Germain Meulemans
email: germain.meulemans@cnrs.fr

Peter Swinnen

David Peleman

Nathan Heindrichs

Beatriz Van

Houtte Alonso

Walther König

'Crassier' Heritage

Picture: the new town of Belval, as seen from crassier Terre Rouge (

slag heap. Coming from the old-fashioned French word crasse, meaning dirt, filth, the word conveys well my impression when I first passed these dark hills. At last I saw the spotlights of the old Belval blast furnaces appear in the dusk. The furnaces had been recently coated with a varnish that protects and enhances this testimony to an industrial era whose page has been turned. Uninitiated people like me often think intuitively that cities are built in concentric circles from a centre, like an onion growing one layer after the other, adapting here and there to topographical accidents.

Today it is as if the building of Esch-Belval had missed one layer between the historic centre of Esch and its 'new locomotive', as the media like to call the Belval district. Between these two poles is the Terres Rouges crassier, a wasteland that, as if out of time, has not yet succumbed to the centrifugal forces of urban expansion. This unlikely development pattern had been 'anticipated' by Agora 1., the local developer run equally by ArcelorMittal and the state. As in a game of chess, the time frame of the development plans its moves in advance: now that the Belval Campus of the University of Luxembourg has been built, who could reasonably argue that the crassier, this vital link between the centre and the campus, can remain undeveloped? The shopkeepers in this newly built district are quick to point out that, when they moved to Belval, they were expecting that the construction would not stop at that point.

One of them told the newspaper Le Quotidien, in its edition of 6 October 2016: 'People talk a lot about students, but they are not the number one market. They come by bus, they leave by bus … I would prefer to celebrate having new constructions here!' 2.

The discussions surrounding the future of the 120 hectares of the Terres Rouges crassier, located on the France-Luxembourg border, perfectly summarize the cross-border challenges at work in the area.

Wealthy Luxembourg attracts thousands of workers residing in France who every day pile into trains and cars to get to work. This situation has given rise to the classic tensions regarding the destination of border workers' taxes (the French residential municipalities only collect local taxes), but also, and above all, to an unprecedented surge in property prices. Thus, already hit by industrial decline, the north of Lorraine is suffering from the effects of the Luxembourg real-estate market, and a large part of the population is having trouble finding housing. In the face of a worrying situation, several initiatives - in particular, the Alzette Belval EGTC (European Grouping for Territorial Cooperation) and the recent only as 'land', a blank page for the realization of new urban designs. 4. The ideology of the territory as a blank page is linked, on the one hand, to the historical construction of land in Western societies as private property that can be shared between humans and between different projects for human life. It stems from a distancing from the material world, brought about by a naturalist ontology that sees the land as an external entity to be managed and developed. On the other hand, for an architect or an urban planner, identifying a territory as a blank page is, more insidiously, a formidable invitation to creativity.

Thus, the company that bought the Lentille Terres Rouges site likes to describe it as an 'experimental wasteland' 5., a place that welcomes urban experimentation, especially the options touted as the most 'innovative', such as the company's very own speciality, namely eco-districts.

Land of milk and debris

The reason why the Terres Rouges crassier has not yet been converted is that it has not yet become the useless no man's land that planners wish to see. Indeed, Terres Rouges is still a supplier of materials.

Made up of blast furnace slag deposited here throughout the period of activity of the factories, it remained an open-cast mine after the decline of the steel industry. In the first half of the twentieth century, with the development of the automobile and soon of motorways, the road construction sector very quickly found itself in a situation of chronic shortage of materials and saw in the 'crasses' of the industry - the waste from which nothing could be obtained within the production chains - a possible source of supply for road sub-layers. Thus, as early as 1921, the Terres Rouges crassier was one of the quarries for 'artificial mineral products' that the Cloos company still uses for this purpose today. Slag comes from the production of cast iron in a blast furnace, where it corresponds to the sterile gangue of iron ore with the addition of coke ashes. Slag is called 'laitier' in French, which literally translates as 'milkman'. Laitier is originally a term used by foundrymen, workers in contact with the material. It takes its name from the white appearance of the slag that floats in the molten iron bath, reminiscent of boiling milk. 6.. In the nineteenth century, scholarspeople who did not work in contact with the materialused the term 'crasse', from which the crassier takes its etymology. Slag is a strange stone. Its rough, honeycombed appearance makes it similar to volcanic pumice. The analogies with a volcano are numerous for anyone who visits a slag heap: with its grey, mineral appearance, the slag heap itself is reminiscent of a lava field, while the flow of molten slag is reminiscent of a magma eruption. According to the Cloos engineer who guided usthe authors of this bookaround the slag heap, the Terres Rouges slag is not homogeneous. It is organized in layers with different properties, according to the different types of steel produced in the plant. The best slag is the oldest, that of the coke furnaces. Slag from electric furnaces - still used to melt scrap for recycling - sells less well because it is denser and less honeycombed. The slag will also be more or less vitrified depending on the type of ore, the time of year or day when the slag melting at about 1500 °C was thrown onto the crassier. The engineer showed us the stratigraphy that appears in the quarry faces. In the process of extracting this slag, the machine operator makes a first sorting following these soil profiles. The slag is then crushed, screened and weighed on a long conveyor belt that sorts each batch according to its own grain size and properties.

Each type has its own use, as backfill, as aggregate in public works and road construction, or as raw material in the manufacture of cement.

Picture: slag has been quarried here since the 1920s (G.Meulemans 2021).

As a result, all the crassiers in the area become 'stocks' in the building materials market and can be resold from one company to another. Cloos recently bought the 'historical slag stock' - i.e. the crassierof the Florange steelworks in Moselle. This post-industrial extractivist activity, which continues long after the factories have closed, is now gaining traction in discussions about the 'circular economy' and 'zero waste', which allows ArcelorMittal, in its corporate communication, to boast of a 'gesture for the environment' by avoiding, through the use of these materials, the extraction of natural stone from quarries. As we toured the slag heap, the Cloos engineer explained to me that the market for recycled slag had expanded dramatically with the construction boom that Luxembourg had experienced in recent years. Even before absorbing the space of the crassier, the construction market has sealed its fate by absorbing its very substance. It is said that the industry will dry up by 2030, when the deposits in the greater region are exhausted. That will be the end of the era of crassiers, and materials will have to be sought elsewhere to feed the insatiable appetite of the construction market. With the crassier almost fully razed, a new 'project', a new utility is called on to contribute: that of land available for development.

So phare so good

The Terres Rouges crassier and the surrounding area are sometimes described as a 'no man's land'. 7.

The reason for this trench warfare label is probably that the France-Luxembourg border runs through the middle of the crassier, and the Ferraris map of the area, drawn at the end of the 18 th century, indicates that it has been the subject of border disputes in the past. It is perhaps from a visual point of view that this no man's land is most striking. A walker passing through the lower part of the slag heap - since it was largely levelled by the Cloos company - could not help but be struck by this lunar landscape, dominated by the 'phare' (literally, the lighthouse, as they call it locally) represented by the varnished blast furnaces of Belval, which have been preserved as part of the industrial heritage.

The issue of preserving the old industrial infrastructure as heritage is particularly salient in this area, where municipalities on both sides of the border are looking for a common future. To do this, they naturally turn to their past. Thus, a heritage strategy - and even territorial marketing - is being implemented around what is identified as shared cultural representations: the memory of the iron and steel activities that made the region prosperous. The symbolism is strong for this place where European futures are being experimented: it is worth remembering that it was steel that created Europe with the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC) established in 1951 and that southern Luxembourg and northern Lorraine, with Esch and Florange, were major centres of the European steel industry. 8. For almost a century, the metallurgical industry was the identity marker of this territory and of those who lived there, thereby providing a coherent cross-border identity between northern Lorraine and southern Luxembourg. It is therefore the factorythis cathedral of the industrial century, with its chimneys, its blast furnaces, its steel and glass hallswhich has been given heritage status to serve as a memorial and identity bond.

Looking at the Belval 'lighthouse' from the crassier, I wondered why the crassier itself had not been chosen as heritage to give substance to this working-class memory. Why had this path not been chosen, and what would have been gained if it had? In other post-industrial regions, crassiers have been preserved as part of the industrial and technical heritage. In the Nord-Pas-de-Calais - where, admittedly, they constitute the only topographical landmark in an otherwise perfectly flat area, like unusual mountains whose smooth, regular profile betrays their artificial origin - associations such as La Chaîne des terrils have succeeded in having them recognized as a full part of the cultural landscape of the industrial world.

