Hang Zhu

Sujoy Saha
email: sujoy1@ualberta.ca

Detection and Segmentation of Elements in Traffic: A Survey

Keywords: Element Detection, Pedestrian Detection, Autonomous Driving, Image processing, Image analysis, Image segmentation

As one of the important applications of computer vision, the study of object detection has been deeply explored by many researchers. Some of its sub-topics, for instance, face detection and pedestrian detection, have already been applied in real-world applications. These successful applications suggest the great potential of object detection methodology in assisting human activities. With the advance of technology, the need for automatic image analysis rises rapidly in many scenarios. More and more cases that require real-time image analysis emerges. To fulfill this demand, pipelines are created to be compatible with different devices. For instance, as the autonomous vehicle becomes popular, the carputer, which is the central control unit of all the vehicle components, is taking more responsibility for processing data from the sensors, thus results in a limitation on pipeline computational cost. In this survey, we reviewed some of the existing detection and/or segmentation projects and explored their feasibility of further adaptions.

I. INTRODUCTION

Image analysis is a study to extract meaningful information from images. In recent decades, the process of image analysis has been greatly optimized by the intervening of computer vision techniques. With the participation of image processing and even machine learning methods, the analysis of images can be fully automated. This automation results in an efficiency boost in the process. With this improvement, automated image analysis has unlocked many possibilities in its applications. For example, in the medical radiology field, Computer-Aided-Diagnosis methods have become common for their convenience and accuracy. Object detection, segmentation, recognition, and tracking is an important and iconic application chain of image analysis techniques. This chain demonstrates an example of how the computer understands the scene and help human making decisions. In recent years, with the rising of drones, robotic applications, and autonomous driving, this application chain has expanded its usage in many more scenarios. However, taking detection tasks as an example, traditional image processing methods have their limitations in many aspects, thus the accuracy and reaction time cannot be applicable in a real-world complex scenario. On the other hand, trending machine learning methods can outperform traditional image processing methods, but this improvement is at the cost of significantly more computation power requirement on the hardware level, and labour consuming to manually label largescale datasets. Recent researches have worked on obtaining a more accurate model will less training set, but for various applications, the trade-off balancing is still needs to be determined For a specific application scenario, namely autonomous driving, the task is to detect and segment traffic elements in a time-sensitive manner and send out alerts in time. This situation requires the model to be able to perform the detection and segmentation in real-time while keeping the model to be light-weighted enough to execute on a car-mounted computer. Therefore, for a scenario like this, the model needs to be specifically designed and optimized from the experimental model to become an industrial application.

II. RELATED WORK

In this section, we will focus on the detection and segmentation task and review several previous works.

A. Review of Detection

The study of detection is consists of several subtopics. These sub-topics can be differentiated into categories of feature detection and objection. The former searches for points, lines, edges, and small patches, while the latter searches larger image areas for certain objects. Both categories have been deeply researched.

1) Hough Transform for Feature Detection in Panoramic Images: Symmetric mirrors and conventional lean systems can be archived in a single camera, because of the use of directional sensors. This drives the challenges that the mirrors violate the single viewpoint(SVP) criteria and functional equivalence is no more suitable for a standard perspective projection. Filla and Busa [START_REF] Fiala | Hough transform for feature detection in panoramic images[END_REF] recognize a new method to utilize these non-SVP mirrors, in which they detect features in panoramic non-SVP images using a modified Hough Transform. They bring a model for this feature extraction, validate the model, and show robust performance.

Panoramic image capture sensors are those that can capture light from a 360 field-of-view, and the main challenge posed by the sensor is to detect the straight line. Fila and Basu [START_REF] Fiala | Hough transform for feature detection in panoramic images[END_REF] proposed a new method and theory to detect horizontal line features, which is achieved by recovery of straight lines in single viewpoint panoramic-catadioptric image sensors, Panoramic Hough transform for non-SVP catadioptric systems and recognizing projections of horizontal lines. The contribution of this in detecting straight line is a standard Hough transform for detecting straight lines are sufficient since they manifest themselves as straight radial lines

Their model shows improvement to the basis of Panoramic Hough transform and applications to panoramic stereo reconstruction. The new Panoramic Hough transform offers a new way to detect horizontal lines in the panoramic image, which could be sued for panoramic sensors with non-SVP mirror.

2) Motion Detection using Background Constraints: Elnagar and Basu [START_REF] Elnagar | Motion detection using background constraints[END_REF] introduce technique in motion detection. Which is to detect moving objects from a moving camera using background constraint. The motion is detected by computing the corresponding pixels in images. Background compensation which provides knowledge in recover projected local velocity can be used to eliminates rotations and translation effects. For better performance, they use a morphological filter to eliminate fast motion inaccuracies. Real Experimental results show the robust performance of the algorithm in detecting independently moving objects from a mobile platform.

They describe the algorithm for independent motion detection from translate and rotate the camera. Overall, with Inaccuracy in position readings taken into account, experimental results with real images show the validity and the robustness of the method based on background constraints.

B. Review of Segmentation

After a target is detected, the typical next operation is segmentation. It usually refers to the detection target of an object, rather than image components like edges and points. Segmentation task partition image into segments for further analyses and/or operations. It is well lectured that the segmentation technique has been applied in applications in industrial projects, namely organ segmentation in the medical field, road segmentation in autonomous driving, and text segmentation for the study of natural language processing.

1) Airway Segmentation and Volume Estimation: In 2007, Cheng et al. proposed a project to assist the tracking of the changes of the airway before and after a medical procedure by introducing an image processing method to measure the volume of the airway. [START_REF] Cheng | Airway segmentation and measurement in ct images[END_REF] They used a refined variant of snake/active contour model, namely gradient vector flow (GVF) snakes, to find the continuous edge of certain areas by converging a curve to the edges through iterations of energy minimization. With their GVF snake model, they improved the base model performance by eliminating the constraints of concave boundaries and initialization far from minimum. The goal was to minimize the following energy function:

E = µ(u 2 x +u 2 y +v 2 x +v 2 y )+| f | 2 |v -f | 2 dxdy
(1) where f (x, y)is the edge map of the image and µ is a trade-off parameter. Notably, their pipeline was defined as semiautomatic since the initial contour seed needs to be manually placed. Even though human interactivity is minimized to the first slice only, and the further transactions between following slices are inherited automatically, it still reveals some limitations to the proposed model. Their model shows a promising result with less than 2% errors in the volume estimation. This success suggests a typical application example of image analysis methodology in assisting medical diagnosis. The pipeline can also achieve higher accuracy with a smaller inter-slice distance.

2) Segmentation in Intravascular Ultrasound Cross-Sectional Images: Similar to the airway project, Faraji et al. proposed their method to segment arterial wall boundaries from the special ultrasound image of vessels. [START_REF] Faraji | Segmentation of arterial walls in intravascular ultrasound cross-sectional images using extremal region selection[END_REF] This task is crucial for quantitative analysis of the vessel walls and plaque characteristics. It will also benefit the 3D vessel model reconstruction. Their approach was evolved from a state-of-art region detection strategy and integrated with a novel feature extraction method named Extremal Regions of Extremum Levels (EREL) to segment lumen and media. After regions being extracted, the boundary length of the regions can be calculated based on a bottom-up tracking of boundary pixels along a parametric curve C(p) through:

L = 1 0 ∂C(p) ∂p dp (2)
Compared with CT slices, image analysis on ultrasound images is harder since they usually suffer from noises from various sources. Due to the specialties of ultrasound images, regular noise reductions performs unsatisfying because it is hard to distinguish noise and organ texture. Even with such drawbacks, their method is still able to achieve an outstanding result of 0.29 mm for images with shadows and 0.24 mm for side vessels while the average Hausdorff distance is 0.3 mm. The study of segmentation is not a newly emerged topic. Researches on various object segmentation can trace back to the last century. In 1999, Yin et al. implemented a method to segment facial areas. [START_REF] Yin | Integrating active face tracking with model based coding[END_REF] Their results suggest a very accurate segmentation result with the boundaries are fit the outline of the facial area. Nowadays, online conferences still use facial segmentation or other segmentation methods to distinguish human figures from the background. The segmentation application has a very close bond to daily usages.

