Présentation générale

Jean-Marie Merle * L'objet de ce volume est de ré-envisager les prépositions, en explorant leur affinité avec l'aspect.

La relation prépositionnelle

Il est généralement admis que les prépositions sont des relateurs. La fonction de liage qu'elles opèrent peut se représenter sous la forme <A Prép B> (cf. Une femme sous influence / Il regarda sous le lit), et elle peut s'interpréter comme une relation (syntaxique) d'incidence de B à A, via la préposition, et comme une opération de repérage sémantique et référentiel de A par rapport à B : dans le premier cas, l'occurrence de femme est caractérisée par le SPrép sous influence, intégré au syntagme, incident au noyau femme ; dans le second exemple, le regard reçoit une spécification, sémantico-référentielle, de son complément directionnel sous le lit.

L'un ou l'autre des termes mis en relation peut être implicite (cf. Ø Sous le soleil de Satan / « Paul arrivera après Ø ») : le titre sert à la fois de thème et de repère référentiel à la totalité du roman ; la distribution syntaxique de la particule après, quant à elle, est adverbiale, (A arrivera après / tôt ou tard / demain), mais après n'en reste pas moins relationnel (Paul arrivera après implique Paul arrivera après [B]), par anaphore ou par deixis, autrement dit par indexation sur le contexte ou sur les coordonnées situationnelles : que B soit explicite ou non, l'arrivée de Paul est référentiellement repérée par rapport à B.

La relation prépositionnelle met donc en place des repérages de trois ordres : 1/ repérage structurel, par incidence de B à A via Prép ou de [Prép B] à A ; 2/ repérage sémantico-référentiel de A par rapport à B ; 3/ repérage énonciatif, par indexation de <A Prép B> sur une situation-repère.

Saisie aspectuelle, relation prépositionnelle

L'aspect peut sommairement se définir comme la trace, dans un énoncé, d'un point de vue. Aspect et point de vue sont complémentaires, et l'aspect correspond, en énoncé, dans un construit référentiel -désigné, procès, état de * Université Nice Sophia Antipolis, BCL (UMR 7320), jean-marie.merle@unice.fr fait ou événement -à une saisie différenciée, dans une situation donnée, selon un point de vue particulier.

La relation prépositionnelle peut, quant à elle, être envisagée comme la saisie d'une des facettes :

-d'un désigné (L'homme sans qualités), -d'un procès (Regarde sous le lit), -d'un événement (X arrivera après B), -d'un état de fait (Les couverts… dans le tiroir ?). De là vient l'affinité entre relation prépositionnelle et saisie aspectuelle.

Prépositions et aspectualité

L'aptitude de la relation prépositionnelle à se conformer à l'aspect d'un procès (ex. Il a détruit la cabane en cinq secs : procès transitif télique délimité par l'enveloppe temporelle du circonstant prépositionnel), ou à en moduler l'interprétation aspectuelle (1/ Il a lu son livre en 3 heures : interprétation perfective, télique vs. 2/ il a lu son livre pendant trois heures : interprétation imperfective, atélique), le rôle qu'elle est à même de jouer dans la chaîne de transitivité (on opposera L'île Seguin est réaménagée, d'interprétation résultative, à L'île Seguin est réaménagée par J. Nouvel, transitif imperfectif dont la transitivité passe par… tel agent), et jusque dans les structures résultatives (Jones a roulé sous le camion), mais également la relativité signifiée par la préposition, le point de vue impliqué par la relation qu'elle opère, la dépendance de la relation prépositionnelle, sont des manifestations de l'aptitude particulière de la préposition à dire l'aspect.

D'où le titre de ce recueil. Diverses problématiques liées à l'aspectualité de la relation prépositionnelles sont représentées dans les articles de ce volume, qui comprend les actes du colloque d'Aix-en-Provence, organisé 1 avec l'aide de l'UFR LAG-LEA, de l'Université de Provence et du Conseil général des Bouches du Rhône.

1 J'adresse ici tous mes remerciements aux membres du comité d'organisation, Aïno Niklas Salminen, Gabor Turcsan, et tout particulièrement à Agnès Steuckardt, coorganisatrice, pour son travail de relecture ; à tous les participants, pour leur précieuse contribution à ce travail collectif et pour leur patience ; au comité scientifique -Andrée Borillo, Jacques Brès, Pierre Busuttil, Monique De Mattia, Lionel Dufaye, Jean-Marie Fournier, Joëlle Gardes, Lucie Gournay, Danielle Leeman, Seth Lindstromberg, Franck Neveu, Linda Pillière, Vladimir Plungian, Nicolas Tournadre, Anne Trévise, Céline Vaguer, Charles Zaremba -; à Aurélien Bertin et à Absa d'Agaro, pour leur talentueuse contribution ; à Marie Loiseau et à Reza Mir Samii pour leur travail de relecture et leur aide technique ; au CNRS, à l'UFR LAG-LEA, à l'Université de Provence, pour leur concours et leur soutien, à l'UMR 6057 pour ses avances sur recettes.

Aspectualité de la préposition et effets contextuels : aspect lexical et aspect grammatical

Danielle Leeman étudie la préposition pour lorsqu'elle a un régime exprimant une durée (pour 20 ans) : son identité aspectuelle, son rôle par rapport au verbe, les contraintes reçues du verbe et celles qu'elle impose (Je suis là pour une semaine VS ?%Je reste là pour une semaine). L'adjoint temporel modifie l'aspect de l'énoncé (cf. je reviens pour deux jours VS je reviens à midi) : la préposition pour est typiquement liée à une visée, à une durée ouverte (on peut être embauché pour six mois et licencié au bout de trois semaines). D. Leeman montre que l'aspect de la relation prépositionnelle est prospectif et que le circonstant pour B impose au segment modifié A d'une part une compatibilité avec l'inchoativité pour permettre une entrée dans l'intervalle défini par sa durée, et d'autre part une compatibilité avec l'imperfectivité, le circonstant se caractérisant par sa durée, non par son terme.

Denis Le Pesant réexamine la définition des modes d'action (la catégorisation des procès en fonction de l'aspect lexical) et la fonction d'arbitre que peuvent avoir les prépositions en et pendant. Il met en avant des cas où les procès deviennent transfuges sous l'effet de cet arbitrage : les accomplissements (téliques) peuvent ainsi recevoir une délimitation transitoire dans le cadre de la saisie médiane opérée par pendant, au même titre que les processus et les états (X répara la machine pendant 5 minutes) ; en impose une délimitation exhaustive et fait basculer un intransitif inergatif de la catégorie des processus (X mangea pendant 5 minutes) à celle des accomplissements (X mangea en 5 minutes) ; l'opposition en / pendant n'est efficace que dans un contexte perfectif ou au présent générique. D. Le Pesant montre que la sous-catégorisation apportée par les prépositions en et pendant n'est qu'un effet des propriétés accidentelles des modes d'action. A l'inverse, les compatibilités de en et pendant mettent en évidence les propriétés de ces prépositions. Ce sont ces propriétés qui en font les arbitres de la sous-catégorisation.

Didier Bottineau, dans l'idée que « les marqueurs grammaticaux fonctionnent comme autant d'activateurs vocaux instruisant l'actualisation de processus cognitifs interprétatifs », centre son étude sur deux isomorphismes morphologiques, en anglais et en français, reliant les prépositions aux flexions aspectuelles verbales, en dépit d'origines hétérogènes en diachronierespectivement in et -ing, et en et -ant. Il examine également la présence dans plusieurs microsystèmes, en basque, du contraste k / n, notamment dans des postpositions spatiales et relationnelles correspondant à de et en. K opératif s'oppose à N résultatif : k « opère une saisie aspectuelle inchoative, prospective et non présupposante » là où n opère « une saisie aspectuelle cursive, 'inspective' et présupposante du processus correspondant ». En anglais, in saisit un repérage dans un espace délimité, tandis que -ing « représente une vision sécante du temps d'événement ». En français, D. Bottineau fait l'hypothèse de « l'émergence d'un super-opérateur /ã/ muni d'un schéma instructionnel unique, la focalisation d'un en-cours, applicable sous la forme graphique -ant à un déroulement verbal ».

Relation prépositionnelle et stabilité : effet sur le cotexte

Gérard Mélis s'interroge sur le régime des prépositions, et se demande dans quelle mesure une proposition à fonction nominale est à même d'être régime d'une préposition, et dans quelle mesure cette compatibilité est un indicateur de stabilité référentielle. Les subordonnées en if (interrogatives en si), en that (complétives en que) et en (for X) to V (infinitives), en anglais, ne peuvent jamais être régime d'une préposition, alors que les autres subordonnées à fonction nominale sont compatibles. G. Mélis montre que ces trois types de subordonnées ont une caractéristique, l'altérité -ou la démarcation -, altérité énonciative dans les deux premiers cas, altérité notionnelle dans le cas des infinitives, qui bloque leur compatibilité avec les prépositions : la préposition est une « marque de stabilisation ». G. Mélis établit, au fil de son analyse, le lien entre saisie aspectuelle et relation prépositionnelle, en prenant en compte les observations faites sur les caractéristiques de la nominalisation, caractéristiques notionnelles, caractéristiques modales et caractéristiques aspectuelles -saisie et représentation de l'état de fait dénoté par le contenu propositionnel. A l'instabilité des subordonnées en if, en that et en (for X) to V, s'oppose l'acquis de structuration propre aux subordonnées en Ving et en wh-(présupposantes). G. Mélis aboutit à la conclusion que « seule une forme stabilisée » peut être régime d'une préposition, ce qui permet de confirmer la préposition comme marqueur de saisie : c'est l'une des manifestations de la relation prépositionnelle qui coïncide avec la définition de l'aspect.