Red mountain

Historian Michel Depeyre, who has researched the trace of crassiers in industrial-era cultural productions, notes that speeches by company managers, articles by engineers and educational books on industry hardly ever mention them, preferring to focus on machines and technology. 9. However, crassiers seem to have had their place in the visual and symbolic culture of the workers. Anne Michaud, who conducted a study of how the inhabitants of Saint-Etienne saw the crassiers that dominate their city, showed rich and contrasting representations. The upper classes saw the crassiers as proof of the prosperity of the local industry. It was enough to see the size of the crassier, and to see it still growing, to be convinced of the importance of an activity that nourished the region and its inhabitants. Conversely, workers often saw the crassier as a monument erected upon the rhythm of the workers' efforts, like a great sandglass that indexed all the matter transformed by industrial work. It is therefore also a 'red mountain', nourished by the sweat and blood of the working class and the strikers who fought for better living and working conditions. These different representations reflect the structure of society at the time as well as the struggles and great divisions that ran through it. Thus, the crassier is 'a piece of the guts of Saint-Etienne suspended in its sky' 10. Erasing the crassier not only opens up a space for the construction market. It also obliterates a piece of evidence that evokes the suffering of the twentieth century. While in the past, the slag heap may have symbolized economic prosperity for some, today it is more likely to symbolize the excesses of the age of industry and mass consumption, when whole valleys were filled with the (often toxic) waste of industry. To look at the 'lighthouse' from the crassier is to be reminded that, from an environmental perspective, the 'Trente Glorieuses' - the 'Thirty Glorious Years', as the post-war period of economic growth and capitalist expansion is commonly referred to in French - should be more accurately called the 'Thirty Dirty Years' 11., as we contemplate the mountain of waste produced by industry at the time.

Thus, artist and writer Matthieu Duperrex uses the crassier as a metaphor for the toxic destabilized world that we must now inhabit. 12. Thinking from the crassier means taking it as a school to imagine together ways of inheriting the industrial age, its waste, its pollution, an involuntary heritage that will long remain the mark of this era. It is symptomatic that, in order to remember this working-class memory, the blast furnace was chosen to be preserved instead of the slag heap. An ode to technology and progress rather than a witness to the waste of modernity.

Strange commuters

As we move away from the bottom of the crassier, the part that is still in operation, we quickly climb onto high mounds which, for some unknown reason, have been left aside by the quarry workers. One need only walk around the edgeswhere the vegetation, the birds and the foxes have regained their rightsto see that the crassier is by no means a blank page and that it is already inhabited.

In fact, the deeper you go into the crassier, far from the quarry zone, the more the vegetation seems to close in on you. In the west of the area, the pioneer birch forest throws its trunks to the sky, quickly followed by other bushes, flowers and butterflies. Wildlife surveys carried out in the area show the importance of these environments for many species, including several species of bats, Green Woodpecker, Redstart and Whitethroat. Closer to the quarry zone, semi-open pioneer meadows on raw slag soils are a great habitat for lizards and protected butterfly species. 13.

Picture: fox tracks in the Terre Rouge central area (G.Meulemans 2021).

In addition to highlighting this diversity, these studies show the functional interest of the crassier for these species. Indeed, they emphasize that the crassier is less like a well-bounded ecological reserve than a crossroad, a connecting node for the populations of many species. Surveys show that its pioneer meadows and wooded areas are important 'transfer routes' or 'green corridors'. The journal Regulus noted in 2011 that 'a true cross-border network, hosting threatened species, has been established: the crassiers of Ehlerange, Russange and Mondercange, and the wastelands of the former open-cast iron mines of Micheville and the Luxembourg Minette region' (Ulmerich and Biver 2011). 14. The Terres Rouges crassier is a key site in this cross-border biotope network, as its 'insect-rich pioneer meadows and the wooded areas around the Peiteschhaff [are] an important transfer route between the "Lentille" and "Hiehl" areas to the south and the "Clairchêne" green corridor to the north'. 15.

Next to the workers crammed into their vehicles every morning, there is therefore a whole series of nonhuman commuters. Thus, thinking through the ecologies of the crassier allows us to return to the crossborder dimension of the region, which highlights the values of cooperation and the abolition of borders between human groups. But the crassier also allows us to take into account the other-than-human dimensions of these dynamics, to move from territorial planning to land conservation.

More-than-human creativity

We have just seen that the cross-border issues of the crassier area can be revisited in the light of the movements of plants and animals. But we can also revisit the notion of 'experimental wasteland' (claimed by developers as a blank page in which to express their creativity) in the light of the ecological creativity presented by these dynamic places. In recent decades, scientific ecology has gradually taken an interest in these strange environments of brownfields and abandoned quarries. Poor in humus, arid, with particular chemical conditions, often contaminated, SUITMA (the acronym for 'soils of urban, industrial, traffic, mining and military areas') form environments where the ecology of the species that settle there is always original and surprising.

Paradoxically, quarries, mines and crassiers, while radically destroying local ecosystems when they are created, generate upheavals and disturbances conducive to the creation of new ecosystems. Ecologist Guillaume Lemoine worked on the ecological peculiarity of slag heaps in northern France, highlighting the effects of the breakdown of the substrate and the topography (in relation to local lands) that they cause. [START_REF] Lemoine | Nature et espaces industriels ; terrils miniers, carrières et sablières[END_REF]. Poor in organic matter, their soils contrast sharply with the rich soils of our temperate climates and slow down plant dynamics, thereby forming improbable steppes before being colonized by birches and other pioneer species that are happy with the ungrateful soils. Due to the minerals that compose them (and sometimes the chemical reactions that are perpetuated within them), they form microclimates, with soil temperatures sometimes up to 5 °C higher than the local averages. This allows them to host a specific flora, uncommon in these latitudes, including exotic species. The seeds of these 'travelling plants' - botanist Audrey Muratet, a specialist in these plants, prefers this term to that of 'invasive plant ' 17. - are brought by birds, the wind, sometimes from far away. Their presence is also the result of trade, long-distance supply chains, and even the passage of foreign troops during the last world conflicts. Thus, Lemoine explains that on the slag heaps of northern France, we find plants from the Alps that arrived with the use of alpine coniferous wood used to support the mine galleries. The crassier is a site where plants and other living things invent original links with the soil, a climate, a terroir. They challenge the idea that creativity can only be found in the human mind. Here, on the contrary, it is from collective and symbiotic investigation that creativity is born.

Crassier Heritage

Let us return to our comparison of the treatment of the Belval lighthouse and that of the Terres Rouges crassier. Anne Michaud lists two main sets of views on the crassier. There are those which freeze the crassier in time, where it remains hostage to an industrial memory of which it is seen as the indelible mark. There are also the proponents of immediacy, who only see what the crassier has to offer in the present day. This latter dynamic conception is present among quarry operators (who see the crassier as a stock of materials) but also among botanists (who insist on the botanical inventiveness of the crassier's pioneer flora).

Depeyre suggests that crassiers could be made heritage not as simple witnesses to a working memory or a striking element of the landscape, but as 'a product of an industrial civilization which has generated nuisances, pollution and waste which will be transmitted in the long term'. [START_REF] Jasper | Abandoned Infrastructures and Nonhuman Life[END_REF]. In Western Europe, the toxic fumes of the industrial age have almost entirely disappeared, but the toxic legacy of this period lasts in the soils and will linger for a long time. In addition, while production centres have largely moved to the global South, global industrial activity and the amount of waste produced have continued to grow.

Crassiers continue to proliferate across the globe but have moved away from places of consumption.

Historical European crassiers therefore appear as a privileged site in which to think collectively about the 'negative commons' - these cumbersome, dangerous entities inherited from the industrial age, which will linger in soils and landscapes for centuries - and about what it means to live in a damaged world.

For Matthieu Duperrex, inhabiting the crassier is 'to recognize oneself as the subject of the ambient catastrophe', whereas 'the crassier describes our contemporary habitat in the Anthropocene'.

