F Poblete

G Dupont-Nivet

A Licht

D J J Van Hinsbergen

P Roperch

M G Mihalynuk

S T Johnston

F Guillocheau

G Baby

F Fluteau

C Robin

T J M Van

Der Linden

D Ruiz

M L J Baatsen

Van Hinsbergen

Van Der Linden

Towards interactive global paleogeographic maps, new reconstructions at 60, 40 and 20 Ma

Keywords: Paleogeographic maps, Paleoelevation, Cenozoic, Eocene-Oligocene transition, Tibetan-Himalayan orogen, paleoclimate

Journal Pre-proof

Paleogeographic maps are essential tools for understanding Earth system dynamics. They provide boundary conditions for climate and geodynamic modelling, for analysing surface processes and biotic interactions. However, the temporal and spatial distribution of key features such as seaways and mountain belts that govern climate changes and biotic interchange differ between various paleogeographies that require regular updates with new data and models. We developed a reproducible and systematic approach to paleogeographic reconstruction and provide a set of worldwide Cenozoic paleogeographic maps at 60, 40 and 20 Ma. We followed a six-stage methodology that integrates an extensive review of geological data into a coherent plate tectonic model using the open source software GPlates.

(1) We generated a global plate kinematic model, and reconstructed intensely-deformed plate boundaries using a review of structural, paleomagnetic and other geologic data in six key regions: the Andes, the North American Cordillera, the Scotia Arc, Africa, the Mediterranean region and the Tibetan-Himalayan collision zone. (2) We modified previously published paleobathymetry in several regions where continental and oceanic crust overlap due to differences in the plate models. (3) We then defined paleoshorelines using updated fossil and geologic databases to locate the terrestrial to marine transition. (4) We applied isostatic compensation in polar regions and global eustatic sea level adjustments. (5) Paleoelevations were estimated using a broad range of data including thermochronology and stable isotopes, combined with paleobotanical (mostly pollen and leaf physiognomy), structural and geomorphological data. We address ongoing controversies on the mechanisms and chronology of India-Asia collision by providing alternate reconstructions for each time slice.

We finally discuss the implications of our reconstructions on the Cenozoic evolution of continental weatherability and review methodological limitations and potential improvements. Future addition of new data, tools and reconstructions can be accommodated through a dedicated interactive website tool (https://map.paleoenvironment.eu/) that enables J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof users to interactively upload and download data and compare with other models, and generate their own plots. Our aim is to regularly update the models presented here with new data as they become available.

I Introduction

Paleogeographic reconstructions relay the current understanding of geodynamic and plate tectonic processes that have shaped Earth's surface, influencing global climate and biotic evolution. Plate tectonics control the opening and closure of ocean gateways, modulating the development or decline of ocean currents, influencing water mass and heat transport between the oceans and the heat exchange between the ocean and the atmosphere (e.g. [START_REF] Barker | Scotia Sea regional tectonic evolution: implications for mantle flow and palaeocirculation[END_REF][START_REF] Munday | The role of ocean gateways in the dynamics and sensitivity to wind stress of the early Antarctic Circumpolar Current[END_REF][START_REF] Scher | Onset of Antarctic Circumpolar Current 30 million years ago as Tasmanian Gateway aligned with westerlies[END_REF]. Collision and rifting generate mountain ranges providing rain-shadows, diverting trade and anti-trade winds, or as elevated temperature source modulating atmospheric circulation cells and monsoons (e.g. [START_REF] Ehlers | Influence of Andean uplift on climate and paleoaltimetry estimates[END_REF][START_REF] Licht | Impact of the North American monsoon on J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof isotope paleoaltimeters: Implications for the paleoaltimetry of the American southwest[END_REF][START_REF] Si | Decadal change in the correlation pattern between the Tibetan Plateau winter snow and the East Asian summer precipitation during 1979-2011[END_REF][START_REF] Wheeler | Late Cenozoic surface uplift of the southern Sierra Nevada (California, USA): A paleoclimate perspective on leeside stable isotope paleoaltimetry[END_REF]. Geodynamic and surface processes also play a fundamental role in the carbon cycle through modulation of CO 2 emissions, through atmospheric CO 2 -consuming metamorphic or silicate weathering reactions, or through organic carbon sequestration with delivery of erosional nutrient to marine domains of high primary productivity (e.g. [START_REF] Berner | GEOCARB III: a revised model of atmospheric CO2 over Phanerozoic time[END_REF][START_REF] Goddéris | The role of palaeogeography in the Phanerozoic history of atmospheric CO2 and climate[END_REF][START_REF] Karl | Modern global climate change[END_REF][START_REF] Larsen | The contribution of mountains to global denudation[END_REF][START_REF] Lasaga | An improved geochemical model of atmospheric CO2 fluctuations over the past 100 million years. The carbon cycle and atmospheric CO2: natural variations Archean to present[END_REF][START_REF] Royer | CO2 as a primary driver of phanerozoic climate[END_REF][START_REF] Stephens | An update on Earth's energy balance in light of the latest global observations[END_REF][START_REF] Sternai | Driving the upper plate surface deformation by slab rollback and mantle flow[END_REF]. In addition, the long-recognized impact of continental break-up, drift and collision on the radiation of species (e.g. [START_REF] Clyde | Stratigraphic response and mammalian dispersal during initial India-Asia collision: Evidence from the Ghazij Formation, Balochistan, Pakistan[END_REF][START_REF] Dalziel | The Scotia Arc: genesis, evolution, global significance[END_REF][START_REF] Wegener | The origin of continents and oceans, 4th ed[END_REF], has, owing to the increasing utilization of phylogenetic approaches, developed more recently into fields of research on understanding of the interplay between biotic evolution, climate and paleogeography (e.g. [START_REF] Lieberman | Paleobiogeography: The Relevance of Fossils to Biogeography[END_REF].

This study focuses on the Cenozoic era for which reconstructing past environmental conditions has become crucial to constrain and calibrate model predictions of future climate and biodiversity changes. Indeed, continuously rising modern CO 2 levels necessitate exploration of deeper time to find analogous conditions and global response to high [START_REF] Bird | An updated digital model of plate boundaries[END_REF] J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f blocks expressed as rotation parameters (latitude, longitude, angle); and (2) the global reference frame for the plate circuit that can be either based on paleomagnetic data assuming a geocentric axial dipole (for paleoclimatic or biological purposes) or based on hotspot tracks assuming a fixed hotspot assumption or moving mantle (for geodynamic purposes; [START_REF] Boyden | Next-generation plate-tectonic reconstructions using GPlates[END_REF]Van Hinsbergen et al., 2015). In our reconstructions using GPlates, rotations of tectonic plates are expressed relative to South Africa so that changing global reference frames can be accomplished by simply changing the motion of South Africa [START_REF] Torsvik | Global plate motion frames: Toward a unified model[END_REF] with respect to the preferred global reference frame. We use the paleomagnetic reference frame from [START_REF] Torsvik | Phanerozoic polar wander, palaeogeography and dynamics[END_REF] although growing evidence suggests that this reference frame may be less robust for the Eocene than for the Paleocene time [START_REF] Westerweel | Burma Terrane part of the Trans-Tethyan arc during collision with India according to palaeomagnetic data[END_REF].

As per [START_REF] Baatsen | Reconstructing geographical boundary conditions for palaeoclimate modelling during the Cenozoic[END_REF], the global plate rotation model provided by [START_REF] Seton | Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma[END_REF] is used as a first-order reconstruction of the main plates. We then modified this original model by integrating with GPlates a selection of previously published regional plate models providing detailed reconstructions of various orogenic zones (Fig. 2) including the Andes and the Caribbean (a, b and c in Fig. 2i, [START_REF] Arriagada | The Maipo Orocline: A first scale structural feature in the Miocene to Recent geodynamic evolution in the central Chilean Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Arriagada | Paleogene building of the Bolivian Orocline: Tectonic restoration of the central Andes in 2-D map view[END_REF][START_REF] Boschman | Kinematic reconstruction of the Caribbean region since the Early Jurassic[END_REF][START_REF] Eagles | Tectonic reconstructions for paleobathymetry in Drake Passage[END_REF][START_REF] Poblete | Late Cretaceous-early Eocene counterclockwise rotation of the Fueguian Andes and evolution of the Patagonia-Antarctic Peninsula system[END_REF][START_REF] Poblete | The curved Magallanes fold and thrust belt: Tectonic insights from a paleomagnetic and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility study: Tectonic Rotations Magallanes[END_REF][START_REF] Poblete | Paleomagnetism and tectonics of the South Shetland Islands and the northern Antarctic Peninsula[END_REF][START_REF] Schepers | South-American plate advance and forced Andean trench retreat as drivers for transient flat subduction episodes[END_REF], the North American Cordillera (d, and e in Fig. 2i, Henderson et al., 2014;[START_REF] Mcquarrie | An animated tectonic reconstruction of southwestern North America since 36 Ma[END_REF], the Mediterranean and Anatolia (f in Fig. 2i, [START_REF] Gürer | Diachronous demise of the Neotethys Ocean as a driver for non-cylindrical orogenesis in Anatolia[END_REF]Van Hinsbergen et al., 2020;Van Hinsbergen et al., 2014;[START_REF] Van Hinsbergen | Map view restoration of Aegean-West Anatolian accretion and extension since the Eocene[END_REF], the Arabia-Eurasia and Tibetan-Himalayan collision zones (g, h in Fig. 2.i, [START_REF] Mcquarrie | Retrodeforming the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone: Age of collision versus magnitude of continental subduction[END_REF][START_REF] Van Hinsbergen | Reconstructing Greater India: Paleogeographic, kinematic, and geodynamic perspectives[END_REF], and finally the Banda Arc zone (I in Fig. 2.i, [START_REF] Spakman | Surface deformation and slab-mantle interaction during Banda arc subduction rollback[END_REF][START_REF] Tate | Reconciling regional continuity with local variability in structure, uplift and exhumation of the Timor orogen[END_REF][START_REF] Tate | Australia going down under: Quantifying continental subduction during arccontinent accretion in Timor-Leste[END_REF]. The combination of these models is referred to as the "Poblete rotation model" which extends back to 60 Ma and is provided in the supplementary data. In the N, NW, and SW Pacific regions we used the original plate model of [START_REF] Seton | Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma[END_REF] without incorporating more recent modifications addressing the J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof complex subduction and deformation histories of the area, including the accretion of several terranes which are not depicted in our reconstructions [START_REF] Domeier | Intraoceanic subduction spanned the Pacific in the Late Cretaceous-Paleocene[END_REF][START_REF] Vaes | Reconstruction of Subduction and Back-Arc Spreading in the NW Pacific and Aleutian Basin: Clues to Causes of Cretaceous and Eocene Plate Reorganizations[END_REF][START_REF] Van De Lagemaat | Southwest Pacific Absolute Plate Kinematic Reconstruction Reveals Major Cenozoic Tonga-Kermadec Slab Dragging[END_REF].

Small continental blocks in orogenic regions are often depicted using polylines instead of polygons in previous reconstructions using GPlates, which simplifies changing their shape through time; or topological lines (Gurnis et al., 2018) which can be used to show lithospheric deformation parameters. A polygon overlay is the standard method used to "cut" raster topography in the process of creating paleotopography (see "Paleotopography" below). [START_REF] Müller | A Global Plate Model Including Lithospheric Deformation Along Major Rifts and Orogens Since the Triassic[END_REF] presented a global plate model where plate deformation is explicitly shown; however, this model cannot be used as a starting point for our approach because the deformed area is not constrained by static polygons and the topography cannot be cut and restored to past positions. We therefore created, for each considered age step, static polygon shapes that match as much as possible the lines in the original tectonic models and derived rotations for each of these static polygons using GPlates. For example, in the Basin and Range we developed a simplified version of [START_REF] Mcquarrie | An animated tectonic reconstruction of southwestern North America since 36 Ma[END_REF] while in the Central Andes we used the tectonic model of [START_REF] Arriagada | Paleogene building of the Bolivian Orocline: Tectonic restoration of the central Andes in 2-D map view[END_REF].

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f A) Compilation of tectonic models used in our reconstructions. i-ix are the location of the tectonic models (see section II.1 "Plate tectonic models" for more information). B) K/Ar, 39 Ar/ 40 Ar and U-Pb Geochronology compilation of magmatic rocks [START_REF] Breitsprecher | BCAge 2004A-1-a database of isotopic age determinations for rock units from British Columbia[END_REF][START_REF] Chapman | Tibetan Magmatism Database[END_REF][START_REF] Trumbull | The Time-Space Distribution of Cenozoic Volcanism in the South-Central Andes: a New Data Compilation and Some Tectonic Implications[END_REF]; http://www.navdat.org, Hervé et al., 2007, among others); the vertical colour scale is of time in Ma. C) Compilation of thermochronological data [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF]this study). D) Paleoelevation compilation [START_REF] Botsyun | Impacts of Tibetan Plateau uplift on atmospheric dynamics and associated precipitation δ 18 O[END_REF][START_REF] Chamberlain | The Cenozoic climatic and topographic evolution of J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof the western North American Cordillera[END_REF]this study). E) and F) terrestrial and marine fossil database (www.paleobiodb.org, time span of data 160-0 Ma).

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f II.2 Paleobathymetry

To reconstruct the paleobathymetry we used the digital grids provided by Müller et al. (2008a) and available at http://www.earthbyte.org. These files are ASCII files in 1 Myr intervals and in the format of longitude, latitude, age, depth-to-basement and bathymetry. We extracted the paleobathymetry column from the original file in Müller et al. (2008a) and converted the ASCII file into a netCDF grid with a resolution of 6 minutes (GMT command xyz2grd). Combining the paleobathymetry reconstructions of Müller et al. (2008a) with our deformed continental polygons generated some overlaps. We erased these overlaps by cutting the paleobathymetry using a mask of the continental ocean boundaries (COBs, [START_REF] Seton | Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma[END_REF], which correspond to the limit between the continental and oceanic crust. In the particular case of the Greater Indian Basin (Van Hinsbergen et al., 2012) we use the general depth-age relationship [START_REF] Baatsen | Reconstructing geographical boundary conditions for palaeoclimate modelling during the Cenozoic[END_REF] to convert a set of created isochrons, by considering symmetric spreading between 120 and 60 Ma, into paleobathymetry; in the case of the Neo-Tethys we represented microcontinental blocks as submerged plateaus shown by the tectonic models (see sections IV to VI). We have also combined our paleotopographies at 60, 40 and 20 Ma, with the recently published paleobathymetry from [START_REF] Straume | Global Cenozoic Paleobathymetry with a focus on the Northern Hemisphere Oceanic Gateways[END_REF] (see supplementary data).

II.3 Paleoshoreline

Defining paleoshoreline maps is a crucial step in the construction of paleogeographic maps.

