Alistair Fox

Michel Marie

Raphaëlle Moine

Martine Beugnet

An Invention with a Future French Cinema After the End of Cinema

Cinema had hardly been born than its French inventors, the Lumières, allegedly declared it an invention without a future. 1 As early as 1933, Antonin Artaud professed it to be already obsolete -a prematurely aged medium. 2 In the same period, it was feared that the advent of sound would effectively kill cinema as an art form, and since the 1950s, television has been expected to deal cinema a fatal blow. 3 Cinema's death has been foretold a great many times and discourses on its obsolescence have been a recurrent feature in the field of film theory, and, later, film and media theory. 4 However, speculations about the death of cinema as we know it have never been as prevalent and elaborated as they have since the 1990s, when digital electronics started to dominate the media scene. Indeed, the advent of digital emerged as a more powerful "threat" than any of the previous technological and cultural mutations that directly or indirectly affected cinema. Digital arguably deals cinema a double-edged blow: thanks to encoding, it facilitates the process of "remediation" 5 of the medium of the moving image started by video and television, and extends it to the multiplicity of platforms and screens of all sizes that denote our era of media convergence. It therefore strikes cinema in its institutional heart (the infrastructure of film production and distribution and the ritual of cinema-going) as well as in its material existence and aesthetic specificity, as digital technology arguably renders analog film obsolete.

France's privileged connection to the beginnings of cinema and its continuing investment in the evolution of the seventh art resulting in the creation, over time, of a distinctive cinematic culture, is no mere topos. 6 As Raymond Bellour sums it, as a medium, "Cinema's unique identity is born of this unparalleled combination of theory and criticism that French cinephilia created: Bazin, the Cahiers du cinéma,

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the Politique des auteurs." 7 It therefore comes as no surprise that the move from analog to digital, and the ensuing debate over the new, imminent, "death of cinema," not only features prominently in French film criticism but also emerges as a key theme in contemporary French films. If the shadow of Jean-Luc Godard's extraordinary video project Histoire(s) du cinéma (1988, 1989, 1997, 1998) looms large, 8 the trope of cinema's "death" is in fact part of a persistent trope that has produced an array of creative reflexive responses throughout the spectrum of French filmmaking. At first sight, there appears to be very little in common between the films discussed in this chapter: Raymond Depardon's short film Cinéma d'été (2007), 9 the popular musical comedy The Artist (Michel Hazanavicius, 2011), the animation features L'Illusionniste / The Illusionist (Sylvain Chomet, 2010) and Un monstre à Paris / A Monster in Paris (Bibo Bergeron, 2011), the experimental works Terminus for You (Nicolas Rey, 1996) and Chants (Martine Rousset, 1997), and Jean-Charles Fitoussi's intriguing mobile phone feature Nocturnes pour le roi de Rome (2005). Yet, all these films share a specific metacinematic quality, one that they derive, in nostalgic, humoristic, or matter-of-fact mode, from their implicit or explicit questioning of the future of the medium of which they represent various embodiments, and by the same token, the future of an art form and an industry that is, in the diversity of its expressions and genres, central to France's cultural identity. This chapter will not attempt to offer a survey of the extensive responses that the medium's changing status has elicited amongst French theorists and historians of the cinema. Its exploration of the critical and reflexive effect of the move from analog to digital will, instead, start from the films, so as to create a dialogue between contemporary filmmaking practices on the one hand, and the theoretical debate that this technological and cultural shift generated on the other. It will outline a range of concepts and practices characteristic of the response to cinema's recent evolution in a French context, from the diverse manifestations of nostalgia in evidence in the "retro" or vintage trends to the debate over the importance of the cinema-going experience in defining the medium's unique identity, and the more innovative responses that French films offer to the eventuality of an end of cinema as we know it.

Vintage Cinema

In the age of 3D, CGI, and futuristic action blockbusters, the narrative and stylistic features of Michel Hazanavicius's The Artist initially make it sound like a somewhat implausible commercial venture. Both a pastiche of studio production of the silent era and a homage to classic Hollywood, Hazanavicius's film is shot in black and white, punctuated with intertitles, and almost entirely devoid of diegetic

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sound. Set in the late 1920s, it chronicles the parallel destinies of a silent movie star (played by Jean Dujardin) who falls into disfavor, and of a rising female actress (Bérénice Bejo) who reaches fame as sound cinema becomes the norm. The year of its release, the film was one of French cinema's front-runners nationally and internationally, both in terms of box office and critical reception. Amongst the numerous awards it garnered, those for best actor bestowed on Dujardin stand as an ironical extension of the film's evocation of the demise of the silent era: whereas the "talkies" arguably marked the end of cinema's claims as an art form capable of reaching a universal audience, only when acting a silent part could a contemporary French-speaking actor lay claim to such prestigious American acknowledgements of his performance as Oscars and Golden Globes nominations. However, if the presence of one of France's most fashionable actors certainly contributed to the film's finding a sizable audience, it is its savvy combination of accessible narrative and conventional characterization with a commitment to an atypical stylistic format that granted the film its popular appeal. Indeed, the somewhat fetishistic focus on the effects born out of the film's "retro" form (tellingly, the only substantial irruption of diegetic sound occurs in the course of a nightmare) also marks its limits: pointing to the effect of distance created by the persistence of the stylistic artifice, Joachim Lepastier calls it a "deaf " film. 10 For Emiliano Morreale, in its mannerist reworking of cinematic nostalgia, The Artist is exemplary of the "vintage" bent that marks part of the contemporary production:

Nostalgia is Modernity's daughter, and up to a certain point follows a "modernist" model where history is understood as a movement toward decline. … Today, the phenomenon is broader and more complex. More than retro, revival or nostalgia, the most adequate term to characterize contemporary cinema's relationship with the past is vintage … vintage is, in effect, the opposite of history, and even of memory, it is a trend: a quotation-trend, where the past is a wardrobe. The success of a vintage operation is to call back the right period at the right time. 11 If The Artist seemingly chose "the right period at the right time," however, it is partly because the recollection of the climate of uncertainty of the era in question resonates with the perceived state of decline of cinema in the age of digital: in both cases, the "crisis" was the result of a technological mutation that directly affected the medium. 12 As such, in spite of, or indeed, thanks to its very limitations, the film paradoxically stands as a reminder of cinema's endurance in the face of technological change. However, in its recurrent staging of cinema as event (The Artist includes several prolonged scenes of private and public screenings), as well as its use of film as a prop for its dramatic climax (the central character almost dies in the furnace created by reels of nitrate film set ablaze), The Artist does point to two key areas of uncertainty that call into question the medium's identity: the future of analog film and of the cinema-going ritual.

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Only the Cinema

Is "cinema" still a definable object or phenomenon in the era of remediation and media convergence, when cinematic effects are absorbed by other media forms and films themselves turned into (mere) data, and therefore available, like any other data, for duplication and compression, and susceptible to be further manipulated, fragmented, and abbreviated, before it is redistributed in a multitude of formats and on a growing number of platforms and screens of all sizes? That cinema remains a key element of French cultural identity is in evidence in the way the question of its future polarizes the opinions of the French-speaking field of film, history of art, and media studies. 13 In his latest book, Raymond Bellour answers the vexed question through a playful dialogue, in which he rebuffs the suggestion that cinema can be successfully "relocated" through other devices. [START_REF]On the concept and process of "relocation" see Francesco Casetti[END_REF] From television to mobile phones, these modes of reception only apply to a "degraded vision of the cinema film." 15 For him, Jean-Luc Godard's classic assertion still holds: cinema's images are projected on a large scale; you raise your eyes to look at them. In any other form of vision, it is not cinema you experience, but its mere memory. 16 Similarly, Bellour refutes the notion that cinema's future lies with the art world, in the form of projections in galleries and museums. Practical issues aside (screening conditions in these institutions can never be adequate), implicit in this scheme, he argues, is the notion that cinema is both redeemed and revealed by the contemporary artists who plunder its archive -a denial of cinema's own reflexive power, as well as of cinema's continuing existence as an art in itself. 17 Bellour's argument has the advantage of simplicity and precision: for him, the medium's mongrel origins and repeated mutations notwithstanding, cinema's identity was forged, over time, in relation to specific conditions of reception. As such, the very notion of cinema cannot be dissociated from that of public projection:

To experience the projection of a film in a cinema, in the dark, as part of an audiencelarge or reduced -has become, and remains, the condition of a unique spectatorial experience of perception and memory that will be transformed, to a lesser or greater extent, in any other viewing situation. This, and only this deserves to be called "cinema". 18 Bellour reiterates the principles of an experience of the cinema and a tradition of cinephilia that apply not just to cinema's object, film, but to the unique spectatorial practice that the cinema implies. As such, Bellour's defense of the uniqueness of the cinema experience recalls Roland Barthes's classic passage on the lure of the darkened space of the film theatre and the appeal of the cinema-going ritual:

… fascinated twice over, by the image and its surroundings -as if I had two bodies at the same time: a narcissistic body which gazes, lost, into the engulfing mirror, and a