At the same time, moving from built industrial heritage to crassier heritage also means paying attention to the pedological and biological creativity of wastelands. It means taking into account a heritage in motion, which includes the succession of pioneer plants and which also makes it a laboratory for Anthropocene ecologies. These new relations invented by flora and fauna invite architects, planners, ecologists and citizens reclaiming these fields of knowledge to forge new links in the radically new ecologies in which the Anthropocene has plunged us. As Sandra Jasper puts it: 'In their status as wastelands, these unusual zones are experimental fields for studying the adaptability of nonhuman life and speculating about future ecologies in future cities.' 19. More than a laboratory for Europe, it is a laboratory of life in the Anthropocene that the crassier promises.

  Picture: like pumice, slag stones are formed when strata meet, in the melding of fire, air, and stone (G.Meulemans 2021).

  Picture: a view of the central part of the crassier from its northern end. It was once a mound, but now looks like a caldera (G.Meulemans 2021).

  Picture: a view from the southern end of the crassier Terre Rouge, land of birch and locust (G.Meulemans 2021).


Gisèle Sapiro

Mathieu Lindon

In his introduction to Literary Theory, Marxist British scholar Terry Eagleton rightly claims that the concept of literature cannot be reduced to imaginative writing, i.e. to fiction. Literature includes for instance autobiographies, or John Donne's sermons. 2 Moreover, the border between fact and fiction is permeable and unstable: novels may refer to historical events or to real persons (like the novel by

Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15).

The following section outlines a socio-historical perspective on the differentiation of the literary field within the intellectual field. This undertaking also requires a transnational approach, as literary works, genres and forms circulated across languages, and were appropriated by hybridization with local repertoires and materials. I will then turn to notions that help us bridge literary analysis with the history and sociology of ideas, first that of worldview, and then those of discourse and representations, before discussing the question of the relationship between literature and truth and situating literature between doxa and episteme. I will propose the notion of axiological operator in order to grasp the moral performativity of the systems of opposition that structure the underlying worldview in texts, and that transcend the boundaries of fields, thus connecting the literary field to the broader intellectual field and vice-versa. The last section focuses on the interpretation these texts are given in the reception process. Examples are deliberately taken from different periods and cultures, in order to show the heuristic potential of this methodological framework. Although they are based on in-depth scholarship, they are mentioned here only indicatively, to illustrate the more general questions and approach.

Literature and knowledge: an entangled history Only at the end of the eighteenth-century did literature come to be a relatively autonomous field within the intellectual field. This seems to have happened first in the German-speaking area around the Sturm und Drang movement. In French, the very word "Littérature" included philosophy and scientific vulgarization up until the beginning of the nineteenth-century.

Johan Heilbron has studied the long-lasting entanglement between social thought and literature since the seventeenth-century. 5 In the eighteenth-century, the "people of letters" (gens de lettres), especially those called "philosophes," embodied the first figure of what was not yet called the public intellectual. 6 Voltaire for instance famously denounced religious intolerance in the Jean Calas Affair, which concerned a Protestant who was accused of murdering his son (who had converted to Catholicism) and condemned to death. The philosophes, who were obliged to publish some of their theoretical and fictional writings clandestinely, were believed by both the revolutionaries and the counter-revolutionaries, to be responsible for the French Revolution. 7 The roman à clefs had been a highly politicized genre since the seventeenth -century. Theater was also a political arena. The female playwright Olympe de Gouges, who had become a political activist against slavery, wrote the Declaration of the Rights of Woman and of the Female Citizen in 1791 in response to the 1789. For this text as for her Girondist positions, she was prosecuted and guillotined in 1793.

According to the sociologist of literature Alain Viala, the first stages of emergence of a literary field as a relatively autonomous activity in France harks back to the seventeenth-century, under the absolute monarchy, although the authors' right to get an income out of their work was not granted until a 1777 royal decree and the In the second half of the eighteenth -century, however, the autonomization of the literary field was also in part a negative process which resulted from the professionalization of science and the autonomy achieved by the field of philosophy. Kant and his disciples developed a model of writing the history of philosophy which excluded non-Western philosophy as well as the eighteenth French philosophes. [START_REF] Peter | Africa, Asia, and the History of Philosophy: Racism in the Formation of the Philosophical Canon[END_REF] In France, when philosophy became part of the newly-born Napoleonian university, the subversive eighteenth-century "philosophes" including Rousseau and Voltaire were excluded from the canon and relegated to "literature." [START_REF] Ribard | Philosophe ou écrivain ? Problème de délimitation entre histoire littéraire et histoire de la philosophie en France, 1650-1850[END_REF] In the second half of the eighteenth-century, "literature" had started, especially in Germany, to redefine itself as an "art;" it joined painting and sculpture and music and was subsumed to a new philosophical domain, which had emerged in Germany and in France: "aesthetics." [START_REF] Becq | On Germany[END_REF] Nevertheless, throughout the nineteenth-century, writers never gave up the claim to disseminate ideas and produce knowledge about the world: literature could not be reduced to telling entertaining stories or writing beautiful poetry. In France, they appropriated the critical function that had been exerted by the eighteenth-century philosophes. Under the Bourbon Restoration, fiction became, for the liberal authors, an ideological weapon: allegory, displacement in time and space, and metaphors, were devices used to overturn or sidestep censorship. [START_REF] Sapiro | La Responsabilité de l'écrivain: Littérature, droit et morale en France[END_REF] Under the July Monarchy, the novel established itself as a serious genre by presenting itself as a sociological study. [START_REF] Lyon-Caen | La Lecture et la vie. Les usages du roman au temps de Balzac[END_REF] In Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15). Great Britain, men of letters embodied the figure of the "public moralist." 18 In other places, the novel became, in keeping with the epic and sagas, a medium for writing national history. 19 These claims were soon challenged again by the formation of scientific fields in the social sciences and the humanities, which, in the second half of the nineteenthcentury, dispossessed literature of its expertise in fields of knowledge such as history, psychology and the study of mores and of crime in modern societies (sociology, criminology). These disciplines adopted the scientific paradigm in order to assert their expertise and claim jurisdiction in their field, a claim that was enforced when they became academic disciplines. Sociology, for instance, emerged in strong relation (and opposition) to literature in France, Germany and England. 20 Advocating for specialization in his preface to De la division du travail social (1893), the French sociologist Émile Durkheim distinguished this new discipline from the "dilettantism" of the past men of letters. 21 The import of German philology to France and the establishment of the history of literature with philological methods by Gustave Lanson at the Nouvelle Sorbonne after the 1896 reform aroused a fierce reaction from the elitist part of the literary field: Lanson was accused of transforming the literary scholar from a man of taste with a mastery of rhetorical devices of expression and achieving idealistic goals into a materialistic scientific worker. 22 The rise of the scientific paradigm, which challenged the dominant position of literature in the intellectual field, also modified the literary landscape. While some authors expressed their rejection of science as materialistic and their quest for spirituality by turning to religion, for others, science became a source of inspiration. Romanticism, with Edgar Allan Poe, introduced scientific issues into the world of the novel. Flaubert's narrator adopted the objective and neutral distance of a physician. By using medical knowledge, Zola and the naturalist school, which would spread from France around the world, aimed at transforming literature into a science, as Zola expressed in his concept of the "experimental novel." Not only realism but also science fiction borrowed from scientific literature (as for instance J.H. Rosny aîné). And psychology served the "psychological novel." Later, in the 1920s, the surrealists were to draw the notion of the unconscious from psychoanalysis and use it in an experimental way. Sociological and anthropological concepts were introduced into the literary field by the Collège de sociologie. 23 And, closer to our time, Annie Ernaux and Edouard Louis drew from Bourdieu's sociology to analyze their own trajectory in their autobiographical writings. Conversely, ethnology borrowed writing models from literature, from Marcel Mauss to Alfred Métraux, Michel Leiris (a member of the Collège de sociologie), Marcel Griaule, and Claude Lévi-Strauss. 24 More recently, anthropologists have acknowledged the contribution of literature to ethnography and Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15). interrogated the relationship between the inquiry (enquête) and the writing practice in literary works. 25 From this historical sketch of the relationships between literature and knowledge, it becomes clear that intellectual history can hardly avoid dealing with literature, and literary history with intellectual history. Furthermore, even when they do not pretend to produce and distribute knowledge, literary works convey a "worldview," a "doxa" (i.e. common sense knowledge and beliefs), or, according to the Marxist critics (following Marx's reflection on German ideology), an "ideology".

Worldview or ideology?