Previous compilations (e.g. [START_REF] Heine | Evaluating global paleoshoreline models for the Cretaceous and Cenozoic[END_REF], produced a set of Cretaceous and Cenozoic paleoshoreline maps from the two global paleogeographic atlases of [START_REF] Smith | Atlas of Mesozoic and Cenozoic coastlines[END_REF] and [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF]. We used the paleoshoreline maps from [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF], based on their better global consistency as noted by [START_REF] Heine | Evaluating global paleoshoreline models for the Cretaceous and Cenozoic[END_REF]. [START_REF] Heine | Evaluating global paleoshoreline models for the Cretaceous and Cenozoic[END_REF] provided

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof each atlas as a shapefile in present day coordinates. In order to restore the paleoshoreline through time we have integrated these paleoshorelines in GPlates by dividing the shorelines into polygons, following the tectonic blocks defined in our plate tectonic model. At each time slice, we have then modified these paleoshorelines according to marine vs. terrestrial fossil data reported from www.paleobiodb.org. In some of the reconstructed regions, we have further constrained paleoshorelines, by comparing it with depositional environments (i.e. marine vs. terrestrial sediments) of the age at the time of the reconstruction provided by regional geological maps (e.g. [START_REF] Akhmetiev | Paleocene and Eocene floras of Russia and adjacent regions: Climatic conditions of their development[END_REF][START_REF] Barrier | Paleotectonic reconstruction of the central tethyan realm. tectonono-sedimentary-palinspastic maps from late Permian to Pliocene[END_REF][START_REF] Caminos | Mapa geológico de la República Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Dercourt | Peri-Tethys Atlas[END_REF][START_REF] Gómez | Atlas Geológico de Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Kaya | Paleogene evolution and demise of the proto-Paratethys Sea in Central Asia (Tarim and Tajik basins): Role of intensified tectonic activity at ca. 41 Ma[END_REF][START_REF] Olivero | Mesozoic-Cenozoic stratigraphy of the Fuegian Andes, Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Scotese | Plate tectonic reconstructions of the Cretaceous and Cenozoic ocean basins[END_REF][START_REF] Sempere | Stratigraphy and chronology of Upper Cretaceous-lower Paleogene strata in Bolivia and northwest Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Sernageomin | Mapa Geológico de Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Slattery | Early Cretaceous to Paleocene paleogeography of the Western Interior Seaway: the interaction of eustasy and tectonism[END_REF][START_REF] Swezey | Cenozoic stratigraphy of the Sahara, Northern Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Thiéblemont | Geological Map of Africa at 1: 10M scale[END_REF]. Note that large lakes are not taken into account in our reconstructions. Resulting updated paleoshorelines are available in the supplementary data.

II.4 Paleotopography

II.4.1 Datasets

Paleotopographic datasets were integrated in GPlates (Fig. 2ii,iii,iv,v,vi;supplementary data) and include quantitative (stable isotopic, paleobotanical) and qualitative (thermochronologic, geochronologic, and geologic) data.

Analysis of stable oxygen isotope ratios in paleosols can be used to quantitatively estimate past elevation changes (e.g. [START_REF] Poage | Stable isotopic evidence for a Pre-Middle Miocene rain shadow in the western Basin and Range: Implications for the paleotopography of the Sierra Nevada[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Geodynamics of a Cordilleran Orogenic System: The Central Andes of Argentina and Northern Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Rowley | A new approach to stable isotope-based paleoaltimetry: implications for paleoaltimetry and paleohypsometry of the High Himalaya since the Late Miocene[END_REF]. Stable isotope paleoaltimetry is a mature technique based on the fractionation of oxygen isotopes in an air-cell with elevation gain [START_REF] Botsyun | Impacts of Tibetan Plateau uplift on atmospheric dynamics and associated precipitation δ 18 O[END_REF][START_REF] Rowley | Stable Isotope-Based Paleoaltimetry[END_REF]. Here we supplement such paleoaltimetry with estimates based on paleoflora J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof and palynological data. Biotic paleoaltimetry relies on identifying past elevation and temperature based on nearest living relatives, or on paleoenvironmental data obtained from fossil plant physiognomy [START_REF] Gregory-Wodzicki | Relationships between leaf morphology and climate, Bolivia: implications for estimating paleoclimate from fossil floras[END_REF][START_REF] Hoorn | A late Eocene palynological record of climate change and Tibetan Plateau uplift (Xining Basin, China)[END_REF][START_REF] Spicer | Phytopaleoaltimetry: using plant fossils to measure past land surface elevation[END_REF][START_REF] Utescher | The Coexistence Approach-theoretical background and practical considerations of using plant fossils for climate quantification[END_REF]. The accuracy of these approaches varies depending on the orogen and are discussed for each region in Part III.

Quantitative thermochronologic methods record the thermal evolution of rocks based on estimating the time elapsed since the rock cooled below the closure temperature of various radio-isotopic systems [START_REF] Lisker | Apatite thermochronology in modern geology[END_REF][START_REF] Peyton | An Introduction to Low-temperature Thermochronologic Techniques, Methodology, and Applications[END_REF][START_REF] Reiners | Using thermochronology to understand orogenic erosion[END_REF]. At a given geothermal gradient, temperatures are then converted to depth such that the age and rate of exhumation of a rock (rock uplift) through the closure temperature can be estimated. Thermochronology does directly not constrain surface paleoelevation; however, its integration with geomorphological and structural data (for example, with the extent of planation surfaces and tectonic activity) can be used to qualitatively estimate surface paleoelevations (e.g [START_REF] Carrapa | Regional exhumation and kinematic history of the central Andes in response to cyclical orogenic processes[END_REF]Japsen et al., 2012a;[START_REF] Rohrmann | Thermochronologic evidence for plateau formation in central Tibet by 45 Ma[END_REF]. We relied mostly on the database compiled by [START_REF] Herman | Worldwide acceleration of mountain erosion under a cooling climate[END_REF] with additional thermochronological studies in various regions. When possible, we sought additional geomorphic information through inspection of the original publications and/or in additional references to better constrain paleoelevation estimates. Finally, we used an extensive compilation of geochronological data of igneous rocks that do not provide direct paleoelevation estimates but cover wide regions with no paleotopographic information. When associated with petrological and structural data, this compilation allowed us to reconstruct the location and magmatic style of past volcanic arcs, for which we made inferences on the elevation based on modern analogues. For example, geochronological and isotopic data from igneous rocks in southern Lhasa [START_REF] Wen | Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb ages of the Gangdese Batholith and implications for Neotethyan subduction in southern Tibet[END_REF][START_REF] Zhu | The Lhasa Terrane: Record of a microcontinent and its histories of drift and J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof growth[END_REF] and Central Andes [START_REF] Haschke | Central and Southern Andean Tectonic Evolution Inferred from Arc Magmatism[END_REF] indicate the presence of a narrow and rectilinear Andean-type arc J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof during late Cretaceous-Paleogene times. As there is no paleoaltimetry data for these two arcs, we attributed them paleoelevation similar to modern Andean-type arcs (with values around 500 to 2500m) taking into account the tectonic setting and paleoelevation evolution.

II.4.2 Isostatic compensation in polar regions and global eustatic sea level adjustments

We considered a simplified model in which the topography at the poles only depends on the presence, extent, and thickness of ice sheets and their associated isostatic effects. We first created a modified modern topography for Greenhouse conditions (without ice-sheet; 60 and 40 Ma) by compensating isostatically the loss of the ice masses in Greenland, as done in [START_REF] Baatsen | Reconstructing geographical boundary conditions for palaeoclimate modelling during the Cenozoic[END_REF]. Several recent studies have shown that additional vertical motion is induced on the margins of Greenland when glacial erosion is considered [START_REF] Medvedev | Erosion-driven vertical motions of the circum Arctic: Comparative analysis of modern topography[END_REF][START_REF] Straume | Global Cenozoic Paleobathymetry with a focus on the Northern Hemisphere Oceanic Gateways[END_REF]. The free-ice isostatic compensation used here should thus be considered as a first order approach of Greenland's paleotopography (a combination of our paleotopography at 60 Ma and 40 Ma, with the recent published Greenland paleotopography from [START_REF] Straume | Global Cenozoic Paleobathymetry with a focus on the Northern Hemisphere Oceanic Gateways[END_REF] can be found in the supplementary data). To obtain the topography for Icehouse conditions in Antarctica (with ice-sheets; 20 Ma), we used the same ice thickness as today, although we allowed the areal extension of the ice-sheets to vary (see section IV.3.1). The chronology of ice-sheet development in Greenland is debated [START_REF] Bernard | Evidence for Eocene-Oligocene glaciation in the landscape of the East Greenland margin[END_REF][START_REF] Coxall | Rapid stepwise onset of Antarctic glaciation and deeper calcite compensation in the Pacific Ocean[END_REF][START_REF] Deconto | Thresholds for Cenozoic bipolar glaciation[END_REF][START_REF] Lear | Cooling and ice growth across the Eocene-Oligocene transition[END_REF][START_REF] Liu | Global cooling during the Eocene-Oligocene climate transition[END_REF]; we thus model no Greenland ice at 60 and 40 Ma and an ice sheet similar to today at 20 Ma.

Finally, we adjusted the topography for sea level changes using the eustatic sea-level curve of Müller et al. (2008b) so that the past topographies are given with respect to paleo-sea levels:

+94.7m at 60Ma., +73.3m at 40 Ma and +65.7m at 20 Ma.

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

The next step was to reconstruct topographic data from their modern location to their paleogeographic location at a given age. This was achieved using GPlates to cut the modern topography using the polygons of tectonic blocks (as defined in section II.1 and Fig. 2A) and rotate these blocks including their topography at the desired time and position. Then, we exported this data into a netCDF file.

The following steps were applied to modify the topography of all regions and are illustrated in figure 3 for South America. (A) The first step was to create a mask with "1" values inside the COB (the boundary between the oceanic and continental crust, Seton et la., 2012) and "NaN" values outside those limits, such that multiplying or dividing topographic values of any map with the mask values only yields values for locations within the COB. (B) We then used a surface interpolation implemented in GMT (Fig. 3B, "blockmean" and "surface" commands in GMT) to correct the gaps that arose from restoring shortening between individual polygons. (C) Then, we separated land and sea regions by creating a mask using paleoshorelines modified with updated fossil and geological data (blue line in Fig. 3C), which resulted in two areas, one that should be below sea level and one that should be above sea level (Fig. 3C). All emerged regions located seaward of the paleoshoreline (Fig. 3C) were transformed to end up below sea level using a linear equation defined by the initial minimum and maximum altitude (Zmin and Zmax) of these areas (obtained by using the 'grdinfo' command in GMT) and the final minimum and maximum altitude (Z'min and Z'max) defined by the user (see next step). Z values that were already below sea level are not modified. We used the same procedure for the region landward the paleoshoreline. We obtained a paleotopography in which all the values seaward/landward the paleoshoreline are below/above sea level, but with no major changes in the topography (Fig. 3D). (D) The next J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof step was to modify the values above sea level according to geological constraints. To do that we first defined a set of masks in areas that were required to be modified with respect to the present day topography (Fig. 3E, numbers 1 to 7). It is important to notice that the mask covered a much wider area than the data used to constrain paleoaltimetry, and in such masked areas there is a high degree of uncertainty (see section IV.2 for a discussion). To modify the topography over each region, we interpolated linearly between the initial minimum and maximum altitude ( min and max) and the final altitudes ( max and min), defined by our review of paleotopographic datasets, resulting in a linear equation in the form in which represents any initial altitude value in the selected region and is the final altitude at that point. m is defined by ( max-min) / ( max-min) and A by solving the equation for max and max (or min and min).

II.4.4 Final blend and Change of reference frame

As stated above, our reconstructions are based on the rotation file of [START_REF] Seton | Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma[END_REF] which uses the moving Indo-Atlantic hotspot reference frame of [START_REF] O'neill | On the uncertainties in hot spot reconstructions and the significance of moving hot spot reference frames[END_REF] as an absolute reference frame. Various global mantle reference frames (e.g. [START_REF] Doubrovine | Absolute plate motions in a reference frame defined by moving hot spots in the Pacific, Atlantic, and Indian oceans[END_REF][START_REF] Torsvik | Global plate motion frames: Toward a unified model[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Meer | Towards absolute plate motions constrained by lower-mantle slab remnants[END_REF] as well as paleomagnetic reference frames (e.g. [START_REF] Besse | Apparent and true polar wander and the geometry of the geomagnetic field over the last 200 Myr: APPARENT AND TRUE POLAR WANDER[END_REF][START_REF] Kent | Influence of inclination error in sedimentary rocks on the Triassic and Jurassic apparent pole wander path for North America and implications for Cordilleran tectonics[END_REF][START_REF] Torsvik | Phanerozoic polar wander, palaeogeography and dynamics[END_REF] are available and users may want to switch between frames. For instance, a paleomagnetic reference frame is appropriate for climate reconstructions since it includes true polar wander [START_REF] Torsvik | Phanerozoic polar wander, palaeogeography and dynamics[END_REF]Van Hinsbergen et al., 2015). Switching between frames [START_REF] Boyden | Next-generation plate-tectonic reconstructions using GPlates[END_REF]Van Hinsbergen et al., 2015) is straightforward, since our GPlates reconstructions are all relative to southern Africa and changing the global reconstruction between frames only requires We focused our work on the main cordilleras, critical zones for paleoclimate models. Other areas received less attention: Australia, Southeast Asia, the western Pacific rim, the Caribbean region, the Mediterranean region, and the NW Pacific and Aleutian basin. For these regions, we used recent tectonic models that were corrected for the paleoshorelines, but the regional paleotopography is mostly based on modern topography (see supplementary data for major data sources and masks used at each reconstruction time). Cenozoic paleogeographic history is marked by the formation of three main orogens: the Himalayan-Alpine system along the Eurasian Plate, and the Andes and the North American Cordillera along the western margins of the americas. The Tibetan-Himalayan orogen and the Central Andes now include the highest plateaus on Earth, with elevations reaching more than 4000 m (Fig. 1). The Cenozoic also witnessed several episodes of oceanic gateway opening and closure, which exerted a major control on oceanic currents [START_REF] Barker | Scotia Sea regional tectonic evolution: implications for mantle flow and palaeocirculation[END_REF][START_REF] Straume | Global Cenozoic Paleobathymetry with a focus on the Northern Hemisphere Oceanic Gateways[END_REF][START_REF] Ladant | Links between CO 2 , glaciation and water flow: reconciling the Cenozoic history of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current[END_REF]2020). In particular, the connection between the Atlantic, Pacific and Indian parts of the Southern Ocean, through the Drake Passage (across the Scotia Arc) and the Tasman Gateway, allowed the development of the Antarctic Circumpolar and Subpolar currents (e.g. [START_REF] Barker | Origin, signature and palaeoclimatic influence of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current[END_REF][START_REF] Ladant | Links between CO 2 , glaciation and water flow: reconciling the Cenozoic history of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current[END_REF][START_REF] Lagabrielle | The tectonic history of Drake Passage and its possible impacts on global climate[END_REF][START_REF] Scher | Onset of Antarctic Circumpolar Current 30 million years ago as Tasmanian Gateway aligned with westerlies[END_REF][START_REF] Williams | Australian-Antarctic breakup and seafloor spreading: Balancing geological and geophysical constraints[END_REF]. The formation of other gateways and straits had an important impact on past global climate, such as the Panama, Bering and Turgai Straits, and the Indonesian passage [START_REF] Akhmetiev | The Paleogene history of the Western Siberian seaway-a connection of the Peri-Tethys to the Arctic ocean[END_REF][START_REF] Ladant | Links between CO 2 , glaciation and water flow: reconciling the Cenozoic history of the Antarctic Circumpolar Current[END_REF]2020;[START_REF] Lunt | The DeepMIP contribution to PMIP4: experimental design for model simulations of the EECO, PETM, and pre-PETM (version 1.0)[END_REF][START_REF] Montes | Middle Miocene closure of the Central American Seaway[END_REF][START_REF] Straume | Global Cenozoic Paleobathymetry with a focus on the Northern Hemisphere Oceanic Gateways[END_REF]. We integrated these changes in a set of Journal Pre-proof as appropriate for paleoclimate or geodynamic studies respectively (Van Hinsbergen et al., 2015). In the following sections, we review and discuss the tectonic setting of selected regions that underwent changes in the Cenozoic widely perceived as critical for global climate. We focused sequentially at 60 Ma, 40 Ma and 20 Ma on the Andes and the Scotia Arc, the Western North American Cordillera, the African and Brazilian shields and the Tibetan-Himalayan orogeny in which we developed different paleogeographies taking into account different models. We also explain how we dealt with ice caps on Antarctic and Greenland and we review the main modifications of paleoshorelines.

