Serrano José
email: serrano@univ-tours.fr

Learning sustainable metropolitan development for european students of planning

Keywords: European cooperation, metropolitan spread, project assessment, sustainable developement, team work

Today, environmental problems and metropolitan planning concerns most of the planners threw Europe. Consequently, it's important provide to the students tools and skills to solve them. Despite the diversity of knowledge and multiplicity of practical exercises given to the students, the methods developed by planners are heavily influenced by his own native culture. For example, Italians don't treat environmental problems and metropolization as Germans or French do. The metropolization varies from country to country. The specificity of each country approach is revealed by the legislation but also by the priority given to a particular aspect or by the tools used. Some countries focus on esthetics aspects or quantitative analysis while others prefer qualitative analysis and functional aspects.

Learning this specialties is interesting because it helps one criticize his own knowledge and skills and it helps to collaborated with foreign planners. Conferences about compared analysis helps students improve understanding of foreign approaches but they don't necessary change one's behavior.

We put 35 students together from five different countries (England, Germany, The Netherlands, France and Italy) for 10 days and we gave them a real environmental problem to solve. The topic of the programme changes each year. This year, the students deal with the environmental problem due to the extension of a medium metropolitan area. The students are mixed in multinational groups. Confronted with problems to solve, they must mobilize their skills, explain their particular point of view and find a compromise to solve the problem.

The aim of this proposal is to explain how the students are prepared both to solve a real environmental problem and to accept another system of analysis.

Introduction

Metropolitan areas are experiencing great development. There are several ways for a big town to develop. Old centres or old disused districts can be reinvested and densified or else the development takes place by sprawling. New houses or facilities can be scattered or, if the growth take place close to the centre, new districts can be constructed. These are the ways of metropolitan development which are traditionally observed.

Throughout Europe we can find various examples of this diversity. Hanover used the international expo of 1997 to build a new village, Njmegem set up a new quarter of dwellers, near a dyked river. Bristol is thinking about a new international airport close to the city. Tours is building a new quarter of 60 ha in a flood area. Bologna decided to densify the old area of Morano which is partially abandoned.

Nobody can contest the need for the metropolis to find new space to expand. But planners must wonder if there some ways which are more sustainable than others.

In our planning training, we teach sustainable development principles to our students. But sustainable development is still a new concept and its application is not obvious. As sustainability is a recent concept it is interesting to compare how planners in other countries deal with it. Lectures are not sufficient to make students able to apply sustainable principles, therefore we give them real cases of planning to analyse. We aim to bring together students from five countries and to give them a real case of planning to study. Thus, they can improve their ability to apply sustainability principles and they can became conscious of the various interpretations of the concept.

The aim of this article is to present the interest of mixing student planners from five countries. We will present the sensibilities and skills developed by each country. Then, we will analyse the skills and knowledge the students are able to share in order to analyse a real case study of town planning. But first, we are going to present the Intensive Programme designed to make the students from various countries work together.

I) An Intensive Programme to make the students work on sustainable planning

A) Difficulties of a clear definition of sustainability in town planning

During the Rio round of 1992, sustainability was defined as a way of development with the aim of satisfying present needs without threatening those of future generations (Vilain, 2000). Sustainable development simultaneously combines economic efficiency and reasonable management of the environment and social fabric.

Economic efficiency is well known and there are plenty of objective criteria which can quantify it. The reasonable management of the environment needs some explanations. We can say that human activity is reasonable management from the point of view of the environment if it consumes very few non renewable resources. If it doesn't take too many renewable resources to allow stocks to reconstitute and if it produces very little waste. The definition of a reasonable management of social fabric is the most difficult. Because this variable refers to ethical values which have no precise scientific status and depend on the territory considered (Vilain, 2000).

To be sustainable, a planning project needs to take account of the three dimensions. For example, huge economic development does not allow us to be careless with the environment and so on. Comparing students' work from different countries is interesting because it shows what dimensions are privileged according to the country.

B) The preparation of the students to work together on a real case of town planning

The idea is to put together 35 students from five countries (England, Germany, France, Italy, the Netherlands). The students had to work in groups and analyse a case study. This project was possible thanks to the European Union which funded an Intensive Programme. The Intensive Programme in Tours employed a variety of different methods to teach 35 students over 11 days. These included lectures on a daily basis for the first five days of the project, field work carried out by the students themselves, field trips to local but relevant areas, tutorials in which they presented their work in small groups to the international tutors.

The students come from schools of planning (the University of Bologna, the University of West of England, Bristol, the University of Hannover, the Catholic University of Nijmegen, the University of François Rabelais, Tours). They are postgraduates in town, country, spatial or regional planning. Such students show maturity in their thought processes and have sufficient background knowledge to compare and contrast practices in different countries. Of course the students are fluent in English as the programme is delivered in English.