The idealistic concept of "worldview," or "Weltanschauung," was theorized by Wilhelm Dilthey in order to articulate the individual's worldview with the society s/he belongs to. It is not by chance that Dilthey explored this concept about literature: for Dilthey, the "worldview" designates the articulation between the "individual genius" and the "spirit of the people," conceived in a historical perspective. The concept of "worldview" was further developed in the interwar period by German scholars such as the philosopher Ernst Cassirer and the art historian Erwin Panofsky, who focused on images and forms (painting, architecture). Panofsky famously demonstrated that the scholastics and the gothic architecture shared common symbolic forms. 26 It was the French historian Lucien Febvre, in his study on Rabelais and the problem of unbelief, who first attempted to approach literature as a case study in the "histoire des mentalités." 27 Conceived against the traditional "histoire des idées" (history of ideas), "histoire des mentalités" aimed at inserting systems of thought in their social and economic context, an approach that was in line with the historical project of the Annales school. 28 However, Lucien Febvre's program did not have real followers in French history. He himself initiated what would become book history, with his book L'Apparition du livre (1955). This program was taken up by Roger Chartier and Henri-Jean Martin, who established the history of publishing as a research domain, which also developed in the English-speaking and German-speaking world. 29 Against idealistic approaches to ideas, Marx and Engels had elaborated a materialistic conception of ideas, beliefs, and art as being a superstructure reflecting the social relations of production. While it appeared reductionist from the outset, reflection theory did inspire in-depth consideration of the autonomy of artworks from social conditions and on the mediations between them. 30 Is literature merely a reflection of the social world, as realist literature claims to be, or the expression of an 25 ideology through a "worldview?" Karl Mannheim distinguished the key Marxian concept of "ideology" from the "worldview," that he defined as the total representation of ideology. 31 For Mannheim, the worldview of a social group refers to the structure of its consciousness (or style of thought), and it is divided into two categories: ideology, i.e. mental fictions which legitimize the established order and facilitate its reproduction by veiling the objective reality; and utopia, i.e. representations (dreams) with a subversive function, which inspire collective action for the transformation of societies.

Marxist literary scholars asked whether the "worldview" conveyed by literary and artistic worlds is a manifestation of the dominant class's collective consciousness or if it echoes the contradictions at work in social relations of production. As the expression of these contradictions, Georg Lukács contended, Balzac's work may for instance give us a critical outlook on society regardless of the author's political positions. Frankfurt School theoreticians also tackled the reflection problem. 32 Adorno argued that the most hermetic art can express a reaction against the devastation of language by commerce. However, as he emphasized the ambiguity and polysemy of literary texts, he also showed that they resist ideological reduction. 33 Drawing on Lukács, who argued that the relations between literary forms and the social situations in which they emerged are mediated by collective consciousness, sociologist Lucien Goldmann considers that the real subject of the work is not the individual author, but the social group to which the author belongs (family, profession, nation, class). The group's worldview constitutes the mediation between the economic and social infrastructure and the works: "A world vision is [...] the whole complex of ideas, aspirations and feelings which links together the members of a social group (a group which, in most cases, assumes the existence of a social class), and which opposes them to members of other social groups." 34 The members of the group attain this consciousness "in a more or less coherent manner," "as a result of a particular social and economic situation." 35 Goldmann also uses Durkheim's concept of "collective consciousness" but prefers that of "group consciousness," which includes class consciousness, as well as familial, professional and national consciousness.

Thus in Goldmann, the worldview constitutes a mediation between the economic and social infrastructure and the literary works. He demonstrates that there is a structural homology between Racine's tragedies, or Pascal's Pensées, and the "tragic" Jansenist worldview, an expression of the collective consciousness of the nobility of robe (noblesse de robe). 36 For the first form of Jansenism emerged at the time of the shift from limited monarchy to absolute monarchy, among the officers (especially lawyers) who depended on the state and could therefore not commit to active opposition, although they did distance themselves. Their tragic vision is an ideology -or rather a 31 Karl Mannheim, Ideology and Utopia, trans. Louis Wirth and Edward Shils (London: Routledge, 1991). 32 Georg Lukàcs (1999), Balzac et le réalisme français, trans. Paul Laveau (Paris : La Découverte, 1999). 33 Theodor Adorno, Notes to Literature (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1992), 2 vol. 34 Lucien Goldmann, The Hidden God: A Study of Tragic Vision in the Pensées of Pascal and the Tragedies of Racine, trans. Philip Thody (London: Routledge, 2013), 17. I kept here the original translation of "vision du monde" by "world vision" rather than "worldview." 35 Goldmann, Hidden God, 18. 36 The nobility of the robe refers to aristocrats who held their nobility title from judicial or administrative functions, as opposed to the nobility of the sword, or the knightly class, whose titles were attached to feudal fiefdom, attributed in return for military service.

Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15). "total vision" encompassing ideology, affect and behaviour -asserting that it is "impossible to live a valid life in this world." 37 Goldmann sees literature, like the arts, philosophy, and to a large extent religious practice, as "languages," means for men to communicate with other beings, whose specificity is that they are dedicated to the expression of specific contents, i.e. "visions of the world" -a world vision being "the conceptual extrapolation in the most coherent manner possible of the real, emotional, intellectual and even motory tendencies of the members of a group. It is a coherent pattern of problems and replies which is expressed, on the literary plane, by the creation through words of a concrete universe of beings and things." 38 This means that the "aesthetic fact" implies a double level of correspondence: "between the world vision as an experienced reality and the universe created by the writer;" and between "this universe and the specifically literary devices -style, images, syntax, etc. -used by the writer to express it." 39 In his view, the "coherence" of the extrapolation is what gives literary works value compared to other writings: "all valid literary works have an inner coherence and express a world vision." 40 This capacity of extrapolation, which is to him the basis of representativeness, is only found in a few singular individuals, such as Racine.

Raymond Williams, one of the founders of the Birmingham school of Cultural Studies, criticized the notion of worldview. 41 He preferred concepts that take greater account of the internalization of collective consciousness by individuals, such as "common sense," "structures of sentiment" or "feelings." For instance, in Culture and Society, Williams analyzed the way nineteenth-century British novels such as Mary Barton (1848) by Elizabeth Gaskell or Hard Times (1854) by Charles Dickens dealt with the social transformations triggered by the Industrial Revolution ("industrial novels"). 42 They tried to reconstitute the daily experience and suffering of the working class and to rouse readers' affective reactions of empathy or repulsion. Thus Williams, like his colleague Richard Hoggart who, in The Uses of Literacy (1957), analyzed how the working class reads serial novels, introduced the issue of reception that had been overlooked by the studies on the worldview conveyed by art and literature (on reception, see below).

The notion of worldview was also criticized by Marxist philosopher Louis Althusser and his disciples Étienne Balibar, Roger Establet, Pierre Macherey, and Jacques Rancière. In Lire le Capital (1965), they rejected the notions of causality underlying Marxist analyses -on the one hand, the mechanic causality presupposed by reflection theory, and on the other, the expressive causality entailed by the concept of "worldview," which meant reading texts as allegorical models of society as a whole. They argued that, associated with expressive causality, the very concept of mediation is problematic in that it establishes relations between different levels (superstructure and infrastructure, text and society). They proposed replacing these two types of causality with the idea of a "structural causality," referring to the presence and immanence of the structure in its very effects (akin to the Darstellung concept in the Marxist theory of value). The concept of "ideological State apparatuses" introduced by Althusser (1970) was a means to theorize the idea of a relative autonomy of the 37 Goldmann, Hidden God, 105. 38 Goldmann, Hidden God, 314-5. 39 Goldmann, Hidden God, 315. 40 Goldmann, Hidden God, 315. 41 superstructure from the infrastructure that determines it, and of the effect it may in turn have on the latter, namely "reproduction," which he illustrated by discussing the role of school.