Catherine Chauvin étudie la complémentation prépositionnelle des verbes directionnels en anglais et l'effet de la saisie prépositionnelle opérée dans le cadre de l'opposition at VS to sur l'interprétation du procès. L'interaction entre préposition et cotexte est telle que to saisit une relation dans laquelle le complément prépositionnel est complément de destination, alors que at saisit une relation dans laquelle le complément prépositionnel est la cible. La même opposition se retrouve dans la complémentation des verbes de pointage et dans celle des verbes de perception, puis dans la complémentation des verbes smile et throw. Toute l'étude met en évidence que « l'emploi des prépositions a un impact sur le mode de saisie de l'événement », et que la relation avec le repère B -destination ou cible -est elle-même modulée en fonction de la préposition.

Concurrence ou complémentarité entre prépositions et aspect

Laurence Vincent-Durroux étudie la représentation des relations spatiales et temporelles à l'aide de prépositions chez les locuteurs sourds profonds, à partir de deux corpus constitués dans des conditions radicalement différentes de correction de la surdité. L. Vincent-Durroux montre que l'emploi des prépositions chez les locuteurs munis d'implants cochléaires efficaces est comparable à un emploi standard. L'appréhension de l'espace est néanmoins différente (Vinter 2000, Vincent-Durroux 2014) : l'exploration des formes de façon tactile se fait globalement chez les enfants sourds alors qu'elle se fait par étapes successives chez ceux qui ne le sont pas. Lorsqu'il y a une combinaison d'aspect lexical, de marqueurs aspectuels et de relations prépositionnelles, une tendance très nettement marquée chez les enfants sourds bénéficiant d'une correction auditive de qualité, est de n'activer qu'un seul marqueur d'aspectualité, soit le marqueur verbal, soit la préposition.

Tsuyoshi Kida et Martine Faraco observent les indices gestuels produits par une locutrice apprenant le français pour accompagner son discours oral. La mise en oeuvre du répertoire de l'interlangue s'accompagne dans les séquences discursives étudiées, d'un marquage gestuel de durée et de bornage qui donnent lieu à un « rapprochement interprétatif avec la relation temporelle » : l'aspect peut être indiqué par un geste ou par la relation spatio-temporelle entre plusieurs gestes. T. Kida et M. Faraco mettent en évidence la complémentarité de l'aspect gestuel et de la parole dans la représentation d'une durée, d'un déplacement spatial, par exemple. L'aspectualité gestuelle et l'aspectualité discursive peuvent représenter deux points de vue complémentaires, mais le marquage gestuel peut aussi pallier l'inexpressivité aspectuelle de l'interlangue. Autrement dit, il peut y avoir redondance, complémentarité ou palliation, l'aspectualité gestuelle étant réalisée avec suffisamment de liberté pour être associée aussi bien à la partie thématique qu'à la partie prédicative de l'énoncé.

Relation prépositionnelle et détermination

Lise Hamelin et Yukiyo Homma s'intéressent aux énoncés dans lesquels pour introduit un segment détaché (Pour B, A). Ils examinent successivement Pour dire les choses clairement, A, qui définit un type de discours ; Pour lui, A, qui définit une source-point de vue, Pour le tourisme, A (ce pays est en retard), qui définit le thème de l'énoncé ; Pour l'instant, A, qui définit le caractère transitoire de la validité de A. L. Hamelin et Y. Homma démontrent que ces quatre types d'énoncés ont en commun que pour B construit le domaine de validation de la relation prédicative A ; et que ce domaine se construit selon une relation d'altérité par rapport à un autre ou à plusieurs autres domaines (pour C, pour D, etc.). Cette étude met aussi en évidence l'affinité de cette construction détachée de pour B avec une détermination forte, en accord avec la fonction contrastive de ce segment.

Éric Gilbert fait porter son étude sur la préposition anglaise among. Son approche s'appuie sur les observations suivantes : l'aspect est l'une des formes de détermination de l'énoncé ; la détermination qui relève de l'aspect verbal, comme la détermination nominale, s'organise selon la distinction entre discret, dense et compact (cf. Franckel & Paillard 1991) ; certaines prépositions peuvent agir sur la valeur aspectuelle du verbe qui les régit. E. Gilbert met en évidence que la relation prépositionnelle opérée par among modifie non pas la valeur aspectuelle du verbe, mais celle du régime de among. La saisie prépositionnellle constitue le régime en tant qu'ensemble ; la préposition among admet ainsi des singuliers collectifs comme compléments (among the government), mais également des singuliers d'ordinaire de type dense (among the tundra). E. Gilbert compare la saisie opérée par among à celles opérées par in et par between. Il montre que among a entre autres pour effets la discrétisation de son régime, constitué comme classe d'occurrences par différenciation et par identification, et que lorsque le terme repéré A correspond à un prédicat nominalisé, among met en place un régime B qui peut être agentif (substance use among / *in children is common), ou qui peut être un repère point de vue (already well-known among homeless advocates).

Relation prépositionnelle et contiguïté : position relative / position par rapport à une frontière

Lionel Dufaye examine les relations temporelles et les relations spatiales opérées par la préposition anglaise by. Il commence par une comparaison avec l'adjectif scalaire near, dont by se distingue par son absence de scalarité. Le repérage opéré par by se construit par contiguïté, par rapport à la zone frontière du domaine notionnel de A, selon une proximité qualitative ; autrement dit, la préposition anglaise by opère un repérage par différenciation de A par rapport à B, ou une localisation de A dans le voisinage de B. L. Dufaye observe les différents contextes de la relation A by B en fonction de leurs caractéristiques aspectuelles (point de vue rétrospectif, contexte aoristique, point de vue prospectif). Dans tous les cas cités, la localisation dans la contiguïté de B est vérifiée.

Claude Delmas observe les emplois de la préposition anglaise down. Le fonctionnement prépositionnel induit des valeurs aspectuelles diverses : celle d'un déplacement correspondant à l'emploi de for (J. Figg swam down the river for n hours), dans lequel un processus ou un état peut être localisé, et limité, dans un sous-intervalle et selon une relation de voisinage par rapport à une localisation initiale ; celle du point de vue d'un expérient, selon la perception orientée, et déictique, de l'observateur sur le monde qui lui tient lieu de support. L'emploi de down comme particule met en place des valeurs aspectuelles concernant le degré d'avancement d'un événement et, corrélativement, son degré d'effection. Ainsi down s'oppose à up pour signaler un état résultant (drink down) non réversible, définitif (close down) là où up signifie le provisoire (close up), ou pour signaler un terme atteint non dépassable (clean down) là où up signifie le dépassable (clean up). Graham Ranger, à partir des valeurs aspectuelles en apparence contradictoires induites en contexte par away, entreprend de dégager une forme schématique invariante à même de réconcilier ces emplois. Il examine successivement le schéma coprédicatif de l'emploi spatial (turn away) ; l'aspect terminatif (rot away), qui se construit avec des procès téliques ou atéliques, intransitifs dans lesquels le référent sujet est affecté, transitifs dans lesquels c'est le référent-objet qui l'est ; les structures résultatives, dans lesquelles on retrouve le schéma coprédicatif : l'aspect terminatif clôture un mouvement qui va de l'existence à l'inexistence, de la présence à l'absence. Dans les emplois imperfectifs, continuatif (work away) ou itératif (fire away), le sens construit est celui d'une progression continue, qui correspond au dépassement d'une attente normale pour un procès donné, d'où une parenté avec la valeur aspecto-modale intensive (talk away like mad). G. Ranger vérifie son hypothèse, selon laquelle away opère un repérage en discontinuité avec une première localisation, et marque le passage continu du premier repérage au second.

Télicité construite et degré

Relation prépositionnelle et saisie médiane

Tova Rapoport fait porter son étude sur la préposition anglaise with, selon l'opposition (Hale 1986) entre coïncidence terminale (into, to, off), dynamique et télique, et coïncidence centrale, atélique. With établit une relation statique, atélique, et T. Rapoport la considère comme prototypique à cet égard. Elle examine l'influence du cotexte dans l'interprétation de la relation prépositionnelle ; la relation de localisation établie par with, qui montre que le premier élément contrôle la localisation du second ; l'emploi (co)prédicatif de with (X loaded the wagon with Y) ; la propriété « holistique » envisagée comme effet de la combinaison de localisation et de (co)prédication dans les énoncés en swarm with (fourmiller de, grouiller de B) et en A be black with B (être noir de… [monde]). T. Rapoport conclut que with impose à ses arguments une relation de localisation « centrale », c'est-à-dire une saisie médiane.

