Iresha Ratnayake
email: iresha.ratnayake@edu.uu.se

Linda Marie Ahl

Johan Prytz

Uffe Thomas Jankvist

A comparison of the implementation of two large-scale innovations in mathematics education: TRIUMPHS and 'Boost for Mathematics'

Keywords: Implementation research, scaling, PD, Boost for Mathematics, TRIUMPHS

When evaluating large-scale innovation implementation projects, it is of particular interest to identify which characteristics determine the innovation's impact on the target group. By analyzing the projects TRIUMPHS and Boost for Mathematics (BM) by their respective designs of professional development and their designs for scaling innovations, we identify influential factors that appear to have been decisive in terms of these innovations' different impacts. We found that TRIUMPHS' relative success, compared with the BM, may rest on voluntary participation, flexibility in innovation enactment, in terms of fidelity and adaptation, and a scaling plan resting on the teachers seeking out the innovation rather than the innovation being mandatory for the teachers.

Introduction

Why are some innovations effective and successful in their implementations, while others are notor are only so to a lesser extent? Of course, there is no simple answer to this question. Many factors play a part in the successful implementation of an innovation. In addition, both the major successes and the lesser ones have likely gone through a long preparation phase prior to the implementation, and the larger the initiative the more experts were probably involved, which one would think should increase the chances of success. In this paper, we take a comparative look at two large-scale innovations in mathematics education. The common basis for the innovations is that they both have to do with the professional development (PD) of mathematics teachers. Besides this, they are rather different: one is aimed at US college and university instructors, who participate on a voluntary basis in a project centred around the use of primary historical sources in the teaching and learning of mathematics; the other was a national effort for Swedish K-12 teachers centred around a large variety of PD modules, and where participation was mandatory if a principal signed up a school for participation. Still, it is our hypothesis that a comparison of key aspects of the two innovations and their implementation processes may reveal insights in terms of, for example, attributes of the innovations or determinants, core ideas, of the implementations that acted as catalysts for either success or failure. This in particular if the two innovations and their implementations are analyzed through the same theoretical lenses. That said, it appears to be commonly acknowledged that the US project, named "The TRansforming Instruction in Undergraduate Mathematics via Primary Historical Sources", and abbreviated TRIUMPHS, is a relative success [START_REF] Barnett | Transforming mathematics instruction via primary historical sources: A study of influential factors on implementation of a curricular innovation at the tertiary level[END_REF], whereas the Swedish effort, known as the "Boost for Mathematics", we abbreviate it BM, was less successful in several respects (e.g., [START_REF] Lindvall | Critical features of professional development programs: Comparing content focus and impact of two large-scale programs[END_REF].

Our theoretical lenses to compare these two innovations and their implementation processes are [START_REF] Kennedy | How does professional development improve teaching?[END_REF] classification of PD programs and [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF] four dimensions of scaling.

Our specific research question is: From a theoretical point of view on PD and scaling, what are the influential factors of TRIUMPHS and BM, respectively, that appear to have been decisive in terms of these innovations' different impacts? We begin by describing the theoretical constructs in detail, after which we provide descriptions and analyses of TRIUMPHS and BM, respectively. We end the paper with a discussion on influential factors and differences between the projects in terms of the organization of PD and scaling, and finally a conclusion.

Implementation research theoretical constructs

PD programs for teachers come in different shapes based on different ideas on how to achieve change in classroom practice. We use [START_REF] Kennedy | How does professional development improve teaching?[END_REF] classification of PD designs, prescriptions, strategies, insight, and body of knowledge, to describe the differences between TRIUMPHS and BM. In Kennedy's classification, prescription refers to the PD model based on scripted instructions for teachers to follow. Teachers are given a 'recipe' for how to act in the classroom. From this so-called profidelity perspective [START_REF] Century | Implementation Research: Finding Common Ground on What, How, Why, Where, and Who[END_REF], the idea is that the better the teachers follow the recipe, the better the outcome of the implementation is expected to be. While the profidelity perspective dominates the prescription model, less prescriptive models of PD need other perspectives. The pro-adaptation perspective is based on the idea that adaptations of innovations are both necessary and desirable. What is important is the outcome of the innovation.

Facilitating teacher learning through the PD model strategies in [START_REF] Kennedy | How does professional development improve teaching?[END_REF] classification includes presenting a goal and demonstrating practices to achieve that goal. Teachers are given certain agencies to choose different strategies from 'toolboxes' to address specific goals for practice, e.g., a problem-solving strategy, a method for organizing classroom discussions, or a new trajectory for presenting content. While teachers' autonomy is given some space in the strategy model, which we interpret as a certain degree of pro-adaptation perspective, profidelity dominates once a strategy is chosen.

The third classification, insight, rests on the idea that increased knowledge exemplified by teaching practices can give teachers tools to change their practice [START_REF] Kennedy | How does professional development improve teaching?[END_REF]. The model is based on challenging the teachers' beliefs so that they are given incentives to change their practice via their own 'AHA moments'. The degree of pro-adaptation perspective is significantly higher in this model than in the strategy model. Here, the PD model aims at changing the teachers' understanding of the classroom situation and then acting on the new understanding with a changed practice.

The fourth classification, body of knowledge, carries the idea that if teachers just gain more mathematical knowledge for teaching, pedagogical content knowledge, didactics, etc., they will be able to plan and implement better teaching (Kennedy, 20016). Body of knowledge can for example be regular university courses, lectures, or tutorial videos which are used as 'watering jugs' of knowledge to pour over the teachers. To a greater extent than the other models, prescription, strategy, and insight, this PD model rests on a pro-adaptation perspective of the implementation of innovations. The four classifications are not mutually exclusive. PD programs may contain elements from all four models.

Addressing the task of disseminating innovations, [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF] presents four interrelated dimensions of scale: depth, sustainability, spread, and shift in reform ownership. Depth refers to a change in classroom practice that goes beyond a shift in curriculum resources and the introduction of specific teaching methods and activities for teaching. [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF] argues that scaling in depth includes a shift in teachers' beliefs and norms of social interaction regarding communication and pedagogical practices in the classroom. The underlying ideas of what constitutes effective instruction and how the students shall learn may need to change for the implementation project to succeed.

Implementation projects need a plan for how the innovation will survive in the organization after the implementation project is finished. The dimension of scaling that Coburn refers to as sustainability concerns the scaffolding that is left to maintain the vitality of the innovation after the support of the reform leaders is withdrawn from the organization [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF].

While spread to other schools and classrooms is key in all scaling, Coburn includes spread within the different levels of stakeholders in the school system: classrooms, schools, and districts (for more information, see [START_REF] Krainer | Implementation as interaction of research, practice, and policy. Considerations from the Austrian initiative IMST[END_REF]. Finally, Coburn adds the dimension of a shift in reform ownership to the notion of scale. When an innovation is launched, the ideas and activities are owned by the innovators and implementation designers. But over time, the authority to scale the implementation needs to shift to the districts, schools, and teachers if the innovation is to become a natural part of the organization. Then scaling in-depth, sustainability, and spread can be maintained.

The TRIUMPHS project

The TRansforming Instruction in Undergraduate Mathematics via Primary Historical Sources (TRIUMPHS) project is an American endeavor funded by the National Science Foundation (NSF), and one that draws on previous projects and experiences using primary historical sources from the history of mathematics in the teaching and learning of mathematics [START_REF] Barnett | Transforming mathematics instruction via primary historical sources: A study of influential factors on implementation of a curricular innovation at the tertiary level[END_REF][START_REF] Clark | Tales of research initiatives on university-level mathematics and primary historical sources[END_REF]. The innovation is built around so-called primary source projects (PSPs), which involve a special strategy of bringing the primary sources into play as part of curricular materials and reporting on the expected benefits of using this teaching approach. This is to say that on the one hand, TRIUMPHS is a development project implementing an innovation. Yet, on the other hand, it is also a research project related to students' understanding of mathematics, to a large extent relying on [START_REF] Sfard | Thinking as communicating[END_REF] theory of commognition.

The primary historical sources can be excerpts from published manuscripts (in books or journals), letter correspondences, etc. by past mathematicians. For example, these might cover the history of the concept of function, and the various, previous 'concepts' around, e.g. that of Leonhard Euler (1707-1783), or (as in previous TRIUMPHS related projects) the development of abstract algebra involving works of mathematicians such as J. L. Lagrange (1736-1813), Augustin Cauchy (1789-1857), and Arthur Cayley (1821-1895). The PSPs present parts of chosen primary sources (English translations, if originally in other languages) accompanied by a so-called 'guided reading', the purpose of which is to provide background to the text, supplementary comments if the terminology is different from that which the students are familiar with, and exercises and tasks assisting the students' understanding of the involved mathematical content.

The PSPs are designed for undergraduate students and the target groups are their college and university instructors. The PSPs are intended as a replacement for traditional textbooks or lecture notes. They are designed for the same number of course days as the traditional material. They are self-contained in terms of mathematical and historical content. A special feature of the PSPs is that these can be 'altered' as part of the adaptation by the instructors if needed, or if the teachers simply have an urge to do so. Hence, the PSPs are no-cost, open-source LaTeX files. College and university instructors, who usually hold a mathematics-related degree, are invited to participate in specially designed training seminars, where PSPs are presented by their authors and where certain 'site-testers' (authors or instructors) share their experiences with using the various PSPs. Over time, some of the instructors who gain experience with the use of primary historical sources may end up developing their own PSPs (e.g. under the guidance of project leaders).

