava
	THB 99T154	S. Tibet W. Lhasa	Xurruco graben	Chazi potassic lava

Table SII -

 SII Williams et al. 2004 Williams, H.M., Turner, S.P., Pearce, J.A., Kelley, S.P.,Harris, N.B.W., 2004. Nature of the Source Regions for Post-collisional, Potassic Magmatism in Southern and Northern Tibet from Geochemical Variations and Inverse Trace Element Modelling. J Petrology 45, 555-607. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egg094 Xu, J.-F., Wilde, S.A., Feng, Z.-H., Chen, J.-L.,Wang, B.-D., Fu, W.-C., Pan, H.-B., 2014. Geochronology and geochemistry of the Sangri Group Volcanic Rocks, Southern Lhasa Terrane: Implications for the early subduction history of the Neo-Tethys and Gangdese Magmatic Arc.

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	THB JPT3 THB JPT5.2	S. Tibet W. Lhasa S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Namling potassic lava Namling potassic lava	0.512357 4e -5.5 0.512307 4e -6.5 Williams et al. 2004
	THB JPT8	S. Tibet W. Lhasa		Namling potassic lava	0.512028 4e		-11.9 Williams et al. 2004
			Lithology (PVR : potassic, UPVR : ultra potassic)
							Liu, D., Zhao, Z., DePaolo, D.J., Zhu, D.-C., Meng, F.-Y., Shi, Q., Wang, Q., 2017. Potassic volcanic rocks
							and adakitic intrusions in southern Tibet: Insights into mantle-crust interaction and mass transfer from Indian
	THB DJC1302 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co	0.512312 7E-06	-6.4 Liu et al., 2017	plate. Lithos 268-271, 48-64. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2016.10.034
	THB DJC1303 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co			Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1304 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co			Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1305 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co			Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1306 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co	0.512313 6E-06	-6.3 Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1307 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co	0.512308 7E-06	-6.4 Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1308 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co	0.512311 6E-06	-6.4 Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1309 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co	0.512313 6E-06	-6.3 Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1310 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co			Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1311 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co			Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1312 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co			Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1313 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co	0.512307 6E-06	-6.5 Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1314 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co			Liu et al., 2017
	THB DJC1315 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S Adakite	Dajia Co	0.512361 6E-06	-5.4 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YY1101 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa	PVR	Yangying	0.512188 6E-06	-8.8 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YY1102 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa	PVR	Yangying	0.512195 6E-06	-8.6 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YY1105 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa	PVR	Yangying			Liu et al., 2017
	THB YY1106 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa	PVR	Yangying	0.512183 6E-06	-8.9 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YY1108 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa	PVR	Yangying			Liu et al., 2017
	THB YY1111 S.E. TibeW. Lhasa	PVR	Yangying	0.512187 7E-06	-8.8 Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1301 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR	Chazi	0.51197 6E-06	-13.0 Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1302 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR	Chazi	0.51199 6E-06	-12.6 Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1303 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR	Chazi	0.511939 7E-06	-13.6 Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1304 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR	Chazi			Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1305 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR	Chazi			Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1306 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR	Chazi	0.511967 7E-06	-13.1 Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1307 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR	Chazi	0.51197 5E-06	-13.0 Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1308 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR	Chazi			Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1309 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR	Chazi	0.511972 6E-06	-13.0 Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1310 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S PVR	Chazi	0.512 6E-06	-12.4 Liu et al., 2017
	THB CZ1311 S.C. TibeN. of Saga S UPVR	Chazi	0.511996 6E-06	-12.5 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1101 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511969 7E-06	-13.1 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1102 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare			Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1103 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511968 7E-06	-13.1 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1104 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare			Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1105 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511959 6E-06	-13.2 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1106 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511945 7E-06	-13.5 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1107 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare			Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1108 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511979 6E-06	-12.9 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1109 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511972 6E-06	-13.0 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1111 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511979 6E-06	-12.9 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1112 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare			Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1113 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511967 6E-06	-13.1 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1114 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511984 6E-06	-12.8 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1115 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare			Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1116 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare			Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1117 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.511976 7E-06	-12.9 Liu et al., 2017
	THB YR1118 W. Tibet Xungba	PVR	Yare	0.512387 6E-06	-4.9 Liu et al., 2017
	THB ZB1101 W. Tibet N. Maiga	PVR	Zabuye	0.512169 6E-06	-9.1 Liu et al., 2017
	THB ZB1103 W. Tibet N. Maiga	PVR	Zabuye			Liu et al., 2017
	THB ZB1104 W. Tibet N. Maiga	PVR	Zabuye	0.512166 7E-06	-9.2 Liu et al., 2017
	THB ZB1105 W. Tibet N. Maiga	PVR	Zabuye			Liu et al., 2017
	THB ZB1107 W. Tibet N. Maiga	PVR	Zabuye			Liu et al., 2017
	THB ZB1110 W. Tibet N. Maiga	PVR	Zabuye	0.512207 6E-06	-8.4 Liu et al., 2017
							Kang, Z.-Q., Lithos
	THB 10SR-08 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa		Bima Fm Sangri	0.512702	7	1.2 Kang et al., 2014	200-201, 157-168. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2014.04.019
	THB 10SR-13 S.E. TibeS.E. Lhasa		Bima Fm Sangri	0.512791	10	3.0 Kang et al., 2014

Table SII -

 SII [START_REF] Wan | Increased contribution of terrigenous supply from Taiwan to the northern South China Sea since 3 Ma[END_REF] Wu, W., Xu, S., Yang, J., Yin, H., Lu, H., Zhang, K., 2010. Isotopic characteristics of river sediments on the Tibetan Plateau. Chemical Geology 269, 406-413.

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	THB S31 THB S32	SW. TibeChaxiezangbu SW. TibeShiquan River		0.512189 -8.8 0.512262 5 4 -7.3 Wu et al., 2010
	THB S33	SW. TibeNiyangqu River		0.512186	11	-8.8 Wu et al., 2010
	THB S34	S. Tibet Lhasa River			0.512357	11	-5.5 Wu et al., 2010
	THB S35	Lhasa Xiangqu River		0.512275	6	-7.1 Wu et al., 2010
	THB S36	Lhasa Geerzangbu			0.512443	5	-3.8 Wu et al., 2010
	THB S37	Lhasa Yarlung zangbu		0.512303	6	-6.5 Wu et al., 2010
	THB S38	Lhasa Yarlung zangbu		0.512237	5	-7.8 Wu et al., 2010
	THB S39	before E Yarlung zangbu		0.512319	10	-6.2 Wu et al., 2010
	THB T1		Lhasa Sand			0.512248	8	-7.6 Wu et al., 2010
	THB T2		Lhasa Sand			0.512338	4	-5.9 Wu et al., 2010
	HimaS40	Xiangquan River		0.511958	7	-13.3 Wu et al., 2010
							Pan, F.-B., Zhang, H.-F., Xu, W.-C., Guo, L., Wang, S., Luo, B., 2014. U-Pb zircon chronology, geochemical
							and Sr-Nd isotopic composition of Mesozoic-Cenozoic granitoids in the SE Lhasa terrane: Petrogenesis
	THB T849	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Bolonggong#3 Granite	0.511732 4E-06	-17.7 Pan et al., 2014	and tectonic implications. Lithos 192-195, 142-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2014.02.005
	THB T850	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Bolonggong#3 Granite	0.511751 4E-06	-17.3 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T1047	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Bolonggong#2 Granite	0.511856 7E-06	-15.3 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T1066	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Bolonggong#4 Granite	0.511834 6E-06	-15.7 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T1067	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Bolonggong#4 Granite	0.511897 4E-06	-14.5 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T847	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Bolonggong#4 Granite	0.512118 2E-06	-10.1 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T1034	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Bolonggong#1 Granite	0.51242 4E-06	-4.3 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T1035	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Bolonggong#1 Granite	0.512566 4E-06	-1.4 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T830	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	52K Granite	0.512456 4E-06	-3.6 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T831	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	52K Granite	0.512473 5E-06	-3.2 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T1010	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Meiri Granite	0.512511 8E-06	-2.5 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T1014	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Meiri Granite	0.512764 9E-06	2.5 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T1015	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Meiri Granite	0.51259 7E-06	-0.9 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T691	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Beibeng Granite	0.512685 4E-06	0.9 Pan et al., 2014
	THB T979	E. Namc East syntaxisE. Lhasa terrane granites	Beibeng Granite	0.512452 4E-06	-3.6 Pan et al., 2014
							Martin, A.J., DeCelles, P.G., Gehrels, G.E., Patchett, P.J., Isachsen, C., 2005. Isotopic and structural
							constraints on the location of the Main Central thrust in the Annapurna Range, central Nepal Himalaya. GSA
	HHC 502068 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola	Formation I	0.511877	6	-14.8 Martin et al., 2005	Bulletin 117, 926-944. https://doi.org/10.1130/B25646.1
	HHC 502069 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola	Formation I	0.511737	6	-17.6 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502070 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola	Formation I	0.511843	8	-15.5 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502071 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola	Formation I	0.511779	6	-16.8 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502072 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola	Formation I		Martin et al., 2005
		502073 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola	Lower foreland basin		Martin et al., 2005
	LH	502075 C. Nepal Annapurna Modi Khola	Kuncha	0.511592	5	-20.4 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502104 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi	Formation I	0.511935	8	-13.7 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC502105A C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi	Formation I	0.511897	5	-14.5 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC502105B C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi	Formation I	0.511783	6	-16.7 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502106 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi	Formation I	0.51195	6	-13.4 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502107 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi	Formation I		Martin et al., 2005
	LH	502108 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi	Kuncha	0.511548	6	-21.3 Martin et al., 2005
	LH	502097 C. Nepal Annapurna Seti Nadi	Kuncha	0.511428	7	-23.6 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502128 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi	Formation I	0.511804	5	-16.3 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502129 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi	Formation I	0.511868	6	-15.0 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502133 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi	Formation I	0.511933	6	-13.8 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502132 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi	Formation I	0.511908	6	-14.2 Martin et al., 2005
	LH	502130 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi	post-Kuncha Nawakot	0.511616	6	-19.9 Martin et al., 2005
	LH	502134 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi	post-Kuncha Nawakot		Martin et al., 2005
	LH	502131 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi	post-Kuncha Nawakot	0.511568	7	-20.9 Martin et al., 2005
	LH	502136 C. Nepal Annapurna Madi Nadi	post-Kuncha Nawakot	0.511477	6	-22.6 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502152 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge	Formation I	0.511903	6	-14.3 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502149 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge	Formation I	0.511922	7	-14.0 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502148 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge	Formation I	0.511818	7	-16.0 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 502147 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge	Formation I	0.511741	7	-17.5 Martin et al., 2005
	LH	502146 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge	Kuncha	0.51144	7	-23.4 Martin et al., 2005
	LH	602002 C. Nepal Annapurna Nayu Ridge	Kuncha	0.511462	6	-22.9 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 402086 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi	Formation I	0.511928	7	-13.8 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 402088 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi	Formation I	0.51179	5	-16.5 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC 402090 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi	Formation I	0.511671	7	-18.9 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC402092A C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi	Formation I	0.511691	6	-18.5 Martin et al., 2005
	HHC402092B C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi	Formation I	0.511753	7	-17.3 Martin et al., 2005

Table SII -

 SII Zhang, L.K.,Li, G.M., Santosh, M., Cao, H.W., Dong, S.L., Zhang, Z., Fu, J.G., Xia, X.B., Huang, Y., Liang, W., Zhang, S.T., 2018. Cambrian magmatism in the Tethys Himalaya and implications for the evolution of the Proto-Tethys along the northern Gondwana margin: A case study and overview. Geological Journal.

		2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	LH	402093 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi	Kuncha	0.511449	6	-23.2 Martin et al., 2005
	LH	402097 C. Nepal Annapurna Marsyangdi Nadi	Kuncha	0.511384	6	-24.5 Martin et al., 2005
	TSS D6344-B1 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E	Cuonadong granitic gneiss	0.511964 1E-05	-13.1 Zhang et al., 2018	https://doi.org/10.1002/gj.3311
	TSS D6344-B7 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E	Cuonadong granitic gneiss	0.511915 1E-05	-14.1 Zhang et al., 2018
	TSS D1542-B2 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E	Cuonadong granitic gneiss	0.511889 7E-06	-14.6 Zhang et al., 2018
	TSS D1536-B2 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E	Cuonadong granitic gneiss	0.512015 1E-05	-12.2 Zhang et al., 2018
	TSS D6304-B2 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E	Cuonadong granitic gneiss	0.511968 1E-05	-13.1 Zhang et al., 2018
	TSS D6304-B3 S. LhasaTethyan clos 28.5N 92E	Cuonadong granitic gneiss	0.51192 9E-06	-14.0 Zhang et al., 2018
								Allègre, C.J., Othman, D.B., 1980. Nd-Sr isotopic relationship in granitoid rocks and continental crust
	HHC22D	C. Nepal		Manaslu granite	0.51183	7	-15.8 Hamet and Allègre, 19	development: a chemical approach to orogenesis. Nature 286, 335.
	HHCA404	C. Nepal		Palung granite	0.51197	4	-13.0 Hamet and Allègre, 1976; Allègre and Othman, 1980
	HHC	132 C. Nepal		Makalu granite	0.51211	10	-10.3 Allègre and Othman, 1980
		HB68	Ladakh	granodiorite	Ladakh	0.51256	3	-1.5 Hamet and Allègre, 1976; Allègre and Othman, 1980
		HB74		diorite	Ladakh	0.51273	3	1.8 Hamet and Allègre, 1976; Allègre and Othman, 1980
					Yangying potassic volcanic rocks			Zhang, L., Guo, Z., Zhang, M., Cheng, Z., Sun, Y., 2017. Post-collisional potassic magmatism in the eastern
								Lhasa terrane, South Tibet: Products of partial melting of mélanges in a continental subduction channel.
								Gondwana Research, Tectonic evolution and dynamics of the Tibetan Plateau 41, 9-28.
	THB YY-07	W. Lhasa29.5N 90.5E Pujiemu		0.512121 6E-06	-10.1 Zhang et al., 2017	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2015.11.007
	THB YY-08	W. Lhasa29.5N 90.5E Qialagai	Yangying potassic volcanic rocks	0.512134 9E-06	-9.8 Zhang et al., 2017
	THB YY-10	W. Lhasa29.5N 90.5E Pujiemu	Yangying potassic volcanic rocks	0.512148 7E-06	-9.6 Zhang et al., 2017
	THB YY-12	W. Lhasa29.5N 90.5E Pujiemu	Yangying potassic volcanic rocks	0.512138 7E-06	-9.8 Zhang et al., 2017
								Zheng, Y., Hou, Z., Fu, Q., Zhu, D.-C., Liang, W., Xu, P., 2016. Mantle inputs to Himalayan anatexis:
								Insights from petrogenesis of the Miocene Langkazi leucogranite and its dioritic enclaves. Lithos 264,
	TSS LKZ-1	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi leucogranite	0.511987	10	-12.7 Zheng et al., 2016	125-140. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2016.08.019
	TSS LKZ-2	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi leucogranite	0.512012	10	-12.2 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-3	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi leucogranite	0.51201	8	-12.3 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-4	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi leucogranite	0.512012	8	-12.2 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-5	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi leucogranite	0.512104	8	-10.4 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-10	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi leucogranite			Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-6	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi leucogranite	0.512087	5	-10.7 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-8	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi diorite enclave	0.512208	7	-8.4 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-12	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi diorite enclave	0.512292	10	-6.7 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-13	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi diorite enclave	0.512262	10	-7.3 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-15-1 S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi diorite enclave	0.512301	5	-6.6 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-15-2 S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi diorite enclave	0.512318	10	-6.2 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-16	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi diorite enclave	0.512189	10	-8.8 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-17	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi diorite enclave	0.512259	10	-7.4 Zheng et al., 2016
	TSS LKZ-19	S. Lhasa29N 90E		Langkazi diorite enclave	0.51225	10	-7.6 Zheng et al., 2016
								Liu, Z.-C., Wu, F.-Y., Ji, W.-Q., Wang, J.-G., Liu, C.-Z., 2014. Petrogenesis of the Ramba leucogranite in the
								Tethyan Himalaya and constraints on the channel flow model. Lithos 208-209, 118-136.
	TSS 09FW115 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511978	7	-12.9 Liu et al., 2014	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2014.08.022
	TSS 12FW111 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.512001	18	-12.4 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW112 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.512301	20	-6.6 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 09FW116 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511941	14	-13.6 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 09FW118 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511881	5	-14.8 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 09FW120 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511859	5	-15.2 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 09FW121 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511878	11	-14.8 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW115 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511899	12	-14.4 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW116 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511895	14	-14.5 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 09FW114 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511993	9	-12.6 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 09FW119 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.512024	8	-12.0 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW103 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511957	26	-13.3 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW104 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.512064	44	-11.2 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW105 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.512	24	-12.4 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW106 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511977	28	-12.9 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW109 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome	0.511998	50	-12.5 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW101 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome hosting rock	0.512346	9	-5.7 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW107 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome hosting rock	0.512308	15	-6.4 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW102 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome hosting rock	0.512927	21	5.6 Liu et al., 2014

Table SII -

 SII Zeng, L., Hou, K., Guo, C., Tang, S., Xie, K., Hu, G., Wang, L., 2013. Episodic crustal anatexis and the formation of Paiku composite leucogranitic pluton in the Malashan Gneiss Dome, Southern Tibet.

		2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	TSS 12FW108 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome hosting rock	0.512945	15	6.0 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW110 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome hosting rock	0.512663	15	0.5 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW113 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome hosting rock	0.512907	12	5.2 Liu et al., 2014
	TSS 12FW114 S.W. Lha30N 90E		Ramba dome hosting rock	0.512667	24	0.6 Liu et al., 2014
								King, J., Harris, N., Argles, T., Parrish, R., Charlier, B., Sherlock, S., Zhang, H.F., 2007. First field evidence
								of southward ductile flow of Asian crust beneath southern Tibet. Geology 35, 727-730.
	TSS JK3/15	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Kuday dykes	0.512425 3E-06	-4.2 King et al., 2007	https://doi.org/10.1130/G23630A.1
	TSS JK3/17	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Kuday dykes	0.512407 9E-06	-4.5 King et al., 2007
	TSS TO3/14i S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Kuday dykes	0.512309 4E-06	-6.4 King et al., 2007
	TSS SD51	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Kuday dykes	0.512313 4E-06	-6.3 King et al., 2007
	TSS JK3/16	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Kuday dykes	0.512329 3E-06	-6.0 King et al., 2007
	TSS T108	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Kuday dykes	0.512263 1E-05	-7.3 King et al., 2007
	TSS SD50	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Kuday dykes	0.512405 1E-05	-4.5 King et al., 2007
	TSS T109	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Kuday dykes	0.512229 8E-06	-8.0 King et al., 2007
	TSS G40	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Nyainqentanglha gneisses	0.512298 4E-06	-6.6 King et al., 2007
	TSS G38E	S.W. Lha28.5N 88.5E Sakya dome	Nyainqentanglha gneisses	0.512288 4E-06	-6.8 King et al., 2007
	TSS T0659-3 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome	Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome	0.511956	5	-13.3 Gao et al., 2013	Gao, L., Chinese Science Bulletin 58, 3546-3563.
	TSS T0659-4 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome	Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome	0.511968	5	-13.1 Gao et al., 2013
	TSS T0659-6 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome	Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome	0.511952	13	-13.4 Gao et al., 2013
	TSS T0659-11 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome	Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome	0.511946	11	-13.5 Gao et al., 2013
	TSS T0659-12 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome	Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome	0.511946	10	-13.5 Gao et al., 2013
	TSS T0659-13 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome	Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome	0.511925	8	-13.9 Gao et al., 2013
	TSS T0659-14 S. Tibet 29N 85.5E Malashan gneiss dome	Paiku pluton in Malashan gneiss dome	0.511926	7	-13.9 Gao et al., 2013
								Zeng, L., Gao, L.-E., Tang, S., Hou, K., Guo, C., Hu, G., 2015. Eocene magmatism in the Tethyan Himalaya,
								southern Tibet. Geological Society, London, Special Publications 412, 287-316.
	TSS T0474-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512062	10	-11.2 Zeng et al., 2015	https://doi.org/10.1144/SP412.8
	TSS T0474-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512037	11	-11.7 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0474-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.511938	10	-13.7 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0686-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome			Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0686-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome			Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0686-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome			Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T391	S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Dala	0.51195	8	-13.4 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0391-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Dala	0.511957	9	-13.3 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0391-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Dala	0.512131	12	-9.9 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0391-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Dala	0.511948	6	-13.5 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0685-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Dala			Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0685-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Dala			Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0684-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Ridang	0.511938	10	-13.7 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0684-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Ridang	0.511962	10	-13.2 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0684-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Ridang	0.511948	6	-13.5 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0684-4 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Ridang	0.51195	8	-13.4 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0684-5 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Ridang	0.511937	11	-13.7 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0684-6 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Ridang	0.511931	12	-13.8 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0684-7 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Ridang	0.511957	9	-13.3 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0471-1 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512059	8	-11.3 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0471-2 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512136	7	-9.8 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0471-3 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512092	9	-10.7 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0471-4 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512102	6	-10.5 Zeng et al., 2015
	TSS T0471-5 S.E. Lha 29N 92E	Yardoi gneiss dome	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512065	5	-11.2 Zeng et al., 2015
								Aikman, A.B., Harrison, T.M., Hermann, J., 2012. The origin of Eo-and Neo-himalayan granitoids, Eastern
	HHC 602008 E. Himal 92E		Arunachal leucogranites	0.51188 1E-05	-14.8 Aikman et al., 2012	Tibet. Journal of Asian Earth Sciences 58, 143-157. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jseaes.2012.05.018
	HHC 602009 E. Himal 92E		Arunachal leucogranites	0.511856 9E-06	-15.3 Aikman et al., 2012
	HHC 602010 E. Himal 92E		Arunachal leucogranites	0.511861 1E-05	-15.2 Aikman et al., 2012
	TSS T263	E. Himal 92E		Tsona leucogranites	0.51196 9E-06	-13.2 Aikman et al., 2012
	TSS T264	E. Himal 92E		Tsona leucogranites	0.511972 9E-06	-13.0 Aikman et al., 2012
	TSS T265	E. Himal 92E		Tsona leucogranites	0.511918 1E-05	-14.0 Aikman et al., 2012
	HHC 602005 E. Himal 92E		Arunachal crystalline	0.511785 7E-06	-16.6 Aikman et al., 2012
	HHC 602011 E. Himal 92E		Arunachal crystalline	0.511861 2E-05	-15.2 Aikman et al., 2012
	HHC 602012 E. Himal 92E		Arunachal crystalline	0.512013 2E-05	-12.2 Aikman et al., 2012
	TSS	405008 E. Himal 92E	Dala igneous complex	Dala granitoids	0.511998 8E-06	-12.5 Aikman et al., 2012
	TSS	405011 E. Himal 92E	Dala igneous complex	Dala granitoids	0.511971 8E-06	-13.0 Aikman et al., 2012
	TSS	405013 E. Himal 92E	Dala igneous complex	Dala granitoids	0.51209 8E-06	-10.7 Aikman et al., 2012
	TSS	410007 E. Himal 92E	Dala igneous complex	Dala granitoids	0.511957 1E-05	-13.3 Aikman et al., 2012
	TSS	410008 E. Himal 92E	Dala igneous complex	Dala granitoids	0.511934 1E-05	-13.7 Aikman et al., 2012

Table SII -

 SII

		2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation
	TSS	410009 E. Himal 92E	Dala igneous complex	Dala granitoids
	TSS	410010 E. Himal 92E	Dala igneous complex	Dala granitoids
	TSS	410012 E. Himal 92E	Dala igneous complex	Dala granitoids
	TSS	310019 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo leucogranites
	TSS	310021 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo leucogranites
	TSS	310037 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo leucogranites
	TSS	310038 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo leucogranites
	TSS	310008 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo pelites
	TSS	310013 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo pelites
	TSS	310015 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo pelites
	TSS	310029 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo pelites
	TSS	310034 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo pelites
	TSS	310039 E. Himal 92E	Yala-Xiangbo dome and igneous complex	Yala-Xiangbo pelites
	TSS	310014 E. Himal 92E		Tethyan mafic
	THB QC4	N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB BD-7-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB BD-8-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB QC5	N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB 99-5-11-2 N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB 99-5-9-3 N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB QC2	N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB QC14	N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB ND-4-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB BD-3-00 N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB QC17	N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB QC18	N. Lhasa30N 90E		Nyainqentanglha Shan crystalline complex
	THB QC19

Table SII -

 SII Mottram et al., 2014 Mottram, C.M., Argles, T.W., Harris, N.B.W., Parrish, R.R., Horstwood, M.S.A., Warren, C.J., Gupta, S., 2014. Tectonic interleaving along the Main Central Thrust, Sikkim Himalaya. Journal of the Geological

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	LH 51x		Sikkim North Sikkim Gangtok-Mangan waterwheel		0.511375 0.0001	-24.6 Society 171, 255-268. https://doi.org/10.1144/jgs2013-064
	LH		53 Sikkim North Sikkim Rang Rang		0.511281 5E-05	-26.5 Mottram et al., 2014
	HHC		57 Sikkim North Sikkim Myang		0.511731 4E-05	-17.7 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH 59a		Sikkim North Sikkim Singhik		0.511388 7E-05	-24.4 Mottram et al., 2014
	HHC64a		Sikkim North Sikkim Toong		0.511735 5E-05	-17.6 Mottram et al., 2014
	HHC		66 Sikkim North Sikkim Chungthang-Lachung		0.512017 6E-05	-12.1 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH		94 Sikkim North Sikkim Sangkalang		0.511219 4E-05	-27.7 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH		97 Sikkim North Sikkim Mangan petrol pump		0.51126 7E-05	-26.9 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH		82 Sikkim Kalimpong h Pedong		0.511368 7E-05	-24.8 Mottram et al., 2014
	HHC	106 Sikkim Kalimpong h Rishop		0.511739 4E-05	-17.5 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH	123 Sikkim Kalimpong h Neora valley		0.511391 5E-05	-24.3 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH	147 Sikkim Kalimpong h Lava road		0.511381 6E-05	-24.5 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH	149 Sikkim Kalimpong h Lava road		0.511374 6E-05	-24.7 Mottram et al., 2014
	HHC	156 Sikkim Kalimpong h Lolaygoan		0.511702 0.0001	-18.3 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH	159 Sikkim Kalimpong h Lolaygoan		0.511386 6E-05	-24.4 Mottram et al., 2014
	HHC214x		Sikkim West Sikkim Yoksom		0.511699 7E-05	-18.3 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH 246a		Sikkim West Sikkim Dentam		0.511395 4E-05	-24.2 Mottram et al., 2014
	HHC	267 Sikkim West Sikkim Kabur		0.511698 9E-05	-18.3 Mottram et al., 2014
	LH	275 Sikkim West Sikkim Pelling		0.511438 9E-05	-23.4 Mottram et al., 2014
	HHC	278 Sikkim West Sikkim Pelling		0.511836 5E-05	-15.6 Mottram et al., 2014
							Chakungal, J., Dostal, J., Grujic, D., Duchêne, S., Ghalley, K.S., 2010. Provenance of the Greater Himalayan
							sequence: Evidence from mafic granulites and amphibolites in NW Bhutan. Tectonophysics 480, 198-212.
	HHCBH-220	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2009.10.014
	HHCBH-274	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-175A NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-254	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-256	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-203	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-217A NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang		0.511836	-15.6 Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-219	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang		0.512625	-0.3 Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-245	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-246	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-249	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-252	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-253	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-255	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-257	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-266	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-292	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang		0.512521	-2.3 Chakungal et al., 2010
	HHCBH-268	NW Bhu Proche TSS Masang Kang			Chakungal et al., 2010
							Xie, J., Qiu, H., Bai, X., Zhang, W., Wang, Q., Xia, X., 2018. Geochronological and geochemical constraints
							on the Cuonadong leucogranite, eastern Himalaya. Acta Geochim 37, 347-359.
	TSS CN1341 S.E. Lhasa		Cuonadong gneiss dome	0.512028 4E-06	-11.9 Xie et al., 2018	https://doi.org/10.1007/s11631-018-0273-8
	TSS CN1341-1 S.E. Lhasa		Cuonadong gneiss dome	0.512021 6E-06	-12.0 Xie et al., 2018
	TSS CN1353 S.E. Lhasa		Cuonadong gneiss dome	0.511996 7E-06	-12.5 Xie et al., 2018
	TSS CN1353-1 S.E. Lhasa		Cuonadong gneiss dome	0.512001 5E-06	-12.4 Xie et al., 2018
	TSS CN1354 S.E. Lhasa		Cuonadong gneiss dome	0.51204 4E-06	-11.7 Xie et al., 2018
							Gao, L.-E., Zeng, L., Hu, G., Wang, Y., Wang, Q., Guo, C., Hou, K., 2019. Early Paleozoic magmatism along
	TSS T0832-GN S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome	0.512023	10	-12.0 Gao et al., 2019	the northern margin of East Gondwana. Lithos 334-335, 25-41. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2019.03.007
	TSS T0832-GN2S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0832-GN3S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome	0.512006	6	-12.3 Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0832-GN4S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome	0.512037	10	-11.7 Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0832-GN5S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome	0.512029	9	Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0832-GN6S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0832-GN S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome	0.512011	10	-12.2 Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0833-1 S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0833-2 S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0833-3 S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0833-4 S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0833-5 S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0833-6 S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0833-7 S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome		Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome	0.512036	8	-11.7 Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome	0.512032	9	-11.8 Gao et al., 2019
	TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome	0.512035	5	-11.8 Gao et al., 2019

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation
	TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0834-LG-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0834-GN-S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0835-LG1S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0835-LG2S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0835-LG3S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0835-LG4S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0835-LG5S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0835-LG6S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0839-LG1S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0839-LG2S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0839-LG3S. Tibet 86°E		Xiaru dome
	TSS T0777-A1 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-A2 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-A3 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-A4 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-A5 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-B1 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-B2 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-C1 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-C2 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-C3 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-C4 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0777-C5 S. Tibet	88°E	Lhagoi Kangri dome
	TSS T0526-LG-S. Tibet

  Gao and Zeng, 2014 Gao, L.-E., Zeng, L., 2014. Fluxed melting of metapelite and the formation of Miocene high-CaO two-mica granites in the Malashan gneiss dome, southernTibet. Geochimica et Cosmochimica Acta 130,[136][137][138][139][140][141][142][143][144][145][146][147][148][149][150][151][152][153][154][155]