Thomas Hoelbeek examine les emplois de la locution prépositive à / au / en travers (de) au XVIe siècle, en s'appuyant sur la notion de guidage (Stosic 2002). Il distingue mouvement spatial, mouvement fictif, mouvement métaphorique et position statique selon les cotextes. Adoptant la typologie de Vet, qui oppose les prédicats transitionnels (téliques) et les prédicats non transitionnels (atéliques), T. Hoelbeek envisage leur compatibilité avec à travers, qui tend à sélectionner des procès non téliques et une saisie médiane, tout en restant compatible avec les procès atéliques, processus ou états. A l'issue de ce volume, de multiples voies ont été explorées. La relation prépositionnelle est bien une forme de saisie, comme l'aspect ; elle se caractérise par sa dépendance, comme l'aspect. Elle est à même de déterminer, de caractériser ou de modifier un référent nominal, un procès, un contenu propositionnel ; à même d'infléchir la détermination aspectuelle d'un énoncé ou d'en être l'arbitre. Elle est aussi la matérialisation d'un point de vue, et les relations qu'elle met en place sont conçues à travers le filtre de l'expérience humaine.

  L'orthogonalité est primordiale dans la relation entre B et la trajectoire de A. Claire Martinot s'intéresse aux constructions gérondives françaises, P en Vant, et à la question de leur ambiguïté et de leur classement. Sur ce point, C. Martinot constate que « la question de l'ambiguïté interprétative du gérondif ne se résout pas par un classement sémantique en 4 ou 5 catégories de gérondifs […], d'une part parce que plusieurs lectures sont légitimes et en fait complémentaires, d'autre part parce que certains gérondifs n'entrent dans aucun des classements jusqu'à présent proposés ». Les variations cotextuelles sont responsables des variations d'interprétation, et l'interprétation se stabilise quand le contexte est pris en compte. A propos d'une paire minimale comme Pierre marche en boitant, VS Pierre boite en marchant, C. Martinot défend l'idée que « la légère différence de perspective n'est pas un argument pertinent pour dire que le sens change ». Et elle conclut de cette position que le test de la réversibilité « permet d'obtenir deux grandes classes d'enchaînements : une classe dans laquelle la réversibilité entraîne un changement de sens et une classe dans laquelle la réversibilité n'entraîne pas de changement de sens ».

  Andrée Borillo étudie les propriétés des syntagmes prépositionnels jusqu'à SN lorsqu'ils établissent un point d'aboutissement dans le cours d'un déroulement ou lorsqu'ils expriment un degré très élevé ou extrême dans une échelle de gradation quantitative. Le point d'aboutissement peut être marqué par une localisation temporelle, mais également par des noms prédicatifs ([…] jusqu'à son application effective). A. Borillo examine les propriétés des deux segments mis en relation dans A jusqu'à B. Le prédicat verbal ou le nom prédicatif du segment A doit être affecté par le trait [+ duratif], que ce trait soit inhérent ou construit. Le segment B, SN régi par jusqu'à, doit avoir le trait aspectuel [+ dynamique]. Jusqu'à B fixe une borne, et B a une fonction télique, étape normale dans le traitement de A ou occurrence d'une nouvelle situation qui met un terme à A. Lorsque le syntagme prépositionnel exprime le haut degré, le trait [+ duratif] n'a plus de pertinence dans le premier segment : c'est le caractère gradable de A qui est toujours vérifié. Dans le segment régi par la préposition, le trait [+ dynamique] n'est pas nécessaire et la référence à un état est fréquente.


Peter A Machonis
email: machonis@fiu.edu

Compositional phrasal verbs with up: Direction, aspect, intensity

Keywords:

HAL is

Introduction

Whereas frozen phrasal verbs clearly do not have the same meaning without the particle and must be listed in the lexicon grammar of idiomatic expressions (e.g., break up the audience "cause to laugh," burn out the teacher "exhaust"), it can be argued that compositional phrasal verbs (e.g., drink up the milk, wipe down the countertop) can be derived from the combined meanings of the particle and the verb. That is, compositional phrasal verbs merely add an aspectual element to the simple verb, and particle usage might be better analyzed as a property of the simple verb.

While some editors might consider such usage as superfluous, something to be avoided in academic articles, many linguists (e.g., B. [START_REF] Hampe | Superlative Verbs: A corpus-based study of semantic redundancy in English verb-particle constructions[END_REF] argue that these supposedly "redundant" phrasal verbs carry more meaning than their simple verbs. A. McIntyre (2002:97), for example, posits that drink up above implies "maximal effect" on the complement, while wipe down suggests that the "the action is performed on a substantial part" of the object. Do compositional phrasal verbs carry specific meanings, or is the connotation merely stylistic, with the particle implying a more informal or colloquial style? Can phrasal verbs indicate emotional involvement on the part of the speaker? How predictable are the meanings associated with a compositional phrasal verb, such as direction, completed aspect, and intensity? And finally, can the use of the particle with compositional phrasal verbs help identify the meaning of the simple verb when it has more than one meaning? R. Jackendoff (2002:74-80) has discussed many examples of directional and aspectual particles in English. So has D. Bolinger (1971:99), who also looked at phrasal verbs that are "perfective in the sense of attaining a high intensity." We have added these three dimensionsdirection, completed aspect, and intensityto a lexicon grammar table of compositional phrasal verbs, in an attempt to ascertain the advantages and disadvantages of listing compositional phrasal verbs in a lexicon grammar distinct from frozen ones.

Frozen vs. compositional phrasal verbs in lexicon grammar tables

This analysis starts from a lexicon grammar table representing an extensive list of transitive and neutral English phrasal verbs that use the particle up, combining both idiomatic and compositional cases. This database of over 700 transitive occurrences of up, was composed using B. [START_REF] Fraser | The Verb-particle Combination in English[END_REF], R. [START_REF] Spears | Basic Phrasal Verbs[END_REF], The American Heritage Dictionary (2000), The Longman Phrasal Verbs Dictionary (2000) and The Cambridge International Dictionary of Phrasal Verbs (1997).

The first two columns represent potential subjects, or N 0 , which can be either Human or Non-human or both. This is followed by the verb and the particle (i.e., up) as well as an example of a direct object, N 1 , which is also classified by the properties of Human and Non-human. The next column, N 0 V N 1 , takes into consideration cases where the verb has a similar meaning even if the particle is not used, with a plus indicating such possible sequences as:

(1) The child drank (up + E) 1 the milk In most cases, this is a clear indication that the phrasal verb should be considered compositional. That is, the verb keeps its regular meaning, but the particle is viewed as an intensifier (beat up the child), an aspect marker (boot up the computer), or an adverbial noting direction (drive up prices).

The next column, N 1 V Part, considers neutral or ergative verbs, with a plus in that column attesting to the fact that the verb has both a transitive and intransitive linked use, such as:

(2) The terrorists blew up the building  The building blew up This is followed by another column of pluses and minuses, N 1 V, which indicates if a verb can have an intransitive linked use (neutral) even without the particle being expressed:

(3) The cook was boiling up the potatoes  The potatoes were boiling This is finally followed by a Synonym, a paraphrase of the meaning of the phrasal verb.

Using the N 0 V N 1 column as the main criterion, we divided the original data into two separate tables: (1) idiomatic or frozen expressions (when N 0 V N 1 = minus) and (2) compositional expressions (when N 0 V N 1 = plus). Table 1 represents a sample taken from the 300 compositional phrasal verbs only. There were two exceptions to the above syntax-based delimitation, however, that allowed an expression to be listed as compositional even if there was a minus in the N 0 V N 1 column. N-hum

N 0 V N 1 N 1 V Part N 1 V Synonym N V N Loc N = N V N up N 0 V N 1 up = N 0 V N 1 completely N 0 V N 1 up = N 0 really V N 1 + +
+ + - - promote - - + 1.1. Locative Exceptions to N 0 V N 1 criterion
In some cases where the particle appears to be obligatory, the phrasal verb might be considered as being derived from N 0 V N 1 Loc N 2 , where Loc N 2 is a locative prepositional phrase. For example:

(4) Government spending forced prices to unprecedented levels  Government spending forced (*E + up) prices

(5) Max pinned the photo on the bulletin board  Max pinned (*E + up) the photo Since the particle up can be derived from the phrase to unprecedented levels or on the bulletin board, we consider these expressions compositional, even though they have a minus in the N 0 V N 1 column. Note that one can also say prices (are + went) (up + down) and the photo is up, which also lends support to the fact that these expressions are compositional.

1.2. Neutral Verb Exceptions to N 0 V N 1 criterion
The second set of exceptions concerns a few ergative or neutral cases, where particle use is obligatory in the transitive, while it is optional in the intransitive:

(6) a. The visit brightened (*E + up) Mary b.