According to the project leaders of TRIUMPHS, the innovation is aimed at an 'implementation at scale', i.e., the idea of expanding the innovation to new contexts that are larger than the initial in terms of the number of undergraduate students, instructors, colleges and universities, districts, etc. [START_REF] Barnett | Transforming mathematics instruction via primary historical sources: A study of influential factors on implementation of a curricular innovation at the tertiary level[END_REF]. In relation to TRIUMPHS, it should be emphasized that any participation is voluntary on the instructors' behalf. In their discussion of factors related to attributes of the PSPs, including also the project's dissemination and implementation support strategies, [START_REF] Barnett | Transforming mathematics instruction via primary historical sources: A study of influential factors on implementation of a curricular innovation at the tertiary level[END_REF] point to different characteristics of the individual instructors, and that these are of two types: "those who have thus far limited their PSP usage to a single course and those for whom PSP usage has permeated their instructional practice" (p. 208). In terms of any actual 'impact', [START_REF] Barnett | Transforming mathematics instruction via primary historical sources: A study of influential factors on implementation of a curricular innovation at the tertiary level[END_REF] describe various positive experiences, both in terms of quantitative and qualitative measures. In relation to the latter, Barnett et al. draw on Coburn's (2003) measures of depth and shift in reform ownership-things that truly show, once the second type of instructors begins to adapt existing PSPs to their own practice, or even develop their own.

The BM project

The Boost for Mathematics (BM) project was an in-service training program for Swedish mathematics teachers, covering K-12. It ran between 2013 and 2016. A total of 76% of all Swedish mathematics teachers joined the large-scale BM project. While it was voluntary for principals to join the BM, the school's teachers had no choice whether to join or not once the principal had decided. The background of the project was the fact that Swedish results in international large-scale assessments had decreased very much in the previous 15 years. Actually, no other country has had a greater drop in these types of studies (e.g., TIMSS and PISA). This triggered politicians to act. In the official reports preceding the BM, a plausible cause was identified: the teachers were too seldom leading the teaching, and students were too often working alone without supervision and feedback from the teachers. This resulted in the general goals of BM concerning a changed teaching culture, but also a changed in-service training culture. As to the teaching culture, teachers should know more teaching methods and learn how to reflect better on decisions linked to teaching [START_REF] Prytz | When research met policy: A history of innovation and a complicated relationship in three Swedish development projects in mathematics education, 1960-2018[END_REF]. BM can in certain respects be considered a top-down project, since it was initiated by the national government and later on organized by the National School Agency (Skolverket).

BM covered large parts of the mathematics curriculum. There were so-called modules, used by the teachers, for each of the specific topics of arithmetic, geometry, algebra, and functions. There were also modules for the topics of problem-solving, digitalization, and language in mathematics. For all of these topics, there were modules dedicated to four-year spans: 1-3, 4-6, 7-9, and 10-12. For kindergarten, schools for students with learning disabilities, and adult education there were specific modules. Swedish researchers in mathematics education were involved in producing all the modules [START_REF] Prytz | When research met policy: A history of innovation and a complicated relationship in three Swedish development projects in mathematics education, 1960-2018[END_REF]. In each participating school there was one or more expert teacher(s) who led the peer learning sessions based on the modules. The sessions for each year span were based on two of the modules mentioned above. The one on arithmetic was mandatory, the other was optional. The expert teachers were experienced teachers who got an eight-day training at the university by researchers in mathematics education [START_REF] Prytz | When research met policy: A history of innovation and a complicated relationship in three Swedish development projects in mathematics education, 1960-2018[END_REF].

As to the modules' specific content, they all comprised four themes: abilities (c.f. competencies), formative assessment, interaction, and socio-mathematical norms. The modules were distributed through the website of the National School Agency. More concretely, the modules contained films, audio clips, and web texts with instructions and questions for the peer learning sessions. Each module also contained two types of scientific articles: an international overview of each topic and the four themes and specific articles about the same matter in a Swedish context [START_REF] Prytz | When research met policy: A history of innovation and a complicated relationship in three Swedish development projects in mathematics education, 1960-2018[END_REF].

Discussion and analyses

As data sources, we referred to three recent journal publications for each project, namely: Barnett et al., (2022); [START_REF] Can | Because you're exploring this huge abstract jungle…": One student's evolving conceptions of axiomatic structure in mathematics[END_REF] and [START_REF] Clark | Tales of research initiatives on university-level mathematics and primary historical sources[END_REF] for the TRIUMPHS project and Helenius (2021); [START_REF] Lindvall | Impact and design of a national-scale professional development program for mathematics teachers[END_REF] and [START_REF] Prytz | When research met policy: A history of innovation and a complicated relationship in three Swedish development projects in mathematics education, 1960-2018[END_REF] for the BM project. An overview of the two projects in terms of design is given in Table 1. We then analyzed the two projects using the two frameworks of Kennedy's PD model and Coburn's scaling dimensions. We present our analyses below. BM is clearly a large-scale implementation since it was a nationwide curriculum reform [START_REF] Aguilar | Towards characterization of scale and scaling in implementation research within mathematics education[END_REF]. According to Aguilar and his colleagues' (2023) classification, the TRIUMPHS project can be most likely, considered a deliberate multiplier type of medium-scale implementation project.

In addition to the difference in scale, the two projects are diverse in the end users-tertiary level instructors vs K-12 teachers. Undoubtedly, the designs of the implementations were guided by the end users being tertiary vs K-12 and likely makes a considerable impact on the level of success of each project. For instance, often, tertiary-level instructors have more autonomy to select the course/s to teach and the methods of teaching them [START_REF] Barnett | Transforming mathematics instruction via primary historical sources: A study of influential factors on implementation of a curricular innovation at the tertiary level[END_REF] than K-12 teachers. This disparity is visible in the participation in the projects. Although the participation was on a voluntary basis in both TRIUMPHS and BM, participant teachers of BM had no choice if their principalschose to participate. In contrast, in the TRIUMPHS the instructors were free to choose to adopt the PSPs in their teaching.

The difference in motivation in participation could likely be an influential factor in the success of the TRIUMPHS project.

BM's goals fit well with [START_REF] Kennedy | How does professional development improve teaching?[END_REF] PD models of strategy and insight. The openness of the goals was reflected in the organization of BM. It was based on an idea about peer learning among teachers, which took place in the schools. If the goals of BM, its organization, and the modules are put together, the project has clear similarities with [START_REF] Kennedy | How does professional development improve teaching?[END_REF] strategy model. The teachers were given agency (through peer learning) to choose methods from a toolbox (the modules) to solve specific goals. This also fits nicely with [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF] scaling dimension denoted "shift in reform ownership", at least in theory. The formative assessment theme could fit [START_REF] Kennedy | How does professional development improve teaching?[END_REF] prescription model, since it involves a routine for how assessments are used. However, the peer learning format of BM, giving teachers more agency, takes away the prescriptive character.

While TRIUMPS are delivered through the PD model strategies, BM is carried by both the strategies and the insight PD models. Since the strategies-and insight models are quite close to each other, there are similarities in the design for implementing the two innovations. Both TRIUMPS and BM require profidelity and pro-adaptation of innovations but in slightly different ways. One can use TRIUMPS' no-cost, open-source, PSPs with a full profidelity enactment in practice. Yet, teachers can also develop their own PSPs, which is a clear pro-adaptability perspective on the enactment of the innovation. There are thus opportunities for the teachers to use the innovation as it suits them without violating the program determinants-something that can be a factor in facilitating good results from the implementation. The BM, on the other hand, often required profidelity to teaching models, like the above-mentioned formative assessment, and sometimes left the teacher with fewer prescriptions and greater responsibility for a pro-adaptation perspective on the implementation of the innovation, as in the example of peer learning. This breadth of demands, to follow certain recipes on the one hand and act with autonomous agency in classroom practice on the other hand, may have been challenging for the teachers and limited their opportunities to follow the determinants of innovation. Considering the two innovations through the lens of [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF] dimensions of scaling, clearly BM was spread, since 76% of school mathematics teachers joined the project. Although the TRIUMPHS project is not widespread on a national basis, when compared with the BM, over time it has spread to a larger group of instructors, teachers, and students. Hence, each project can be linked to the spread dimension of [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF] scaling. The difference, however, is that participation of the instructors in TRIUMPHS is on a voluntary basis, whereas in the BM project this was a decision made by the principals of schools. Hence, technically, participation in the BM project was on a voluntary basis, but in practice it was not so. In TRIUMPHS, the instructors who volunteered to participate joined the project because they are willing to adopt the PSPs in their teaching. In contrast, at least some of the teachers were not very keen to change their teaching style to the new methods introduced in the BM. This might be one reason why TRIUMPHS appears more successful than BM, i.e., due to the attributes of the users. Since the participants of TRIUMPHS were self-motivated and already convinced to use the PSPs, the impact might have appeared faster than for the BM.

Each project has components linking to the depth dimension of [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF] scaling. However, the expansion of context in the TRIUMPHS project is different from the focus of the BM project.

From the beginning, there were innovations in the modules as well as among the modules in the BM, whereas the expansion of the context happened in the TRIUMPHS project over time. The nature of the curricular materials of TRIUMPHS-space and freedom for the user to make changes and adapt to their needs-provided opportunities for the instructors to design their own materials for other mathematics courses. The instructors, first, modified the available resources and once they were familiar with the PSPs, they could design new PSPs. This has happened over time, when the users were familiar with the approach of PSPs in understanding modern mathematics. In addition to the expansion of the context, the ownership of the PSPs also shifted to the instructors, i.e., the reform ownership dimension of [START_REF] Coburn | Rethinking scale: Moving beyond numbers to deep and lasting change[END_REF] scaling dimensions. The BM project also drew on the shift in reform ownership by providing the agency to choose the method of teaching from the given methods in a toolbox. Although each project provided some agency for their users, in comparison, instructors who joined TRIUMPHS had more freedom to adapt the materials than BM teachers. This might be a reason for the positive impacts of students' achievement of TRIUMPHS (e.g., [START_REF] Can | Because you're exploring this huge abstract jungle…": One student's evolving conceptions of axiomatic structure in mathematics[END_REF] as opposed to the BM (e.g., [START_REF] Lindvall | Impact and design of a national-scale professional development program for mathematics teachers[END_REF].