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perverse body, ready to fetishize not the image but precisely what exceeds it: the texture of the sound, the hall, the darkness, the obscure mass of the other bodies, the rays of light, entering the theatre, leaving the hall … [START_REF] Barthes | En sortant du cinéma[END_REF] A similar understanding of cinema's identity as a uniquely combined art form and display apparatus was the basis for a project designed to mark the sixtieth anniversary of the Cannes Film Festival in 2007. At the instigation of Gilles Jacob, president of the Festival, 36 prominent directors [START_REF] Olivier | to name but a few of the contributors. 21 On this topic, see Bellour's account of Myriam Hansen's story about young female students watching films on televisions while exchanging comments on their mobile phones (Bellour[END_REF] were asked to contribute to an anthology of short films entitled To Each His Own Cinema. If this title suggests, at first, an allencompassing conception of the cinema, the filmmakers' assignment was, in effect, very precise: they were invited to create a short film inspired by their current thoughts and feelings about the picture theatre. The sub-headings given to the collection are revealing: the main title, Chacun son cinéma (To Each His Own Cinema) is alternatively coupled with "une déclaration d'amour au grand écran" (a declaration of love to the big screen) or "ce petit coup au coeur quand la lumière s'éteint et que le film commence" (that thrill when the lights dim and the film begins). The anthology opens with Cinéma d'été (Open-Air Cinema, 2007, 3 min), a short documentary by veteran filmmaker Raymond Depardon. Depardon's film displays those qualities that have become his trademark. Meticulous attention to photography and framing, sparse camera movement and editing, and the relay of a benevolent, non-intrusive gaze allow the viewer to partake in the magic of the event depicted on screen: an outdoor screening at Alexandria's oldest film theatre, the Rio. Cinéma d'été starts with a series of static shots of the cityscape bathed in the soft, blue-grey light of dusk, an almost monochrome expanse of facades dotted with a few bright neon signs, with a few columns at the forefront signaling the presence of an archaeological site. The shots are interspersed with views of the cinema's monumental open air screen, its massive proscenium thus visually associated with the remnant of the archaeological site's classical columns, as one among many historical landmarks in a city rich in ancient and modern culture. As the gaze of the camera explores the cinema's empty auditorium, built on a rooftop, an atmosphere of expectation sets in. The silhouette of the projectionist discreetly crosses the hall, and the projection booth suddenly lights up against the settling darkness. Depardon films the arrival of the audience -a group of young people animatedly chatting as they climb up to the cinema and make their way amongst the rows of seats -and lovingly depicts the projectionist's handling of the 35 mm projector, lingering in close-up on the man's hands, as he checks the mechanisms and adjusts the focus. The filming of the screening switches from screen to audience, as the crowd watches with benign, amused expressions the tribulations and emotional predicaments of the young heroes of a romantic musical comedy. The film concludes with a few shots in the street, in front of the cinema. A mix of cars and horse-driven carts pass by as a young couple shares a snack, while presumably discussing the film they have just seen, or might want to see.

Recent political events have granted Depardon's unassuming short film an unexpected poignancy.

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Egyptians who took part in the events of the Arab Spring in Alexandria, only to see their victory recouped by the most conservative forces in the country. The simple pleasures of cinema-going depicted by Depardon have thus since come under threat, potentially taking on the character of subversive activities: a young couple discussing freely in the street at night, actresses dressed in the latest trend playing professional women, watched by young women with or without head-dress, on a night out with their female and male friends … In effect, the uneven quality of its offerings notwithstanding, one of the achievements of Chacun son cinéma's collection of shorts is to remind us that the diversity of experience of the cinema is inflected by the geographic, cultural, and political context, and, by the same token, to reassert the importance of the cinema as a special event in regions where the latest technology is not yet pervasive. Interestingly, however, no matter how remote or faraway the location, French cinema remains a key reference to a number of the filmmakers who contributed to the compilation -citations and other visual evocations of classic French films thus circulate through the collection like so many allegories of cinephilic culture. This is most prominent in Artaud Double Bill (2007, 3 min), Canadian filmmaker Atom Egoyan's contribution to the anthology. Here, the new technologies appear not so much as a threat, the advent of the era of the distracted gaze and of the "degraded image," than as an extension of the continuing circulation of images. As the creations of an art form dependent on mechanical reproduction, classic film images have always tended to migrate, from film to film, and from spectator to spectator. Filmmakers consciously or unconsciously quote or copy other filmmakers; films cite films; characters in films go to the cinema or impersonate other fictional characters, and spectators bring their memory of cinema into play as they watch a recent feature. In Egoyan's film, mobile phones are an additional relay to this circulation of images, and by multiplying the echoes, citations, and mises en abyme to excess, the filmmaker humorously reflects on the effect of the new devices amongst a public of young, multi-tasking spectators. 21 In Artaud Double Bill, two young women plan to go to the cinema together but end up in different auditoriums of the same film theatre. The film alternates between the two places, following the to-and-fro of

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Nicole is struck by the beauty of the actor and texts Anna. Anna asks for proof, and Nicole shoots a sequence with her mobile phone and sends it on. Anna thus watches in turn, on her own tiny screen, the scene where the young monk played by Artaud tells Jeanne (Renée Falconetti) she is to die by fire. Simultaneously, in the background, the scene from The Adjuster shows a house burning down. Egoyan's film offers itself as a witty, yet ambivalent, vision of contemporary cinema-going habits. On the one hand, the use of mobile phones in the course of a screening is typical of the kind of distracted viewing induced by the multiplication and ubiquity of communication devices. On the other hand, Anna and Nicole's exchange of text messages unwittingly extends the principle of citation and dissemination -favored by the directors of the Nouvelle Vague, and continued in the work of contemporary auteurs such as Egoyan -that is at the heart of cinephilic culture. However, Egoyan's whimsical and charming evocation of cinema-going, and the reception of canonical films in the era of media convergence and mobile communication ends with a note of doom: the intertitle "La Mort" from Jeanne d'Arc, appears on top of the flames that fill the screen of The Adjuster, only to be followed by Artaud Double Bill's final credits, presented in the form of a damaged strip of celluloid -a list of names unraveling on a heavily scratched and discolored surface.

At the end of Egoyan's film the juxtaposition of the intertitle "La Mort" with images of flames and the degraded look characteristic of analog film (itself a highly flammable material) relates the question of old and new forms of spectatorship and cinephilia to that of the potential obsolescence of film in its analog format. For Bellour, the impact of the shift from analog to digital is limited: digital "does not have an effect on the essential aspects: the show, the movie theatre, the screen, darkness, silence, spectators assembled together for a period of time." 22 Indeed, if initially the shift from analog to digital appeared to destroy film's traditional, indexical relation to the profilmic, in practice the change is not necessarily tangible: whether armed with an analog or a digital camera, filmmakers have continued to direct their lenses toward the profilmic, thus exploiting digital film's own indexical value. [START_REF] Niessen | On digital film and indexicality, see[END_REF] Even though the quality of the digital image remains an issue, filmmakers have started to exploit digital imaging's distinctive sharpness and flatness for its own aesthetic effect, while technological developments continue to broaden the spectrum of possibilities: the mastermind of camera technology, Jean-Pierre Beauviala, is currently experimenting with a new kind of lens and filters so as to create a digital image that will emulate the grain and subtle contrast of analog film. [START_REF] Ferenczi | Des images nourries au grain[END_REF] Yet the question of analog film's obsolescence cannot be dismissed so easily. As Mary-Anne Doane and Laura Mulvey have pointed out, in an age where digital media, thanks to its seemingly [START_REF]The fast rate of technological obsolescence does in fact[END_REF] endless capacity for replication, archiving, and storing, institutes the reign of the immortal image, analog film's vulnerability and finitude render it more valuable to us. Paradoxically, the very medium that Benjamin associated with the waning of the aura has now, thanks to its capacity to bear the signs of the effect of time passing, acquired an auratic quality of its own.

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Sensitivity to these issues can be felt throughout the spectrum of French film production, in the films of directors working within the boundaries of popular and mainstream cinema, where the return to "retro" or vintage trends combines with experiments with hybrid formats, as well as in the work of experimental filmmakers celebrating the unique qualities of analog filmmaking while reflecting on its alleged obsolescence.

Animation Retro-Style

The Artist is not an isolated example of the "vintage bent." Some of the most noted productions in recent French animation, in particular, offer themselves as painstaking restagings of the past that generate that particular "vintage" quality born of the imitation and combination of specific "period looks." In L'Illusionniste / The Illusionist (Sylvain Chomet, 2010) and Un monstre à Paris / A Monster in Paris (Bibo Bergeron, 2011), as in The Artist, the restaging of a bygone era of the medium of the moving image is framed by an evocation of forms of popular entertainment that hark back, like early cinema, to the era of the music hall.

While its plot recalls an 1822 tale by Ernst Hoffmann that focuses on the world of fairground attractions, [START_REF] The | Master Flea: A Fairy-Tale" in Seven Adventures of Two Friends (1822), in which a showman uses a magnifying lens and projected light[END_REF] Bergeron's film is set in the 1910s. It casts a café concert

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singer as his central character and a projectionist and an usherette as supporting characters, and situates one of its key settings in a glass-house as a direct reference to George Méliès's purpose-built studio. 28 Loosely set in the 1950s, Chomet's film is based on a reworking of an unrealized scenario by Jacques Tati, who is also the inspiration for the illusionist of the title. Moreover, its uncanny revival of the incomparable silhouette of the genius director and actor, serves as an evocation of the predicament of a traditional entertainment artist in decline, also set in the world of the music hall. 29 Both of these animation films involve a meticulous work of iconographic and color reconstruction, as well as a range of historical musical references, in order to create an immersive universe evocative of a particular era. Whereas Chomet insists on the import of the hand-crafted part of the process perceptible in the "pen and ink" quality of his 2D animation, [START_REF] See | Peter Bradshaw's review in the Guardian[END_REF] Bergeron attempts to counteract the "unnatural" and atemporal smoothness characteristic of computergenerated 3D graphics with a period look inspired by impressionist painting as well as the iconography typical of the Paris of the belle époque. [START_REF]The Tactile Eye: Touch and the Cinematic Experience[END_REF] In Bergeron's film the aptly called Francoeur ("truthful heart"), the monster of the title, is the result of a scientifically aided mutation both in the diegesis (through the mishandling of a scientist's laboratory phials) and as part of the movie's CGI-based graphic morphing. Interestingly, Francoeur is a fundamentally good figure -one that therefore stands as an allegory for the acceptance of the latest computer-generated effects even into the period world of retro French animation. Hence, while one would expect a work reminiscent of one of Hoffman's tales to play on uncanny effects, interestingly, in Bergeron's film, the sense of the uncanny is born of the mix of live and animated images rather than the monstrous change of scale and nature undergone by Francoeur. Most intriguing, indeed, is the use of found footage in The Illusionist and A Monster in Paris, which both include brief sequences of (photographic) film footage. In both cases, the live footage appears on the screens of virtual cinemas, watched by an audience of animated characters. In effect, Bergeron's film opens with such a sequence: a crowd of cartoon characters watching the projection of authentic newsreels chronicling the great Paris flood of 1910. In The Illusionist, the peregrinations of the main character, the magician Tatischeff, lead him to settle in Edinburgh. There, he eventually encounters his live double when he mistakenly steps into the Cameo Cinema where Mon oncle ( Jacques Tati, 1958) is playing. Tatischeff the cartoon character thus finds himself face to face with Tati in one of his famous incarnations as Monsieur Hulot. In A Monster, as in The Illusionist, the encounter with live footage thus creates a doubly uncanny sense of reversal. More than the mise en abyme created by the (painstakingly reconstructed) cinema-going situation depicted in the two sequences, it is the implant of live images, with their aura of indexical authenticity and physicality, within a world of virtual beings, that fosters a strange impression of unfamiliar familiarity.