III.1 South America

South American Cenozoic tectonics are dominated by the build-up of the Andean cordillera in contrast with the limited evolution of the Brazilian shield. The Andean Cordillera can be followed uninterruptedly from the Caribbean Sea to the Drake Passage, where the Scotia Arc marks the consumptive plate boundary between southernmost Andes and the northern tip of the Antarctic Peninsula (Fig. 4, [START_REF] Dalziel | The Scotia Arc: genesis, evolution, global significance[END_REF]. On a continental scale, the most outstanding feature of the Andean Cordillera are changes in its orientation that define the Bolivian and the Patagonian oroclines (Fig. 4, [START_REF] Arriagada | Paleogene building of the Bolivian Orocline: Tectonic restoration of the central Andes in 2-D map view[END_REF][START_REF] Carey | The tectonic approach to continental drift[END_REF][START_REF] Isacks | Uplift of the central Andean plateau and bending of the Bolivian orocline[END_REF][START_REF] Poblete | The curved Magallanes fold and thrust belt: Tectonic insights from a paleomagnetic and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility study: Tectonic Rotations Magallanes[END_REF][START_REF] Rapalini | A paleomagnetic analysis of the Patagonian Orocline[END_REF]. The Nazca Plate subducts beneath the western margin of central South America along most of its length. Along its northern margin, the South American Plate is juxtaposed with the Caribbean Plate (north) along a contact dominated by strike-slip and reverse faulting [START_REF] Meschede | A plate-tectonic model for the Mesozoic and Early Cenozoic history of the Caribbean plate[END_REF][START_REF] Müller | Chapter 2 New constraints on the late cretaceous/tertiary plate tectonic evolution of the caribbean[END_REF][START_REF] Pindell | Permo-Triassic reconstruction of western Pangea and the evolution of the Gulf of Mexico/Caribbean region[END_REF][START_REF] Pindell | Processes & events in the terrane assembly of Trinidad and E. Venezuela[END_REF]. Offshore of southern Chile, the Western Cordillera; AP, Altiplano Puna; EC, Eastern Cordillera; SA: Sub Andes. (Modified from [START_REF] Mpodozis | Late Mesozoic to Paleogene stratigraphy of the Salar de Atacama Basin, Antofagasta, Northern Chile: Implications for the tectonic evolution of the Central Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Poblete | Late Cretaceous-early Eocene counterclockwise rotation of the Fueguian Andes and evolution of the Patagonia-Antarctic Peninsula system[END_REF][START_REF] Tassara | Relación entre el espesor elástico de la litosfera y la segmentación tectónica del margen andino (15-47 S)[END_REF] )

III.1.1 South America 60 Ma

From Peru to Colombia, the northwestern Andes include a collage of accreted terranes. For example, the Dagua and Piñon Terranes (Fig. 4), are thought to be pieces of an oceanic plateau, the Caribbean Large Igneous Province (CLIP), which collided in the Late Cretaceous [START_REF] Pindell | Tectonic evolution of the Gulf of Mexico, Caribbean and northern South America in the mantle reference frame: an update[END_REF][START_REF] Ramos | Anatomy and global context of the Andes: Main geologic features and the Andean orogenic cycle, in: Backbone of the Americas: Shallow Subduction, Plateau Uplift, and Ridge and Terrane Collision[END_REF][START_REF] Roperch | Rotated oceanic blocks in western Ecuador[END_REF][START_REF] Villagómez | Thermochronology and tectonics of the Central and Western Cordilleras of Colombia: Early Cretaceous-Tertiary evolution of the Northern Andes[END_REF]. Uplift and exhumation of the continental margin is attributed to this accretionary event [START_REF] Villagómez | Thermochronology and tectonics of the Central and Western Cordilleras of Colombia: Early Cretaceous-Tertiary evolution of the Northern Andes[END_REF]. In the Central Andes, shortening, basin inversion, and normal convergence have been documented during the Late Cretaceous-early Paleocene [START_REF] Amilibia | The role of inherited tectono-sedimentary architecture in the development of the central Andean mountain belt: Insights from the Cordillera de Domeyko[END_REF][START_REF] Charrier | Cenozoic tectonic evolution in the Central Andes in northern Chile and west central Bolivia: implications for paleogeographic, magmatic and mountain building evolution[END_REF][START_REF] Henríquez | Cretaceous to Middle Cenozoic Exhumation History of the Cordillera de Domeyko and Salar de Atacama Basin, Northern Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Herrera | Cenozoic tectonostratigraphic evolution and architecture of the Central Andes in northern Chile based on the Aquine region[END_REF][START_REF] Martínez | Geometry and development of a hybrid thrust belt in an inner forearc setting: Insights from the Potrerillos Belt in the Central Andes, northern Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Martínez | The structure of the Chañarcillo Basin: An example of tectonic inversion in the Atacama region, northern Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Sempere | Stratigraphy and chronology of Upper Cretaceous-lower Paleogene strata in Bolivia and northwest Argentina[END_REF]. This pulse of deformation was accompanied by calc-alkaline magmatism, suggestive of subduction-related arc petrogenesis [START_REF] Trumbull | The Time-Space Distribution of Cenozoic Volcanism in the South-Central Andes: a New Data Compilation and Some Tectonic Implications[END_REF]. Both deformation and calc-alkaline magmatism were focused in the Precordillera and Western Cordillera (Fig. 4), and only began to migrate to the east during the Eocene [START_REF] Canavan | Early Cenozoic uplift of the Puna Plateau, Central Andes, based on stable isotope paleoaltimetry of hydrated volcanic glass[END_REF][START_REF] Carrapa | Regional exhumation and kinematic history of the central Andes in response to cyclical orogenic processes[END_REF][START_REF] Garzione | Clumped isotope evidence for diachronous surface cooling of the Altiplano and pulsed surface uplift of the Central Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Leier | Stable isotope evidence for multiple pulses of rapid surface uplift in the Central Andes, Bolivia[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Geodynamics of a Cordilleran Orogenic System: The Central Andes of Argentina and Northern Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Trumbull | The Time-Space Distribution of Cenozoic Volcanism in the South-Central Andes: a New Data Compilation and Some Tectonic Implications[END_REF]. Tectonic restoration of the Bolivian Orocline suggests that its construction began during the middle Eocene and the margin was more linear before that time [START_REF] Arriagada | Paleogene building of the Bolivian Orocline: Tectonic restoration of the central Andes in 2-D map view[END_REF][START_REF] Eichelberger | Kinematic reconstruction of the Bolivian orocline[END_REF][START_REF] Roperch | Counterclockwise rotation of late Eocene-Oligocene fore-arc deposits in southern Peru and its significance for oroclinal bending in the central Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Schepers | South-American plate advance and forced Andean trench retreat as drivers for transient flat subduction episodes[END_REF]. In the Southern Andes, low temperature thermochronology and field observations show that orogenic growth, associated with slab shallowing and arc migration, occurred between 100 and 60 Ma [START_REF] Echaurren | Tectonic evolution of the North Patagonian Andes (41°-44° S) through recognition of syntectonic strata[END_REF][START_REF] Folguera | Exhumation of the Neuquén Basin in the southern Central Andes (Malargüe fold and thrust belt) from field data and low-temperature thermochronology[END_REF]. Further South, in the Fuegian Andes, closure of the Rocas Verdes

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof

Basin during the Cretaceous has been related to differential shortening and bending due to rigid block rotation around a vertical axis [START_REF] Betka | Along-strike variation in crustal shortening and kinematic evolution of the base of a retroarc fold-and-thrust belt: Magallanes, Chile 53°S-54[END_REF][START_REF] Cunningham | The Patagonian Orocline: New paleomagnetic data from the Andean magmatic arc in Tierra del Fuego, Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Dalziel | Paleomagnetic data from the southernmost Andes and the Antarctandes[END_REF][START_REF] Poblete | Late Cretaceous-early Eocene counterclockwise rotation of the Fueguian Andes and evolution of the Patagonia-Antarctic Peninsula system[END_REF][START_REF] Poblete | The curved Magallanes fold and thrust belt: Tectonic insights from a paleomagnetic and anisotropy of magnetic susceptibility study: Tectonic Rotations Magallanes[END_REF][START_REF] Rapalini | Palaeomagnetism of Mesozoic magmatic bodies of the Fuegian Cordillera: implications for the formation of the Patagonian Orocline[END_REF]. The closure of the Rocas Verdes Basin resulted in the collision of the Patagonian batholith against South America with the Río Chico Arch acting as a buttress [START_REF] Calderón | The low-grade Canal de las Montañas Shear Zone and its role in the tectonic emplacement of the Sarmiento Ophiolitic Complex and Late Cretaceous Patagonian Andes orogeny[END_REF][START_REF] Calderón | Late Jurassic bimodal magmatism in the northern sea-floor remnant of the Rocas Verdes basin, southern Patagonian Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Klepeis | Continental underthrusting and obduction during the Cretaceous closure J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof of the Rocas Verdes rift basin, Cordillera Darwin[END_REF][START_REF] Poblete | Late Cretaceous-early Eocene counterclockwise rotation of the Fueguian Andes and evolution of the Patagonia-Antarctic Peninsula system[END_REF][START_REF] Torres Carbonell | Tectonic models for the Patagonian orogenic curve (southernmost Andes): An appraisal based on analog experiments from the Fuegian thrust-fold belt[END_REF][START_REF] Gabet | Late Cenozoic uplift of the Sierra Nevada, California? A critical analysis of the geomorphic evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Torres Carbonell | Tectonic control on the evolution of depositional systems in a fossil, marine foreland basin: Example from the SE Austral Basin, Tierra del Fuego, Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Torres García | Trace element composition of amphibole and petrogenesis of hornblendites and plutonic suites of Cretaceous magmatic arcs developed in the Fuegian Andes, southernmost South America[END_REF] and in the thickening of the crust of Cordillera Darwin on the north western Scotia plate [START_REF] Klepeis | Continental underthrusting and obduction during the Cretaceous closure J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof of the Rocas Verdes rift basin, Cordillera Darwin[END_REF]. In particular, deformation in the Cordillera Darwin was accompanied by denudation and uplift during Late Cretaceous-Early Paleocene [START_REF] Gombosi | New thermochronometric constraints on the rapid Palaeogene exhumation of the Cordillera Darwin complex and related thrust sheets in the Fuegian Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Kohn | Metamorphic P-T paths from Cordillera Darwin, a core complex in Tierra del Fuego, Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Maloney | Crustal growth during back-arc closure: Cretaceous exhumation history of Cordillera Darwin, southern Patagonia[END_REF][START_REF] Nelson | Post-tectonic uplift of the Cordillera Darwin orogenic core complex: evidence from fission track geochronology and closing temperature-time relationships[END_REF], creating a barrier that acted as a drainage divided since the Late Cretaceous [START_REF] Barbeau | Detrital-zircon geochronology of the eastern Magallanes foreland basin: Implications for Eocene kinematics of the northern Scotia Arc and Drake Passage[END_REF]. There are no direct paleoelevation constraints in the Andes for the Late Cretaceous-Early Cenozoic, but evidence for shortening and calc-alkaline magmatism [START_REF] Bruce | Temporal and spatial variations in the southern Patagonian batholith; Constraints on magmatic arc development[END_REF][START_REF] Hervé | The South Patagonian batholith: 150 my of granite magmatism on a plate margin[END_REF] is consistent with the presence of a rectilinear volcanicdominated mountain range along the Pacific subduction margin, although probably narrower and lower than the modern Cordillera. Based on these considerations, we modeled paleoaltitudes at 2000 m for the northern and central Andes that decreased to the south, except in Cordillera Darwin where we suggest that it already formed a topographic high at that time, with a proposed elevation of 2000 m (Fig. 5).

For the Brazilian shield, thermochronological studies in different sectors of the Atlantic coast concluded that its current relief is the results of a series of cooling phases that took place between the Upper Cretaceous and late Neogene (e.g. [START_REF] Cogné | Postbreakup tectonics in southeast Brazil from thermochronological data and combined inverseforward thermal history modeling[END_REF][START_REF] Cogné | Post-rift reactivation of the onshore margin of southeast Brazil: Evidence from apatite (U-Th)/He and fission-track data[END_REF]Japsen et al., 2012a;[START_REF] Karl | Evolution of the South Atlantic passive continental margin in southern Brazil derived from zircon and apatite (U-Th-Sm)/He and fission-track data[END_REF]. These studies suggest the eastern South American margin stood at altitudes not higher than 400 m, instead of 1000 m or higher as it is today in some areas. We

III.1.2 South America 40 Ma

Thermochronological data indicates a second pulse of uplift in the middle Eocene which led to the onset of growth of the Western-Central Cordillera system [START_REF] Villagómez | Thermochronology and tectonics of the Central and Western Cordilleras of Colombia: Early Cretaceous-Tertiary evolution of the Northern Andes[END_REF]. This exhumation event is also recognized in the Ecuadorian Cordillera between 45 and J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f to high altitudes in the Precordillera and Western Cordillera before 50 Ma and in the Puna Plateau by 35 Ma [START_REF] Carrapa | Regional exhumation and kinematic history of the central Andes in response to cyclical orogenic processes[END_REF]. Uplift is synchronous with shortening and basin inversion during the Incaic phase of the Andean orogeny [START_REF] Charrier | Evolución tectónica, paleogeográfica y metalogénica durante el Cenozoico en los Andes de Chile norte y central e implicaciones para las regiones adyacentes de Bolivia y Argentina[END_REF] and with the beginning of the rotation in the Bolivian Orocline [START_REF] Arriagada | Paleogene building of the Bolivian Orocline: Tectonic restoration of the central Andes in 2-D map view[END_REF]. In the southern Central Andes, extension related to the Abanico Basin (Fig. 4) began by 40 Ma, suggesting that this region had a low elevation [START_REF] Charrier | Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile[END_REF]. Further south, similar extension along the eastern side of the Cordillera is attributed to slab roll-back [START_REF] Echaurren | Tectonic evolution of the North Patagonian Andes (41°-44° S) through recognition of syntectonic strata[END_REF]. In the Fuegian Andes, however, internal thickening and exhumation [START_REF] Betka | Along-strike variation in crustal shortening and kinematic evolution of the base of a retroarc fold-and-thrust belt: Magallanes, Chile 53°S-54[END_REF][START_REF] Fosdick | Kinematic evolution of the Patagonian retroarc fold-and-thrust belt and Magallanes foreland basin, Chile and Argentina, 51 30[END_REF][START_REF] Klepeis | Continental underthrusting and obduction during the Cretaceous closure J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof of the Rocas Verdes rift basin, Cordillera Darwin[END_REF] indicates that shortening and contraction continued throughout the Eocene. Geochronological compilation of igneous rocks in the Central Andes [START_REF] Trumbull | The Time-Space Distribution of Cenozoic Volcanism in the South-Central Andes: a New Data Compilation and Some Tectonic Implications[END_REF] shows that the region was a magmatically active volcanic arc [START_REF] Pindell | Mesozoic-Cenozoic Andean paleogeography and regional controls on hydrocarbon systems[END_REF].