Final remarks

In this paper, we have analyzed and discussed whether the differences between the successful TRIUMPS and the less successful BM can be framed in their differences in PD design and plan for scaling innovation. We asked the question: From a theoretical point of view on PD and scaling, what are the influential factors of TRIUMPHS and BM, respectively, that appear to have been decisive in terms of these innovations' different impacts? We found differences in the deliverance of the innovations both in terms of the planning for scaling, and the design of PD projects that brought the innovations out to the teachers and classrooms. Our comparisons of course also raise new questions, some of which have to do with our choice of theoretical constructs. For example, in relation to the notion of depth, it appears rather difficult to assess any profound and consequential change in the BM, at least beyond any surface structures and procedures. To truly assess this, follow-up studies on the involved teachers' potential change in beliefs towards their teaching, pedagogical principles, etc. would have been helpful. However, at present such do not exist.

Table 1 : A design comparison of TRIUMPH project and BM project TRIUMPH project BM project

 1

	Scaling	medium scale	large scale
	Participants (target group)	133 college and university instructors of mathematics courses (Clark et al., 2022)	76% K-12 mathematics teachers in Sweden (app 40 000 teachers (Boesen et al., 2015. p. 129))
	Participation	Voluntary basis	Teachers have no choice if the principal decided to participate
		Freely available via Digital Commons	Freely available on the website of the
	Resources	open-source with LaTeX codes for	National School Agency modules including
		instructors who wish to modify	tasks, reading materials, videos, etc.

Acknowledgment

This paper is part of grant 2020-04090 under the Swedish Research Council.


Souhir Ezzedini
email: souhirezzedini@icloud.com

Sofia Ben Jebara

Malek Abidi

Giovanni De Marco

Influence of Mental Training of Attentional Control on Autonomic Arousal Within the Framework of the Temporal Preparation of a Force Task

Keywords: Attentional control, Force, Autonomic nervous system, Mental training, Machine learning

While temporal preparation has frequently been examined through the manipulation of foreperiods, the role of force level during temporal preparation remains underexplored. In our study, we propose to manipulate mental training of attentional control in order to shed light on the role of the force level and autonomic nervous system in the temporal preparation of an action. Forty subjects, divided into mental training group (n = 20) and without mental training group (n = 20), participated in this study. The influence of the attentional control and force levels on the autonomic nervous system were measured using the skin conductance response and the heart rate variability; the accuracy of the motor responses was measured using a method derived from machine learning. Behaviorally, only the mental training group reinforced its motor and attentional control. When using short foreperiod durations and high force level, motor and attentional control decreased, consistent with the dominant sympathetic system. This resulted in an increased anticipation rate of responses with a higher reaction time compared to the long foreperiods duration and low force level, in which the reaction time significantly decreased, with enhancement of the expected force level, showing consistency with the dominant parasympathetic system. Interestingly, results revealed a predictive relationship between the sympathovagal balance and motor and attentional control during the long foreperiods and low force level. Finally, results demonstrate that attentional mental training leads to the reinforcement of interactions between the autonomic nervous system and attentional processes which are involved in the temporal preparation of a force task.

Introduction

The ability to focus and exhibit selective attention is a fundamental aspect of human cognition. The pivotal role of attention becomes evident through its coordination function, which integrates information from diverse environmental sources. Our interactions with the environment are framed by a temporal dimension [START_REF] Nobre | Attention in flux[END_REF], which contributes to the selection of stimuli aimed at enhancing behaviors related to decisions and motor responses [START_REF] Nobre | Orienting attention to instants in time[END_REF]. The relationship between attention and the temporal dimension is referred to as temporal attention, achieved through alertness mechanisms that reflect a state of attention control. Alertness mechanisms comprise two fundamental attentional components; exogenous attention and endogenous attention. Exogenous attentional mechanisms operate automatically, triggered reflexively by a salient sensory event and supported by bottom-up mechanisms. In contrast, endogenous attentional mechanisms are slower, goal-driven, involving a purposeful and effortful orienting process supported by top-down mechanisms [START_REF] Daly | Temporal deployment of attention by mental training: An fMRI study[END_REF][START_REF] Klein | On the control of attention[END_REF][START_REF] Lawrence | Isolating exogenous and endogenous modes of temporal attention[END_REF][START_REF] Posner | Orienting of attention[END_REF][START_REF] Posner | Neural systems control of spatial orienting[END_REF]. Behavioral studies have revealed enhanced performance in tasks involving exogenous attention when a warning stimulus precedes the imperative stimulus, thereby increasing response readiness. This effect corresponds to the temporal preparation phenomenon, which enables the preactivation of perceptual and motor systems by predicting the future occurrence of an event [START_REF] Hackley | Localization of temporal preparation effects via trisected reaction time[END_REF]. Notably, [START_REF] Woodrow | The measurement of attention[END_REF] has postulated that temporal preparation develops during the foreperiod (FP), which is the temporal interval that separates the cue (warning stimulus) from the imperative stimulus (target). The warning signal serves as a temporal reference for response preparation, allowing subjects to estimate the occurrence of the imperative stimulus (Niemi & Naatanen, 1981).

Since these seminal works, researchers have been extensively investigated the FP within alertness tasks to study the phenomenon of temporal preparation [START_REF] Daly | Temporal deployment of attention by mental training: An fMRI study[END_REF][START_REF] Los | Outlines of a multiple trace theory of temporal preparation[END_REF][START_REF] Mccormick | On the selection of endogenous and exogenous signals[END_REF][START_REF] Périn | Alertness in young healthy subjects: An fMRI study of brain region interactivity enhanced by a warning signal[END_REF]Vallesi et al., 2007). Two variants of the FP paradigm have been classically described in the literature [START_REF] Sanders | Task predictability influences the variable foreperiod effect: Evidence of task-specific temporal preparation[END_REF]. The first variant refers to a constant FP duration within a block of trials but varies between different blocks of trials. The second, more widely used variant features a variable FP duration, randomly intermixed within a block of trials. Behavioral results were consequently different in both variants. The first variant highlights the constant FP effect which results in increased reaction time (RT) with increased FP. This result was explained by the inability of participants to maintain an optimal state of preparation for a long time. However, the second variant put forward the variable FP effect, which is manifested by a decreased RT with increased FP. This decreased RT was explained by an increased predictability of imperative stimulus with the increased FP duration. These findings have contributed to the development of various models aimed at explaining the underlying mechanisms of temporal preparation [START_REF] Coull | The noradrenergic α2 agonist clonidine modulates behavioural and neuroanatomical correlates of human attentional orienting and alerting[END_REF][START_REF] Of Los | Intentional and unintentional contributions to nonspecific preparation: Electrophysiological evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Los | Intentional and unintentional contributions to nonspecific preparation during reaction time foreperiods[END_REF][START_REF] Los | Outlines of a multiple trace theory of temporal preparation[END_REF][START_REF] Los | The foreperiod effect revisited: Conditioning as a basis for nonspecific preparation[END_REF][START_REF] Sturm | On the functional neuroanatomy of intrinsic and phasic alertness[END_REF]Vallesi & Shallice, 2007;Vallesi et al., 2007;Vallesi et al., 2007).

The variable FP effect was widely used in simple RT tasks as well as in choice RT tasks. However, only a few studies have combined response force and RT task with variable FP paradigm. While FPs are important, they are not the only factors to consider. Importantly, multiple aspects of a task can contribute to RT responses [START_REF] Nobre | Attention and time[END_REF]. In fact, some RT theorists (e.g., [START_REF] Sanders | Task predictability influences the variable foreperiod effect: Evidence of task-specific temporal preparation[END_REF] assume that manipulations of the FP influence the duration of motor processing, the motoric portion of RT. Given the motoric nature of FP factors, it prompts the question of whether these factors impact not only RT but also the exerted force when generating a response [START_REF] Mattes | Response force is sensitive to the temporal uncertainty of response stimuli[END_REF].

Therefore, in addition to manipulating FP durations, we manipulate in our paradigm the force levels that allows us to investigate the interaction between the force levels and the FPs with and without mental training of attentional control. More precisely, we would like to demonstrate that if participants are mentally trained to attentional control, they can increase their physiological arousal improving thereby the temporal preparation of action.

In fact, mental training of attentional control serves to enhance performance optimization by stimulating working memory, increasing vigilance, and improving motor execution capabilities. Our training approach is a strategic methodology for improving performance outcomes [START_REF] Daly | Temporal deployment of attention by mental training: An fMRI study[END_REF][START_REF] Decety | Neural mechanisms subserving the perception of human actions[END_REF][START_REF] Jackson | Potential role of mental practice using motor imagery in neurologic rehabilitation[END_REF]. Interestingly, McCormick et al. (2019) introduced a task that effectively combined endogenous and exogenous attention mechanisms. Their findings revealed an improvement in response accuracy. The authors suggest that exposing participants to different alerting modes during the task could influence their overall mental state of responding and impact their tonic arousal levels. However, the physiological mechanism underlying the arousal levels in this kind of task has not been a focus of great interest.