Mary brightened (E + up) with the visit

In some cases, the particle is obligatory in the transitive, while it must be deleted in the intransitive:

(7) a. The garlic smelled (*E + up) the kitchen b. The kitchen smelled (E + of garlic) c. *The kitchen smelled up (E + of garlic)

We consider these few cases as compositional also, since the particle can or must be deleted in the intransitive, even though it cannot be deleted in the transitive. Following G. [START_REF] Nunberg | Idioms[END_REF]D. McCarthy et al. 2003, these cases suggest that compositionality might be better viewed on a continuum with varying degrees of compositionalityfrom truly opaque to clearly compositional. However, for computer processing of phrasal verb data, linguists generally must choose to have the phrasal verb listed as either idiomatic (frozen), or as derivable (compositional) from a simple verb plus particle, and not along a continuum of degrees of compositionality.

Directional phrasal verbs derived from prepositional phrases

The notion that a phrasal verb can be considered as derived from a locative prepositional phrase not only involves cases where the particle must be used (first set of exceptions above), it also entails some cases where the particle is optional:

(8) Max held the picture against the wall  Max held (E + up) the picture (9) The child kicked the ball into the air  The child kicked (E + up) the ball

We have thus added derivability from a prepositional phrase as a new property to our table of compositinal phrasal verbs. As can be seen in Table 1, this is indicated by a plus in the column:

(10) N 0 V N 1 Loc N 2 = N 0 V N 1 up Following A. Guillet & C.
Leclère 1992, we used two tests to confirm this directional or locative property. First, there must be a natural answer to the question:

(11) (Prep + E) where did N 0 V N 1 ?

And secondly, the following phrase, with minor prepositional variation, must also be acceptable:

(12) N 1 (is + goes + comes) Loc N 2
For example, the following sentences were used to verify the directional/locative property of the phrasal verbs force up, pin up, hang up, and kick up: However, other meanings are also associated with compositional phrasal verbs, such as completed aspect and high intensity.

Aspect and Intensity

There are at least two types of aspect 2 involved with the particle up: completed action and high intensity, which we have also added to the far right of the lexicon grammar of compositional phrasal verbs (cf. Table 1).

Completed action is indicated under the column:

(17) N 0 V N 1 up = N 0 V N 1 completely
Although we only indicate the word completely at the top of this column, other more natural wordings are possible. First, we used the acceptability of inserting the adverb completely or securely as a test for completed action:

(18) The garbage blocked the sink completely 

The garbage blocked up the sink Hampe (2002:86) involving judgments by native speakers on similar sentences (with and without the particle) furthermore show that context can influence the "acceptability of completive particles in combination with accomplishment verbs." For example, speakers generally "dispreferred" particle usage in the following sentence:

(22) a. The cleaning people polished (up) all the furniture yesterday, but it still does not shine but preferred the particle in the related sentence implying completed action:

(

22) b. The cleaning people polished (up) all the furniture yesterday, and now it shines as if brand-new

Finally, high intensity is indicated by a plus in the last column of the table:

(23) N 0 V N 1 up = N 0 really V N 1
We used the acceptability of inserting the adverb really as a test for this column:

(24) The coach really psyched the team  The coach psyched up the team (25) The racer really revved the engine  The racer revved up the engine

As can be seen in the last three columns of Table 1, more than one meaning can be associated with an individual particle. For example, gather up and hang up not only imply direction, but also completion, while freeze up and gobble up not only entail completion, but also intensity. In one instance (vomit up), both direction and intensity can be implied.

In Table 2, we give the results and percentages associated with the various meanings that the 300 compositional phrasal verbs using up can undergo. Directional meanings can be associated with 15% of our sample, completed action with almost 80%, and high intensity in 34% of the cases. The most frequent combination is completed action and high intensity at 25%.

Discussion

Given that high intensity and completed action overlap in 25% of the cases, how might one translate these superfluous particles, if at all? For example, to translate the equivalent of freeze up into French, one might use complètement "completely" or tout à fait "absolutely" to express completed aspect and vraiment "really" for high intensity:

(26) a. The bad weather froze up the pipes b.

Le mauvais temps a (complètement + tout à fait) gelé les tuyaux c. Le mauvais temps a vraiment gelé les tuyaux

Completed aspect could also be expressed with the adjective tous "all" added before certain complements, as in the case of gobble up:

(27) a. The child gobbled up the cookies b. L'enfant a avalé tous les biscuits While context may not be adequate to justify one French translation over the other, trying to incorporate both connotations of the particle up at the same time might seem awkward unless some special intonation were to be used:

(28) ?Le mauvais temps a vraiment complètement bloqué les tuyaux

Even if the French translation does seem natural, it still appears to be excessive to suggest both completion and intensity for one instance of the optional particle up:

(29) L'enfant a vraiment avalé tous les biscuits

Furthermore, in English these extra adverbs could also be expressed without, as well as with the particle:

(30) The bad weather (completely + really) froze (E + up) the pipes

(

31) The child (E + really) gobbled (E + up) (E + all) the cookies

Rather than distinguishing intensity from completed action, it might be better then to merely indicate that the simple verb takes on the element of "Aspect," such as what is currently used in FrameNet (J. [START_REF] Ruppenhofer | FrameNet II: Extended Theory and Practice[END_REF]. However, when we start comparing different particle usage with the same verb, it can be argued that the choice of particle might actually help differentiate intensity from completion. With the verb drink, for example, the particle up denotes completion, while the particle down signals intensity or quickness:

(32) a. The child drank up the milk b. The child drank down the milk On the other hand, a number of writers and editors view optional particles as merely stylistic, with particle usage often implying a more informal or colloquial style. In the final edit of P. Machonis (2008), a monograph on experiential learning, the general editor removed many "superfluous" particles, such as the underlined particles from the following sentences:

(33) Participants are split up into small groups with an assigned area of the city to explore in their three to four hours (34) Students would be encouraged to seek out personally relevant information Perhaps influenced by dictionary entries which occasionally indicate "informal" next to some phrasal verbs, the editor preferred to create a more academic tone by eliminating any superfluous particle usage.

In additional to stylistic concerns, B. Hampe (2002:101) suggests that redundant phrasal verbs can also function as an "index of emotional involvement of the speaker." That is, the use of the particle can at times play a pragmatic role, adding a subjective element of meaning, an indirect way of communicating the speaker's attitude or emotion. Perhaps some of the authors in the above cited monograph were implying a more intimate involvement on their part in designing experiential learning activities for their students. B.

Hampe does mention, however, that this is about "speaker preferences" and not something that is systematic or rule governed.

More importantly, we might ask if the use of the particle with compositional phrasal verbs plays an indirect role in identifying the meaning of a potentially ambiguous simple verb. In some cases, it is clearly not so. For example, the particle up can appear with multiple senses of the verb back: Here the choice of the optional particle up appears to disambiguate between "start," as in (30a) and "fire" (30b) or "disable" (30c). Likewise, the choice of the particle around clarifies the meaning of boot "kick" in (30d). In the same way, one can argue that the choice of optional particles can help distinguish the various meanings of the simple verb call: B. Hampe gives further evidence that using the particle with compositional phrasal verbs helps to make the meaning clear when the simple verb has multiple connotations. According to B. Hampe (2002:60):

Redundant phrasal verbs are very often variants or synonyms of some selected senses of the corresponding (polysemous) simple verbs only. This implies that they are actually more specific in meaning than their bare-verb counterparts.

This disambiguation factor is therefore a very strong argument in favor of separating compositional from idiomatic phrasal verbs, with optional particle usage being indicated as a property of the simple verb. For example, the simple verb call "phone" can take the particle up but not out, while the simple verb call "announce" can take the particle out but not up. On the other hand, the disadvantage of treating compositional phrasal verbs separately from frozen ones is that the simple verb tables will become enormously complex when all English particles (B. Fraser 1976 lists fifteen different particles) are taken into account.

In conclusion, although elements such as stylistic levels or emotional involvement of the speaker are beyond the scope of lexicon grammar, nuances involving direction, completed aspect, and intensity are indeed associated with compositional phrasal verbs involving the particle up. Completed action is the most common meaning added; intensity is the second most frequent characteristic, with direction being the least common element added. The frequency of overlap between intensity and completed action, however, suggests that the various meanings are at times fuzzy, or perhaps dependent on context, and that we should not try to distinguish completed action from high intensity. Finally, the use of an optional particle can at times help distinguish potentially polysemous simple verbs, and shows that their use, therefore, is not simply redundant, but indicative of the speaker actually focusing in on or subtly signaling a specific meaning. 2. Jacob Grimm first extended the Slavic term vid "aspect" to non-Slavic languages, such as Germanic prefixes expressing successful, completed actions (R. Binnick 1991:141). Although some linguists (B. Comrie 1976) seem to limit the use of the term aspect to verbal tenses such as perfective and imperfective, others (D. [START_REF] Bolinger | The Phrasal Verb in English[END_REF], R. Binnick 1991, R. Jackendoff 2002) extend the use to include compositional phrasal verb particles. While aspect in Russian is clearly and obligatorily marked and its meaning relatively precise to native speakers, in English the term aspect is neither perfectly clear, nor is it something that is obligatorily marked. Thus D. Bolinger (1971:98) and R. Binnick actually prefer the term Aktionsart, or modes d'action, but opt to use the "less awkward" term aspect. B. Fraser (1976:6) simply uses the expression "completive sense."