	Table SII-2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference Reference CommenFull reference
					0.512152	12	-9.5 Gao et al.,
					0.512041	13	-11.6 Gao et al.,
	TSS T0646-2 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.51191	9	Gao et al., -14.2 https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2014.01.003
	TSS T0646-1 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511921	9	Gao et al., -14.0 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0646-3 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511893	11	Gao et al., -14.5 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0646-4 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511893	8	Gao et al., -14.5 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0646-5 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511891	13	Gao et al., -14.6 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0647-1 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511928	12	Gao et al., -13.8 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0647-2 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.512107 0.511905	12 6	-10.4 Gao et al., -14.3 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0647-3 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.512006 0.511893	5 12	-12.3 Gao et al., -14.5 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0658	S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.512094 0.511929	5 12	-10.6 Gao et al., -13.8 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0661-1A S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.512105 0.511909	7 12	-10.4 Gao et al., -14.2 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0661-2A S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511907	5	Gao et al., -14.3 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0661-3A S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.512053 0.51193	11 6	-11.4 Gao et al., -13.8 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0661-4 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.512055 0.511923	11 5	-11.4 Gao et al., -13.9 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS TMLS-09A S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.512062 0.511924	6 10	-11.2 Gao et al., -13.9 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS TMLS-09B S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511946 0.511927	10	-13.5 Gao et al., -13.9 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0659-3 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.51199 0.511956	5	-12.6 Gao et al., -13.3 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0659-4 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511996 0.511968	5	-12.5 Gao et al., -13.1 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0659-6 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.51193 0.511952	13	-13.8 Gao et al., -13.4 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0659-11 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511926 0.511946	10 11	-13.9 Gao et al., -13.5 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0659-12 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511946	10	Gao et al., -13.5 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0659-13 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511925	8	Gao et al., -13.9 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0659-14 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511923 0.511926	14 7	-13.9 Gao et al., -13.9 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0647-4 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511948 0.511946	8 14	-13.5 Gao et al., -13.5 Gao and Zeng, 2014
	TSS T0647-5 S. Tibet 29°N 86°E	Malashan gneiss dome	0.511909 0.511907	9 6	-14.2 Gao et al., -14.3 Gao and Zeng, 2014
					0.511933	6	-13.8 Gao et al.,
					0.511941	6	-13.6 Gao et al.,
							Gao et al.,	Murphy, M.A., 2007. Isotopic characteristics of the Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex: Implications
	LH/HGMH 1	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.512102	11	Gao et al., -10.5 Murphy, 2007	for the architecture of the Himalayan orogen. Geology 35, 983-986.
	LH/HGMH 2	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.511738	13	Gao et al., -17.6 Murphy, 2007
	LH/HGMH 3	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.5119	11	Gao et al., -14.4 Murphy, 2007
	LH GMH 4	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.511467	12	Gao et al., -22.8 Murphy, 2007
	LH GMH 5	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.511546	26	Gao et al., -21.3 Murphy, 2007
	LH GMH 6	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.511457	17	Gao et al., -23.0 Murphy, 2007
	LH GMH 7	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.51144	14	Gao et al., -23.4 Murphy, 2007
	LH/HGMH 8	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.511922	12	Gao et al., -14.0 Murphy, 2007
	LH GMH 9	N.W. Ne 30.5°N 82°E	Gurla Mandhata metamorphic core complex	0.511546	24	Gao et al., -21.3 Murphy, 2007
							Gao et al.,
							Gao et al.,	Imayama, T., Arita, K., 2008. Nd isotopic data reveal the material and tectonic nature of the Main Central
							Gao et al.,	Thrust zone in Nepal Himalaya. Tectonophysics, Asia out of Tethys: Geochronologic, Tectonic and
	HHCHE 5	Far-east HHC	Kangchenjunga Migmatite	Formation I	0.511967 1E-05	Gao et al., -13.1 Imayama and Arita, 20	Sedimentary Records 451, 265-281. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tecto.2007.11.051
	HHCHE13	Far-east HHC	Mahabharat Crystallines	Formation I	0.511708 3E-05	Gao et al., -18.1 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE14	Far-east HHC	Mahabharat Crystallines	Formation I	0.511872 1E-05	Gao et al., -14.9 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE17	Far-east HHC	Junbesi Paragneiss	Formation I	0.511941 0.511741 2E-05 13	-13.6 Gao et al., -17.5 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE18	Far-east HHC	Junbesi Paragneiss	Formation I	0.511943 0.511798 1E-05 9	-13.6 Gao et al., -16.4 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE24	Far-east HHC	Junbesi Paragneiss	Formation I	0.511956 0.511714 1E-05 11	-13.3 Gao et al., -18.0 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE25	Far-east HHC	Kangchenjunga Migmatite	Formation I	0.51194 0.512123 1E-05 6	-13.6 Gao et al., -10.0 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE26	Far-east HHC	Kangchenjunga Migmatite	Formation I	0.511972 0.511808 1E-05 8	-13.0 Gao et al., -16.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE32	Far-east HHC	Kangchenjunga Migmatite	Formation I	0.511968 0.51172 1E-05 5	-13.1 Gao et al., -17.9 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE68	Far-east HHC	Junbesi Paragneiss	Formation I	0.511948 0.511802 8E-06 9	-13.5 Gao et al., -16.3 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE71	Far-east HHC	Junbesi Paragneiss	Formation I	0.511955 0.511724 1E-05 15	-13.3 Gao et al., -17.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE76	Far-east HHC	Kangchenjunga Migmatite	Formation I	0.51195 0.511831 1E-05 8	-13.4 Gao et al., -15.7 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHE77	Far-east HHC	Junbesi Paragneiss	Formation I	0.511713 2E-05	Gao et al., -18.0 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH/HME11	Far-east MCTZ	Sun Kosi Phyllite	MCT zone	0.5116 2E-05	Gao et al., -20.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH/HME12	Far-east MCTZ	Sun Kosi Phyllite	MCT zone	0.511991 0.511688 2E-05 12	-12.6 Gao et al., -18.5 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH/HME15	Far-east MCTZ	Khare Phyllite	MCT zone	0.511999 0.511513 1E-05 8	-12.5 Gao et al., -21.9 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH/HME16	Far-east MCTZ	Sisne Khola Augen Gneiss	MCT zone	0.51163 1E-05	Gao et al., -19.7 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH ME19	Far-east MCTZ	Khare Phyllite	MCT zone	0.511444 1E-05	Gao et al., -23.3 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH ME22	Far-east MCTZ	TSS86°E Khare Phyllite	Gyirong MCT zone	0.511293 2E-05	Gao et al., -26.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCT0512-2 Bhutan LH ME23 Far-east MCTZ	90°E Khare Phyllite	Yadong MCT zone	0.511502 1E-05	Gao et al., -22.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCT0512-3 Bhutan LH ME75 Far-east MCTZ	90°E Sisne Khola Augen Gneiss	Yadong MCT zone	0.511327 3E-05	Gao et al., -25.6 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCT0512-6 Bhutan LH ME76 Far-east MCTZ	90°E Khare Phyllite	Yadong MCT zone	0.511478 2E-05	Gao et al., -22.6 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCT0252-1 E. syntaxis LH LE20 Far-east LLHS	Taplejung Group	Namche Barwa Nawakot Group	0.511954 0.511259 3E-05 10	-13.3 Gao et al., -26.9 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCT0252-2 E. syntaxis LH LE21 Far-east LLHS	Taplejung Group	Namche Barwa Nawakot Group	0.511982 0.511334 1E-05 10	-12.8 Gao et al., -25.4 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCT0252-12-1E. syntaxis LH LE28 Far-east LLHS	Taplejung Group	Namche Barwa Nawakot Group	0.511988 0.511275 1E-05 12	-12.7 Gao et al., -26.6 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCT0252-12-2E. syntaxis LH LE78 Far-east LLHS	Taplejung Group	Namche Barwa Nawakot Group	0.511997 0.511322 1E-05 11	-12.5 Gao et al., -25.7 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCT0252-12-3E. syntaxis LH LE79 Far-east LLHS	Taplejung Group	Namche Barwa Nawakot Group	0.512005 0.511512 1E-05 11	-12.3 Gao et al., -22.0 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	T0748 LH LE10	Far-east ULHS	Taplejung Group	Nawakot Group	0.511757 2E-05	Gao et al., -17.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHC46	Central NHHC	Himalayan gneisses	Formation I	0.511928 2E-05	-13.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHC47	Central NHHC	Himalayan gneisses	Formation I	0.511766 2E-05	-17.0 Imayama and Arita, 2008

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	LH MC49	Central NMCTZ	MCT zone	MCT zone	0.511312 3E-05	-25.9 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH MC69	Central NMCTZ	MCT zone	MCT zone	0.51142 2E-05	-23.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH MC74	Central NMCTZ	MCT zone	MCT zone	0.511296 3E-05	-26.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC50	Central NLLHS	Nawakot Group	Kuncha	0.511328 1E-05	-25.6 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC70	Central NLLHS	Nawakot Group	Fagfog Quartzite	0.511357 1E-05	-25.0 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC71	Central NLLHS	Nawakot Group	Fagfog Quartzite	0.511342 1E-05	-25.3 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC72	Central NLLHS	Nawakot Group	Kuncha	0.51134 2E-05	-25.3 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC73	Central NLLHS	Nawakot Group	Kuncha	0.51134 1E-05	-25.3 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC53	Central NULHS	Nawakot Group	Nourpul	0.511439 1E-05	-23.4 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC54	Central NULHS	Nawakot Group	Benighat Slates	0.511619 1E-05	-19.9 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC55	Central NULHS	Nawakot Group	Nourpul	0.511518 2E-05	-21.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC56	Central NULHS	Nawakot Group	Benighat Slates	0.511515 2E-05	-21.9 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LC57	Central NULHS	Nawakot Group	Benighat Slates	0.511614 1E-05	-20.0 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHW8	Western HHC	Himalayan gneisses	Formation I	0.511756 5E-05	-17.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHW9	Western HHC	Himalayan gneisses	Formation I	0.511733 1E-05	-17.7 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	HHCHW36	Western HHC	Himalayan gneisses	Formation I	0.511898 1E-05	-14.4 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH MW7	Western MCTZ	MCT zone	MCT zone	0.511379 2E-05	-24.6 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH/HMW35	Western MCTZ	MCT zone	MCT zone	0.512005 1E-05	-12.3 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH MW38	Western MCTZ	MCT zone	MCT zone	0.511419 1E-05	-23.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH MW61	Western MCTZ	MCT zone	MCT zone	0.511348 2E-05	-25.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW4	Western LLHS	Quartzose Sandstone Fm.	Kuncha Fm	0.511313 2E-05	-25.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW5	Western LLHS	Phyllite Fm.	Dandagaon Phyllites	0.511342 1E-05	-25.3 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW62	Western LLHS	Quartzite Fm.	Fagfog Quartzite	0.511263 2E-05	-26.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW64	Western LLHS	Quartzite Fm.	Fagfog Quartzite	0.511348 3E-05	-25.2 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW65	Western LLHS	Phyllite Fm.	Dandagaon Phyllites	0.511306 1E-05	-26.0 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW68	Western LLHS	Quartzite Fm.	Fagfog Quartzite	0.511364 2E-05	-24.9 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW39	Western ULHS	Laminated Slate Fm.	Benighat Slates Grayish slate	0.511374 1E-05	-24.7 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW40	Western ULHS	Laminated Slate Fm.	Benighat Slates	0.51142 1E-05	-23.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW43	Western ULHS	Lower Variegated Rock Fm.	Benighat Slates?	0.511838 1E-05	-15.6 Imayama and Arita, 2008
	LH LW63	Western ULHS	Lower Variegated Rock Fm.	Benighat Slates?	0.511262 3E-05	-26.8 Imayama and Arita, 2008
								Dai, J., Yin, A., Liu, W., Wang, C., 2008. Nd isotopic compositions of the Tethyan Himalayan Sequence in
	TSS AY06-29-0 S. Lhasa		Langjiexue Group	0.512196	13	-8.6 Dai et al., 2008	southeastern Tibet. Sci. China Ser. D-Earth Sci. 51, 1306-1316. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11430-008-0103-7
	TSS AY06-29-0 S. Lhasa		Langjiexue Group	0.51222	14	-8.2 Dai et al., 2008
	TSS AY06-29-0 S. Lhasa		Langjiexue Group	0.512138	14	-9.8 Dai et al., 2008
	TSS AY07-03-0 S. Lhasa		Langjiexue Group	0.51236	13	-5.4 Dai et al., 2008
	TSS AY07-01-0 S. Lhasa		Lhakang Formation	0.511775	12	-16.8 Dai et al., 2008
	TSS AY07-01-0 S. Lhasa		Lhakang Formation	0.51177	10	-16.9 Dai et al., 2008
	TSS AY07-01-0 S. Lhasa		Lhakang Formation	0.511742	14	-17.5 Dai et al., 2008
	TSS AY07-02-0 S. Lhasa		Lhakang Formation	0.51223	12	-8.0 Dai et al., 2008
	TSS AY07-02-0 S. Lhasa		Lhakang Formation	0.511715	13	-18.0 Dai et al., 2008
	TSS AY07-02-0 S. Lhasa		Lhakang Formation	0.51178	14	-16.7 Dai et al., 2008
								Richards, A., Parrish, R., Harris, N., Argles, T., Zhang, L., 2006. Correlation of lithotectonic units across the
	HHCB45	Bhutan		HHS (N. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511884 6E-06	-14.7 Richards et al., 2006	eastern Himalaya, Bhutan. Geology 34, 341-344.
	HHCB87	Bhutan		HHS (N. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.51178 2E-05	-16.7 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCBh3	Bhutan		HHS (N. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.512015 3E-06	-12.2 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB39	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511795 9E-06	-16.4 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB41	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511867 5E-06	-15.0 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB50	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511873 8E-06	-14.9 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB51	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511803 6E-06	-16.3 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB68	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511877 7E-06	-14.8 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB71b	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511738 2E-06	-17.6 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB81	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511932 3E-06	-13.8 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB83	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.512017 4E-06	-12.1 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB85b	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511801 6E-06	-16.3 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCB88b	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511908 1E-05	-14.2 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCBh6	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511875 2E-06	-14.9 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCBh10b	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511773 3E-06	-16.9 Richards et al., 2006
	HHCBh12	Bhutan		HHS (S. of Kakhtang thrust)	0.511789 3E-06	-16.6 Richards et al., 2006
	LH B29a	Bhutan		Daling-Shumar Formation	0.511253 8E-06	-27.0 Richards et al., 2006
	LH B29b	Bhutan		Daling-Shumar Formation	0.511274 5E-06	-26.6 Richards et al., 2006
	LH B36a	Bhutan		Daling-Shumar Formation	0.5	0.0	-27.3 Richards et al., 2006
	LH B75	Bhutan		Daling-Shumar Formation	0.511312 7E-06	-25.9 Richards et al., 2006
	LH Bh13	Bhutan		Daling-Shumar Formation	0.510984 1E-06	-32.3 Richards et al., 2006
								Parrish, R.R., Hodges, V., 1996. Isotopic constraints on the age and provenance of the Lesser and Greater
								Himalayan sequences, Nepalese Himalaya. Geological Society of America Bulletin 108, 904-911.
	LH LT-4	C. Nepal	Langtang		0.511356	10	-25.0 Parrish and Hodges, 1	https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-7606(1996)108<0904:ICOTAA>2.3.CO;2
	LH LT-6	C. Nepal	Langtang		0.511348	14	-25.2 Parrish and Hodges, 1996

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	LH LT-7		C. Nepal	Langtang		0.511429	14	-23.6 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	LH LT-10		C. Nepal	Langtang		0.51133	6	-25.5 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	LH LT-18		C. Nepal	Langtang		0.511296	29	-26.2 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	LH LT-19		C. Nepal	Langtang		0.511423	7	-23.7 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	LH/HLT-20		C. Nepal	Langtang	Syabru Bensi augen gneiss	0.511532	7	-21.6 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	LH/HLT-33		C. Nepal	Langtang	Syabru gneiss	0.511805	13	-16.2 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	LH/HLT-34		C. Nepal	Langtang	Syabru gneiss	0.511741	11	-17.5 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	HHCLT-21		C. Nepal	Langtang	Gosainkund gneiss	0.511826	15	-15.8 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	HHCLT-22		C. Nepal	Langtang	Gosainkund gneiss	0.511878	14	-14.8 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	HHCLT-24		C. Nepal	Langtang	Gosainkund gneiss	0.511816	12	-16.0 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
	HHCLT-29		C. Nepal	Langtang	Gosainkund gneiss	0.511691	8	-18.5 Parrish and Hodges, 1996
								Liu, A.-L., Wang, Q., Zhu, D.-C., Zhao, Z.-D., Liu, S.-A., Wang, R., Dai, J.-G., Zheng, Y.-C., Zhang, L.-L.,
								2018. Origin of the ca. 50 Ma Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks in the eastern Gangdese arc, southern
	THB 12PD01-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation	0.512703 1E-05	1.3 Liu et al., 2018	Tibet. Lithos 304-307, 374-387. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2018.02.017
	THB 12PD05-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation	0.512447 1E-05	-3.7 Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD05-2 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation			Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD05-3 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation	0.512446 9E-06	-3.7 Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD05-4 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation	0.512435 1E-05	-4.0 Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD02-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation	0.512308 1E-05	-6.4 Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD03-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation			Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD04-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation			Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD06-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation	0.5123 1E-05	-6.6 Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD07-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation	0.512343 1E-05	-5.8 Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD08-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Linzizong shoshonitic volcanic rocks	Pana formation			Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD09-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Gangdese belt	Nuoco formation ?	0.5115952 9E-06	-20.3 Liu et al., 2018
	THB 12PD11-1 N. LhasaPangduo, E. Gangdese belt	Nuoco formation ?	0.511627 9E-06	-19.7 Liu et al., 2018
								Huang, F., Chen, J.-L., Xu, J.-F., Wang, B.-D., Li, J., 2015. Os-Nd-Sr isotopes in Miocene ultrapotassic
								rocks of southern Tibet: Partial melting of a pyroxenite-bearing lithospheric mantle? Geochimica et
	THB CM10-04-0N.W. Lhasa		Mibale	0.511958	7	-13.3 Huang et al., 2015	Cosmochimica Acta 163, 279-298. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gca.2015.04.053
	THB CM10-04-0N.W. Lhasa		Mibale	0.511952	5	-13.4 Huang et al., 2015
	THB CM10-04-1N.W. Lhasa		Mibale	0.511927	6	-13.9 Huang et al., 2015
	THB CM10-04-1N.W. Lhasa		Mibale	0.511894	6	-14.5 Huang et al., 2015
	THB CM10-04-2N.W. Lhasa		Mibale	0.511927	6	-13.9 Huang et al., 2015
	THB CM10-04-2N.W. Lhasa		Mibale	0.512	7	-12.4 Huang et al., 2015
	THB CQQ4-04-0N.W. Lhasa		Maiga	0.511801	7	-16.3 Huang et al., 2015
	THB CQQ4-04-0N.W. Lhasa		Maiga	0.511835	7	-15.7 Huang et al., 2015
								Zhang, S.-Q., Mahoney, J.J., Mo, X.-X., Ghazi, A.M., Milani, L., Crawford, A.J., Guo, T.-Y., Zhao, Z.-D.,
								2005. Evidence for a Widespread Tethyan Upper Mantle with Indian-Ocean-Type Isotopic Characteristics. J
	THB DJB98-11 S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Dajiweng	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.5128		3.2 Zhang et al., 2005	Petrology 46, 829-858. https://doi.org/10.1093/petrology/egi002
	THB L		S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Dajiweng	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.512835		3.8 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB DJB98-18 S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Dajiweng	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513049		8.0 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB DJB98-20 S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Dajiweng	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.512801		3.2 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB BAR98-1 GS.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Bar	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513109		9.2 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB BAR98-3 GS.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Bar	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513107		9.1 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB BAR98-6 S.W. Tib 31°N 80°E Bar	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.512751		2.2 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB DQ98-9 G S.W. Tib 30°N 83°E Dangqiong	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513114		9.3 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB DQ98-12 GS.W. Tib 30°N 83°E Dangqiong	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513114		9.3 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB DQ98-14 DS.W. Tib 30°N 83°E Dangqiong	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513111		9.2 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB XL98-10 D S. Tibet 29°N 89°E Xialu	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513083		8.7 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB DZ98-1 G S. Tibet 29°N 89°E Dazhuqu Dazhuka	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513118		9.4 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB DZ98-12 DS. Tibet 29°N 89°E Dazhuqu Dazhuka	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513108		9.2 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB L		S. Tibet 29°N 89°E Dazhuqu Dazhuka	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513118		9.4 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB DZ98-19 S. Tibet 29°N 89°E Dazhuqu Dazhuka	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.51308		8.6 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB LC98-3	S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Langceling	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513109		9.2 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB LC98-4	S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Langceling	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513133		9.7 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB LC98-6	S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Langceling	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513136		9.7 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB LB98-1 G S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Luobusha	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513071		8.4 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB L		S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Luobusha	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513079		8.6 Zhang et al., 2005
	THB LB98-3 G S.E. Tibe29°N 92°E Luobusha	Yarlung Tsangbo suture	0.513086		8.7 Zhang et al., 2005
								Zhang, L.-Y., Ducea, M.N., Ding, L., Pullen, A., Kapp, P., Hoffman, D., 2014. Southern Tibetan
								Oligocene-Miocene adakites: A record of Indian slab tearing. Lithos 210-211, 209-223.
	THB		19 S.E. Lhasa		Sangri pluton	0.51257 2E-05	-1.3 Zhang et al., 2014	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2014.09.029
	THB	110 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Dangru pluton / Dongru	0.512439 1E-05	-3.9 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 109A		E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Dangru pluton / Dongru	0.512439 6E-06	-3.9 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 109B		E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Dangru pluton / Dongru			Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 111A		E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Dangru pluton / Dongru	0.5124 9E-06	-4.6 Zhang et al., 2014

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	THB 111B	E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Dangru pluton / Dongru	0.512427 1E-05	-4.1 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB	14 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi			Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 119A	E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi	0.512443 1E-05	-3.8 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 119B	E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi			Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 119C	E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi	0.512462 5E-06	-3.4 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 119D	E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi			Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 120A	E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi	0.5124 2E-05	-4.6 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 120B	E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi			Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 120E	E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Linzhi pluton / Nyingchi			Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 138A	E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang	Lengduo pluton	0.512445 7E-06	-3.8 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 138B	E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang	Lengduo pluton	0.512065 1E-05	-11.2 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 138D	E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang	Lengduo pluton			Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 140A	E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang	Damu pluton	0.512441 3E-05	-3.8 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 140B	E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang	Damu pluton	0.512426 3E-05	-4.1 Zhang et al., 2014
	THB 140C	E. SyntaxE. Namche BClose Dibang	Damu pluton			Zhang et al., 2014
								Zeng, L., Gao, L.-E., Dong, C., Tang, S., 2012. High-pressure melting of metapelite and the formation of Ca-
								rich granitic melts in the Namche Barwa Massif, southern Tibet. Gondwana Research 21, 138-151.
	HHCZB06-80M E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Zhibai fm	0.511761	10	-17.1 Zeng et al., 2012	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2011.07.023
	HHCZB06-66M E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Pai fm	0.511962	7	-13.2 Zeng et al., 2012
	HHCZB06-35M E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Pai fm	0.511778	5	-16.8 Zeng et al., 2012
	HHCZB09-18M E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Zhibai fm	0.511835	10	-15.7 Zeng et al., 2012
	HHCZB06-80L E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Zhibai fm	0.512267	15	-7.2 Zeng et al., 2012
	HHCZB06-66L E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Pai fm	0.511952	8	-13.4 Zeng et al., 2012
	HHCZB06-35L E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Pai fm	0.511537	8	-21.5 Zeng et al., 2012
	HHCZB09-18L1E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Zhibai fm	0.511846	9	-15.4 Zeng et al., 2012
	HHCZB09-18L2E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa	Zhibai fm	0.511819	11	-16.0 Zeng et al., 2012
	THB DY-7	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	1G a r w a	0.512056	7	-11.4 Guo et al., 2013	1007/s00410-013-0860-y
	THB DC2	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	1G a r w a	0.511965	9	-13.1 Guo et al., 2013
	THB D509	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	1G a r w a	0.512026	7	-11.9 Guo et al., 2013
	THB DG43	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	1G a r w a	0.511941	7	-13.6 Guo et al., 2013
	THB YE51	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	2Y a q i a n	0.511913	8	-14.1 Guo et al., 2013
	THB YC08	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	2Y a q i a n	0.511917	6	-14.1 Guo et al., 2013
	THB YG13	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	2Y a q i a n	0.511936	11	-13.7 Guo et al., 2013
	THB YF12	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	2Y a q i a n	0.511983	8	-12.8 Guo et al., 2013
	THB YA32	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	2Y a q i a n	0.511964	8	-13.1 Guo et al., 2013
	THB MH78	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	3M i b a l e	0.511926	7	-13.9 Guo et al., 2013
	THB MH69	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	3M i b a l e	0.511992	6	-12.6 Guo et al., 2013
	THB MG-3	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	3M i b a l e	0.511961	8	-13.2 Guo et al., 2013
	THB MY1	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	3M i b a l e	0.511934	7	-13.7 Guo et al., 2013
	THB MK09	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	3M i b a l e	0.511926	10	-13.9 Guo et al., 2013
	THB MR21	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	3M i b a l e	0.511854	6	-15.3 Guo et al., 2013
	THB MA75	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	3M i b a l e	0.511847	12	-15.4 Guo et al., 2013
	THB MX5	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	3M i b a l e	0.511928	8	-13.8 Guo et al., 2013
	THB 2003T534 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	4Y i q i a n	0.511844	1	-15.5 Ding et al., 2006, in Guo et al., 2013
	THB 2003T536 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	4Y i q i a n	0.511822	1	-15.9 Ding et al., 2006, in Guo et al., 2013
	THB 2003T539 W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	4Y i q i a n	0.511815	1	-16.1 Ding et al., 2006, in Guo et al., 2013
	THB G8	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511856	10	-15.3 Guo et al., 2013
	THB C10	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511874	9	-14.9 Guo et al., 2013
	THB CV5	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511852	13	-15.3 Guo et al., 2013
	THB C76	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511793	7	-16.5 Guo et al., 2013
	THB CH4	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511924	6	-13.9 Guo et al., 2013
	THB CH7	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511828	9	-15.8 Guo et al., 2013
	THB C03	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511894	8	-14.5 Guo et al., 2013
	THB CX38	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511887	10	-14.6 Guo et al., 2013
	THB C25	W. Lhasa30-31°N 86.3	5 Chazi	0.511826	9	-15.8 Guo et al., 2013
								Guo, Z., Wilson, M., Liu, J., 2007. Post-collisional adakites in south Tibet: Products of partial melting of
								subduction-modified lower crust. Lithos, The Origin, Evolution and Present State of Continental Lithosphere
	THB ZF09	S.W. Tib 33°N 80°E		1 Shiquanhe	0.512237	11	-7.8 Guo et al., 2007	96, 205-224. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2006.09.011
	THB GUO62	S.W. Tib 32°N 82°E		2 Gegar	0.512354	10	-5.5 Guo et al., 2007
	THB GUO51	S.W. Tib 32°N 82°E		2 Gegar	0.512249	8	-7.6 Guo et al., 2007
	THB GUO48	S. Tibet 30°N 85°E		3 Daggyai	0.512147	13	-9.6 Guo et al., 2007
	THB GUO37	W. Lhasa30°N 90°E		4 Xigaze	0.512506	7	-2.6 Guo et al., 2007
	THB G09	W. Lhasa30°N 90°E		5 Wuyu	0.512588	9	-1.0 Guo et al., 2007
	THB ZFG17	W. Lhasa30°N 90°E		6 Majiang	0.512798	6	3.1 Guo et al., 2007
	THB G006	S. Lhasa30°N 92°E		7 Nanmu	0.512604	10	-0.7 Guo et al., 2007
	THB G019	E. Lhasa30°N 93°E		8 Jiama	0.512544	7	-1.8 Guo et al., 2007

Guo, Z., Wilson, M.,

Zhang, M., Cheng, Z., Zhang, L., 2013.

Post-collisional, K-rich mafic magmatism in south Tibet: constraints on Indian slab-to-wedge transport processes and plateau uplift. Contrib Mineral Petrol 165, 1311-1340. https://doi.org/10.

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River	Locality	Formation	144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
	THB G016	E. Lhasa30°N 93°E		8 Jiama	0.512511	8	-2.5 Guo et al., 2007
	THB G025	E. Syntax30°N 95°E		9 Linzhi / Nyingchi pluton	0.512508	8	-2.5 Guo et al., 2007
	TSS T0837-1 S.W. Lha29°N 86°E		Xiaru leucogranite	0.512087 9E-06	-10.7 Gao et al., 2016
	TSS T0837-2 S.W. Lha29°N 86°E		Xiaru leucogranite	0.512079 9E-06	-10.9 Gao et al., 2016
	TSS T0837-3 S.W. Lha29°N 86°E		Xiaru leucogranite	0.512074 1E-05	-11.0 Gao et al., 2016
	TSS T0837-4 S.W. Lha29°N 86°E		Xiaru leucogranite	0.511928 1E-05	-13.8 Gao et al., 2016
	TSS T0659-T-1 S.W. Lha28.°N 85°E		Paiku leucogranite			Gao et al., 2016
	TSS T0659-T-2 S.W. Lha28.°N 85°E		Paiku leucogranite			Gao et al., 2016
								Huang, C., Zhao, Z., Li, G., Zhu, D.-C., Liu, D., Shi, Q., 2017. Leucogranites in Lhozag, southern Tibet:
								Implications for the tectonic evolution of the eastern Himalaya. Lithos 294-295, 246-262.
	TSS LZH1101a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite	0.511977 5E-06	-12.9 Huang et al., 2017	https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2017.09.014
	TSS LZH1102a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1103a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite	0.511951 4E-06	-13.4 Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1107a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite	0.51195 2E-06	-13.4 Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1111a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1113a S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1114 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite	0.511998 4E-06	-12.5 Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1115 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite	0.511944 3E-06	-13.5 Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1116 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1125 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1126 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite	0.512016 3E-06	-12.1 Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1127 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1128 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite	0.511922 3E-06	-14.0 Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1129 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1130 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1131 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite	0.511944 4E-06	-13.5 Huang et al., 2017
	TSS LZH1133 S.E. Lha 28.5°N 91°E		Lhozag granite			Huang et al., 2017
	TSS T0319-06 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512033	10	-11.8 Zeng et al., 2011	2011.01.005
	TSS T0319-07 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.511936	14	-13.7 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0319-08 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512116	10	-10.2 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0320-06 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.51186	9	-15.2 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0317-01 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Dala pluton	0.511984	5	-12.8 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0317-02 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Dala pluton	0.512147	10	-9.6 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0317-03 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Dala pluton	0.51199	10	-12.6 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0317-04 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Dala pluton	0.511983	10	-12.8 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0317-05 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Dala pluton	0.511987	6	-12.7 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0317-06 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Dala pluton	0.511993	5	-12.6 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-4 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Quedang	0.512042	10	-11.6 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-5 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Quedang	0.512101	8	-10.5 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-6 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Quedang	0.512049	9	-11.5 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-7 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Quedang	0.512056	10	-11.4 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-8 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Quedang	0.512053	7	-11.4 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-9 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Quedang	0.51205	10	-11.5 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-11 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Quedang	0.512054	6	-11.4 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-12 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Quedang	0.512045	11	-11.6 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0389-17 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.511812	11	-16.1 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0321-08 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512396	10	-4.7 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0321-09 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512406	9	-4.5 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0394-10 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512705	8	1.3 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0394-21 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512708	8	1.4 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0394-1 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512294	7	-6.7 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0394-6 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512004	6	-12.4 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0394-8 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512224	5	-8.1 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0392-0 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.511832	5	-15.7 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0392-1 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.51202	7	-12.1 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0392-3 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.51203	8	-11.9 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0395-01 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512262	15	-7.3 Zeng et al., 2011
	TSS T0395-03 S.E. Lhasa	Yardoi	Yardoi gneiss dome	0.512118	5	-10.1 Zeng et al., 2011
	THB Lz9915	close to Linzigong vo Linzhou	Pana	0.512665	11	0.5 Mo et al., 2007	005
	THB Lz9914	close to Linzigong vo Linzhou	Pana	0.512651	5	0.3 Mo et al., 2007
	THB L1087-2 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou	Pana	0.512889	9	4.9 Mo et al., 2007

Zeng, L., Gao, L.-E., Xie, K.,

Liu-Zeng, J., 2011

. Mid-Eocene high Sr/Y granites in the Northern Himalayan Gneiss Domes: Melting thickened lower continental crust. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 303, 251-266. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.Mo, X., Hou, Z., Niu, Y., Dong, G., Qu, X., Zhao, Z., Yang, Z., 2007. Mantle contributions to crustal thickening during continental collision: Evidence from Cenozoic igneous rocks in southern Tibet. Lithos, The Origin, Evolution and Present State of Continental Lithosphere 96, 225-242. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2006.10.