Indeed, in both films, "live" footage, embedded in, or grafted onto, the larger body of the animation film thus appears as a marginal mode of representation, as

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if to illustrate Lev Manovich's classic description of the demise of cinema's outmoded indexical guise and the reintegration of the medium of the moving image into the history of visual culture as a branch of graphic art:

… the manual construction of images in digital cinema represents a return to nineteenth-century pre-cinematic practices, when images were hand-painted and hand-animated. At the turn of the twentieth century, cinema was to delegate these manual techniques to animation and define itself as a recording medium. As cinema enters the digital age, these techniques are again becoming the commonplace in the filmmaking process. Consequently, cinema can no longer be clearly distinguished from animation. It is no longer an indexical media technology but, rather, a sub-genre of painting. [START_REF] Manovich | The Language of New Media[END_REF] The particular resonance that Manovich's oft-quoted statement acquires in the context of Chomet and Bergeron's works is born of the characteristic fascination that these animation features betray for the beginnings of cinema. The presence of brief excerpts of "live" footage thus seemingly becomes part of a literal reframing where film in its analog photographic form is but a glitch in a broader historical outlook that embraces the very origins of the medium of the moving image as well as its future as a graphic, computerized, and digitized media form.

In the actual viewing experience, however, the effect of the juxtaposition of the live and animated footage comes well in excess of the theoretical pairing I just made between Manovich and the two films. There is an undeniable sense of poignancy in the elusive presence of the live footage -the expression of a nostalgic yearning and awe for the kind of precious testimony that only analog film, as a photographic-indexical trace of the past has preserved. But, as Ian Garwood further points out in his study of mixed visual formats, hybrid forms of imaging yield a specific sensory and aesthetic surplus. 33 The combination of textures, composition, and movements, the different sense of fullness offered by the photographic accuracy and detail on the one hand, and the more painterly declination of graphic effects and color palette on the other, generate their own sense of visual wonder and sensual pleasure. The unforeseen apparitions of live footage puncture the neat, autarchic universe of the animated feature film like a door opening between two worlds (indeed, in Chomet's film, the live film can be briefly glimpsed through the cinema's half-open doors before the animated impersonification of Tati comes, for a brief moment, to contemplate its filmed incarnation). Through the uncanny encounter of the two forms of cinematic imaging that the films thus stage, the "expressive possibilities" specific to each film form are emphasized. [START_REF] Arthur | The Status of Found Footage[END_REF] In this, the world of mainstream animation meets that of experimental filmmaking: in experimental cinema, awareness of the specific aesthetic qualities of film's range of formats remains key, and the issue of analog's obsolescence proves a particularly sensitive one.

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Twilight Visions

There is one form of filmmaking that cannot ever be emulated by digital filmmaking: materialist filmmaking, also sometimes designated as "handmade cinema", is based on the direct intervention onto the filmstrip. From the beginnings of cinema, filmmakers have used analog film not simply as a photographic surface, but as a material basis that could be altered through a limitless array of manipulations -from chemical intervention to writing, painting and scratching the surface of the (blank or pre-recorded) footage. [START_REF]For an analysis of materialist practices in the age of digital filmmaking see Martine Beugnet and Kim Knowles[END_REF] Although it has produced some of the masterpieces of early and modern cinema, this well-established school of filmmaking is doomed to disappear if the production of analog film ceases. Better than any other forms of filmmaking, materialist film reveals what is at stake in the analog-to-digital shift, throwing into relief the deceptiveness of the dominant theory of technological evolution where the digital is seen as a continuation and as a replacement of analog film. [START_REF] Beugnet | The Aesthetics and Politics of Obsolescence," and Tacita Dean's eloquent defense of celluloid film practice in Film[END_REF] Shot in 1996, as the threat represented by digital film to earlier formats had become a given, Nicolas Rey's film Terminus for You (9 min) is a captivating instance of reflexive cinema that hones on the issue of film's transience. Terminus for You is a film that creatively and humorously contemplates its own demise -a celebration of analog film that offers itself as a combined allegory of film's mortality and the finite cycle of human life.

Rey's film is based on 16 mm black and white footage of the conveyor-belts that carry passengers through the Montparnasse underground station in Paris. Moved along the conveyor-belt against a backdrop of information signs and advertisement posters, travelers pass by in front of the static camera, some lost in thought or heedlessly hurrying along, some staring into the lens, smiling or making faces. Shot on old film stock, Rey's images have the grainy quality of early films, heightened by the insert of negative images. In the style of expressionist painting, the high contrasts and thick outlines tend to erase the finer features while emphasizing particular details: the eyes and mouth of a face; a pair of glasses; a hat; the bold lettering or the lines of drawings on posters floating on saturated white backgrounds. In addition, part of the footage was reprinted and treated chemically, so as to further alter and gradually destroy its photographic content: figures and signs distort and melt as foreground and background progressively dissolve into one another, as the film evolves from figurative to abstract.

Rey structured his film in cubist fashion, like an audiovisual collage or cinepoem of heterogeneous material without a sense of a stable point of view or perspective. With the conveyor-belt providing the traveling movement, the camera alternately pans right to left and left to right to follow the silhouettes of the people who cross its field of vision, and in further disregard of conventional continuity rules, shifts from one to the other side of the conveyor belt between shots. Through montage, some sequences are repeated with the direction of the movement inverted, while the images reappear as negative prints.

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Out of his initial footage, Rey extracts or creates an absorbing range of effects and visual quotations. Close-up shots of the metallic belt punctuate the film like so many abstract geometric motifs, while cut-up sentences and words, as well as details from advertising posters, provide caustic comments on the quality and loneliness of urban existence. Similarly, the optical sound-track, more noise-music than commentary, conveys a mixture of echoes and sensations, its fragments of old-fashioned music, occasional crackling and muffled tones, providing an equivalent to the grainy quality of the images. Public advertisements and announcements blast through the station's loudspeakers while in the distance are echoes of a street-organ or circus band mixed with industrial drilling-like sounds and ringing that recall the start of horse-races. At times, the combination of soundtrack and image thus evokes the origins of cinema: a fairground atmosphere where the silhouettes of the commuters appear to take part in an endless parade of urban characters announced in the style of the "attraction" show by ringing sounds, slogans, and puns. Indeed, Rey weaves into his images the traces of practices associated with the beginnings of cinema and the work of the first avant-garde movements as well as contemporary art forms. On the one hand, Terminus for You evokes the futurists' and surrealists' celebration of modern street life, the invention of noise-music, and the cubist practice of cut-up words and images for collage and analytical montage effects. On the other hand, the high contrast and grainy quality of the photography recall the now degraded images of old silent movies as much as the use of the "blown-up" effect most readily associated with Andy Warhol's screen printing.

While it thus implicitly reminds us of film's key role in a long, constantly renewed tradition of artistic expression bent on capturing the evolution of modern life, Rey's film is also a cinematic vanitas -a memento mori on the transience of things rendered all the more suggestive by the whimsical, humorous nature of the filmmaker's allegorical elaboration.

Rey finds in the underground station conveyor-belt a simple, classic trope of contemporary urban life that doubles as a metaphor for film. Like a film loop, the conveyor belt circles endlessly, yet its visible portion offers an illusion of linear progression, transporting human bodies from A to B with the smooth lateral movement of a traveling shot, in the predetermined direction and calculated time of an endlessly repeated scenario. The variety of "types" and ages -children, young people, couples -provides a suitably evocative allegory of the human condition, as they pass by the camera, carried by the conveyor-belt's automatic movement through a space saturated with the audiovisual signifiers of today's culture of frantic consumption. An embodiment of modern life's mechanical rhythms, the conveyor-belt provides an artificial sense of continuity, direction, and purpose where fragmentation and senselessness reign. Mid-way through the film, Rey points his camera toward the lonely silhouette of an old man -a frail, yet insubordinate figure walking away slowly, on the side of the conveyor, and in the direction opposite to that of its herd of busy passengers.

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At regular intervals toward the end of the film, the camera is set onto the conveyor belt and temporarily adopts the point of view of the travelers. These sequences are punctuated with shots of a sign warning the users (and, by extension, the film spectator) of the approaching end of the journey. As we eventually reach the end of the trajectory, the screen first turns into a void -blank frame and silence; the subsequent sequences of images form a striking series of dissolving compositions, as the images, attacked by chemicals, undergo a succession of radical mutations. First splitting into a myriad of cells, as in a pointillist painting, the silhouettes take on grotesque appearances, and start to melt into the background like figures drawn by Edward Münch. Soon, they morph into fluid, organic shapes and black lines and stains, gracefully unraveling across the screen like a series of abstract etchings by Henry Michaux set in movement. At the very end of the film, the rough outlines of a face from an advertisement poster -made-up lips and painted nails -flash by, and a short, hysterical laughter resonates.