Nevertheless, in The Political Unconscious, U.S. Marxist critic Fredric Jameson (1981) did show that in the literary domain, the two types of causality challenged by Althusser remain locally valid. 43 For instance, the replacement of the dominant model of the three-volume novel by the cheaper single-volume format following the late nineteenth-century crisis of publishing (an external cause) lead to altering the very form of the novelistic narrative. And expressive or allegorical causality works on some level because the great narratives and leading conceptions of history are often inscribed in the texts themselves. According to Jameson, these texts are actually our main pathways to access an otherwise inaccessible historicity, which functions as an absent cause (this is how Althusser interprets Spinoza's immanentism: effects are inherent in the structure -or in God). In that sense, they are sources to access our "political unconscious," which must be subject to the work of interpretation. According to Jameson, Althusser's main contribution resides in the relative autonomy he recognized in the different social spheres, against the expressive causality, that tends to reduce them to one another through the concepts of structural homology (for instance, in Goldmann's work, between class situation, worldview and artistic forms) or mediation (e.g. the institution of family as a mediation between the child's experience and the class structure, in Sartre's biography of Flaubert, The Family Idiot). However, as Jameson noted, the very concept of relative autonomy cannot be used without reflecting on the forms of mediation between different spheres. In Archeologies of the Future, Jameson studied the literary forms of utopia from Thomas More to contemporary sciencefiction authors who challenge the belief that free-market capitalism is the inevitable future, proposing alternative social systems. 44 Following Althusser's article on "ideological state apparatuses" ("appareils idéologiques d'État"), Marxist literary scholars in the 1970s focused on the relationship between literature and ideology. For Terry Eagleton, literature is ideology, i.e. the fashion in which perception, judgment and beliefs are related to structures and relations of power in society. 45 However, this very broad definition of ideology does not allow us to distinguish the literary works which express a political message, as the "ideological novels" ("romans à thèse") analyzed by Susan Suleiman, 46 or the socialist realism in the USSR studied by Régine Robin, 47 from other less self-conscious and more ambiguous texts, which nevertheless convey a "doxa" and "worldview," that may reproduce the dominant ideology or depart from it without offering a clear alternative ideology, if we circumscribe the meaning of ideology to a more or less coherent and self-conscious political system. Literary texts may convey schemes that have a political connotation and impact without being framed in a coherent ideology: for instance, while fascist writer Drieu La Rochelle's novel Gilles (1939), as analyzed by Suleiman, represents a typical example of the ideological novel (it ends with the protagonist's 43 Fredric Jameson, The Political Unconscious: Narrative as a Socially Symbolic Act (New York: Cornell University Press, 1981). 44 Jameson, Archeologies of the Future: The Desire Called Utopia and Other Science Fictions (New York: Verso, 2005). 45 Terry Eagleton, Ideology, New Ed. (London: Verso, 2007). 46 Susan Suleiman, Authoritarian Fictions. The Ideological Novel as a Literary Genre (Princeton, NJ: Princeton University Press, 1992). 47 engagement in the Spanish war, on the Francoist side), his former autobiographical novel, Rêveuse bourgeoisie, cannot be defined as such, as there is no "thesis" despite the idea of national decline which underlies it, an idea that was common to the far-right thinkers, who opposed it to "progress." [START_REF] Sapiro | Les Écrivains et la politique en France[END_REF] Discourse and representation Borrowed from linguistics, the notion of "discourse" provides an alternative concept for approaching the relationship between literature and other types of texts. Literature is regarded as a social discourse, that conveys discourses that are widely spread during their time. French Canadian sociocritic Marc Angenot dedicated for instance an interesting study to the social discourses published in the French press during the year 1889, placing literature in the intertextual frame of these other discourses. [START_REF] Angenot | Un état du discours social[END_REF] This study participated in the development of studies on literature and journalism, which include the poetics of the journalistic genres. [START_REF] Thérenty | La littérature au quotidien[END_REF] The relationship between law and literature has also become a fertile area for exploring the discursive social construction of the subject, in the line of Foucault. Joseph Slaughter parallels for instance the Bildungsroman with the Human Rights legal framework from the Enlightenment to international law in their mutual construction of the "human personality" not as an individual with no limits but as a self-conscious social creature, endowed with rights and responsibility, through a process of individuation which is "an incorporative process of socialization," i.e. of internalizing social norms. 51 In historical scholarship, it was the notion of "representation" that gained momentum in the 1980s, in the wake of the reception of Foucault's work in the United States (and later that of Louis Marin [START_REF] Marin | On Representation[END_REF] ). The journal Representations was launched in order to promote such an approach. Within this approach, literary works became a source to study collective representations (without always acknowledging the origin of this notion in Durkheim's sociological theory). Realism was the literary trend that lent itself best to such an approach. This approach was renewed by gender, postcolonial, subaltern and queer studies. Postcolonial and subaltern studies challenge the Western dominant national narratives from the margins, underscoring the experience of "in-between" spaces and of "hybridity", through migration and diasporic culture. Homi Bhabha reads such an experience in Beloved by Toni Morrison, who describes the condition of slave women through a story of infanticide, and in My Son's Story by Nadine Gordimer, who describes the turmoil in the houses of the South-African ghetto under Apartheid and the trouble of Métis identity. In her analysis of Mahasweta Devi Stanadayini's The Breast-Giver, Gayatri Spivak demonstrated how this work questions dominant feminist paradigms. Michael Lucey explored the articulation of affective relationships, social forms of sexuality and social order in a period of change in the family and property legal system in Balzac's work. 53 And Laure Murat studied how sexual binarism and the gendered hierarchy between masculine and feminine were challenged in nineteenth-century France by novels staging lesbians and emancipated women, both incarnating the "third sex," as in the paradigmatic examples of Mademoiselle de Maupin (1835) by Théophile Gautier and Gabriel (1840) by George Sand, at a time when homosexuality and travesty were regarded as pathologies. 54 Like the notion of worldview, the notion of representation emphasizes the constructed, active dimension of perception, as opposed to the empiricist, passive conception of perception. It thus allows us to account for the variations over time, or among social groups, for instance. Nonetheless, the concept of worldview is broader and includes not only representations but the relations between them, this relational or structural dimension being crucial to understand the meaning of each item in the structure. This is why, as argued by Cassirer, worldviews may be not commensurable, like Kuhn's paradigms or Foucault's episteme. They frame our perception, and though we can confront them, we cannot adopt both (literature often stages such confrontations between the diverging worldviews of classes or groups, like for instance in Proust's À la recherche du temps perdu).

We can address four interrelated critiques at the notions of worldview and representation. First, the notion of "representation" excludes other more formal aspects of the literary text that play a role in the framing of perception, such as style, metaphors, genre, and linguistic registers (for instance, Bakhtin's notion of "polyphony" and that of "carnivalization" to describe the effect produced by the use of popular culture in literature 55 ). Second, reducing the literary text to a source for the study of social representations or of a worldview involves the risk of overlooking the specificity of literature and the mediation that the literary field as a space of possibilities exerts on these representations. In his reading of Flaubert's Sentimental Education, Bourdieu argues that the social space of the novel is structured from the standpoint of Frédéric Moreau, whose indetermination corresponds to Flaubert's own experience before he became a writer. 56 In Bourdieu's field theory, mediation means that the issues at stake in the broader social space are retranslated in a relational fashion and according to the specific principles of the field. Third, the notion of representation fails to account for the way literature can be a source of knowledge, which raises the question of the relationship between literature and truth. Fourth, in order to understand the negative or positive values associated with representations or the ethics that underlies the worldview, we need specific tools, axiological operators, which can help us connect the literary field to the intellectual field. I shall return to them after discussing the issue of literature and truth. 53

Literature and truth

One should distinguish three modalities of the relationship between literature and truth: fictional verisimilitude, testimony, and sincereness in narratives about the self (memoirs, diaries), the two latter combining in political memoirs or in memoirs about intellectual life like those by Simone de Beauvoir. 57 While the relationship of testimony and writings about the self to truth seems more obvious, the testimonial attitude has been criticized by Norton Cru in his 1929 book Témoins, which discussed the literary production about the First World War. 58 And authors from Jean-Jacques Rousseau (The Confessions, 1782 and 1789) to André Gide (Si le grain ne meurt, 1924) have quite theatrically exposed the difficulty of a truly sincere account of their own lives. Moreover, hybrid forms such as autobiographical novels, autofiction or faction blur the border between fiction and reality. The testimonial posture has also become a fictional device in order to adopt a more or less "reliable" narrative (intradiegetic) perspective: in The Kindly Ones, Jonathan Littell adopted the point of view of a Nazi officer, Max Aue, a would-be plausible eye-witness of the Holocaust, so as to give an overall view and detailed descriptions based on historical documents, but this narrative strategy was harshly criticized by historians and literary scholars, triggering a controversy. 59 Nonetheless, even in "pure" fiction, the relationship between literature and truth cannot be reduced to facticity. It may be situated at other levels, such as causality, probability, typicality, and exemplarity in the narration of human actions and of natural or historical events -whether they actually happened or not, whether their narration include fictional elements or not -in the description of social milieus, and in the analysis of individual psychology -whether the characters are real or imagined.