We use the term aspect to indicate that the particle of a compositional phrasal verb can denote a completed action, as well as high intensity.

can take the particle up but not out, while the simple verb call "announce" can take the particle out but not up. The simple verb tables, however, will become enormously complex when all English particles (fifteen different particles according to B. Fraser 1976) are taken into account.

Author's address:

(

  13) a. Where did government spending force prices? b. Prices are at unprecedented levels (14) a. Where did Max pin the photo? b. The photo is on the bulletin board (15) a. Where did Max hang the picture? b. The picture is against the wall (16) a. Where did the child kick the ball? b. The ball is in the air

( 19 )

 19 Max locked the car securely  Max locked up the car If the adverbs completely or securely seemed awkward, but the meaning of completed action still seemed obvious, we tried the phrase finished V-ing: (20) The waiter finished adding the bill  The waiter added up the bill or the expression succeeded in V-ing: (21) Max succeeded in booting his computer  Max booted up his computer Experiments by B.

(

  35) a. Max backed (E + up) the car [= drive in reverse] b. The linguist backed (E + up) the idea [= prove to be true] c. The dean backed (E + up) the professor [= support] d. The band backed (E + up) the pianist [= accompany musically] However, in examining many examples, we notice that the choice of particle for a compositional phrasal verb, can at times help identify a specific meaning when the simple verb is potentially ambiguous, such as in the case of boot: (36) a. Max booted (E + up) the computer [= start] b. The boss booted (E + *up) the worker [= fire] c. The agent booted (E + *up) the car [= disable] d. The child booted the ball (E + *up + around) [= kick]

(

  37) a. Ann called (E + up) Max [= phone] b. The chairperson called (E + *up) the meeting [= convoke] c. The politicians called (E + *up) the election [= predict result of] d. The teacher called (E + *up + out) the names [= announce]

Notes 1 .

 1 Examples that contain parentheses indicate that any of the elements is possible or, if starred, not possible. The letter E stands for an empty string. Thus the (a) sentences below should be understood as meaning both (b) and (c): (i) a. The child drank (up + E) the milk b. The child drank up the milk c. The child drank the milk (ii) a. Government spending forced (*E + up) b. *Government spending forced prices c. Government spending forced up prices

Table 1 .

 1 Sample of compositional phrasal verbs with up

Table 2 .

 2 Meanings associated with compositional phrasal verbs with up

							Direction,
				Direction		Completed	Completed
	Direction	Completed	High	and	Direction	Action	Action
	(all	Action	Intensity	Completed	and High	and High	and High
	cases)	(all cases)	(all_cases)	Action	Intensity	Intensity	Intensity
	47	242	105	14	1	76	2
	15.3%	78.8%	34.2%	4.6%	0.3%	24.8%	0.7%

Summary -Compositional phrasal verbs with up: Direction, aspect, intensity

This study examines a corpus of 300 compositional phrasal verbs in English using the particle up. Whereas frozen phrasal verbs clearly do not have the same meaning without the particle and must be listed in the lexicon grammar of idiomatic expressions (e.g., break up the audience "cause to laugh"), compositional phrasal verbs merely add an aspectual element to the simple verb, and particle usage might be better analyzed as a property of the simple verb. Although this meaning is difficult to characterize precisely, it generally indicates direction (ride up the elevator), completion (open up the store), intensity (hype up the book), or combinations (polish up the silverware, completion and intensity). These properties are added to the table of compositional phrasal verbs. Optional particle usage can also identify the meaning of a potentially ambiguous simple verb. For example, the simple verb call "phone"


Jean-Luc Vinot
email: jean-luc.vinot@enac.fr

Catherine Letondal
email: catherine.letondal@enac.fr

Sylvain Pauchet
email: sylvain.pauchet@enac.fr

Stéphane Chatty
email: stephane.chatty@enac.fr

Could tangibility improve the safety of touch-based Interaction? Exploring a new Physical Design Space for Pilot-System Interfaces

Keywords: Touch-based, tangible and embodied interaction, organic user interfaces, cockpit, safety, design principles

Touchscreen technologies will most probably replace current instrument panels in future aeronautical cockpits. However, while safety and performance require interactive instruments to maximize the perception, action and collaboration spaces offered to pilots, the literature highlights the limits of touch-based interaction regarding these aspects. Our objective is thus to explore how tangible embodied interaction (TEI), associated with a touch-based flight deck device, could address this issue. In this paper, we contribute a structured design space for pilot-system interactions based on an analysis of the design properties of physical interaction as described in the literature, and on relevant usability, safety and industrial requirements.

INTRODUCTION

The instrument panels of modern commercial airliners!such! as the Airbus A350 and the Boeing 787 contain screen displays and physical controls (knobs, switches, etc.) that are each dedicated to presenting information from one specific aircraft system or to interacting with this system. In contrast, future cockpits are gradually evolving towards aggregate systems with fewer and larger screens and a progressive digitalization of pilot-system interfaces. The trend is towards the replacement of instrument panels by touchscreens that combine both the input and output role. The objective for manufacturers in doing so is to manage the increasing complexity of systems with greater flexibility and lower costs.

Having widely explored and promoted touch interaction in the aeronautical domain, we recognize its benefits in terms of usability and performance in routine situations. However, we have also noted its limits in critical or degraded contexts (e.g. smoke inside the cockpit, turbulence, stress or cognitive load). Unlike physical controls, which take full advantages of a global sense of touch and proprioception, touch screens are not well suited to eyes-free interaction and less reliable in dynamic environments subjected to vibrations and acceleration. Touch interaction also provides poor sensory feedback and is less good than physical controls at reinforcing mutual awareness. What digitalization brings to flexibility and performance, it takes from robustness.

New interaction technologies, especially those collectively named as tangible interaction technologies, create a continuum between the two extremes that are touch-based interfaces and physical controls. As researchers in HCI, we consider that our responsibility is to explore this new design space as early and as widely as possible, so as to provide cockpit designers with a better understanding of the tension between digitalization and sensory feedback.

In this paper we take a design research approach, exploring the design space of touchscreens augmented with tangible interaction. We seek to understand how designs can take into account the sensory-motor skills of pilots and allow for more effective collaboration, thereby overcoming the limitations of touch interaction in aeronautical safety-critical systems. Our technological design space is potentially large, since fostering physicality may involve many research areas, such as tangible interfaces, haptics, embodied interaction or organic interfaces. Because our goal, at an early stage of the project, is comprehension rather than product design, there is no point in reducing this space through technological choices. The purpose of this article is to frame a view of the potential solutions for our problem that is abstracted from a technological solution. Thus, we will explore the tangible and embodied design space (the "physical design space") through an analysis of the current literature.

Our contribution is a design space in which the state of the art of available and possible technologies is structured. This design space is based on 1) abstracted design properties and 2) a set of clarified aeronautical requirements related to the use of touchbased technologies in the cockpit. This approach builds on research works such as [START_REF] Hornecker | Getting a grip on tangible interaction: a framework on physical space and social interaction[END_REF] or [START_REF] Klemmer | How bodies matter: five themes for interaction design[END_REF] that each contributes a thematic framework describing the positive properties of a given modality. It is also inspired by methods such as [START_REF] Green | The cognitive dimensions of information structures[END_REF], that Permission to make digital or hard copies of all or part of this work for personal or classroom use is granted without fee provided that copies are not made or distributed for profit or commercial advantage and that copies bear this notice and the full citation on the first page. Copyrights for components of this work owned by others than ACM must be honored. Abstracting with credit is permitted. To copy otherwise, or republish, to post on servers or to redistribute to lists, requires prior specific permission and/or a fee. Request permissions from Permissions@acm.org. HCI-Aero '16 intend to improve design practices by making it easier to speak about design at an appropriate level of abstraction. It provides a review of the related work associated with a generic usability issue raised by a technological choice in a sensitive context, as opposed to a characterization of the dimensions associated with a specific functionality.

In the first part of this paper, we describe the context of our problem in terms of cockpit designs issues; we then specify the problem raised by touch-based technology for safety, performance and cooperation in the cockpit. In the second part, based on a clarified set of aeronautical requirements, we propose a design space that builds on an analysis of the properties that we find in the technologies that could involve more physicality. In a final section, we discuss this approach and outline our future work.