The foregrounding of the materiality of the film strip outlines its vulnerability, the film thus drawing a parallel between the ephemeral quality of human life and that of the art-form that paradoxically derives much of its power to fascinate from its apparent ability to "embalm" life and replay it endlessly as an illusion of live movement. As the images start to dissolve into nothingness at the end, frozen instants and isolated sounds linger for a few fractions of seconds, floating across the screen like memory images.

In Martine Rousset's film, as in Rey's work, sensitivity to cinema's unique relation to the workings of time is intricately bound with an exploration of the qualities specific to the diverse formats that constitute analog film's unique versatility. To work with analog, says Rousset, is to capture images that "breathe," and to be able to choose formats in accordance with their own merits: 8 mm for its lightness, 16 mm for stability. [START_REF] Rousset | Tramer les vitesses[END_REF] In Chant (1995, 20 min), however, these qualities are foregrounded through an unusual interface of analog and electronic imaging: footage from a television screen was first shot on super 8 film, then shot again on 16 mm, and the speed and coloring manipulated through optical printing. "Re-mediation" here -as the recuperation of footage from one media to another -thus operates in reverse, from electronic footage back to celluloid (and back again as the film is finally distributed in the form of VHS and DVDs). The initial footage is of a televised solo concert by the singer Barbara, which Rousset combines with footage of bombardments showing crumbling buildings set ablaze -the shadow of the Second World War thus looms over the silhouette of the adult Barbara, a reminder of the singer's experience of the war and the Occupation as a Jewish child in hiding. Through the process of multiple reshooting and the alteration of the filmed footage's photographic qualities and speed, the initial televised footage, simultaneously deteriorated and enhanced, is rendered mysterious and wonderful. The result is an elegiac comingling of film and memory, inscription and erasure. Grainy, highly contrasted images conjure up the bluish outline of the singer's face or of her slender silhouette, elusive traces that flicker across the screen, or superimpose

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themselves on the of devastation before they are engulfed again by the darkness that surrounds them. [START_REF] Habib | The kind of aesthetic at work in Chant could be related to what is sometimes described as aesthetics of the ruin, or aesthetics of decay[END_REF] The music -sparse piano chords, alternating with the ominous sound of bells, linger, as if suspended in time -emphasizes the prevailing sense of fragility and elusiveness. Here, film is, as Rousset puts it, "the trace of the trace of the trace of the trace." [START_REF] Rousset | Arte website[END_REF] Chant's images suggest that since, to paraphrase George Didi-Huberman, its aesthetic is that of the imprint, [START_REF] Didi-Huberman | [END_REF] and because it is exposed to decay, film as celluloid can, better than other audiovisual media, show the workings of memory. Even as "the trace of the trace of the trace of the trace," the film's compelling material presence grants the images their unusual impact and power of evocation.

In Jean-Charles Fitoussi's feature film, Nocturnes pour le roi de Rome (2005), the medium of the moving image is similarly celebrated as a key repository of the memory of the twentieth century. Like Bibo Bergeron and Sylvain Chomet's features discussed earlier, Fitoussi's film is a hybrid, where analog meets digital filmmaking. Here, however, the encounter takes place in the still atypical cinematic zone of the mobile phone feature film.

The film takes the form of a diary, in which an old German composer recounts his last days in Rome, where he has been invited by the king in order to compose a series of eight nocturnes ( Joseph Haydn, who composed the Nocturnes pour le roi de Naples, is one of the inspirations for Fitoussi's character). Upon his arrival, however, the ailing musician is besieged by visions from his past: the ghost of his deceased beloved wife, as well as memories of the Second World War, which he experienced as a tiny child.

Fitoussi shot all of the contemporary footage on location with a mobile phone camera. The low definition digital images evoke a multiplicity of other media surfaces including analog film. The result is an immersive visual universe composed of "fragile, indefinite images, where outlines dissolve into color fields; images alive with stories that alternatively evoke vision through a microscope, the surface of a painting, or super 8 film," the entrancing evocation of the "visions of a sickly old man, immersed in the turmoil of a reality that has become unfamiliar, inhospitable …" [START_REF] Merlhiot | [END_REF] The old man's recollections, however, either as conscious evocations or sudden moments of involuntary memory, take the form of analog photographs and film footage -portraits of his wife as a young woman reminiscent of Chris Marker's classic work on cyclical time, La Jetée (1962); archive footage of the city being bombed, or of German soldiers marching; and extracts of Italian films of the neorealist and modernist period. Some of these extracts literally puncture the slightly hazy texture of the film's main body of images: the dreadful episode of the death of Pina (Anna Magnani) in Roma, città aperta / Rome, Open City (Roberto Rossellini, 1945), for instance, appears for a mere few seconds, a visual shock that rips through the film's surface.

The matrix of the film is a striking sequence-shot (over 20 min) described by Fitoussi as the "waiters' ballet." 42 It is a scene of banquet, taking place on a large open-air terrace, at dusk. In front of Fitoussi's camera, the staff in uniform prepare

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the tables and orchestrate the placement and service of the elegantly dressed guests, as through a choreography rehearsed perfection. Gestures and postures repeat themselves, lines are formed and undone, yet the camera, in its slow, fluid panning movements, manages to capture isolated figures and unguarded expressions that, for a moment, break through the decorum. Little by little, as night falls and the orangey glow of candles spreads over the tables, the ghosts of the past emerge more insistently, extradiegetic images and the sounds increasingly permeating both the visual and audio track.

The narrator himself, however, is a ghostly figure. The old composer never appears on screen, his presence restricted to a disembodied voice, which shares the sound track with a range of classic musical compositions, from the baroque to the romantic repertoire. As he reminisces about the war and its devastations, the grain of the narrator's voice (the composer speaks in a low register, in a voice marked by age and with a distinct German accent) combines with the musical track as the allegorical expression of an artistic culture that knows no boundaries. The voiceover, however, does not function as a guarantee of "veracity": the narrator's slightly hesitant recollections hardly provide any information as such. As the old man's unusual voice flows over the trembling images, a sense of intimacy is created, between spectator and narrator, and between the spectator and the film's material presence. Yet in spite of the diary form, and of the film's emanating from a camera normally attached to a personal communication device, Nocturnes' voice-over narration does not bring forth a sense of "immediacy and presence" [START_REF]AM 44 Immune to the beauties of Fitoussi's film, Nicolas Azalbert dismisses it as a "Histoire(s) du cinéma du pauvre" in his review, "Nocturnes pour le roi de Rome[END_REF] in the conventional way: the voice of the old composer might well, in the end, come from beyond the grave.

In its evocation of cinema as historical witness, Nocturnes pour le roi de Rome pays homage to Jean-Luc Godard's colossal video masterpiece, Histoire(s) du cinéma. 44 But Fitoussi's film, the style of which recalls the poetic docu-fiction of Vincent Dieutre, also belongs to a broader strand of independent cinema, sometimes coined "tiers-cinéma," and heralded by the distributor Pointligneplan. [START_REF]On the "tiers-cinéma," see Vincent Dieutre's texts on the website www.pointligneplan.com, and Vincent Dieutre[END_REF] Pointligneplan gathers together a group of directors working in low-budget filmmaking, and open to experimenting with the possibilities offered by new technologies even as they bemoan the potential demise of film's traditional formats. Dieutre explains:

Endless regrets on the part of the directors of the tiers-cinéma for the grain of analog film, for the vibration of its unscrolling images … To continue to film in super-8, in 16 mm or in 35 mm, as if painting against all good judgment, for the beauty of it, without fetishism? The issue is one of resources. The tiers-cinema knows all this, for the market forced it to learn to manage before the Dogma-like fun aesthetes with their cinema of circumstantial poverty. The tiers-cinéma happily mixes formats because our cinema is violently impure. It has nothing to lose for all is already lost. No one will escape the digital; the tiers-cinéma has humbly learned to do with it. 46 Most crucially, however, the kind of cinema advocated by Fitoussi, Dieutre, and a number of independent filmmakers engaged in digital filmmaking is a cinema where chance plays a key role. Whereas the digital, with all the easiness of

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post-production manipulation that it entails, often results in the creation of a highly policed form of cinema, films such Fitoussi's Nocturnes, while they clearly seek to extend cinema's formal lexis, also testify to the willingness to embrace new technological tools as a means to explore the pro-filmic in all its uncertainty.

Conclusion

As Dieutre's melancholy optimism reminds us, it is less the digital per se that is a threat to film creativity, than the notion of one format, one aesthetic, replacing all. French cinema's strength has always grown out of the diversity of its production, and resistance to the kind of aesthetic standardization that digital filmmaking might breed is therefore of key importance here. 47 As well as the continuation of varied filmmaking practices, the maintenance of a cinematic culture that is deeply embedded in the ritual of cinema-going is essential to the upholding of such diversity, not only because traditional conditions of viewing ensure that the layering of temporalities 48 so vital to the experience and enjoyment of film is preserved, but also because it contributes to the continuation of a shared culture. [START_REF] Frémaux | 1895, the Lumière cinematograph won over Edison's kinetoscope because spectators at the time wanted to see 'a film on a large screen, together,' to share the laughter, the tears, and their vision of the world. This remains true[END_REF] As Jacques Aumont emphasizes, if films generate such heated discussions in terms of taste and distaste, it is because, more than any other art form, "cinema holds, in social life, a uniquely collective place." Indeed, he adds, recent technological changes have made cinema more present in contemporary culture as a whole: "cinematographic culture has become an essential part of culture as a whole. In some ways, one could say that cinema has never existed more than today." 50

  text messages that Anna and Nicole exchange in the course of their respective screenings. While Nicole attends a show of Jean-Luc Godard's Vivre sa vie / My Life to Live (1962), Anna ends up watching Atom Egoyan's own The Adjuster (1991), and Egoyan plays fully on the effect of mise en abyme offered by both films. Nicole thus watches Vivre sa vie's Nana (Anna Karina) sitting in a cinema watching Carl T. Dreyer's La Passion de Jeanne d'Arc / The Passion of Joan of Arc (1928), while Anna witnesses film censor Hera (Arsinée Khanjian), the central character of The Adjuster, watching (and, surreptitiously, filming) a pornographic feature she has to assess as part of her job. Soon, Anna and Nicole start texting each other, Egoyan superimposing the screen of the mobile phone in close-up and the cinematic images deployed on the large screen in the background. As Antonin Artaud appears in Dreyer's film, watched by Karina/Nana and by contemporary spectator Nicole, 0002152122.INDD 575 6/21/2014 12:17:24 AM

Figure 26 . 1

 261 Figure 26.1 The illusionist faces his double as Tati in L'Illusionniste (Sylvain Chomet, 2010). The Illusionist / L'Illusionniste (original title); 2010; Sylvain Chomet; Pathé (presents), Django Films (co-production), Ciné B (co-production), France 3 Cinéma (co-production), Canal+ (participation), CinéCinéma (participation), France Télévision (participation), Ink. Digital.