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River THB Lz991 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou Locality THB Lz993 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB LZ998 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB Lz9913 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB Lz9930 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB Lz9924 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB Lz9922 close to Linzigong vo Linzhou THB 09TB21-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB22 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB38-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB39 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB41-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB45-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB46-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB47-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB47-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB50 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB51-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB36 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB38-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB41-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB45-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB45-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB48-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo THB 09TB68 S.E. Lhasa I THB 09TB72-1 S.E. Lhasa I THB 09TB73 S.E. Lhasa I THB 09TB76 S.E. Lhasa I THB 09TB79 S.E. Lhasa I THB 09TB67-1 S.E. Lhasa II THB 09TB69 S.E. Lhasa II THB 09TB71 S.E. Lhasa II THB 09TB78-1aS.E. Lhasa THB 09TB78-2 S.E. Lhasa THB 09TB21-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo Ech.# Region River Locality THB T0548 Nyingchi THB T0878-1 Nyingchi THB T0878-2 Nyingchi THB T0878-3 Nyingchi THB T0878-4 Nyingchi THB T0878-5 Nyingchi THB T0878-6 Nyingchi 0.512794 Table SII-2 (…/…) Formation Nianbo Nianbo Nianbo Dianzhong Dianzhong Dianzhong mafic dike Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Milin granitoids Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Zhenga dorite-gabbro suite Milin intrusive suite 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) 0.512633 9 0.512626 13 0.512407 7 0.512628 17 0.512582 16 0.512583 10 0.512777 10 0.512788 6 0.512786 6 0.51275 6 0.512737 6 0.512754 7 0.512797 6 0.51276 6 0.512768 8 0.512775 5 0.512767 7 0.512781 13 0.512714 6 0.512738 6 0.512738 7 0.512794 7 0.512796 7 0.51279 7 0.51272 8 0.512706 8 0.512805 10 0.512795 10 0.512824 7 0.51259 8 0.512698 7 0.512665 10 0.512326 9 0.512057 3 Formation E. Gangdese batholith E. Gangdese batholith E. Gangdese batholith E. Gangdese batholith E. Gangdese batholith E. Gangdese batholith E. Gangdese batholith THB T0289	Reference CommenFull reference -0.1 Mo et al., 2007 -0.2 Mo et al., 2007 -4.5 Mo et al., 2007 -0.2 Mo et al., 2007 -1.1 Mo et al., 2007 -1.1 Mo et al., 2007 2.7 Mo et al., 2007 2.9 Ma et al., 2013 Ma, L., Wang, Q., Wyman, D.A., Li, Z.-X., Jiang, Z.-Q., Yang, J.-H., Gou, G.-N., Guo, H.-F., 2013. Late Cretaceous (100-89Ma) magnesian charnockites with adakitic affinities in the Milin area, eastern Gangdese: Partial melting of subducted oceanic crust and implications for crustal growth in southern Tibet. Lithos 175-176, 315-332. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2013.04.006 2.9 Ma et al., 2013 2.2 Ma et al., 2013 1.9 Ma et al., 2013 2.3 Ma et al., 2013 3.1 Ma et al., 2013 2.4 Ma et al., 2013 2.5 Ma et al., 2013 2.7 Ma et al., 2013 2.5 Ma et al., 2013 2.8 Ma et al., 2013 1.5 Ma et al., 2013 2.0 Ma et al., 2013 2.0 Ma et al., 2013 3.0 Ma et al., 2013 3.1 Ma et al., 2013 3.0 Ma et al., 2013 1.6 Ma et al., 2013b 2013.04.005 1.3 Ma et al., 2013b 3.3 Ma et al., 2013b 3.1 Ma et al., 2013b 3.6 Ma et al., 2013b -0.9 Ma et al., 2013b 1.2 Ma et al., 2013b 0.5 Ma et al., 2013b -6.1 Ma et al., 2013b -11.3 Ma et al., 2013b
	THB 09TB30-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB30-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB32 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB41-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB44-5 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB49-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB30-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB35-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB42-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB43-1 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB43-2 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB44-3 S.E. Lha 29.2°N 94°E W. Nyingchi, on Yarlung Tsangpo	Milin intrusive suite
	THB 09TB61 S.E. Lhasa	Quguosha gabbros
	THB 11SR10-6 S.E. Lhasa	Quguosha gabbros
	THB 11SR10-7 S.E. Lhasa	Quguosha gabbros
	THB 09TB63 S.E. Lhasa	Quguosha gabbros
	THB 09TB64 S.E. Lhasa	Quguosha gabbros
	THB 11SR10-1 S.E. Lhasa	Quguosha gabbros
	THB 11SR10-4 S.E. Lhasa	Quguosha gabbros

Ma, L.,

[START_REF] Vidal | Early Late Cretaceous (ca. 93Ma) norites and hornblendites in the Milin area, eastern Gangdese: Lithosphere-asthenosphere interaction during slab roll-back and an insight into early Late Cretaceous (ca. 100-80Ma) magmatic "flare-up" in southern Lhasa (Tibet)[END_REF]

. Late Cretaceous crustal growth in the Gangdese area, southern Tibet: Petrological and Sr-Nd-Hf-O isotopic evidence from Zhengga diorite-gabbro. Chemical Geology 349-350, 54-70. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chemgeo.

  Wang et al., 2019 Wang, Y.-F., Zeng, L., Gao, J., Zhao, L., Gao, L.-E., Shang, Z., 2019. Along-arc variations in isotope and trace element compositions of Paleogene gabbroic rocks in the Gangdese batholith, southern Tibet. Lithos 324-325, 877-892. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lithos.2018.

					144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference
					0.512472 7E-06	-3.2 11.036
					0.512444 6E-06	-3.8 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512453 1E-05	-3.6 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512467 7E-06	-3.3 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512441 7E-06	-3.8 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512431 9E-06	-4.0 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512438 1E-05	-3.9 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512674 5E-06	0.7 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512406 8E-06	-4.5 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512418 1E-05	-4.3 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512486 7E-06	-3.0 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512593 5E-06	-0.9 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512651 7E-06	0.3 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512581 6E-06	-1.1 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512449 6E-06	-3.7 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512526 5E-06	-2.2 Wang et al., 2019
					0.51252 1E-05	-2.3 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512575 5E-06	-1.2 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512525 1E-05	-2.2 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512504 5E-06	-2.6 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512398 1E-05	-4.7 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512555 1E-05	-1.6 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512896 9E-06	5.0 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512903 1E-05	5.2 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512918 2E-05	5.5 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512895 1E-05	5.0 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512933 6E-06	5.8 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512884 1E-05	4.8 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512852 7E-06	4.2 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512871 4E-06	4.5 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512925 2E-05	5.6 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512857 5E-06	4.3 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512865 7E-06	4.4 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512891 6E-06	4.9 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512898 1E-05	5.1 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512805 7E-06	3.3 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512868 5E-06	4.5 Wang et al., 2019
					0.512795 1E-05	3.1 Wang et al., 2019
		S.W. Lhasa		C. Gangdese batholith	0.512903 8E-06	5.2 Wang et al., 2019
							Harrison, T.M., Grove, M., Lovera, O.M., Catlos, E.J., 1999. A unified model for the origin of Himalayan
							anatexis and inverted metamorphism, Main Central Thrust, Nepal Himalaya. Journal of Geophysical
	HHCDK89	C. Nepal	Larkya phase	Manaslu granite		Harrison et al., 1999	Research.
	HHCU315	C. Nepal	Larkya phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCXG43	C. Nepal	Larkya phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCXG46	C. Nepal	Larkya phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCXG56	C. Nepal	Larkya phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCXG102	C. Nepal	Larkya phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCXG270	C. Nepal	Larkya phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCXP130	C. Nepal	Larkya phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCDK203	C. Nepal	Bimtang phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCDK208	C. Nepal	Bimtang phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCXG162	C. Nepal	Bimtang phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCXL24	C. Nepal	Bimtang phase	Manaslu granite
	HHCSKG8	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCSKG9	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCSKG12	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCSKG13	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCSKG15	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCSKG3	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCSKG4	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCKG211	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCKG208	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCKG210	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCKG214	E. Nepal		Langtang granite
	HHCKG215	E. Nepal		Langtang granite

Table SII -

 SII

	2 (…/…) Ech.# Region River 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) Table SII-2 (…/…) Locality Formation Ech.# Region River Locality Formation 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0) 144Nd/142Nd 2s.d. eNd(0)	Reference CommenFull reference Reference CommenFull reference
	HHCSLM1 THB DZ13-1	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512748 0.511766	13 10	2.1 Zhu et al., 2008 -17.0 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCLM201 THB DZ07-2	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512767 0.511701	10 10	2.5 Zhu et al., 2008 -18.3 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCSKM2 THB BD04	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512723 0.511822	12 10	1.7 Zhu et al., 2008 -15.9 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCSKM3 THB BD13	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512789 0.511835	11 9	2.9 Zhu et al., 2008 -15.7 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCLM207 THB BD16	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512708 0.511747	13 10	1.4 Zhu et al., 2008 -17.4 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCLM209 THB YB5-2	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512767 0.511654	12 8	2.5 Zhu et al., 2008 -19.2 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCLM211 THB YB5-3	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512773 0.511817	11 9	2.6 Zhu et al., 2008 -16.0 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCSM201 THB DZ09-1	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512719 0.51185	11 9	1.6 Zhu et al., 2008 -15.4 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCSM203 THB DZ11-1	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512707 0.511986	12 10	1.3 Zhu et al., 2008 -12.7 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCSM202 THB BD19	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512687 0.511806	11 8	1.0 Zhu et al., 2008 -16.2 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCSM206 THB YB5-1	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.5128 0.511741	12 10	3.2 Zhu et al., 2008 -17.5 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCSSM6 THB DZ01-2	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512693 0.511718	13 10	1.1 Zhu et al., 2008 -17.9 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCRM201 THB DZ02-1	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.51245	9	-3.7 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCSNM2 THB DZ03-1	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.51272 0.511588	12 10	1.6 Zhu et al., 2008 -20.5 Liu et al., 2011
	HHCNM203 THB DZ03-2	E. Nepal E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Langtang metamorphic Yeba fm	0.512643 0.511707	10 10	0.1 Zhu et al., 2008 -18.2 Liu et al., 2011
	THB DZ05-1	E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Yeba fm	0.512627 0.511812	11 9	-0.2 Zhu et al., 2008 -16.1 Liu et al., 2011
	THB DZ07-4	E. Lhasa	S. Gangdese	Yeba fm	0.512566	12	-1.4 Zhu et al., 2008
								Ahmad, T., Harris, N., Bickle, M., Chapman, H., Bunbury, J., Prince, C., 2000. Isotopic constraints on the
	THB LKA-01	Lhasa		Dazi volcanics				structural relationships between the Lesser Himalayan Series and the High Himalayan Crystalline Series,
	THB LKA-02	Lhasa		Dazi volcanics				Zhang, H., Harris, N., Guo, L., Xu, W., 2010. The significance of Cenozoic magmatism from the western Garhwal Himalaya. Geological Society of America Bulletin 112, 467-477. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-
	THB LKA-03 LH KR38	Lhasa Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Outer LH	0.511713 8E-06	-18.0 Ahmad et al., 2000	margin of the eastern syntaxis, southeast Tibet. Contrib Mineral Petrol 160, 83-98. 7606(2000)112<467:ICOTSR>2.0.CO;2
	THB LKA-04 THB T519 LH KR40	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	0.512416 2E-06 0.511709 6E-06	-4.3 Zhang et al., 2010 -18.1 Ahmad et al., 2000	https://doi.org/10.1007/s00410-009-0467-5
	THB LKA-05 THB T520 LH KR41	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	0.512416 4E-06 0.511723 1E-05	-4.3 Zhang et al., 2010 -17.8 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-06 THB T521 LH KR44	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	0.512426 3E-06 0.511713 2E-05	-4.1 Zhang et al., 2010 -18.0 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-07 THB T522 LH KR50	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	0.512415 6E-06 0.511768 9E-06	-4.4 Zhang et al., 2010 -17.0 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-08 THB T523 LH KR146	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Chandpur 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Outer LH	0.512412 3E-06 0.511702 9E-06	-4.4 Zhang et al., 2010 -18.3 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-09 THB T524 LH KR1	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Deoban 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Bayi granite Inner LH	0.512412 3E-06 0.511378 9E-06	-4.4 Zhang et al., 2010 -24.6 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-11 THB T634 LH KR4	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Deoban 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Lunan granodiorite Inner LH	0.512459 1E-06 0.511357 6E-06	-3.5 Zhang et al., 2010 -25.0 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-12 THB T636 LH KR85	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Berinag 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Lunan granodiorite Inner LH	0.512375 1E-06 0.511575 1E-05	-5.1 Zhang et al., 2010 -20.7 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-13 THB T637 LH KR102	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Deoban 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Lunan granodiorite Inner LH	0.512484 3E-06 0.511563 2E-05	-3.0 Zhang et al., 2010 -21.0 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-14 THB T638 LH KR106	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Berinag 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Lunan granodiorite Inner LH	0.512456 2E-06 0.511342 6E-06	-3.6 Zhang et al., 2010 -25.3 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-15 THB T529 LH KR132	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Berinag 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Confluence granite Inner LH	0.512405 3E-06 0.511676 2E-05	-4.5 Zhang et al., 2010 -18.8 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-16 THB/T525 LH? KR52	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Ramgarh 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Nyingchi gneiss Ramgarh group	0.51193 4E-06 0.511382 8E-06	-13.8 Zhang et al., 2010 -24.5 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-17 THB/T527 LH? KR57	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Ramgarh 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Nyingchi gneiss Ramgarh group	0.512033 4E-06 0.511394 2E-05	-11.8 Zhang et al., 2010 -24.3 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB LKA-19 THB/T528 LH? KR82	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Nyingchi gneiss Munsiari goup	0.511851 5E-06 0.511466 6E-06	-15.4 Zhang et al., 2010 -22.9 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB L012 HHCT600 LH? KR113	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	0.512102 2E-06 0.511367 1E-05	-10.5 Zhang et al., 2010 -24.8 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB L014 HHCT602 LH? KR122	Lhasa E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Dazi volcanics Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	0.511958 2E-06 0.511218 8E-06	-13.3 Zhang et al., 2010 -27.7 Ahmad et al., 2000
	HHCT603 LH? KR124	E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	0.511822 1E-06 0.511319 1E-05	-15.9 Zhang et al., 2010 -25.7 Ahmad et al., 2000
	HHCT617 LH? KR126	E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	0.511701 2E-06 0.511328 1E-05	-18.3 Zhang et al., 2010 -25.6 Ahmad et al., 2000
	HHCT618 LH? KR128	E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Zhibai gneiss Munsiari goup	0.511926 2E-06 0.511392 1E-05	-13.9 Zhang et al., 2010 -24.3 Ahmad et al., 2000
	HHCT611 LH? KR130	E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Duoxiongla migmatite Munsiari goup	0.511729 1E-06 0.511444 8E-06	-17.7 Zhang et al., 2010 -23.3 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T993 HHCT612 LH? KR134	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Munsiari 30.2°N 79-80°E	Motuo Duoxiongla migmatite Munsiari goup	0.511731 5E-06 0.511402 1E-05	-17.7 Zhang et al., 2010 -24.1 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T998 HHCT613 HHCC42/97	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal uncertain 30.2°N 79-80°E	Motuo Duoxiongla migmatite Vaikrita thrust	0.511805 1E-06 0.512066 8E-06	-16.2 Zhang et al., 2010 -11.2 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1000 HHCT614 HHCC4B	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Motuo Duoxiongla migmatite Vaikrita group	0.511599 1E-06 0.51186 5E-06	-20.3 Zhang et al., 2010 -15.2 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1008 HHCT616 HHCC7	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxW. Namche Nyingchi Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Motuo Duoxiongla migmatite Vaikrita group	0.511755 1E-06 0.511754 8E-06	-17.2 Zhang et al., 2010 -17.2 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1009 HHCC200	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Motuo Vaikrita group	0.511675 8E-06	-18.8 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1016 THB T684 HHCC230	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Motuo Beibeng granite Vaikrita group	0.512425 3E-06 0.511924 9E-06	-4.2 Pan et al., 2012 -13.9 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1017 THB T686 HHCC235	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Motuo Beibeng granite Vaikrita group	0.512412 1E-05 0.511702 1E-05	-4.4 Pan et al., 2012 -18.3 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1220 THB T690 HHCC34/97	E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	52K Beibeng granite Vaikrita group	0.512506 4E-06 0.5117 8E-06	-2.6 Pan et al., 2012 -18.3 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1222 THB T692 HHCKR116	E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	52K Beibeng granite Vaikrita group	0.512517 3E-06 0.511892 1E-05	-2.4 Pan et al., 2012 -14.6 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1224 THB T697 HHCKR118	E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	52K Damu granite Vaikrita group	0.512313 2E-06 0.511857 1E-05	-6.3 Pan et al., 2012 -15.2 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T698 HHCKR120	E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Damu granite Vaikrita group	0.512205 4E-06 0.511884 1E-05	-8.4 Pan et al., 2012 -14.7 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1018 HHCKR143	E. SyntaxS.E. Namche Barwa Garhwal Vaikrita 30.2°N 79-80°E	Damu granite Vaikrita group	0.512159 4E-06 0.51167 1E-05	-9.3 Pan et al., 2012 -18.9 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T866 TSS C29/97	E. SyntaxN.E. Namche Barwa Garhwal TSS 30.2°N 79-80°E	Bomi granite TSS	0.512018 3E-06 0.511944 8E-06	-12.1 Pan et al., 2012 -13.5 Ahmad et al., 2000
	THB T1037	E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Bolonggong granite	0.512467 7E-06	-3.3 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T1038	E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Bolonggong granite	0.512697 6E-06	1.2 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T699 THB T1041	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Damu Bolonggong granite	0.512582 6E-06	-1.1 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T700 THB T1043	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Damu Bolonggong granite	0.51251 4E-06	-2.5 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T1019 THB T1059	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Damu Bolonggong granite	0.512544 6E-06	-1.8 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T1020 THB T1061	E. syntaxS.E. Namcheon Siang E. SyntaxE. Namche Barwa	Damu Bolonggong granite	0.512397 7E-06	-4.7 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T829 TSS/T856	E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang E. Syntaxis	52 K Bomi Group (metam)	0.511879 2E-06	-14.8 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T836 TSS/T865	E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang E. Syntaxis	52 K Bomi Group (metam)	0.511714 1E-06	-18.0 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T1223 TSS/T867	E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang E. Syntaxis	52 K Bomi Group (metam)	0.511705 2E-06	-18.2 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T1225 TSS/T837	E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang E. Syntaxis	52 K Bomi Group (metam)	0.512102 4E-06	-10.5 Pan et al., 2012
	THB T1226	E. syntaxN.E. Namche barwa, close Dibang	52 K
	HHC 111920 E. SyntaxW. Namche Qiangna	Dongjiu S.	0.511741	10	-17.5 Liu et al., 201concentra	11.005
	HHC 112101 E. SyntaxW. Namche Laiguo	Laiguo S.	0.51234	8	-5.8 Liu et al., 2011
	THB BD01 HHC 112102 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo E. Lhasa S. Gangdese	Yeba fm Laiguo S.	0.511642	7	-19.4 Liu et al., 2011
	THB BD21 HHC 112104 E. SyntaxW. Namche Barwa, on Yarlung Tsangbo E. Lhasa S. Gangdese	Yeba fm Laiguo S.	0.511826	7	-15.8 Liu et al., 2011

Liu, Y., Siebel, W., Theye, T., Massonne, H.-J., 2011

. Isotopic and structural constraints on the late Miocene to Pliocene evolution of the Namche Barwa area, eastern Himalayan syntaxis, SE Tibet. Gondwana

Research 19,[894][895][896][897][898][899][900][901][902][903][904][905][906][907][908][909]

. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.gr.2010.

Table SII -3. Compilation of accumulation rate and sedimentary budgets.

 SII

	Table SII-3 (…/…)
	Not exhaustive Table SII-3 (…/…) Latitudes Location Latitudes Location		Catchment Catchment	Type of basin Type of basin	Start of acceleration Start of acceleration	of acceleration Amplitude Amplitude of acceleration	Impact of glaciations Impact of glaciations	deformation Tectonic Tectonic deformation	Comments Comments	References References
										Negligible accumulation before 3 Ma
										Erosion / uplift steady state (discussion in Molnar and	Dobson et al.,
										England, 1990)	2001; Harris
										Acceleration in the relative tectonic plate movements since Onset of the fan at 12-7 Ma (Figueiredo et al., 2009)	Adams, 1980; and Mix, 2002;
	Mid-Low-	New		Amazon basin	Active Passive				Active tectonics.	4 Ma (Lamb, 2011, Fig. 20) 6-fold increase of accumulation rates between 7 and 2.4	Carter and Figueiredo et
	latitudes latitudes	Zealand Amazon	Bounty fan Southern Alps Amazon fan and Andes	margin margin	ca. 3 Ma ca. 2.4 Ma	massive x 4	Major None	Debated impact Undiscussed	See further comments in Jiao et al., 2017 Ma	Carter, 1996 al., 2009
										Accumulation rates computed from public and non-public
									Deformation linked	data
									to mass of	Holes dominantly drilled at the fan periphery
									sediments (REF)	Acceleration not demonstrated by other workers	e.g. Hjelstuen
									Active thrusting		et al. ,1999;
									Isostatic along the Sunda	3-fold increase of rates since 0.6 Ma	Rise et al.,
			extended						deformation and trench and Indo-	Regular drainage reorganisation during the last glacial	2005;
	High-		Vøring		Passive				flexure due to Burman range	periods with eastward migration of the drainage divide for	Dowdeswell et
	latitudes Low-	Norway	margin	Scandinavia	margin Passive	ca. 2.7 Ma	massive	Major	sediment mass since 2 Ma (Maurin	the Scandinavian ice-sheet	al., 2010
	latitudes	Bengal bay Bengal fan Himalaya, India	margin	ca. 5 Ma	x 1.8	None	and Rangin, 2009)	Most of sediments non glacial (Hay et al., 1989)
										Monsoonal climate since 4-5 Ma (e.g. Galloway et al.,
										2011)
										Basin and Range active tectonics in the Miocene
										Regular drainage reorganisation (Galloway et al., 2011),	Hay et al.,
										with northward migration of the North American divide	1989;
	Mid-		NW Gulf of		Passive			Potentially		during the last glacial periods, with the connection of the	Galloway et
	latitudes	South US	Mexico	Mississipi	margin	ca. 2 Ma	x 3	important	Debated	Mississipi to the Laurentide ice-sheet	al., 2011
										partly 3-D sedimentary budgets.
										Pulse of sedimentation probably controlled by
										accomodation.
										Crustal movements at 4.5-6.5 Ma with acceleration of
										subsidence in the Central part of the basin and
										deceleration at the edges (e.g. Joy, 1992; discussion in
										Overeem et al., 2001).
										Scandinavian component since the early Miocene.
										Regular variations of provenance, probably linked to the
										increase and decrease of the Scandinavian ice-sheet
										(Sm/Nd isotopes, Kuhlmann et al., 2004).	Overeem et
									Isostatic		al., 2001;
									deformation	Increase followed by x2 decrease from 1.8 Ma onwards	Huuse, 2003;
	Mid-			Northern	Passive				Flexure caused by	(Anell et al., 2010), and limited accumulation since 1 Ma,	Anell et al.,
	latitudes	North Sea		Europe	margin	ca. 2.6 Ma	x 10	Major	weight of sediments	because of lack of accomodation (Ottesen et al., 2018)	2010

Table SII -

 SII

		3 (…/…)
	Latitudes Location		Catchment	Type of basin	Start of acceleration	Amplitude of acceleration	Impact of glaciations	Tectonic deformation	Comments	References
								Potentially
	Low-	South	Subandean		Foreland			not		Unaffected by sea-level.	Uba et al.,
	latitudes	Bolivia	foothills	Central Andes	basins	ca. 2 Ma	x 2	negligible	Active tectonics	Low accumulation rates at 6-2 Ma. Aridity?	2007
	Low-		Zambezi		Passive					Sedimentation yield stay steady. Hypothesis of a	Walford et al.,
	latitudes	SE Africa	delta	Zambezi	margin	ca. 3 Ma	x 1.5 -2	Negligible Debated	subcatchment capture	2005
											Lavier et al.,
											2001; Ferry et
											al., 2004;
											review in
	Low-				Passive						Savoye et al.,
	latitudes	W. Africa	Zaire	Congo-Zaire	margin	ca. 2 Ma	x 2	None		Shift of depocenters along the Angola-Congo margin	2009
										This acceleration follows a 2-fold deceleration of
	Low-		Red river		Passive					accumulation at 12.5 Ma and an increase of subsidence	Clift, 2006; Lei
	latitudes	S. China	delta	S. China	margin	ca. 5.5 Ma	x 2	Possible? Yes	caused by tectonics at 5.5 Ma	et al., 2015
										This acceleration follow a 2.5-fold deceleration of
										accumulation at 12-5 Ma.
	Low-		Pearl river		Passive					Provenance of sediments at one site was later defined as
	latitudes	S. China	delta	S. China	margin	ca. 5 Ma	x 1.4	Negligible? None	Taiwaneses from 3 Ma onwards (Wan et al., 2010)	Clift, 2006
											Clift and
											Gaedicke,
								Potentially			2002; Clift et
	Low-	India/Pakist			Passive			not		This acceleration follow a 2-fold deceleration of	al., 2002; Clift,
	latitudes	an	Indus fan	W. Himalaya	margin	ca. 2 Ma	x 2	negligible	Active tectonics	accumulation at 15-2 Ma	2006
					Type of
	Latitudes	Location			basin					Comments	References
										Tectonic, climatic and accumulation steady-state since the
										middle Miocene (ca. 14 Ma)	Hall and
			South							Very high erosion and weathering rates	Nichols, 2002;
	Low-	North	China sea		Passive					Island surrounded by deep basins, no foreland basin	Morley and
	latitudes	Borneo	margin	North Borneo	margin		None	None	Active tectonics	No thin skinned thrusting	Back, 2008

Table SII -

 SII

		3 (…/…)
	Latitudes Location		Catchment	Type of basin	Start of acceleration	Amplitude of acceleration	Impact of glaciations	Tectonic deformation	Comments	References
										Potential deceleration at ca. 1.8 Ma, after an acceleration
										at 15-1.8 Ma.
										Very low denudation rates 0.007 mm/yr
	Low-				Passive					Source to sink budgets	Grimaud et al.,
	latitudes	West Africa Niger delta Niger	margin		None	None	None	Limited resolution	2018
										Use of non public data.
										Burbank et al., 1992 hypothesizes a bypass of
	Low-		Ganga	Central	Foreland					sedimentation caused by a reduction of accommodation	Métivier et al.,
	latitudes	India	basin	Himalaya	basin		None	None	Active tectonics	space linked to the flexure on the Indian plate	1999
											Métivier et al.,
	Low-		Gulf of		Passive					Deceleration at ca. 12 Ma linked to potential decrease of	1999; Clift,
	latitudes	SE Asia	Thailand	Thailand	margin?		None	None	Active tectonics	accomodation space and shrinking of catchment	2006
				Thailand and						Potential deceleration at ca. 4 Ma and re-acceleration at 2	Métivier et al.,
	Low-		Mekong	Laos, with part	Passive					Ma. Taking into account uncertainties, rather steady	1999; Clift,
	latitudes	SE Asia	delta	of Tibet	margin		Possible	Negligible? Active tectonics	accumulation since 8 Ma	2006

Table SII -4. Compilation of detrital thermochronometry studies.