Paleoelevation data in the Cordillera are restricted to the Central Andes (Fig. 2D and supplementary data). There are, however, conflicting interpretations of these datasets, with two contrasting models. One model requires significant uplift only during the Miocene (~15 Ma), related to the latest stage of Bolivian Orocline development [START_REF] Garzione | Rapid late Miocene rise of the Bolivian Altiplano: Evidence for removal of mantle lithosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Gregory-Wodzicki | Relationships between leaf morphology and climate, Bolivia: implications for estimating paleoclimate from fossil floras[END_REF], whereas a second model entails significant paleorelief in the Central Andes by 35 Ma with elevations higher than 4000 m [START_REF] Canavan | Early Cenozoic uplift of the Puna Plateau, Central Andes, based on stable isotope paleoaltimetry of hydrated volcanic glass[END_REF][START_REF] Carrapa | Regional exhumation and kinematic history of the central Andes in response to cyclical orogenic processes[END_REF][START_REF] Hartley | Andean uplift and climate change[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Geodynamics of a Cordilleran Orogenic System: The Central Andes of Argentina and Northern Chile[END_REF]. Paleoelevation data from fossil leaf physiognomy and oxygen isotopic values have been interpreted to show that the Eastern Cordillera and the Altiplano Plateau were rapidly uplifted during the Miocene [START_REF] Garzione | Clumped isotope evidence for diachronous surface cooling of the Altiplano and pulsed surface uplift of the Central Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Garzione | Rapid late Miocene rise of the Bolivian Altiplano: Evidence for removal of mantle lithosphere[END_REF][START_REF] Ghosh | Rapid Uplift of the Altiplano Revealed Through 13C-18O Bonds in Paleosol Carbonates[END_REF][START_REF] Gregory-Wodzicki | Relationships between leaf morphology and climate, Bolivia: implications for estimating paleoclimate from fossil floras[END_REF][START_REF] Rowley | Stable Isotope-Based Paleoaltimetry[END_REF].

However, these studies do not consider climatic variations during the interval of study [START_REF] Ehlers | Influence of Andean uplift on climate and paleoaltimetry estimates[END_REF] and may underestimate the paleoelevation. Paleoelevations corrected for

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof climatic effects suggest a plateau elevation of ca. 3 km since at least 25 Ma [START_REF] Ehlers | Influence of Andean uplift on climate and paleoaltimetry estimates[END_REF]. Moreover, paleoaltimetry studies in the area of the Puna Plateau and Western Cordillera, suggest that these regions (including the western side of the Altiplano Plateau)

were already elevated at 35 Ma [START_REF] Canavan | Early Cenozoic uplift of the Puna Plateau, Central Andes, based on stable isotope paleoaltimetry of hydrated volcanic glass[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Geodynamics of a Cordilleran Orogenic System: The Central Andes of Argentina and Northern Chile[END_REF]. In the Brazilian region, thermochronological data do not indicate any major topographic change [START_REF] Cogné | Postbreakup tectonics in southeast Brazil from thermochronological data and combined inverseforward thermal history modeling[END_REF]Japsen et al., 2012a).

We thus depict orogenic growth of the Andes at 40 Ma with a high degree of along strike variability (Fig. 6). We propose that the northern Andes were narrow, with maximum elevations around 3000 m, while the deformation front in the Central Andes was already farther east, in response to increasing elevation and width, and displaying a plateau-like configuration with maximum elevations reaching around 4000 m. Immediately to the south, a depression is related to the development of the extensional Abanico Basin [START_REF] Charrier | Evolución tectónica, paleogeográfica y metalogénica durante el Cenozoico en los Andes de Chile norte y central e implicaciones para las regiones adyacentes de Bolivia y Argentina[END_REF][START_REF] Charrier | Tectonostratigraphic evolution of the Andean Orogen in Chile[END_REF]. In the Southern and Austral Andes, the Cordillera gained again in elevation, although with lower elevations than in the Central and Northern Andes (around 2000 m).

We adapted the paleoshoreline presented by [START_REF] Eagles | Tectonic reconstructions for paleobathymetry in Drake Passage[END_REF] for the Scotia Arc region, similar to the 60 Ma reconstruction. We also made minor modifications to the reference paleoshorelines of [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF] for consistency with marine and terrestrial fossil data.

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof orogenic propagation, basin inversion and shortening related to a plate reorganization and a related increase of plate convergence during early Miocene [START_REF] Mora | Inversion tectonics under increasing rates of shortening and sedimentation: Cenozoic example from the Eastern Cordillera of Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Parra | Detecting earliest shortening and deformation advance in thrust belt hinterlands: Example from the Colombian Andes[END_REF][START_REF] Parra | Orogenic wedge advance in the northern Andes: Evidence from the Oligocene-Miocene sedimentary record of the Medina Basin, Eastern Cordillera, Colombia[END_REF][START_REF] Spikings | Syn-and postaccretionary cooling history of the Ecuadorian Andes constrained by their in-situ and detrital thermochronometric record[END_REF]. In the Central Andes, paleoelevation data show that surface uplift in the Eastern Cordillera had already started during the Oligocene [START_REF] Quade | Geodynamics of a Cordilleran Orogenic System: The Central Andes of Argentina and Northern Chile[END_REF] in agreement with thermochronological data [START_REF] Carrapa | Regional exhumation and kinematic history of the central Andes in response to cyclical orogenic processes[END_REF] and the Eocene-Oligocene construction of the Bolivian Orocline showing shortening in the Eastern Cordillera [START_REF] Arriagada | Paleogene building of the Bolivian Orocline: Tectonic restoration of the central Andes in 2-D map view[END_REF][START_REF] Mcquarrie | Geometric, kinematic, and erosional history of the central Andean Plateau[END_REF]. The Subandean zone only deformed after the mid-Miocene [START_REF] Arriagada | Paleogene building of the Bolivian Orocline: Tectonic restoration of the central Andes in 2-D map view[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | Geodynamics of a Cordilleran Orogenic System: The Central Andes of Argentina and Northern Chile[END_REF]. In the Southern Andes, extension was ongoing in the early Miocene (around 19 Ma), with orogenic contraction starting in the middle Miocene [START_REF] Echaurren | Tectonic evolution of the North Patagonian Andes (41°-44° S) through recognition of syntectonic strata[END_REF]. By contrast, contraction was still active in the Austral Andes, with eastward migration of the deformation front [START_REF] Alvarez-Marrón | Geometry and evolution of the frontal part of the Magallanes foreland thrust and fold belt (Vicuna area), Tierra del Fuego, southern Chile[END_REF][START_REF] Fosdick | Kinematic evolution of the Patagonian retroarc fold-and-thrust belt and Magallanes foreland basin, Chile and Argentina, 51 30[END_REF][START_REF] Klepeis | Continental underthrusting and obduction during the Cretaceous closure J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof of the Rocas Verdes rift basin, Cordillera Darwin[END_REF]. We thus propose a Northern and Central Andes forming a wider mountain chain with elevations around 4000 m for the highest peaks in these regions. For the Southern and Austral Andes, we kept paleoelevation similar to the previous 40 Ma reconstruction (Fig. 6). Paleoshorelines are the same as the reference paleoshorelines from [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF], with only minor local modifications (Fig. 7).

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f contacts between the North American Plate, the Pacific Plate and relicts of the conjugate Farallon Plate (Juan de Fuca, Gorda, Rivera, Cocos, Nazca; Fig. 1). The western margin of North America can be divided into several morphological units, among them: The Sierra Nevada, Cascades and Coast Belt mountains along the coast; the Basin and Range region and the Colorado Plateau; the Rocky Mountains, Alaskan and St. Elias Ranges (Fig. 8, [START_REF] Chamberlain | The Cenozoic climatic and topographic evolution of J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof the western North American Cordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Fenneman | Physiography of Western United States[END_REF][START_REF] Mathews | Physiographic evolution of the Canadian Cordillera. Geology of the Cordilleran Orogen in Canada[END_REF][START_REF] Mathews | Physiographic Map of the Canadian Cordillera 1: 5 000 000[END_REF][START_REF] Ordonez | Principal physiographic provinces of Mexico[END_REF]. For North American paleoshorelines, we used a modified version of [START_REF] Slattery | Early Cretaceous to Paleocene paleogeography of the Western Interior Seaway: the interaction of eustasy and tectonism[END_REF] other minor modifications to the reference paleoshorelines of [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF] were constrained by marine and terrestrial fossil data provided from the paleobiodb.org.

III.2.2 North American 40 Ma

The Laramide Orogeny was completed at ca. 40 Ma [START_REF] Coney | Plate tectonics and the Laramide orogeny. Tectonics and Mineral Resources of Southwestern North America[END_REF]Coney, P, 1972;[START_REF] Copeland | Location, location, location: The variable lifespan of the Laramide orogeny[END_REF][START_REF] English | The Laramide Orogeny: What Were the Driving Forces?[END_REF][START_REF] Henderson | Jurassic to Recent tectonic evolution of North America: A preliminary model using GPlates software[END_REF]. Paleoelevation data suggest that the surface uplift was at its maximum expression and that the Nevadoplano reached elevations near 4000 m with a latitudinal extension of around 2500 km [START_REF] Chamberlain | The Cenozoic climatic and topographic evolution of J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof the western North American Cordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Fan | Late Paleocene high Laramide ranges in northeast Wyoming: Oxygen isotope study of ancient river water[END_REF][START_REF] Lechler | Paleoelevation estimates for the northern and central proto-Basin and Range from carbonate clumped isotope thermometry[END_REF][START_REF] Sjostrom | Stable isotopic evidence for a pre-late Miocene elevation gradient in the Great Plains-Rocky Mountain region, USA, in: Tectonics, Climate, and Landscape Evolution[END_REF]. To the southwest, contrasting models for the evolution of the Sierra Nevada mountains propose that elevations were attained either recently or in the early Cenozoic. Revised geomorphological observations have, however, shown that the Sierra Nevada has been at high elevations at least since the Eocene in agreement with stable isotope data [START_REF] Gabet | Late Cenozoic uplift of the Sierra Nevada, California? A critical analysis of the geomorphic evidence[END_REF]Mix et al., 2016;[START_REF] Mulch | Hydrogen isotopes in Eocene river gravels and paleoelevation of the Sierra Nevada[END_REF]. The high elevation in the Nevadoplano and Sierra Nevada contrast with elevations in the Colorado Plateau where stable isotopes are compatible with paleoelevations of around 1000 m [START_REF] Cather | Diachronous episodes of Cenozoic erosion in southwestern North America and their relationship to surface uplift, paleoclimate, paleodrainage, and paleoaltimetry[END_REF][START_REF] Licht | Impact of the North American monsoon on J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof isotope paleoaltimeters: Implications for the paleoaltimetry of the American southwest[END_REF]. To the north, limited fission-track data suggest that the Coast Belt attained average elevations of ~2500 m that persisted until ~6

Ma [START_REF] Densmore | Effect of Alpine glaciation on thermochronometer age-elevation profiles[END_REF].

We thus propose a topographic reconstruction for which the Nevadoplano dominates the landscape of western North America with a north-south extent of ~2500 km and J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof paleoelevations as high as 4000 m (Fig. 6). It also includes a modern-like Sierra Nevada and a Colorado Plateau at lower elevation, with altitudes around 1000 m, surrounded by mountains to the west, north and east. Paleoshorelines were reconstructed from the reference paleoshorelines from [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF].

III.2.3 North America 20 Ma

A major change in the tectonic regime of Western North America took place during the Early Miocene with initial subduction of the Pacific-Farallon ridge and formation of the Mendocino triple junction [START_REF] Atwater | Implications of plate tectonics for the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of western North America[END_REF][START_REF] Furlong | Influence of the Mendocino triple junction on the tectonics of coastal California[END_REF][START_REF] Silver | Tectonics of the Mendocino triple junction[END_REF]. Northward migration of the Mendocino triple junction marks the long-term diachronous demise of the Farallon subduction zone, replaced by a new transform margin, part of which forms the modern-day San Andreas Fault [START_REF] Atwater | Implications of plate tectonics for the Cenozoic tectonic evolution of western North America[END_REF][START_REF] Furlong | Influence of the Mendocino triple junction on the tectonics of coastal California[END_REF][START_REF] Silver | Tectonics of the Mendocino triple junction[END_REF].

As North America rode over the growing slab window, a combination of thermal softening Canada (Chamberlain et al., 2012 and references therein), extending up to the Sierra Nevada [START_REF] Chamberlain | The Cenozoic climatic and topographic evolution of J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof the western North American Cordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Gabet | Late Cenozoic uplift of the Sierra Nevada, California? A critical analysis of the geomorphic evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Wheeler | Late Cenozoic surface uplift of the southern Sierra Nevada (California, USA): A paleoclimate perspective on leeside stable isotope paleoaltimetry[END_REF]. Paleoelevation estimates for the Colorado Plateau are debated ranging from elevations as high as today (e.g. [START_REF] Flowers | Unroofing, incision, and uplift history of the southwestern Colorado Plateau from apatite (U-Th)/He thermochronometry[END_REF] to less than 1000 m during the Oligocene [START_REF] Sahagian | Timing of Colorado Plateau uplift: Initial constraints from vesicular basalt-derived paleoelevations[END_REF]. We change between 40 and 20 Ma (Fig. 7). Like previously, paleoshorelines were reconstructed from the reference paleoshorelines from [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF].

III.3 Africa

The African realm, including Madagascar, comprises three major plates: The African-Nubian Plate, the Africa-Somalian Plate, and the Arabian Plate (Fig. 1; [START_REF] Bird | An updated digital model of plate boundaries[END_REF][START_REF] Stamps | A Geodetic Strain Rate Model for the East African Rift System[END_REF]. These plates are surrounded by spreading ridges or rifts, except for the northern border of the African and Arabian plates, where they subduct below the Eurasian Plate [START_REF] Bird | An updated digital model of plate boundaries[END_REF][START_REF] Müller | Ocean Basin Evolution and Global-Scale Plate Reorganization Events Since Pangea Breakup[END_REF]. Bimodal elevation distributions characterize the African topography (Fig. 9, [START_REF] Burke | The African erosion surface: a continental-scale synthesis of geomorphology, tectonics, and environmental change over the past 180 million years, Memoir[END_REF][START_REF] Dauteuil | The Changing Faces of Africa: Elements of African Geology[END_REF] with high relief (900-1100 m) corresponding to domes, large plateaus (Kalahari, East African and Ethiopian Dome and Cameroon, Darfur, Tibesti, Hoggar and the Atlas, [START_REF] Guillocheau | Planation surfaces as a record of mantle dynamics: the case example of Africa[END_REF] and elevated passive continental margins (Japsen et al., 2012b), and low relief regions (300-400 m) corresponding to the Sahara and the Congo Basin [START_REF] Guillocheau | Cenozoic landscape evolution in and around the Congo Basin: constraints from sediments and planation surfaces[END_REF] where most of the drainage basins are located (Senegal, Niger, Chad, Nile, Congo, among others, [START_REF] Burke | The African erosion surface: a continental-scale synthesis of geomorphology, tectonics, and environmental change over the past 180 million years, Memoir[END_REF]. High relief regions have been argued to be related to isostatic compensation [START_REF] Bechtel | Mechanisms of isostatic compensation in the vicinity of the East African Rift, Kenya[END_REF][START_REF] Brown | Interpretation of African gravity and its implication for the breakup of the continents[END_REF] or dynamic topography related to vertical stresses generated by mantle flow [START_REF] Burke | The African erosion surface: a continental-scale synthesis of geomorphology, tectonics, and environmental change over the past 180 million years, Memoir[END_REF][START_REF] Gurnis | Bounds on global dynamic topography from Phanerozoic flooding of continental platforms[END_REF][START_REF] Lithgow-Bertelloni | Dynamic topography, plate driving forces and the African superswell[END_REF]. New data, however, support the idea that the topographic evolution of the African surface is the result of a coupled interaction between mantle dynamic, lithospheric deformation and passive continental margin processes [START_REF] Braun | The many surface expressions of mantle dynamics[END_REF][START_REF] Dauteuil | The Changing Faces of Africa: Elements of African Geology[END_REF][START_REF] Guillocheau | Planation surfaces as a record of mantle dynamics: the case example of Africa[END_REF]Japsen et al., 2012b).