  The youths depicted in this film are similar to the young

	0002152122.INDD 574	6/21/2014 12:17:24 AM

  Notes 1 On the topic of Antoine Lumière's response to George Méliès's attempt at purchasing a camera, see "Un art sans avenir?," interview with Thierry Frémaux, La Lettre de l'Académie des Beaux-Arts 38 (2004): 9. 2 Antonin Artaud, "La Vieillesse précoce du cinéma," Cahiers jaunes 4 (1933): 24. 3 On past and present relations between television and cinema in a French context see La Télévision a-t-elle tué le cinema?, ed. Jean Cluzel (Paris: PUF, 2005). 4 André Gaudreault and Philippe Marion list no less than eight so-called deaths of the cinema since its invention, in La Fin du cinéma? Un média en crise à l'ère du numérique (Paris : Armand Colin, 2013). Raymond Bellour, La Querelle des dispositifs: cinémainstallations, expositions (Paris: POL, 2012), 13 protests that "the worst should not always be expected. Cinema has survived, it is surviving, its health record would surprise you. In effect, there have been several deaths of the cinema, each connected to a period of mutation." (Unless otherwise stated, translations from sources in French are my own.) The refashioning of an older media by a new media form. See Jay Bolter and Richard Grusin's classic study on the interface between old and new media, Remediation (Cambridge, MA: MIT, 2000), 6 In his editorial to issue 62 of Senses of Cinema, Rolando Caputo gives the question of the French cinema culture a nostalgic twist as he consigns the peak of France's investment in cinema (culturally, socially, and politically) to the 1960s and 1970s: "Once upon a time in France, long, long before The Artist and all it represents was even a blimp on distant horizons, film culture had an altogether different dimension and orientation. That orientation can be summed up, perhaps too simply, in one phrase: 'the politics of film'. And its effects were felt at all levels of film culture, from the mainstream industry to the independents and all manner of production modes in between; from filmmakers to audiences; from ciné-clubs to film schools; from film journals to film scholars. No strata of film culture remained untouched." http:// sensesofcinema.com/2012/editorial/welcome-to-issue-62-of-our-journal, accessed May 20, 2014. 7 Bellour, Querelle, 24 (italics in original text). See also Dudley Andrew, What Cinema Is! (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2010). Andrew's eloquent defense of a cinema free of the derivative effects of (digital) postproduction relies primarily on the Bazinian school of film theory and criticism, as well as a predominantly French corpus of films. 8 See in particular Kriss Ravetto-Biagioli, "Noli me tangere: Jean-Luc Godard's Histoire(s) du cinéma," in A Companion to Jean-Luc Godard, ed. Tom Conley and T. Jefferson Kline (Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell, 2014), 456-487 and Michael Witt, Jean-Luc Godard:Cinema Historian (Bloomington: Indiana University Press, 2013). 9 Cinéma d'été is included in the collection of short films Chacun son cinéma ou Ce petit coup au coeur quand la lumière s'éteint et que le film commence / To Each His Own Cinema (various directors, 2007). 10 Joachim Lepastier, "Un film sourd," Cahiers du cinéma 671 (October 2011): 39. 11 Emilia Morreale, "Cinéma vintage," Cahiers du cinéma 673 (December 2011): 17. 12 For many of the film theorists of the time the passage from silent to sound film not only contributed to establish Hollywood's dominance, but spelt the death of film from an aesthetic point of view. See, amongst others, the skeptical assessments of sound film's potential by Rudolph Arnheim, Film (London: Faber and Faber, 1933) and Film Essays and Criticism (Madison: University of Wisconsin Press, 1997); Belà Balazs, Theory of the Film: Character and Growth of a New Art (London: Dennis Dobson, 1952); and French director René Clair in Lucy Fischer, "René Clair, Le Million, and the Coming of Sound," Cinema Journal 16:2 (1977): 34-50. 13 The November 2011 issue of Cahiers du cinéma, for instance, was entitled "Adieu 35 -La Révolution numérique est terminée." See also, among other publications, and in addition to Bellour's seminal Querelle: Jacques Aumont, Que reste-t-il du cinéma? (Paris: Vrin, 2012); Philippe Dubois's polemical Yes, It's Cinema: Forms and Spaces of the Moving Images (Pasian di Prato, Italy: Campanotto Editore, 2009); Jean-Michel Frodon, Horizon Cinéma:l'art du cinéma dans le monde contemporain, à l'âge du numérique et de la mondialisation (Paris: Cahiers du cinéma, 2006); and Angel Quintana, Virtuel? À l'ère du numérique, le cinéma est toujours le plus réaliste des arts (Paris: Cahiers du cinéma,2008). In the most recent publication on the topic, Gaudreault and Marion, La Fin du cinéma?, offer a survey of the main arguments.

	0002152122.INDD 585 U N C O R R E C T E D P R O O F S 6/21/2014 12:17:25 AM 6/21/2014 12:17:25 AM U N C O R R E C T E D P R O O U N C O R R E C T E D P R O O 5 0002152122.INDD 586 F S F S


Jean-Bernard Chatelain
email: jean-bernard.chatelain@univ-paris1.fr

Kirsten Ralf
email: kirsten.ralf@esce.fr.

Persistence-Dependent Optimal Policy Rules

Keywords: JEL classi…cation numbers: C61, C62, E31, E52, E58 Core in ‡ation, Imported in ‡ation, Optimal Policy, Welfare, Policy rule

A policy target (for example in ‡ation) may depend on the persistent component of exogenous shocks, such as the cost-push shock of oil, energy or imported prices. The larger the persistence of these exogenous shocks, the larger the welfare losses and the larger the response of policy instrument to this exogenous shock in a feedback rule, in order to decrease the sensitivity of the policy target to this shock.

Introduction

Ramsey optimal policy theoretically grounds Ashley, Tsang and Verbrugge's (2020) empirical evidence that the Fed funds rate response increases with the persistence of exogenous shocks. For example, imported in ‡ation or oil prices changes do have a persistent component [START_REF] Ashley | International Evidence on the Oil Price-Macroeconomy Relationship: Does Persistence Matter?[END_REF])).

Firstly, the optimal response of the policy instrument to persistent shocks increases with the auto-correlation of shocks. Although the central bank cannot control the persistence of exogenous shocks, it can control the sensitivity of core in ‡ation to these shocks with its policy rule response.

Secondly, optimal policy may even set this sensitivity to zero when responding to non-stationary shocks when the auto-correlation tends to one. This is one explanation among others for the observed smaller order of the dynamics of the policy target (a smaller number of lags) than the order of the dynamics (the number of lags) of the policy instrument. For example, this is the case for US in ‡ation (one lag) and Fed funds rate (two lags) for quarterly data from 1982 to 2006.

Thirdly, a non-zero weight in the loss function of the variance of the policy instruments (which respond to persistent exogenous shocks) implies that the value function which evaluates welfare depends on the volatility of persistent exogenous shocks. This occurs even if the loss function has sets a zero weight on the volatility of persistent exogenous shocks.

Persistence-Dependent Optimal Policy Rule

The policy maker's optimal policy program is:

max xt 1 2 E 0 t=+1 X t=0 t Q 2 2 t + 2Q z t z t + Q z 2 z 2 t + Rx 2 t with R > 0, Q 0, 0 < 1, subject to: t+1 z t+1 = A A z 0 t z t + B B zx = 0 x t + 0 " t with A > 0, A z 6 = 0, B 6 = 0 and 0 < 1.
where E t denotes the expectation operator, t denotes the rate of core in ‡ation between periods t 1 and t. The persistent cost-push shock z t may correspond to oil, energy or imported in ‡ation due to foreign supply or demand shocks. The policy instrument is x t . It may represent the welfare-relevant output gap, i.e. the deviation between (log) output and its e¢ cient level [START_REF] Gali | Monetary Policy, In ‡ation, and the Business Cycle[END_REF]).

The policy maker preferences includes a discount factor and weights Q on the variance and covariance of in ‡ation and of the persistent cost-push shock and R on the variance of the policy instrument. Q is a positive matrix. R is strictly positive.

The cost-push shock follows an autoregressive process of order one (AR(1)), 0 < 1, with identically and independently normally distributed white noise disturbances " t of variance 2

" . The policy maker's instrument cannot change the persistence of this shock (B zx = 0). The full system of core in ‡ation and imported in ‡ation is of order two.

Our results do not depend on speci…c relations between the parameters ( ; A; A z ; B) of the policy transmission mechanism. They hold for backward-looking models assuming in ‡ation is predetermined or for Ramsey optimal policy where in ‡ation is nonpredetermined and optimally anchored by the policy maker. They can be extended to multiple policy targets, multiple persistent shocks and multiple policy instruments using Chatelain andRalf (2019, 2020) algorithm. In this case, only numerical values are available. Closed form solutions can only be found for order two models with single target, single persistent shock and single policy instrument as follows.