 SII

	Not exhaustive. Table SII-4 (…/…) Region		Basin	Type of basin Catchment	Thermochronometers Peak denudation	Comments	Reference
										van der Beek et al.,
			Western	Karnali					High denudation rates in	2006; reinterp. In
	S. Asia	Himalaya	Nepal	Section	Foreland	Karnali	AFT	steady at 1-1.5 mm/yr since ca. 7 Ma	the High Himalaya	Naylor et al., 2015
				Surai and
				Tinau					High denudation rates in	van der Beek et al.,
	S. Asia	Himalaya	Central Nepal	Sections	Foreland	Rapti	AFT	steady at 1.8 mm/yr since ca. 7 Ma	the High Himalaya	2006
			Western	Karnali					High denudation rates in
	S. Asia	Himalaya	Nepal	Section	Foreland	Karnali	ZFT	steady at 1.4±0.2 mm/yr since ca. 16 Ma	the High Himalaya	Bernet et al., 2006
				Surai and
				Tinau					High denudation rates in
	S. Asia	Himalaya	Central Nepal	Sections	Foreland	Rapti	ZFT	steady at 1.4±0.2 mm/yr since ca. 16 Ma	the High Himalaya	Bernet et al., 2006
									7-3 Ma : possibly paleo-
		Eastern	Arunashal	Kameng					Brahmaputra, and < 2.6
	S. Asia	Himalaya	Pradesh	section	Foreland		ZFT	steady at 1.8 mm/yr since ca. 13 Ma	Ma himalayan river	Chirouze et al., 2013
									inc. thermal model using
									Pecube (Braun, 2003;
									Braun et al., 2012)
		Eastern	Arunashal				ZFT, muscovite	5-10-fold acceleration to > 5 mm/yr at ca. 5-7 Ma (max age	Linked to Namche Barwa
	S. Asia	Himalaya	Pradesh	Siji Section	Foreland		40Ar/39Ar	not well constrained)	denudation	Lang et al., 2016
		Eastern			Foreland and				Limited number of grains (1
	S. Asia	Himalaya		Surma basin	delta	Brahmaputra?	Rutile U-Pb	Acceleration to > 4mm/yr at 3 -7 Ma	for the Pleistocene)	Bracciali et al., 2016
									Linked to Namche Barwa
									denudation
									Not sustained by
				Bengal fan		Ganga -			muscovite 40Ar/39Ar and
	S. Asia	Himalaya		8°N	Turbiditic fan	Brahmaputra	Rutile U-Pb, ZFT	Acceleration at 5.59-3.47 Ma	apatite U-Pb	Najman et al., 2019
				Chambaran						Glotzbach et al.,
	W. Europe Alps	W. Alps	basin	Foreland		AFT	Deceleration at 13-10 Ma and steady afterwards		2011
		New
	S. Asia	Zealand	S. Alps				ZFT	Acceleration at 7-4 Ma and steady afterwards	EGU communication	Lang et al., 2018
									reset of AHe + no
	S. Asia	Himalaya	Kashmir		Foreland		Ahe, ZHe		conclusion possible for Zhe Gavillot et al., 2018
									no use of lag-time.
					modern River				Appearant
	S. Asia	SE Tibet			sediment		AFT, Ahe	Acceleration at 11-4 Ma	overinterpretation ?	Duvall et al., 2012

Table SII -

 SII Bernet, M., Brandon, M., Garver, J., Balestieri, M.L., Ventura, B., Zattin, M., 2009. Exhuming the Alps through time: clues fromdetrital zircon fission-track thermochronology. BasinResearch 21,[781][782][783][784][785][786][787][788][789][790][791][792][793][794][795][796][797][798]

	4 (…/…) Table SII-4 (…/…) Region Region	Basin Basin	Type of basin Catchment Type of basin Catchment	Thermochronometers Peak denudation Thermochronometers Full reference	Comments	Reference
							Bernet, M., Zattin, M., Garver, J.I., Brandon, M.T., Vance, J.A., 2001. Steady-state exhumation
							of the European Alps. Geology 29, 35-38. https://doi.org/10.1130/0091-
			W. and C. W. and C.				7613(2001)029<0035:sseote>2.0.co;2	Only one sample < 6 Ma	Bernet et al., 2001,
	W. Europe Alps W. Europe Alps	Alps Alps	Foreland Foreland		ZFT ZFT	steady at 0.4-0.7 mm/yr since at least 15 Ma	(modern sample)	2009
			Bengal fan Bengal fan		Ganga -Ganga -
	S. Asia S. Asia	Himalaya Himalaya	8°N 8°N	Turbiditic fan Turbiditic fan	Brahmaputra Brahmaputra	AFT, ZFT AFT, ZFT	steady at 4 mm/yr since at least 9-12 Ma	EGU communication	Huyghe et al., 2019
							Tochilin, C.J., Reiners, P.W., Thomson, S.N., Gehrels, G.E., Hemming, S.R., Pierce, E.L.,
							2012. Erosional history of the Prydz Bay sector of East Antarctica from detrital apatite and
							zircon geo-and thermochronology multidating. Geochemistry, Geophysics, Geosystems 13,
	Antarctica Antarctica		Pryds bay Pryds bay			AFT AFT	acceleration at 30-35 mm/yr and steady afterwards Q11015. https://doi.org/10.1029/2012GC004364		Tochilin et al., 2012

Table SII -5. Compilation of 10Be paleoerosion studies. Table SII-5 (…/…)

 SII

	Reference Table SII-5 (…/…) Reference	Region Region	Area Area SiebenHensgte -	Period (Ma) Period (Ma)	Dating Dating	Type Type	Catchment size (km2) Catchment size (km2)	Sample Nb Sample Nb	Method to determine erosion rates Method to determine erosion rates	26Al/10Be sample Nb 26Al/10Be sample Nb		Method to deal with recent exposure Method to deal with recent exposure	Method to detect recycling Method to detect recycling	Provenance study Provenance study	rates rates (mm/yr) (mm/yr)
	Haeuselmann et al.,		Hohgant, Aare Valley,		U-Th,	Cave							Not
	2007	W. Europe	Swiss Alps	0.07 -4.3	26Al/10Be	sediment	?		20 10Be			applicable	26Al/10Be	None	0.03 -0.5
	Anthony and
	Granger, 2007,				14C, OSL,
	reinterpreted by				Thermolumine		Catchment not Colorado:
	Granger and		Cumberland plateau, Trinity, Brazos, Colorado,		scence, 10Be	Cave	represented 1.1E+5					Not
	Schaller, 2014 Hidy et al., 2014	North America North America	North Apalaches, US Interior Texas	0.02 -5.7 0.08 -0.6	26Al/10Be depth profile Terraces sediments	(small ?) Trinity: 4.5E+4	16 10Be 10 26Al + 10Be	All	applicable 9 26Al/10Be	26Al/10Be 26Al/10Be	None None	0.01 -0.04 0.01 -0.03
			Francia section, Camiña,		Paleomagnet	Fluvial
			Andean plateau, North		ostratigraphy Paleomagnet	deposits,									0.0005 -
	Madella et al., 2018 S. America	Chile	10 -13	(Huaco ostratigraphy	river section ~3.2E+3			9 10Be		0 None	None	None	0.01
					section))
					Zircon U-Pb
			Huaco & Toro Negro		dating (Toro	Fluvial
			Section, Eastern Andes,		Negro	sediments,					36Cl, 4
	Amidon et al., 2017 South America	North Argentina	2.33 -6.41	section)	river sections Unclear		35 10Be	samples		36Cl	36Cl ?	Zircon U-Pb
	Marshall et al., 2015,					Buried/subae Paleolake							Not
	Balco and Stone, 2017	North America Little lake, Oregon, US	0.001 -0.05	14C, OSL	rial alluvial drilled cores		6 27+3	10Be		0	applicable	None	Not applicable	0.1 -0.4
	2005	North America Fisher Valley, Utah	0.6 -0.7	Various	sediments Fan complex	<100			4 10Be		4 26Al/10Be	26Al/10Be	Petrography	0.1 -0.2
						consisting of
						Cut-and-fill alluvial and							Not
	Bekadour et al., 2014 South America Pisco valley, Central Peru 0.007 -0.05 Mason and Romans, Panamint Valley,	OSL	terraces lacustrine	4.30E+03	12 10Be		0	applicable	None	Petrography	0.03 -0.4
	2018	North America	California	0.3 -1.5	Paleomagnet 26Al/10Be	deposits		33	13 10Be	All		26Al/10Be	26Al/10Be	None (Unclear)	0.02 -0.05
					ostratigraphy,
	McPhillips et al.,		Quebrada velada,		biostratigraph		ODP 987: >
	2013	South America	Western Peru	0.016 -0.024	y IRSL	Marine ice Terraces	1E+5	315		7 10Be		0 None	None	Modern Not strictly	0.03 -0.1
			East Greenland, ODP Site		δ18O benthic	raft debris	ODP 918:				20 (only		Not		petrography for
	Bierman et al., 2016 Greenland	987, 918	0.001 -7.5 Ma	foraminifera	sand Fluviodeltaic	1.5E+5 ? ? (catchment	46 26Al + 10Be	ODP 918)		applicable	26Al/10Be	site ODP 918
			North and Central Fish Creek -Vallecito,		Paleomagnet	Cave and sediments,	not
	Cyr and Granger, Oskin et al., 2017	North America	Appenines, Adriatic side, California	1.1 -4	26Al/10Be + ostratigraphy	terrace river sections	represented)	43 10Be		0 None	None	None	0.02 -0.2
	2008	W. Europe	Italy	0.8 -0.9	interpretation	sediments Fluvial	Unclear			7 10Be	1/7		None	None	None	0.2 -0.3
			Coastal plain, Israel			Dunes and sediments	Yaha: ~0.8E+3							Heavy mineral
	Davis et al., 2012	Africa	potential source : Nile	0.5 -3	26Al/10Be	eolianites (river	3.40E+06 Jingu: ~2E+3		9 10Be	All		26Al/10Be	26Al/10Be	assemblages	0.01
						Strath sections)	Kuitun:
						terrace Lake	~2.8E+3						Not
	Fuller et al., 2009 Puchol et al., 2017;	North America Eel river, California Yaha, Kuitun and Jingu	0.006 -0.03	OSL Paleomagnet	sediments sediments	Ebi lake:	17		9 10Be		0	applicable	None	None	0.1 -0.3
	Charreau et al.,		sections, Ebi Lake core,		ostratigraphy	(lake drilled	~1.5E+4								Heavy mineral
	2011	Central Asia	Suguta Valley, North Tianshan	0.009 -0.012 0.1, 1.6 -8.5	26Al/10Be	fluviolacustrin cores)			75 10Be	31 26Al/10Be	26Al/10Be	assemblages	0.01 -2
	Garcin et al., 2017	Africa	Kenya rift	(BP)	14C	e sediments, Fluvial and		2100		3 10Be		0 None	None	None	0.02 -0.09
						lake	Catchment not
			Mammoth cave, Green Surai section, Siwaliks,		Paleomagnet	Cave sediments,	represented					Not
	Granger et al., 2001 North America Puchol, 2013 South Asia	river, Kentucky, US Central Nepal	0 -3.4 0.5 -6.5	26Al/10Be ostratigraphy	sediments river section ~5.5E+3 (small ?)		29 10Be 14 10Be	All 3/14		applicable 26Al/10Be	26Al/10Be 26Al/10Be	None None	1.6 -6.5 0.2 -1.3
			Marble mountain cave,
			Sangre de Cristo Range,	0.002 -0.005		Alluvial fan							Not
	Grischott et al., 2016 W. Europe	Fedoz valley, Swiss Alps Southern Rocky	(BP)	14C	delta, cores Cave		17	18 10Be		0	applicable Not	None	None	0.5 -1.4 0.005 -
	Refsnider, 2010	North America	Sebaz Valley, Lake mountains	1.1 -5	26Al/10Be	Lake sediment		0.25		3 10Be		0	applicable	None	None	0.05
			Stappiz, Hohe Tauern,			deposits,	Allier: 1.4E+4					Not
	Grischott et al., 2017 W. Europe	Austrian Alps Meuse, Netherlands	0 -> 0.015 (BP) 14C, pollens 0 -0.03 (Ma 14C, U-Th, Ar-	cores	34 Dore: 1.5E+3	28 10Be		0	applicable	None	Not strictly	0.3 -7
	Schaller et al., 2002 W. Europe	Allier and Dore, France	BP)	Ar	Terraces	Meuse:3.5E+4	14 10Be		0 None	None	None	0.03 -0.08

Table SII -

 SII Fisher, G.B., Burbank, D.W., Ciccioli, P.L., Alonso, R.N., Gorin, A.L., Silverhart, P.H., Kylander-Clark, A.R.C., Christoffersen, M.S., 2017. Mio-Pliocene aridity in the south-central Andes associated with Southern Hemisphere cold periods. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 114, 6474-6479. https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1700327114 Ma: A transient increase at the onset of Quaternary glaciations? Earth and Planetary Science Letters 304, 85-92. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2011.01.018 CSF-A : core depth below sea-floor LCO: last common occurrence, LO: last occurrence, FO: first occurrence, FCO: first common occurrence GTS 2012: Gradstein et al., 2012 timescale

	5 (…/…) Reference Table SII-5 (…/…) Reference Table SII-5 (…/…) Reference	Region Region Region	Area Area Area	Period (Ma) Comments Dating Comments	Type	Catchment size (km2) Temporal trend of erosion rates Offshore Temporal trend of erosion rates Offshore	Sample Nb Full reference Method to determine erosion rates Full reference	26Al/10Be sample Nb	Method to deal with recent exposure	Method to detect recycling	Provenance study	rates (mm/yr)
				Paleomagnet			Granger, D.E., Schaller, M., 2014. Cosmogenic Nuclides and Erosion at the Watershed Scale.
	Schaller et al., 2004 W. Europe Schaller et al., 2016 W. Europe Scherler et al., 2015 Asia Stock et al., 2004, 2005 North America Val et al., 2016, reinterpreted in Amidon et al., 2017 S. America Pingel et al., 2019 S. America Anthony and Granger, 2007, reinterpreted by Granger and Schaller, 2014 North America Amidon et al., 2017 South America Meuse, Netherlands Vtlava, Czech republic; Allier, France; Esla, NW Spain; Guadalquivir, SW Spain Yamuna, Garhwal Himalaya, North India Sierra Nevada, Central California Rio Jachal, Andes, North Argentina NW Argentina, Central Andes Cumberland plateau, North 0.1 -1.7 0.08 -2 0.005 -0.05 (Ma BP) 0.03 -2.7 1.7 -8.8 2 -6 Apalaches, US Provenance, Recycling and ostratigraphy Pollen, thermolumine scence, 14C 26Al/10Be Terraces 26Al/10Be, 10Be depth profile Terraces 14C, OSL, IRSL, 10Be Terraces 26Al/10Be Cave sediment and interfluve surface Paleomagnet ostratigraphy Fluvial, river sections Tuff dating Fluvial, river sections recent/modern exposure not discussed increase Huaco & Toro Negro Section, Eastern Andes, North Argentina A few words about recent exposure but No discussion about recycling Amidon, W.H., Balco and Stone, 2005 North America Fisher Valley, Utah 1.00E+04 28 26Al + 10Be Allier: 1.4E+4 Esla: 1.6E+4 Vtlava: 2.8E+4 Guadalquivir: 5.7E+4 13 10Be depending basin: 6E+3 to 5E+4 7 10Be ? 19 10Be 1.00E+04 17 10Be 3000 14 10Be Elements 10, 369-373. https://doi.org/10.2113/gselements.10.5.369 12 26Al/10Be 26Al/10Be None 0 None None None 0 None None None All 26Al/10Be 26Al/10Be None 3/17 26Al/10Be 26Al/10Be Detrital zircon (2 samples) 0 None None Paleocurrents Anthony, D.M., Granger, D.E., 2007. A new chronology for the age of Appalachian erosional 0.02 -0.05 0.008 -0.06 0.6 -2.5 0.02 -0.5 0.03 -2.4 0.01 -0.1 -1 surfaces determined by cosmogenic nuclides in cave sediments. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 32, 874-887. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1446 No discussion about recent exposure a few words about recycling Balco, G., Stone, J.O.H., 2005. Measuring middle Pleistocene erosion rates with cosmic-ray-produced nuclides in buried alluvial sediment, Fisher Valley, southeastern Utah. Earth Surface Processes and Landforms 30, 1051-1067. https://doi.org/10.1002/esp.1262 Bekadour et al., 2014 South America Pisco valley, Central Peru Recycling discussed Bekaddour, T.Bierman et al., 2016 Greenland East Greenland, ODP Site 987, 918 Provenance discussed. Recycling not discussed. Paleoconcentrations only, except one erosion rate at 0.135 Ma of 0.02 mm/yr (in their Methods). Potential variation of the source (IRD) Increase + no impact on variability x Bierman, P.R., Shakun, J.D., Corbett, L.B., Zimmerman, S.R., Rood, D.H., 2016. A persistent and dynamic East Greenland Ice Sheet over the past 7.5 million years. Nature 540, 256-260. https://doi.org/10.1038/nature20147 Cyr and Granger, 2008 W. Europe North and Central Appenines, Adriatic side, Italy Uncertain age model Cyr, A.J., Granger, D.E., 2008. Dynamic equilibrium among erosion, river incision, and coastal uplift in the northern and central Apennines, Italy. Geology 36, 103. https://doi.org/10.1130/G24003A.1 Davis et al., 2012 Africa Coastal plain, Israel potential source : Nile No discussion about recent exposure Steady Davis, M., Matmon, A., Rood, D.H., Avnaim-Katav, S., 2012. Constant cosmogenic nuclide concentrations in sand supplied from the Nile River over the past 2.5 m.y. Geology 40, 359-362. https://doi.org/10.1130/G32574.1 Fuller et al., 2009 North America Eel river, California Fuller, T.K., Perg, L.A., Willenbring, J.K., Lepper, K., 2009. Field evidence for climate-driven changes in sediment supply leading to strath terrace formation. Geology 37, 467-470. https://doi.org/10.1130/G25487A.1 Garcin et al., 2017 Africa Suguta Valley, North Kenya rift Recent exposure discussed Garcin, Y., Schildgen, T.F., Torres Acosta, V., Melnick, D., Guillemoteau, J., Willenbring, J., Strecker, M.R., 2017. Short-lived increase in erosion during the African Humid Period: Evidence from the northern Kenya Rift. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 459, 58-69. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2016.11.017 Mammoth cave, Green river, steady or possible Granger, D.E., Fabel, D., Palmer, A.N., 2001. Pliocene-Pleistocene incision of the Green River, Kentucky, determined from radioactive decay of cosmogenic 26Al and 10Be in Mammoth Cave sediments. Geological Society of America Bulletin 113, 825-836. https://doi.org/10.1130/0016-Yaha, Kuitun and Jingu Provenance: potential change for the Yaha Discussion about 10Be exposure during transport for the Ebi lake Discussion about recente increase or steadiness + Puchol, N., Charreau, J., Blard, P.-H., Lavé, J., Dominguez, S., Pik, R., Saint-Carlier, D., ASTER Team, 2017. Limited impact of Quaternary glaciations on denudation rates in Central Asia. Geological Society of America Bulletin 129 (3-4), 479-499. https://doi.org/10.1130/B31475.1 Charreau, J., Blard, P.-H., Puchol, N., Avouac, J.-P., Lallier-Vergès, E., Bourlès, D., Braucher, R., Gallaud, A., Finkel, R., Jolivet, M., Chen, Y., Roy, P., 2011. Paleo-erosion rates in Central Asia Section Depth CSF-A (m) Zone Marker event GTS 2012 age (Ma) Reference Comment Magnetostratigraphy hole U1450A 36F CC 25 cm 175.9 middle Matuyama (C1r.3r) polarity zo 1.185 France-Lanord et al. Planktonic foraminifer datums hole U1450A 62F CC 299.33 PL6 FO Globorotalia tosaensis 3.35 Blum et al. 2018 Corrected age vs age in Blum et al. 2018 92F CC 441.69 PL5-PL4 LO Dentoglobigerina altispira 3.47 Blum et al. 2018 Corrected depth vs depth in Blum et al. 2018 98F 1W 15-20 cm 465.35 PL4-PL3 LCO Sphaeroidinellopsis seminulina 3.59 France-Lanord et al. hole U1450B 7R CC 660.45 M14 LO Globoquadrina dehiscens 5.92 France-Lanord et al. Calcareous nannofossil datums Hole U1450A 54F CC 261.13 NN19-NN18LO Discoaster brouweri 1.93 France-Lanord et al. 81F CC 385.34 NN18-NN17LO Discoaster pentaradiatus 2.39 France-Lanord et al. Hole U1450B 11R CC 700.5 CN9c/CN9b FO Nicklithus amplificus 6.91 France-Lanord et al. 19R CC 782.91 CN9b/CN9a FO Amaurolithus primus 7.42 France-Lanord et al. 21R CC 795.07 CN9a FCO Discoaster surculus 7.79 France-Lanord et al. Corrected FCO vs "LCO" in France-since 9 Core Lanord et al. 2016
	Granger et al., 2001	North America	Kentucky, US sections, Ebi Lake core,	Recycling not discussed exposure but No discussion	decrease increase of	7606(2001)113<0825:PPIOTG>2.0.CO;2
			Tianshan	about recycling		variability

, Schlunegger, F., Vogel, H., Delunel, R., Norton, K.P., Akçar, N., Kubik, P., 2014. Paleo erosion rates and climate shifts recorded by Quaternary cut-and-fill sequences in the Pisco valley, central Peru. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 390, 103-115. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2013.12.048

Table SV - 2 .

 SV2 Published age datums considered for the age model of the site U1450. Published datums(France-Lanord et al. 2016b;[START_REF] Blum | Allogenic and Autogenic Signals in the Stratigraphic Record of the Deep-Sea Bengal Fan[END_REF]) that are outdated by the new datums of this study are not included.

	Table SV-3. List of observed samples.
	e l p m a S Hole	Core	Bottom of core depth CSF-A (m)	Lithology	c age (Ma) h t p e D Median	r e Median -t n e 2 sigma age (Ma)	Median -1 sigma age (Ma)	Median + 1 sigma age (Ma)	Median + 2 sigma age	Median accumulati on rate (cm/kyr)	Median -2 sigma acc. rate (Ma)	Median -1 sigma acc. rate (Ma)	Median + 1 sigma acc. rate (Ma)	Median + 2 sigma acc. Rate	Reference
				hemipelagic
	A1 H	8 . 5	clay	0 . 2 5 4	0 . 2 5 1	0 . 2 5 2	0 . 2 5 6	0 . 2 5 7-----R e illy 2018
	A	2H	11.7 clay	0 . 2 5 7	0 . 2 5 3	0 . 2 5 5	0 . 2 5 8	0 . 2 6 0-----R e illy 2018
	A	3H	20.2 sand	0 . 2 6 9	0 . 2 6 1	0 . 2 6 4	0 . 2 7 4	0 . 2 8 0-----R e illy 2018
	A	4F	24.9 sand	0 . 2 9 6	0 . 2 9 1	0 . 2 9 3	0 . 3 0 0	0 . 3 0 3-----R e illy 2018
	A	5F	29.6 sand	0 . 2 9 9	0 . 2 9 3	0 . 2 9 5	0 . 3 0 2	0 . 3 0 6-----R e illy 2018
	A	6F	34.3 sand	0 . 2 9 9	0 . 2 9 4	0 . 2 9 6	0 . 3 0 3	0 . 3 0 7-----R e illy 2018
	A	7F	39.0 sand	0 . 3 0 1	0 . 2 9 4	0 . 2 9 7	0 . 3 0 5	0 . 3 0 8-----R e illy 2018
	A	8F	43.7 sand	0 . 3 0 5	0 . 2 9 8	0 . 3 0 1	0 . 3 1 0	0 . 3 1 4-----R e illy 2018
	A	91	48.5 sand	0 . 3 0 6	0 . 2 9 9	0 . 3 0 2	0 . 3 1 1	0 . 3 1 5-----R e illy 2018
	A	10F	53.2 sand	0 . 3 1 0	0 . 3 0 2	0 . 3 0 6	0 . 3 1 6	0 . 3 2 1-----R e illy 2018
	A	11F	57.9 sand	0 . 3 1 2	0 . 3 0 3	0 . 3 0 7	0 . 3 1 8	0 . 3 2 3-----R e illy 2018
	A	12F	62.6 sand	0 . 3 2 2	0 . 3 1 1	0 . 3 1 6	0 . 3 2 8	0 . 3 3 5-----R e illy 2018
	A	131	67.4 sand	0 . 3 2 4	0 . 3 1 4	0 . 3 1 8	0 . 3 3 0	0 . 3 3 7-----R e illy 2018
	A	14F	72.1 sand	0 . 3 4 8	0 . 3 3 8	0 . 3 4 3	0 . 3 5 3	0 . 3 5 9-----R e illy 2018
				hemipelagic
	A	151	76.9	clay	0 . 3 7 8	0 . 3 6 7	0 . 3 7 3	0 . 3 8 3	0 . 3 8 8-----R e illy 2018
	A	16F	81.6 sand	0 . 3 8 4	0 . 3 7 3	0 . 3 7 9	0 . 3 8 9	0 . 3 9 4-----R e illy 2018
	A	17F	86.3 clay	0 . 3 8 8	0 . 3 7 7	0 . 3 8 3	0 . 3 9 3	0 . 3 9 7-----R e illy 2018
	A	18F	91.0 sand	0 . 3 9 3	0 . 3 8 1	0 . 3 8 7	0 . 3 9 8	0 . 4 0 2-----R e illy 2018
	A	191	95.8 sand	0 . 3 9 7	0 . 3 8 5	0 . 3 9 2	0 . 4 0 2	0 . 4 0 6-----R e illy 2018
	A	20F	99.8 clay	0 . 4 1 7	0 . 4 0 3	0 . 4 1 0	0 . 4 2 5	0 . 4 3 0-----R e illy 2018
	A	21F	104.5 sand	0 . 4 4 0	0 . 4 2 0	0 . 4 3 0	0 . 4 4 9	0 . 4 5 7-----R e illy 2018
	A	22H	106.5 sand	0 . 4 6 4	0 . 4 4 6	0 . 4 5 5	0 . 4 7 3	0 . 4 8 1-----R e illy 2018
	A	231	109.2 sand	0 . 4 7 8	0 . 4 5 8	0 . 4 6 9	0 . 4 8 5	0 . 4 9 2-----R e illy 2018
	A	24H	118.7 sand	0 . 4 8 6	0 . 4 6 8	0 . 4 7 8	0 . 4 9 3	0 . 5 0 0-----R e illy 2018
	A	25F	123.4 sand	0 . 5 7 1	0 . 5 5 5	0 . 5 6 4	0 . 5 7 6	0 . 5 8 1-----R e illy 2018
	A	261	128.2 silt	0 . 5 9 3	0 . 5 7 4	0 . 5 8 6	0 . 5 9 9	0 . 6 0 5-----R e illy 2018
	A	27F	132.9 silt	0 . 6 0 0	0 . 5 8 1	0 . 5 9 2	0 . 6 0 9	0 . 6 2 0-----R e illy 2018
	A	28F	137.6 silt	0 . 6 0 8	0 . 5 9 2	0 . 6 0 0	0 . 6 4 5	0 . 6 6 2-----R e illy 2018
	A	291	142.4 sand	0 . 6 7 1	0 . 6 1 4	0 . 6 3 0	0 . 6 8 0	0 . 6 8 8-----R e illy 2018
	A	30F	147.1 sand	0 . 6 9 4	0 . 6 2 4	0 . 6 4 3	0 . 7 0 4	0 . 7 1 2-----R e illy 2018
	A	311	151.9 sand	0 . 7 0 2	0 . 6 2 9	0 . 6 5 3	0 . 7 1 2	0 . 7 2 0-----R e illy 2018
	A	32F	156.6 sand	0 . 7 2 9	0 . 6 5 9	0 . 6 9 2	0 . 7 4 0	0 . 7 4 9-----R e illy 2018
	A	331	161.4 sand	0 . 7 3 8	0 . 6 6 8	0 . 7 0 1	0 . 7 5 0	0 . 7 6 0-----R e illy 2018
				hemipelagic
	A	34F	166.1	clay	0 . 8 3 3	0 . 8 1 7	0 . 8 2 5	0 . 8 4 1	0 . 8 4 9-----R e illy 2018
				hemipelagic
	A	351	170.9	clay	0 . 9 1 3	0 . 9 0 5	0 . 9 0 9	0 . 9 1 8	0 . 9 2 3-----R e illy 2018
				hemipelagic
	A	36F	175.6	clay	1 . 2 0 1	1 . 1 9 5	1 . 1 9 8	1 . 2 0 4	1 . 2 0 6-----R e illy 2018
				hemipelagic
	A	36F	175.9	clay	1.196	1.192	1.193	1.205	1.215	2.8	1.0	1.5	4.0	4.5 This study

Table SV - 4 .

 SV4 Predicted age model of the site U1450. The median ages and median accumulation rates are presented with their uncertainties. 0-175.9 m CSF-A is fromReilly, 2018. Lithology is from France-Lanord et al., 2016.