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

III.3.1 Africa 60 Ma

Elevated, passive continental margins (Japsen et al., 2012b) are a characteristic feature of the African continent that were first suggested to be long-lasting relict topographic features [START_REF] Ollier | Equating the basal unconformity with the palaeoplain: a model for passive margins[END_REF][START_REF] Weissel | Flexural uplift of rift flanks due to mechanical unloading of the lithosphere during extension[END_REF]. Apatite fission track thermochronology, however, has revealed a more complex history in which denudation and surface uplift occurred long after break-up [START_REF] Beauvais | Modes, tempo, and spatial variability of Cenozoic cratonic denudation: The West African example[END_REF][START_REF] Gallagher | Denudation and uplift at passive margins: the record on the Atlantic Margin of southern Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Tinker | Linking source and sink: Evaluating the balance between onshore erosion and offshore sediment accumulation since Gondwana break-up, South Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Wildman | Contrasting Mesozoic evolution across the boundary between on and off craton regions of the South African plateau inferred from apatite fission track and (U-Th-Sm)/He thermochronology: Mesozoic Evolution of Southern Africa[END_REF].

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof

The only area at 60 Ma in Africa with clear evidence for high topography is the southernmost part of the South African Plateau (or Kalahari Plateau), remnant of a late Cretaceous relief [START_REF] Baby | Solid sedimentation rates history of the Southern African continental margins: Implications for the uplift history of the South African Plateau[END_REF](Baby et al., , 2018b(Baby et al., , 2018a)). Planation surfaces (etchplains and pediplains), used as geomorphological markers to identify vertical movements related to dynamic topography, indicate that during the late Paleocene-mid Eocene, an African-scale weathering surface (etchplain) known as the African Surface (Burke and Gunnell, 2008 for a review) was almost flat, with a faint drainage divide in central Africa [START_REF] Guillocheau | Planation surfaces as a record of mantle dynamics: the case example of Africa[END_REF]. In northern Africa (Sahara) this etchplain was flooded by the sea during Late Paleocene times [START_REF] Berggren | Paleogeography, paleobiogeography and the history of circulation in the Atlantic Ocean[END_REF][START_REF] Ye | Paleogeographic and structural evolution of northwestern Africa and its Atlantic margins since the early Mesozoic[END_REF], confirming a flat topography near sea level. We thus propose a reconstruction with very low elevations on the African continent at 60 Ma (Fig. 5), including near sea level altitude for northern Africa, a curved drainage divide of elevations lower than 300 m in central Africa, and remnants of an early South African Plateau to the south. Our reconstructed paleoshorelines follow [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF] with some modifications in northern Africa after Couvreur et al. (submitted).

III.3.2 Africa 40 Ma

Thermochronological data and paleogeographic maps (e.g. [START_REF] Burke | The African erosion surface: a continental-scale synthesis of geomorphology, tectonics, and environmental change over the past 180 million years, Memoir[END_REF] suggest that 40 Ma was the onset of a major change in the paleotopography of Africa that ended around 30 Ma (Fig. 5). For Northern Africa, thermochronological data in the Hoggar Dome [START_REF] Rougier | Eocene exhumation of the Tuareg Shield (Sahara Desert, Africa)[END_REF] indicate that the onset of exhumation occurred during the late Eocene [START_REF] English | Intraplate uplift: new constraints on the Hoggar dome from the Illizi basin (Algeria)[END_REF], in agreement with Oligocene fluvial sedimentary rocks on top of the modern Hoggar [START_REF] Rognon | Precisions chronologiques sur l'evolution volcanotectonique et geomorphologique de l'Atakor (Hoggar); apports des donnees radiometriques (K/Ar) et paleobotaniques (bois fossiles)[END_REF]. The incipient growth of the Hoggar Dome initiated a divide in northwest Africa [START_REF] Chardon | Stabilization of large drainage basins over geological time scales: Cenozoic West Africa, hot spot swell growth, and the Niger River[END_REF] that might be extended until the Moroccan Atlas, and likely resulted from basin inversion related to the Europe-African collision responsible for the onset of surface uplift (e.g. Frizon de Lamotte et al., 2009). We thus

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof changed the topography in Northern Africa in the area of the Hoggar Dome, with elevations between 200 m to 500 m (Fig. 6).

At 40 Ma, proposed paleoshorelines for northernmost Africa range between a large epicontinental sea (www.deepmaptimes.com; [START_REF] Blakey | Special Paper 441: Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in Time and Space[END_REF] to a paleoshoreline more similar to that of today (www.scotese.com; [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF][START_REF] Smith | Atlas of Mesozoic and Cenozoic coastlines[END_REF]. Stratigraphic and sedimentological data indicate fluvial and lacustrine environments in the Chad [START_REF] Genik | Petroleum Geology of Cretaceous-Tertiary Rift Basins in Niger, Chad, and Central African Republic[END_REF] and Sudanese (e.g. [START_REF] Schull | Rift Basins of Interior Sudan: Petroleum Exploration and Discovery[END_REF] Rifts and for the Iullemmeden Basin (Niger-Mali, e.g. [START_REF] Moody | The iullemmeden basin[END_REF]. The shoreline was therefore located northward of the Atlas-Hoggar-Tibesti-Darfur divide. The Late Eocene was a major period of emergence in the South Atlas, in Libya, and in Egypt (e.g. [START_REF] Mebrouk | L'apport des charophytes à la stratigraphie des formations continentales paléogènes de l'Algérie[END_REF]. The shoreline ran from central Tunisia [START_REF] Merzeraud | Stratigraphie et sédimentologie des dépôts marins et continentaux d'âge éocène moyen à miocène en Tunisie centrale (région du Djebel el Kébar)[END_REF], through the southern Sirt Basin (Libya, [START_REF] Abouessa | Smallscale sedimentary structures and their implications in recognizing large-scale ancient tidal bedforms. Example from Dur At Talah outcrop, Late Eocene, Sirt Basin, Libya[END_REF] to south Cairo (Fayum region, [START_REF] Underwood | Eocene initiation of Nile drainage due to East African uplift[END_REF].

III.3.3 Africa 20 Ma

At 20 Ma, new domes and plateaus were initiated, and remnant topography from the 40-30

Ma uplift phase got more uplifted as a response of long wavelength deformation related to mantle dynamics [START_REF] Guillocheau | Planation surfaces as a record of mantle dynamics: the case example of Africa[END_REF]. The Southern African Plateau reached its modern elevation (Baby et al., 2018a). The Zambia-Malawi Plateau, East African Dome, Hoggar-Aïr-Tibesti-Darfur cluster, and Cameroon Volcanic Line started reaching significant elevations, attaining their modern elevations in the Late Miocene-Early Pliocene. Geological, thermochronological and structural data shows that the 1500-m high Atlas Mountains started growing in the late Eocene and must have reached significant elevation by the early Miocene [START_REF] Balestrieri | Neogene exhumation of the Marrakech High Atlas (Morocco) recorded by apatite fission-track analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Frizon De Lamotte | The two main steps of the Atlas building and geodynamics of the western Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Missenard | Cenozoic denudation in the Marrakech High Atlas, Morocco: insight from apatite fission-track thermochronology[END_REF][START_REF] Ruiz | From central Atlantic continental rift to Neogene uplift -western Anti-Atlas (Morocco): From central Atlantic continental rift to Neogene uplift[END_REF]. We estimate paleoelevations for the Hoggar Dome and the Moroccan Atlas at around 1800 m and 1100 m respectively, and around 900 m for the Cameroon Volcanic Line and the McQuarrie and [START_REF] Mcquarrie | Retrodeforming the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone: Age of collision versus magnitude of continental subduction[END_REF][START_REF] Schmid | Geophysical-geological transect and tectonic evolution of the Swiss-Italian Alps[END_REF][START_REF] Yin | Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen[END_REF].

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

The Tibetan-Himalayan orogen (Fig. 1) is composed of various mountain belts and plateaus that resulted from the accretion of continental slivers originating from the northern margin of Gondwana against the southern margin of North China since the late Paleozoic (e.g. [START_REF] Kapp | Mesozoic-Cenozoic geological evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan orogen and working tectonic hypotheses[END_REF][START_REF] Yin | Geologic Evolution of the Himalayan-Tibetan Orogen[END_REF]. From south to north, the different accreted terranes and geological provinces include India, the Lhasa Terrane (referred here as "Southern Tibet"), the Qiangtang Terrane (referred here as "Central Tibet"), and the Songpan-Ganze accretionary complex overlain by the Hoh-Xil Basin (referred here as "Northern Tibet"). The orogen extends further north into the Qaidam and Tarim Basins, surrounded by the Pamir, Kunlun Shan, Tian Shan, Altyn Shan and Qilian Shan / Nan Shan mountain ranges (Fig. 10).

Tectonic models for the India-Asia collision remain debated. Recent studies have narrowed the age of the collision to ca. 60-55 Ma based on the first input of Asia-derived material in the northernmost preserved continental rocks on the Indian Plate, in the Indian Foreland

Basin (e.g. [START_REF] Decelles | Paleocene-Eocene foreland basin evolution in the Himalaya of southern Tibet and Nepal: Implications for the age of initial India-Asia collision: Paleogene Himalayan foreland basin[END_REF][START_REF] Garzanti | The Himalayan Foreland Basin from collision onset to the present: a sedimentary-petrology perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Garzanti | Petrology and multimineral fingerprinting of modern sand generated from a dissected magmatic arc (Lhasa River, Tibet)[END_REF][START_REF] Hu | Himalayan detrital chromian spinels and timing of Indus-Yarlung ophiolite erosion[END_REF]. This age generates a dramatic difference between the amount of convergence of India and Asia since the collision ─ around 4000 km since 60 Ma ─ and the estimated amplitude of shortening in the Tibetan Plateau and Himalaya ─ totaling around 1500-2000 km (e.g. [START_REF] Dupont-Nivet | Palaeolatitude and age of the Indo-Asia collision: palaeomagnetic constraints[END_REF][START_REF] Van Hinsbergen | Restoration of Cenozoic deformation in Asia and the size of Greater India[END_REF]. Several models have been proposed

to account for this mismatch. A first type of models invoke a "Greater India Basin" [START_REF] Huang | Lower Cretaceous Xigaze ophiolites formed in the Gangdese forearc: Evidence from paleomagnetism, sediment provenance, and stratigraphy[END_REF][START_REF] Van Hinsbergen | Reconstructing Greater India: Paleogeographic, kinematic, and geodynamic perspectives[END_REF], 2012). They propose that a terrane drifted off northern India in the Cretaceous, carrying ahead Greater Himalayan sequences, and was separated from mainland India by a wide oceanic basin. This small terrane collided with Asia at 60-55

Ma; the Greater India oceanic basin then subducted beneath Asia until the final India-Asia

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof collision in the late Oligocene -early Miocene. Another family of models suggest a continuous subduction of the 2400 Km long Greater Indian continental crust below Asia [START_REF] Ingalls | Large-scale subduction of continental crust implied by India-Asia mass-balance calculation[END_REF][START_REF] Searle | Tectonic Processes and Metallogeny along the Tethyan Mountain Ranges of the Middle East and South Asia (Oman, Himalaya, Karakoram, Tibet, Myanmar, Thailand, Malaysia)[END_REF]. Arc collision models propose a first collision of India with an intra-oceanic arc at 60-55 Ma while subduction is kept along the Asian margin until a much later India-Asia collision. Various versions of this arc collision model have been proposed [START_REF] Aitchison | When and where did India and Asia collide?[END_REF][START_REF] Gibbons | A tectonic model reconciling evidence for the collisions between India, Eurasia and intraoceanic arcs of the central-eastern Tethys[END_REF][START_REF] Guilmette | Discovery of a dismembered metamorphic sole in the Saga ophiolitic mélange, South Tibet: Assessing an Early Cretaceous disruption of the Neo-Tethyan supra-subduction zone and consequences on basin closing[END_REF][START_REF] Hébert | The Indus-Yarlung Zangbo ophiolites from Nanga Parbat to Namche Barwa syntaxes, southern Tibet: First synthesis of petrology, geochemistry, and geochronology with incidences on geodynamic reconstructions of Neo-Tethys[END_REF][START_REF] Jagoutz | Low-latitude arc-continent collision as a driver for global cooling[END_REF][START_REF] Müller | Ocean Basin Evolution and Global-Scale Plate Reorganization Events Since Pangea Breakup[END_REF][START_REF] Westerweel | Burma Terrane part of the Trans-Tethyan arc during collision with India according to palaeomagnetic data[END_REF]. These models invoke collision between India and Asia in the Late Eocene to Miocene, depending on the assumed magnitude of intra-Asian shortening. Finally, a set of "classic" models propose removal of continental lithosphere by lateral extrusion of continental blocks, wholesale continental subduction and very high estimates of overriding plate shortening (e.g. [START_REF] Cogné | A new Late Cretaceous to Present APWP for Asia and its implications for paleomagnetic shallow inclinations in Central Asia and Cenozoic Eurasian plate deformation[END_REF][START_REF] Guillot | Reconstructing the total shortening history of the NW Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Molnar | Cenozoic Tectonics of Asia: Effects of a Continental Collision: Features of recent continental tectonics in Asia can be interpreted as results of the India-Eurasia collision[END_REF][START_REF] Replumaz | Reconstruction of the deformed collision zone Between India and Asia by backward motion of lithospheric blocks[END_REF].

We propose here reconstructions following the different models. At 60 and 40 Ma, we have computed two different configurations of the Indian paleogeography, whereby we used the GPlates reconstruction of [START_REF] Van Hinsbergen | Reconstructing Greater India: Paleogeographic, kinematic, and geodynamic perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Blakey | Global paleogeography[END_REF] as basis: (1) the Greater India

Basin model (Fig. 5, 6 and 7 and Fig. 11a;Van Hinsbergen et al., 2012), and (2) a fully continental post 58 Ma Greater India collision with Asia, assuming wholesale continental subduction of several 1000s of km [START_REF] Ingalls | Large-scale subduction of continental crust implied by India-Asia mass-balance calculation[END_REF]; see Fig. 11b). We have also explored the Arc collision model [START_REF] Müller | Ocean Basin Evolution and Global-Scale Plate Reorganization Events Since Pangea Breakup[END_REF][START_REF] Westerweel | Burma Terrane part of the Trans-Tethyan arc during collision with India according to palaeomagnetic data[END_REF]; see Figure 11c) and the lateral extrusion model in which the Lhasa block is located further south [START_REF] Replumaz | Reconstruction of the deformed collision zone Between India and Asia by backward motion of lithospheric blocks[END_REF]Fig. 11d).