The relationship of fiction to reality has been conceived through the notion of "vraisemblance" (Aristotle), "verisimilitude," "mentir-vrai" (Aragon) or "effet de reel" (Barthes). 60 Artistotle's theory of vraisemblance points toward "possibilities" that the recipient will assess more through plausibility rather than through resemblance (mimesis) : "These last [reversal or recognition] should arise from the internal structure of the plot, so that what follows should be the necessary or probable result of the preceding action." 61 This conception includes not only representations and values but also the narrative structure, which implies logics of causality, analogy, differentiation and exemplarity, that contribute to the production of meaning. Vraisemblance thus strongly depends upon probability, which in modal logics is formalized through the concept of possible worlds. Vraisemblance hinges on the readers' credulity, their adhesion, or, as expressed by Coleridge already in 1817, the "willing suspension of 57 disbelief:" the reader reads the fiction "as if" it were true. [START_REF] John | Searle defined it as "shared pretense" in "The Logical Status of Fictional Discourse[END_REF] For this reason, Bourdieu has proposed the notion of "belief effect" instead of Barthes' "reality effect." [START_REF] Barthes | The Reality Effect[END_REF] This "as if" nevertheless depends on genre conventions, on the internal plausibility of the narrative according to norms that are proper to a culture or a historical period, on its plausibility with regards to the known laws governing the real world, and on the plausibility of the narrator's enunciation position. These varying forms of plausibility may appear incompatible across time and place. Classical literature values internal coherence and norms of propriety, to the detriment of truth which, according to Boileau, "could sometimes not be likely [vraisemblable]." By contrast, eighteenth-century British realism embodied the philosophy of empiricism, as Ian Watt has argued. [START_REF] Watt | Die Kürze des Faktums. Textökonomien des Wirklichen um 1800[END_REF] And nineteenth-century realism moreover referred to empirical sciences and their relationship to the real world. Hence the relevance of Barthes' concept of "reality effect" in the particular case of realism. This effect is obtained by various devices: inserting proper nouns of places, public figures, and historical events, which invite the reader to situate the plot in space and time; offering detailed descriptions typical to realism and naturalism; portraying characters whose social properties and motivations are credible (social types); suggesting causal connections or connections referring to plausible probabilistic schemes. However, such probabilistic schemes are not specific to realism, and they can be also found in classical literature. [START_REF] Kukkonen | Probability Designs. Literature and Predictive Processing[END_REF] While Aristotle emphasized the objective of vraisemblance, which is to convince, contemporary philosophers have focused on the cognitive functions of literature. French philosopher Jacques Bouveresse defined literature as "practical knowledge." [START_REF] Bouveresse | Agone, 2008), 63-64. For discussion of this notion, see Pascal Engel[END_REF] Another French philosopher, Pascal Engel discusses this thesis of "literary cognitivism." He distinguishes two options. One, weaker according to him, consists in saying that literature refers to beliefs and modes of inferences, which produce effects of empathy, recognition, or reenactment. The second, more robust, raises the question of whether this mode of practical knowledge has or not the properties of propositions. Engel argues in favor of the idea that literature as practical knowledge has a propositional dimension, without however underwriting the conception of literary cognitivism as a set of thematic statements implementing theses that are proposed to the reader's assessment. He suggests, instead, to consider this literary cognitivism in terms of modes of indirect representations of "know how," descriptions of practical knowledge and moral examples of personalities (caractères), types, mores, psychological laws (called "ethopea"). This is a propositional mode of knowledge in the sense that it confers practical knowledge indirectly, through "description using modes of practical presentation." 67 This theory is convincing for realist and even allegoric literature, but less so for more experimental forms or for poetry, which deconstruct routine modes of representation and present things in a way that is not necessarily translatable in terms of "ethopea" or "know how." For instance, surrealists made use of dreams to redefine our notion of reality, using automatic writing, but also images (photography). 68 Nonetheless, this conception of literature as "practical knowledge," in particular in this robust version, opens new paths for investigating the relationship between literature and other forms of knowledge. The naturalist authors, for instance, borrowed from medicine not only representations but also a language and causality schemes which organize the narration (like, for instance, the effects of alcoholism in Zola's L'Assommoir). In his novel Les Cloches de Bâle, the Communist writer Aragon used dialectical materialism to account for the causes of the First World War.

One could examine the relationships of literary works with the episteme in Foucault's sense, that is to say the relationships unifying in a given period the discursive practices which produce epistemological figures, sciences and formalized systems, and how these moves towards epistemologisation are achieved within these discursive formations. 69 Although Zola conceived of literature as a mode of experimentation equivalent to science, the usages of medical knowledge by naturalist authors never questioned this knowledge. By contrast, realist novelists such as Balzac, Stendhal and Tolstoy did question the possibility to describe or control chance and contingency that had been explored by Carl von Clausewitz's theory of war based on mathematical and philosophical developments and that was implied in military models (maps, games, simulations). 70 I have proposed considering literature as situated between doxa and episteme. 71 The degree of autonomy or dependency of the schemes of literary representation with regard to the existing frames of perception and analysis, be they mediatic, political or scientific, varies across literary works, and consequently in their capacity to renew the dominant worldview, as well as the dominant narratives of the past, present and future (see the discussion of Jameson above). For instance, Malraux's epistolary novel La Tentation de l'Occident (1926) challenged, both in its content and in the dialogic epistolary form, the idea of the superiority of western culture within a unique process of civilization, an idea which prevailed in his time in the doxa and in the episteme altogether, as the debate about the relationship between the "West" and the "East" in the French literary field reveal (although the anthropological notion of "culture" started being introduced in France). 72 67 Pascal Engel, "Literature and Practical Knowledge," Argumenta 2, n°1 (2016), 55-76. On ethopea, see Barbara Carnevali, "Mimesis littéraire et connaissance morale. La tradition de l''éthopée'," Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 65, no. 2 (2010) 291-322. 68 Delia Ungureanu, Time Regained. World Literature and Cinema (London: Bloomsbury, 2022). 69 Michel Foucault, The Archeology of Knowledge, trans. Alan Sheridan (New York: Pantheon Books, 1972), 191. The meaning of the notion of episteme evolved between Les Mots et les Choses (1966) and L'Archéologie du savoir (1968): Foucault restricted its usage to sciences or fields of scientific knowledge. He also explicitly distinguishes it from that of worldview, by paying attention to practices and discursive regularities. On its relationship to ideology, see pp. 240-243. 70 See Anders Engberg-Pederson, Empire of Chance. The Napoleonic Wars and the Disorder of Things (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 2015). 71

Axiological operators: the literary field and the intellectual field

The notion of worldview transcends that of knowledge, because it also involves axiological principles. According to Durkheim and Mauss, "all classification implies a hierarchical order." [START_REF] Durkheim | De quelques formes de classification[END_REF] Bourdieu contends that classification schemes are inseparable from evaluation schemes (positive/negative, high/low, noble/base, etc.). 74 I call axiological operators notions such as "disinterestedness, ""civilization," "freedom," that give systems of cultural oppositions both their meaning and their position in a hierarchy of values, through spatial designators-in this case high and low-that have moral connotations of worthy and unworthy, and conferring or failing to confer dignity (digne/indigne). 75 Operating as practical schemes, according to fuzzy logics, these notions function as synecdoches of series of oppositions of which they are one term : civilization vs state of wilderness but also vs barbarity; freedom vs constraint, but also vs determination, determinism and servitude; disinterestedness vs interest, but also vs utility, social utility, and so on. 76 The social efficacy of such operators comes from their ability to symbolically unify systems of classification or heterogeneous types of hierarchies in the order of values and institutions. It is in this manner that they underlie and structure the worldview of a certain culture. They are regularly transposed from the intellectual field where they are produced to the field of ideological production and serve to legitimize political causes. Consequently, axiological operators play a major role in symbolic struggles, especially in periods of social transformation, but their own definitions and appropriation are also constantly struggled over.