	Table SVI-1. (…/…) Table SVI-1. (…/…)
	Table SV-4 (…/…) Table SV-4 (…/…) Table SV-4 (…/…) Table SV-4 (…/…)
	Table SV-4 (…/…) A 371 180.4 A 38F 185.1 clay hemipelagic clay Hole Core Bottom of core depth CSF-A (m) Lithology A 771 370.4 sand A 78F 375.1 sand A 791 379.9 sand Hole Core Bottom of core depth CSF-A (m) Lithology A 1091 522.2 sand A 110F 523.0 sand A 110F 526.9 sand Hole Core of core depth CSF-A (m) Lithology A 137F 687.4 silt B 10R 695.4 limestone B 11R 700.5 clay # # Bottom	Median + 1 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 3.4 190.4 Median + 1 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 182.7 184.0 183.1 Median + 1 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 162.4 162.3 162.0 Median + 1 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 159.7 25.0 162.9 evaporatio n1 σ Median + 2 sigma acc. Rate 4.4 This study Reference 220.0 This study Median + 2 sigma acc. Rate Reference 211.0 This study 211.6 This study 211.0 This study Median + 2 sigma acc. Rate Reference 203.4 This study 203.1 This study 202.5 This study Rate 30.0 This study 196.4 This study Hit count 10 Be/ 9 Be evaporatio n1 σ Hit count 10 Be/ 9 Be 87Sr/86Sr 2σ144Nd/143Nd 196.5 This study after after Reference measured measured sigma acc. 9 Be 9 Be Median + 2 10 Be/ 10 Be/ Be data 1.1 41.4 Median -1 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 41.3 40.2 38.6 Median -1 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 15.6 16.4 15.8 Median -1 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 16.4 2.9 18.3 1 σ 1 σ Himalayan 0.9 13.9 Median -2 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 13.1 13.6 13.1 Median -2 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 6.3 6.7 6.5 Median -2 sigma acc. rate (Ma) 6.4 1.8 7.4 before 1.8 115.8 Median accumulati on rate (cm/kyr) 109.9 109.9 109.1 Median accumulati on rate (cm/kyr) 61.6 66.4 63.0 accumulati on rate (cm/kyr) 66.5 12.2 74.3 mass 1.677 1.684 Median + 2 sigma age 3.048 3.058 3.065 Median + 2 sigma age 4.505 4.507 4.520 Median + 2 sigma age 6.843 6.901 6.910 added dissolution mass added before dissolution paleoconc 1.609 1.615 Median + 1 sigma age (Ma) 2.834 2.842 2.849 Median + 1 sigma age (Ma) 4.262 4.265 4.277 Median + 1 sigma age (Ma) 6.736 6.843 6.858 Total mass 1 σ 1.330 1.338 Median -1 sigma age (Ma) 2.462 2.469 2.477 Median -1 sigma age (Ma) 3.858 3.861 3.874 Median -1 sigma age (Ma) 6.359 6.514 6.529 125-250 μm 1.299 1.304 Median -2 sigma age (Ma) 2.354 2.361 2.369 Median -2 sigma age (Ma) 3.748 3.751 3.763 Median -2 sigma age (Ma) 6.188 6.309 6.326 75-125 μm 1.449 1.456 Median age (Ma) 2.639 2.646 2.654 Median age (Ma) 4.038 4.040 4.053 Median age (Ma) 6.552 6.710 6.727 fraction fraction 75-125 μm fraction 125-250 μm fraction Total mass 1 σ concentratio n1 σ uncertainty entration 1 σ fraction f G 1σ Factor K(t) 1σ rate 1σ erosion rate 1 σ Relative erosion % 1 σ Carrier 9 Be added Carrier 9 Be added Be 10 Be Theoretical Himalayan Mass of decontaminated quartz 9 Be data Mass of decontaminated quartz 9 Be data Mix Median 10 10 Be data Test of the climatic forcing hypothesis f G	1 σ 1 σ Be measurements (blank corrected) 1 σ (blank corrected) 1 σ 2σε Nd 2σ 10 Be/ 9 Be 10 Be/ 9 Be 9
	A A A A A B B	391 40F 80F 1111 112F 11R 12R	189.9 clay 194.6 sand 384.6 sand hemipelagic 531.7 sand 536.4 sand 705.1 clay 714.8 clay		1.463 1.471 2.662 4.069 4.086 6.742 6.771 (g) (g) (atom/g)	1.310 1.316 2.377 3.775 3.790 6.341 6.371 (g) (g) (atom/g)	1.346 1.353 2.484 3.891 3.905 6.543 6.571 (g) (g)	1.622 1.629 2.856 4.295 4.309 6.873 6.900 (g) (g) (atom/g) 1.692 1.700 3.072 4.535 4.557 6.926 6.980 (mg) (mg) (atom/g) 114.5 113.1 109.1 62.3 62.5 66.8 71.7 (atom) (atom) (mm/y) 13.8 14.1 13.7 6.3 6.3 6.7 7.2 (mm/y) (mm/y)	40.2 41.1 40.5 15.9 16.0 16.5 17.6 (mm/y) (atom) (atom)	189.3 188.8 182.2 162.1 160.8 158.6 160.4 (atom) (atom)	220.1 This study 220.1 This study 210.9 This study 203.1 This study 201.1 This study 196.2 This study 196.2 This study (atom) (atom)
	A A B	411 81F 13R	199.4 sand 385.3 clay hemipelagic 724.5 clay		1.479 2.698 6.799	1.322 2.414 6.401	1.361 2.522 6.600	1.637 2.898 6.929	1.708 3.110 7.029	112.5 2.3 70.6	14.0 0.9 7.0	40.3 1.2 17.3	188.1 3.5 160.6	219.4 This study 4.0 This study 196.2 This study
	A A A A A A B B B Lower Meghna 42F 431 44F 81F 1131 114F 14R 15R 16R Bengal fan sands DSF: Drilling depth below sea-floor 204.1 clay 208.9 sand 213.6 sand 389.3 hemipelagic clay hemipelagic 541.2 clay 541.4 hemipelagic clay 734.2 silt 743.9 silt 753.6 silt Bedload		1.486 1.494 1.500 2.938 4.332 4.340 6.828 6.857 6.885	1.328 1.334 1.340 2.600 3.939 3.948 6.423 6.445 6.477	1.368 1.375 1.382 2.753 4.118 4.126 6.629 6.658 6.687	1.644 1.651 1.658 3.142 4.576 4.583 6.959 6.993 7.025	1.716 1.725 1.732 3.365 4.831 4.839 7.073 7.115 7.157	114.7 115.9 112.5 1.9 2.3 3.0 69.3 71.3 67.4	14.0 13.5 14.2 0.8 0.8 0.9 7.2 7.0 6.9	41.2 40.6 40.9 1.1 1.2 1.5 17.5 17.7 16.8	189.7 190.5 188.0 3.2 7.6 17.5 160.0 160.0 158.5	219.2 This study 218.5 This study 218.5 This study 3.9 This study 28.3 This study 29.7 This study 195.5 This study 194.4 This study 194.0 This study
	A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A A B B B B B B Exp. 353, 14°N 451 46F 471 48F 491 50F 82F 82F 82F 83F 84F 851 115F 1161 117F 117F 17R 18R 19R 20R 21R 22R 353-U1444A-6H-1W, 100-150 cm. 218.4 hemipelagic clay 223.1 sand 227.9 sand 232.6 sand 237.4 sand 242.1 sand hemipelagic 390.3 clay 392.2 hemipelagic clay 394.0 hemipelagic clay 398.7 sand 403.4 clay 408.2 sand 546.1 hemipelagic clay 550.9 hemipelagic clay 553.3 hemipelagic clay 555.6 hemipelagic clay 763.3 clay 773.0 clay 782.7 limestone 792.4 clay 802.1 clay 811.9 clay 353-U1444A-7H-5W, 100-150 cm. 353-U1444A-9H-5W, 75-130 cm. 353-U1444A-11H-6W, 87-150 cm. 353-U1444A-24F-3W, 0-56, 65-110 cm. Exp. 354, 8°N B G P 3 4 BR219 BR446 BR8230 BR529 BR724	1.816 1.824 1.831 1.837 1.844 1.852 2.990 3.094 3.191 3.199 3.207 3.215 4.578 4.820 4.927 5.027 6.913 6.943 7.166 7.198 7.231 7.262 2.53E+04 2.96E+03 1.527 1.655 1.533 1.662 1.542 1.669 1.548 1.677 1.556 1.684 1.562 1.691 2.654 2.805 2.752 2.909 2.842 3.009 2.852 3.017 2.858 3.025 2.865 3.032 4.151 4.352 4.424 4.586 4.559 4.694 4.659 4.794 6.508 6.717 6.536 6.745 6.710 6.950 6.740 6.979 6.770 7.010 6.800 7.038 -34.9 -36.7 -32.5 -38.3 -135.2 -----1.969 2.143 1.7 1.975 2.150 113.1 1.983 2.159 114.2 1.989 2.166 114.4 1.997 2.174 112.7 2.004 2.180 111.7 3.196 3.416 2.3 3.298 3.521 2.2 3.401 3.628 2.2 3.408 3.634 108.9 3.416 3.640 109.7 3.423 3.649 109.9 4.830 5.088 2.3 5.072 5.324 2.3 5.180 5.423 2.6 5.276 5.521 2.7 7.055 7.195 73.4 7.084 7.237 68.3 7.344 7.417 3.6 7.376 7.464 63.9 7.411 7.518 60.7 7.445 7.570 64.7 34.9 0.5 101.65 36.7 0.6 101.99 32.5 0.5 101.82 38.3 0.6 102.08 135.2 2.0 101.36 -30.0 30.0 0.5 102.02 0.12 2.77E+04 3.27E+03 0.11 0.20 1.1 0.1 1.1 -46.1 46.1 0.7 102.73 3.19E+04 3.26E+03 0.10 3.54E+04 3.67E+03 0.20 0.19 0.8 0.1 0.8 -33.8 33.8 0.5 102.25 2.86E+04 4.44E+03 0.16 3.26E+04 5.01E+03 0.14 0.20 0.9 0.2 0.9 -45.7 45.7 0.7 100.53 2.66E+04 3.24E+03 0.12 3.11E+04 3.84E+03 0.10 0.20 1.0 0.1 1.0 -48.3 48.3 0.7 98.46 4.37E+03 1.01E+03 0.23 2.89E+04 6.85E+03 0.65 0.29 0.9 0.3 0.9	0.9 13.6 13.5 13.8 14.2 14.3 0.9 0.9 0.9 13.5 13.8 13.6 0.8 0.8 0.8 0.8 7.1 7.1 1.7 6.4 6.4 6.4 1.372E+19 2.82E+17 1.096E+19 1.37E+18 1.1 3.1 4.2 This study 39.4 188.8 218.8 This study 39.9 187.6 218.0 This study 41.8 188.3 218.2 This study 40.5 187.0 217.7 This study 42.8 186.9 217.7 This study 1.2 3.5 4.0 This study 1.2 3.4 4.0 This study 1.2 3.4 3.9 This study 39.3 180.0 209.8 This study 40.6 181.1 209.6 This study 39.6 180.7 209.9 This study 1.2 7.7 28.2 This study 1.1 7.0 28.3 This study 1.3 13.7 28.9 This study 1.3 13.9 29.0 This study 17.6 160.3 194.3 This study 17.2 156.6 193.9 This study 2.5 22.1 29.1 This study 15.9 156.5 193.4 This study 15.6 153.6 192.8 This study 16.2 156.2 192.8 This study 1.376E+19 2.83E+17 1.114E+19 1.39E+18 1.374E+19 2.82E+17 8.913E+18 1.11E+18 1.377E+19 2.83E+17 1.135E+19 1.42E+18 1.368E+19 2.81E+17 1.265E+19 1.58E+18 --------6.951E-14 7.121E-15 6.424E-14 7.306E-15 9.038E-14 8.201E-15 8.512E-14 8.362E-15 7.301E-14 1.008E-14 6.775E-14 1.021E-14 7.923E-14 8.634E-15 7.397E-14 8.787E-15 4.835E-14 9.678E-15 4.308E-14 9.815E-15 -1.377E+19 2.83E+17 1.357E+19 1.70E+18 0.9 0.2 0.730860 0.000008 0.51188080 0.00001378 -14.8 0.3 0.1 258 7.747E-14 5.487E-15 7.221E-14 5.725E-15 1.386E+19 2.85E+17 1.136E+19 1.42E+18 0.7 0.1 0.733182 0.000011 0.51187341 0.00001381 -14.9 0.3 0.1 133 1.698E-13 1.487E-14 1.645E-13 1.496E-14 1.380E+19 2.83E+17 1.037E+19 1.30E+18 62 0.8 0.2 0.732093 0.000008 0.51188285 0.00001648 -14.7 0.3 0.2 9.74E-14 1.494E-14 9.214E-14 1.503E-14 1.357E+19 2.79E+17 1.185E+19 1.48E+18 115 0.8 0.2 0.731406 0.000196 0.51189629 0.00001320 -14.5 0.3 0.1 1.02E-13 9.593E-15 9.673E-14 9.731E-15 1.329E+19 2.73E+17 1.269E+19 1.59E+18 251 1.628E-13 1.205E-14 1.576E-13 1.216E-14 0.9 0.3 ------0.3
	A A A A A A A A A A A A 354-U1450A-3H-4W, 50-120 cm. 511 246.9 clay 52F 251.6 clay 531 256.4 clay 54F 256.7 clay 54F 261.1 clay 86F 412.9 sand 871 417.7 sand 88F 422.4 sand 891 427.2 sand 90F 431.9 sand 118F 560.3 sand 119F 561.3 sand A 120X 569.9 354-U1450A-8F-2W, 1-60 cm. hemipelagic clay 354-U1450A-14F-2W, 90-150 cm. A 121X 579.6 silt 354-U1450A-25F-1W, 50-100 cm.		2.143 2.150 2.157 2.157 2.165 3.222 3.230 3.238 3.245 3.254 5.044 5.047 1.97E+04 2.86E+03 1.921 2.001 1.929 2.008 1.937 2.016 1.937 2.016 1.943 2.023 2.872 3.039 2.880 3.046 2.886 3.054 2.893 3.061 2.899 3.069 4.675 4.808 4.679 4.811 -45.0 -0.34 0.26 -42.6 2.33E+04 2.57E+03 -0.10 0.24 5.493 5.108 5.293 -37.9 2.45E+04 1.95E+03 -0.06 0.23 5.527 5.141 5.330 -45.3 1.44E+04 2.13E+03 0.34 0.16	2.323 2.329 2.338 2.338 2.345 3.430 3.437 3.444 3.452 3.459 5.292 5.296 45.0 0.15 1.4 42.6 0.11 1.1 5.686 37.9 0.08 1.1 5.717 45.3 0.15 1.5	2.509 2.516 2.524 2.524 2.532 3.654 3.662 3.668 3.676 3.685 5.539 5.543 0.7 2.25E+04 0.2 0.6 2.71E+04 0.1 5.900 0.6 2.90E+04 0.1 5.927 0.7 1.84E+04 0.3	1.6 111.8 112.3 114.5 113.4 109.1 110.7 111.6 110.6 110.7 61.6 65.5 101.90 3.24E+03 1.4 103.15 3.06E+03 1.1 2.2 102.72 2.36E+03 1.1 59.7 102.55 2.78E+03 1.5	0.9 13.9 13.8 14.3 13.7 13.4 13.3 14.2 13.6 13.2 6.2 6.6 1.375E+19 2.82E+17 1.162E+19 1.45E+18 1.0 3.1 4.1 This study 41.0 186.8 217.0 This study 40.5 185.2 216.5 This study 43.5 187.3 217.0 This study 40.3 186.7 217.1 This study 40.0 180.9 209.5 This study 39.9 181.8 209.1 This study 40.3 181.0 209.0 This study 39.9 180.2 208.8 This study 39.5 180.7 208.8 This study 15.5 160.9 201.9 This study 16.6 162.0 1.2 0.3 0.722046 0.000007 0.51196081 6.987E-14 9.086E-15 6.461E-14 9.232E-15 0.00001341 -13.2 0.3 0.2 201.4 This study 1.392E+19 2.86E+17 1.238E+19 1.55E+18 7.656E-14 7.538E-15 7.129E-14 7.713E-15 1.0 0.2 0.727607 0.000010 0.51192570 0.00001085 -13.9 0.2 0.1 0.9 1.2 3.6 1.386E+19 2.85E+17 1.202E+19 1.50E+18 7.227E-14 4.814E-15 6.701E-14 5.083E-15 0.9 0.2 0.727955 0.000017 0.51191881 0.00001770 -14.0 0.3 0.1 25.9 This study 6.2 15.2 160.1 200.8 This study 1.384E+19 2.84E+17 9.685E+18 1.21E+18 5.236E-14 6.739E-15 4.710E-14 6.934E-15 1.4 0.3 0.736566 0.000012 0.51184443 0.00001065 -15.5 0.2 0.3
	A A 354-U1450A-32F-3W, 24-84 cm. 551 265.9 silt hemipelagic 122X 589.4 clay		2.172 5.561 1.62E+04 3.09E+03 1.949 2.030 5.180 5.366 -22.5 0.44 0.15	2.352 5.749 22.5 0.19 1.2	2.538 5.955 0.3 2.31E+04 0.3	114.8 60.3 102.43 4.51E+03 1.2	13.9 6.2 1.382E+19 2.84E+17 1.139E+19 1.42E+18 41.6 186.9 216.4 This study 15.4 159.4 200.4 This study 1.1 0.3 0.741857 0.000013 0.51185613 3.153E-14 4.716E-15 2.627E-14 4.991E-15 0.00001584 -15.3 0.3 0.3
	A A A 354-U1450A-40F-2W, 0-30 cm. 56F 270.6 silt 911 436.7 clay 123X 599.0 sand		2.179 3.551 5.594 1.14E+04 1.25E+03 1.956 2.038 3.225 3.380 5.211 5.405 -31.8 0.56 0.13	2.359 3.772 5.778 31.8 0.11 1.1	2.550 4.011 5.984 0.5 2.44E+04 0.2	111.5 1.7 60.4 102.49 3.17E+03 1.1	13.9 0.8 6.3 1.383E+19 2.84E+17 1.312E+19 1.64E+18 40.2 185.7 216.6 This study 1.0 3.0 3.8 This study 15.7 158.5 199.6 This study 1.1 0.2 0.744630 0.000019 0.51181702 3.152E-14 2.209E-15 2.626E-14 2.747E-15 0.00001156 -16.0 0.2 0.2
	A A A A A A A A A 354-U1450A-44F-3W, 40-100 cm. 571 275.4 silt 58F 280.1 silt 591 284.9 clay 60F 289.6 clay 611 294.4 clay 92F 436.8 hemipelagic clay 92F 438.0 hemipelagic clay hemipelagic 124F 603.7 sand 1251 608.5 silt A 126F 613.2 silt 354-U1450A-50F-2W, 86-116 cm. A 1271 618.0 354-U1450A-83F-3W, 113-147 cm. hemipelagic clay 354-U1450A-90F-3W, 106-136 cm.		2.186 2.194 2.201 2.208 2.216 3.559 3.619 5.610 5.626 0.59 5.641 6.11 -----1.962 2.045 2.368 2.556 114.8 1.970 2.052 2.374 2.564 112.8 1.978 2.059 2.382 2.569 111.5 1.983 2.067 2.390 2.577 112.4 1.991 2.074 2.397 2.585 111.6 3.232 3.387 3.778 4.019 2.4 3.293 3.446 3.841 4.083 2.3 5.227 5.420 5.794 5.998 61.3 5.245 5.438 5.809 6.018 64.3 -----0.13 --5.262 5.456 5.822 6.030 64.9 25.0 31.1 0.5 101.68 9.01E+03 2.69E+03 0.30 2.30E+04 6.98E+03 -0.17 0.24 1.5 0.9 1.5 -40.18 50.4 90.6 1.4 102.44 1.01E+04 2.38E+03 0.24 5.24E+04 1.31E+04 -0.07 0.24 0.6 0.3 0.6 5.841 5.684 5.747 5.989 6.194 2.5 -70.5 70.5 1.1 99.87 1.24E+04 2.29E+03 0.18 6.56E+04 1.38E+04 0.20 0.18 0.5 0.1 0.5	13.9 13.6 13.7 13.6 13.8 0.9 0.8 6.2 6.3 --------40.5 185.8 215.9 This study 42.2 186.6 215.8 This study 40.9 186.3 215.3 This study 40.8 186.7 215.6 This study 40.0 185.0 214.8 This study 1.3 3.4 3.9 This study 1.2 3.4 3.9 This study 15.3 157.5 199.3 This study 16.0 159.9 --0.749003 0.000010 0.51185731 0.00002264 -15.2 0.4 -199.1 This study 6.2 15.9 160.2 1.372E+19 2.82E+17 1.132E+19 1.41E+18 2.568E-14 5.813E-15 2.042E-14 6.038E-15 -1.2 0.4 0.726254 0.000016 0.51194153 0.00002268 -13.6 0.4 0.9 199.7 This study 1.382E+19 2.84E+17 1.234E+19 1.54E+18 7.149E-14 1.53E-14 6.623E-14 1.539E-14 0.5 0.2 0.728461 0.000014 0.51192582 0.00001708 -13.9 0.3 0.3 0.8 1.2 11.0 28.4 This study 1.348E+19 2.77E+17 1.149E+19 1.44E+18 7.002E-14 1.187E-14 6.476E-14 1.198E-14 0.4 0.1 0.735363 0.000012 0.51189125 0.00001115 -14.6 0.2 0.1
	A A A 354-U1450A-100F-3W, 28-88 cm. 62F 299.1 clay 92F 441.4 clay 128F 619.8 sand		2.223 3.822 5.847 42.88 2.12E+03 5.93E+02 1.998 2.082 3.560 3.645 5.690 5.753 76.7 0.39 0.15	2.406 4.044 5.995 119.5 0.28 2.0	2.593 4.290 6.201 1.8 1.56E+04 1.0	113.0 1.9 60.8 102.18 4.61E+03 2.0	13.4 0.8 6.4 1.379E+19 2.83E+17 1.295E+19 1.62E+18 39.9 185.8 214.9 This study 1.1 3.2 3.9 This study 16.1 158.3 198.4 This study 1.8 0.6 0.740776 0.000024 0.51186754 2.372E-14 4.814E-15 1.846E-14 5.083E-15 0.00002277 -15.0 0.4 1.0
	A A A A 354-U1450A-110F-1W, 79-84 cm. 631 303.9 silt 64F 308.6 silt 931 446.2 silt 129X 628.2 sand A 651 313.4 sand A 66F 318.1 sand A 671 322.9 sand A 94F 450.9 silt A 951 455.7 clay A 96F 460.4 clay A 971 465.2 sand A 129X 628.2 sand A 130F 632.9 sand 354-U1450A-124F-3W, 20-80 cm. A 1311 637.7 clay 354-U1450A-130F-3W, 0-51 cm. A 132X 647.4 clay 354-U1451A-9H-2W, 120-145 cm.		2.231 2.239 3.829 5.873 6.30E+03 1.60E+03 2.005 2.090 2.012 2.097 3.569 3.652 5.746 5.780 -156.5 0.35 0.16 2.245 2.019 2.105 2.253 2.025 2.112 2.260 2.032 2.119 3.837 3.576 3.660 3.844 3.584 3.667 3.851 3.591 3.675 3.858 3.597 3.683 5.873 5.746 5.780 5.888 5.755 5.796 30.06 132.8 2.10E+03 7.17E+02 0.78 0.10 5.904 5.766 5.812 -----2.413 2.602 112.8 2.420 2.608 112.5 4.052 4.299 108.7 6.023 6.221 60.7 156.5 2.3 101.08 0.25 5.02E+04 1.40E+04 0.6 0.4 0.6 2.428 2.614 111.0 2.435 2.623 112.4 2.442 2.633 111.6 4.060 4.308 109.9 4.067 4.314 109.6 4.074 4.322 109.6 4.081 4.327 110.4 6.023 6.221 67.1 6.039 6.236 67.4 162.9 2.4 102.39 0.34 3.63E+04 1.28E+04 0.8 0.8 0.8 6.055 6.250 67.6 -----0.77 0.10 ---5.931 5.782 5.840 6.082 6.280 74.5 -66.6 66.6 1.0 102.44 2.65E+04 5.32E+03 0.20 3.12E+04 6.16E+03 0.14 0.20 1.0 0.2 1.0	13.5 14.5 13.2 6.2 1.364E+19 2.80E+17 1.358E+19 1.70E+18 40.8 183.9 214.5 This study 42.7 185.2 38.1 178.9 208.0 This study 15.8 158.5 198.6 This study 0.6 0.2 0.737901 0.000019 0.51185873 7.746E-14 1.828E-14 7.220E-14 1.835E-14 0.00000592 -15.2 0.1 0.4 214.1 This study 13.0 39.3 182.8 213.7 This study 13.8 41.0 183.7 213.9 This study 14.2 41.2 184.3 213.3 This study 12.9 39.5 180.0 208.2 This study 13.2 39.2 179.5 207.4 This study 13.2 40.3 179.0 207.3 This study 13.5 39.4 179.7 207.2 This study 7.0 16.7 161.3 198.8 This study 6.7 16.9 162.7 1.382E+19 2.84E+17 1.31E+19 1.64E+18 2.984E-14 8.238E-15 2.457E-14 8.399E-15 0.8 0.3 0.755746 0.000014 0.51181134 0.00001549 -16.1 0.3 0.8 198.7 This study 6.9 16.8 161.2 -----------0.754803 0.000020 0.51179634 0.00002017 -16.4 0.4 -198.6 This study 8.0 18.4 164.4 198.0 This study 1.382E+19 2.84E+17 1.249E+19 1.56E+18 1.332E-13 2.54E-14 1.280E-13 2.546E-14 0.9 0.2 0.733096 0.000008 0.51189807 0.00002534 -14.4 0.5 0.2
	A A 354-U1451A-12F-3W, 90-121 cm. 68F 327.6 sand 98F 469.9 sand hemipelagic		2.267 3.866 2.15E+04 3.81E+03 2.040 2.127 3.605 3.690 -65.1 0.64 0.12	2.448 4.089 65.1 0.18 0.9	2.640 4.334 1.0 3.00E+04 0.2	112.7 111.1 102.01 5.40E+03 0.9	14.2 13.7 1.376E+19 2.83E+17 1.204E+19 1.51E+18 40.0 184.8 213.2 This study 41.5 179.4 207.5 This study 0.9 0.2 0.748522 0.000008 0.51181096 1.078E-13 1.778E-14 1.025E-13 1.785E-14 0.00001410 -16.1 0.3 0.2
	A A A 354-U1451A-22H-5W, 92-126 cm. 691 332.4 sand 991 474.7 sand 133X 657.2 clay		2.275 3.874 6.110 3.49E+03 1.26E+03 2.047 2.134 3.612 3.698 5.883 5.952 -60.7 0.36 0.16	2.457 4.097 6.297 60.7 0.36 2.9	2.648 4.339 6.488 0.9 1.17E+04 1.8	111.2 110.6 11.0 100.90 4.20E+03 2.9	13.1 13.5 2.0 1.362E+19 2.80E+17 1.169E+19 1.46E+18 39.6 183.2 212.7 This study 40.7 179.7 206.8 This study 3.0 24.7 30.2 This study 2.3 0.7 0.738964 0.000014 0.51186660 2.073E-14 5.358E-15 1.547E-14 5.601E-15 0.00002273 -15.0 0.4 1.8
	A A A A A A A A A A 354-U1451A-31F-2W, 44-116 cm. 70F 337.1 sand 711 341.9 sand 72F 346.6 sand 731 351.4 hemipelagic clay 100F 479.4 sand 1011 484.2 sand 102F 488.9 sand 1031 493.7 sand 104F 498.4 sand 134X 658.4 hemipelagic clay A 134X 660.5 354-U1451A-39F-3W, 81-111 cm. hemipelagic clay 354-U1454B-4H-4W, 0-60 cm. hemipelagic 354-U1454B-6F-3W, 5-65 cm.		2.283 2.290 2.298 2.609 3.889 3.906 3.922 3.938 3.954 1.40E+03 4.24E+02 2.052 2.142 2.060 2.149 2.067 2.157 2.322 2.433 3.624 3.713 3.638 3.730 3.650 3.746 3.664 3.763 3.680 3.778 -358.4 0.75 0.11 6.154 5.940 5.997 -----2.464 2.655 110.6 2.471 2.664 111.0 2.479 2.670 112.7 2.803 3.016 1.7 4.113 4.356 62.4 4.130 4.371 60.9 4.146 4.388 63.9 4.162 4.410 62.8 4.179 4.424 63.0 358.4 5.4 100.97 0.30 3.32E+04 1.02E+04 0.8 0.6 0.8 6.341 6.534 3.0 -----0.30 0.17 ---6.223 5.978 6.064 6.414 6.600 3.2 -41.6 41.6 0.6 101.95 3.37E+04 2.73E+03 0.08 3.49E+04 2.92E+03 -0.33 0.26 0.9 0.1 0.9 -41.5 41.5 0.6 102.35 3.04E+04 2.20E+03 0.07 3.23E+04 2.43E+03 -0.42 0.25 1.0 0.1 1.0	13.8 13.4 13.5 0.9 6.3 6.3 6.4 6.3 6.3 1.362E+19 2.80E+17 1.492E+19 1.86E+18 42.0 182.5 212.8 This study 40.0 181.9 212.8 This study 40.5 183.3 212.7 This study 1.0 3.1 3.9 This study 15.7 165.1 205.4 This study 15.7 163.7 203.8 This study 16.0 165.9 204.9 This study 15.4 164.4 203.8 This study 15.9 163.5 204.2 This study 0.9 0.3 0.754530 0.000008 0.51181482 4.212E-14 1.096E-14 3.686E-14 1.108E-14 0.00001707 -16.1 0.6 0.3 0.9 1.6 17.6 29.1 This study -----------0.738004 0.000010 0.51187960 0.00001376 -14.8 0.3 -1.0 1.7 19.8 1.376E+19 2.83E+17 1.064E+19 1.33E+18 1.071E-13 7.627E-15 1.018E-13 7.800E-15 0.7 0.1 0.722882 0.000010 0.51196610 0.00002343 -13.1 0.5 0.1 29.5 This study 1.381E+19 2.84E+17 1.001E+19 1.25E+18 9.655E-14 5.995E-15 9.129E-14 6.213E-15 0.8 0.1 0.721672 0.000014 0.51198965 0.00001289 -12.6 0.3 0.1
	A A A 354-U1454B-25F-2W, 54-114 cm. 74F 351.9 sand 1051 503.2 silt 134X 667.0 clay		2.610 3.971 6.367 2.98E+04 1.87E+03 2.323 2.433 3.691 3.794 6.052 6.186 -42.0 -0.16 0.24	2.804 4.196 6.556 42.0 0.06 0.9	3.017 4.443 6.724 0.6 3.48E+04 0.1	112.6 61.6 8.9 102.44 2.22E+03 0.9	13.8 6.4 1.6 1.382E+19 2.84E+17 1.114E+19 1.39E+18 43.0 183.3 211.5 This study 15.7 164.0 203.2 This study 2.6 24.3 30.0 This study 0.7 0.1 0.727170 0.000018 0.51194582 9.584E-14 4.903E-15 9.058E-14 5.168E-15 0.00001797 -13.5 0.4 0.1
	A A 354-U1454B-32F-2W, 80-130 cm. 74F 356.1 sand 106F 507.9 silt hemipelagic		2.616 3.987 1.18E+04 2.10E+03 2.328 2.440 3.705 3.809 -52.6 0.30 0.34	2.810 4.211 52.6 0.18 1.0	3.024 4.460 0.8 2.98E+04 0.3	111.5 62.8 101.73 6.47E+03 1.0	14.0 6.4 1.373E+19 2.82E+17 1.143E+19 1.43E+18 40.3 182.8 212.3 This study 15.8 163.6 203.4 This study 0.9 0.2 --0.3	5.052E-14 7.821E-15 4.526E-14 7.990E-15 ----
	A A A	751 1071 135X	360.9 silt 512.7 sand 676.7 clay		2.624 4.004 6.521	2.336 3.721 6.158	2.448 3.825 6.328	2.817 4.228 6.704	3.033 4.473 6.821	111.5 59.9 14.0	13.2 6.3 2.1	39.7 15.7 3.2	183.1 164.0 25.6	211.7 This study 204.0 This study 30.2 This study
	A A A	76F 108F 136X	365.6 silt 517.4 sand 686.3 silt		2.631 4.022 6.548	2.345 3.735 6.185	2.455 3.842 6.355	2.825 4.245 6.733	3.041 4.489 6.839	108.8 58.7 75.6	13.4 6.2 7.8	39.3 15.5 18.9	182.2 161.6 163.2	211.5 This study 202.7 This study 197.2 This study

Table SVI -2. 10 Be duplicate results.

 SVI Six duplicates of various granulometric fractions (col. E-F) for the Bengal Fan samples and one for the Lower Meghna were measured for10 Be. The results are presented in a similar way than for TableS1. The col. W presents the relative difference with the results of the same samples presented TableSVI-1.

	Table SVI-2. (…/…)
												Difference
	Site	#	Hit count	Mass of decontaminated quartz 10 Be/ 9 Be 10 Be/ 9 Be 1 σ (blank corrected) 1 σ		10 Be concentrati on	1 σ	9 Be measured with 125-9 Be data 250 μm fraction
								Carrier	9 Be added (atom/g) (atom/g)	after
	Site RESULTS	#	75-125 μm fraction	fraction 125-250 μm	Total mass 1 σ	added mass		dissolution 1 σ before	n evaporatio	1 σ
	Bengal fan sand		(g)		(g)	(g)	(g)	(mg)		(atom)		(atom)	(atom)	(atom)
	RESULTS
	Exp. 353, 14°N
	Bengal fan sand U1444	353-U1444A-6H-1W, 100-150 cm.	48		8.61E-14	1.25E-14 8.089E-14 1.259E-14	2.07E+04	3.28E+03	0.18
	U1444	353-U1444A-7H-5W, 100-150 cm.	50		5.98E-14	9.10E-15 5.454E-14 9.247E-15	2.23E+04	3.83E+03	0.30
	Exp. 353, 14°N		-
	U1444	353-U1444A-6H-1W, 100-150 cm.	20.7	33.0	53.7	0.8	101.83	1.374E+19	3.50E+17	1.24E+19	1.55E+18
	U1444	353-U1444A-7H-5W, 100-150 cm.	33.7	-	33.7	0.5	102.02	1.377E+19	3.50E+17	1.17E+19	1.47E+18
				-----		----
				-----		----
				-----		----
	Exp. 354, 8°N
	U1450	354-U1450A-3H-4W, 50-120 cm.	40.0	-	40.0	0.6	102.05	1.377E+19	3.50E+17	1.13E+19	1.42E+18
	U1450	354-U1450A-8F-2W, 1-60 cm.	34.0	30.8	64.7	1.0	102.06	1.377E+19	3.50E+17	1.15E+19	1.44E+18
	U1450	354-U1450A-14F-2W, 90-150 cm.		-----		----
	U1450	354-U1450A-25F-1W, 50-100 cm.	17.9	16.4	34.3	0.5	102.30	1.380E+19	3.51E+17	1.05E+19	1.31E+18
	Lower Meghna
	Bedload
	Padma, Mawa	BR529	21.4	-	21.4	0.3	101.49	1.369E+19	3.48E+17	1.30E+19	1.63E+18

Average difference 0.17 10 Be/ 9 Be measurements Table SVI-3. 10 Be blanks.

  Five analytical blanks were prepared synchronously with the samples of Tables SVI-1-SVI-2.