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Trans-Tethyan arc and then with Asia (e.g. Jagoutz et al., 2015); and (d) India collision with Asia but with Lhasa block located at more southerly paleolatitudes (e.g. [START_REF] Cogné | A new Late Cretaceous to Present APWP for Asia and its implications for paleomagnetic shallow inclinations in Central Asia and Cenozoic Eurasian plate deformation[END_REF].

III.4.1.1 The Tibetan-Himalayan orogen 60 Ma

It has been proposed that topography in Tibet was already important before the India-Asia collision due to topographic build-up from previous terrane accretions and Cordilleran-style orogeny [START_REF] Murphy | Did the Indo-Asian collision alone create the Tibetan plateau? 4[END_REF], resulting in a high elevation "Lhasaplano" in southern Tibet as early as the Late Cretaceous (e.g. [START_REF] Kapp | The Gangdese retroarc thrust belt revealed[END_REF][START_REF] Wen | Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb ages of the Gangdese Batholith and implications for Neotethyan subduction in southern Tibet[END_REF]. This Lhasaplano would have built-up following increased India-Asia convergence, Gangdese and Kohistan-Ladakh magmatism, shortening and rapid exhumation in the northern Lhasa Terrane and Qiangtang Terrane after 80-70 Ma [START_REF] Chapman | Tibetan Magmatism Database[END_REF][START_REF] Kapp | The Gangdese retroarc thrust belt revealed[END_REF][START_REF] Ravikant | Zircon U-Pb and Hf isotopic constraints on petrogenesis of the Cretaceous-Tertiary granites in eastern Karakoram and Ladakh, India[END_REF]Volkmer et al., 2014, p. 201;[START_REF] Wen | Zircon SHRIMP U-Pb ages of the Gangdese Batholith and implications for Neotethyan subduction in southern Tibet[END_REF]. Further to the north in Central Tibet, it has been proposed that the Qiangtang Terrane formed a topographic relief since ca.

70 Ma, shedding detritus northward into the nonmarine Hoh-Xil Basin [START_REF] Li | Closure of the Proto-Tethys Ocean and Early Paleozoic amalgamation of microcontinental blocks in East Asia[END_REF][START_REF] Staisch | Eocene to late Oligocene history of crustal shortening within the Hoh Xil Basin and implications for the uplift history J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof of the northern Tibetan Plateau[END_REF][START_REF] Staisch | A Cretaceous-Eocene depositional age for the Fenghuoshan Group, Hoh Xil Basin: Implications for the tectonic evolution of the northern Tibet Plateau[END_REF]. Thermochronological data suggests that construction of the Central Tibetan Plateau began during the Late Cretaceous forming a conspicuous relief, but it was only later, during the Eocene, that the Tibetan Plateau formed a significant topographic high (e.g. [START_REF] Rohrmann | Thermochronologic evidence for plateau formation in central Tibet by 45 Ma[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Beek | Eocene Tibetan plateau remnants preserved in the northwest Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Constraints on the early uplift history of the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF]. In northern Tibet, no major deformation is reported before the collision apart from local events possibly reactivating older structures [START_REF] Jolivet | Oxygen and Carbon Stable Isotope Composition of Cretaceous to Pliocene Calcareous Paleosols in the Tian Shan Region (Central Asia): Controlling Factors and Paleogeographic Implications[END_REF][START_REF] Morin | Planation surfaces of the Tian Shan Range (Central Asia): Insight on several 100 million years of topographic evolution[END_REF]Van Hinsbergen et al., 2015).

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Paleoaltimetry data has suggested elevations ca. 4.000 m across the Lhasa and Qiangtang terranes near the time of initiation of the collision (e.g. [START_REF] Currie | Multiproxy paleoaltimetry of the Late Oligocene-Pliocene Oiyug Basin, southern Tibet[END_REF][START_REF] Ding | The Andean-type Gangdese Mountains: Paleoelevation record from the Paleocene-Eocene Linzhou Basin[END_REF][START_REF] Li | Carbonate stable and clumped isotopic evidence for late Eocene moderate to high elevation of the east-central Tibetan Plateau and its geodynamic implications[END_REF] with relatively lower elevation to the north in the Hoh-Xil [START_REF] Cyr | Geochemical Evaluation of Fenghuoshan Group Lacustrine Carbonates, North-Central Tibet: Implications for the Paleoaltimetry of the Eocene Tibetan Plateau[END_REF][START_REF] Miao | A Late-Eocene palynological record from the Hoh Xil Basin, northern Tibetan Plateau, and its implications for stratigraphic age, paleoclimate and paleoelevation[END_REF][START_REF] Polissar | Paleoaltimetry of the Tibetan Plateau from D/H ratios of lipid biomarkers[END_REF] and south in the proto-Himalaya (e.g. [START_REF] Ding | Quantifying the rise of the Himalaya orogen and implications for the South Asian monsoon[END_REF][START_REF] Leary | Evidence from paleosols for low to moderate elevation of the India-Asia suture zone during mid-Cenozoic time[END_REF]. However, the interpretation of these data is still controversial. The primary nature of Eocene Tibetan oxygen isotopic records is questioned [START_REF] Quade | Resetting Southern Tibet: The serious challenge of J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof obtaining primary records of Paleoaltimetry[END_REF] and the use of modern isotopic lapse rates for paleoaltimetry estimates might significantly overestimate the actual topography [START_REF] Botsyun | Revised paleoaltimetry data show low Tibetan Plateau elevation during the Eocene[END_REF]. In addition, some stable isotopic records [START_REF] Currie | Multiproxy paleoaltimetry of the Late Oligocene-Pliocene Oiyug Basin, southern Tibet[END_REF] are associated with fossils indicating lower elevation [START_REF] Su | No high Tibetan Plateau until the Neogene[END_REF] and their depositional age control has been revised to younger ages (e.g. [START_REF] Deng | Review: Implications of vertebrate fossils for paleo-elevations of the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF][START_REF] Leary | Evidence from Paleosols for low to moderate elevation of the India-Asia suture zone during mid-Cenozoic time: REPLY[END_REF]. These data overall suggest a more complex topographic development with pre-existing valleys and ranges instead a monotonic progression of plateau uplift (e.g. [START_REF] Laskowski | The Ancestral Lhasa River: A Late Cretaceous trans-arc river that drained the proto-Tibetan Plateau[END_REF]. A precise description of paleotopography remains challenging to produce for this time slice.

Thus, we favored a conservative configuration in our reconstruction at 60 Ma with relatively low elevations (Fig. 5, Fig. 11a), with later, gradual uplift at 40 and 20 Ma, time slices for which pieces of evidence for high topography are more numerous. Our 60 Ma reconstruction displays a contiguous east-west trending volcanic arc located in the southern margin of Asia formed a relatively narrow mountain range at elevations between 500 to 1500 m. In central Tibet we also implemented an incipient plateau with elevations around 700 m. North of this, elevations are reduced to 500 m or less.

III.4.1.2 The Himalayan-Tibetan orogen 40 Ma

Structural evidence points to enhanced development of an elevated Central Tibetan Plateau in the Lhasa and Qiangtang regions during later Paleogene time (e.g. [START_REF] Kapp | The Gangdese retroarc thrust belt revealed[END_REF][START_REF] Kapp | Cretaceous-Tertiary shortening, basin development, and volcanism in central Tibet[END_REF] J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof [START_REF] Van Der Beek | Eocene Tibetan plateau remnants preserved in the northwest Himalaya[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Outward-growth of the Tibetan Plateau during the Cenozoic: A review[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Constraints on the early uplift history of the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF], although stable isotopic data yield contrasting results either suggesting complex topography combining low and high elevations and/or a more complex hydrological cycle affecting stable isotope paleoaltimetry (e.g. In northern Tibet, in the Hoh-Xil Basin and Kunlun Shan region, geological studies have shown late Eocene basin closure and exhumation, suggesting surface uplift) [START_REF] Dai | Burial and exhumation of the Hoh Xil Basin, northern Tibetan Plateau: Constraints from detrital (U-Th)/He ages[END_REF][START_REF] Polissar | Paleoaltimetry of the Tibetan Plateau from D/H ratios of lipid biomarkers[END_REF][START_REF] Staisch | Eocene to late Oligocene history of crustal shortening within the Hoh Xil Basin and implications for the uplift history J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof of the northern Tibetan Plateau[END_REF][START_REF] Staisch | A Cretaceous-Eocene depositional age for the Fenghuoshan Group, Hoh Xil Basin: Implications for the tectonic evolution of the northern Tibet Plateau[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Differential growth of the northern Tibetan margin: evidence for oblique stepwise rise of the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF]. Further north in the Qaidam and Tarim Basin, late Eocene increased subsidence and sea retreat is associated with tectonic activation along the Kunlun Shan (Bosboom et al., 2014b;[START_REF] Cheng | Initial Deformation of the Northern Tibetan Plateau: Insights From Deposition of the Lulehe Formation in the Qaidam Basin[END_REF][START_REF] Kaya | Paleogene evolution and demise of the proto-Paratethys Sea in Central Asia (Tarim and Tajik basins): Role of intensified tectonic activity at ca. 41 Ma[END_REF][START_REF] Song | Qaidam Basin paleosols reflect climate and weathering intensity on the northeastern Tibetan Plateau during the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum[END_REF], but apart from local ranges with elevations (e.g. [START_REF] Hoorn | A late Eocene palynological record of climate change and Tibetan Plateau uplift (Xining Basin, China)[END_REF] significant surface uplift of those basins is not expected until later propagation of deformation in the Tian Shan and Qilian Shan in the Miocene (e.g. [START_REF] He | Cenozoic exhumation in the Qilian Shan, northeastern Tibetan Plateau: Evidence from detrital fission track thermochronology in the Jiuquan Basin: Cenozoic Exhumation in the Qilian Shan[END_REF][START_REF] Zuza | Testing models of Tibetan Plateau formation with Cenozoic shortening estimates across the Qilian Shan-Nan Shan thrust belt[END_REF].

We propose a 40 Ma reconstruction in which South and Central Tibet formed an incipient plateau with intermediate elevations at ca. 3500 m, and a moderate to low elevation paleosurface for Northern Tibet (Fig. 6, Fig. 11a).

III.4.1.2 The Himalayan-Tibetan orogen 20 Ma

Most thermochronology and paleoaltimetry studies indicates that the Central Tibetan Plateau attained high elevations by the early Miocene (e.g. [START_REF] Botsyun | Revised paleoaltimetry data show low Tibetan Plateau elevation during the Eocene[END_REF][START_REF] Quade | The paleoaltimetry of Tibet: An isotopic perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Rowley | Palaeo-altimetry of the late Eocene to Miocene Lunpola basin, central Tibet[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Differential growth of the northern Tibetan margin: evidence for oblique stepwise rise of the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF]. Important changes at this time include the growth of the Himalayas, enhanced since the early Miocene as suggested by a wide range of studies (e.g. [START_REF] Clift | Correlation of Himalayan exhumation rates and Asian monsoon intensity[END_REF]Xu et al., 2018 and references therein), although some local lower elevation basins may have persisted in southern Tibet into the Miocene (e.g. [START_REF] Decelles | Oligocene-Miocene Great Lakes in the India-Asia Collision Zone[END_REF][START_REF] Leary | Evidence from paleosols for low to moderate elevation of the India-Asia suture zone during mid-Cenozoic time[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Diet and environment of a mid-Pliocene fauna from southwestern Himalaya: Paleo-elevation implications[END_REF]. To the north of Tibet, exhumation begins (or, in places, resumes) in the Tian Shan, Pamir, Kunlun, Altyn Shan, Qilian Shan, Nan Shan

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof with infilling, uplift and closure of associated intermontane basins [START_REF] Dai | Burial and exhumation of the Hoh Xil Basin, northern Tibetan Plateau: Constraints from detrital (U-Th)/He ages[END_REF][START_REF] Dedow | Tajik Basin and Southwestern Tian Shan, Northwestern India-Asia Collision Zone: 3. Pre-to Synorogenic Retro-foreland Basin Evolution in the Eastern Tajik Depression and Linkage to the Pamir Hinterland[END_REF][START_REF] Sobel | Oceanic-style subduction controls late Cenozoic deformation of the Northern Pamir orogen[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Differential growth of the northern Tibetan margin: evidence for oblique stepwise rise of the Tibetan Plateau[END_REF][START_REF] Zuza | Testing models of Tibetan Plateau formation with Cenozoic shortening estimates across the Qilian Shan-Nan Shan thrust belt[END_REF]. We propose a 20 Ma reconstruction with wider and higher Tibetan Plateau than at 40 Ma, with elevations reaching beyond 4000 m. The Tian Shan, Pamir, Kunlun, Nan Shan and Qilian and intermontane basins north of Tibet are modeled at elevations around 1000-1500 m to reflect incipient range uplift before its further development later in the Miocene (Fig. 7).

III.4.2. The central Eurasian proto-Paratethys Sea

The extension of the proto-Paratethys epicontinental sea over Central Eurasia is particularly important for paleoenvironmental and biogeographic reconstructions, including the presence or absence of a N-S trending seaway (the Turgai Strait) that constituted the connection between the Neo-Tethys with the west Siberia interior sea [START_REF] Akhmetiev | The Paleogene history of the Western Siberian seaway-a connection of the Peri-Tethys to the Arctic ocean[END_REF] and through this, with the Arctic Ocean [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF]. Although some paleogeographic maps have suggested that the Turgai Strait was closed at 40 Ma (www.deepmaptimes.com; [START_REF] Blakey | Special Paper 441: Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in Time and Space[END_REF], and terrestrial fossils are (mis?)placed in the strait at this time [START_REF] Mihlbachler | A new brontothere (Brontotheriidae, Perissodactyla, Mammalia) from the Eocene of the Ily Basin of Kazakstan and a phylogeny of Asian "horned" brontotheres[END_REF]www.paleobiodb.org). Geological data show three major sea transgressions in the proto-Paratethys in the Paleogene [START_REF] Bosboom | Late Eocene palaeogeography of the proto-Paratethys Sea in Central Asia (NW China, southern Kyrgyzstan and SW Tajikistan)[END_REF](Bosboom et al., , 2014b(Bosboom et al., , 2014a;;[START_REF] Kaya | Paleogene evolution and demise of the proto-Paratethys Sea in Central Asia (Tarim and Tajik basins): Role of intensified tectonic activity at ca. 41 Ma[END_REF].