According to the Neurovisceral Integration Model [START_REF] Thayer | A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation[END_REF][START_REF] Thayer | Heart rate variability, prefrontal neural function, and cognitive performance: The neurovisceral integration perspective on self-regulation, adaptation, and health[END_REF], there is an association between cardiac vagal tone and the functioning of emotional self-regulatory systems. This hypothesis could be extended to encompass the attentional functions. Previous research has demonstrated that cognitive functioning worsens under autonomic conditions [START_REF] Thayer | A model of neurovisceral integration in emotion regulation and dysregulation[END_REF][START_REF] Thayer | A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: Implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health[END_REF][START_REF] Thayer | The relationship of autonomic imbalance, heart rate variability and cardiovascular disease risk factors[END_REF]. A potentially underlying neurophysiological mechanism that can affect the tonic arousal levels are the interactions between attentional and motor functions and the sympathetic and parasympathetic components of the ANS. Notably, as early as 1969, Porges and

Q2

Raskin, who were interested in the interactions between attention and the ANS, demonstrated that heart rate variability was significantly decreased during sustained attention. Further studies, such as [START_REF] Backs | Multimodal measures of mental workload during dual-task performance: Energetic demands of cognitive processes[END_REF], who manipulated memory load and temporal intervals in sustained attention task, found that vagal activity decreased as attentional demand increased. Additionally, other authors have related skin conductance responses (SCRs), an index of the sympathetic system, to attention in mental workload. [START_REF] Kahneman | Pupillary, heart rate, and skin resistance changes during a mental task[END_REF] also demonstrated that during a cognitive task in which mental effort was manipulated, sympathetic responses, as reflected by SCRs, correlated with the cognitive load imposed by the task. Based on other evidence, [START_REF] Lacey | Somatic response patterning and stress: Some revisions of activation theory[END_REF] has argued that a sympathetic component of the ANS would indicate the sensitization of the organism to external environmental stimuli. Consequently, the sympathetic system would reinforce autonomic arousal to ensure adaptation to situations that require a rapid reaction [START_REF] Cannon | The emergency function of the adrenal medulla in pain and the major emotions[END_REF][START_REF] Critchley | Electrodermal responses: What happens in the brain[END_REF].

Despite prior studies aimed to elucidate the relationship between the ANS and the attentional functions, the question of the neurophysiological mechanisms underlying the November 25, 2023 16:55 4 of S. Ezzedini et al. / Cognitive Science 00 (2023) attentional control remains largely unexplored. Temporal orienting experiments have revealed a tight link between temporal attention and behavioral response, but to our knowledge, no study has investigated attentional control in its temporal dimension, taking into account the autonomic and involuntary activity of the body as a dynamic source that constantly collects data from the environment [START_REF] Nobre | Attention in flux[END_REF][START_REF] Tatler | Everyday visual attention[END_REF].

Q3

Our study aims to investigate the influence of mental training of attentional control on autonomic arousal within the framework of the temporal preparation of a force task. We propose from alerting tasks (exogenous and endogenous), by manipulating the duration of the foreperiods (short FPs and long FPs) and the force levels (low and high) to study the interactions between the attentional (temporal preparation) and motor (force levels) functions and autonomic nervous system. We hypothesize that undergoing mental training session involving both endogenous and exogenous alertness will show improved attentional performance in exogenous condition and will affect both sympathetic and parasympathetic systems. During the conditions of short FP and high force level, participants will further anticipate the target (imperative stimulus) due to a lack of temporal preparation and will deviate from the expected value of strength (80% of the maximum voluntary strength); this lack of accuracy will be accompanied by an increased sympathetic activity. Conversely, during the condition of long FP and low force level, we expect participants to reduce their RT and respect further the required force value (20% of the maximum voluntary strength), due to a better attentional and motor control, accompanied by an increased parasympathetic activity.

Methods

Participants

Forty healthy participants (20 females and 20 males) aged between 20 and 35 years (mean = 26.92; SD = 4.14) with no known history of neurological, psychiatric, or sensorimotor disorders were recruited. All participants were right-handed, as assessed by the Edinburgh inventory for right-handedness. Before the screening process, all participants were provided with a detailed explanation of the study's purpose and procedures. They signed an informed consent form before participating in the study. The participants were randomly assigned within two groups: the mental training group (MT group) (n = 20), who received mental training before the physical task, and the without mental training group (without MT group) (n = 20), who performed only the physical task. The study protocol was approved by the institutional research board of the CPP Ile-de-France.

Procedure

Participants sat comfortably in a chair and performed three trials of force reaching the maximum voluntary strength by squeezing a handgrip during 2 s maximum using their right hand; the instruction given was to "squeeze the dynamometer as stronger as possible and release the pressure at the moment indicated by the experimenter"; each trial was followed by 30 s of rest. The maximum voluntary strength was determined by calculating the mean of the three consecutive trials and allowed for normalization of the force levels of each participant at 20% (low force) and 80% (high force) of the maximum voluntary strength. Participants were asked to retain the 20% and 80% force values, each converted into a numerical value on a gauge (see Fig. 1).

Paradigm

The experimental task consisted of four blocks of an exogenous alertness task, which included a warning stimulus (beep signal) preceding the imperative stimulus (Go signal) and four blocks of an endogenous alertness task without a warning stimulus. The blocks alternated between endogenous and exogenous alertness conditions. In the exogenous alertness task, each block was composed of 14 trials with two force levels (low and high) and two FPs (short [650 ms] and long [710 ms]) that alternated. The FP interval separated the warning stimulus (auditive signal "beep") from the target stimulus (auditive signal "GO") to prepare temporally the participants to respond by squeezing the handgrip as quickly and accurately as possible. Participants had to reach the force level (low or high) by adjusting the needle of the gauge projected on the screen (see Fig. 1). The visual feedback (see Fig. 1) enabled the subject to control the precision of the motor responses in producing the appropriate force level (20% or 80% of voluntary maximal force) that participants kept in memory. In the endogenous alertness task, each block was composed of 14 trials; before each block, participants were instructed to squeeze the handgrip as quickly and accurately as possible when they heard the imperative stimulus (GO signal) by reaching the requested force level (low or high). The purpose of using two opposite force levels (low and high) was to modulate the autonomic arousal level underlying the mental and physical effort of the subject.

The duration of the stimulus instructing the force level was 2 s, the duration of the warning stimulus (sound) was 50 ms, and the duration of the auditory imperative stimulus was 200 ms. The duration of trials and blocks was the same for the endogenous and exogenous alerting tasks, the duration of a block was 60 s including the duration stimulus instructions. The overall duration of the tasks was about 8 min.

All groups, with and without mental training, performed the same experimental task, and they had the same number of trials to prevent temporal expectation. We proposed a mental training task that combines the exogenous and endogenous alertness with the same duration, about 8 min [START_REF] Mccormick | On the selection of endogenous and exogenous signals[END_REF]. Half of the participants were instructed to perform mentally the alerting task (MT group) during the mental training session, before physically performing it (attentional control reinforcement). They were requested to perform the task by imagining the handgrip squeezing without any motor output. The remaining participants (without MT group) did not receive any attentional control reinforcement before physically performing the task. Nonetheless, all participants were familiarized with the physical task in order to prevent the development of temporal expectations during the initial trials of the physical task. ) and Acqknowledge software (5.0.4), respectively. The auditory stimuli were programmed using Eprime and synchronized with Acqknowledge to appear as digital inputs in separate channels. The force was measured by a handgrip (TSD121B Hand Dynamometer) which was connected to Acqknowledge and the force signal acquisition was recorded in a separate channel. Force values corresponded to the peak of the force signal.

RTs were extracted from the force signal for each trial by capturing the initial moments of the response that corresponded to 10-15% above the baseline. All responses less than 100 ms after the go signal are categorized as anticipation.

Accuracy of force levels

The success of the motor task was determined by how close the realized force level is to the desired one. Therefore, to investigate the ability to achieve the required force level, machine learning techniques automatically infer the different classes of force levels. These inferences automatically examine the statistical properties of the force peak and create a model which is used to predict the level of realized force and compares it to the desired one. In contrast, conventional approaches, that do not use artificial intelligence, are based on deterministic systems in which a set of rules are explicitly specified to perform the specific task. These rules are either determined by mathematical models or formally made explicit by the designer. This task is not obvious in this case. That is why, machine learning, a branch of artificial intelligence, was useful in our study. To ensure subjects compliance with the instructions and verify the relationship between speed and accuracy of responses, we measured the accuracy of the subject's answers for the different FPs and force levels. The criteria, used to evaluate the precision of the requested forces level depending on FPs, was the percentage of force level respect. The methodology to study the aptitude of the subjects to respect the force instructions was the following. First, the two force levels (low and high) were described through the normalized force percentage and reorganized according to the realized force levels. A classification approach based on the method of "Radial Basis Function Kernel Based Support Vector Machine" [START_REF] Wang | RBF kernel based support vector machine with universal approximation and its application[END_REF] was carried, yielding to two real classes which were not effectively equal to those requested. A comparison between the requested level of force and the realized one was analyzed and expressed in terms of the percentage of the respected force level. Second, we analyzed how the peak of the force was changing according to the required instruction. The mean values of normalized force percentage were determined for each force level in both groups of MT and without MT. The best precision was achieved when the mean value of each class (low, high) was close to the recommended one (0.2, 0.8). participants, which allows us to analyze the correlations between the autonomic nervous system components and the RTs.

Neurophysiological markers

Q5

Skin conductance responses

The SCR signals have been used as tonic activity markers of the sympathetic nervous system. SCRs were recorded with the sensor positioned on the middle finger and the distal (first) phalanges of the index of the nondominant hand, using an electrodermal GEL101 to facilitate the contact between the sensor and the skin. SCRs data were analyzed according to the SPR Ad Hoc Committee on Electrodermal Measures (2012) as described in the AcqKnowledge software manual. The criterion for the smallest acceptable SCR was set at 0.03 microsiemens. The SCRs were recorded continuously and simultaneously during the experimental task using the BIOPAC MP160 system with the version 5.0.4 of AcqKnowledge. A period of 5 min was recorded before initiating the experimental task to allow the participant to familiarize with the recording equipment.

Respiration

We have controlled respiration by paced breathing to remove any possibility of influencing the heart rate variability. We instructed the participants to breathe naturally during the task [START_REF] Denver | the European Society of Cardiology and The North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology[END_REF]. Respiration was recorded using a pneumatic respiration transducer (TSD221). Respiratory rate was extracted as described in the AcqKnowledge software manual [START_REF] Grossman | A comparison of three quantification methods for estimation of respiratory sinus arrhythmia[END_REF][START_REF] Ritz | Guidelines for mechanical lung function measurements in psychophysiology[END_REF]. The respiration signal was recorded continuously and simultaneously during the experimental task using the BIOPAC MP160 system with the version 5.0.4 of AcqKnowledge. A period of 5 min was recorded before initiating the experimental task to allow the participant to familiarize with the recording equipment.