		Carrier	9 Be added		9 Be measured
		mass	before		after
	#	added	dissolution	1 σ	evaporation 1 σ		Hit count 10 Be/ 9 Be	1 σ
		(mg)		(atom)	(atom)	(atom)	(atom)
					0.015		0.125
	PHE30	101.85	1.374E+19	3.50E+17	1.27E+19	1.58E+18	7	4.62E-15	1.78E-15	6.35E+04
	PHE31	101.85	1.374E+19	3.50E+17	1.32E+19	1.65E+18	33	6.29E-15	1.44E-15	8.64E+04
	PHE40	101.90	1.375E+19	3.50E+17	1.12E+19	1.40E+18	16	4.56E-15	1.14E-15	6.27E+04
	PHE41	102.23	1.379E+19	3.51E+17	1.22E+19	1.53E+18	10	6.39E-15	2.69E-15	8.82E+04
	PHE42	102.24	1.380E+19	3.51E+17	1.13E+19	1.42E+18	18	4.45E-15	1.11E-15	6.14E+04
	Average blank									5.26E-15	1.63E-15	-7.24E+04
	Exp. 354, 8°N
	U1450	354-U1450A-3H-4W, 50-120 cm.	26	6.72E-14	1.35E-14 6.190E-14 1.358E-14	2.13E+04	4.71E+03	0.08
	U1450	354-U1450A-8F-2W, 1-60 cm.	52	1.24E-13	1.88E-14 1.188E-13 1.884E-14	2.53E+04	4.08E+03	0.09
	U1450	354-U1450A-14F-2W, 90-150 cm.	--------
	U1450	354-U1450A-25F-1W, 50-100 cm.	11	3.27E-14	9.88E-15 2.749E-14 1.002E-14	1.11E+04	4.05E+03	0.23
	Lower Meghna
	Bedload
	Padma, Mawa	BR529			199	5.62E-14	4.04E-15 5.090E-14 4.358E-15	3.25E+04	2.95E+03	0.14

Table SVI -4. Major and trace element results.

 SVI

	Table SVI-4 (…/…)
	Site	Hole Core #	No CRPG	As	Ba	Be	Bi	Cd	Ce	Co	Cr	Cs	Cu	Dy	Er	Eu
				(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(ppm)
			Uncertaintie
			s (%)
			(depending
	Bengal fan sands	on content)	<20%	<5%	<20%	<20%	<20%	<5%	<20%	<5%	<15%	<20%	<10%	<5%	<5%
	< D.L. : below detection limit	Detection limit	0.50	5.5	0.05	0.045	0.02	0.03	0.08	0.50	0.02	2.0	0.004	0.002	0.002
	Exp. 353, 14°N
	U1444	A 6H 1444-006H	1512025	3.882	371.700	2.288	0.255	0.194	71.940	8.778	56.140	5.062	15.360	4.642	2.583	1.093
	U1444	A 7H 1444-007H	1512026	2.495	370.300	2.517	0.303	0.205	82.810	8.668	52.920	5.070	10.060	5.202	2.889	1.153
	U1444	A 9H 1444-009H	1512027	2.111	364.700	2.555	0.327	0.206	72.750	7.275	44.680	4.890	9.930	4.673	2.615	1.049
	U1444	A 11H 1444-011H	1512028	2.456	333.700	2.408	0.267	0.309	125.300	8.256	56.810	4.532	9.657	7.135	4.049	1.429
	U1444	B 24F 1444-024F	1806024	1.693	306.082	3.133	0.252	0.144	132.351	7.690	54.443	5.379	9.602	8.064	4.542	1.490
	Exp. 354, 8°N
	U1450	A 3H 1450-003H	1512029	2.209	409.000	2.285	0.302	0.225	67.950	9.861	52.980	5.232	11.870	4.306	2.366	1.095
	U1450	A 8F 1450-008F	1512030	2.976	386.300	2.338	0.285	0.182	72.990	8.662	52.520	5.531	10.530	4.641	2.601	1.112
	U1450	A 14F 1450-014F	1512031	3.355	409.600	2.618	0.434	0.142	69.130	10.170	61.740	6.986	17.580	4.680	2.624	1.113
	U1450	A 25F 1450-025F	1512032	1.882	370.300	2.066	0.236	0.191	68.110	8.737	53.210	5.299	10.880	4.438	2.437	1.074
	U1450	A 32F 1450-032F	1512033	6.681	478.500	2.364	0.420	0.185	74.600	14.570	77.130	7.493	39.680	5.178	2.896	1.199
	U1450	A 40F 1450-040F	1512034	4.269	427.100	2.397	0.388	< D.L.	63.810	10.840	59.590	7.512	18.670	4.126	2.245	1.018
	U1450	A 44F 1450-044F	1512035	8.610	538.400	3.364	1.062	0.123	74.920	16.560	95.930	12.190	43.060	5.161	2.890	1.279
	U1450	A 50F 1450-050F	1512036	7.380	489.900	2.894	0.625	< D.L.	63.500	12.950	65.810	8.789	26.630	4.390	2.415	1.087
	U1450	A 83F 1450-083F	1512037	2.813	430.700	2.730	0.348	0.155	63.770	9.712	46.630	7.947	13.150	4.220	2.331	1.048
	U1450	A 90F 1450-090F	1512038	< D.L.	400.200	2.332	0.260	< D.L.	50.450	7.294	37.320	6.299	8.775	3.400	1.872	0.884
	U1450	A 100F 1450-100F	1512039	3.348	402.600	2.509	0.246	0.128	58.360	10.970	48.130	8.245	12.450	4.093	2.222	0.991
	U1450	A 110F 1450-110F		2.509	436.697	2.699	0.295	0.101	83.351	36.058	54.815	7.522	12.695	5.308	2.907	1.226
	U1450	A 124F 1450-124F	1512040	2.378	345.100	2.136	0.258	0.288	108.500	6.447	39.630	5.044	8.662	6.598	3.638	1.384
	U1450	A 130F 1450-130F	1512041	2.648	387.700	2.831	0.318	0.153	67.790	9.081	42.960	8.497	12.210	4.328	2.353	0.990
	U1451	A 9H 1451-009H	1512042	1.819	370.900	2.373	0.255	0.109	56.300	7.664	43.170	5.307	11.970	3.808	2.097	0.959
	U1451	A 12F 1451-012F	1512043	2.062	354.800	2.454	0.241	0.124	65.150	8.543	44.680	6.280	9.477	4.423	2.357	1.028
	U1451	A 22H 1451-022H	1512044	2.415	387.000	2.550	0.305		69.650	9.579	54.730	6.778	13.330	4.716	2.600	1.113
	U1451	A 31F 1451-031F	1512045	2.999	325.800	2.092	0.244	0.171	69.180	7.418	43.530	6.032	9.559	4.303	2.303	1.035
	U1451	A 39F 1451-039F	1512046	2.195	331.400	2.049	0.215	0.116	54.770	8.402	47.410	5.244	10.610	3.545	1.928	0.941
	U1454	B 4H 1454-004H	1512047	2.723	361.600	2.555	0.296	0.256	85.630	8.383	60.510	4.772	10.850	5.198	2.825	1.222
	U1454	B 6F 1454-006F	1512048	2.780	303.100	2.216	0.331	0.492	180.000	9.815	113.000	3.798	13.380	9.852	5.562	1.808
	U1454	B 25F 1454-025F	1512049	3.250	321.900	2.153	0.375	0.315	132.500	8.264	66.140	4.294	18.740	7.953	4.486	1.441
	U1454	B 32F 1454-032F	1806025	11.517	497.425	2.858	0.564	0.125	75.222	13.520	63.828	7.940	29.121	5.176	2.871	1.181

Table SVI -

 SVI .478 2.745 0.039 0.912 3.668 2.074 2.362 0.336 < L.D. 3.990 99.184 181.300 71.860 10.283 3.417 0.051 1.734 3.113 1.396 2.587 0.413 < L.D. 4.480 99.334 121.200 76.780 9.036 2.968 0.076 1.125 2.308 1.312 1.889 0.295 < L.D. 3.110 98.899 108.300 75.650 8.721 2.647 0.049 1.758 2.858 1.100 2.017 0.292 < L.D. 4.230 99.322 104.900 80.830 8.593 2.134 0.017 1.073 0.548 1.034 2.329 0.249 < L.D. 2.500 99.307 128.100 79.110 10.128 2.244 0.019 0.990 0.378 0.997 2.467 0.313 < L.D. 2.760 99.406 167.100 76.760 9.256 2.737 0.064 1.196 2.433 1.214 2.000 0.345 < L.D. 3.290 99.295 207.900 71.330 10.390 3.439 0.053 1.602 3.278 1.211 2.487 0.441 < L.D. 4.640 98.871 140.000 74.590 9.665 3.461 0.100 1.352 2.891 1.074 1.944 0.341 < L.D. 3.650 99.068 136.700 80.330 8.994 2.396 0.027 1.036 0.427 1.003 2.291 0.322 < L.D. 2.200 99.026 144.500 74.100 10.110 3.399 0.051 1.264 2.162 1.256 2.575 0.399 < L.D. 3.410 98.726 167.800 72.010 10.708 3.436 0.038 1.822 2.169 1.125 3.023 0.418 < L.D. 4.380 99.128 130.700 66.980 8.505 3.238 0.063 2.611 5.885 0.804 2.402 0.363 < L.D. 8.040 98.891 249.823 71.580 11.818 3.133 0.029 1.819 1.049 0.732 2.845 0.478 0.130 5.590 99.190 169.529 74.530 9.980 2.925 0.040 1.497 2.823 1.386 2.701 0.375 0.120 3.860 100.230 174.333 71.840 9.472 4.214 0.052 1.942 3.009 1.321 2.357 0.456 0.100 4.600 99.350 149.549 76.840 9.943 3.049 0.024 1.254 1.195 1.114 2.567 0.377 < L.D.

	4 (…/…) Hole Core # Lower Meghna Site Bedload Lower Meghna, Chor Fa BGP 34 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR219 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR446 Lower Meghna, DaulatkhBR8230 Table SVI-4 (…/…) S i t e # Table SVI-4 (…/…) S i t e # Lower Meghna Bedload Lower Meghna, Chor Fasson BGP 34 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR219 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR446 Lower Meghna, Daulatkhan BR8230 Table SVI-4 (…/…) Site # Table SVI-4 (…/…) Site # Lower Meghna Bedload Lower Meghna, Chor Fasson BGP 34 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR219 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR446 Lower Meghna, Daulatkhan BR8230 Table SVI-4 (…/…) Site # Table SVI-4 (…/…) Site # Lower Meghna Bedload Lower Meghna, Chor Fasson BGP 34 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR219 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR446 Lower Meghna, Daulatkhan BR8230 Table SVI-4 (…/…) Site # Lower Meghna, Chor Fasson BGP 34 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR219 Lower Meghna, Bhola BR446 Lower Meghna, Daulatkhan BR8230 BR 8256c Ganga Harding bridge No CRPG (ppm) G aG dG e As Ba (ppm) (ppm) 7.501 532.427 1.802 215.600 2.081 307.900 2.722 384.700 (ppm) (ppm) G aG dG e (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 24.566 6.984 1.762 18.900 25.780 2.946 13.850 8.290 1.921 15.350 12.760 2.051 Rb Sc Sb (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) Rb Sc Sb (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 181.217 0.547 51.560 0.441 76.740 0.235 72.380 1.074 Yb Zn Zr ( p p m ) ( p p m ) ( p p m )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % ) Be Bi Cd Ce Co Cr Cs Cu Dy Er Eu (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 2.891 0.602 0.054 97.715 17.182 110.653 9.408 38.948 6.634 3.466 1.647 1.580 0.381 1.111 415.800 12.080 224.300 1.953 6.833 24.140 13.000 4.465 2.096 < D.L. < D.L. 141.600 8.015 98.990 2.563 3.747 7.497 4.225 1.490 1.936 0.874 0.412 203.000 10.410 119.100 2.932 6.499 11.310 6.155 2.291 H fH o I n L aL uM oN bN d N iP b P r (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) >10ppm: <10% > 0.1 ppm: H fH o I n L aL uM oN bN d N iP b P r (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 6.705 1.408 0.056 47.880 0.521 0.317 16.976 42.275 55.849 26.075 11.224 36.060 4.657 0.139 215.400 2.112 0.533 36.710 173.200 22.820 17.511 48.690 12.250 1.452 < D.L. 71.370 0.684 < D.L. 13.730 55.370 17.910 16.992 15.500 18.320 2.167 0.225 101.100 0.955 < D.L. 17.340 83.100 30.520 19.753 24.100 Sm Sn Sr Ta Tb Th Tm U V W Y (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) >50 ppm: < 15% >10ppm: Sm Sn Sr Ta Tb Th Tm U V W Y (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) (ppm) 8.648 5.096 139.430 1.636 1.117 19.505 0.543 3.277 121.479 2.903 36.857 32.240 6.130 210.800 4.372 4.111 89.170 2.000 12.830 151.900 4.482 133.900 10.130 2.937 164.300 1.635 1.271 28.790 0.645 4.279 78.520 1.452 44.050 15.670 6.544 186.400 1.970 1.957 45.960 0.921 6.773 98.320 2.022 62.710 Loss on Ignition SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 LOI > 50ppm: <10% >10ppm: >10%: <2% Yb Zn Zr SiO2 Al2O3 Fe2O3 MnO MgO CaO Na2O K2O TiO2 P2O5 LOI ( p p m ) ( p p m ) ( p p m )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % )( % ) 3.540 87.222 248.558 63.230 15.470 6.390 0.090 2.590 1.750 1.480 3.020 0.810 0.140 4.500 13.910 77.880 1345.000 65.190 11.250 9.110 0.260 2.130 5.510 1.400 1.350 2.250 0.470 0.720 4.380 45.290 493.900 76.015 10.126 4.575 0.108 1.342 2.802 1.795 1.910 0.775 0.150 0.740 6.357 68.910 625.700 71.682 10.397 5.631 0.124 1.711 3.675 1.729 1.739 1.041 0.282 1.292 24.0529 89.02465 triSL 6.4 1.5 09-sept-04 0.21 0.05 BR 220 Lower Meghna Bhola 22.8248 90.7223 SL 3 0.8 17-juil-98 0.28 99.302 BR 8256b Ganga Harding bridge 24.0529 89.02465 triSL 5.9 1.2 09-sept-04 0.24 0.06 BR 218 Lower Meghna Bhola 22.8248 90.7223 SL 1.5 0.4 17-juil-98 0.37 100.338 BR 8256a Ganga Harding bridge 24.0529 89.02465 triSL 5.4 1.4 09-sept-04 0.22 0.05 BGP 21 Lower Meghna Bhola 22.8248 90.7223 SL 0 0.41 99.640 BR 8255c Ganga Harding bridge 24.0529 89.02465 triSL 6 1.3 09-sept-04 0.24 0.06 BR 1059 Lower Meghna Mawa 23.45643 90.24388 SL 6 1.8 10-juil-06 0.30 99.470 BR 8255b Ganga Harding bridge 24.0529 89.02465 triSL 5.5 1.2 09-sept-04 0.25 0.06 BR 1058 Lower Meghna Mawa 23.45643 90.24388 SL 3 1.2 10-juil-06 0.33 (%) BR 8255a Ganga Harding bridge 24.0529 89.02465 triSL 5 1.2 09-sept-04 0.26 0.07 BR 1057 Lower Meghna Mawa 23.45643 90.24388 SL 0 1.1 10-juil-06 0.35 Total Table SVI-4 (…/…) Site # BR 8253 Ganga Harding bridge 24.0529 89.02465 SL 0 0.6 09-sept-04 0.33 0.08 BR 1007 Lower Meghna Mawa 23.45643 90.24388 SL deep 1.9 04-juil-06 0.27 Bedload BR 8252 Ganga Harding bridge 24.0529 89.02465 BL 15 09-sept-04 0.11 0.02 BR 1006 Lower Meghna Mawa 23.45643 90.24388 SL shallow 1.7 04-juil-06 0.29 Lower Meghna Total BR 8251 Ganga Harding bridge 24.0529 89.02465 SL 5 1.2 09-sept-04 0.26 0.07 BR 1005 Lower Meghna Mawa 23.45643 90.24388 SL 0.2 0.9 04-juil-06 0.34 (%) Table SVI-5 (…/…) Sample# River Locality Lat Long Type Depth Load Date Al/Si Fe/Si Sr (m) (g/L) mol:mol mol:mol Table SVI-5 (…/…) Sample# River Locality Lat Long Type Depth Load Date Al/Si Fe/Si Sr (m) (g/L) mol:mol mol:mol Major elements
	Padma, Mawa Padma, Mawa Bengal fan sands < D.L. : below detection limit BR529 BR724 Exp. 353, 14°N U1444 1444-006H U1444 1444-007H Padma, Mawa BR529 Padma, Mawa BR724 Bengal fan sands < D.L. : below detection limit Exp. 353, 14°N U1444 1444-006H U1444 1444-007H Padma, Mawa BR529 Padma, Mawa BR724 Bengal fan sands < D.L. : below detection limit Exp. 353, 14°N U1444 1444-006H U1444 1444-007H Padma, Mawa BR529 Padma, Mawa BR724 Padma, Mawa BR529 BR 8279 Ganga Harding bridge BR 217 Lower Meghna Bhola Bengal fan sands Padma, Mawa BR724 BR 8280 Ganga Harding bridge BR 216 Lower Meghna Bhola < D.L. : below detection limit BR 8281 Ganga Harding bridge BR 219 Lower Meghna Bhola Exp. 353, 14°N U1444 1444-006H U1444 1444-007H BR 8283 Ganga Harding bridge BR 222 Lower Meghna Bhola BR 8286 Ganga Harding bridge BR 448 Lower Meghna Bhola BR 1024 Ganga Harding bridge BR 441 Lower Meghna Bhola	<5% 0.02 14.650 14.430 12.480 13.920 <5% 0.15 95.800 52.630 <15% 0.002 2.151 9.731 99.163 98.986 99.989 99.780	2.247 < D.L. <10% 342.600 215.300 <10% 0.005 0.04 4.998 1.660 5.645 1.751 4.673 1.563 18.630 2.199 <15% <20% 0.6 0.06 0.355 0.608 <20% <5% 7.0 1.50 38.780 217.800 48.940 1431.000 24.0529 89.02465 SL 22.8248 90.7223 SL 24.0529 89.02465 SL 22.8248 90.7223 SL 24.0529 89.02465 SL 22.8248 90.7223 BL 24.0529 89.02465 BL 22.8248 90.7223 Bank < D.L. 1.815 <10% 0.03 6.415 7.624 5.870 38.820 <15% 0.005 5.803 22.860 <2% 0.05 76.878 72.674 24.0529 89.02465 Bank 22.8248 90.7223 SL 24.0529 89.02465 SL 22.8248 90.7223 SL	1.302 0.318 <10% 0.001 0.959 1.063 0.747 3.157 <20% 0.30 3.089 7.759 >5%: <10% 0.04 10.011 9.313 12 5 6 10 0 12 12.5 0 9 0	0.355 0.657 <20% 298.800 73.860 0.03 < D.L. 35.340 <5% 0.02 < D.L. 40.810 0.162 36.770 < D.L. 146.900 <5% <10% 0.70 0.004 138.800 0.857 151.000 2.541 <10% <20% 0.015 0.015 3.075 0.056 6.438 0.153 0.6 21-sept-04 0.5 17-juil-98 0.6 21-sept-04 1.7 17-juil-98 0.4 21-sept-04 17-juil-98 21-sept-04 17-juil-98 21-sept-04 17-juil-00 0.6 07-juil-06 0.3 17-juil-00	7.215 8.897 <20% 113.300 51.750 >25% 0.001 0.50 0.391 < D.L. 0.428 < D.L. 0.329 < D.L. 1.501 < D.L. <20% <10% 0.001 0.015 0.722 15.620 2.854 80.310 <10% <15% 0.03 0.03 1.195 2.214 1.710 3.585 0.28 0.07 0.31 0.30 0.08 0.21 0.37 0.09 0.21 0.13 0.02 0.25 0.32 0.08 0.34 0.39 0.09 0.40	4.321 1.824 <10% 0.015 8.687 9.732 7.631 19.120 <20% 0.001 0.315 1.404 <10% 0.02 1.827 1.490	3.729 < D.L. <15% 0.016 30.240 34.180 30.140 121.100 <15% 0.01 2.374 12.160 <10% 0.03 2.148 1.342	4.086 16.490 22.950 <5% 2.0 24.600 19.450 18.200 <10% 0.85 50.560 99.140 <20% 0.02 0.419 1.139	2.145 9.192 <20% 0.45 20.390 19.983 19.242 14.904 <20% 0.80 1.488 4.774 >25% 0.10 0.102 0.245	1.038 2.501 <20% 0.004 8.254 9.351 8.320 33.320 <15% 0.02 21.650 91.150 1.240 0.897
	U1444 U1444 U1444 U1444 BR 1025 BR 444	Ganga Lower Meghna	1444-009H 1444-009H 1444-009H 1444-009H Harding bridge 100.057 13.730 Bhola	4.955 24.0529 89.02465 SL 1.660 22.8248 90.7223 SL	6.910	0.958 5 2		< D.L. 0.6 07-juil-06 36.520 0.6 17-juil-00	0.398 0.40 0.35	< D.L. 0.10	8.634	30.080	18.490	19.759	8.309
	U1444 U1444 U1444 U1444 BR 1026 BR 442	Ganga Lower Meghna	1444-011H 1444-011H 1444-011H 1444-011H Harding bridge Bhola	14.360 99.936	7.895 24.0529 89.02465 SL 1.808 22.8248 90.7223 SL	11.170	1.479 0.3 4		< D.L. 0.5 07-juil-06 62.100 0.7 17-juil-00	0.630 0.45 0.33	< D.L. 0.11	12.240	50.360	20.800	18.270	13.970
	U1444 Exp. 354, 8°N U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1454 U1454 U1454 U1454 U1444 Exp. 354, 8°N U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1454 U1454 U1454 U1454 U1444 Exp. 354, 8°N U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1454 U1454 U1454 U1454 U1444 Exp. 354, 8°N U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1450 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1451 U1454 U1454 U1454 U1454 BR 1027 Ganga BR 1028 Ganga BR 1030 Ganga BR 1031 Ganga BR 1032 Ganga Brahmaputra in Bangladesh BR 401 Brahmaputra BR 405 Brahmaputra BR 406 Brahmaputra BR 407 Brahmaputra BR 408 Brahmaputra BR 409 Brahmaputra BR 402 Brahmaputra BR 459 Brahmaputra BR 457 Brahmaputra BR 456 Brahmaputra BR 455 Brahmaputra BR 454 Brahmaputra BR 460 Brahmaputra BR 450 Brahmaputra BR 451 Brahmaputra BR 453 Brahmaputra BR 440 Lower Meghna BR 439 Lower Meghna BR 445 Lower Meghna BR 446 Lower Meghna BR 8226 Lower Meghna BR 8227 Lower Meghna BR 8228 Lower Meghna BR 8229 Lower Meghna BR 8230 Lower Meghna BR 1049 Lower Meghna BR 1050 Lower Meghna BR 1051 Lower Meghna BR 1052 Lower Meghna BR 1053 Lower Meghna BGP 23 Lower Meghna BGP 34 Lower Meghna BR 8232 Lower Meghna BR 8233 Lower Meghna BR 8234 Lower Meghna BR 8235 Lower Meghna BR 8269 Lower Meghna BR 8270 Lower Meghna 180.704 76.310 1444-024F 1450-003H 1450-008F 1450-014F 1450-025F 1450-032F 1450-040F 1450-044F 1450-050F 1450-083F 1450-090F 1450-100F 1450-110F 1450-124F 1450-130F 1451-009H 1451-012F 1451-022H 1451-031F 1451-039F 1454-004H 1454-006F 1454-025F 1454-032F 1444-024F 1450-003H 1450-008F 1450-014F 1450-025F 1450-032F 1450-040F 1450-044F 1450-050F 1450-083F 1450-090F 1450-100F 1450-110F 1450-124F 1450-130F 1451-009H 1451-012F 1451-022H 1451-031F 1451-039F 1454-004H 1454-006F 1454-025F 1454-032F 1444-024F 1450-003H 1450-008F 1450-014F 1450-025F 1450-032F 1450-040F 1450-044F 1450-050F 1450-083F 1450-090F 1450-100F 1450-110F 1450-124F 1450-130F 1451-009H 1451-012F 1451-022H 1451-031F 1451-039F 1454-004H 1454-006F 1454-025F 1454-032F 1444-024F 1450-003H 1450-008F 1450-014F 1450-025F 1450-032F 1450-040F 1450-044F 1450-050F 1450-083F 1450-090F 1450-100F 1450-110F 1450-124F 1450-130F 1451-009H 1451-012F 1451-022H 1451-031F 1451-039F 1454-004H 1454-006F 1454-025F 1454-032F Harding bridge 100.266 13.395 15.490 14.830 16.680 14.180 17.800 15.730 23.320 19.060 15.690 13.450 14.850 14.096 11.890 13.740 13.730 13.740 15.260 12.080 12.680 15.150 15.520 14.160 16.639 99.920 99.872 99.606 99.877 99.641 99.731 98.810 99.411 99.492 100.281 100.653 100.410 99.788 99.778 99.634 99.396 100.260 100.909 100.710 100.862 100.560 100.389 99.910 Harding bridge Harding bridge Harding bridge Harding bridge Sirajganj 24.47233 8.527 4.753 5.018 4.903 4.792 5.534 4.481 5.513 4.690 4.576 3.642 4.310 5.812 7.160 4.725 4.091 4.723 5.058 4.704 3.865 5.702 10.720 8.333 5.377 24.0529 89.02465 BL 1.994 1.571 1.668 1.642 1.580 1.688 1.629 2.007 1.768 1.641 1.586 1.717 1.636 1.931 1.690 1.676 1.699 1.806 1.746 1.639 1.625 1.917 1.861 2.168 24.0529 89.02465 SL 24.0529 89.02465 SL 24.0529 89.02465 SL 24.0529 89.02465 SL 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 BL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 BL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 BL Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 BL Bhola 22.8248 90.7223 SL Bhola 22.8248 90.7223 SL Bhola 22.8248 90.7223 SL Bhola 22.8248 90.7223 BL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 SL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 SL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 SL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 SL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 BL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 SL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 SL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 BL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 BL Daulatkhan 22.5874 90.76179 BL Chorfasson 22.19098 90.8257 SL Chorfasson 22.19098 90.8257 BL Chorfasson 22.19098 90.8257 SL Chorfasson 22.19098 90.8257 SL Chorfasson 22.19098 90.8257 SL Chorfasson 22.19098 90.8257 BL Chor Mankia 21.99301 90.67603 SL 102.920 99.283 13.237 1.682 0.038 66.110 6.249 0.883 < D.L. 34.440 6.690 0.956 < D.L. 37.170 5.381 0.960 < D.L. 35.100 6.495 0.903 < D.L. 34.460 5.899 1.083 < D.L. 37.950 5.091 0.856 < D.L. 32.350 4.111 1.096 < D.L. 37.810 4.252 0.907 < D.L. 32.280 5.858 0.880 < D.L. 32.380 4.172 0.723 < D.L. 25.620 5.581 0.847 < D.L. 28.990 8.652 1.086 0.043 43.436 11.680 1.372 < D.L. 52.420 6.661 0.900 < D.L. 33.510 5.174 0.811 < D.L. 27.500 6.268 0.913 < D.L. 31.640 6.765 0.988 < D.L. 33.870 6.817 0.879 < D.L. 33.710 5.101 0.729 < D.L. 26.890 7.911 1.061 < D.L. 43.130 19.330 2.051 < D.L. 94.270 12.580 1.664 < D.L. 65.870 5.741 1.070 0.049 36.636 07-juil-06 0.25 0.677 0.361 0.401 0.391 0.370 0.436 0.341 0.437 0.360 0.350 0.284 0.329 0.435 0.562 0.360 0.321 0.352 0.392 0.348 0.293 0.433 0.883 0.678 0.410 11 0.6 07-juil-06 0.38 0 1.0 07-juil-06 0.45 3 1.0 07-juil-06 0.43 6 1.1 07-juil-06 0.39 6.5 4.3 10-juil-00 0.23 5 6.0 10-juil-00 0.22 3 3.1 10-juil-00 0.25 11 6.4 10-juil-00 0.23 1.5 1.8 10-juil-00 0.29 0 1.3 10-juil-00 0.32 0 10-juil-00 0.33 22-juil-00 0.38 0 1.3 22-juil-00 0.36 3 2.9 22-juil-00 0.29 6 2.4 22-juil-00 0.30 9 6.2 22-juil-00 0.23 10 22-juil-00 0.17 22-juil-00 0.32 22-juil-00 0.40 22-juil-00 6 1.8 17-juil-00 0.27 8 3.0 17-juil-00 0.23 10 3.9 17-juil-00 0.26 11 17-juil-00 0.16 16 4.9 02-sept-04 0.22 10 5.1 02-sept-04 0.30 5 5.0 02-sept-04 0.32 0 9.6 02-sept-04 0.37 17 02-sept-04 0.17 11 0.8 11-juil-06 0.31 0 0.6 11-juil-06 0.37 11-juil-06 0.15 11-juil-06 0.16 11-juil-06 0.17 0 0.42 0.29 14 1.2 03-sept-04 0.30 7 1.0 03-sept-04 0.52 0 0.7 03-sept-04 0.40 03-sept-04 0.37 5 1.6 16-sept-04 0.30 Chor Mankia 21.99301 90.67603 SL 0 0.7 16-sept-04 10.203 3.367 0.036 1.204 0.748 1.066 2.491 0.418 0.100 3.100 99.040 0.36 156.438 78.770 8.883 2.430 0.039 1.186 1.784 1.179 2.169 0.307 < L.D. 2.990 99.737 0.22 BR 500 Brahmaputra Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL 0 21-juil-01 217.446 72.220 10.022 3.089 0.033 1.587 2.754 1.587 2.463 0.448 0.110 4.350 98.660 0.32 BR 501 Brahmaputra Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL 6.5 2.0 21-juil-01 163.264 75.280 11.593 3.075 0.063 0.930 1.451 2.180 1.844 0.315 0.120 2.100 98.940 0.29 BR 502 Brahmaputra Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL 2.5 0.8 21-juil-01 149.940 71.740 10.298 2.924 0.027 0.902 3.471 1.396 2.490 0.342 < L.D. 5.160 98.750 0.34 BR 503 Brahmaputra Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 BL 7.5 21-juil-01 478.350 73.550 10.620 4.575 0.136 0.797 1.301 1.415 2.182 0.455 0.170 3.830 99.030 0.19 BR 508 Brahmaputra Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL 0 0.8 21-juil-01 179.642 79.170 10.143 3.279 < L.D. 0.590 0.410 0.640 2.183 0.376 < L.D. 3.090 99.881 0.36 BR 507 Brahmaputra Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL 2.8 1.4 21-juil-01 174.782 75.310 11.850 3.600 0.026 0.778 0.512 0.635 2.560 0.425 < L.D. 4.490 100.186 0.32 BR 506 Brahmaputra Sirajganj 24.47233 89.72574 SL 5 1.6 21-juil-01 140.995 86.470 6.866 1.134 < L.D. 0.299 0.228 0.402 1.684 0.227 < L.D. 1.620 98.930 0.29 227.100 65.620 15.948 4.064 0.033 1.318 0.549 0.335 3.292 0.600 < L.D. 7.210 98.969	< D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. 0.517 0.525 < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. < D.L. 0.507 < D.L. < D.L. 0.06 0.09 0.11 0.10 0.09	11.937 10.070 9.853 10.650 9.477 11.890 10.160 14.420 12.170 10.080 7.998 9.823 10.729 11.490 10.420 8.087 9.238 10.680 9.412 8.556 10.170 15.870 12.690 11.080	53.638 28.810 30.500 28.990 28.760 32.260 27.050 32.020 26.920 27.280 21.450 24.840 34.906 44.870 28.660 23.490 27.640 29.530 29.150 23.350 35.560 70.730 52.890 30.883	18.442 24.690 24.210 28.440 22.390 56.410 28.770 45.780 34.410 22.170 16.920 25.350 23.481 15.780 20.710 24.420 20.630 23.630 18.950 21.380 25.460 28.650 19.150 37.873	30.276 20.637 20.984 21.882 18.371 20.430 20.209 28.548 27.404 22.163 20.184 19.726 21.110 17.914 19.819 21.850 19.768 20.072 18.238 16.947 21.254 22.918 18.587 26.422	14.812 7.840 8.356 7.937 7.846 8.680 7.334 8.635 7.284 7.388 5.807 6.742 9.472 12.250 7.807 6.464 7.511 7.988 7.961 6.297 9.743 19.770 14.690 8.394
	BR 505	Brahmaputra 116.115 87.720 Sirajganj	24.47233 6.041 1.078 < L.D. 0.279 0.184 0.364 1.564 0.162 < L.D. 89.72574 SL 7	2.1	21-juil-01 1.500 98.892 0.28
	BR 504	Brahmaputra 172.886 86.980 Sirajganj	24.47233 6.592 1.668 < L.D. 0.343 0.238 0.365 1.626 0.229 < L.D. 89.72574 SL 9.8	2.3	21-juil-01 1.540 99.581 0.25
	BR 509	Brahmaputra		Sirajganj		24.47233	89.72574 BL		10			21-juil-01	0.15
	BR 800	Brahmaputra		Sirajganj		24.47233	89.72574 Bank					07-janv-04	0.25
			-	-		-	-	------	-		-	-
			-	-		-	-	------	-		-	-
		109.800 84.430	7.057 2.290 0.015 0.647 0.163 0.255 2.053 0.292 < L.D.		2.240 99.442
		122.400 85.150	7.173 1.855 0.036 0.440 0.224 0.375 1.751 0.248 < L.D.		2.000 99.252
		139.616 78.400	10.588 2.880 0.071 0.790 0.661 1.198 2.012 0.292 < L.D.		2.230 99.122
		129.894 77.690	9.138 2.293 0.025 1.334 2.704 0.971 2.153 0.291 < L.D.		4.430 101.029
		151.775 90.410	5.539 0.798 0.021 0.227 0.049 0.081 1.289 0.203 < L.D.		1.430 100.047
		115.766 93.820	4.350 0.598 < L.D. 0.152 0.036 0.060 0.929 0.168 < L.D.		0.950 101.063
		154.894 87.920	6.494 1.412 0.016 0.223 0.049 0.144 1.552 0.204 < L.D.		2.090 100.104