CONTEXT AND PROBLEM Toward the digitalization of pilot-system interfaces

In the 1980s, the concept of Glass Cockpit radically changed the flight deck interfaces of commercial aircraft, replacing dozens of analog mechanical instruments (dials, gauges, artificial horizon, etc.) by a digital display of the information from aircraft systems. This information is grouped in functional units and displayed on different screens, specifically dedicated to each of the crew's main activities. The crew interacts with these systems and digital displays through physical controllers: knobs, switches, pull buttons, sticks... These finely tuned physical control devices have proven their effectiveness for pilot-system interaction [START_REF] Dubey | La polyvalence du Rafale ou l'objet total : la relation entre une technologie nouvelle et ses utilisateurs[END_REF], situational awareness and cooperative work. Moreover, physical devices guarantee the pilot's ability to interact with systems even in degraded contexts of use (poor flight conditions, degraded vision, instability, pilot fatigue, cognitive load or stress).

Following on from the glass cockpit concept, the currently dominant concept of Interactive Cockpit (e.g. Airbus A380 or Boeing 787) has become a computer-like environment. It features keyboard and pointing input devices, such as the KCCU (Keyboard Cursor Control Unit) and uses a single cursor per pilot in order to interact with numerous graphical widgets displayed on multiple screens. These WIMP interactions, adapted to cockpit interfaces in the ARINC 661 specification [3], are still limited to non-critical functions.

Touch-based cockpit: a new challenge for aeronautics

Recently, many manufacturers in the aeronautical field have proposed innovative interface designs for the cockpit based on the use of touchscreens. These designs may be used in multiple civil and military avionics platforms, and allow manufacturers to build flexible and lower-cost innovative product lines for the cockpit.

For example, Thales Avionics has developed two exploratory concepts for future cockpits based on touch technology. The EU project ODICIS [START_REF] Becouarn | Final Report -ODICIS (One DIsplay for a Cockpit Interactive Solution[END_REF], with its touchscreen-based single-display fight deck concept, allows information to be presented in new ways in a dynamically reconfigurable user interface. Similarly, the Thales Avionics 2020, founded on the principles of direct manipulation and task-oriented human-machine interfaces, integrates a large display area made up of multiple touch screens. According to their designers, both these concepts enable a new type of information representation that is flexible for pilots, synthetic and contextual.

Closer to current operations, Rockwell Collins has modernized its "Pro Line Fusion" product line for helicopter or aircraft cockpits, generalizing the use of touchscreens. Touch-based interactions are available for all cockpit displays, including the Primary Flight Display (PFD), but all avionics control functions available via touchscreen can also be accessed on the standard cursor control and multifunction key panel interface units. Beechcraft Corporation, a manufacturer of general aviation and military aircraft, recently announced that it has received type certification from the Federal Aviation Administration for this new Pro Line Fusionequipped Beechcraft King Air 350i/ER turboprop.

Many other aircraft manufacturers or electronics providers, such as Garmin, Honeywell, Barco, Lockheed Martin, etc., have already implemented touch-based technology in new integrated products for flight deck interfaces.

Touch-based interfaces: potential risks to Air Safety

In the life-critical context [START_REF] Boy | What do we mean by Human-Centered Design of Life-Critical Systems?[END_REF] of air safety, replacing physical controllers with only touch interaction may introduce risks of use when in highly degraded flight situations. Various studies have compared the performance of touch interaction and physical controllers, either in nominal situations or in more degraded contexts. Addressed issues include limitations of touch interaction in terms of measurable performance and use contexts.

Limitations related to performance

Voelker et al. [START_REF] Voelker | Knobology Revisited: A Comparison of User Performance between Tangible and Virtual Rotary Knobs[END_REF] demonstrate that adjusting a physical rotary knob from an initial position to a target position is 20% faster than the same task with touch-based widgets. Furthermore, the study notes that the error rate (overshoot of the target value) is significantly higher in touch interaction (using one or two fingers) than with a physical button. Alapetite et al. [START_REF] Alapetite | Direct Tactile Manipulation of the Flight Plan in a Modern Aircraft Cockpit[END_REF] also observed that changing a flight plan remains more efficient using a conventional Multi-function Control and Display Unit (MCDU) than with a multitouch Navigation Display (ND). While the task is performed equally fast, there is a greater error rate in completing a concurrent task. Lower task completion speed and a greater number of errors due to the lack of physical dimension can also be found in touch vs tangible comparative studies [START_REF] Lucchi | An Empirical Evaluation of Touch and Tangible Interfaces for Tabletop Displays[END_REF][START_REF] Kincaid | Tactile Guides for Touch Screen Controls[END_REF]. Barbé et al. [START_REF] Barbé | Ergonomic approaches to integrate touch screen in future aircraft cockpits[END_REF] highlight that the physical effort of touch pointing without hand support could alter the accuracy of the action.

Limitations related to use context

During a flight, pilots perform constant ocular movements and fixations between systems to gather and compile information, in addition to frequent visual transitions between the inside and the outside the aircraft. This visual monitoring must not be overly impeded by the visual attention required during interaction with input devices. As highlighted in the study of Voelker [START_REF] Voelker | Knobology Revisited: A Comparison of User Performance between Tangible and Virtual Rotary Knobs[END_REF], touch-based interaction, as opposed to physical controls, places high demands on the visual channel to adjust the action and control the precision of the movement. In the case of tasks requiring gaze indirection (when the visual result of the action is distant) touch surface performance is greatly degraded while that of physical buttons is constant. Tory [START_REF] Tory | Comparing Physical, Overlay, and Touch Screen Parameter Controls[END_REF] and Harrison [START_REF] Harrison | Providing Dynamically Changeable Physical Buttons on a Visual Display[END_REF] demonstrate that visual focusing is required during touch interaction, whereas it is unnecessary with a physical or mixed system (touch + physical guide). Touch-based interaction, compared to tangible interfaces, does not favor mutual awareness and crew collaboration [START_REF] Cohen | Tangible Multimodal Interfaces for Safety-Critical Applications[END_REF][START_REF] Scott | Tangible Interfaces for Remote Collaboration and Communication[END_REF]. The growing use of touch interaction may alter the situational awareness (SA) that, as Casner [START_REF] Casner | The Retention of Manual Flying Skills in the Automated Cockpit[END_REF] highlighted, determines the ability of the crew to regain control following the disengagement of the autopilot. Furthermore, touch devices can trigger ergonomic problems. Bachynskyi et al [START_REF] Bachynskyi | Performance and Ergonomics of Touch Surfaces: A Comparative Study using Biomechanical Simulation[END_REF] investigate the performance and ergonomics factors of various types of touch surfaces and their impact in terms of postures and the expected fatigue in sustained interaction. More specifically, [START_REF] Barbé | Ergonomic approaches to integrate touch screen in future aircraft cockpits[END_REF] proposes to define the physical ergonomics needs of touch interaction in the cockpit using anthropometric data (female & male database 2040) and 3D modelling of the theoretical pilot postures in the cockpit space. This work highlights that some display locations and task durations can affect significantly the interaction of the pilots and cause muscular fatigue or musculoskeletal disorders. Hourlier et al. [START_REF] Hourlier | Testing Touch Screens in Realistic Aeronautic Turbulent Conditions (Light to Severe)[END_REF] question the efficiency of touch-based interaction in a context of aeronautical turbulence by presenting a valuation method based on a simulator reproducing faithfully the physical sensations of a phenomenon of turbulence. Noyes [START_REF] Noyes | A Comparison of Speech Input and Touch Screen for Executing Checklists in an Avionics Application[END_REF] similarly reports degraded performances of touch-based interaction in dynamic context (turbulence, vibration).

AERONAUTICAL REQUIREMENTS

Our goal is to analyze how new interaction technologies and modalities have the potential to address the problems described above. However, before performing this analysis, we need to formalize our problem into a set of clarified requirements. For this purpose, we extracted requirements from the literature [START_REF] Yeh | Human Factors Considerations in the Design and Evaluation of Flight Deck Displays and Controls[END_REF][START_REF]B / EUROCAE ED-12B, Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification[END_REF], from our own previous works (e.g. [START_REF] Vinot | Legible, are you sure?: an experimentation-based typographical design in safetycritical context[END_REF][START_REF] Letondal | !Exploring the Physical Design Space for Situation Awareness and Performance in the Interactive Cockpit[END_REF][START_REF] Letondal | 3D Visualization to Mitigate Weather Hazards in the Flight Deck: Findings from a User Study[END_REF]), and from user studies (4 contextual interviews, 2 workshops, 1 design walkthrough with pilots and flight instructors). From these sources, we sought both the requirements that directly arise from the specific problem of reconciling touch screens with critical needs in aeronautics, and the unavoidable general safety and industrial requirements.

In the following, we group the resulting requirements in three classes: 1) usability concerns, 2) safety processes, and 3) industrial constraints.

Usability Requirements

RU1. Direct localization perception. Even for experts, as described by a senior pilot we interviewed, "flying feels like you are in a 'non-usual' universe... you are in the middle of the sky, without any landmark, so you do not immediately know 'where you are'". For this purpose, pilots need devices that provide just a few accurate and directly reachable parameters (altitude, speed, heading, artificial horizon).