3) Automatic Segmentation of Spinal Cord MRI Using Symmetric Boundary Tracing: A fully automatic adaptive active contour tracing algorithm is developed [START_REF] Mukherjee | Automatic segmentation of spinal cord mri using symmetric boundary tracing[END_REF] to extract the spinal cord from MRI. They provided visual guidance for rehabilitation surgery planning.

Intraspinal microstimulation (ISMS) requires the implant of microwires to stimulate nerve cells. Based on a reflective symmetry they have provided a segmentation technique. It evolves a gradient-based open-ended contour by using an energy-minimizing dynamic programming technique.

They drew a circle on the center of the spinal cord region and divided it into two halves. Then the symmetry axis is obtained by comparing the scores of each sector of the half circles. These symmetry axis helps to unskew the image.

The active tracing algorithm is needed to be used to segment muscle regions. And its also needed to be performed in all the slices to visualize the entire spinal cord. But due to the presence of anatomical irregularities in some parts, the shortest path tracing doesn't work well in all the slices. Therefore, evolving the active trace results (for one slice) along the normal direction of the contour to counter abnormalities (in other slices) can solve that problem.

They have used dynamic-programming-based energy minimization techniques instead of exhaustive searches to get the active trace. They have also stated the morphological change in slice anatomy can be incorporated using a temporal constraint while evolving the active trace.

They compared results after using these two techniques on an MRI data set with the output obtained by human experts. They observed that if the sector of the half circles is more than 15 then the variation in error is marginal.

4) Gradient Vector Flow based Active Shape Model for Lung Field Segmentation in Chest Radiographs: Active Contour Model (also known as Snake), and a deformable model incorporating prior knowledge called Active Shape Model (ASM) are effective lung segmentation models from a chest radiograph. A segmentation model was proposed by integrating a global field called Gradient Flow Vector with the ASM using point evolution was proposed. [START_REF] Yuan | Gradient vector flow driven active shape for image segmentation[END_REF] A new modified GVF-ASM model was proposed [START_REF] Xu | Gradient vector flow based active shape model for lung field segmentation in chest radiographs[END_REF] with a new point evolution equation to make the point evolution technique less dependent on selected parameters. Using the new model improves the robustness and accuracy of the segmentation.

C. Review of Optimization

In previous sections, we have discussed many applications in the fields of medical imaging, autonomous driving, and even daily applications. It is well lectured that methodologies in different scenarios have different demands and characteristics. Even the same task needs to be finished differently according to the field. For example, for a detection task, in medical imaging, targets usually tend to be at the centre of the image, while for autonomous driving recording detection, pedestrians and other traffic elements tend to appear from the border areas of an image. Directing the method to the target area can largely improve its performance, thus optimizations can be of great use.

Inspiring by bionic technology, a special lens of a super-wide angle of view was invented, named fisheye lens due to their similarity. This special lens can create measurable barrel distortion on the image so that the centre area of the image will be enlarged and taking up more pixels. [START_REF] Basu | Modeling fish-eye lenses[END_REF] Researches have been made to take the advantage of such distortion. The study named variable resolution technique, devoted to performing image processing methods and image analysis techniques on barrel distorted images. Due to the fact that of the same area of view, barrel distorted images use more pixels to represent the centre area where the interested target frequently appears, variable resolution methods had their unique advantages in many applications. [START_REF] Basu | Variable resolution teleconferencing[END_REF], [START_REF] Li | Variable-resolution character thinning[END_REF] Similar concept can also be applied to modern researches. As discussed earlier, some applications like medical imaging, usually put the target area at the centre of an image, if a method can be optimized with the concept of variable resolution, it can benefit from the increased image quality at the centre.

D. Review of Other Applications

1) Active Calibration of Cameras:Theory and Implementation: Camera calibration is required for any process where 2D images needs to be related with the 3D world. Camera calibration relates optical feature of a lens to the sensing devices.

Almost all camera calibration techniques requires a predefined patters and static camera. In the paper [START_REF] Basu | Active calibration of cameras: theory and implementation[END_REF] author has provided a new technique of calibrating ca,era which doesn't require a predefined pattern. It works with an active camera and it needs few prominent edges.

In the paper two schemes has been discussed. In the first technique, three contours are required and based on the movement of the contours after pan and tilt the focal length and error in image centre can be computed. This technique doesn't require any predefined pattern and it works very well for images without noise.

In another technique, focal length is computed using one single contour. And the error in lens centre is computed using another independent contour. This strategy gives reasonably good estimates when the noise is as large as 15 percent.

2) Pose Recognition using the Radon Transform: In the paper [START_REF] Singh | Pose recognition using the radon transform[END_REF] Authors have provided a novel method for pose recognition using Radon Transform method.

In the approach, the foreground-background separation has been done using a statistical background modeling approach after acquiring the image. Then thinning is applied to the output to get the skeleton of each segment. Now the Radon transform is used to detect the orientation of the lines. Then the output is binarized by comparing with a threshold value which is computed based on maximum and minimum value of RT coefficient. The centroid is calculated of each group which is determined by performing an image dialton operation on the binarized transform space.

Next Spatial Maxima Mapping (SMM) algorithm is used to compare a known pose and an unknown pose.

These approach has given an overall correct recognition of 87%.

3) Stereo Matching Using Random Walks: In this paper, [START_REF] Shen | Stereo matching using random walks[END_REF] the author has provided a stereo matching technique using a random walk algorithm. In the algorithm, they have computed a set of reliable matching pixels by doing left-right checking for both the images.

A disparity validation test is performed for the textureless region to rectify the disparity value assigned. Due to the similarity of a pixel to its neighboring pixels, a small disparity is may be assigned while the true disparity may be much large.

Then the disparity is assigned to unreliable pixels on the disparities of reliable pixels.

This algorithm was tested by using the Middlebury test bed (http://vision.middlebury.edu/stereo/). The results are better than any other algorithm like graph cuts (GC), belief propagation (BP), and dynamic programming (DP).In this paper, the author has provided a stereo matching technique using a random walk algorithm. In the algorithm, they have computed a set of reliable matching pixels by doing left-right checking for both the images.

A disparity validation test is performed for the textureless region to rectify the disparity value assigned. Due to the similarity of a pixel to its neighboring pixels, a small disparity is may be assigned while the true disparity may be much larger.

Then the disparity is assigned to unreliable pixels on the disparities of reliable pixels.

This algorithm was tested by using the Middlebury test bed (http://vision.middlebury.edu/stereo/). The results are better than any other algorithm like graph cuts (GC), belief propagation (BP), and dynamic programming (DP).

4) Eye Tracking and Animation for MPEG-4 Coding: In the paper, [START_REF] Bernogger | Eye tracking and animation for mpeg-4 coding[END_REF] the author has described some simple heuristics to improve eye movement detection. The initial localization process can resolve some of the difficulties caused by using several energy terms and weighting factors.

They have provided an approach to synthesize eye movement to compute the deformation and apply the deformation to the 3D model.

From the experimental results, they have shown that the algorithm works well for synthesizing eye movements.

5) Videoconferencing using Spatially Varying Sensing with Multiple and Moving Foveae: An entropy encoding technique's performance mainly depends on the repeating patterns. In some digitized computer images, the occurrence of the repeating pattern may not be sufficient. Thus these techniques aren't able to provide a good encoding rate.

Here, [START_REF] Basu | Videoconferencing using spatially varying sensing with multiple and moving foveae[END_REF] the author has provided a solution based on Variable resolution transform depending on the fovea of an image. They have also extended the VR model in a way that it will also work with moving fovea without updating the look-up table on each step.

This method can be used in video conferencing to get a better experience. It has a higher rate of compressing images with better results. So, with minimum hardware cost, video conferencing can be done smoothly using this method.

III. SUMMARY

In this survey, we have reviewed several researches and applications of image analysis in various field. It is well lectured that image analysis approaches have been widely applied in the scenarios that have image involved in the procedure. Though previous image analysis approaches have shown a promising result overall, it is not a readyto-use and all-in-one solution. Adaptions and optimizations are required according to the nature of individual scenarios.