Table SVII -4. Clayey to fine sand bulk carbonate oxygen -carbon isotopic results. Table SVII-4. (…/…) Analysis # Identifier 1 Identifier 2 Sample # Depth (m) Age (Ma) Average Area CaCO 3 δ 18 O δ 13 C

 SVII

	35430 DW 102 19016 G 056 35432 DW 120 17922 D 121 35433 DW 121 18463 D 123 18228 D 125 35434 DW 135 35435 DW 137 18458 D 144 Analysis # Identifier 1 Identifier 2 Sample # Depth (m) Age (Ma) 20663 D101 453.0 1.06 2118 G55 519.2 1.17 19367 D119 525.9 1.19 2116 D121 529.7 1.19 20459 D121 529.7 1.19 103020 D123 540.5 1.21 69028 D125 551.9 1.23 19509 D135 611.6 1.33 21552 D137 615.8 1.34 10009 D143 649.7 18466 D 424 2014 D423 2035.3 4.41 19363 D424 1831 D423 2035.3 4.41 17920 D 425 1964 D425 2039.3 4.42 19011 D 442 2037 D441 2146.9 4.67 18643 D 446 1958 D445 2170.6 4.71 19355 D446 1901 D445 2170.6 4.71 35465 DW 446 1141 D445 2170.6 4.71 35466 DW 461 23159 D461 2267.3 4.84 18242 D 464 2129 D463 2273.5 4.85 19330 D466 2135 D465 2279.8 4.86 19337 D469 2070? D469 2301.3 4.87 Table SVIII-1. (…/…) Site # Hit nb 10 Be/ 9 Be 1 σ Blank of the series of sample 1.40 Table SVII-4. (…/…) 35470 DW 473 20806 D473 2323.1 4.89 35225 DW 601 942 D601 2331.1 4.90 Dwarda section 35226 DW 603 1022 D603 2339.2 4.92 Serie #1 35227 DW 606 959 D605 2346.9 4.93 Dwarda Dwcos9 2.671E-14 6.305E-15 1.84E-15 35230 DW 610 1115 D609 2370.0 4.97 Dwarda Dwcos13 1.045E-14 2.076E-15 1.84E-15 35231 DW 611 1078 D611 2375.7 4.98 Dwarda Dwcos17 9.854E-15 1.647E-15 1.84E-15 35232 DW 613 1032 D613 2382.3 4.99 Dwarda Dwcos20 9.644E-15 2.377E-15 1.84E-15	(%) Average Area CaCO 3 3 70 2 107 2 8 11 2 2 (%) 58 41 60 62 108 95 49 3 75 39 20 1 σ Correction 20 21 22 23 41 46 29 0 25 17 by blank corrected) (‰ PDB) -10.32 -10.87 -12.04 -10.49 -13.32 -9.39 -9.37 -11.66 -12.38 δ 18 O (‰ PDB) -10.89 -9.84 -10.37 -9.19 -10.74 -8.67 -11.24 -9.67 -12.92 -10.06 -14.56 10 Be/ 9 Be (blank 1 0 -10.90 30 27 -11.95 23 19 -10.75 50 45 -10.07 4.51E-16 0.07 2.487E-14 6.321E-15 5.11E+05 1.31E+05 7.78E+03 1.99E+03 (‰ PDB) -6.85 -8.75 -8.06 -3.21 -8.70 -6.49 -4.94 -9.37 -6.60 δ 13 C (‰ PDB) -3.11 -2.67 -3.10 -3.90 -3.23 -2.49 -3.65 -9.16 -3.42 -4.13 -0.93 1 σ 10 Be 1 σ 10 Be 1 σ (atom) (atom) (atom/g) (atom/g) -10.08 -2.11 -3.09 -3.89 46 36 -10.08 4.51E-16 0.18 8.610E-15 2.124E-15 1.77E+05 4.40E+04 3.85E+03 9.59E+02 -3.29 59 47 -10.45 4.51E-16 0.19 8.009E-15 1.707E-15 1.64E+05 3.54E+04 3.12E+03 6.73E+02 1.63 36 30 -12.33 -3.30 4.51E-16 0.19 7.799E-15 2.419E-15 1.59E+05 4.96E+04 2.55E+03 7.96E+02
	35233 DW 615 35234 DW 618 Serie #2 Dwarda Dwcos2	1086 D615 994 D617 8.522E-14 9.459E-15 2404.3 2415.6	5.11 5.19 9.57E-15	34 31 3.18E-15	27 27 0.11 7.565E-14 9.981E-15 5.38E+05 9.78E+04 7.07E+03 1.29E+03 -13.24 -2.55 -12.57 -2.84
	35235 DW 620 Dwarda Dwcos3*	1003 D619 ----------7 . 5 2 E + 0 3 2 . 2 4 E + 0 3 2427.2 5.25 28 24 -12.42 -2.08
	35238 DW 622 Dwarda Dwcos4*	796 D621 ----------4 . 5 9 E + 0 3 1 . 2 8 E + 0 3 2439.6 5.27 34 37 -10.75 -4.23
	35239 DW 624 Dwarda Dwcos5	1035 D623 6.928E-14 6.846E-15 2450.4	5.30 9.57E-15	52 3.18E-15	43 0.14 5.971E-14 7.551E-15 4.01E+05 5.21E+04 5.35E+03 6.99E+02 -10.41 -4.40
	35240 DW 626 Dwarda Dwcos7	1030 D625 5.113E-14 8.922E-15 2482.7	5.37 9.57E-15	48 3.18E-15	40 0.19 4.156E-14 9.473E-15 4.04E+05 1.05E+05 3.87E+03 1.01E+03 -10.62 -1.52
	35241 DW 628 Dwarda Dwcos8 35242 DW 630 Dwarda Dwcos10 35472 DW 631 Dwarda Dwcos12	944 D627 1.85E-14 4.155E-15 2493.9 1151 D629 2502.6 9.448E-14 1.187E-14 19723 D631 2528.0 8.83E-14 1.59E-14	5.40 9.57E-15 5.41 9.57E-15 5.47 9.57E-15	28 3.18E-15 28 3.18E-15 2 3.18E-15	25 0.52 8.931E-15 5.235E-15 6.05E+04 3.55E+04 1.47E+03 8.62E+02 -12.79 -2.12 21 -11.90 0.10 8.492E-14 1.229E-14 5.73E+05 1.10E+05 3.78E+03 7.25E+02 -2.85 0 -12.42 -6.40 0.11 7.874E-14 1.621E-14 5.32E+05 1.11E+05 3.52E+03 7.34E+02
	35244 DW 633 35473 DW 635 Serie #3 35248 DW 637 Dwarda Dwcos11 35249 DW 638 Dwarda Dwcos14 34774 DW 640 Dwarda Dwcos15 34775 DW 642 Dwarda Dwcos16 34776 DW 644 Dwarda Dwcos18 34777 DW 647 Dwarda Dwcos19 34778 DW 650 Dwarda Dwcos21 35257 DW 652 Dwarda Dwcos22 Dwarda Dwcos24	876 D633 18844 D635 894 D637 1.754E-14 8.771E-15 2543.4 2550.7 2558.6 1051 D637 2558.6 5.993E-14 1.389E-14 923 D639 2568.7 1.961E-14 1.677E-15 917 D641 2575.7 ------------5.51 34 34 -9.77 -3.79 5.52 3 0 -11.46 -9.53 5.54 33 32 -10.69 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.18 1.430E-14 8.932E-15 3.07E+05 1.95E+05 1.64E+03 1.04E+03 -4.56 5.54 39 32 -11.32 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.05 5.669E-14 1.399E-14 7.84E+05 1.95E+05 6.88E+03 1.71E+03 -4.82 5.56 41 36 -8.54 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.17 1.637E-14 2.377E-15 2.44E+05 4.68E+04 1.15E+03 2.21E+02 -3.79 5.58 12 11 -11.85 -4.35 811 D643 2593.5 5.62 26 26 -12.35 4.391E-14 2.447E-15 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.07 4.067E-14 2.971E-15 5.57E+05 4.38E+04 1.80E+03 1.44E+02 -3.86 876 D647 2612.8 5.66 22 21 -13.37 -------------2.84 968 D649 2618.6 5.67 25 21 -13.28 2.281E-14 2.356E-15 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.14 1.957E-14 2.897E-15 2.69E+05 4.06E+04 1.39E+03 2.11E+02 -2.50 29860 D651 2633.2 5.71 7 0 -7.23 2.766E-14 1.046E-14 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.12 2.442E-14 1.060E-14 7.97E+05 3.60E+05 1.51E+03 6.83E+02 -9.37 2.403E-14 2.58E-15 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.13 2.079E-14 3.082E-15 2.85E+05 4.31E+04 1.24E+03 1.89E+02
	34782 DW 653 Dwarda Dwcos25	831 D653 ------------2637.6 5.72 22 22 -13.77 -2.46
	34783 DW 658	913 D657	2669.1	5.79	32	29	-14.28	-2.75
	35252 DW 660 Serie #4	5865 D659	2702.3	5.86	159	23	-6.39	-2.27
	34785 DW 662 Dwarda Dwcos30	858 D661 3.483E-14 1.102E-14 2723.2	5.91 3.24E-15	21 1.69E-15	20 0.09 3.159E-14 1.115E-14 6.89E+05 2.58E+05 8.63E+02 3.23E+02 -12.09 -3.38
	34786 DW 664 Dwarda Dwcos31 34787 DW 666 Dwarda Dwcos32 35478 DW 668 Dwarda Dwcos33 34791 DW 669 Dwarda Dwcos34 34792 DW 672 Dwarda Dwcos37 34793 DW 674 Dwarda Dwcos43 35259 DW 676 Dwarda Dwcos44 34795 DW 677 Dwarda Dwcos45 34798 DW 684 Dwarda Dwcos46 34799 DW 685 Dwarda Dwcos47 34800 DW 687 Dwarda Dwcos48	884 D663 3.943E-14 874 D665 8.193E-14 2.258E-14 2738.6 1.19E-14 2746.6 27748 D667 2756.0 1.245E-14 5.569E-15 909 D669 2763.7 1.768E-14 7.221E-15 845 D671 2779.9 2.258E-14 7.987E-15 863 D673 2793.3 ------------5.94 13 12 -13.20 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.08 3.619E-14 1.202E-14 9.11E+05 3.23E+05 1.23E+03 4.36E+02 -2.16 5.96 14 13 -13.87 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.04 7.869E-14 2.264E-14 1.08E+06 3.14E+05 1.24E+03 3.58E+02 -2.84 5.98 7 0 -9.34 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.26 9.209E-15 5.819E-15 2.92E+05 1.88E+05 6.55E+02 4.22E+02 -10.81 6.00 21 19 -14.61 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.18 1.444E-14 7.415E-15 5.37E+05 2.84E+05 7.94E+02 4.20E+02 -3.06 6.03 3 3 -13.32 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.14 1.934E-14 8.163E-15 4.14E+05 1.82E+05 1.79E+03 7.88E+02 -3.95 6.05 12 12 -13.19 -2.21 29387 D675 2804.7 6.06 6 0 -9.94 1.142E-14 6.595E-15 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.28 8.181E-15 6.807E-15 1.23E+05 1.04E+05 7.77E+02 6.54E+02 -9.12 834 D677 2806.6 6.06 38 38 -10.09 2.967E-14 6.205E-15 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.11 2.643E-14 6.429E-15 4.66E+05 1.27E+05 4.06E+03 1.11E+03 -4.45 921 D683 2830.5 6.09 26 24 -12.81 3.776E-14 1.048E-14 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.09 3.452E-14 1.062E-14 5.69E+05 1.89E+05 5.10E+03 1.70E+03 -3.03 777 D685 2837.0 6.10 29 31 -13.15 5.027E-14 9.317E-15 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.06 4.703E-14 9.468E-15 6.64E+05 1.57E+05 8.68E+03 2.06E+03 -2.87 903 D687 2843.9 6.11 26 23 -14.43 -2.16 5.42E-14 1.182E-14 3.24E-15 1.69E-15 0.06 5.096E-14 1.194E-14 7.37E+05 1.96E+05 9.76E+03 2.60E+03
	34801 DW 690	943 D689	2863.2	6.13	33	29	-12.84	-2.44
	34802 DW 692	990 D691	2879.8	6.15	20	17	-13.70	-3.42
	34803 DW 694	877 D693	2900.3	6.17	43	41	-11.42	-3.93
	34806 DW 696	760 D695	2953.1	6.23	27	30	-12.47	-4.10
	34807 DW 698	1091 D697	2964.2	6.25	24	18	-13.25	-4.06
	34808 DW 702	764 D701	2997.7	6.37	20	21	-14.31	-3.40
	35480 DW 704	21828 D703	3011.2	6.43	2	0	-11.96	-8.03
	34810 DW 705	888 D705	3036.9	6.49	19	18	-8.04	-6.03
	34811 DW 708	992 D707	3050.9	6.51	60	50	-12.06	-2.73
	35481 DW 711	17992 D711	3102.1	6.61	4	0	-12.54	-5.71
	35482 DW 712	27933 D711	3102.1	6.61	2	0	-12.48	-7.65
	34816 DW 714	854 D713	3111.7	6.63	32	31	-13.78	-4.82
	34817 DW 715	924 D715	3126.9	6.66	23	21	-13.93	-3.63
	35255 DW 717	1058 D717	3129.6	6.67	28	23	-13.91	-3.87
	34819 DW 719	932 D719	3142.5	6.69	26	23	-13.91	-4.04
	34822 DW 721	950 D721	3148.5	6.71	24	21	-14.55	-3.69
	34823 DW 723	924 D723	3156.0	6.72	31	28	-14.86	-3.87
	35483 DW 725	23717 D725	3168.5	6.75	6	0	-9.80	-6.31
	35250 DW 731	1020 D731	3189.6	6.80	26	22	-15.45	-3.61
	35486 DW 734	16020 D733	3204.1	6.84	1	0	-11.23	-10.87
	34826 DW 735	973 D735	3211.1	6.85	30	25	-14.29	-3.88
	34827 DW 740	1005 D739	3229.0	6.90	24	19	-14.68	-6.73
	34830 DW 741	831 D741	3242.2	6.93	25	25	-14.23	-5.01
	34831 DW 743	932 D743	3244.9	6.94	9	8	-11.49	-3.27
	34832 DW 746	888 D745	3254.9	6.96	34	31	-15.60	-6.49
	34833 DW 748	963 D747	3266.2	6.99	51	43	-11.56	-9.31
	34834 DW 749	828 D749	3274.4	7.01	20	19	-13.81	-4.43

raw 10 Be 10 Be measurements and computations 10 Be/ 9 Be measurements

										Be
										paleoconc
										entrations		Erosion
										(at/g)	1 σ	rates	-1 σ	+1 σ
			Recent
	Porosity	Density	exposure	-1 σ	+1 σ	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g) (mm/y) (mm/y)
			(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)
	3.66E-01 2.08E+00 4.81E+02 2.38E+02 9.25E+02 5.81E+02 3.43E+02 4.75E+02 6.79E+01	0.07 6.72E+03 2.02E+03 2.01E+04 6.08E+03	0.9	0.3	0.4
	3.27E-01 2.14E+00 4.66E+02 2.30E+02 8.95E+02 5.63E+02 3.33E+02 3.20E+02 6.40E+01	0.15 2.97E+03 1.02E+03 1.44E+04 5.01E+03	1.2	0.4	0.7
	3.00E-01 2.19E+00 4.56E+02 2.26E+02 8.77E+02 5.51E+02 3.26E+02 2.16E+02 4.33E+01	0.18 2.35E+03 7.49E+02 1.70E+04 5.65E+03	1.1	0.3	0.5
	2.73E-01 2.24E+00 4.47E+02 2.21E+02 8.59E+02 5.40E+02 3.19E+02 1.46E+02 2.73E+01	0.21 1.87E+03 8.58E+02 2.16E+04 9.81E+03	0.8	0.3	0.7
	4.18E-01 1.99E+00 5.02E+02 2.48E+02 9.66E+02 6.07E+02 3.59E+02 6.74E+02 1.04E+02	0.09 5.79E+03 1.34E+03 1.13E+04 2.73E+03	1.6	0.4	0.6
	4.11E-01 2.00E+00 4.99E+02 2.47E+02 9.59E+02 6.03E+02 3.56E+02 6.35E+02 9.77E+01	0.08 6.29E+03 2.27E+03 1.30E+04 4.77E+03	1.4	0.4	0.9
	4.08E-01 2.01E+00 4.98E+02 2.46E+02 9.57E+02 6.02E+02 3.56E+02 6.23E+02 9.58E+01	0.13 3.36E+03 1.33E+03 7.22E+03 2.88E+03	2.5	0.8	1.6
	4.01E-01 2.02E+00 4.95E+02 2.45E+02 9.52E+02 5.98E+02 3.53E+02 5.88E+02 9.05E+01	0.11 4.17E+03 7.89E+02 9.39E+03 1.97E+03	1.9	0.5	0.6
	3.81E-01 2.05E+00 4.87E+02 2.41E+02 9.36E+02 5.88E+02 3.48E+02 5.05E+02 7.77E+01	0.15 2.77E+03 1.07E+03 7.41E+03 2.90E+03	2.4	0.8	1.6
	3.76E-01 2.06E+00 4.85E+02 2.40E+02 9.32E+02 5.86E+02 3.46E+02 4.86E+02 7.48E+01	0.40 3.96E+02 9.32E+02 1.32E+03 2.62E+03	4.9	0.0 11.3
	3.58E-01 2.09E+00 4.77E+02 2.36E+02 9.18E+02 5.77E+02 3.41E+02 4.33E+02 6.18E+01	0.15 2.77E+03 8.03E+02 9.22E+03 2.77E+03	1.9	0.5	0.9
	3.35E-01 2.13E+00 4.69E+02 2.32E+02 9.02E+02 5.67E+02 3.35E+02 3.33E+02 7.14E+01	0.16 2.62E+03 8.10E+02 1.14E+04 3.70E+03	1.6	0.4	0.8
	3.45E-01 2.11E+00 4.72E+02 2.34E+02 9.09E+02 5.71E+02 3.37E+02 3.74E+02 8.01E+01	0.35 6.90E+02 1.10E+03 2.99E+03 4.29E+03	3.1	0.0	6.0
	3.17E-01 2.16E+00 4.62E+02 2.29E+02 8.89E+02 5.59E+02 3.30E+02 3.00E+02 6.00E+01	0.08 6.02E+03 1.75E+03 3.04E+04 8.72E+03	0.6	0.2	0.3
	3.13E-01 2.17E+00 4.61E+02 2.28E+02 8.86E+02 5.57E+02 3.29E+02 2.95E+02 5.90E+01	0.48 2.97E+02 4.00E+02 2.04E+03 2.54E+03	5.1	0.0	9.5
		--------	-	-----	-	-	-
	2.91E-01 2.21E+00 4.53E+02 2.24E+02 8.71E+02 5.47E+02 3.23E+02 1.81E+02 3.62E+01	0.30 1.07E+03 3.56E+02 9.69E+03 3.80E+03	1.8	0.6	1.2
		--------	-	-----	-	-	-
	2.66E-01 2.25E+00 4.44E+02 2.20E+02 8.55E+02 5.37E+02 3.17E+02 1.36E+02 2.55E+01	0.39 7.18E+02 3.82E+02 9.66E+03 5.69E+03	1.7	0.7	2.0
	2.42E-01 2.29E+00 4.36E+02 2.16E+02 8.39E+02 5.27E+02 3.12E+02 9.47E+01 1.67E+01	0.35 8.90E+02 7.51E+02 1.75E+04 1.44E+04	0.8	0.4	1.2
	2.06E-01 2.35E+00 4.25E+02 2.10E+02 8.18E+02 5.14E+02 3.04E+02 5.56E+01 1.24E+01	0.41 6.75E+02 3.58E+02 2.53E+04 1.46E+04	0.7	0.3	0.7
		--------	-	-----	-	-	-
	2.17E-01 2.33E+00 4.28E+02 2.12E+02 8.24E+02 5.18E+02 3.06E+02 6.39E+01 1.50E+01	0.60 2.81E+02 4.45E+02 9.94E+03 1.37E+04	0.9	0.0	1.9
	2.05E-01 2.35E+00 4.25E+02 2.10E+02 8.17E+02 5.14E+02 3.03E+02 5.44E+01 1.21E+01	0.42 6.60E+02 5.31E+02 2.51E+04 1.95E+04	0.6	0.3	0.9
	1.94E-01 2.37E+00 4.21E+02 2.08E+02 8.10E+02 5.09E+02 3.01E+02 4.18E+01 9.29E+00	0.41 6.85E+02 4.68E+02 3.41E+04 2.32E+04	0.5	0.2	0.6
	2.58E-01 2.26E+00 4.42E+02 2.18E+02 8.49E+02 5.34E+02 3.15E+02 1.27E+02 2.38E+01	0.81 -5.53E+00 5.27E+02 1.16E+03 7.51E+03	1.4	0.0	4.4
	2.13E-01 2.34E+00 4.27E+02 2.11E+02 8.21E+02 5.16E+02 3.05E+02 6.28E+01 1.40E+01	0.65 2.15E+02 5.19E+02 9.09E+03 1.65E+04	0.8	0.0	1.8
	3.18E-01 2.16E+00 4.62E+02 2.29E+02 8.89E+02 5.59E+02 3.30E+02 3.01E+02 6.02E+01	0.31 9.28E+02 8.56E+02 5.12E+03 4.48E+03	2.6	1.4	4.2
		--------	-	---
	3.77E-01 2.06E+00 4.85E+02 2.40E+02 9.33E+02 5.86E+02 3.46E+02 4.90E+02 7.53E+01	0.75 -2.99E+02 7.44E+02 4.03E+02 2.14E+03	5.2	0.0 16.1
	3.87E-01 2.04E+00 4.89E+02 2.42E+02 9.41E+02 5.91E+02 3.49E+02 5.25E+02 8.08E+01	0.15 2.95E+03 1.17E+03 7.56E+03 3.00E+03	2.4	0.8	1.6
	3.97E-01 2.03E+00 4.93E+02 2.44E+02 9.48E+02 5.96E+02 3.52E+02 5.69E+02 8.76E+01	0.12 3.94E+03 1.73E+03 9.21E+03 4.04E+03	1.9	0.6	1.5
	4.11E-01 2.00E+00 4.99E+02 2.47E+02 9.59E+02 6.03E+02 3.56E+02 6.36E+02 9.78E+01	0.07 7.45E+03 2.09E+03 1.54E+04 4.43E+03	1.2	0.3	0.5
	4.16E-01 1.99E+00 5.01E+02 2.48E+02 9.64E+02 6.06E+02 3.58E+02 6.62E+02 1.02E+02	0.06 8.50E+03 2.62E+03 1.69E+04 5.30E+03	1.1	0.3	0.5

10 Be corrections Corrected 10 Be and erosion rates Table SVIII-1. (…/…)

												Corrected
						Correction		Correction				10 Be
						due to		due to		Corrected		paleoconc
						recent		plain		10Be		entrations		Erosion
	Site	#				exposure	1 σ	exposure	1 σ %	computed	1 σ	(at/g)	1 σ	rates	-1 σ	+1 σ
				Recent
		Porosity	Density	exposure	-1 σ	+1 σ		(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g) (mm/y) (mm/y)
				(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)
	Dwarda	Dwcos49
	Dwarda	Dwcos50
	Dwarda	Dwcos51
	Dwarda	Dwcos52
	Ganguli section
	Serie #1
	Ganguli	Ggcos1
	Ganguli	Ggcos3
	Serie #2
	Ganguli	Ggcos2
	Ganguli	Ggcos4
	Gonauli section
	Gonauli	Go60
	Maloni Naha section
	Maloni Naha Ca17i01
	Maloni Naha Ca17i03
	Maloni Naha Ca17i04
	Maloni Naha Ca17i08

10 Be corrections Corrected 10 Be and erosion rates 10 Be measurements and computations

		Sr-
	4.24E-01 1.98E+00 5.05E+02 2.50E+02 9.70E+02 6.10E+02 3.60E+02 7.05E+02 1.08E+02	0.09 5.80E+03 1.83E+03 1.09E+04 3.44E+03	1.6	0.5	0.8
	4.26E-01 1.98E+00 5.05E+02 2.50E+02 9.72E+02 6.11E+02 3.61E+02 7.14E+02 1.10E+02	0.11 4.33E+03 1.75E+03 8.06E+03 3.29E+03	2.2	0.7	1.6
	4.26E-01 1.98E+00 5.05E+02 2.50E+02 9.72E+02 6.11E+02 3.61E+02 7.14E+02 1.10E+02	0.09 5.22E+03 2.37E+03 9.74E+03 4.36E+03	1.8	0.6	1.5
	--------		-		---
	4.63E-01 1.91E+00 5.22E+02 2.58E+02 1.00E+03 6.31E+02 3.73E+02 9.38E+02 1.56E+02	0.11 4.33E+03 1.12E+03 5.65E+03 1.51E+03	3.1	0.8	1.3
	4.43E-01 1.95E+00 5.13E+02 2.54E+02 9.86E+02 6.20E+02 3.66E+02 8.35E+02 1.28E+02	0.09 5.35E+03 1.23E+03 8.50E+03 2.06E+03	2.1	0.5	0.8
	0.757464	0.000011 0.51174150 0.00001188	-17.5	0.2	25	5.4	52	6	23	1.9
	0.751043	0.000015 0.51173085 0.00001158	-17.7	0.2	44	6.4	34	6.8	23	2.1
	4.54E-01 1.93E+00 5.18E+02 2.56E+02 9.96E+02 6.26E+02 3.70E+02 9.26E+02 1.42E+02 0.761057 0.000018 0.51174627 0.00001456 -17.4 0.3 15 5.2 61 6.4 24	0.18 1.89E+03 8.46E+02 2.77E+03 1.26E+03 2.2	6.2	2.2	5.0
	4.35E-01 1.96E+00 5.09E+02 2.52E+02 9.80E+02 6.16E+02 3.64E+02 7.72E+02 1.19E+02 0.752650 0.000014 0.51178040 0.00001487 -16.7 0.3 24 4.2 62 5.1 14	0.12 3.72E+03 1.75E+03 6.37E+03 3.05E+03 1.8	2.7	1.0	2.3
	------	------
	0.745646	0.000022 0.51173317 0.00001166	-17.7	0.2	57	6.4	22	6.7	21	2.1
	4.13E-01 2.00E+00 5.00E+02 2.47E+02 9.61E+02 6.04E+02 3.57E+02 6.46E+02 9.94E+01 0.760049 0.000018 0.51170371 0.00001004 -18.2 0.2 30 7.2 39 7.9 31	0.07 7.49E+03 3.20E+03 1.57E+04 6.44E+03 2.3	1.1	0.4	0.8
	0.763724	0.000019 0.51170403 0.00000998	-18.2	0.2	22	6.7	46	7.7	32	2.3
	4.10E-01 2.00E+00 4.99E+02 2.47E+02 9.59E+02 6.03E+02 3.56E+02 6.33E+02 9.74E+01	0.17 2.22E+03 1.62E+03 5.48E+03 3.25E+03	3.0	1.2	3.3
	4.33E-01 1.96E+00 5.08E+02 2.51E+02 9.78E+02 6.15E+02 3.63E+02 7.56E+02 1.16E+02 0.772719 0.000021 0.51165556 0.00001708 -19.2 0.3 20 8.7 36 10.3 45	0.05 1.20E+04 2.77E+03 2.14E+04 4.84E+03 2.9	0.8	0.2	0.3
	--------0.778028 0.000016 0.51168813 0.00001293 -18.5 0.3 43 . 7 5 5	5	-4 12 . 4	-----	-	-	-
	4.64E-01 1.91E+00 5.23E+02 2.58E+02 1.01E+03 6.32E+02 3.73E+02 9.47E+02 1.58E+02 0.768007 0.000013 0.51166939 0.00001110 -18.9 0.2 24 8.4 35 9.6 40	0.07 7.21E+03 2.58E+03 9.75E+03 3.30E+03 2.6	1.8	0.5	1.0
	0.759612	0.000014 0.51171628 0.00002468	-18.0	0.5	28	7.7	43	9.6	29	3.2
	0.753141	0.000007 0.51176498 0.00001681	-17.0	0.3	28	4.8	56	5.6	17	2
	0.762052	0.000012 0.51165706 0.00001886	-19.1	0.4	40	8.2	20	9.6	41	3.3
	0.776149	0.000012 0.51171704 0.00002276	-18.0	0.4	3	2.7	60	4.1	37	2.4
	0.769289	0.000021 0.51169808 0.00001983	-18.3	0.4	11	6.6	54	8.2	35	2.7
	0.780705	0.000010 0.51168735 0.00002054	-18.5	0.4	3	3	54	4.4	43	2.5
	0.808748	0.000016 0.51169632 0.00002625	-18.4	0.5	------
	0.749287	0.000013 0.51180184 0.00001428	-16.3	0.3	27	3.7	65	4.5	8	1.7
	0.772869	0.000012 0.51174613 0.00001071	-17.4	0.2	2	1.5	67	2.8	31	2.2
	0.779834	0.000016 0.51173708 0.00001134	-17.6	0.2	------
	0.768812	0.000013 0.51171557 0.00001660	-18.0	0.3	8	5.2	60	6.5	32	2.3
	0.768883	0.000017 0.51176618 0.00001465	-17.0	0.3	2	1.7	72	2.8	26	1.9
	0.768261	0.000015 0.51168208 0.00001214	-18.6	0.2	18	7.4	44	8.5	38	2.4
	0.769204	0.000017 0.51175890 0.00001034	-17.1	0.2	2	1.6	72	2.7	27	1.9
	0.752523	0.000011 0.51173628 0.00001113	-17.6	0.2	38	6	39	6.4	22	1.9
	0.756180	0.000016 0.51171448 0.00001301	-18.0	0.3	36	7.2	36	8.1	28	2.5
	0.749597	0.000014 0.51181569 0.00001016	-16.0	0.2	22	2.8	72	3.3	6	1.2
	------	------
	0.758575	0.000030 0.51176481 0.00000926	-17.0	0.2	15	4.1	66	5	19	1.7

Nd isotopic measurements Computed lithological fractions Sr-Nd isotopic measurements and computations

Table SVIII -6. Major and trace elements results on the feldspar fraction.