These studies suggest that the sea did not retreat sufficiently to close the Turgai Strait

III.4.3 The Alpine-Mediterranean region and the Anatolian and Zagros orogens

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof Cenozoic interaction between Africa, Iberia and Eurasia resulting in the orogenic growth in the Pyrenean-Alpine chain and basin segmentation and extension in the Mediterranean Sea which lead to the formation of several micro-basins [START_REF] Choukroune | Tectonic evolution of the Pyrenees[END_REF][START_REF] Dewey | Kinematics of the western Mediterranean[END_REF][START_REF] Schettino | Plate kinematics of the Western Mediterranean region during the Oligocene and Early Miocene[END_REF]Van Hinsbergen et al., 2014;[START_REF] Vissers | Iberian plate kinematics and Alpine collision in the Pyrenees[END_REF][START_REF] Ziegler | Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic intra-plate compressional deformations in the Alpine foreland-a geodynamic model[END_REF]. Further East, the Anatolian and Zagros orogenic belts (Fig. 8), between the Eastern Mediterranean Sea and the Gulf of Oman, is within the collision zone between Arabia-Nubia to the south and Eurasia to the north [START_REF] Bird | An updated digital model of plate boundaries[END_REF]. The current configuration results from the subduction of the Neotethyan Oceanic crust and collision between the Arabian and African

Plates and the Eurasian Plate [START_REF] Agard | Plate acceleration: The obduction trigger?[END_REF][START_REF] Bird | An updated digital model of plate boundaries[END_REF][START_REF] Gürer | Diachronous demise of the Neotethys Ocean as a driver for non-cylindrical orogenesis in Anatolia[END_REF][START_REF] Kuscu | Magmatism in the southeastern Anatolian orogenic belt: transition from arc to post-collisional setting in an evolving orogen[END_REF][START_REF] Mcquarrie | Retrodeforming the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone: Age of collision versus magnitude of continental subduction[END_REF][START_REF] Mouthereau | Building the Zagros collisional orogen: Timing, strain distribution and the dynamics of Arabia/Eurasia plate convergence[END_REF][START_REF] Reilinger | GPS constraints on continental deformation in the Africa-Arabia-Eurasia continental collision zone and J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof implications for the dynamics of plate interactions[END_REF]Van Hinsbergen et al., 2020). The Arabian and Nubian Plates are being underthrusted/subducted below the western Mediterranean, Anatolian, Aegean and Zagros orogens [START_REF] Bird | An updated digital model of plate boundaries[END_REF][START_REF] Mcquarrie | Crustal scale geometry of the Zagros fold-thrust belt, Iran[END_REF][START_REF] Reilinger | GPS constraints on continental deformation in the Africa-Arabia-Eurasia continental collision zone and J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof implications for the dynamics of plate interactions[END_REF]Van Hinsbergen et al., 2020).

Our paleogeographic reconstructions of these regions are simplified from [START_REF] Barrier | Paleotectonic reconstruction of the central tethyan realm. tectonono-sedimentary-palinspastic maps from late Permian to Pliocene[END_REF] and [START_REF] Popov | Lithological-paleogeographic maps of Paratethys-10 maps late Eocene to pliocene[END_REF], and follow the tectonic models of [START_REF] Mcquarrie | Retrodeforming the Arabia-Eurasia collision zone: Age of collision versus magnitude of continental subduction[END_REF] and Van Hinsbergen et al. (Van Hinsbergen et al., 2020;[START_REF] Gabet | Late Cenozoic uplift of the Sierra Nevada, California? A critical analysis of the geomorphic evidence[END_REF]. Our paleogeographic reconstructions in this region are mainly restricted to the location of paleoshorelines and do not consider Late Miocene-Pleistocene uplift [START_REF] Cosentino | Late Miocene surface uplift of the southern margin of the Central Anatolian Plateau, Central Taurides, Turkey[END_REF][START_REF] Fernández-Blanco | Monoclinal flexure of an orogenic plateau margin during subduction, south Turkey[END_REF][START_REF] Öğretmen | Evidence for 1.5 km of Uplift of the Central Anatolian Plateau's Southern Margin in the Last 450 kyr and Implications for Its Multiphased Uplift History[END_REF] which have been proposed to be a responses to lithospheric delamination [START_REF] Bartol | A single cause for uplift of the Central and Eastern Anatolian plateau?[END_REF][START_REF] Göğüş | Drip tectonics and the enigmatic uplift of the Central Anatolian Plateau[END_REF], slab breakoff [START_REF] Portner | Subduction termination through progressive slab deformation across Eastern Mediterranean subduction zones from updated P-wave tomography beneath Anatolia[END_REF][START_REF] Schildgen | Spatial correlation bias in late-Cenozoic erosion histories derived from thermochronology[END_REF],and to the arrival of the subducting African margin to the southern Taurides [START_REF] Mcphee | Thermal history of the western Central Taurides fold-thrust belt: Implications for Cenozoic vertical motions of southern Central Anatolia[END_REF].

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof III.5 Antarctica and Greenland

III.5.1 Antarctica and Greenland at 60 Ma and 40 Ma

The common approach to reconstruct past Antarctic landscape before ice-sheet spreading has been to use fossil databases (e.g [START_REF] Lazarus | Cenozoic Southern Ocean reconstructions[END_REF] and correct the present-day topography to account for the isostastic response to the ice mass removal (e.g. [START_REF] Deconto | Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO2[END_REF]. This approach results in a large part of the Antarctic continent being submarine before the EOT, particularly in West Antarctica (Fig. 12) around the West Antarctic Rift System (e.g. [START_REF] Blakey | Special Paper 441: Resolving the Late Paleozoic Ice Age in Time and Space[END_REF][START_REF] Deconto | Rapid Cenozoic glaciation of Antarctica induced by declining atmospheric CO2[END_REF][START_REF] Lazarus | Cenozoic Southern Ocean reconstructions[END_REF]. However, recent studies have suggested that most of the continent was above sea level before 34 Ma [START_REF] Hochmuth | The Evolving Paleobathymetry of the Circum-Antarctic Southern Ocean Since 34 Ma: A Key to Understanding Past Cryosphere-Ocean Developments[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Antarctic topography at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | West Antarctic paleotopography estimated at the Eocene-Oligocene climate transition[END_REF], by integrating erosion, thermal subsidence, shelf sedimentation and plate tectonic processes. In Antarctica, [START_REF] Hochmuth | The Evolving Paleobathymetry of the Circum-Antarctic Southern Ocean Since 34 Ma: A Key to Understanding Past Cryosphere-Ocean Developments[END_REF] presented a paleobathymetry, which could be complemented with the paleotopography from [START_REF] Paxman | Reconstructions of Antarctic topography since the Eocene-Oligocene boundary[END_REF]. However, their combination is made difficult by discrepancies. [START_REF] Paxman | Reconstructions of Antarctic topography since the Eocene-Oligocene boundary[END_REF] suggests that the Ronne-Filchner and Ross Ice shelf were below sea level at 34 and 23 Ma as well as a sea interior that separates the Antarctic Peninsula from the Ellsworth Whitmore block, while Hotchmuth et al.

(2020) shows that both ice shelfs as well as the west coast of west Antarctica (Antarctic Peninsula, Turston island and Marie Byrd Land blocks) were above sea level at 34 Ma and the Ronne-Filchner and Ross Ice shelf were still above sea level at 21 Ma. Because of these differences resulting in an artificial internal basins at 34 Ma, we preferred keeping the paleotopography from [START_REF] Wilson | Antarctic topography at the Eocene-Oligocene boundary[END_REF]. We use this Antarctic paleotopographic reconstruction with minor modifications in the South Shetland Islands to take into account the presence of Cenozoic volcanism, fossilized trees and bird tracks in the archipelago [START_REF] Birkenmajer | Late Cretaceous-early Tertiary floras of King George Island, West Antarctica: their stratigraphic distribution and palaeoclimatic significance[END_REF][START_REF] Mansilla | New Avian tracks from the lower to middle Eocene at Fossil Hill, King George Island, Antarctica[END_REF][START_REF] Smellie | The geology of the South Shetland Islands: VI. Stratigraphy, geochemistry and evolution[END_REF][START_REF] Torres | Nothofagoxylon antarcticus n. sp., medera fósil del Terciario de la isla Rey Jorge, Islas Shetland del Sur[END_REF] J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof and the history of the Bransfield Strait which was closed at 60 Ma [START_REF] Galindo-Zaldívar | Reprint of "Magmatism, structure and age of Dove Basin (Antarctica): A key to understanding South Scotia Arc development[END_REF][START_REF] Pelayo | Seismotectonics and relative plate motions in the Scotia Sea region[END_REF][START_REF] Solari | Geotectonic evolution of the Bransfield Basin, Antarctic Peninsula: insights from analogue models[END_REF]. For Greenland, we have simply taken into account the isostatic rebound due to ice removal (Fig. 5, Fig. 6). We have also combined our paleotopographies at 60, and 40 Ma, with the recent published Greenland paleotopography from [START_REF] Straume | Global Cenozoic Paleobathymetry with a focus on the Northern Hemisphere Oceanic Gateways[END_REF] (see supplementary data).

III.5.2 Antarctica and Greenland 20 Ma

After the spread of Antarctic ice-sheet, and in the absence of data for 20 Ma, we use the current Antarctic topography. We use today's topography for Greenland as well, assuming it was glaciated at 20 Ma. For paleoshorelines, [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF] suggested at 20 Ma a sea reentrant in the Ross Sea that extended up to 400 km in the interior of the Amundsen-Shackleton Coast. However, thermochronological and sedimentological data show that exhumation of the Transantarctic Mountains started before the Miocene [START_REF] Fitzgerald | Tectonics and landscape evolution of the Antarctic plate since the breakup of Gondwana, with an emphasis on the West Antarctic Rift System and the Transantarctic Mountains[END_REF][START_REF] Olivetti | Tectonic and climatic signals from apatite detrital fission track analysis of the Cape Roberts Project core records, South Victoria Land, Antarctica[END_REF][START_REF] Zattin | Cenozoic erosion of the Transantarctic Mountains: A source-to-sink thermochronological study[END_REF][START_REF] Zattin | Integrated provenance and detrital thermochronology studies on the ANDRILL AND-2A drill core: Late Oligocene-Early Miocene exhumation of the Transantarctic Mountains (southern Victoria Land, Antarctica): Provenance and thermochronology on the AND-2A drill core[END_REF]. Moreover, the drop in CO 2 at 23 Ma suggests that cold conditions predominated during the Early Miocene with ice-sheets expanding across the Antarctic continental shelf [START_REF] Mckay | Antarctic Cenozoic climate history from sedimentary records: ANDRILL and beyond[END_REF]. The presence of the Transantarctic Mountains and the extension of the ice-sheet preclude the existence of the sea reentrant proposed by [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF]. In the Scotia Arc we have adapted the paleoshoreline presented by [START_REF] Eagles | Tectonic reconstructions for paleobathymetry in Drake Passage[END_REF], while in other regions we have adjusted the paleoshoreline to be consistent with the fossil database (Fig. 7

IV Discussion

IV.1 Cenozoic topography, continent weatherability and climate

The most conspicuous result of our paleoreconstructions is a drastic increase in orography associated with the Cenozoic development of major mountain ranges (Fig. 13). The Cenozoic is also marked by one of the most dramatic decrease of atmospheric CO 2 and associated global cooling, starting at the end of the Early Eocene Climatic Optimum ~ 50 million years ago [START_REF] Anagnostou | Changing atmospheric CO2 concentration was the primary driver of early Cenozoic climate[END_REF][START_REF] Zachos | Trends, rhythms, and aberrations in global climate 65 Ma to present[END_REF]. Though many factors such as long-term J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof volcanic degassing have been proposed as a driver for CO 2 drawdown over the period [START_REF] Hoareau | Did high Neo-Tethys subduction rates contribute to early Cenozoic warming? Climate of the Past[END_REF], most Cenozoic carbon cycle models require changes in continent and/or sea floor weatherability to explain this drop [START_REF] Krissansen-Totton | Constraining climate sensitivity and continental versus seafloor weathering using an inverse geological carbon cycle model[END_REF]Cave-Rugenstein et al., 2019). Two main mechanisms have been proposed to drive the increase of terrestrial weatherability after 50 Ma:

1. Increased fresh minerals exposure by tectonically-driven denudation along the Neo-Tethys margin, particularly in the Himalayas, where monsoonal dynamics enhanced denudation [START_REF] Raymo | Tectonic forcing of late Cenozoic climate[END_REF] 2. The emplacement of weatherable material through the equatorial belt, such as with the drift of the Deccan Taps of India [START_REF] Kent | Modulation of Late Cretaceous and Cenozoic climate by variable drawdown of atmospheric p CO 2 from weathering of basaltic provinces on continents drifting through the equatorial humid belt[END_REF] or the obduction of ophiolitic belts and volcanic arc material along the Neo-tethys subduction margin [START_REF] Jagoutz | Low-latitude arc-continent collision as a driver for global cooling[END_REF][START_REF] Macdonald | Arc-continent collisions in the tropics set Earth's climate state[END_REF]. Journal Pre-proof alone could have had a significant impact on weathering fluxes without evoking the presence of highly weatherable volcanic and ophiolitic rocks in this latitudinal band.

It is harder to evaluate potential changes of denudation through time with our approach as our model does not have the spatial resolution to reproduce steep gradients --where most denudation occurs at global scale [START_REF] Larsen | The contribution of mountains to global denudation[END_REF]. between 40 Ma and 20 Ma) of high altitude areas between 20 and 40ºN during the period of reconstruction. Most of this altitude gain is associated with Tibetan Plateau growth in our reconstruction --a low relief orogen. However, increased uplift at its margin (Himalayas) and birth and growth of surrounding mountains ranges (Pamir, Tian Shan, Kunlun) during this time period can have had a major impact, potentially quantifiable by using our paleogeographic maps with GCM-coupled carbon models like GEOCLIM [START_REF] Goddéris | Onset and ending of the late Palaeozoic ice age triggered by tectonically paced rock weathering[END_REF][START_REF] Maffre | Mountain ranges, climate and weathering. Do orogens strengthen or weaken the silicate weathering carbon sink?[END_REF].

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

IV.2 Limitations and uncertainties

Limitation and sources of uncertainties in the reconstructions are obviously numerous. They are identified and organized below according to different features involved in the making of a paleogeographic map: 1) plate tectonic models; 2) paleobathymetry; 3) paleoshoreline; and 4) paleotopography.

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

The basis for any paleogeographic model is the plate tectonic model on which it is based and most reconstructions commonly use a set of rigid tectonic plates [START_REF] Matthews | Global plate boundary evolution and kinematics since the late Paleozoic[END_REF][START_REF] Müller | Ocean Basin Evolution and Global-Scale Plate Reorganization Events Since Pangea Breakup[END_REF][START_REF] Seton | Global continental and ocean basin reconstructions since 200Ma[END_REF]; this represents a first source of uncertainty because of the lack of rigidity of continental margins (e.g., the Patagonian bend and Bolivian Orocline in the Andes or the Basin and Range extension in North America). Including evolving shapes for plate margins (for example, [START_REF] Müller | A Global Plate Model Including Lithospheric Deformation Along Major Rifts and Orogens Since the Triassic[END_REF] adds uncertainties related to the shape restoration process. Latitudinal resolution of paleomagnetic data is around 5º. Uncertainties in shortening calculations have been calculated in the order of 20% in well constrained cross sections [START_REF] Allmendinger | Stratigraphic uncertainty and errors in shortening from balanced sections in the North American Cordillera[END_REF][START_REF] Pueyo | Map-view models for correcting and calculating shortening estimates in rotated thrust fronts using paleomagnetic data[END_REF]. This is particularly critical in the restoration of the Central Andes and South Asian margin, where Cenozoic shortening and deformation have been significant. For example, in the Bolivian Orocline, 400 km of shortening has been calculated near the Arica bend, which led to uncertainties of at least 80 km of this part of the margin. In the case of the south margin of Asia before the Indo-Asia collision, a shortening estimation of around 1000 km has been calculated (Van Hinsbergen et al., 2019), which leads to an uncertainty of at least 200 km. Ongoing work in these geodynamically active regions -and many others -consistently generates new data that will potentially improve these restorations (e.g. [START_REF] Boschman | The Caribbean and Farallon Plates Connected: Constraints From Stratigraphy and J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof Paleomagnetism of the Nicoya Peninsula, Costa Rica[END_REF][START_REF] Westerweel | Burma Terrane part of the Trans-Tethyan arc during collision with India according to palaeomagnetic data[END_REF].