Yasir Mansoor Kundi

Kamal Badar

Interpersonal conflict and counterproductive work behavior: the moderating roles of emotional intelligence and gender

Keywords: Emotional intelligence, Gender, Interpersonal conflict, Counterproductive work behavior Paper type Research paper

Purpose -This paper aims to examine how interpersonal conflict at work might enhance employees' propensity to engage in counterproductive work behavior (CWB), as well as how this relationship might be attenuated by emotional intelligence. It also considers how the attenuating role of emotional intelligence might depend on employees' gender.

Design/methodology/approach -Survey data were collected from 193 employees working in different organizations in Pakistan.

Findings -Interpersonal conflict relates positively to CWB, but this relationship is weaker at higher levels of emotional intelligence. The negative buffering role of emotional intelligence is particularly strong among women as compared to men.

Practical implications -Given that individuals high in emotional intelligence are better at regulating their negative emotions, emotional intelligence training may be a powerful tool for reducing the hostility elicited among organizational members in response to interpersonal conflict and, consequently, their engagement in CWB.

Originality/value -This study uncovered the emotional mechanism that underlies the interpersonal conflict-CWB relationship by gender and makes suggestions to managers on minimizing the harmful effects of interpersonal conflict.

Introduction

Interpersonal conflict refers to "the manifestation of incompatibility, inconsistency, or disagreement between two or more interacting individuals" (Rahim, 2011, p. 87). The accumulated evidence suggests that interpersonal conflict is alarmingly common in the workplace [START_REF] Tremmel | How was work today? Interpersonal work experiences, work-related conversations during after-work hours, and daily affect[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Negative ties at work[END_REF]. For example, [START_REF] Danielsson | The relation between office type and workplace conflict: a gender and noise perspective[END_REF] reported that among thousands of participants in their studies over the past two years, 84% had reported being in some type of conflict situation with their coworkers, and about 50% had experienced it on a weekly basis. In addition to its high prevalence, interpersonal conflict has been found to have detrimental effects on employee job attitudes, health and well-being, nonwork life and performance (for reviews, see [START_REF] Bonaccio | Creating work climates that facilitate and maximize the benefits of disclosing mental health problems in the workplace[END_REF][START_REF] Kuriakose | Process conflict and employee well-being[END_REF][START_REF] Notelaers | Do interpersonal conflict, aggression and bullying at the workplace overlap? A latent class modeling approach[END_REF][START_REF] Ye | Relationships between conflicts and employee perceived job performance[END_REF]. In addition to the negative effects of interpersonal conflict on individuals' work and health-related outcomes, [START_REF] Zhou | The spillover effects of coworker, supervisor, and outsider workplace incivility on work-to-family conflict: a weekly diary design[END_REF] suggest that effects of interpersonal conflict at work can spill over to employees' negative work behaviors.

One important negative work behavior outcome of interpersonal conflict that has been examined is workplace deviance, also known as counterproductive work behavior (CWB) [START_REF] Ma | The moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between supervisor conflict and employees' counterproductive work behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] O'connor | Deviant behavior in constrained environments: sensation-seeking predicts workplace deviance in shallow learners[END_REF]. CWB has been defined as "voluntary behavior that violates significant organizational norms and in so doing threatens the well-being of an organization, its members, or both" (Robinson and Bennett, 1995, p. 556). CWB has been shown to have detrimental effects on both organizational and individual outcomes such as Machiavellianism, frustration, job dissatisfaction, turnover intentions and reduced organizational performance and organizational citizenship behavior (OCB) [START_REF] Bennett | Development of a measure of workplace deviance[END_REF][START_REF] Chen | Incivility, satisfaction and turnover intention of tourist hotel chefs: moderating effects of emotional intelligence[END_REF][START_REF] Dunlop | Workplace deviance, organizational citizenship behavior, and business unit performance: the bad apples do spoil the whole barrel[END_REF], indicating the importance of exploring its potential antecedents and contextual factors to understand how it develops [START_REF] De Clercq | Perceived organizational injustice and counterproductive work behaviours: mediated by organizational identification, moderated by discretionary human resource practices[END_REF].

Accordingly, the current study aims to extend the previous research on negative outcomes of interpersonal conflict by examining the relationship between interpersonal conflict and CWB. Moreover, prior research shows that the effect of interpersonal conflict varies across individuals indicating the presence of moderators regulating the relationship between interpersonal conflict and its outcomes [START_REF] Kuriakose | Process conflict and employee well-being[END_REF]. Therefore, in addition, we investigate a moderated-moderation analysis, considering two conditional effectsemployees' emotional intelligence (high vs. low) and gender (men vs. women)as potential moderators. Through examining these relationships, our study contributes to the current literature in three ways.

First, we contribute to the understanding of why interpersonal conflict at work is linked with CWB. Although [START_REF] Zhang | Role stressors and counterproductive work behavior: the role of negative affect and proactive personality[END_REF] examined the impact of role conflict on employee CWB, research into the interpersonal conflict-CWB relationship remains limited. Previous research suggests that interpersonal conflict at work fosters deviant behavior among employees (e.g. [START_REF] Ma | The moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between supervisor conflict and employees' counterproductive work behaviors[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Role stressors and counterproductive work behavior: the role of negative affect and proactive personality[END_REF]. Thus, on the basis of the social exchange theory [START_REF] Blau | Exchange and Power in Social Life[END_REF], we answer recent calls to examine the effects of interpersonal conflict at work on employee negative work behaviors, specifically on CWB [START_REF] Zhao | The buffering effect of Machiavellianism on the relationship between role conflict and counterproductive work behavior[END_REF].

Second, we examine how employee emotional intelligence, as a stable personal resourcedepleting job stressor, may moderate the interpersonal conflict-CWB relationship. Although previous studies have examined various contextual and job-related factors (e.g. social support, leadership and conflict management climate) as moderators of the relationship between workplace conflict and CWB (e.g. [START_REF] Chiu | Role stressors and employee deviance: the moderating effect of social support[END_REF][START_REF] Einarsen | Climate for conflict management, exposure to workplace bullying and work engagement: a moderated mediation analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Morgan | The angry implications of work-to-family conflict: examining effects of leadership on an emotion-based model of deviance[END_REF], little knowledge exists about how individual differences may influence this relationship. On the basis of the conservation of resources (COR) theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], we examine the moderating role of individuals' emotional intelligenceindividuals' ability to understand and manage their own and others' emotions [START_REF] Petrides | The role of trait emotional intelligence in a gender-specific model of organizational variables 1[END_REF] on the relationship between interpersonal conflict and CWB. Thus, we contribute to the theoretical understanding of boundary conditions related to the effects of interpersonal conflict [START_REF] Gu | Job demands and emotional labor as antecedents of female preschool teachers' work-to-family conflict: the moderating role of job resources[END_REF][START_REF] Park | A network conceptualization of team conflict[END_REF].

Third, we contribute to research on negative outcomes of workplace conflict by testing whether the buffering role of emotional intelligence might be particularly salient across gender (men vs. women). Previous research suggests that the usefulness of personal resources for mitigating the positive effect of interpersonal conflict cannot be considered in isolation [START_REF] Sharma | Stress as a mediator between work-family conflict and psychological health among the nursing staff: moderating role of emotional intelligence[END_REF]. Research suggests that individuals differ fundamentally in their attitudes while dealing with others [START_REF] Cinamon | Gender differences in the importance of work and family roles: implications for work-family conflict[END_REF]. For example, research has shown that women in particular are better than men in managing their emotions [START_REF] Mcintyre | Gender differences in the nature and linkage of higher-order personality factors to trait and ability emotional intelligence[END_REF][START_REF] Tsaousis | Factorial invariance and latent mean differences of scores on trait emotional intelligence across gender and age[END_REF]. Therefore, we examine gender as a contingency variable for the joint role of interpersonal conflict and emotional intelligence on employee CWB. By examining gender as a moderator of the interpersonal conflict-emotional intelligence interaction on individual CWB, our goal is to add new perspectives to the theoretical knowledge on interpersonal conflict-CWB linkages and indicate whether differences in individual attitudes and gender could be considered together to better understand these theoretical associations.