Electrocardiogram

We have measured the heart rate variability using EL500 series disposable electrodes. The electrode positions have been applied according to the common Lead II configuration using GEL 100 to facilitate the contact. After filtering the signal, we decomposed the heart rate variability into two frequential components using a spectral analysis: low frequencies (LF) and high frequencies (HF). As [START_REF] Malliani | Cardiovascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domain[END_REF][START_REF] Montano | Sympathovagal balance during graded orthostatic tilt[END_REF], we calculated the relative value of each component in proportion to the total power.

Q6

The ratio of LF over HF in normalized units provided a balanced index allowing to control the behavior of the sympathetic and parasympathetic branches of the ANS [START_REF] Malliani | Cardiovascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domain[END_REF][START_REF] Pagani | Power spectral density of heart rate variability as an index of sympatho-vagal interaction in normal and hypertensive subjects[END_REF]. In addition, the normalization allows to reduce the impact of the changes in total power. The LF component has a frequency range between 0.04 and 0.15 Hz, whereas the HF component occurs at 0.15-0.4 Hz. LF/HF ratio was calculated as an index of sympathovagal balance, resulting from the sympathetic and parasympathetic (vagal) pathways of the ANS (Task Force of the European Society of Cardiology and The North American Society of Pacing and Electrophysiology, 1996). The details of the calculations are described in the international guidelines [START_REF] Berntson | Heart rate variability: Origins, methods, and interpretive caveats[END_REF]Task ECG signals were recorded continuously and simultaneously during the experimental task using the BIOPAC MP160 system with the version 5.0.4 of AcqKnowledge. A period of 5 min was recorded before initiating the experimental task to allow the participant to familiarize with the recording equipment.

Statistical analysis

The statistical analyses were performed using JASP version 0.16.4. The normality of the data distribution was determined with the Shapiro-Wilk test and the equality of random and fixed variances was determined using the Levene's and sphericity tests. The Chi-Squared Contingency test allowed to verify the statistical significance of the percentages of force level respect determined during the machine learning classification method, examined for each FP and force level in each group. A mixed-design ANOVA was applied to the behavioral data to control the within and between groups variance using three main factors: FPs (650 and 710), force levels (low and high), and attentional mental training (MT groups and without MT groups). When ANOVA indicated a significant main effect or interactions, a Bonferroni post-hoc test was applied (p < .05). Size effects were also reported as partial eta squared (η 2 ). Also, for every independent variable, a Pearson's correlation was applied to study the relation between RTs and the sympathetic and parasympathetic components; finally, a linear regression analysis was applied to determine the prediction of sympathovagal balance on RTs.

Results

Behavioral indices

Reaction times

First, RTs have been measured between both groups (MT and without MT) during the whole exogenous alertness task without separating the different FP and force levels. ANOVA [MT group × without MT group] showed a significant interaction F = 456.7, p < .001, df = 1 with a large effect size: partial η 2 = 0.21, between the MT group {mean = 307.08, SD = 56.9}; the 95% confidence interval = [305.17; 308.99] and the without MT group {mean = 342.56, SD = 59.60}; the 95% confidence interval = [340.56; 344.57].

Second, we have compared the force levels at FP 650 and 710 between both groups; we showed a significant interaction [Force level × FPs × Groups] F = 122.03 p < .001 with a medium effect size: partial η 2 = 0.07 (see Fig. 2).

Within the MT group, at FP 650, Bonferroni post-hoc comparisons showed a significant difference, p < .001 between the RTs at low force level {mean = 344.61, SD = 49.41}, 95% confidence interval = [341.29; 347.65] and high force level {mean = 323.80, SD = 49.78}; the 95% confidence interval = [320.47; 327.14]. Within the without MT group, at FP 650, no significant difference between the force levels was observed. Within the MT group, at FP 710, Bonferroni post-hoc comparisons showed a significant difference, p < . Within without MT group, at FP 710, no significant difference between the force levels was observed.

In the endogenous alertness task without separation of the two force levels, there is no significant difference in RTs, between groups with MT {mean = 372.01, SD = 57.

Anticipations

First, anticipations have been measured between both groups (MT and without MT) during the whole exogenous alerting task without separating the different FPs and force levels. ANOVA analysis showed a significant difference F = 11.23, p < .001, df = 1 with a large effect size: partial η 2 = 0.13 between the MT group {mean = 53.16, SD = 22.59}; the 95% confidence interval = [50.42; 55.91] and the without MT group {mean = 61.4, SD = 24.34}; the 95% confidence interval = [57.48; 65.33]. This result suggested that the subjects significantly anticipated the target after mental training, regardless of FP and force levels. Second, a more detailed analysis of anticipations depending on FPs and force levels within the MT group and the without MT was applied.

Within the MT group, we showed only a significant difference between FP 650 and high force level and FP 710 and low force level, the results are presented in Table 1. The warning stimulus further accelerates the responses at FP 650, a high force level.

Within the without MT group, regardless of FP and force levels, no significant difference was found between FP. Also, no significant difference during the endogenous alertness task between the two groups (MT and without MT) was observed.

Accuracy of force levels

The results are presented in Table 2. Reflecting within the MT group, at FP 710 and low force level, a higher accuracy of the force level requested was observed. No significant difference was found between the two groups at FP 710 and high force level. Additionally, no significant difference was found between the groups at FP 650, regardless of the force levels.

Neurophysiological markers

Correlational analysis between sympathetic (LF, SCR)/parasympathetic (HF component) indices and RTs in MT group

We performed a correlational analysis to study the relationship between the ANS markers and the RTs. At FP 650 and for a high force level, the sympathetic component of ANS dominated within the MT group. The RTs were positively and significantly correlated with LF {Pearson's r = .43 p < .001} and SCR activity {Pearson's r = .51 p < .001} and negatively and weakly correlated with HF {Pearson's r = -.20 p < .001} (see Fig. 3).

No significant correlation was found between the ANS markers and RTs within the without MT group.

At FP 710 and for a low force level, the parasympathetic component of ANS dominated within the MT group. The RTs were positively and weakly correlated with LF {Pearson's r = .30 p < .001} and SCRs activity {Pearson's r = .40 p < .001} and negatively and strongly correlated with HF {Pearson's r = -.56} p < .001} (see Fig. 4). No significant correlation was found between the ANS markers and RTs in the without MT group.

Sympathovagal balance

We did not find any significant differences in respiration rate across conditions (FPs and force levels) among the MT and without MT groups; therefore, we have calculated the LF/HF ratio, a metric of the sympathovagal balance. A linear regression analysis at FP 710 and for a low force level allowed us to predict a significant relationship between LF/HF ratio and RTs within the MT group, R 2 = .21, {F = 35.33; p < .001} (see Fig. 5).

Discussion

The ability to selectively and rapidly allocate attentional resources in time and implement attentional and motor control is fundamental in the regulation of human behavior. The aim of our study was to investigate the role of force level and ANS during the temporal preparation process after attentional control reinforcement induced by a short session of mental training. The mental training allows to maintain a high state of arousal improving the interaction between ANS activity and attentional and motor control.

Our behavioral results demonstrate an improvement in RTs, notably at long FP (710 ms) compared to the short FP (650 ms) within the MT group. The increased probability and thus the predictability of imperative stimulus, induced by the FP, leads to decreased RT with increased FP duration [START_REF] Sanders | Task predictability influences the variable foreperiod effect: Evidence of task-specific temporal preparation[END_REF]. This FP effect observed during the exogenous alertness task can be explained by increased attentional focus, allowing an efficient allocation of attentional resources to respond at the prominent moment [START_REF] Elithorn | Central inhibition-Some refractory observations[END_REF]. Participants were more efficient at long FPs where the top-down control takes time during the alerting task to mobilize higher cognitive functions [START_REF] Connor | Visual attention: Bottom-up versus top-down[END_REF][START_REF] Posner | Neural systems control of spatial orienting[END_REF]. Also, the concomitant reinforcement of the autonomic arousal seems to facilitate and accelerate the response of the subjects. In contrast, no significant improvement in RTs was observed during the endogenous alertness task. This result is consistent with the idea that the autonomic arousal does not appear to contribute to an improvement in response to endogenous arousal. A novel part of our study is that we

Q7

have combined attentional and force response to examine temporal preparation as well as the relationship between ANS and attentional performance, in particular after a mental training session.

During the short FP (650 ms) in the MT group, we observed that the high force level dominated RTs. This result is consistent with the Los's trace-conditioning model ( 2001), which suggests that the amount of preparation during short FP is less than at long FPs because short FPs are often associated with nonresponding or uncontrolled responses. This reduced response readiness might enable an optimal premotor regulation of force response and gives rise to more forceful responses that were more difficult to inhibit (Li, Krystal, & Mathalon, Q8 2005). Reduced FPs and increasing force levels induced a decline in attentional task performance manifested by increasing RTs and anticipation.

Additionally, during the short FP, mental training did not lead to a significant improvement in force response accuracy, and anticipations were widely increased. Consequently, we may suggest that when the attention is divided between mental effort, warning cue, and imperative stimulus, anticipations extensively increase, and the accuracy of responses decreases significantly; the mental training does not seem effective in increasing the accuracy of the motor responses. This interpretation is supported by [START_REF] Kahneman | Attention and effort[END_REF] and [START_REF] Daly | Temporal deployment of attention by mental training: An fMRI study[END_REF], which consider the interference between signals is due to a lack of temporal deployment of attention to task cognitive demands. In a similar vein, we suppose that time pressure related to the mental effort at short FPs with a high force level may mobilize suddenly and rapidly the autonomic arousal (notably the sympathetic component) and subjects cannot reach an optimal attentional level during short FP intervals. Thereby, the increased sudden mental effort during short time scales (FP) produces cognitive interference, which reduces the allocation of resources to moments of the target, giving rise to a phenomenon of inability to control the engagement of exogenous temporal attention.