The activity covers two elements : the first is the presentation of ideas from their home nation, related to an agreed topic which concerns aspects of sustainability ; the second is the mixed nationality collaborative group work carried out with the aim of producing a sustainable plan for the host nation. The method of teaching is to provide lectures and talks in the academic environment and in the field with visits to a variety of places and interest to the project and with workshops and exercises during the supervised project sessions in the university. The emphasis will be on independent work but the students will be guided in the principles of collaborative group work This year the home nation worked on the rehabilitation of the old disused area of Morano(Bologna). the realisation of new districts near the city centre (Hannover, Nijemegen and Tours). Hannover focused on the expo-village of Kronsberg while Tours and Nijmegen studied the case of building in flood areas. Lastly, Bristol worked on the potential for a new airport close the town of Bristol.

C) The subject of the Intensive Programme

Map of the district of the Deux Lions

The aim of the Intensive Programme to be held in Tours in 2004 is to assess the construction of a new district (The Deux Lions) in the built-up area of Tours in France. Presented as a showcase venture, it brings together several major issues at stake : social mix, mixed uses, access by public transport, and the presence of a natural environment. Above all, the development of this district raises the question of its link with the other urban centres of Tours and Joué-les-Tours. Keeping in mind the perspective of sustainable development and social cohesion, the objective is to analyse whether the expansion of this modern district jeopardises the regeneration of the old centres or whether it will benefit the whole of the built-up area.

Resulting from this work, the students will be expected to make recommendations for sustainable policies of development so that the Deux Lions district will play a dynamic role in the renewal of the other areas of the conurbation. The European participants will benefit from this experience for similar projects in their own countries.

The aims of the Intensive Programme are to increase awareness of issues of sustainability with regards to transportation, to learn from different European practices and apply them to planning in Tours, to make a multinational contribution to a "live" issue and to compare different approaches of different planning systems.

II)Various skills and knowledge developed in each country

A) Interest of the pedagogical process centred on the student

Pedagogical processes can be divided into three categories : lectures, team work and individual learning. The perfect process does not exist, it depends on the aims of the teacher.

During the Intensive Programme, we want to promote a high level of cognitive apprenticeships, that is to say, synthesis activities according to B. Bloom's taxonomy (Pregent, 1990). In such activities the students are expected to produce an original work. They mobilize their knowledge in a specific corpus to aggregate abstract relationships. Typically, the realisation of an assessment report trains the students to make syntheses. Moreover, we seek to promote the autonomy of the students. We want the students to learn to organize their time and the distribution of their effort. This autonomy makes the students more responsible and considerably increases their motivation. It promotes long term memorisation, the development of the thought process and the transposition of the apprenticeships The impact of their work is greater.

Under these conditions, we choose a process centred on the students and we propose a project. The students have to analyse a real planning project. The case studied is simplified, they have no budget to manage. Moreover, the silent partner is fictitious and they are not expected to evaluate the impact of their propositions. The students are supervised by a tutor but they have to respect a timetable and to find pertinent information and contact the appropriate people.

In a project, the most important element is not the matter itself but the application of a process or of a body of knowledge. So, the resolution of a project is an excellent revelation of the particular skills or knowledge learnt.

B) Various skills developed according to the native country

To prepare the intensive programme, each planning school had to present a case of urban development. We can divide the presentations into two groups. The English and Dutch focused on analyses whereas the Italians , Germans and French developed proposals.

1) Tools for a deep analysis

Students from Bristol had to assess the potential of a new international airport to the north of the town of Bristol. The forecasted high growth of flights push the planners to imagine a new airport. The project would cover 810 ha of rural land. The initial capacity would be 3.5 million passengers per annum. It could rise to a maximum of 20-30 millions passengers per year. The students have to compare the cost and the advantages of this project. They evaluated the economic fall out and they compared them to the environmental and social impacts. The question is : "Is the airport sustainable ?". To answer, the students have to quantify the economic development induced, the quantity of pollution emitted and the disturbance to the neighbourhood. They apply a classical cost/profit process. We can notice that English students do not merely make a qualitative comparison but they produce quantitative data.

During the second part of the seminar, the British teachers proposed a SWOT analysis as a grid of diagnosis. The SWOT analysis enables us to classify the elements in Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats. It distinguishes the present (strengths and weaknesses) and the future (opportunities and threats). This grid proved useful for all the students because they were more precise in their analysis and they could project into the future more easily.

The Dutch students were expected to assess the sustainability of the extension of Nijmeguen to the North. They presented the steps of their analysis clearly. They defined the sustainable issues then the criteria of sustainability. To improve their analysis they made a comparative analysis between two cases of city expansion (the South axis in Amsterdam and Waalsprong in Nijmeguen).