Finally, another novel feature of the current study is the context and the geographic location in which it is based. The present study was conducted in a developing Asian country context (i.e. Pakistan) where interpersonal conflict indicates a great threat to organization's performance [START_REF] Shaukat | Examining the linkages between relationship conflict, performance and turnover intentions: role of job burnout as a mediator[END_REF] and has caused much stress to individual employees, intensifying conflict among their families and communities. Thus, the present study provides an opportunity to investigate whether internal conflict at work can manifest in negative work behaviors.

Literature review and hypotheses development Interpersonal conflict and counterproductive work behavior

Interpersonal conflict refers to a negative interpersonal encounter characterized by a contentious exchange, hostility or aggression [START_REF] Ilies | A within-individual study of interpersonal conflict as a work stressor: dispositional and situational moderators[END_REF]. It is also referred to "the manifestation of incompatibility, inconsistency, or disagreement between two or more interacting individuals" (Rahim, 2011, p. 87). According to Thomas (1992, p. 653), interpersonal conflict is a "process that begins when one party perceives that the other has negatively affected, or is about to negatively affect, something that he or she cares about." Interpersonal conflict overlaps, yet is distinct from, several other negative workplace phenomena such as workplace bullying or workplace incivility, which are typically described as negative aggressive behaviors that are repeated and long-lasting. So far, only a handful of studies have examined the impact of interpersonal conflict on CWB (Bruk-Lee and [START_REF] Bruk-Lee | The social stressors-counterproductive work behaviors link: are conflicts with supervisors and coworkers the same?[END_REF][START_REF] Haq | The impact of interpersonal conflict on job outcomes: mediating role of perception of organizational politics[END_REF][START_REF] Kessler | Leadership, interpersonal conflict, and counterproductive work behavior: an examination of the stressor-strain process[END_REF], which warrants further attention.

CWB is a set of undesirable work behaviors that are intentional and harm, or intend to harm, the organization and/or its stakeholders [START_REF] Gruys | Investigating the dimensionality of counterproductive work behavior[END_REF]. CWB is either directed toward the organization or its individuals [START_REF] Bennett | Development of a measure of workplace deviance[END_REF]. CWB directed toward the organization (CWB-O) includes stealing and damaging organizational property and withdrawal behaviors [START_REF] Robinson | A typology of deviant workplace behaviors: a multidimensional scaling study[END_REF]. On the other hand, CWB directed toward individuals (CWB-I) includes psychologically or psychically harming coworker, ignoring others and gossiping about peers [START_REF] Bennett | Development of a measure of workplace deviance[END_REF]. In the present study, we examine the effects of interpersonal conflict on CWB-O and CWB-I, rather than on CWB alone, given that previous research suggests that using CWB as an aggregate obscures its relationship with probable antecedents [START_REF] Naseer | When and why organizational cynicism leads to CWBs[END_REF]. Additionally, researchers argued that both CWB-O and CWB-I contain a set of overlapping behaviors that are detrimental to the organization, with the nature and target of these behaviors being different [START_REF] Spector | An emotion-centered model of voluntary work behavior: some parallels between counterproductive work behavior and organizational citizenship behavior[END_REF]. Therefore, although we expect similar relationships for CWB-O and CWB-I, we treat them separately so that possible differences may be identified.

The current study uses social exchange theory [START_REF] Blau | Exchange and Power in Social Life[END_REF] as a theoretical lens to understand the influence of interpersonal conflict on the respective employees' CWB. Social exchange theory is one of the most important conceptual paradigms used to understand individuals' behaviors in the workplace [START_REF] Khattak | The combined effect of perceived organizational injustice and perceived politics on deviant behaviors[END_REF]. This theory suggests that individuals develop exchange relationships based on their experiences with others [START_REF] Cook | Social exchange theory[END_REF][START_REF] Cropanzano | Social exchange theory: an interdisciplinary review[END_REF][START_REF] Emerson | Social exchange theory[END_REF]. In other words, the exchanges that take place between individuals are largely seen as interdependent and contingent on rewarding reactions from others in the social relationship and thus generate obligations (i.e. reciprocity) [START_REF] Blau | Exchange and Power in Social Life[END_REF].

The concept of reciprocity is the essence of social exchange theory, which is often framed as a particular form of social exchange [START_REF] Cropanzano | Social exchange theory: an interdisciplinary review[END_REF]. According to the norm of reciprocity, people who receive benefits from others feel obligated to reciprocate the same behavior [START_REF] Gouldner | The norm of reciprocity: a preliminary statement[END_REF]. The norm of reciprocity is classified into two types (i.e. positive and negative norm of reciprocity). The norm of positive reciprocity induces an individual to return positive treatment for positive treatment, whereas the norm of negative reciprocity induces an individual to return negative treatment for negative treatment [START_REF] Faldetta | Abusive supervision and workplace deviance: the role of negative reciprocity[END_REF][START_REF] Gouldner | The norm of reciprocity: a preliminary statement[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Gouldner | The norm of reciprocity: a preliminary statement[END_REF], in the norm of negative reciprocity, individuals may perform negative behaviors against those who treat them inappropriately. In a recent study, [START_REF] Faldetta | Abusive supervision and workplace deviance: the role of negative reciprocity[END_REF] found that the norm of negative reciprocity can increase the likelihood that employees engage themselves in CWB. [START_REF] Low | Impact of abusive supervision on counterproductive work behaviors of nurses[END_REF] also argued that the CWB is social behavior resulting from verbal transactions or exchanges (i.e. interpersonal conflict).

Accordingly, we draw on social exchange theory to explore the effects of interpersonal conflict at work on employee negative reactions, specifically CWB. We suggest that employees encountering conflicting experiences with others at work, in exchange, may return the favor by adopting CWB, including behaviors such as damaging or stealing company property, abusing coworkers and exposing colleagues to risk. Thus, we hypothesize the following: H1. Interpersonal conflict at work will be positively related to (a) CWB-O and (b) CWB-I.

Moderating role of emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence can be defined as "an ability to recognize the meanings of emotions and their relationships, and to reason and problem-solve on the basis of them" (Mayer et al., 1999, p. 267). Emotional intelligence also refers to a set of emotional abilities to understand, manage and use emotional information [START_REF] Salovey | Emotional intelligence[END_REF]. Previous research has examined the moderating role of emotional intelligence on the relationships between different variables such as perceived stress and suicidal ideation [START_REF] Abdollahi | Emotional intelligence moderates perceived stress and suicidal ideation among depressed adolescent inpatients[END_REF], personality and creativity [START_REF] Jafri | Moderating role of emotional intelligence on personalityemployee creativity relationship[END_REF] and perceived threat of terrorism and workplace deviance [START_REF] Shah | Deviance due to fear of victimization: 'emotional intelligence' a game-changer[END_REF]. Results of previous studies suggest that emotional intelligence may also serve as a moderator on the relationship between interpersonal conflict and CWB. For instance, emotionally intelligent people are more capable of controlling themselves; therefore, they are more likely to avoid indulging in negative activities that may harm their organizations [START_REF] Ugwu | Nurses' burnout and counterproductive work behavior in a Nigerian sample: the moderating role of emotional intelligence[END_REF].

According to COR theory [START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], individuals feel stress when they experience actual resource loss, a lack of resource gain or a threat of resource loss. Resources refer to physical objects, individual characteristics, status and social ties [START_REF] Cheng | Longitudinal effects of job insecurity on employee outcomes: the moderating role of emotional intelligence and the leader-member exchange[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Shaukat | Examining the linkages between relationship conflict, performance and turnover intentions: role of job burnout as a mediator[END_REF], conflict between individuals leads to loss of resources which then manifests in the form of stress. The COR theory also suggests that when individuals experience the threat of job resource loss, they strive to minimize the resource loss and prevent future resource loss. They make use of the existing resources to offset resource loss. Therefore, in line with COR theory, we argue that employees facing interpersonal conflict will experience resource loss and, as a result, they will strive to offset this resource loss through their existing resources, i.e. through their personal characteristics [START_REF] Zhao | Abusive supervision and hospitality employees' helping behaviors: the joint moderating effects of proactive personality and ability to manage resources[END_REF]. Thus, emotional intelligence as a personal trait [START_REF] Cheng | Longitudinal effects of job insecurity on employee outcomes: the moderating role of emotional intelligence and the leader-member exchange[END_REF] could be a valuable resource that has a stress reducing effect and provides the potential to cope with the negative emotional reactions owing to interpersonal conflict.