During the long FP (710 ms) in the MT group, we observed that the low force level dominated RTs. Our results showed that lower force levels resulted in short RTs and more accurate responses compared to the higher force level. This result suggests that the low force does not require a substantial mental and physical effort, so participants are more constantly focused on the target arrival. The significant improvement in motor response accuracy demonstrates that mental training which associates endogenous and exogenous alertness tasks would ameliorate the speed and accuracy of responses as shown in a previous study [START_REF] Mccormick | On the selection of endogenous and exogenous signals[END_REF]. Moreover, the improvement of attentional performance could be explained by an autonomic arousal modulation produced during the MT session, which would help to ensure an optimal arousal reinforcing the attention control. Thereby, long FPs and low force make a state of optimal sustained attention where arousal is prolonged for a period of time and the mind maintains focus with a constant effort to efficiently solicit attention resources [START_REF] Johnsen | Dichotic listening and sleep deprivation: Vigilance effects[END_REF][START_REF] Petersen | The attention system of the human brain: 20 years after[END_REF]. With mental training, subjects showed a significant increase of the anticipations, an effect most pronounced at short FP and high force level. This heightened anticipation is linked to the participant's lack of temporal preparation. Also, as [START_REF] Cravo | Temporal anticipation based on memory[END_REF] have shown, it can be attributed to the memory, known for its dynamic and temporal nature, which enables the active and dynamic guidance of attention based on learned temporal associations.

With regard to our results, it could be interesting to study the oculomotor system activity. According to [START_REF] Badde | Oculomotor freezing reflects tactile temporal expectation and aids tactile perception[END_REF], oculomotor freezing can be indicative of temporal expectation in the tactile stimulus, and microsaccades occurring during tactile target presentation are linked with decreased task performance. Furthermore, research in the auditory domain has revealed a connection between temporal expectation and oculomotor freezing. Therefore, in the case of our study, it would be interesting to explore if microsaccade rates decrease with temporal attention to visual targets, increased attentional and working memory load, and elevated task complexity in both visual and nonvisual tasks.

Interestingly, our study managed to show significant cognitive and neurophysiological interactions between ANS components and cognitive index (RTs) during the temporal preparation task. At short FPs and for a high force level, our results showed that increasing RTs were positively correlated with the increasing of sympathetic activity (LF and SCR), and negatively correlated with the decreasing of parasympathetic activity (HF). This result suggests that the sympathetic component would be dominantly mobilized when participants speed up their response with little precision. Previous studies showed that the impaired sympathetic vagal balance and changes in heart rate variability are associated with changes in the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex [START_REF] Thayer | A meta-analysis of heart rate variability and neuroimaging studies: Implications for heart rate variability as a marker of stress and health[END_REF] and influence working memory [START_REF] Forte | Heart rate variability and cognitive function: A systematic review[END_REF], attention [START_REF] Alba | The relationship between heart rate variability and electroencephalography functional connectivity variability is associated with cognitive flexibility[END_REF], and cognitive flexibility [START_REF] Alasfour | High activity in cortex and hip-Q9 pocampus is correlated with autonomic tone during sleep[END_REF]. Therefore, suddenly increased mental effort induced by short FPs and high force level heightens the sympathetic component of the autonomic arousal which disrupts attentional performance and leads to decreased force accuracy and increased RTs. From a neurobiological point of view, reduced FPs duration and increased force level mobilize a sympathetic system which may inhibit the visceral vagus to stimulate the mobilization of behaviors that are necessary for "fight or flight" [START_REF] Cannon | Neural organization for emotional expression[END_REF][START_REF] Porges | The polyvagal theory: Phylogenetic substrates of a social nervous system[END_REF]. This sympathetic activity abruptly increases, leading to the release of adrenaline and noradrenaline which facilitate the use of energy and prepare the body for rapid reactions [START_REF] Sved | Neuroanatomical specificity of the circuits controlling sympathetic outflow to different targets[END_REF].

More interestingly, at long FPs and low force, our results indicate that the decreasing of RTs was negatively correlated with the increasing parasympathetic activity (HF) and positively correlated with the sympathetic activity (LF and SCRs). This result suggests that the parasympathetic component of the autonomic arousal is consistent with an optimal (critical) state of attention, reflecting a better attentional performance. Previous reports showed that a combination of inhibition and excitation states occurs during FPs interval [START_REF] Posner | Components of attention[END_REF][START_REF] Salet | FMTP: A unifying computational framework of temporal preparation across time scales[END_REF] condition might reflect an inhibition process of irrelevant and premature responses to facilitate the speed and the efficiency of the response [START_REF] Graham | Heart-rate change as a component of the orienting response[END_REF]. From a neurobiological point of view, reduced RTs and enhanced force response accuracy could be explained by the activation of cholinergic neurons which modulate the attentional and motor control and thinking capacity [START_REF] Parikh | Cholinergic mediation of attention: Contributions of phasic and tonic increases in prefrontal cholinergic activity[END_REF]. Finally, we showed in our study that the attentional performance during long FPs and low force level can be predicted by the sympathovagal balance (LF/HF) which is in line with a previous study demonstrating that the speed-accuracy trade-off can be predicted through a high vagal activity [START_REF] Hansen | Vagal influence on working memory and attention[END_REF].

Advantage of machine learning in our study

The use of machine learning techniques, such as a support vector machine model, to assess grip accuracy offers several advantages over conventional approaches based on exploratory or statistical analysis of force. In fact, common approaches use descriptive analysis, data visualization or define, heuristically, the range within which the recorded force measurements should fall to be considered respectful of the level. Statistical tests compare the recorded force measurements with the specified force levels by defining null (resp., alternative) hypothesis that the 'participants' force does not differ (resp., differ) significantly from the specified force level. The difficulty appears in the way to define quantitatively how force level differs significantly or not. In contrast, machine learning can offer several advantages over traditional statistical tests or tolerance limit methods. It can capture complex relationships and nonlinear patterns that might be missed by simple statistical tests or predefined tolerance limit. If the dataset includes a diverse range of parameters (features) and experimental conditions as is the case in our study, machine learning algorithms have the potential to achieve higher accuracy in classifying force levels compared to simpler statistical methods.

Methodological limits

In our study, we have controlled the respiration and analyzed the heart rate variability data using mainly a spectral analysis method where we extracted HF as an indicator widely used to quantify the parasympathetic vagal tonus and LF as a dominant sympathetic component. Also, we assumed in our results that the LF/HF ratio may vary linearly with the RT. However, it is likely that the two sympathetic and parasympathetic systems interact in a nonlinear manner due to the complex interactions that occur between them. Accordingly, to this remark, we should be careful using the LF/HF ratio to quantify the sympathovagal balance [START_REF] Malliani | Cardiovascular neural regulation explored in the frequency domain[END_REF][START_REF] Pagani | Power spectral density of heart rate variability as an index of sympatho-vagal interaction in normal and hypertensive subjects[END_REF]. An alternative solution would be to consider nonlinear methods as, for example, the Poincare plot which makes it possible to index the complexity and the adaptation of the systems [START_REF] Roy | Nonlinear methods to assess changes in heart rate variability in type 2 diabetic patients[END_REF][START_REF] Schubert | Effects of stress on heart rate complexity-A comparison between short-term and chronic stress[END_REF]. Also, a measurement of the entropy of the system using the Approximate Entropy index [START_REF] Pincus | Assessing serial irregularity and its implications for health[END_REF]) could be another option that allows a measure of the amount of information needed to predict the evolution of the state of the system. Finally, another limitation of this study was the small number of participants. Future studies with a larger sample size should be performed to confirm our findings.

Conclusion

The present results show that the benefit of temporal preparation can be optimized with mental training. We demonstrated that mental training modulates the dynamic interaction between sympathetic and parasympathetic components of ANS and improves attentional performance by decreasing RT and anticipation, in particular during the exogenous alertness condition. The short FPs and high force-induced time pressure increased sympathetic activity, leading to poorer attentional performance. Conversely, long FPs and low force level increased the parasympathetic component of autonomic arousal making it possible to optimize attentional performance.

  Fig.1. Experimental task: (A) Exogenous condition: participants had to respond when they hear the target GO by squeezing the handgrip and positioning the needle of the gauge to the numerical value corresponding to 20% (low) or 80% (high) of their voluntary maximal force. The warning sound stimulus was transmitted during 50 ms and preceded the imperative stimulus with varying FPs. (B) Endogenous condition: participants had to respond when they hear the target GO by squeezing the handgrip and positioning the needle of the gauge to the numerical value corresponding to 20% or 80% of their maximum voluntary strength.

  Our methodological approach was chosen to capture fragments of the time course of the SCR, electrocardiogram, and respiration signals. More specifically, we have segmented the signals into time windows corresponding to the FPs duration and motor responses of cogs13391 WILEY CSS(COGS) Trim: 6.75 X 9et al. / Cognitive Science 00 (2023)

  Fig. 2. Results of ANOVA [Groups × Foreperiods × force levels] in exogenous alertness task.

  63}, 95% confidence interval = [368.62; 375.40], and without MT {mean = 368.45, SD = 63.55}, 95% confidence interval = [364.71; 372.86]. Regarding the force levels, within MT group, there is no significant difference in RTs between low force level {mean = 370,85, SD = 51.7}, 95% confidence interval = [366.55; 375.14], and high force level {mean = 373,15, SD = 63.02}, 95% confidence interval = [367.91; 378.38]. Within without MT group, there is no significant difference in RTs between low force level {mean = 368,6, SD = 42.93}, 95% confidence interval = [365.03; 375.14], and high force level {mean = 368,29, SD = 79.01}, 95% confidence interval = [361.72; 374.85].