We apply these results on Gali (2015, chapter 5) new-Keynesian Phillips curve (NKPC) transmission mechanism (table 1):

t = x t + E t t+1 + z t , E t t+1 = 1 t x t 1 z t (1)
Table 1: New-Keynesian Phillips curves parameters and welfare preferences, = 0:99, = 0:1275, " = 6. = 2:125% 0:8 Gali's (2015) example has a large sensitivity (close to one in absolute value) between core in ‡ation and cost-push shock: A z = 1 = 1 0:99 . One percent change of imported in ‡ation leads to one percent change of core in ‡ation (A z = 1 = 1:01). Gali's (2015) calibration uses welfare computation for the weight on the variance of the policy instrument which is extremely small (R=Q 2 = 2%). This implies very large absolute values of optimal policy parameters consistent to an allowed large variance of the policy instrument.

Parameters A B A z Q 2 Q z Q z 2 R NKPC 1 1 < 0 1 = A 1 0 0 " Calibration 1
Following Chatelain and Ralf (2019, 2020) algorithm, the optimal policy rule is de…ned by endogenous policy rule parameters: F for the response of the policy instrument to core in ‡ation, F z for the response of the policy instrument to persistent shocks:

x t = F t + F z z t (2)
The results of optimal policy are summarized in the following propositions. Proofs are in the appendix.

Proposition 1 Optimal core "intrinsic" in ‡ation persistence is controllable by the policy maker and equal to = A + BF . The optimal response of the policy instrument to policy target F do not depend on the exogenous persistence ( ) of cost-push shock nor on the sensitivity of core in ‡ation to these cost-push variables (A z ):

0 < = 1 2 0 @ A + 1 A + Q 2 R B 2 A s A + 1 A + Q 2 R B 2 A 2 4 1 A 0 < min A; 1 A upper bound obtained for Q 2 = 0 F = A B
and BF < 0 so that = A + BF A.

Example 1 For Gali's (2015) calibration, because the welfare weight on the variance of the policy instrument in the loss function is implausibly low (R=Q 2 = 2%), this implies a very low persistence of in ‡ation ( = 0:4291604) due to an implausibly large negativefeedback response of the policy instrument (F = 4:51) to deviations of in ‡ation from its long run target.

The comparison between policy rules which do not react to the persistent exogenous cost-push shocks versus optimal policy rules are presented in …gures 1 to 4 corresponding to the following propositions. They highlight the dependence on the persistence of shocks ( ) of the response of the policy instrument F z to persistent shocks, of the resulting sensitivity of the policy target to the cost-push shock A z + BF z , of the resulting impulse response functions of in ‡ation, of the initial jump of non-predetermined in ‡ation 0 and of welfare W . Welfare is a particular case of [START_REF] Chatelain | The Welfare of Ramsey Optimal Policy Facing Auto-regressive shocks[END_REF]. The absolute value of the sensitivity of the policy target to the cost-push shock after policy rule response below the sensitivity before policy intervention jA z + BF z j < jA z j. It is a non-linear decreasing function of the persistence of the of the cost-push shock measured by . It is an a¢ ne function of the sensitivity A z of the policy target to the persistent shock when the policy instrument does not respond to cost-push shock. We denote

= A z + BF z = A z + BF z = A 1 1 A z (1 A ) Q z B 2 R
One has:

jA z + BF z j < jA z j because BF A = A A < 0
When cost-push shock tends to zero persistence, the sensitivity tends a lower sensitivity than the one obtained for F z = 0. lim

!0 jA z + BF z ( )j = A z A jA z j
When cost-push shock persistence tends to a unit root, the absolute value of the sensitivity of the policy instrument to the cost-push shock reaches its lowest value:

lim !1 (A z + BF z ) = A 1 1 A z (1 A ) Q z B 2 R
Because 6 = 0 and 6 = 0, this lowest value is equal to zero for A = 1= (which is a property of the new-Keynesian Phillips curve) and for a zero weight on the covariance of in ‡ation and cost push shock Q z = 0 in the loss function.

Example 2 As seen in …gure 1, for [START_REF] Gali | Monetary Policy, In ‡ation, and the Business Cycle[END_REF] preference Q z = 0, A = 1= and persistence = 0:8 of the cost-push shock, because the welfare weight on the variance of the policy instrument in the loss function is extremely low (2%), the large response of the policy instrument to the cost-push shock implies that the sensitivity of the in ‡ation to the cost push shock is 13% of what it would have been if the policy instrument would not have responded to the persistent cost-push shock (F z = 0): jA z + BF z j = j j = 0:429 < 1 = 1:01 Proposition 3 Core in ‡ation overall persistence and impulse response function …rstly depends on its "intrinsic" persistence (controllable root = A + BF ) and secondly depends on the "extrinsic" non-controllable imported in ‡ation persistence of the cost push shock, which is itself attenuated by the policy instrument response F z to the cost-push shock decreasing the sensitivity of core in ‡ation to the cost-push shock A z + BF z .

A z + BF z = (
E t t A z + ; + = t 0 + t t z 0 if 6 =
Under the condition A = 1 , if the cost-push shock autocorrelation tends to one, the order of the dynamics of the policy target is reduced to one (single eigenvalue ):

lim !1 E t t = t 0 if A = 1 and Q z = 0 so that ! 0
Example 3 For Gali's (2015) calibration, the impulse response function of core in ‡ation is lower when the policy rule responds to imported in ‡ation (F z 6 = 0) than when the policy rule does not respond to imported in ‡ation (F z = 0). This is because the sensitivity of core in ‡ation to imported in ‡ation is 13% of 1 = 1:01: E t t = 0:429 t 0 + 0:8 t 0:429 t 0:8 0:429 ( 0:13) z 0 lim !1 E t t = 0:429 t 0

In the limit case of unit root persistence for the cost push shock ( ! 1) such as a trend in oil price, the sensitivity of in ‡ation to the cost push shock (A z + BF z ) tends to zero, so that in ‡ation is an order one process (with single root ) instead of an order two process depending on two roots ( and of the cost-push shock).

Proposition 4

The policy instrument has a persistence-dependent rule parameter F z increasing in absolute value with the persistence of the cost-push shock. It increases in absolute value with the sensitivity A z of the policy target to the cost-push shock:

F z A z + ; + = A z B = F z = A z A 1 1 A B Q z A B R 1
The limit are:

lim !0 jF z ( )j = A z A A B > 0 = F z ( = 0) lim !0 jF z ( )j = 0 if Q 2 = 0 and if = A < 1
The lack of response of the policy instrument when the persistence of the shock tends to zero is obtained only in an irrelevant case where welfare and the policy maker do not weight the volatility of the policy target in the loss function Q 2 = 0 and if in ‡ation is stationary for a …xed setting of the policy instrument at its long run equilibrium value ( = A < 1).

Example 4 As seen in …gure 1, for Gali (2015) persistence = 0:8 of the cost-push shock, because the welfare weight on the variance of the policy instrument in the loss function is extremely low (2%), this allows large variations of the policy instrument with a large response of the policy instrument to the cost-push shock ( 6:86): jF z ( )j = 7:84

F z = 1 1 1 = 1
Proposition 5 If core in ‡ation 0 is non-predetermined, in Ramsey optimal policy, it is optimally anchored on the policy instrument which is itself anchored on the predetermined cost-push shock. The …rst order conditions sets the marginal value of the loss function with respect to in ‡ation at the initial date (itself equal to it costate variable, the Lagrange multiplier 0 ) equal to zero. Initial core in ‡ation 0 increases with imported in ‡ation persistence .

@L @ 0 = 0 = 2 (P 2 0 + P z z 0 ) = 0 ) 0 = P 1 2 P z z 0 0 A z + ; + = 1 1 A z + Q z Q 2 (1 A) lim !0 0 = A z Q z Q 2 (1 A)
Example 5 As seen in …gure 3, with Gali's (2015) calibration ( = 0:8):

0 = 1 = 0:4291604 1 0:4291604 0:99 = 0:64 lim !0 0 = = 0:42274, lim !1 0 = 1 = 0:73
Proposition 6 Welfare: Even if households and/or Central Bank preferences set a zero weight on the covariance between core in ‡ation and cost-push shock (Q z = 0) and the variance of cost-push shock (Q zz = 0), the variance of the policy instrument depends on this variance. Therefore, the optimal value of welfare depends on the covariance of core in ‡ation and of the cost-push shock (P z 6 = 0) and of the variance of the cost-push shock (P zz 6 = 0). Both weights (P z ; P zz ) increases with the persistence of the cost-push shock and with the sensitivity of core in ‡ation to imported in ‡ation A z . Overall welfare (the opposite of the optimal value of the loss function) decreases in a non-linear fashion with the persistence of imported in ‡ation and with the sensitivity of core in ‡ation to imported in ‡ation A z with no response of the policy instrument to the cost-push shock.

Welfare can be computed for a given initial predetermined in ‡ation 0 as follows. For non-predetermined in ‡ation, we take into account the optimal initial anchor of in ‡ation for the welfare of Ramsey optimal policy, using 0 = P 1 2 P z z 0 :

W A z ; = P z P 2 z 0 z 0 P 2 P z P z P z 2 P z P 2 z 0 z 0 = P z 2 P 2 z P 2 z 2 0 > 0
Example 6 For welfare dependence on the persistence of the cost-push shock, with Gali's (2015) calibration with = 0:8 (…gure 4):

W z 2 0 = (1 ) 2 (1 2 ) = 0:4291604 (1 0:99 0:4291604 ) 2 1 1 0:99 2 = 2:688 lim !0 W z 2 0 = = 0:429, lim !1 W z 2 0 = (1 ) 2 (1 ) = 130

Conclusion

Optimal policy facing persistent exogenous cost-push shock, for example, imported in ‡ation or de ‡ation due to oil or energy shocks implies a dependence to the persistence of the cost-push shock …rstly of the policy instrument in the policy rule, secondly of the policy target persistence and of its impulse responses function through a change of its sensitivity to the cost push shock and of the initial jump of in ‡ation and thirdly of welfare.