Conversely, axiological operators are more difficult to identify in fiction, drama or poetry because they are often enacted in characters and plot, although they may for instance appear in dialogues. Nonetheless, one can reconstruct the system of oppositions which organizes the underlying worldview in literary works. The literary works can often be connected to essays written by their authors which may help reconstruct their worldview, as Jeffrey Mehlmann does with Paul Valéry's concept of civilization and of the superiority of the Homo Europaeus, developed in his famous 1919 essay "La Crise de l'Esprit" ("The crisis of the Mind"), and its poetic manifestation in La Jeune Parque and Le Cimetière marin, reminding us that Valéry had been a student of the racist anthropologist Vacher de Lapouge who introduced him to craniometry. [START_REF] Mehlman | Craniometry and Criticism: Notes on a Valeryan Criss-Cross[END_REF] Such an approach should not be reserved to philosophers like Sartre or Beauvoir, whose novels and dramas enact their "theses," or to thinkers like Valéry. As Kenneth Burke put it, "the work of every writer contains a set of implicit equations. He uses 'associational clusters.'" [START_REF] Burke | The Philosophy of Literary Forms[END_REF] Axiological operators can help us understand the connections between the intellectual field and the literary field, when the latter has gained a relative autonomy: which schemes circulate, how are they retranslated? For instance, did the notion of Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15). "transparency" studied by Stefanos Geroulanos, which perfectly fulfills the function of an axiological operator, circulate in the literary field? 79 They can also help us connect writer's literary works with their political commitments. Indeed, while the "histoire des intellectuels," which developed since the 1980s, has focused on their political position takings without considering their literary works or literary positioning, a field-theory approach reveals homology between literary and political position takings, beyond the fact that they draw the symbolic capital in the name of which they intervene on political matters from their literary recognition. 80 Since writers engage as such, their engagement should be related to their conception of literature.

Moreover, their form of politicization is related to the position they occupy in the field. Four idealtypical modes of intervention can be distinguished: the moral attitude of the "notables" in their columns in newspapers, who also tend to stage their proximity to the ruling class in the genre of the portrait or interview of political leaders; the aesthetic approach of the "esthetes," who treat politics with an aesthetic distance (in fiction or in essays published in literary reviews); the subversive conception of art and literature of the "avant-garde", symbolized by the genre of the manifesto; and the overtly politicized positioning of the polemicists, whose favorite genre is the lampoon. 81 But some literary works are also politicized in the reception process, with axiological operators playing again a role in this politicization, and allowing to transcend the production/reception divide.

Reception, appropriations and usages

If we look in historical terms at the process whereby science and literature become autonomous from public morality and ideological frameworks -the principles of neutrality and objectivity, which were transposed into literature by Flaubert thanks to his impassive narrators and the theory of l'art pour l'art -it is obvious that this autonomy can never be complete because no representation of the world can be neutral. Every such representation is always inscribed in relational fashion within a broader space of representations and a doxa which transcends it and confers upon it its objective signification in a given configuration, notwithstanding the author's intentions. The interpretation of a book is never independent of the socio-historical configuration in which it is read and of the reading habits of the period.

Introduced by literary scholars, reception studies developed as a specific approach in and of itself in literary history, intellectual history and the sociology of ideas. The literary approach elaborated by the Konstanz school (represented by Hans-Robert Jauss and Wolfgang Iser) refers to an "ideal reader" that is implicit in the text, thus making it possible to think of the literary devices as producing effects on the reader in a way comparable to Roland Barthes' concept of "effect". The methodology remained however focused on text analysis and not on concrete reading practices that 79 were at the time studied by cultural historians. [START_REF] Ginzburg | The Cheese and the Worms: The Cosmos of a Sixteenth-Century Miller, trans[END_REF] Studies of the critical reception of literary works provided a more concrete description of the way texts were interpreted in the intellectual field, as for instance, Joseph Jurt's pioneer study of the reception of Georges Bernanos in the written press, which showed how the right/left cleavage affected literary criticism. [START_REF] Jurt | La Réception de la littérature par la critique journalistique : lectures de Bernanos[END_REF] Literary trials, which often echoed moralistic and politicized critics in the newspapers, also became a site of observation of the reception and interpretation of literary works. Despite Flaubert's insistence on adopting a neutral and objective point of view, Madame Bovary caused a scandal, one of the reasons being precisely, as Jauss underscored, the narrator's impassive posture (inasmuch as he did not condemn Emma's adultery) and the use of free indirect speech, which were both innovative literary devices. [START_REF] Robert | Toward an Aesthetic of Reception[END_REF] According to Dominick LaCapra, the novel read the trial by challenging the social norm of marriage. [START_REF] Lacapra | Madame Bovary on Trial[END_REF] But this does not explain why Flaubert was not sanctioned in the end. Specialists made the hypothesis that it was thanks to his social capital, i.e. the connections his family had in the field of power. [START_REF] Leclerc | Crimes écrits. La littérature en procès au 19 e siècle[END_REF] However, one can also argue that the speech for his defense was confirming the norms in the name of which he was being prosecuted and read the trial in another way: his counsel Sénard argued that Madame Bovary was a moral novel which showed the noxious effects of reading novels on a woman from lower social classes to whom they instilled the ambition of upward mobility, an ambition which was at the time regarded as a social danger: as a result of this plea, Flaubert's intention was recognized by the court as "pure," and he was just blamed for his (mis)use of crude realistic devices. [START_REF] Sapiro | [END_REF] Writers can be also tried for ideological motives, such as offense to the king's person, to State representatives, to the army (like Lucien Descaves for his novel Sous-Offs in 1889), or for incitement to terrorism, or for anarchism. According to the regime, more or less emphasis is placed on certain values like religion, family, or national interest. The distinction between representation and apology, and between the fictional characters and the author, was acknowledged by French courts only starting in the 1970s. The potential reader was at the core of the moral and legal concerns regarding the effect of literary works. Metaphors of their noxious effects alternated between "poison" and "contagion." While the representation of these supposed noxious effects was restricted to youth with the post-68 liberalization of the public sphere, [START_REF]On the concept of public sphere[END_REF] the notion of "sensitive readers" emerged in the English-speaking world against racist, sexist and stigmatizing discourses, including in classical works. Some right-wing authors such as Michel Houellebecq use fiction in order to disseminate such stigmatizing discourses in the public sphere without taking the risk of a lawsuit. Others openly attack antiracism as a restriction to freedom of expression.

Against the notion of influence which prevailed in the traditional history of ideas, and which presupposes the passivity of the receiver, cultural historians and Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15). the conservative Victorian conception of sexuality and legitimize homosexuality. 98 Finally, studying usages of literary texts as sources or illustration of theoretical assertions, from Freud to Bourdieu, can shed light on how literature has nourished the social and human sciences and marked their writing and style. 99

Conclusion

The existing and potential interactions between the socio-historical study of literary works and the history and sociology of ideas and are manifold. Beyond the question of the relationships between literature and knowledge, and between fiction and truth, it raises that of the worldview conveyed by literary works.

The socio-historical study of literary works thus requires combining three perspectives. 100 First, the political, economic and social conditions of productioncensorship, publishing constraints, the social conditions for access to the public sphere -and the literary institutions and networks to which the authors are connected, some of which are located at the intersection between the literary field and the intellectual field (like Sartre's journal Les Temps modernes 101 ), the media field (newspapers), or the field of power (like the salons or the Académie française 102 ). Although it remains relevant to understand the legal and socio-political conditions of production, the nationally focused approach of such intellectual networks has been renewed from a transnational and postcolonial perspective, as in Elleke Bohmer's study, based on archives and close reading, of the interconnections of the Indian intellectual migrants within British literary circles in fin de siècle Great Britain. 103 Working on such transnational networks between intellectuals and cultural intermediaries enables us to construct transnational intellectual fields, which may be formed by migration or political exile, but also by the global circulation of books in translation. 104 Second, the worldview conveyed by the works can be related to the doxa and the episteme, in light of the authors' trajectories and also in light of the space of literary and intellectual possibilities of their time, using field theory.

  Raymond Williams. Marxism and Literature (New York: Oxford University Press, 1977), 132. 42 Williams, Culture and Society (1958; reis. New York: Columbia University Press, 1983), 87-109. Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15).

  Régine Robin, Socialist Realism: An Impossible Aesthetic, trans Catherine Porter (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1992 [1986]). Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15).

  Michael Lucey, The Misfit of the Family: Balzac and the Social Forms of Sexuality (Durham: Duke University Press, 2003). The Rules of Art. Genesis and Structure of the Literary Field (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 1995), 1-46. Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15).