Research has highlighted the importance of emotional intelligence for individuals dealing with stressful situations [START_REF] Abdollahi | Emotional intelligence moderates perceived stress and suicidal ideation among depressed adolescent inpatients[END_REF]. For instance, [START_REF] Sharma | Stress as a mediator between work-family conflict and psychological health among the nursing staff: moderating role of emotional intelligence[END_REF] argued that emotional intelligence plays a moderating role in the relationship between workplace conflict and individual emotional and behavioral reactions to such conflict. [START_REF] Soomro | Antecedents of workplace deviance: role of job insecurity, work stress, and ethical work climate[END_REF] argued that though stressful events trigger employee CWB; thus, how employees process their emotions induced by stressful events can significantly affect their engagement in CWB [START_REF] Balogun | Psychological contract breach and workplace deviance: does emotional intelligence matter?[END_REF][START_REF] Ugwu | Nurses' burnout and counterproductive work behavior in a Nigerian sample: the moderating role of emotional intelligence[END_REF]. As stated by Chen et al. (2019), individuals with higher levels of emotional intelligence are better able to understand, regulate and make use of emotional information than those with lower levels. Therefore, employees will differ in the propensity to engage in CWB in the face of stressful events such as workplace conflict [START_REF] Ma | The moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between supervisor conflict and employees' counterproductive work behaviors[END_REF]. Therefore, based on above arguments, we propose the following hypothesis:

H2. The relationships of interpersonal conflict with (a) CWB-O and (b) CWB-I will be negatively moderated by emotional intelligence, such that the positive relationship is weaker at higher levels of emotional intelligence.

Role of gender

Finally, we highlight the potential role of gender in relation to interpersonal conflict and CWB. The workplace conflict literature calls attention to gender differences in experiencing, perpetrating and responding to conflict at work [START_REF] Gabriel | Further understanding incivility in the workplace: the effects of gender, agency, and communion[END_REF][START_REF] Graham | Supervisor-employee power distance incompatibility, gender similarity, and relationship conflict: a test of interpersonal interaction theory[END_REF][START_REF] Hopwood | Properties of the continuous assessment of interpersonal dynamics across sex, level of familiarity, and interpersonal conflict[END_REF]. Gender has been found to correlate with CWB targeted at both individuals and organizations [START_REF] Chiu | Role stressors and employee deviance: the moderating effect of social support[END_REF][START_REF] De Clercq | Time-related work stress and counterproductive work behavior[END_REF] and considered as a potential moderator in the relationship between CWB and its predictors, such as personality, job stressors, negative affect and incivility [START_REF] Samnani | Negative affect and counterproductive workplace behavior: the moderating role of moral disengagement and gender[END_REF][START_REF] Spector | The moderating role of gender in relationships of stressors and personality with counterproductive work behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Welbourne | When does incivility lead to counterproductive work behavior? Roles of job involvement, task interdependence, and gender[END_REF].

To date, very little research has examined the moderating role of gender on the relationship between work stressors and CWB. Interpersonal conflict is considered as one of the most important workplace stressors [START_REF] Keenan | Stressful events, stressors and psychological strains in young professional engineers[END_REF]. [START_REF] Bowling | Sex as a moderator of the relationships between predictor variables and counterproductive work behavior[END_REF] found that men were more likely than women to report engaging in greater amounts of CWB at high (versus low) levels of workplace stressors. They argued that gender differences may emerge because men have greater impulsivity than women (Szab o and Jones, 2019), with control being a central component of being able to refrain from engaging in CWB [START_REF] Ju | A multilevel study of abusive supervision, norms, and personal control on counterproductive work behavior: a theory of planned behavior approach[END_REF]. Similarly, Chen et al. (2019) found that, as compared to women, men were more engaged in CWB.

Biological and social factors also explain gender differences in emotional intelligence [START_REF] Andez-Berrocal | Gender differences in emotional intelligence: the mediating effect of age[END_REF]. According to the biological explanation, certain areas of the brain committed to emotional processing can be larger in women than men, which makes women better prepared to consider their own emotions and those of others [START_REF] Baron-Cohen | The extreme male brain theory of autism[END_REF][START_REF] Baron-Cohen | Men, Women and the Extreme Male Brain[END_REF][START_REF] Gur | Sex differences in temporo-limbic and frontal brain volumes of healthy adults[END_REF]. According to the social explanation, women spend their social time connected to the emotional world [START_REF] Candela Agull O | Inteligencia emocional y la variable género[END_REF] and, as compared to men, are more occupied with maintaining their and others' positive emotions to prevent the deterioration of interpersonal relations [START_REF] Nolen-Hoeksema | Mediators of the gender difference in rumination[END_REF]. Therefore, we expect that the negative buffering effect of emotional intelligence on interpersonal conflict and CWB relation will be stronger for women with high emotional intelligence than men. Thus, we hypothesize the following: H3. The negative buffering effect of emotional intelligence on interpersonal conflict and CWB [(a) CWB-O; (b) CWB-I] relation is moderated by gender, such that this negative buffering effect is stronger for women with high emotional intelligence than men.

Methods

Study context

Pakistan was selected as the empirical context because in Pakistan interpersonal conflict indicates a great threat to organization's performance [START_REF] Shaukat | Examining the linkages between relationship conflict, performance and turnover intentions: role of job burnout as a mediator[END_REF]. More specifically, Pakistan's media, information technology (IT) and telecom sectors have grown rapidly, suggesting a need for careful consideration of intra-organizational issues, such as interpersonal conflicts [START_REF] Yousaf | Linkages between group level task conflict and individual level outcomes in non-routine technical jobs[END_REF]. Moreover, the high demand for services of interrelated sectors of media, IT, and telecom led to intensified competition putting pressure on those who work in these sectors to perform well. In turn, these employees generally face a heavy workload and came across different types of work-related conflict [START_REF] Yousaf | Linkages between group level task conflict and individual level outcomes in non-routine technical jobs[END_REF]. Furthermore, gender and emotions are particularly important in a developing country like Pakistan, which is predominately a male-oriented society where issues of traditional negative gender-role stereotyping for women, sexual discrimination, domestic violence, fundamentalism and intimidation against women, lower literacy and employment rates for women are still prevalent (see UN report: The World's Women, 2010). Hence, it is expected that women in the labor force have to work in a traditional and sexually tense environment, and the presumed male domination of Pakistani organizations and numerical imbalance between genders [START_REF] Fairhurst | A test of the social isolation of male tokens[END_REF][START_REF] Kanter | Some effects of proportions on group lifeskewed sex-ratios and responses to token women[END_REF] most likely lead to great discomfort in cross-gender interactions [START_REF] Badar | Examining the relationship of co-authorship network centrality and gender on academic research performance: the case of chemistry researchers in Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Hendrick | Why women don't succeed[END_REF]. Women in Pakistani organizations, therefore, may rely on their emotional intelligence for better workrelated outcomes.

Participants and procedure

Invitations to participate in a survey were distributed among 300 employees working in 15 different organizations of Pakistan operating in the following interrelated sectors: media (e.g. print and electronic), IT (e.g. software and hardware) and telecom. The organizations were either a private, public or a multinational. The organizations were small and mid-sized, and the size of their workforces ranged from a low of 35 to a high of 140. We approached all the organizations using our professional contacts and personally collected the data via paper-and-pencil method. Researchers distributed the questionnaires to participants before the lunch time and collected them after the lunch time, thus ensuring that participants could respond without the presence of the researchers. As data were collected at single point in time, we adopted several procedural remedies as suggested by [START_REF] Podsakoff | Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies[END_REF] to address the issue of common method bias. The procedural remedies included ensuring respondents' anonymity, stating in the cover letter that there were no right or wrong answers to the questions and that their candor was strongly encouraged, explaining the purpose of the study clearly, ordering items in a way to reduce priming effects and reducing item ambiguity by first completing a pilot study to reduce item ambiguity.