Appendix

Stable subspace of the Hamiltonian system Following Chatelain and Ralf (2020), we form the Lagrangian by attaching a sequence of Lagrange multipliers t+1 t+1 and t+1 t+1 to the sequence of constraints of the policy transmission mechanism:

L = t=+1 X t=0 t 2 4 1 2 Q 2 2 t + Q z t z t + 1 2 Q z 2 z 2 t + 1 2 Rx 2 t + t+1 (A t + Bx t + A z z t t+1 ) + t+1 ( z t z t+1 ) 3 5
The …rst order necessary conditions are:

@L @x t = Rx t + B t+1 = 0 ) x t = B R t+1 or t+1 = R B x t @L @ t = Q 2 t + Q z z t + A t+1 t = 0 @L @z t = Q z tt + Q z 2 z t + A z t+1 + v t+1 v t = 0
The Hamiltonian system is:

0 B B @ 1 0 B 2 R 0 0 1 0 0 0 0 A 0 0 0 A z 1 C C A 0 B B @ t+1 z t+1 t+1 t+1 1 C C A = 0 B B @ A A z 0 0 0 0 0 Q 2 Q z 1 0 Q z Q z 2 0 1 1 C C A 0 B B @ t z t t t 1 C C A
We seek the elements of the value function (welfare) matrix: P 2 , P z and P z 2 , which are the unknown parameters of eigenvectors of the stable subspace of the Hamiltonian system: 0

B B @ t z t t t 1 C C A = 0 B B @ 1 0 0 0 0 1 0 0 P 2 P z 0 0 P z P z 2 0 0 1 C C A 0 B B @ t z t t t 1 C C A It follows: 0 B B @ B 2 R P 2 + 1 B 2 R P z 0 1 AP 2 AP z P z + A z P 2 P z 2 + A z P z 1 C C A t+1 z t+1 = 0 B B @ A A z 0 P 2 Q 2 P z Q z P z Q z P z 2 Q z 2 1 C C A t z t
We eliminate z t+1 by z t . Solving the model amounts to use the following three key equations for …nding the three unknown parameters P 2 , P z and P z 2 of the welfare matrix:

0 @ 1 + B 2 R P 2 AP 2 P z + A z P 2 1 A ( t+1 ) = 0 @ A A z B 2 R P z P 2 Q 2 ( 1
A) P z Q z P z Q z (1 2 ) P z 2 Q z 2 A z P z 1 A t z t (3)
shock determines P z 2 :

= A A z B 2 R P z = (1 A ) P z Q z AP 2 = ( 1
2 ) P z 2 Q z 2 A z P z P z + A z P 2
The third equality leads to:

1 2 P z 2 = Q z 2 + (A z + ) P z + A z P 2
with:

P z = 1 1 A z Q 2 1 A + Q z and P 2 = Q 2 1 A A z + = A z + ( 1
A ) P z Q z A P 2
so that: and

P 2 P z P z P z 2 = Q 2 1 A Q z 1 Q z 1 Q z 2 1 2 ! + 0 1 1 A z P 2 1 1 A z P 2
P 2 = 1 1 = (1 ) 1 , Q z 2 = 0, A z = 1
One has:

1 2 P z 2 = 1 (1 ) 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 P z 2 = 1 1 1 2 1 1 P z 2 = 1 1 (1 ) 2 1 2 1
2 so that:

P = 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 (1 )

Figure 1 to 4 :

 4 Key parameters functions of imported in ‡ation persistence: continuous line 0 < 1, dash line = 0. 1: Sensitivity A z + BF z = 2: Optimal policy parameter F z

1 (

 1 A z + BF z ) = 0 because A = 1 and Q z = 0: lim !0

  z ( )j = jF j = 4:52 > jF z ( = 0)j = 0 and lim !1

1 1 2 2 P z 2 =

 1122 ((A z + ) P z + A z P 2 ) Proof of welfare, example 6 (Gali): Computation of P z 2 : 1 Q z 2 + ( P z + A z P 2 ) + A z P z

2

 2

The …rst terms of the three equations implies three formulas for the intrinsic persistence of the policy target, = A + BF :

The second terms of the three equations implies three formulas for the sensitivity of the policy target to the persistent shock, = A z + BF z , with

Proof of proposition 1. Compute the optimal root = A + BF , a …rst element of the welfare matrix P 2 (proposition 5a) and the policy rule parameter F :

The …rst term of each of the three equation has the same value:

Using the …rst equality:

Using the second equality:

Using the …rst and second equality leads to a characteristic polynomial for solving :

Optimal persistence is the stable root of this characteristic polynomial:

The policy rule parameter is a function of the optimal persistence :

and BF < 0 so that = A + BF A.

Proof of proposition 5b: Second element of the welfare matrix P z We use the third equality for the …rst term:

P z is an increasing function of the two characteristics of the forcing variable A z and :

With:

P z can be written as a function of :

Proof of proposition 2: Compute the sensitivity = A z + BF z : One has:

In the …rst equality, substitute P z and the denominator by A= leads to:

Proof of example 2: For Gali's example:

Proof of proposition 3: The impulse response function of in ‡ation

The following result can be found using at least three methods:

(a) Solve the sum of two geometric sequences or geometric progressions using the homogeneous solution related to the geometric sequence with common ratio and a particular solution proportional to the forcing variable following a geometric sequence with common ratio ;

(b) compute the power of the matrix A z + BF z 0 using its Jordan decomposition;

(c) prove it by mathematical induction.

Proof of proposition 4: Policy rule parameter F z :

Proof of example 4: For Gali's example:

Proof of proposition 5c: Optimal jump of in ‡ation 0 :

The …rst order conditions sets the marginal value of the loss function with respect to in ‡ation at the initial date (itself equal to it costate variable, the Lagrange multiplier 0 ) equal to zero.

One has:

Proof of proposition 6: Welfare parameter P z 2

The third equation related to the sensitivity of the policy target to the persistent For welfare dependence on the persistence of the cost-push shock, with Gali's (2015) calibration:

Welfare has this form:


Mohamed Amine

Ben Atitallah

Rostom Kachouri

Keywords: object detection, object segmentation, morphology Gardient operator, text detection, text segmentation, video processing

published or not. The documents may come

I. INTRODUCTION

Videos and images in databases and on webs are growing. Newscasters are explaining interest in construction large digital records of their assets to use again the record materials for the programs of TV, on line disponibility to the general public and other companies. To answer this demand there is necessity to systems that are capable to supply an efficient retrieval and indexing by content of image segments using the extraction of the information of content level related with visual-data. Although efficient content based retrieval of visual data of video frames is determined by backing content impersonation through low level frame features; the similar doesn't apply to content based retrieval of frames, expecting a limited application settings. In fact, the videos effective retrieval must be based on high level content descriptor [START_REF] Ceyhuncelik | Content based image retrieval with sparse representations and local feature descriptors : A comparative study[END_REF].

Most video tend to rise the utilization of text to transmit more direct outline of deliver and semantics improved viewing experience. In this context, headlines resume the reports in subtitles and news videos in drama documentary to help viewers to comprehend the content. Also, the sport videos include text indicating the player names, team and scores [START_REF] Nygaardblom | Forward-reference as lure in online news headlines[END_REF]. Generally, we can classify the text in video frames into overlay text and scene text [START_REF] Yang | A framework for improved video text detection and recognition[END_REF]. The text presented in scene occurs by nature in the contextual as a part of the video scene. For example, the banners, advertising boards, etc. But on the contrary, overlay text in the scene of video used to aid viewers to comprehending, since it is highly structured and compact, it can be used also for frame video retrieval and indexing [START_REF] Hu | A Survey on Visual Content-Based Video Indexing and Retrieval[END_REF]. In addition, the extraction of text from frame video for OCR (Optical Character Recognition) will be more defying compared to extraction of text from document images for OCR, because of many difficulties resultant from size, unknown color of text and complex background.

The remainder of our paper is prepared as follows. The section 2 presents the related work, followed by the detection region of the text, which is indicated in section 3. Finally, experiments are given in section 4 followed by conclusion in section 5.

II. RELATED WORK

A Many existing methods of the detection text from video have been presented based on texture based feature, edge and color. Color based approaches suppose that the text of video is created of a unified color. Agnihotri and Dimitrova [START_REF] Barbieri | Method and device for automatic generation of summary of a plurality of images[END_REF] proposed a method to detect and binarize horizontal yellow, black and white caption text in the frames of video. Afterward; the edge detector find the edge pixels with an immovable threshold. The regions of frame with high density of edge are considered very noisy for the extraction of text. The analyze of the linked component is accomplished on the edge pixel of residual regions. The components of edge are integrated based on structural heuristics to localize the regions of the text. The binarization is completed by the application of thresholding at the average value of pixel of every localized region of text. Xuemei Zhao and al [START_REF] Zhao | Mahalanobis distance based on fuzzy clustering algorithm for image segmentation[END_REF] cluster color using an Euclidean-distance in the RGB-space and based on 64 clustered color channel for the detection of text. Nonetheless, the video text is rarely true that it consists of a uniform-color because of the degradation resulting low contrast and compression coding between background and text.

Since the regions of text contain many edge information, the edge based approaches are considered useful for the detection of text from video. This method is applied to detect the edge from the frame of video and to identify the regions that have a high edge of strength and density. The proposed method is efficacy just for the simple background but in the complex background it becomes less reliable. Sumathi and al [START_REF] Sumathi1 | A SURVEY ON VARIOUS APPROACHES OF TEXT EXTRACTION IN IMAGES[END_REF] utilize a modified edge-map to detect the region of text and to localize it utilizing coarse to fine projection. In addition, they extract also the strings of text used an inward filling generality and local thresholding. Yu Liu and al [START_REF] Liu | Removing Monte Carlo noise using a Sobel operator and a guided image filter[END_REF] present a novel method using an edge map proposed by Sobel

Localizing Text in Images and Videos based on Morphology

Mohamed Amin Ben Atitallah, Rostom Kachouri, Hassene Mnif ----------------Mohamed Amin Ben Atitallah, Laboratory of Electronics and Information Technology (E.N.I.S.), University of Sfax, PHD student at National Engineering School of Gabes (ENIG), University of Gabes, TUNISIA. E-mail: benatitallahmohamedamin@yahoo.fr.