54

Laure Murat, "The Invention of the Neuter." Diogenes 52, no. 4 (2005): 61-72; Id., La Loi du genre. Une histoire culturelle du 'troisième sexe' (Paris: Fayard, 2006). 55 Mikhail Bakhtin, Rabelais and His World (Boston: MIT Press, 1971). 56 Pierre Bourdieu,

  Jean-Louis Jeannelle, Écrire ses Mémoires au XX e siècle : déclin et renouveau d'une tradition (Paris: Gallimard, 2008). 58 Christophe Prochasson, "Les mots pour le dire : Jean-Norton Cru, du témoignage à l'histoire," Revue d'histoire moderne & contemporaine 48, no. 4 (2001) 160-189. 59 Emmanuel Bouju, "Exercice des mémoires possibles et littérature 'à-présent'. La transcription de l'histoire dans le roman contemporain." Annales. Histoire, Sciences Sociales, 65, no. 2 (2010): 417-438; Susan Suleiman "Performing a Perpetrator as Witness: Jonathan Littell's Les Bienveillantes." In After Testimony: The Aesthetics and Ethics of Holocaust Narrative for the Future, eds. J. Lothe, S.R. Suleiman and J. Phelan (Athens, Ohio: Ohio State University Press, 2012), 99-119. 60 On the development of conceptions of verisimilitude which realism was to come to associate with "the effect of the real," see Andrée Mercier, "La vraisemblance: état de la question historique et théorique," Temps Zéro, no. 2, 2009. 61 Aristotle, Poetics, trans. S. H. Butcher (Project Gutenberg, 2008) 17. Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15).

  Sapiro, Les Écrivains et la politique en France, 211. 72 Ibid., 324-344. Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15).

  Stefanos Geroulanos, Transparency in Postwar France. A Critical History of the Present (Stanford: Stanford University Press, 2017). 80 Christophe Charle, Birth of the Intellectuals: 1880-1900, trans. G. M. Goshgarian (Cambridge: Polity Press, 2015); Gisèle Sapiro, The French Writers' War, trans. Dorrit Cohn and Vanessa Doriott Anderson (Durham: Duke University Press, 2014); Tristan Leperlier, Algérie, les écrivains dans la décennie noire (Paris: CNRS Éditions, 2018). 81 Gisèle Sapiro, "Forms of Politicization in the French Literary Field," Theory and Society, 32 (2003), 633-652. Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15).

Johan Heilbron, The Rise of Social Theory (London: Polity Press, 1995).

Didier Masseau, L'Invention de l'intellectuel dans l'Europe du XVIII e siècle (Paris: PUF, 1994).

Robert Darnton, The Literary Underground of the Old Regime (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1982); Roger Chartier, The Cultural Origins of the French Revolution, trans. Lydia Crochane (Durham: Duke University Press, 1991). See also chapter 14 in this volume.

Stefan Collini, Public Moralists. Political Thought and Intellectual Life in Britain, 1850-1930 (Oxford: Oxford University Press,

1993).19 Anne-Marie Thiesse, La Fabrique de l'écrivain national. Entre littérature et politique (Paris : Gallimard, 2020).20 Wolf Lepenies, Between Literature and Science: The Rise of Sociology (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1988). 21 Émile Durkheim, The Division of Labour in Society, trans. W. D. Halls, intro. Lewis A. Coser (New York: Free Press, 1997). 22 Gisèle Sapiro, "Défense et illustration de 'l'honnête homme' : les hommes de lettres contre la sociologie," Actes de la recherche en sciences sociales, no. 153 (2004): 11-27. 23 Denis Hollier, Le Collège de Sociologie, 1937-1939 (Paris: Gallimard, 1979). Alban Bensa et François Pouillon eds., Terrain d'écrivains : Littérature et ethnographie (Toulouse: Anacharsis, 2012).

Stefano-Maria Evangelista, British Aestheticism and Ancient Greece: Hellenism, Reception, Gods in Exile (Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009).

Gisèle Sapiro, "Literature, Knowledge, and Worldview", Stefanos Geroulanos and Gisèle Sapiro (eds.), The Routledge Handbook of the History and Sociology of Ideas (London: Routledge, 2023), 256-274 (chap. 15). sociologists have insisted on the active dimension of reception by studying the ways in which texts are appropriated and used. This approach has allowed to recast the question of whether books make revolutions, a question that is deeply anchored in the belief that it was the writings of the philosophes that lead to the French Revolution. 89 In Bourdieu's terms, the strategies of appropriation of a text can be related to the issues at stake in the reception field. 90 While this approach has been mostly applied to nonfictional texts, it of course can be fruitfully applied to literary works. Literary works may be appropriated for ideological purposes, and for the cultural construction of "imagined communities": literature was ascribed a role in the construction of the national identities and plays a role in collective memory. [START_REF] Anderson | Imagined Communities: Reflections on the Origin and Spread of Nationalism[END_REF] Literary works may thus serve educational purposes: the study of textbooks is revelatory of the social functions ascribed to them, of the values they are supposed to disseminate and of their cultural exemplarity. This applies of course to youth literature, which is submitted to educational control. [START_REF] Kamenetsky | Children's Literature in Hitler's Germany: The Cultural Policy of National Socialism[END_REF] Authoritarian regimes have tried not only to control but also to instrumentalize art for propaganda purposes. While the Communist regime in the USSR promoted socialist realism as a method of creation, [START_REF]Socialist Realism… 94 Francesca Billiani, Fascist Modernism in Italy. Arts and Regimes[END_REF] the fascist regime in Italy was actively involved in the modernist aesthetic movement which served its goal of shaping the "new" individual. 94 The cultural policies developed by national and international institutions such as UNESCO and their conception of reading have also become a fruitful field of research. [START_REF]See for instance Sarah Brouillette, UNESCO and the Fate of the Literary[END_REF] However, and this brings us back to the episteme, these political conceptions of culture and literature are often contested by the writers themselves, as Peter McDonald's study demonstrates about the way modernist writers such as T.S. Eliot, James Joyce, and Rabindranath Tagore, and contemporary ones, from Amit Chaudhuri, J. M. Coetzee, and Salman Rushdie to Antjie Krog, Arvind Krishna Mehrotra and Es'kia Mphahlele, have challenged the institutional definition of culture by state constitutions and international bodies (the International Institute of Intellectual Cooperation of the League of the Nations in the interwar period and by UNESCO after the Second World War). [START_REF] Peter | Artefacts of Writing: Ideas of the State and Communities of Letters from Matthew Arnold to Xu Bing[END_REF] The relationship between literature and nation had been challenged since the end of the nineteenth-century by modernist conceptions of cosmopolitanism in the English world, as the intellectual debates studied by Stefano-Maria Evangelista show. [START_REF] Evangelista | Literary Cosmopolitanism in the English Fin de Siècle: Citizens of Nowhere[END_REF] Writers often make use of past or foreign authors in order to subvert the dominant ideology of their time. For instance classical Greek references were used by British writers such as Oscar Wilde in order to challenge 99 See for instance the entries "Bernhard," "Flaubert," "Kafka," "Proust", or "Ponge" in Dictionnaire international Bourdieu, ed. Gisèle Sapiro (Paris: CNRS Editions, 2020). 100 Third, the reception and appropriations of literary works occur in a broader socio-intellectual history: one can ask how the conditions of reception determine the reading of a work and its ideological potential (for instance the subversiveness of Madame Bovary; or the debate on the relationship between West and East in the French intellectual field of the 1920s, when Malraux released his novel); or how the works are used for political or intellectual purposes, but also how literary theory may ground censors' judgment. 105 The concept of field helps us understand the circulations between the literary field, the intellectual field, and the field of ideological production in a given social configuration, all the while taking into account the relative autonomy and specific issues of each, and the homologies and mediations through which the literary works are read and (re)interpreted. These circulations are facilitated by axiological operators, and by the politicization process which occurs in times of social and political crises, contributing to the synchronization and phase harmonization of fields, as Bourdieu argued for May 68. 106 Lastly, it should be made clear that the interactions between literature and science, and the fact that it can be a source of knowledge does not mean, however, that one should subscribe to the blurring of the difference between literature and the social and human sciences, as some suggest, and however seductive the arguments might be. 107 Their epistemological regimes and modes of restitution should remain distinct, despite the tendency, encouraged by publishers and literary agents (with the hope of reaching a non-academic audience), to introduce narrative forms (which often have not much to do with literature) in the writing of the human and social sciences. Reaffirming this distinction should not prevent us from comparing the worldviews and episteme they both convey, nor from exploring the role of forms (taken in a broader sense than the traditional literary or art forms) in shaping the sociopolitical world.