Out of 300 employees contacted, 211 questionnaires were received representing a response rate of 70.3%. We excluded seven questionnaires as they displayed pattern responses (e.g. providing the same rating for all items) which can jeopardize the integrity of research findings [START_REF] Meade | Identifying careless responses in survey data[END_REF] and 11 questionnaires owing to significant missing data. As a result, the final sample comprised 193 respondents, with a response rate of 64.3%. Table 1 shows the respondents' demographic characteristics.

Measures

All the scales were taken from earlier research and presented in English as it is the official language of business organizations in Pakistan (Kundi et al., 2020). Unless stated otherwise, all items were rated on a five-point Likert scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree).

Interpersonal conflict. We measured interpersonal conflict with a five-item scale developed by [START_REF] Spector | Relation of job stressors to affective, health, and performance outcomes: a comparison of multiple data sources[END_REF]. Examples of items are "People are often rude to me at work" and "I often get into arguments with others at work." Cronbach's alpha of the scale was 0.89.

Counterproductive work behavior. We measured CWB using 12 items taken from Aquino et al.'s (1999) workplace deviance scale, which consists of two dimensions. CWB-O was measured using seven items, for example, "I took undeserved breaks to avoid work." Cronbach's alpha = 0.93. CWB-I was measured using five items, for example, "I swore at a coworker." Cronbach's alpha = 0.95. Items were rated on a five-point Likert scale varying from 1 = never to 5 = very often. Cronbach's alpha of overall scale was 0.78.

Emotional intelligence. We measured employees' emotional intelligence using 12 items borrowed from [START_REF] Wong | The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and attitude: an exploratory study[END_REF] comprised of four subscales, namely, (i) self-emotion appraisal (i.e. "I have good understanding of my own emotions"; Cronbach's alpha = 0.87), (ii) others' emotion appraisal (i.e. "I have good understanding of the emotions of people around me"; Cronbach's alpha = 0.91), (iii) use of emotion (i.e. "I always tell myself I am a competent person"; Cronbach's alpha = 0.89) and (iv) regulation of emotion (i.e. "I am able to control my temper and handle difficulties rationally"; Cronbach's alpha = 0.90). Each subscale was measured with four items. Cronbach's alpha of overall scale was 0.96. Gender. Employee gender was self-reported, with women coded as 0 and men as 1. Control variables. We controlled for employee age, education and work experience that might covary with CWB [START_REF] De Clercq | Time-related work stress and counterproductive work behavior[END_REF][START_REF] Soomro | Antecedents of workplace deviance: role of job insecurity, work stress, and ethical work climate[END_REF]. Previous research suggests that the emotional maturity that comes with age may make it less likely that older employees undertake negative work behaviors [START_REF] Pletzer | Age differences in workplace deviance: a metaanalysis[END_REF]. Similarly, individual characteristics like education and work experience might also increase employees' confidence that they can protect themselves against negative repercussions that might arise from their deviant behaviors [START_REF] De Clercq | Time-related work stress and counterproductive work behavior[END_REF].

Data analyses

Following the guidelines of [START_REF] Anderson | Structural equation modeling in practice: a review and recommended two-step approach[END_REF], we first conducted confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) including all latent variables (i.e. interpersonal conflict, CWB-I, CWB-O and emotional intelligence) to check the discriminant validity of the measurement model. Afterward, we conducted descriptive analysis and estimated our intended model through ordinary least squares regressions using PROCESS macro-Model 3 (see Hayes, 2017 for details) through statistical package for the social sciences (25th edition). Finally, we used the moderatedmoderation model to test whether the relationship between interpersonal conflict and CWB, moderated by emotional intelligence, is moderated by gender (Figure 1). All estimated effects reported are unstandardized regression coefficients as recommended by [START_REF] Hayes | Introduction to Mediation, Moderation, and Conditional Process Analysis: A Regression-Based Approach[END_REF].

Results

Preliminary analysis

After the assessment of missing values and outliers, we tested the distribution of our variables and found that no variable approached skewness > j3j [START_REF] Chou | Estimates and Tests in Structural Equation Modeling[END_REF] or kurtosis values > j10j [START_REF] Kline | Principles and Practice of Structural Equation Modeling[END_REF], indicating the normal distribution of our data. Table 2 shows the mean, standard deviation and bivariate correlation among the study variables. None of the correlation coefficients exceeded the level of 0.70, indicating the absence of multicollinearity among the variables. Interpersonal conflict was positively correlated with CWB-I (r = 0.46, p < 0.01) and CWB-O (r = 0.41, p < 0.01). Emotional intelligence was negatively correlated with interpersonal conflict (r = À0.22, p < 0.01) and CWB-I (r = À0.25, p < 0.01), whereas it was not correlated with CWB-O (r = À0.04, ns).

Confirmatory factor analysis

Prior to hypotheses testing, we conducted a series of CFAs to examine the distinctiveness of each construct used in the present study. First, a CFA test was performed to measure the model [START_REF] Hu | Cutoff criteria for fit indexes in covariance structure analysis: conventional criteria versus new alternatives[END_REF], our intended model provided a good fit to the data (x 2 = 794.9, df = 371, comparative fit index = 0.964, root mean square error of approximation = 0.050 and standardized root mean square residual = 0.049).

Next, we compared our intended model against several alternative models including a three-factor model in which the two facets of CWB were combined together (Dx 2 = 266.8, df = 3). Theoretically, CWB has two dimensions, namely, CWB-I (directed at individuals) and CWB-O (directed at organization). These two dimensions of CWB are theoretically distinct [START_REF] Spector | Relation of job stressors to affective, health, and performance outcomes: a comparison of multiple data sources[END_REF], although they are correlated. As a result of this correlation, the comparison with the three-factor alternative where CWB-I and CWB-O load on the same factor is a stringent test of the validity of our four-factor model. Another reason for testing a three-factor model is that very few studies of CWB use Asian samples, and we cannot be sure that individuals in our sample can empirically distinguish between the two aspects of CWB. Additionally, we compared the intended model with a two-factor model in which interpersonal conflict was combined with emotional intelligence and CWB-I was combined with CWB-O (Dx 2 = 412.2, df = 5) and a one-factor model in which all variables were combined into one overall factor (Dx 2 = 1,164.8, df = 6). The results of CFA (Table 3) showed that the intended four-factor model had a significantly better fit than the alternative models. We further assessed the construct validity through convergent validity and discriminant validity. Convergent validity was assessed through (i) factor loadings and (ii) average variance extracted (AVE) scores of each construct. According to [START_REF] Fornell | Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error: Algebra and Statistics[END_REF] and [START_REF] Chin | How to write up and report PLS analyses[END_REF], both AVE scores and factor loadings should be greater than 0.5 and 0.6, respectively. Our results showed that the AVE score of each construct was greater than the cutoff value of 0.5, and the factor loadings of interpersonal conflict ranged from 0.81 to 0.87, emotional intelligence ranged from 0.72 to 0.90, CWB-I ranged from 0.87 to 0.94 and CWB-O ranged from 0.84 to 0.92 (all items significant at p < 0.001). Discriminant validity was assessed by comparing the AVE of each construct with its average shared variance (ASV) score, i.e. mean of the squared correlations among constructs [START_REF] Hair | PLS-SEM: Indeed a silver bullet[END_REF]. All the values of AVE were higher than the ASV constructs, thereby supporting discriminant validity (Table 2).

Common method variance

To address potential issues with common method variance, both procedural and statistical remedies were applied. As mentioned earlier, we adopted procedural remedies such as ensuring respondents' anonymity, reducing ambiguity in the survey questions and ordering items in a way to reduce priming effects [START_REF] Podsakoff | Common method biases in behavioral research: a critical review of the literature and recommended remedies[END_REF]. Statistically, we conducted an exploratory factor analysis with a principal axis factor extraction and direct oblimin rotation to ensure that each of the factors was perceived as distinct constructs by employees. We found that interpersonal conflict, emotional intelligence, CWB-I and CWB-O loaded cleanly on their respective constructs. We also used CFA marker variable technique to determine if there was a common method bias. We used Williams and Anderson's (1991) seven-item task performance scale (e.g. I perform my tasks that are expected of me) as a marker variable. Following Kundi et al. (2020), we ran a model in which the indicators of the study's variables were specified to load onto the latent marker variable (x 2 = 1,657.3, df = 522) and compared it to a model in which they did not load onto the marker variable (x 2 = 1,601.1, df = 568). The results showed that CMV was not present, and so it did not bias the parameters of our model, as evidenced by a nonsignificant x 2 difference test between the two models (Dx 2 = 56.2, p = 0.14).