The paleobathymetry has intrinsic uncertainties due to differences between the observed age and gridded age, estimations of sediment thickness and the age-depth model used (see Müller et al., 2008a for details). The original paleobathymetry, however, does not consider the development of several small basins related to local tectonic features that were manually adjusted. For example, the Greater Indian Basin is not associated with any paleobathymetry estimate in the Müller et al. (2008a) reconstructions; we estimated depths from -5000 to -2600 m in this region, following a depth-age relationship formula [START_REF] Baatsen | Reconstructing geographical boundary conditions for palaeoclimate modelling during the Cenozoic[END_REF].

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof Maximum depths, however, could reach more than -6000 m if we consider other age-depth correlations (e.g. [START_REF] Chung-Hwa | Age-depth correlation of the Philippine Sea back-arc basins and other marginal basins in the world[END_REF].

Determining the ancient paleoshoreline is also an important source of uncertainty. Our approach was to take [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF] paleoshoreline presented in [START_REF] Heine | Evaluating global paleoshoreline models for the Cretaceous and Cenozoic[END_REF], and then change it for each period accordingly to margin deformation, the fossil database, and geological data. The first source of errors here is the rotation and restoration of the paleoshorelines to their past position. Shorelines were originally drawn on reconstructed paleogeographies according to a previous kinematic rotation model [START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF].

we repositioned them to present day using another rotation model [START_REF] Heine | Evaluating global paleoshoreline models for the Cretaceous and Cenozoic[END_REF] (2015), the information used for the construction of the different paleoshorelines available are sometimes proprietary, and it is difficult to check afterwards the accuracy of the reconstructions. A dramatic example of uncertainty in past reconstructions are the paleoshorelines of South America, which include a huge sea reentrant until the Eocene in previous reconstructions, although it was likely only present until the middle Maastrichtian [START_REF] Sempere | Stratigraphy and chronology of Upper Cretaceous-lower Paleogene strata in Bolivia and northwest Argentina[END_REF]. Here, we adjusted paleoshorelines for each period of time in which the reconstruction was done.

The ultimate and most difficult task in creating a paleoDEM is evaluating the paleotopography. Stable isotope datasets, although still relatively rare, constitute promising quantitative estimations of paleoelevation. However, stable isotopes are sensitive to J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof temperature changes, moisture source, relative humidity, post-condensational effects, changes in paleoclimate, and may be biased by diagenetic and/or tectonic effects, which results in high variability of results and complicates their interpretation [START_REF] Botsyun | Revised paleoaltimetry data show low Tibetan Plateau elevation during the Eocene[END_REF][START_REF] Botsyun | Impacts of Tibetan Plateau uplift on atmospheric dynamics and associated precipitation δ 18 O[END_REF][START_REF] Ehlers | Influence of Andean uplift on climate and paleoaltimetry estimates[END_REF][START_REF] Licht | Impact of the North American monsoon on J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof isotope paleoaltimeters: Implications for the paleoaltimetry of the American southwest[END_REF][START_REF] Rowley | Stable Isotope-Based Paleoaltimetry[END_REF]. Geological, structural and geochronological data are much more important and widespread, however they only constitute qualitative approximations and cannot be used to directly determine paleoelevation estimations. These limitations are critical to correctly estimate the surface paleoelevation of the three main Cenozoic orogens: The Tibetan-Himalayan, the Andes and the North American Cordillera. As mentioned in the previous sections, in the Tibetan-Himalayan orogen, uncertainties are most important at 60 and 40 Ma with predicted maximum elevations between 1000 m to 4500 m for both periods. In Western North America, the existence of a Nevadoplano at 60 Ma with maximum elevations around 4500 m is better documented, although the southerly extent of the Nevadaplano remains poorly defined and recent work suggests controversial interpretations (see associated section above). There is more consensus that the Andes formed a low elevated range at 60 Ma, but more debate on the more recent evolution.

IV.3 Potential improvements and expected progress

Potential improvements should focus on topographic reconstructions that are the biggest source of uncertainty. Our general approach following previous work [START_REF] Baatsen | Reconstructing geographical boundary conditions for palaeoclimate modelling during the Cenozoic[END_REF] has been to rotate modern topography to its past position and modify it according to geological data. This implies that our reconstructions may bear features that should not be there, especially in areas that have not been worked on in detail or that are lacking relevant data. We have concentrated here on the main orogenic regions in the considered timeslices but still left out many that will require updates (e.g. Australia, Southeast Asia, the western Aleutian basin). We hope our effort will spark collaborations with geologist experts in these regions that could provide valuable feedback. To stimulate this exchange we offer the reconstructions through a platform containing interactive paleogeographic tools associated with this publication (https://map.paleoenvironment.eu/). The tool consists currently of interactive maps, which can be zoomed, panned in different projections and downloaded in different formats (image or raster data). It is foreseen to be extended with other tools that aid constructing paleogeographic reconstructions [START_REF] Ruiz | Terra Antiqua" : a paleogeographic reconstruction plugin for QGIS (other)[END_REF].

In the areas we considered in detail, we generated new topography by simply increasing or decreasing linearly the modern digital elevations models (DEMs), sometimes radically to fully form or obliterate mountain ranges (e.g. in Africa). Resulting topographies usually yield unrealistic relief and drainage patterns, thus limiting the applicability of the reconstructions. This can be improved by developing more advanced tools enabling to generate various types of topographies (basins and mountains) with more realistic drainages based on simple governing physics such as the stream power laws (e.g. [START_REF] Braun | A very efficient O(n), implicit and parallel method to solve the stream power equation governing fluvial incision and landscape evolution[END_REF][START_REF] Cordonnier | A versatile, linear complexity algorithm for flow routing in topographies with depressions[END_REF][START_REF] Ruiz-Villanueva | Characterization of wood-laden flows in rivers: wood-laden flows[END_REF]. Furthermore, rather than modifying modern DEMs, topographic features may be fully generated based on geodynamic setting and surface processes, in turn constrained by geologic data (e.g. [START_REF] Frigola | Boundary conditions for the middle Miocene climate transition (MMCT v1. 0)[END_REF][START_REF] Sewall | Come a little bit closer: A high-resolution climate study of the early Paleogene Laramide foreland[END_REF]Van Der Linden, 2020). The combination of available data makes depicting uncertainties in a quantitative manner impractical. Although we provide means to assess the data we used, quantification of uncertainty remains a future frontier for paleogeographic research.

As part of a continuous collaborative effort building paleogeographies and associated databases, we foresee that the addition and consideration of more and new data reconstructed J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof to its past position with dedicated reconstruction tools [START_REF] Baatsen | Reconstructing geographical boundary conditions for palaeoclimate modelling during the Cenozoic[END_REF][START_REF] Ruiz | Terra Antiqua" : a paleogeographic reconstruction plugin for QGIS (other)[END_REF]Van Der Linden, 2020) will certainly help to define more comprehensive, accurate and reliable paleoDEMs. The development and comparison of more reconstructions at different time slices, increasing the resolution in the Cenozoic and going further back in time, will necessarily add relevant data for a continuous and integrative overview of paleotopographies.

In particular, the formation of features in the distant past that are potentially preserved 10 7 to 10 8 yrs such as rift margins and orogenies. Another high potential approach, is using sedimentary budgets to estimate paleoreliefs (e.g. [START_REF] Baby | Solid sedimentation rates history of the Southern African continental margins: Implications for the uplift history of the South African Plateau[END_REF][START_REF] Roberts | Estimating uplift rate histories from river profiles using African examples[END_REF][START_REF] Yuan | Linking continental erosion to marine sediment transport and deposition: A new implicit and O (N) method for inverse analysis[END_REF]. A related aspect is the reconstruction of shelf and deep marine bathymetry and how they were influenced by terrestrial drainages. Considerable progress may be achieved with these additional constraints and tools acknowledging that they also require ground proofing from the sort of data provided in the present study.

V Conclusion

We produced a set of global Cenozoic paleogeographic maps at 60, 40 and 20 Ma following a systematic approach based on a coherent plate tectonic model. These reconstructions are primarily designed to provide boundary conditions for regional and global climate models to test and explore Cenozoic paleoclimate. In particular, our paleogeographic maps show that emerged land surface areas increased by 30% and shifted from a low-to a high-relief regime in northern low latitudes between 60 and 20 Ma. These two processes are likely significant enough to partly contribute to the Cenozoic atmospheric CO 2 drawdown; our paleogeographic maps, in combination with carbon cycle models, provide key boundary conditions to test these mechanisms.

To take into account current paleogeographic controversies on the Indo-Asia collision, we provide four sets of reconstructions covering different tectonic scenarios at 60 and 40 Ma.

J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Journal Pre-proof

Creating different paleoDEMs for competing tectonic models may contribute to resolve controversies by exploring their respective implications on climate, mantle dynamics, or paleobiodiversity that can be tested by field data and models. For example, climate models using various paleoDEM will result in different patterns of Asian monsoons and aridification that can be compared to paleoenvironmental proxy records. Thereby, paleoDEMs may ultimately improve our understanding of the underlying surface and tectonic processes that helped to build the past relief of the Earth.

This work builds on a wealth of previously published paleogeographic maps (e.g., [START_REF] Baatsen | Reconstructing geographical boundary conditions for palaeoclimate modelling during the Cenozoic[END_REF][START_REF] Blakey | Global paleogeography[END_REF][START_REF] Golonka | Global plate tectonics and paleogeography of Southeast Asia[END_REF][START_REF] Popov | Lithological-paleogeographic maps of Paratethys-10 maps late Eocene to pliocene[END_REF][START_REF] Scotese | Atlas of Earth History[END_REF][START_REF] Scotese | Paleogeographic atlas. PALEOMAP Project[END_REF] and an extensive review of geological constraints, with as a novelty to provide them as a consultable interactive database (https://map.paleoenvironment.eu/). Our global compilation approach is naturally bound to oversee important regions of the world, miss large portions of the literature, key datasets and even methods; we view this effort as another step of a long-term work to improve paleoDEMs through geological time.

Paleotopographic maps are necessarily products of a collaborative effort, and these sets of maps are a starting point for future improvements. We plan to achieve this with regular updates on results and methods relayed on an interactive platform that will, hopefully, promote collaborations with regional experts and generate open source paleogeographic resources. We therefore do not consider the resulting paleoDEMs as comprehensive representations but rather as works in progress, especially given that this first publication will be revised and improved as new data comes available

Declaration of Competing Interest

None.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Physiography of the world. Red lines show the present plate boundaries. Main plates

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Compilation of the different tectonic models and entire database integrated in GPlates.

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Procedure for the topographic modification. (A) reconstructed South America at 40

paleo

  Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) at 60, 40 and 20 Ma. These paleoDEMs (see supplementary data) are presented in three different reference frames: a paleomagnetic reference frame (Fig. 4, 5 and 6; Torsvik et al., 2012), a moving Atlantic hotspot (O'Neill et al., 2005), and a global moving hotspot reference frame (GMHRF, Doubrovine et al., 2012), J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Physiography of South America. a-b, Northern Andes segment; b-c Central Andes

Fig. 5 :

 5 Fig. 5: (A) Paleogeographic reconstruction at 60 Ma. (B) Shaded regions show the location of

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: (A) Paleogeographic reconstruction at 40 Ma. (B) Shaded regions show the location of

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: Physiography of North America SMO, Sierra Madre Oriental; SN, Sierra Nevada; BR,

  and coupling with the north-moving Pacific plate resulted in extension and formation of the Basin and Range province, starting ca. 36 Ma, with the most important pulse of deformation occurring after the mid Miocene (~14 Ma; McQuarrie and Wernicke, 2005). Despite ongoing extension in the Basin and Range province, paleoelevation data suggests that during the Oligocene the Nevadoplano was still present from Central Nevada to Southern

  opted for elevations similar to the 40 Ma paleotopography for the Nevadoplano and Colorado Plateaus, i.e., 4500 m and 1000 m, due to the lack of conclusive data showing significant topography J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof

Fig. 9

 9 Fig. 9 Physiography of Africa. Thick black lines represent elevated passive margins.

  are dominated by the development of the Alpine-Himalayan orogen at the boundary between the Eurasian Plate to the north and the African, Arabia, and Indian plates to the south. This orogen extends from the Mediterranean Sea in the West to the Sunda Arc in the East and is the classic example of an orogen constructed by accretion during continental underthrusting/subduction. In the following we present the paleogeographic evolution associated with the Tibetan-Himalayan orogen, and -more briefly -the Anatolian orogenic belt and the Alpine-Mediterranean region.

Fig. 10 :

 10 Fig. 10: Physiography of Eurasia. 1, Pyrenees; 2, Alps; 3-4, Anatolian, Zagros and other

Fig. 11 :

 11 Fig. 11: Indo-Asia collision paleogeographies at 60 and 40 Ma according to various models:

  between the first and most extensive incursion (58-53 Ma) and the second one (46-41 Ma); however, the strait likely closed between the second (46-41 Ma) and the last (39-37 Ma) incursions, and remained closed after 37 Ma. Thus, we provide reconstructions with an open Turgai Strait at 60 Ma and closed at 20 Ma. At 40 Ma, we provide two maps, with an open or closed strait (see supplementary data).

Fig. 12 :

 12 Fig. 12: Physiography of Antarctica. EWM, Ellsworth-Withmore Mountains. Thick black

Fig. 13a and

  Fig. 13a and b displays the percentage of emerged land (submerged land) and the percentage

  Fig. 13b displays the percentage of areas above 2000 m, and shows a massive increase (90% between 60 Ma and 40 Ma and 42%

Fig. 13 :

 13 Fig. 13: a-b) Percentage of land above sea level and flux of emerged land (in %/Myr) per 10º

  , and rotated them again into the desired time-slice (60, 40 and 20 Ma) with our own model. This required re-adjusting the shorelines to follow new continental positions, but also new continental boundaries defined in the rotation model. Another related source of error is that the paleoshorelines of Golonka et al. (2006) have a low temporal resolution because they were reconstructed per geological stage or Epoch. In addition, as pointed out by Heine et al.

J

  o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof Pacific rim, the Caribbean region, the Mediterranean region, and the NW Pacific and

  IND, Indian Plate; JF, Juan de Fuca Plate; NAM, North American Plate; NZ, Nazca Plate; OKH, Okhotsk Plate; PCF, Pacific Plate; PHS, Philippines Sea Plate; RI, Rivera Plate; SAM, South American Plate; SCO, Scotia Plate; SHP, South Shetland Plate; SOM, Somalian Plate; SSW, South Sandwich Plate; SUN, Sunda Plate. 1, North American Cordillera; 2, The Andes

	Cordillera; 3, African Topography; 4, Tibetan-Himalayan Orogen; 4-5, Greenland and
	Antarctic ice sheet (Modified from

Main plates are: AFR, African Plate; ANT, Antarctic Plate; ARB, Arabian Plate; AUS, Australian Plate; AMR, Amur Plate; CAR, Caribbean Plate; COC, Cocos Plate; EURASIA, Eurasian Plate;

Acknowledgments J o u r n a l P r e -p r o o f Journal Pre-proof This work was supported by the European Research Council's consolidator grant MAGIC (Monsoons in Asia caused Greenhouse to Icehouse Cooling) no. 649081. We thank Yannick Donnadieu, Pierre Sepulchre and Marc Jolivet for fruitful discussions. Finally, we thank three anonymous reviewers and editor Dr. Fielding for detailed and constructive reviews.

VI