  Fig. 3. (A) Correlation between LF and SCRs (sympathetic component) and reaction time and (B) correlation between HF (parasympathetic component) and reaction time during FP 650 and high force level.

  Fig. 4. (A) Correlation between LF and SCRs (sympathetic component) and reaction time and (B) correlation between HF (parasympathetic component) and reaction time (right) during FP 710 and low force level.

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Results of the linear regression sympathovagal balance (LH/HF) and RTs in FP 710 low force level. The graph is a residual plot resulting from the Durbin-Watson statistic to test the autocorrelation of the residuals[START_REF] Field | Discovering statistics using R[END_REF].

  Force of the European Society of Cardiology and The North American Society ofPacing and Electrophysiology, 1996).

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Funding information

This work was supported by the Laboratory LINP2, UPL, Paris Nanterre University. This research did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

Conflict of interest statement

The authors of this manuscript declare that they have no conflict of interest to disclose.


Ce que Mai 68 a fait à la littérature Présentation

Nelly Wolf (Université de Lille) Matthieu Rémy (Université de Lorraine)

Comme le rappellent Jean-François Hamel et Julien Lefort-Favreau dans le numéro de la revue Etudes françaises consacré à la « littérature des années 68 », un consensus semble s'être établi autour de l'idée que Mai 68 n'a eu qu'un effet limité sur la littérature1 . La déploration récurrente sur la stérilité littéraire de Mai 68 est en effet devenue un lieu commun corroboré aussi bien par les universitaires que les critiques ou les écrivains. Patrick Combes l'a signifié le premier, dans ouvrage intitulé La littérature et le mouvement de mai 68, en 1984 : « La trace de Mai dans le champ romanesque est […] globalement pauvre, ses effets peu sensibles -ou ils restent à se manifester dans des oeuvres à venir » 2 . Par la suite, l'éminente Kristin Ross écrit dans son livre Mai 68 et ses vies ultérieures : « Mai 68 n'a guère eu d'influence dans les sphères de la haute culture française, plus particulièrement en littérature 3 ». La même année, en 2002, Pierre Michon parle du « grand trou » où serait tombée la littérature après Mai 68. 4 Pour l'un et l'autre, un délai jugé relativement long s'interpose avant que les gamètes congelés de l'événement historique fécondent enfin la matrice littéraire. « Ce n'est qu'au début des années 1980, affirme Ross, dans les pages d'oeuvres plus populaires, que j'ai pu relever les tentatives réelles de comprendre le sens de cette volonté de faire Un roman traditionnel, « lisible », est-il possible sur Mai ? Pourtant il existe une aventure noble, fascinante, de la représentation. Peut-on même écrire un roman sur les événements de 1968 ? Est-ce à dire que Mai ne peut susciter -pour des raisons qu'il faudrait énoncer -de grande oeuvre de fiction ? Ces questions restent posées. Constatons seulement, aujourd'hui, que les « grands » romans, ou les plus significatifs, par rapport à 68, sont des oeuvres qui n'en traitent pas, qui sont excentrées, ou qui en tirent leur substance secrètement, métaphoriquement -en tout cas sans référence directe à Mai, sans le prendre pour objet. Les « vrais » romans sur 68, ceux qui comptent ou compteront peut-être (mais ici la matière est diffuse et échappe), ce sont ceux dont Mai est en quelque sorte, plutôt, le sujet énonciateur On lit de la théorie, de la psychanalyse, de la linguistique, de la philosophie, des textes politiques, ou bien on s'intéresse un peu à ce qui se passe aux Etats-Unis, à Burroughs, Ginsberg, tout ça. Ou alors on va vers une littérature « minoritaire ». Pour certains c'était le fantastique ou la sciencefiction, ce qui ne m'intéressait pas beaucoup. Moi, pendant ces années-là, en même temps que les lectures de formation, ou bien je lisais de la théorie ou bien je lisais des romans policiers 16 .

Jean-Patrick Manchette, dont un chapitre de notre volume tente de dire combien il est un contre-exemple de la sensation michonienne du « grand trou », n'a été stérilisé ni par ses lectures situationnistes -commencées en 1968 -ni par les troubles sociaux. Son oeuvre a au contraire, comme le prouve son Journal, métabolisé une partie des enjeux de l'époque pour donner naissance à L'Affaire N'Gustro, Ô Dingos ô châteaux, Nada et même Le Petit bleu de la côte Ouest. Et toute la littérature que Jean Echenoz appelle précautionneusement « minoritaire » a bénéficié de l'influx de Mai 68. Simon Bréan nous le montre dans ce volume à travers l'exemple de la science-fiction.

Mai 68 pourrait donc avoir plutôt libéré le champ littéraire, bousculant les horizons d'attente, du pôle académique au fameux « pôle de production restreint ». La transformation du monde éditorial dont nous parlions plus tôt en est un signe : de multiples maisons apparaissent (Champ Libre, Le Sagittaire) tandis que les plus installées dans le paysage ne conçoivent plus de publier sans prendre langue avec la nouveauté (pensons à l'apparition de la collection « La France sauvage » chez Gallimard). Les années qui suivent Mai 68 sont ainsi 14 Le cas de Leslie Kaplan, dont l'oeuvre a fortement à voir avec Mai 68, aurait été intéressant à traiter compte tenu du « retard d'émission » qu'il met à jour, l'auteure n'ayant décidé de se lancer en littérature qu'après une longue période de militantisme. Des auteurs comme Jean-Pierre Le Dantec, Dorothée Letessier ou Juliette Kahane pourraient être rangés dans la même catégorie. 15 Jean Echenoz, Entretien avec Matthieu Rémy, Zooey, n°3, 2002, p. 18. 16 Ibid., p. 18.

  contraintes extérieures selon leur logique et leur temporalité propre 9 ». Par ailleurs, le classement des oeuvres en mineures et majeures dépend d'une hiérarchie des normes esthétiques qui varie elle-même en fonction de l'état du champ littéraire et des luttes qui s'y déroulent. A tout le moins, on peut rappeler qu'à la fin des années 60, le Nouveau Roman (dont Tel Quel cherchait à prendre le relais) avait réussi à imposer son canon auprès d'une partie de la critique et des créateurs. A l'« ère du soupçon », à l'heure du rejet des fonctions mimétique et sociologique de la littérature, raconter Mai 68 sans encourir le risque de minorité était une gageure. Robbe-Grillet, avec Projet pour une révolution à New York a tenté de prendre, au nom de l'avant-garde, une option sur le récit de mai. Comme d'autres en même temps que lui, il a tenté de tenir compte de l'événement dans l'écriture d'un roman.Comme certains, il s'est appliqué à contourner la représentation romanesque de cet événement, laissant Patrick Combes s'interroger ainsi :

  C'est le trouble que traduit ce premier bilan critique -où la poésie, le théâtre, le témoignage sont toujours moins interrogés que le roman -qui a nous a décidés organiser en mai 2018 à Nancy -commémoration décennale aidant -un colloque intitulé « Ce que Mai 68 a fait à la littérature ». Cet intense moment de coopération scientifique a donné lieu à l'élaboration des textes de ce volume où se croisent des études consacrées aussi bien aux auteurs qui ont « fait » Mai 68, qui l'on représenté ou ont considéré l'événement comme une borne majeure dans l'histoire des idées, nécessitant reformulation de la littérature française et de ses principes créateurs.Admettons queMai 68 n'a peut-être pas accouché d'une grande oeuvre romanesque (encore, on le répète, que les verdicts de l'histoire littéraire soient fluctuants et toujours susceptibles d'être révisés). Il n'en fallait pas moins d'abord faire un sort à l'idée reçue selon laquelle l'événement lui-même n'avait pas fait l'objet d'un roman digne de ce nom. Anne Wattel montre dans son étude sur Derrière la vitre de Robert Merle que l'auteur de Week-end à Zuydcoote et La Mort est mon métier s'y attela avec le savoir-faire du romancier aguerri qu'il était alors. Maxime Decout décrit de son côté ce que Mai 68 a fait à Romain Gary à travers un texte consacré à Chien blanc, roman peut-être mal-aimé mais qui fait partie intégrante de la geste déployée par son auteur tout au long de sa carrière littéraire, aujourd'hui largement légitimée, comme en témoigne son entrée dans la collection « Quarto » chez Gallimard et les nombreuses études universitaires qui font de Gary un auteur capital du XXe siècle. Dans son étude sur L'Irrévolution de Pascal Lainé, Nelly Wolf cite certains des romans qui, dans les années 1970-1971, prennent Mai 68 comme un sujet de littérature : Les Deux printemps, de Raymond Jean, C'était cela notre amour, de Marie Susini, La Manière noire d'Hélène Parmelin, Fleur d'agonie de Christine de Rivoyre. Mai 68 n'a pas été un événement indicible ou irreprésentable : comme d'autres ont su s'emparer de la révolution de 1848 ou de la Commune de Paris, des auteurs se sont emparés -avec une réussite que l'on jugera toujours subjectivement -de l'événement socio-historique en tant que tel pour en tenter la retranscription 10 . Le malentendu n'en a pas moins persisté, entraînant une « déqualification » de beaucoup d'oeuvres littéraires de l'après Mai 68, jusqu'à ce que certains chercheurs en littérature, certains éditeurs, certains critiques littéraires s'avisent de réévaluer les textes issus de Mai 68 et de ses principes émancipateurs -une certaine forme de démocratisation de l'accès au texte littéraire notamment -pour oublier un moment que la littérature ne s'était pas gelée durant quinze années, attendant impatiemment que Pierre Michon éclairé dans la nuit par Olivier Rolin ne vienne la réchauffer. Pierre Michon fait d'ailleurs cette concession dans « Sortie d'Egypte », évoquant les livres de Guyotat, Tel Quel, les « livres publiés par Georges Lambrichs, Bernard Noël, par Denis Roche » 11 . Comme le montre Gaëlle Théval dans son texte présent dans notre volume, une certaine poésie fut réveillée par Mai 68. Car si l'on connaît la formidable activité déployée par des revues comme Change ou Action poétique, on méconnaît ce que proposa la « poésie action », directement liée aux prémices de Mai 68 comme à son déroulement et ses suites directes. Nathalie Barberger propose ici de relire Frêle bruit de Michel Leiris à l'aune durablement, les traces sont parfois visibles de ce que cette séquence a permis en matière de littérature. Car Mai 68 n'a pas non plus empêché que certains jeunes hommes et femmes de lettres se lancent dans la mêlée, au mépris des interdictions et des injonctions 14 . C'est le cas de Jean-Patrick Manchette, dont Jean Echenoz reconnaît que c'est son exemple qui l'a entraîné vers l'écriture romanesque, à un moment de sa formation où il considérait que le roman qui lui était contemporain « n'existait plus » 15 . Répondant aux questions de Matthieu Rémy pour un entretien accordée à la revue Zooey, il expliquait en 2002 en quoi la fin des années 60 et le début des années 70 constituait une période où le roman -dans l'acception de l'époque, certainement -n'apparaissait plus comme désirable, au profit d'autres lectures, d'autres savoirs :