Hypotheses testing H1 suggested that interpersonal conflict positively relates to (a) CWB-O and (b) CWB-I. As can be seen in Table 4, interpersonal conflict positively predicted CWB-O (b = 0.43, p < 0.01) and CWB-I (b = 0.36, p < 0.01), supporting H1a and H1b. H2 suggested that the relationships of interpersonal conflict with (a) CWB-O and (b) CWB-I will be moderated by emotional intelligence, such that the positive relationship is weaker at higher levels of emotional intelligence. Our results supported the buffering effect of emotional intelligence (b = À0.51, p < 0.01) on the interpersonal conflict and CWB-O relationship. Moreover, the buffering effect of emotional intelligence on the interpersonal conflict and CWB-I relationship was also significant (b = À0.39, p < 0.05). Therefore, H2a and H2b were supported. To clarify the nature of this interaction, Figures 2 and3 plot the effects of interpersonal conflict on CWB at high and low levels of emotional intelligence, combined with a simple slope analysis [START_REF] Aiken | Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions[END_REF]. The results of the simple slope analysis indicated that the relationship between interpersonal conflict and CWB-I was significant when emotional intelligence was low (b = 0.55, p < 0.001) but became insignificant when it was high (b = 0.05, ns), in further support of H2a. Similarly, the relationship between interpersonal conflict and CWB-O was significant when emotional Emotional intelligence and gender intelligence was low (b = 0.77, p < 0.001) but became insignificant when it was high (b = 0.21, ns), in further support of H2b.

Finally, the results supported the three-way interaction effect among interpersonal conflict, emotional intelligence and gender predicted in H3a and H3b. As predicted, there was a significant three-way interaction between interpersonal conflict, emotional intelligence and gender (all mean centered) in the prediction of CWB-O (b = À0.31, standard error (SE )= 0.17, p < 0.01). The effect of negative interaction term between emotional intelligence and interpersonal conflict on CWB-O was stronger for women (b = À0.57, p < 0.01) than for men (b = À0.28, p < 0.01). Similarly, the three-way interaction between interpersonal conflict, emotional intelligence and gender (all mean centered) in the prediction of CWB-I was significant (b = À0.40, SE = 0.14, p < 0.01). The effect of negative interaction term between emotional intelligence and interpersonal conflict on CWB-I was stronger for women (b = À0.45, p < 0.01) than for men (b = À0.19, p < 0.05). Thus, H3a and H3b were supported. To demonstrate the result of the three-way interaction, we followed the graphical procedure of [START_REF] Aiken | Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions[END_REF] in Figures 4 and5. As shown in Figures 4 and5, the effects of interpersonal conflict on CWB-I and CWB-O are weaker in case of women as compared to men when emotional intelligence is higher than low. That is, women with higher levels of emotional intelligence are less involved in both CWB-I and CWB-O as compared to men as a result of interpersonal conflict at work.

Discussion

Drawing from social exchange and COR theories [START_REF] Blau | Exchange and Power in Social Life[END_REF][START_REF] Hobfoll | Conservation of resources: a new attempt at conceptualizing stress[END_REF], we investigated the impact of interpersonal conflict on CWB-O and CWB-I along with the moderating roles of emotional intelligence and gender. Our results showed that interpersonal conflict positively influences employee CWB-O and CWB-I (H1a and H1b supported) likely owing to employees encountering conflicting experiences from others at work, returning the favor by adopting CWB [START_REF] Low | Impact of abusive supervision on counterproductive work behaviors of nurses[END_REF]. Our results were consistent with findings reported by prior research. Bruk-Lee and [START_REF] Bruk-Lee | The social stressors-counterproductive work behaviors link: are conflicts with supervisors and coworkers the same?[END_REF], in their study of 133 dyads of full-time working participants at a university in the USA, tested the impact of conflict with supervisors and coworkers on CWB-O and CWB-I. They reported that conflict with coworkers significantly predicted CWB-I. [START_REF] Haq | The impact of interpersonal conflict on job outcomes: mediating role of perception of organizational politics[END_REF], in his study of 264 employees from six organizations in Pakistan, tested the impact of interpersonal conflict on job outcomes. He found the positive impact of interpersonal conflict on interpersonal and organizational workplace deviance (similar to CWB). [START_REF] Kessler | Leadership, interpersonal conflict, and counterproductive work behavior: an examination of the stressor-strain process[END_REF], in their study of 116 employee-coworker dyads, also found that interpersonal conflict led to negative emotions, which in turn led to CWB. Our findings may also align with [START_REF] Chen | Conflict management for effective top management teams and innovation in China[END_REF], who found positive outcomes of productive conflict when moderated by appropriate conflict management. The positive moderating influence of high emotional intelligence (like appropriate conflict management) on CWB provides a potential gender explanation for outcomes of interpersonal workplace conflict. Furthermore, our results indicated that emotional intelligence negatively moderated the relationship between interpersonal conflict and CWB directed toward the organization and individuals (CWB-O and CWB-I) (H2a and H2b supported) likely owing to employees high on emotional intelligence having less extreme emotional reactions to stressful events, such as interpersonal conflict, to help them cope with the event [START_REF] Wong | The effects of leader and follower emotional intelligence on performance and attitude: an exploratory study[END_REF]. In the previous research, researchers also found a negative moderating role of emotional intelligence on the relationships between indirect supervisor conflict and employee deviant behavior [START_REF] Ma | The moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between supervisor conflict and employees' counterproductive work behaviors[END_REF], perceived threat of terrorism and workplace deviance [START_REF] Shah | Deviance due to fear of victimization: 'emotional intelligence' a game-changer[END_REF], job pressures and auditors' judgment [START_REF] Yang | Negative ties at work[END_REF], perceived stress and suicidal ideation [START_REF] Abdollahi | Emotional intelligence moderates perceived stress and suicidal ideation among depressed adolescent inpatients[END_REF] and job insecurity and emotional and behavioral reactions [START_REF] Jordan | Emotional intelligence as a moderator of emotional and behavioral reactions to job insecurity[END_REF], indicating the crucial role of emotional intelligence in controlling emotional reaction to stressful events which may lead to negative consequences.

Finally, our results demonstrated that the negative moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between interpersonal conflict and CWB-O and CWB-I was stronger for women than men (H3a and H3b supported) likely owing to innate gender differences (Chen et al., 2019;[START_REF] Andez-Berrocal | Gender differences in emotional intelligence: the mediating effect of age[END_REF][START_REF] Ju | A multilevel study of abusive supervision, norms, and personal control on counterproductive work behavior: a theory of planned behavior approach[END_REF][START_REF] Szab O | Gender differences moderate Machiavellianism and impulsivity: implications for dark triad research[END_REF]. More interestingly, while interpreting the slopes of the three-way interactive relationship of interpersonal conflict, emotional intelligence and gender with CWB-I and CWB-O (Figures 4 and5), we found that the high emotional intelligence graph for men revealed a declining slope (more CWB at lower levels of conflict and less at a higher level of conflict), as compared to rest of the graphs which revealed increasing slopes. The reason for this result could be explained by the fact that in a masculine hierarchical culture like Pakistan, high emotional intelligence may give men complete freedom to engage in CWB-I and CWB-O unless there is an environment of pushback, i.e. an environment of high interpersonal conflict. Moreover, in such male-dominated cultures, emotional intelligence is critical in having men understand that deviant reactions to interpersonal conflict are not useful, so their exposure to such high levels of conflict diminishes CWB. That is, their emotional intelligence helps them see things in the opposite direction of what the culture prescribes.