Rostom Kachouri, LIGM, Univ Gustave Eiffel, CNRS, ESIEE Paris, F-77454 Marne-la-Vallée, France. E-mail: rostom.kachouri@esiee.fr.

Hassene Mnif, National school of electronics and telecommunications of Sfax, Laboratory of Electronics and Information Technology (E.N.I.S.), University of Sfax, TUNISIA. E-mail: hassene.mnif@enetcom.usf.tn. continued by geometrical constraints, smoothing filter and the morphological operation.

The wavelet transform and the salient point detection; have been utilized to detect the regions of text. Lamberto Ballan and al [START_REF] Ballan | Event detection and recognition for semantic annotation of video[END_REF] propose to detect the corner points from the scene of video and after that they detect the region of text utilizing similarity of points of corner between frames. Baisakhi Sur Phadikar and al [START_REF] Baisakhi Sur Phadikar | Content-based image retrieval in DCT compressed domain with MPEG-7 edge descriptor and genetic algorithm[END_REF] utilize the features of texture from the coefficients of DCT to detect the text from MPEG\JPEG compressed domain. Firstable, they reveal the blocks of the candidates of text that have a high horizontal of spatial-intensity-variation, and after that, they refine the detected candidates into different areas by spatial limitations. The vertical spectrum of energy checks the potential caption of regions of text. In any case, its strength in complex-background may its not be fulfilling for the constraint of a spatial features domain.

The next step of the recognition of text from video frame is the extraction of text which be applied before the application of the OCR. The methods of the extraction of text can be categorized into method based on color [START_REF] Otsu | A threshold selection method from gray-levl histograms[END_REF] and method based on stroke [START_REF] Sato | Video OCR for digital news archive[END_REF], since there is a different color between the background of the frame and the text; the application of thresholding allows to extract the text from the video frame. The Otsu method [START_REF] Otsu | A threshold selection method from gray-levl histograms[END_REF] is a robust method for the extraction of text due to the efficiency and the simplicity of its algorithm, it utilized the color based method for the extraction of the text. Nevertheless, the method of Otsu isn't efficient for the extraction of text from video frame which have same color with the background causing the application of thresholding in all frame. To tackle this issue, the identified text areas are splitted into a different squares and afterward Otsu strategy is applied locally to each square, for example, in [START_REF] Sumathi1 | A SURVEY ON VARIOUS APPROACHES OF TEXT EXTRACTION IN IMAGES[END_REF] the author defined a dam point using the adaptive thresholding to separate the background from the text. There are a few of channels that have been utilized to extract the text in the strategies based on stroke, this channels dependent essentially on the course of strokes. To improve the stroke as the shapes and to suppress others, the author utilized the character extraction filters [START_REF] Sato | Video OCR for digital news archive[END_REF] for four directions. Nonetheless, a few of characters or words without evident stripe shape can likewise be stifled, since the filtre of stroke is language reliant.

In the rest of this work, we present a novel method to detect the text from video frame utilizing the transition of the area between the background and text. Firstable, we create the morphological Gardient dependent on our perception that there is a transient hues among the adjacent background and text. After that, the regions of text are generally recognized by calculating the texture on every side of the transition of pixel and transition density of pixel.

III. DETECTION REGION OF TEXT

Our method is based-on our observation that the colors of contrast is exist between the adjacent background and the text. The proportional contrast between the text and its background is a very important feature to detect the text from the region. The Fig. 1 shows the overall procedure of our proposed method to detect the text.

A. Morphological Gardient

So as to recognize the regions of text from complex background a morphology based methodology is utilized to remove high contrast feature [START_REF] Wu | Morphology based text line extraction[END_REF].

Let I(x,y) signify a gray level of the input of image. Let Sm,n mean an organizing element with size m×n; where m,n are chances and bigger than zero. In addition, let  signify a dilation operation, and signify an erosion operation.

B. Thresholding

A threshold Otsu operation ( 4) is applied trailed by a marking procedure to extract the segments of text. In the threshold the background of the image. This parameter is dependable to decide the limit value of the binarization operation.

Thresholding:

(4)
The

C. Extraction region candidate

The close regions can be easily associate based on the morphological closing operator ( 5) but for the regions whose its positions are far away to one another leave confined. In this part of the section, we apply the morphological dilation operator [START_REF] Samarabandu | An Edge-based Text Region Extraction Algorithm for Indoor Mobile Robot Navigation[END_REF] on the image of the previous step. The application of this step is done for square of 9 x 1 of the image to get joint zone-referred to as writings blobs. On the off chance that a hole of back to back pixels among two nonzero points in a similar column is shorter than 5% of the picture width, they are loaded up with 1s. On the off chance that the associated components are littler than the value of the threshold, they are deleted. The value of the threshold is experimentally chosen by watching the minimum size of the region of the text. At that point, each associated component is reshaped to have a smooth limits. Since it is reasonable to acknowledge that the districts of content are generally in rectangular shapes, a rectangular ricocheting box is made by associating four focuses, which compare to (minmum_i, minmum_j), (maximum_i, minmum_j), (minmum_i, maximum_j), (maximum_i, maximum_j) taken from the text-blobs. The refined regions of candidate are appeared in Fig. 5(b).

Let I(x,y) signify a gray level of the input of image. Let Sm,n mean an organizing element with size m×n; where m,n are chances and bigger than zero. In addition, let  signify a n.

Closing operation:

I(x,y) • Sm,n=(I(x,y)  (5)

D. Extraction region candidate

The subsequent stage is to decide the real area of text between the limit smoothed candidate areas by a few valuable clues. The vertically longer candidates can be eliminate easily, since a large portion of writings are put horizontally in the frames of video. In view of the perception that variation of intensity around the change pixel is huge because of the structure of the content of the text is very complex, so we utilize the prevailing nearby double example (DLBP) acquainted in [START_REF] Liao | Dominant Local Binary Patterns for Texture Classification[END_REF] with portray the surface around the progress pixel. DLBP adequately catch the ruling examples in surface pictures. Dissimilar to the customary LBP approach, which just adventures the uniform LBP [START_REF] Hadid | Gender and texture classification: A comparative analysis using 13 variants of local binary patterns[END_REF] LBP is a proficient and basic device to speak to the consistency of surface utilizing just the power design. LBP structures the twofold example utilizing current pixel and its all round neighbor pixels and can be changed over into a decimal number as shows the equation ( 6):

(6)
Where, P and R signify the user's picked number of round neighbor pixels of a particular pixel and the radius of circle respectively. gc and gi mean the intensity of the current-pixel and circular neighbor-pixels respectively.

In figure 6 we can see that the region of text is well identified from other candidates.

IV. EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Our method has been tried on different images video cam and a videos for a real life. Our algorithm have been implemented in visual studio C++ on an Intel center I7 PC with 2.70 GHz CPU. We made our database comprising of various videos arrangements of with size 640 × 480 pixels. The most of content occasions were stationary and all of content had a horizontal orientation. The database consists of videos imported from the TV. These videos include news TV, televised advertisements, televised football matches etc... . The videos chosen are very complex, they are made up of different colors, of different text and of different languages. The sequences of video were caught at 20 frames per second.

V. CONCLUSION

Content installed in recordings regularly conveys the most significant data, such.as time, spot, name or subjects, and so on. This data may do incredible assistance to video ordering and video content comprehension. We proposed a new strategy to de detect the text from complex frames of video. Our identification strategy depends on the observation if the colors of contrast is exist between the adjacent background and the text. The generation of the morphological map is obtained by the difference among opening and closing frame. For each region of candidate, the connected components are produced and afterward each linked component is reshaped. The predominant local binary pattern is utilized to discover the variation of intensity around transition of pixel. The limits of the regions of the detected text are localized precisely utilizing the projection of the pixels of text in the morphological map. To prove the good performance of our proposed method to detect the text, different videos and images have been tried. The proposed strategy is valuable for the real time application.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

We thank our colleague in ESIEE Paris to supported this work.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Overall procedure of the proposed detection method.

1 )

 1 ,y)  Sm,n= I(x,y)  Sm,n (Erosion Operation: I(x,y)  Sm,n= I(x,y) Sm,n (2) Difference: D(I1,I2)= I1(x,y)-I2(x,y) (3) To acquire the morphological map, dilation (1) and erosion (2) operations are performed utilizing a disk auxiliary element S3,3. The difference (3) got from subtracting the two images are the consequence of the next step. The Fig 2 presents the entire strategy of our morphology based procedure to extract the features of the contrast.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Flowchart to extract the features of contrast for detection regions of text.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Generation of morphological Gardient (a) Input image (b) Morphological Gardient image.

  Fig 4(b) shows an experiment result of the current process.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Generation of binarized image (a) Morphological Gardient image (b) Binarized image.

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Extraction of the regions of candidate (a) Binarized image (b) Connected components through closing.

  , given a surface picture, the DLBP approach figures the event frequencies of all revolution invariant examples characterized in the LBP gatherings. These examples are then arranged in plummeting request. The initial a few most as often as possible happening examples ought to contain ruling examples in the picture and, accordingly, are the prevailing examples.

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Determination of the region of text.

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. Experimental results of scene text detection and overlay text (a) original frames (b) Result. It is difficult to detect the text scene because some type of text have a different size and irregularly aligned. The Fig 7 presents the detection of the scene text in different video frames.

AUTHORS PROFILE