  un fabuleux terrain d'investigation pour celui qui voudrait entreprendre une étude sociocritique de large ampleur : de 1968 à 1973, les codes esthétiques changent, y compris dans la « haute culture » en dépit de ce que soutient Kristin Ross. Et paradoxalement, c'est en étudiant ce qu'un auteur comme André Malraux a évité de comprendre dans l'événement qui se déroulait, que Jean-Louis Jeannelle nous livre quelques clefs de compréhension de cette mécanique générale. Si les années 80 auront, comme l'a bien montré François Cusset dans son livre La Décennie, tendance à négliger cet héritage esthétique -bien que l'oeuvre romanesque de Geneviève Brisac, par exemple, démente cette autre vérité générale rapidement assénée -une autre génération s'en emparera plus tard. Les commémorations et hommages n'ayant pas cessé, les témoignages s'étant succédé avec régularité, des auteurs ont pu s'emparer de l'événement 68 pour en donner leur propre version, comme Tiphaine Samoyault ou les écrivains du groupe Inculte, dont Jean-Marc Baud nous présente un portrait de groupe littéraire s'appuyant en partie sur une réflexion liée à celle qui animait Mai 68. Plus généralement, la littérature semble n'avoir plus d'égard spécifique pour un événement qui fait aujourd'hui partie de l'inconscient collectif. Comme le montre Stéphane Chaudier, Mai 68 est devenu un sujet de littérature, qu'on l'ait vécu ou non. Etudiant Trois enfants du tumulte d'Yves Bichet, il montre en quoi la perspective littéraire c'est déplacée en même temps que la perspective historiographique : Mai 68 ne se déroule pas à Paris mais à Lyon. Bien sûr, nous ne saurions, en donnant à voir « Ce que Mai 68 a fait à la littérature », passer d'un extrême à l'autre, niant rageusement que certains auteurs publiant leurs premiers livres au début des années 80 portaient une idée du romanesque qui s'inscrivait dans une perspective esthétique en décalage avec celle de la décennie précédente. Mais il ne fait aucun doute qu'une histoire littéraire des années 70 en France est à soigneusement refaire. On y découvrira ou redécouvrira des trésors d'inventivité et d'audace -parmi les constructions froides et désincarnées, victimes d'un « théoricisme » stérilisant -et on y replacera quelques bornes contextuelles permettant de mieux appréhender l'oeuvre d'immenses auteurs, de Georges Perec à Jean-Patrick Manchette, en passant par Jean-Marie Gustave Le Clézio et Patrick Modiano, pour ne citer qu'eux.

Jamais toutefois ils ne prétendent que la littérature et l'histoire ont raté le rendez-vous que la raison poétique leur avait fixé. Bref, on est obsédé par les failles d'un cahier des charges imaginaire qui empêche de voir ce qui s'est

  table rase… ». « C'était en 1983 » renchérit Michon, pour qui la résurrection de la littérature commença cette année-là, lorsque il entendit à la radio, « fraîchement sortie d'Egypte », la voix d'Olivier Rolin. 5 Certes, la frustration n'étant pas sans fondement, il n'est pas illégitime d'y faire écho (voir infra, l'article de Nelly Wolf et celui de Stéphane Chaudier). Mais il faut la relativiser Car cette routine critique recèle une série de présupposés qui méritent d'être soumis au doute méthodologique. Pourquoi faudrait-il que Mai 68 eût changé quelque chose à la littérature ?Et pourquoi sans délai ? Quelle est la loi scientifique ou la régularité empirique qui établit que, nécessairement, mécaniquement, entre l'événement historique et la nouveauté esthétique, il y a interaction ? Et quel modèle a-t-on en tête lorsqu'on réclame à Mai 68 son chef d'oeuvre ? L'Education Sentimentale ? Plus de vingt ans séparent le roman de Flaubert et la révolution de 1848. Vingt ans : voilà qui coïncide justement avec la périodisation implicite de Kristin Ross ou Pierre Michon, qui font de cet intervalle un lieu de néant. Adresse-t-on le 'un côté, et les champs littéraire et artistique de l'autre n'est pas direct mais sinueux, en raison de l'« autonomie relative de ces champs qui retraduisent les

	même reproche au Front Populaire ? Regrette-t-on qu'il n'ait rien fait, ou pas grand-chose, à
	la littérature ? S'étonne-t-on qu'entre 1936 et 1941, aucune oeuvre majeure n'ait su restituer,
	dans un style épique ou carnavalesque, les enjeux de ces journées cruciales ? Non que les
	jugements de valeur soient écartés. Geraldi Leroy et Anne Roche, dans leur étude sur Les
	Ecrivains et le Front Populaire, spéculent bien, à propos de Travelingue, de Marcel Aymé
	(1941), de La Grande Lutte, de Tristan Rémy (1937), sur la présence ou l'absence d'une
	« efficacité » 6 , d'une « qualité », d'une « littérarité » 7 . vraiment passé pour la littérature, en termes sociologiques et esthétiques, pendant et après
	Mai 68.
	Pour échapper à ces apories, il peut être utile de rappeler quelques sains principes de
	sociologie littéraire et de poétique historique 8 . Ainsi, le lien entre l'histoire politique,
	économique et sociale d

5

Ibid.

6

Geraldi Leroy, Anne Roche, Les Ecrivains et le Front populaire, Presse de la Fondation nationale des sciences politiques,

Paris, 1986, p. 219. 7 Ibid., p. 234. 8

Ce terme est emprunté à Alain Vaillant.

« A chaque commémoration décennale, on répète en effet que le printemps français, malgré son importance dans l'histoire des mouvements sociaux, n'eut aucun effet significatif sur la littérature et n'engendra que des oeuvres mineures, comme les romans Chien blanc de Romain Gary, Derrière la vitre de Robert Merle ou La manière noire d'Hélène Parmelin, qui n'ont certes pas marqué la littérature ». Jean-François Hamel, Julien Lefort-Favreau, « Présentation », Etudes françaises, n°54,1, Montréal, Presses de l'Université de Montréal,

2018, p. 6. 2 Patrick Combes, La littérature et le mouvementde mai 68, Paris, Seghers, 1984, p. 193. 3 Kristin Ross, Mai 68 et ses vies antérieures, Marseille, Agone, 2010, p. 30. (1 ère édition : University of Chicago Press, 2002). Kristin Ross s'appuie elle-même sur l'étude de Patrick Combes La littérature et le mouvement de mai 68, parue en 1984, chez Seghers : «Patrick Combes a montré que le roman n'a que très timidement essayé de traduire la dimension politique de l'événement. L'écrasante majorité des romans postérieurs à 1968 a tout bonnement calqué sa démarche sur celle des médias, choisissant, par exemple, de présenter les événements à travers la conscience tourmentée d'un héros souvent caricatural, en pleine crise existentielle, le tout sur fond de barricades -et ce, en dépit du fait, comme je n'ai cessé de le constater au cours de mes recherches, que les souvenirs des individus implantés dans Mai 68 mettent tous l'accent sur leur appartenance active à un groupe social.[…]».4 Pierre Michon, « Sortie d'Egypte », Scherzo. Revue de littérature, « OlivierRolin », n°18-19, octobre 2002, p. 31. Souvent cité, ce joli texte est un hommage de Pierre Michon à son ami Olivier Rolin dans une revue de littérature qui consacre un numéro spécial à l'auteur de Port-Soudan à l'occasion de la sortie de son livre Tigre en papier.

Gisèle Sapiro, La responsabilité de l'écrivain, Paris, Seuil, 2011, p. 34.

La question est souvent posée aux écrivains lors des entretiens qu'ils accordent dans les années 1969 et 1970. Anne Redon, journaliste pour le magazine Coopérateurs de France, demande ainsi en décembre 1969 à Georges Perec s'il compte faire avec Mai 68 ce qu'il a fait avec la guerre d'Algérie dans Quel petit vélo à guidon chromé au fond de la cour ?. Voici sa réponse : « Non. Ou alors dans très longtemps. Pour Mai, il faudrait un peu de pudeur. On a écrit tellement de choses dans le but de vendre. J'ai parlé de la guerre d'Algérie d'une façon autobiographique et pudique. Que peut faire un écrivain, sinon être dans le monde et parler du monde où il est ? Le monde où j'étais en Mai 68 était très incohérent, très insatisfaisant. Ce refus radical du monde avait un côté regrettablement naïf, à un moment où justement l'action politique aurait pu être possible. Il y a eu aussi un côté « fête de l'anti-consommation » assez extraordinaire, on a fait comme si tout était résolu ». GeorgesPerec, Entretiens et conférences, I, Paris, Joseph K., 2003, p. 109.

Ibid.,