Theoretical implications

Our study contributed toward theoretical advancements in interpersonal conflict-CWB literature in the following ways. First, on a theoretical level, our study provides additional support for the social exchange theory, demonstrating interpersonal conflict relates to greater employee CWB. This finding is in line with the previous empirical findings [START_REF] Low | Impact of abusive supervision on counterproductive work behaviors of nurses[END_REF]. Furthermore, this study extends our previous knowledge regarding the potential depth of impact interpersonal conflict can have on employees as the damage created may reach even beyond a psychological level and materialize in behavioral reactions as well. Given these findings, it is critical that future research examine the impact that interpersonal conflict may have on other employee behavioral outcomes, such as work engagement, OCB and task performance. Further, different methodologies (e.g. longitudinal designs) can be used to better understand how the effects of interpersonal conflict unfold on behaviors through assessing across-time effects.

Second, by investigating the moderating roles of emotional intelligence, we contribute to the much-needed understanding of the boundary conditions of the effects of interpersonal conflict [START_REF] Gu | Job demands and emotional labor as antecedents of female preschool teachers' work-to-family conflict: the moderating role of job resources[END_REF][START_REF] Park | A network conceptualization of team conflict[END_REF]. While few studies have studied the impact of interpersonal conflict on CWB (Bruk-Lee and [START_REF] Bruk-Lee | The social stressors-counterproductive work behaviors link: are conflicts with supervisors and coworkers the same?[END_REF][START_REF] Haq | The impact of interpersonal conflict on job outcomes: mediating role of perception of organizational politics[END_REF][START_REF] Kessler | Leadership, interpersonal conflict, and counterproductive work behavior: an examination of the stressor-strain process[END_REF], they lack an insight about potential moderators between the relationship of interpersonal conflict and CWB. An exceptional study by [START_REF] Ma | The moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between supervisor conflict and employees' counterproductive work behaviors[END_REF] investigated the moderating role of emotional intelligence on the relationship between indirect supervisor conflict and CWB. This study contributes to the understanding about the moderating role of emotional intelligence between interpersonal conflict and CWB.

Finally, to the best of our knowledge, no previous study has examined the moderating role of gender on the interpersonal conflict-emotional intelligence interaction on individuals' CWB. Based on prior research, which had shown significant differences in emotional intelligence between men and women [START_REF] Andez-Berrocal | Gender differences in emotional intelligence: the mediating effect of age[END_REF][START_REF] Gur | Sex differences in temporo-limbic and frontal brain volumes of healthy adults[END_REF][START_REF] Nolen-Hoeksema | Mediators of the gender difference in rumination[END_REF], we had good reasons to believe that gender differences need to be accounted for to better understand the interplay of conflict, CWB and emotional intelligence. Therefore, by testing gender as a moderator of the interpersonal conflictemotional intelligence interaction on individuals' CWB, we contributed toward the conflict-CWB and emotional intelligence literature by illustrating that differences in individuals attitudes and demographics should be considered together to better understand the conflict-CWB relationship.

Practical implications

In the present study, we found that interpersonal conflict can trigger CWB among employees, making interpersonal conflict very costly to the organization and its members. Thus, organizations should attempt to reduce interpersonal conflict among employees by implementing appropriate interventions. For example, a job redesign and provision for ombudsman might help avoid/reduce the occurrence of interpersonal conflict [START_REF] Rahim | A strategy for managing conflict in complex organizations[END_REF]. In addition, managers may consider putting in place a protocol to detect and intervene in interpersonal conflicts when they emerge. The absence of early intervention makes it difficult to prevent conflict escalation into a stressful and resource-draining situation that will lead to CWB-O and CWB-1. Moreover, our findings suggest that when emotional intelligence is low CWB appears to be a higher potential risk for both employees and organizations than when emotional intelligence is high. Thus, recruiting emotionally intelligent employees and providing training programs that develop emotional control capabilities in employees should therefore be a key priority for organizations. However, such interventions can be very costly and time-consuming. Thus, managers should focus more on reducing tensions and conflicts among the employees [START_REF] Rahim | A strategy for managing conflict in complex organizations[END_REF]. This could be achieved by creating awareness among the employees about the detrimental effects of conflict among employee [START_REF] Ilies | A within-individual study of interpersonal conflict as a work stressor: dispositional and situational moderators[END_REF], reducing adverse work events and fostering trust among group members [START_REF] Turesky | A call to action for virtual team leaders: practitioner perspectives on trust, conflict and the need for organizational support[END_REF] and providing/developing a supportive work environment where individuals could be motivated to seek and provide social support to avert interpersonal conflicts.

We also found that as compared to men, women are less likely to be involved in CWB when emotional intelligence is high. Therefore, gender-based employee training to hone employees' emotional intelligence skills can be an alternative to conflict intervention strategies [START_REF] Hodzic | How efficient are emotional intelligence trainings: a meta-analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Mattingly | Can emotional intelligence be trained? A meta-analytical investigation[END_REF][START_REF] Slaski | Emotional intelligence training and its implications for stress, health and performance[END_REF]. Furthermore, we found that male employees with higher emotional intelligence were more engaged in CWB when interpersonal conflict was lower than higher. Thus, managers working in organizations where both interpersonal conflict and CWB are present should adopt a balancing approach where the interpersonal conflict and CWB should be balanced. In other words, managers should work parallel on reducing the conflict among employees and controlling the CWB at work.

Limitations and directions for future research

Some limitations of our study may be addressed in future research. First, the crosssectional data do not provide sufficiently conclusive evidence of causality for the relations of interest. This limitation may be addressed by empirically testing our model using longitudinal or multiwave/cross-lagged data, i.e. measuring the predictor and outcomes variables at different time points [START_REF] Ma | The moderating effect of emotional intelligence on the relationship between supervisor conflict and employees' counterproductive work behaviors[END_REF]. Second, our construct for CWB included items for both interpersonal and organizational CWB; however, both dimensions of deviance can have different antecedents and consequences which need to be explored in future research. Third, while we focused on the moderation of the emotional intelligence of supervisees, future research could explore how emotional intelligence of supervisors may serve to preempt interpersonal conflict and manage deviant behavior. Fourth, while we focused on the role of gender in the interplay of conflict, CWB and emotional intelligence, future research could study the role of age or generation (e.g. generation X or Y). Fifth, [START_REF] Chen | Conflict management for effective top management teams and innovation in China[END_REF] state that appropriate management of conflicts can induce creative problem-solving, interpersonal relationship satisfaction and lead to improved efficiency. Future research could also explore potential positive outcomes of interpersonal conflict. Finally, the present study centers on a sample of Pakistan-based organizations, so cultural factors may be relevant. Even though our theoretical arguments are not specific to this country, Pakistani culture, which scores high on collectivism, power distance and masculinity [START_REF] Hofstede | Insights on Hofstede's research into national and organisational culture[END_REF], might impact gender and individuals' emotions. For instance, research shows that control of emotion is encouraged in high power distance and collectivistic cultures [START_REF] Gunkel | Culture's influence on emotional intelligence: an empirical study of nine countries[END_REF]. Similarly, Hofstede suggests that gender differences are likely to be more pronounced in masculine cultures than feminine cultures [START_REF] Edgar | Gender and job performance: linking the high performance work system with the ability-motivation-opportunity framework[END_REF]. Thus, cross-country comparisons could reveal the potential buffering role of emotional intelligence and gender in the interpersonal conflict and CWB relation, in different cultural contexts.

Conclusion

In conclusion, this work contributes to the literature relating interpersonal conflict, emotional intelligence and gender to CWB. We find that emotional intelligence and gender shape how employees respond to interpersonal conflict, such that employees with higher interpersonal conflict and higher emotional intelligence evidenced lower CWB. Further, we find that women as compared to men were less likely to be engaged in CWB when faced with interpersonal conflict at high (versus low) levels of emotional intelligence.

  Figure 1. Research model

  Figure 2. Interactive effects of emotional intelligence (EI) and interpersonal conflict on CWB-I

  Figure 5. Three-way interactive relationship of interpersonal conflict, emotional intelligence and gender with CWB-O

Table 1 .

 1

	Demographic
	characteristics of
	respondents

Note

: n = 193

Table 4 .

 4

	Ordinary least
	squares regression
	analysis predicting
	workplace deviance

*

Notes: n = 193; * p < 0.05; ** p < 0.01

The authors wish to thank Professor Julie M. Hite for her meticulous proofreading and reviewing of the manuscript, which significantly improved the readability of the paper and Muhammad Sarfraz for collecting the data.