RU2. Situational awareness. Pilots need to be able both to obtain information related to the context of the flight (e.g. closest air traffic) and to predict the state of the system (e.g. autopilot), in order to avoid cognitive conflicts and anticipate actions.

RU3. Collaborative awareness. Major procedures must be collaboratively performed by the crew and each action must be visible to the other crew members and shareable.

RU4. Operational performance. Devices and interactors should show a high degree of usability, for instance to enable the selection of discrete values (e.g. button with notches) while not requiring too much focus. These devices should provide perceptible feedback (e.g. force feedback of the gas throttle) while providing protection from unwanted irreversible action (e.g. guarded buttons).

RU5.

Usability in degraded context. In the cockpit, both environmental and cognitive factors can dramatically degrade the performance of human operators. Extreme lighting conditions, vibrations or degraded flying conditions (weather, aircraft failure), in addition to physical and cognitive overload (fatigue, stress, time pressure), might greatly downgrade efficiency. Interactive solutions that remain efficient in degraded contexts must be included from the start of the design process. While this requirement also meets safety objectives (e.g. certification), it primarily addresses HCI concerns.

Safety Requirements

RS1. Safety-Critical System. The certification process imposes compliance with specific standards, requirements or processes such as RTCA DO-178B (Software considerations in airborne systems and equipment certification) [START_REF]B / EUROCAE ED-12B, Software Considerations in Airborne Systems and Equipment Certification[END_REF], and the use of formal methods to describe advanced interactions in the cockpit as [START_REF] Hamon | Formal description of multi-touch interactions[END_REF].

RS2.

Resilience. Interactive systems are required to withstand various potential breakdowns or vulnerabilities of power, light, visibility (smoke), noise, etc. The techniques and modalities used (e.g. for alarms) must support critical context and enable alternative modes.

RS3. Availability.

Redefining cockpit interactive devices requires the re-examination of availability and physical reachability issues. For example, interface elements and displayed data must be dynamically adapted to the phase of flight. Mobile or detachable objects pose a challenge both as unreachable elements, let alone as potentially dangerous projectiles.

Industrial Requirements

RI1. Dynamicity and adaptability.

Interactive components should dynamically adapt to digital information flow (hence the progressive introduction of software components).

RI2.

Engineering. The cost of designing, developing and certifying flight deck devices should be optimized. Proof-ofconcept and design methodologies need to be provided with disruptive technologies.

RI3. Configurability. Suppliers promote the design of product lines adaptable to different aircraft programs. They seek technologies that are flexible enough to enable inexpensive component reuse and reconfiguration.

A DESIGN SPACE FOR PHYSICAL INTERACTIONS

In this section we analyze the state of the art of tangible and embodied interaction according to the above requirements, keeping in mind that "physicality" is a central concern in the treatment of the problem. To do so, we propose a design space in which a collection of abstract properties is organized along three axes (see Figure 1). The abstract properties, such as graspability and universality, are deduced from previous works [START_REF] Vinot | Tangible Augmented Reality for Air Traffic Control[END_REF][START_REF] Letondal | !Exploring the Physical Design Space for Situation Awareness and Performance in the Interactive Cockpit[END_REF] and from existing conceptual frameworks such as [START_REF] Hornecker | Getting a grip on tangible interaction: a framework on physical space and social interaction[END_REF][START_REF] Klemmer | How bodies matter: five themes for interaction design[END_REF]. We have chosen to structure this design space according to our priorities, drawing on our requirements. Firstly, several requirements related to easy access (RU1, RS3), graspability (RU4, RS2) and eyes-free interaction (RU5, RS2, RS3), call for a form [START_REF] Jung | Digital form and materiality: propositions for a new approach to interaction design research[END_REF] and device shape dimension (magenta sector in Figure 1). Secondly, a dimension based on embodied perception and action, in particular TPK-based perception (tactile, proprioceptive and kinesthetic), meets requirements related to performance (RU1, RU4), awareness (RU2) and degraded context (RU5, RS2). They are grouped in the cyan sector in Figure 1. A third dimension of programmability, even for physical objects, follows current development toward providing more dynamic software-based contextual information (RI1, RU2). Here, cost-effective (RI2) interface components show a high degree of configurability (RI3) and adaptability (RS3). This is represented in yellow in Figure 1. The three resulting dimensions, that is shape, embodied perception and action, and programmability, are used below to review the state of the art.

Device Shape Properties

Current digital technologies offer good support for some perception senses, particularly visual perception. However, the use of flat input surfaces implies missing tactile, proprioceptive and kinesthetic (TPK) properties. In contrast, former analog systems used such properties as eyes-free interaction and graspability (RU4, RS2) to support the transmission of critical information. Physical shapes are also relevant for collaborative and contextual awareness [START_REF] Hornecker | Getting a grip on tangible interaction: a framework on physical space and social interaction[END_REF] (RU2, RU3), particularly during access to distant systems: pilots are able to perceive a changed position for a salient device more easily than a change on a distant display area. Non-flat shapes have thus been explored in previous works, with a focus on either input or output. Cubtile [START_REF] De La Rivière | CubTile: a multi-touch cubic interface[END_REF] is a cubic input device that enables the manipulation of 3D models. It relies on multitouch and bimanual gestures to close the gap between digital manipulation and its physical counterpart. Touché [START_REF] Sato | Touché: enhancing touch interaction on humans, screens, liquids, and everyday objects[END_REF] enables tactile input on everyday objects through Swept Frequency Capacitive Sensing. Shape transformation can be used as input for example in Gummi [START_REF] Schwesig | Gummi: a bendable computer[END_REF] and Ghost [START_REF]GHOST a collaborative EU project[END_REF] (see Figure 2a). Tangible User Interfaces (TUI) [START_REF] Ullmer | Emerging Frameworks for Tangible User Interfaces[END_REF], use physical objects to interact with digital systems using for instance camera vision, RFID tags or QR codes. However, RS3 challenges tangible devices as mobile and potentially dangerous projectiles. Even vertical and adhesive devices such as [START_REF] Leitner | Geckos: combining magnets and pressure images to enable new tangibleobject design and interaction[END_REF] (magnetic adhesion) or Vertibles [START_REF] Hennecke | Vertibles: using vacuum self-adhesion to create a tangible user interface for arbitrary interactive surfaces[END_REF] and Tuna DJ Gear (vacuum adhesion) (see Figure 2b) are difficult to certify as safely attached objects. Tilt Displays [START_REF] Alexander | Tilt Displays: designing display surfaces with multi-axis tilting and actuation[END_REF] is a 3D reshapable display surface made of a collection of individual display components each of which can tilt along one or more axes and move vertically up and down, adapting its shape to the context (RI3, RU5). The Emirai cockpit concept of Mitsubishi, shown in Figure 3b, provides both non-flat graspable input capabilities through a non-developable curved interactive surface and dynamic output through physical non-flat buttons. inform, shown in Figure 3a, is a Dynamic Shape Display that can render digital information physically (RS2, RU5).

Embodied perception and action

Interaction may benefit from a better use of universal human perceptive channels by being able to rely on non-visual information in case of degraded visibility or extreme lighting conditions (RU5, RS2). This approach may also improve performance (RU4) and directness (RU1), in order to provide multimodal information. Fusion of this information is a major factor in enhancing perceptive precision [START_REF] Graziano | Coding the location of the arm by sight[END_REF][START_REF] Sober | Multisensory integration during motor planning[END_REF] and motor control [START_REF] Prablanc | Optimal response of eye and hand motor systems in pointing at a visual target[END_REF][START_REF] Rossetti | Vectorial coding of movement: vision, proprioception, or both[END_REF].

Artificial Haptic Stimulation

Haptic stimulations may be achieved through different devices. Force-feedback and tactile devices address kinesthetic and tactile perceptions respectively. Reverse electrovibration [START_REF] Bau | REVEL: tactile feedback technology for augmented reality[END_REF] provides haptic feedback on any object. Perceptions are differentiated by frequency and force capabilities. Today, one of the challenges associated with these artificial stimulations is integrating both these components in a single efficient device. This association should ensure high dexterity for operators by using all the capabilities of their fingers and thus fostering physical skills. This issue is explored for the automotive market by the Happiness project [START_REF]HAPPINESS -Haptic Printed Patterned Interfaces for Sensitive Surfaces[END_REF], a recent European project to develop a smart conformable surface able to offer a large number of tactile sensations.

Tangible Interaction

Tangible interaction principles [START_REF] Dubey | La polyvalence du Rafale ou l'objet total : la relation entre une technologie nouvelle et ses utilisateurs[END_REF][START_REF] Hornecker | Getting a grip on tangible interaction: a framework on physical space and social interaction[END_REF], which consist in the reuse of physical space and objects for interaction, apply to the design of the interactive cockpit, as shown in [START_REF] Nomura | The uses of paper in commercial airline flight operations[END_REF]. Analyses such as [START_REF] Klemmer | How bodies matter: five themes for interaction design[END_REF] explain why tangible interaction results in better performance (RU4) and [START_REF] Hornecker | Getting a grip on tangible interaction: a framework on physical space and social interaction[END_REF] describes how properties such as non-fragmented visibility and performative actions would be particularly suited for the cooperation between pilots (RU3).