 SVIII .934 < L.D. 0.030 18.160 0.106 8.660 10.273 < L.D. 0.987 0.560 0.667 11.303 1.126 1.448 3.570 D. 35.637 2.030 174.604 0.690 0.254 1.381 2.565 169.490 0.334 0.170 3.371 Columns E-AX indicate major element results, columns AX-BI: trace element results, and columns BJ-BL: Li, Cl and Li. Measurements below the detection limit are indicated by < D.L.

	Site Valmiki sections #		No CRPG Uncertaintie	As ppm <20%	B aB eB i ppm ppm ppm <5% <20% <20% <20% C dC e ppm ppm <5% <20% C o ppm	C rC s ppm ppm ppm C u <5% <15% <20% <10% <5% <5% D y E r E uG a ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm G d <5% <10% <10% <10% G e H f ppm ppm
	< D.L. : below detection limit Detection limit	0.50	5.5	0.05	0.045	0.02	0.03	0.08	0.50	0.02	2.0 0.004 0.002 0.002	0.02 0.005	0.04 0.03
	Dwarda section
	Felsdpar
	Dwarda	Dwcos2		1708143	1.073	667.538	3.814 < L.D. 0.028	9.000 < L.D. 5.144	8.504 < L.D. 0.545 0.332 0.644 10.935 0.564 1.423 2.264
	Dwarda	Dwcos3		1708144	< L.D.	784.488	5.205 < L.D. 0.031 12.415 < L.D. 6.048	6.941 < L.D. 0.649 0.360 0.994 16.478 0.735 1.454 1.979
	Dwarda	Dwcos5		1708145	0.721	560.307	7.465	0.356 0.034 10.605 < L.D. 3.192 17.359 2.035 0.988 0.521 0.751 21.365 0.898 1.832 1.774
	Dwarda	Dwcos10		1708146	0.912	664.581 12.156	0.318 0.036 11.869 0.173 5.951 10.645 < L.D. 0.721 0.420 0.787 15.930 0.782 1.540 2.876
	Dwarda	Dwcos18	1708147 695.675 12Ho 0.658 In La Lu ppm ppm ppm ppm ppm Mo	Nb ppm	Nd ppm	Ni ppm	Pb ppm	Pr ppm	Rb ppm ppm Sc	Sb ppm ppm ppm Sm Sn	Sr ppm ppm Ta	Tb ppm ppm Th
												>10pp
												m:
	Uncertainties											<10%
	(%)											> 0.1
	(depending on											ppm:
	content)		<10%	<20%	<5%	<20%	>25%	<10% <15%	<5% <20%	<20%	<5% <15% <20% <15% <20%	<5% <10% <20% <10%
	Detection limit		0.001	0.03	0.02	0.001	0.50	0.015 0.016	2.0	0.45 0.004	0.15	0.6	0.06 0.005 0.30	0.70 0.004 0.001 0.015
	Dwcos2		0.116	< L.D.	4.773	0.058 < L.D.	1.183 3.545	< L.D. 42.575 0.993 185.808 < L.D. 0.107 0.698 1.548 174.429 0.182 0.089 1.731
	Dwcos3		0.132	< L.D.	6.792	0.060 < L.D.	1.046 4.713	< L.D. 59.436 1.327 207.823 < L.D. 0.087 0.921 1.578 283.549 0.163 0.112 2.304
	Dwcos5		0.197	< L.D.	5.589	0.078 < L.D.	1.464 4.209	< L.D. 75.584 1.188 349.160 < L.D. < L.D. 0.993 5.544 167.289 0.290 0.160 2.103
	Dwcos10		0.151	< L.D.	6.245	0.074	0.564	1.808 4.692	3.899 63.199 1.322 217.668 < L.D. 0.147 0.953 2.411 229.227 0.266 0.122 2.278
	Dwcos18		0.209	< L.D.	9.386	0.095 < L.D.	2.435 7.308	< L.

Table SVIII -7. Feldspar fraction 36 Cl results.

 SVIII

						Cl carrier data				Measurements
		Deconta
		minated		Cl carrier
		feldspar		solution				atoms of
		mass	1 σ	mass	1 σ mass of Cl	1 σ	Cl	1 σ 35 Cl/ 37 Cl	1 σ 36 Cl/ 35 Cl	1 σ
		(g)	(g)	(g)	(g)	(mg)		(atom)
	DWCOS2	58.09	0.05	0.272	0.005	1.88	0.10 3.24E+19 1.7E+18	10.14	0.10	8.99E-15 1.24E-15
	DWCOS3	80.59	0.05	0.274	0.005	1.90	0.10 3.27E+19 1.7E+18	5.02	0.05	1.33E-14 1.15E-15
	DWCOS4	43.90	0.05	0.278	0.005	1.93	0.10 3.32E+19 1.8E+18	11.03	0.11	9.15E-15 1.15E-15
	DWCOS5	85.64	0.05	0.269	0.005	1.86	0.10 3.20E+19 1.7E+18	6.39	0.06	1.05E-14 1.15E-15
	DWCOS7	50.43	0.05	0.274	0.005	1.90	0.10 3.27E+19 1.7E+18	10.96	0.11	7.90E-15 1.06E-15
	DWCOS10	76.09	0.05	0.276	0.005	1.91	0.10 3.29E+19 1.7E+18	7.21	0.06	1.07E-14 1.44E-15
	DWCOS18	83.74	0.05	0.274	0.005	1.90	0.10 3.27E+19 1.7E+18	5.87	0.07	1.03E-14 1.18E-15
	CL01 (Blank)			0.275	0.005	1.90	0.10 3.27E+19 1.7E+18	280.15	3.97	4.25E-15 7.68E-16
				Cl concentration in sample							36Cl concentration in sample
				blank-				Cl				blank-		blank			relative	36 Cl
				corrected				concentrat				corrected		correctio	36 Cl		uncertaint	paleoconc
		raw Cl	1 σ	Cl	1 σ Cl mass	1 σ	ion	1 σ raw 36 Cl	1 σ	36 Cl	1 σ	n	concentration	1 σ	y	entration	1 σ
		(atom)	(atom)	(atom)	(atom) (mg)	(mg)	(ppm)	(ppm)	(atom)	(atom)	(atom)	(atom)		(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)
	DWCOS2	1.88E+19	1.0E+18 1.85E+19	1.0E+18	1.08938	0.0602	18.8	1.0 4.19E+05 5.84E+04	2.79E+05 6.36E+04	33%	4.80E+03 1.10E+03	23% 9.26E+03 2.59E+03
	DWCOS3	7.09E+19	4.1E+18 7.05E+19	4.1E+18	4.15199	0.2435	51.5	3.0 1.15E+06 1.08E+05	1.01E+06 1.11E+05	12%	1.25E+04 1.37E+03	11% 2.57E+04 4.13E+03
	DWCOS4	1.71E+19	9.3E+17 1.67E+19	9.3E+17	0.98563	0.0545	22.5	1.2 4.22E+05 5.33E+04	2.82E+05 5.90E+04	33%	6.41E+03 1.34E+03	21% 1.34E+04 3.49E+03
	DWCOS5	4.02E+19	2.3E+18 3.99E+19	2.3E+18	2.34894	0.1328	27.4	1.6 6.54E+05 7.41E+04	5.14E+05 7.83E+04	21%	6.00E+03 9.14E+02	15% 1.33E+04 2.70E+03
	DWCOS7	1.70E+19	9.2E+17 1.66E+19	9.2E+17	0.97988	0.0544	19.4	1.1 3.60E+05 4.85E+04	2.20E+05 5.47E+04	39%	4.35E+03 1.08E+03	25% 1.12E+04 3.37E+03
	DWCOS10	3.29E+19	1.8E+18 3.26E+19	1.8E+18	1.91736	0.1061	25.2	1.4 6.20E+05 8.45E+04	4.80E+05 8.83E+04	23%	6.31E+03 1.16E+03	18% 2.04E+04 4.80E+03
	DWCOS18	4.87E+19	2.8E+18 4.84E+19	2.8E+18	2.84879	0.1650	34.0	2.0 7.16E+05 8.51E+04	5.76E+05 8.88E+04	20%	6.88E+03 1.06E+03	15% 5.70E+04 1.17E+04
	CL01 (Blank)	3.38E+17	1.9E+16							1.40E+05 2.53E+04
	Parameters
	Natural chlorine	MM	ratio	6.02E+23
	35nat	75.77%	34.969	3.1271 avogadro number
	37nat	24.23%	36.966
	Clnat	100%	35.453

Table SVIII -9. Recent exposure model.

 SVIII Parameters Columns E-I indicate the results of the simple model and columns M-O present its parameters.Incision rate Shielding factor (mm/y)

					10 Be recent
					exposure
	Age	Depth	Porosity	Density	contribution min	max	-1 σ	+1 σ	Mean	5	0.65
	(Ma)	(m)		(g/cm3)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	(atom/g)	Min	3	0.45
										Max	7	0.75
	0	0	0.49	1.87	535	265	1029	270	494
	1	465	0.43	1.97	508	251	977	257	469
	2	929	0.38	2.05	487	241	936	246	449
	3	1394	0.34	2.13	469	232	902	237	433
	4	1859	0.30	2.20	455	225	875	230	420
	5	2324	0.26	2.26	443	219	852	224	409
	6	2788	0.23	2.31	433	214	832	219	399
	7	3253	0.20	2.35	424	210	816	214	392
	8	3718	0.18	2.40	417	206	802	211	385

Be concentrations are partially controlled by the distinct contributions of the Ganga and Brahmaputra drainage basins, which can be accounted for by the Sr and Nd isotopic compositions of the sediment.Despite changes in the sediment source, the reconstructed paleoerosion rates have remained stable for the last 6 Ma and do not reveal any visible impact of the late Cenozoic climate change on the erosion of the Himalaya.

Le résultat secondaire est l'augmentation des taux d'érosion pendant la périodede 7,4 à 5 Ma. Nous soulignons que cette augmentation doit être confirmée par d'autres mesures et modélisations. Une fois confirmée, cette augmentation pourrait signifier que l'initiation du duplexage a été plus tardive dans le centre du Népal que dans l'ouest du pays et que les paysages ont mis plusieurs millions d'années à s'adapter à cette nouvelle configuration tectonique. Cela remet en question l'hypothèse selon laquelle l'Himalaya dans le centre du Népal est en état d'équilibre depuis 10 Ma, du moins jusqu'à 5 Ma, ce qui devrait avoir un impact sur les études sur l'érosion dans cette région.Dernier point concernant l'enregistrement de Valmiki, les taux d'érosion apparents dérivés de nos concentrations en[START_REF]Be data 10 Table SVI-1[END_REF] Be présentent une forte variabilité depuis 3,2 Ma. Ceci confirme des résultats antérieurs qui montrent le poids écrasant dans les sédiments des glissements de terrain à base profonde ou des glissements de terrain affectant les crêtes des chaînes de montagnes[START_REF] Puchol | Grain-size dependent concentration of cosmogenic 10Be and erosion dynamics in a landslidedominated Himalayan watershed[END_REF][START_REF] Dingle | Temporal variability in detrital 10Be concentrations in a large Himalayan catchment[END_REF]. Nous notons toutefois que la variabilité passée est beaucoup plus grande qu'à l'époque moderne, ce qui suggère qu'aucun analogue moderne des glissements de terrain que nous pouvons détecter dans notre enregistrement n'aurait jamais existé dans l'histoire récente. Cette variabilité n'affecte pas l'évolution du taux d'érosion moyen et nos conclusions.X.3. CONCLUSIONNos résultats démontrent que les taux d'érosion moyens dans l'Himalaya n'ont pas augmenté depuis au moins ca. 5 Ma, en dépit d'un changement important des conditions climatiques, comme le suggèrent nos mesures isotopiques complémentaires des concentrations en[START_REF]Be data 10 Table SVI-1[END_REF] Be. Cela implique que le changement climatique ne peut à lui seul augmenter ou diminuer les taux moyens d'érosion dans l'Himalaya, et que la tectonique est le principal moteur des variations des taux d'érosion moyens.Cependant, cela ne contredit pas les variations locales des taux d'érosion selon le climat, comme le montrerait notre analyse de provenance sur les sections Valmiki ou certaines études thermochronométriques in situ[START_REF] Huntington | Climate change and Late Pliocene acceleration of erosion in the Himalaya[END_REF]. Pour obtenir un taux d'érosion moyen stable dans le bassin, une augmentation locale des taux d'érosion devrait être compensée par une diminution locale des taux d'érosion ailleurs. Mais ce concept nécessite de nouvelles mesures et modélisations pour être exploré.La question à un million de dollars se pose à présent ainsi : pouvons-nous étendre notre approche et nos conclusions à d'autres chaînes de montagnes dans le monde ? Nous avons bénéficié de l'abondance en sable, provenant du volume considérable de sédiments fournis par la chaîne himalayenne, des bonnes contraintes de datation, de la grande taille du bassin de drainage amortissant les évolutions marginales du réseau de drainage, et des différences significatives dans la signature isotopique des formations couvrant le bassin de drainage. Une telle configuration idéale n'est peut-être pas disponible ailleurs, comme le

[START_REF] Vidal | Crustal melting and granite genesis during the Himalayan collision orogenesis[END_REF] Vidal et al., 1982 Vidal et al., 1982[START_REF] Vidal | Crustal melting and granite genesis during the Himalayan collision orogenesis[END_REF] al., 0.51184 2 -15.6 Deniel et al., 1987; Vidal et al., 1984 Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., Deniel et al., 0.511981 21 -12.8 Deniel et al., Deniel et al.,

Be measurements

Be resultsSr-Nd isotopic measurements Sr-Nd isotopic data

Be data

Be/ 9 Be measurements

Be measurements and computations

Cl production rate including erosion

Acknowledgements

The samples were provided by IODP. The staff of IODP Kochi Core Center are thanked for their assistance for sample collection in February 2019. Funding was provided by a Université de Lorraine-CRPG PhD fellowship and a Université de Poitiers A.T.E.R. of S.L. and ANR Himal Fan project.

Acknowledgments

The samples were provided by IODP. The staff of IODP Kochi Core Center are acknowledged for their assistance for sample collection, and the teams of CRPG, SARM and CEREGE for their assistance in sample preparation and measurements. The 10 Be measurements were performed at the ASTER AMS national facility (CEREGE, Aix en Provence) which is supported by the INSU/CNRS, the ANR through the "Projets thématiques d'excellence" program for the "Equipements d'excellence" ASTER-CEREGE action and IRD. Funding was provided by a Université de Lorraine-CRPG PhD fellowship and a Université de Poitiers A.T.E.R. of S.L. and ANR Himal Fan project. Acknowledgments The Bihar State Forest Department is acknowledged for authorization for working and sampling in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, National Park & Tiger Reserve. V. Jain and R. Sinha are warmly acknowledged for their assistance in getting these authorizations. The teams of CRPG and SARM, along with Master students from the ENSG are thanked for their assistance in sample preparation and measurements. The field and analytic works were funded by the ANR Calimero, ANR Himal Fan projects and an INSU Syster project. S. Lenard PhD funding was provided by a Université de Lorraine-CRPG 3year PhD fellowship and a Université de Poitiers 1-year A.T.E.R.. Acknowledgments The Bihar State Forest Department is acknowledged for authorization for working and sampling in the Valmiki Wildlife Sanctuary, National Park & Tiger Reserve. V. Jain and R. Sinha are warmly acknowledged for their assistance in getting these authorizations. The teams of CRPG and SARM, along with The teams of CRPG, SARM and CEREGE are thanked for their assistance in sample preparation and measurements. The 10 Be measurements were performed at the ASTER AMS national facility (CEREGE, Aix en Provence) which is supported by the INSU/CNRS, the ANR through the "Projets thématiques d'excellence" program for the "Equipements d'excellence" ASTER-CEREGE action and IRD. The field and analytic works were funded by the ANR Calimero, ANR Himal Fan projects and an INSU Syster project. S. Lenard PhD funding was provided by a Université de Lorraine-CRPG 3-year PhD fellowship and a Université de Poitiers 1-year A.T.E.R..

TSS SXI (12)-2 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm TSS SXI (9)-1 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm TSS SXI (8)-3 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm TSS SXI (1)-2 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm TSS SXI (1)-1 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm TSS SXII (1)-1 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm TSS SXII (9)-3 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm THB SXI(2)-1 S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm THB SXI(1)-1-(2S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm THB Pyroxene i S.E. Tibet S. Lhasa, S. Yarlung Tsangpo Sangxiu Fm THB YZS-1 S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze Yarlung Tsanpo suture THB YZS-2 S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze Yarlung Tsanpo suture THB YZS-3 S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze Yarlung Tsanpo suture THB YZS-6 S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze Yarlung Tsanpo suture THB YZS-7 S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze Yarlung Tsanpo suture THB YZS-11 S.E. Tibet S.W. Lhasa, Xigaze Yarlung Tsanpo suture TSS 0319-02 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0319-03 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0319-07 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0321-021 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0321-12 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0321-011 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0321-08 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0321-09 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0321-031 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0321-041 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0323-02 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0322-01 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0322-04 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0323-01 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0323-03 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0323-04 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Yardoi gneiss dome TSS 0321-07 S.E. Tibet S.E. Lhasa Reference CommenFull reference

Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 0.51187 -15.0 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 0.51252 -2.3 Inger and Harris, 1993 0.51192 -14.0 Inger and Harris, 1993 0.51195 -13.4 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993 Inger and Harris, 1993

Full reference

van der Beek, P., Robert, X., Mugnier, J.-L., Bernet, M., Huyghe, P., Labrin, E., 2006. Late Miocene-recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal. Basin Research 18, 413-434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00305.x Naylor, M., Sinclair, H.D., Bernet, M., van der Beek, P., Kirstein, L.A., 2015. Bias in detrital fission track grain-age populations: Implications for reconstructing changing erosion rates. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 422, 94-104. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.epsl.2015.04.020 van der Beek, P., Robert, X., Mugnier, J.-L., Bernet, M., Huyghe, P., Labrin, E., 2006. Late Miocene-recent exhumation of the central Himalaya and recycling in the foreland basin assessed by apatite fission-track thermochronology of Siwalik sediments, Nepal. Basin Research 18, 413-434. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1365-2117.2006.00305.x Bernet, M., van der Beek, P., Pik, R., Huyghe, P., Mugnier, J.-L., Labrin, E., Szulc, A., 2006. Miocene to Recent exhumation of the central Himalaya determined from combined detrital zircon fission-track and U/Pb analysis of Siwalik sediments, western Nepal. Basin Research 18,

IV. METHODOLOGIC OVERVIEW

Author contributions

C.F.L. designed the study. J.C. performed the nannofossil observations. S.L. and J.L. performed the computing for the age model. B.R. supplied the part of the age model younger than 1.2 Ma. S.L. J.C., C.F.L. and J.L. interpreted the results and wrote the manuscript.

V.5. TABLES

In Tables attached to this manuscript.

Author contributions

C.F.L. and J.L. designed the study. S.L. and T.A. performed the measurements. J.L. and S.L. performed the computations. S.L., J.L. and C.F.L. interpreted the results and wrote the manuscript.

Age (Ma) Age (Ma) Age (Ma)

Author contributions

Potential co-authors: Sebastien J.P. Lenard* 1 , Jérôme Lavé 1 , Julien Charreau 1 , Christian France-Lanord 1 , Thomas Rigaudier 1 , Ananta Gajurel 2 , Rahul Kumar Kaushal 3 , Raphaël Pik 1 1 CRPG, Université de Lorraine, 15 rue Notre Dame des Pauvres, 54500 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France 2 Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal 3 Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar (IITGN), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, 382355, India J.L., C.F.L. and J.C. designed the study. J.C., J.L., S.L., A.G., R.K., R.P. and C.F.L. collected the samples.

A.G. and J.L. log the sedimentary facies. J.C. and S.L performed the paleomagnetic measurements. J.C. reconstructed the magnetostratigraphic timescale. S.L., O.L. and T.R. performed the oxygen and carbon isotopic measurements. J.L. performed the structural analysis. SL., J.L., J.C. and C.F.L. interpreted the results and wrote the manuscript.

Author contributions

Potential co-authors: Sebastien J.P. Lenard* 1 , Jérôme Lavé 1 , Christian France-Lanord 1 , Julien Charreau 1 , Catherine Zimmermann 1 , Aymeric Schumacher 1 , Rahul Kumar Kaushal 2 , Ananta Gajurel 3 , Raphaël Pik 1 , ASTER Team 4 † 1 CRPG, Université de Lorraine, 15 rue Notre Dame des Pauvres, 54500 Vandoeuvre-lès-Nancy, France 2 Indian Institute of Technology Gandhinagar (IITGN), Gandhinagar, Gujarat, 382355, India 3 Department of Geology, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal 4 Université Aix-Marseille, CNRS-IRD-Collège de France, UM 34 CEREGE, Technopôle de l'Environnement Arbois-Méditerranée, BP80, 13545 Aix-en-Provence, France † Georges Aumaître, Didier L Bourlès, Karim Keddadouche, Laetitia Leanni J.L., C.F.L. and J.C. designed the study. J.C., J.L., S.L., C.F.L., A.G., R.K. and R.P. collected the samples. S.L., A.T., C.Z., A.S. performed the measurements. J.L., J.C. and S.L. performed the computations. SL., J.L. and C.F.L. interpreted the results and wrote the manuscript. King et al., 2011King et al., 2011King et al., 2011King et al., 2011King et al., 20110.512247 4E-06 -7.6 King et al., 20110.512143 2E-06 -9.7 King et al., 2011King et al., 2011King et al., 2011King et al., 2011King et al., 20110.511623 4E-06 -19.8 King et al., 2011 King et al., 2011King et al., 2011King et al., 20110.51193 4E-06 -13.8 King et al., 20110.512039 1E-05 -11.7 Zhang et al., 2004 Zhang, H., Harris, N., Parrish, R., Kelley, S., Zhang, L., Rogers, N., Argles, T., King, J., 2004. Causes and consequences of protracted melting of the mid-crust exposed in the North Himalayan antiform. Earth and Planetary Science Letters 228, 195-212. 0.512093 9E-06 -10.6 Zhang et al., 20040.512065 7E-06 -11.2 Zhang et al., 20040.512007 7E-06 -12.3 Zhang et al., 20040.511932 1E-05 -13.8 Zhang et al., 20040.511951 9E-06 -13.4 Zhang et al., 20040.511927 8E-06 -13.9 Zhang et al., 20040.511968 9E-06 -13.1 Zhang et al., 20040.511934 9E-06 -13.7 Zhang et al., 2004 0.51191 ###### -14. 2 Zhang et al., 20040.511944 2E-05 -13.5 Zhang et al., 20040.511951 8E-06 -13.4 Zhang et al., 2004[START_REF] Zhang | Continuous deformation of the Tibetan Plateau from global positioning system data[END_REF]0.511647 1E-05 -19.3 Zhang et al., 20040.511697 9E-06 -18.4 Zhang et al., 20040.511662 1E-05 -19.0 Zhang et al., 20040.51191 8E-06 -14.2 Zhang et al., 20040.511995 1E-05 -12.5 Zhang et al., 20040.511937 8E-06 -13.7 Zhang et al., 20040.512021 1E-05 -12.0 Zhang et al., 20040.511876 9E-06 -14.9 Zhang et al., 20040.511842 1E-05 -15.5 Zhang et al., 20040.511797 8E-06 -16.4 Zhang et al., 20040.511889 9E-06 -14.6 Zhang et al., 20040.511726 7E-06 -17.8 Zhang et al., 20040.511806 7E-06 -16.2 Zhang et al., 2004[START_REF] Zhang | Continuous deformation of the Tibetan Plateau from global positioning system data[END_REF]0.511877 5E-06 -14.8 Zhang et al., 20040.51189 8E-06 -14.6 Zhang et al., 2004Goswami, 2013 Goswami, T.K., 2013. Subduction related magmatism: Constrains from the REE pattern in the Lohit Batholith, Arunachal Pradesh, India. Geosciences 3, 128-141. Goswami, 2013Goswami, 2013Goswami, 2013Goswami, 2013Goswami, 2013Goswami, 2013 Goswami, 2013 The table includes all measured Bengal Fan and Lower Meghna samples. Sample information (col. A to L) includes the geographic coordinates, the drilling core depth below sea-floor (CSF-A) and the ages determined with distinct previous models. 10 Be data (col. N to AI) presents the fractions selected for measurement (col. N-O), the mass of quartz decontaminated from the atmospheric contribution, the measurements of 9 Be (carrier + potential native 9 Be) by SARM (col. P to V), the measurements of 10 Be/ 9

X. SYNTHESE

Be at ASTER (col. W to AA), the 10Be paleoconcentrations computed with the ages (col. AB-AF) and the apparent Himalayan erosion rates (AH-AI). The nominal concentration of the carrier is [ 9 Be] = 2020±83 ppm. The measured 9 Be concentrations are on average 15% lower than the predicted concentrations, because of the potential loss of Be after addition of the 9 Be carrier, during dissolution and evaporation. The 10 Be/ 9 Be results were corrected from the average blank (Table S3). The 1-σ uncertainty for 10Be results include a correction obtained with the average difference between the results presented in Table S1 and the duplicate measurements presented in Table S2. Apparent Himalayan erosion rates were computed with the production rates of the Himalayan part of the Lower Meghna basin and by removing the Indian cratonic contribution. Sr-Nd isotopic measurement and f G computing results are presented col. AK to AR. 143 Nd/ 144 Nd are reported as εNd(0), using CHUR(0) = 0.512638 [START_REF] Goldstein | A Sm-Nd isotopic study of atmospheric dusts and particulates from major river systems[END_REF]. For the Lower Meghna sand, Sr-Nd data are unpublished data from France-Lanord and Galy and measured similarly than our data, except for the sample BR 446, which is from Lupker and France-Lanord and was prepared with HCl leaching. The computing results for the test of the climate forcing hypothesis are in col. AT to AW.

Sample information

Localisation Age Be data are averaged from Lupker et al. (2012[START_REF] Lupker | 10Be systematics in the Tsangpo-Brahmaputra catchment: the cosmogenic nuclide legacy of the eastern Himalayan syntaxis[END_REF]). The production rates were computed using Basinga [START_REF] Charreau | Basinga: A cell-by-cell GIS toolbox for computing basin average scaling factors, cosmogenic production rates and denudation rates[END_REF] with the Lal-Stone / ERA40 atmosphere configuration using a sea-level high latitude production rate of 4.18 atom/g/y [START_REF] Martin | The CREp program and the ICE-D production rate calibration database: A fully parameterizable and updated online tool to compute cosmic-ray exposure ages[END_REF], factors for different particle production rates of 0.9886 for spallation, 0.0027 for slow muons, 0.0087 for fast muons and attenuation lengths of 260 g/cm2 for slow muons and 510 g/cm2 for fast muons [START_REF] Braucher | Production of cosmogenic radionuclides at great depth: A multi element approach[END_REF], and the basins defined in the Extended Methods.

Sr-Nd

Approximate areas (km 2 )

Sample information

Magnetostratigraphic correlation results

Field observations at the location of silty/clayey samples are indicated. The samples with an even number (e.g. T554), having the same location than the samples with an odd number (e.g. T553) are not represented. The sample depth considered for interpretation is the tape-meter computed depth, obtained from tape-meter length, dips and GPS coordinates. The results of the magnetostratigraphic correlation [START_REF] Lallier | Management of ambiguities in magnetostratigraphic correlation[END_REF] is indicated in columns J-K.

Sample information oxygen-carbon isotopic measurements

Columns A-G indicate sandy sample information, columns H-J: oxygen-carbon isotopic results, columns K-BC: trace element results, columns BD-BO: major element results. Measurements below the detection limit are indicated by < D.L. Samples are split in several series, according their collection and processing. The depth (m) was obtained with the GPS coordinates. Arbitrary 1-σ age uncertainty of 0.1 Ma.

Table SVII

Ganguli section

Be measurements and computations

The table includes all measured Valmiki samples. Sample information (col. A to H) includes the geographic coordinates, the stratigraphic depth and the ages determined with magnetostratigraphy (this thesis, Chapter VII). 10 Be data (col. J to AU) presents the fractions selected for measurement (col. J-L), the mass of quartz decontaminated from the atmospheric contribution, the measurements of 9 Be (carrier + potential native 9Be) by SARM (col. M-R), the measurements of 10Be/9Be at ASTER (col. S-Z), the raw 10 Be concentrations (col. 11-AD), the 10Be corrections (col. AE-AN) and the corrected concentrations and paleoconcentrations computed with the ages (col. AO-AR) and the apparent Himalayan erosion rates (AS-AU). The nominal concentration of the carrier is indicated in column M. The measured 9Be concentrations are distinct from the predicted concentrations, because of the potential enriched Be content due to the large mass of dissolved quartz. The 10 Be/ 9

Be results were corrected from the average blank (Table S3). The 10 Be concentration was computed using the maximum value , between the predicted and measured values of of 9

Be. Two samples have duplicates (Table SVIII-2) and only the average values are presented in Table SVIII-1. Apparent Himalayan erosion rates were computed with the production rates of the Narayani basin, excluding the area covered by Siwalik formations. Sr-Nd isotopic measurement and lithological fraction computing results are presented col. AW-BH. 143 Nd/ 144 Nd are reported as εNd(0), using CHUR(0) = 0.512638 [START_REF] Goldstein | A Sm-Nd isotopic study of atmospheric dusts and particulates from major river systems[END_REF]. The lithological fractions do not take into account for 40% of the TSS contribution originating from carbonates.

Sample information

Mass of decontaminated quartz 9

Be carrier measurements ------------------------------------------------