Semiotic Gestures

Interaction metaphors on touchscreens are generally inspired by physical manipulations. Actually combining these solutions with semiotic gestures could be relevant for awareness (RU3) (RU4) by interacting without obstructing the view of the other pilot, relying on eye-free interaction and non-fragmented visibility. Gestures may also be used to provide embodied proprioceptive perception: based on [START_REF] Vernier | MultiTouch Widgets[END_REF], we conducted a preliminary exploration for multi-finger interaction on a tactile surface to implement guarded or complex actions for the Primary Flight Display and Navigation Display (RU4).

Imaginary Interfaces

Palm-based interfaces, as demonstrated in [START_REF] Gustafson | Understanding palm-based imaginary interfaces: the role of visual and tactile cues when browsing[END_REF], combine finger tip and palm perception to perform efficient interactions such as selection (RU1, RU4), even in blind or poor light conditions (RU5). Furthermore, they are accessible and non-detachable (RS3). A challenging application could be to let a pilot use their palm and fingers as an embodied interface to select a value, e.g a frequency or a heading, using gestures camera-based detection.

Virtual and Physical Programmability

Software-based components bring industrial benefits related to cost (RI2, RI3) and provide both rich contextual information and feedback (RU2). For instance, SVS PFD display is a synthetic geographical 3D view that merges aircraft and navigation data to reduce perceptual distance (RU1). Advanced technologies [such as …] now let hardware elements show the same degree of contextual dynamicity. Organic User Interfaces (OUI) [START_REF] Rasmussen | Shape-changing interfaces: a review of the design space and open research questions[END_REF][START_REF] Vertegaal | Introduction[END_REF] is an emerging paradigm bringing physical dynamicity where: input equals output; function equals form; form follows flow [START_REF] Holman | Organic User Interfaces: Designing Computers in Any Way, Shape, or Form[END_REF]. Selfactuated flexible devices adapt their shapes to offer better affordance such as Morphees [START_REF] Roudaut | Morphees: Toward High Shape Resolution in Self-Actuated Flexible Mobile Devices[END_REF]. The development of flexible displays technology promise many advances in the short term and hence future integration in (Figure 4a). A possible exploration could be for instance to associate different display modes according to distinct bendings of the HUD.

Organic User interfaces

Smart Material Interfaces

Smart Material Interfaces (SMI) [START_REF] Vyas | Smart material interfaces: a new form of physical interaction[END_REF] take advantage of recent generations of engineered materials that have capabilities of dynamically altering physical properties such as shape, texture and colour. SMI explore how to use material properties as programmable features for enhancing interaction. As opposed to tangible interfaces, where coherence might be an issue, especially for (RU5), they exhibit a coherent information space [START_REF] Minuto | Smart Material Interfaces: A Vision[END_REF]. SMI can for instance change their shape as in uniMorph [START_REF] Heibeck | uniMorph -Fabricating Thin-Film Composites for Shape-Changing Interfaces[END_REF] (see Figure 4b) or change their physical texture in GelTouch [START_REF] Miruchna | GelTouch: Localized Tactile Feedback Through Thin, Programmable Gel[END_REF].

Design Principles

The design properties from this analysis are summarized in the diagram of Figure 1, where we aim at relating them to both a given design dimension and our aeronautical requirements. This mapping results in a set of design principles (e.g: favor physical skills), where requirements (e.g RU1 direct localization) are related to properties observed in the related technology or modality (e.g proprioceptive perception). What we illustrate through this diagram, is how using an analysis of the related work framed

RU2 -Situational awareness

à Contextual awareness: build on the potential (a common) physical space. à Contextual information: build on physical and software dynamicity to comply with awareness needs

RU3 -Collaborative awareness

à Comprehensibility: can be achieved through the properties of non-fragmented visibility and performative actions as analysed by [START_REF] Holman | Organic User Interfaces: Designing Computers in Any Way, Shape, or Form[END_REF] in tangible and embodied interaction. à Contextual information: (see R. à Avoid dangerous projectiles: better achieved with safely attached objects; this contrasts with the major part of TUIs that could become dangerous projectiles.

RS2 -Resilience

à Alternative modes: relies on dynamicity or graspability, which is according to Fitzmaurice [13] one of the most fundamental property in tangible interaction. à Resilience: achievable through the accessibility and availability of body parts. à Internationalization: basic human sensorial perception are generic, so that there is no need to adapt the user interfaces.

RS3 -Availability

-

RI2 -Engineering

à Cost effective, reusable and programmable: thanks to genericity.

à Fewer training: (same as internationalization).

à Internationalization: the need to anticipate for internationalization may decrease when using basic human sensorial perception.

à Reusable shapes: structure enabling manufacturers to reuse a device in different program lines.

à Customer needs: compliance to customer à Modularity: relies in the context on the dynamic composition possibility offered for instance by large interactive surfaces.

better visibility of non-flat objects in the genericity, and flexible physical structure, i.e. the through explicit requirements helped us, in the case of the "touch screen safety problem", to formulate relevant design principles. Although emerging from this mapping in the context of a specific dimension, design principles can be taken as general, and this generality will enable to explore and reformulate them in each of the three design dimensions.

In Table 1, we summarize the resulting design principles, sorted by requirement, and detail them.

DISCUSSION

In the present exploration, interactions properties are mapped back to the requirements, that have helped to frame the design space into three dimensions. This allows some traceability, that is indeed supported through the diagram of Figure 1 and Table 1: we know where design properties come from, as we know which requirement is translated in which design principle, based on which properties.

In this paper, we adopt a design research approach where technological breakthroughs are anticipated, but are not a goal per se. This might seem contradictory with our concrete goal of informing the design of future cockpits. However, aeronautics have a singular relationship to innovation in user interaction. Its safety requirements often lead to the identification of new questions, and to innovations that can be later generalized to other application domains. But the same safety constraints require verifications and adaptations that can delay the adoption of these innovations. For both reasons, it is important to focus on safety issues as early as possible, because "embedding" safety concerns early in the designs can be less costly than adapting designs later.

Our aim is, through a structured exploration of the design space associated with our "touch-safety" problem, to get a better understanding of what adding "physicality" would mean in the context of the touch-based cockpit. A first insight on this question is that we cannot limit our exploration to a single interaction paradigm through a linear process. We need to bring each of them face to face, which is the purpose of having three dimensions that enables us to cross-fertilize design principles. Through this exploration, we hope to explore two types of designs: firstly, those produced by a reembodiment process aimed at better leveraging humanenvironment interaction skills in existing interactions; secondly, new interactions, at a physical level, such as enabling to program physical objects or the way we perceive them.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

In this paper, we provide a three-dimensional design space and we identify a set of design principles for touch-based and tangible-embodied interaction in the cockpit. Our objective in the AIRTIUS research project 1 is to iteratively both, design and evaluate flight deck device prototypes (TRL 4 -5) -hence safety (RS*) and industrial (RI*) constraints -and refine our requirements. We will start with the participatory design of demonstrators that explore and combine described features in order to produce new interaction techniques, and as a mean to better understand pilot needs. _________ 1. !AIRTIUS, an ANR research project, www.airtius.net

INPUT

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2 : (a) Ghost (generic, highly-organic shape-changing interfaces); (b) Tuna knobs

OUTPUT

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3 : (a) inFORM MIT Media lab; (b) Emirai Mitsubishi

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4 : (a) LG Flexible OLED; (b) Unimorph

RU1-

  Direct localization perception Reachability: through the physical reachability of the body parts. à à Easy and direct access: build on the potential physical space. à Favor physical skills: r i mo e easily atta ned through bodily capacities such as bimanuality, proprioception, the use of the body to constrain actions and spatial physical knowledge à Reduce perceptual distance: a synthetized view of the situation helps a better localization.

à

  U.2) à Shared visibility: build on the potential better visibility of non-flat objects in physical space -RU4 -Operational Performance à Coherence physical-digital. à End-user customisation à Favor physical skills: (see R.U.1). à Not too much focus. Perceptible feedback: directly available à Shape & relief expressivity: à for example, enables to provide only relevant information to the pilots. RU5 -Usability in degraded context à : Degraded context coping with degraded context more easily achievable through the reachability and availability of body parts. à Coherence physical-digital à Robustness RS1 -Safety-Critical System à Adapted constraints: from physical and software dynamicity.

à

  Availability given phase of flight: (see R.U.1). à Availability: availability to the hands through graspability. relies on dynamicity. à Easy and direct access: (see R.U.1) à Moveability: relies in the cockpit context on the dynamic composition possibility offered for instance by large interactive surfaces.-RI1 -Dynamicity and adaptabilityà Adaptability: builds either on dynamicity, property of a technology to offer the shape and the geometry of the interactive device as a design property.