The conclusion of both groups is to say whether or not the project is sustainable. They do not develop alternative proposals. This is the main difference with the three others groups.

2) The research of proposals German people can be considered as an intermediate group. They worked on the expo village Kornsberg. The world exhibition Expo 2000 took place in the city of Hannover. It was combined with an ambitious residential development project. As a model project, a completely new residential district was created outside the exhibition ground to demonstrate the world exhibition motto : "Humankind -Nature -Technology". The project aimed at presenting practicable solutions for sustainable building and housing which should be transferable to other communities. 6000 dwellings for 15000 people have been constructed in this area. Germans students make a rigorous analysis. They studied the three dimensions of sustainability. But they evaluate more precisely the concrete measures adopted to respect sustainability principles. Thus, they can say what measures are advisable to transfer to other situations.

The Italians are confronted with the rehabilitation of the Morano area Holiday homes. The Morano area was built in the 19 th century to host the first "bathers". Gradually, Morano lost its function and the holiday homes were abandoned. Large parklands have also been abandoned. Today, the holiday homes are disused but there is a renewal of interest for them by new tourists. The Italian students were expected to make a diagnosis of the situation. They made a list of opportunities and the impediments and they imagined a plan of rehabilitation which concerns the whole area. We can notice that the Italians used drawn documents intensively to explain their analysis and their proposals.

In the same way, the French students exploited their analysis in order to make proposals. They had to analyse the impact of the realisation of a new district (the Deux Lions) in the built-up area of Tours. From a sustainable point of view they had to determine whether the project of the Deux Lions district with its 2000 inhabitants, 3000 workers and 18000m² of commodities will generate a balanced development for the whole area or whether it will induce a simple transfer of already existing activities. The students developed a prospective process. They made a diagnosis and imagined a scenario. To prevent the unsustainable trends, they elaborated proposals.

Each national group of students is not necessarily representative of its country. But it is interesting to learn that depending on the university, students will be better at analysing a project or proposing practical measures. The two activities are not equivalent. Analysis is based more on a hypothesis -deductive argument -whereas proposals need an original work of the imagination. Of course, both activities remain inside the same corpus of knowledge (town planning).

The second lesson that comes from the comparison of national students' work is their preference for a particular dimension of sustainability.

C) Variable sensitiveness about sustainable development

Sustainability puts on the same level and links economic development, environmental preservation and social development. The strength of the concept of sustainability is that these three dimensions must be considered at the same time. A very strong economic development cannot be justified if it does not consider its impact on natural resources or on social fabric.

Despite this principle of balance, the group focused on or related in detail some particular aspects of sustainability. The best aspect studied is the environmental impact. The German group related in particular detail environmental sustainability. They studied energy consumption, water management, waste management, transport management and they were the only group who spoke about soil management. The Dutch had a particular interest in water management and multiple land use.

The Italians and French also gave a preponderance to environmental sustainability but also took account of social sustainability. The Italians focused on aesthetic and patrimonial elements, whereas the French preferred social fairness. For example the Italians gave an importance to saving historic buildings and the French people were susceptible to a shared development. Several groups mentioned public participation but they did not develop it. We can notice that economic sustainability is little developed except by the English group. This is paradoxical and interesting because economic development was the first to benefit from theoretical studies and there are plenty of criteria to describe it.

Finally, we notice that all the groups gave an importance to accessibility in their analysis or proposals.

The groups developed complementary skills and knowledge. In the second part of the seminar we mixed the nationalities. The interest is to sum up the strengths of each group. But the students had to communicate in English which is a foreign language for most of the students. Of course, English students have no problem with it but they were a minority. Under those conditions, it is more difficult to share specificities and easier to share already common knowledge. The students had little time but they were obliged to produce an analysis and proposals. So they had to elaborate a common thought.

III) The predominance of environmental sustainability

A) Instructions given to the groups

During the second part of the Intensive Programme students are mixed in multinational groups. Each group has the five nationalities. They are in the same proportion. Sometimes the French can be slightly over represented (two people instead of one person). Students have to make a SWOT analysis and a concept plan. They are based on observations, lectures, information from the French students and literature. At the end of this analysis the students say if sustainable principles have been respected. The swot analysis is drawn up in a concept plan. There are then three subjects to study (2 groups per subject) :

1. public spaces, gardens, parks, play areas, nature and landscaping 2. residential areas, including design, social aspects and sustainability 3. commercial and community facilities including retail, leisure, educational The students have to imagine proposals and produce a short report including maps and prepare a presentation for 20 minutes.

B) The answers brought by the students

The main strengths of the Deux Lions district are the surrounding natural areas and corridors, the multiple land use, the carefully though-out architecture and the proximity of the city centre. On the other hand, the main weaknesses are the weak energy, water and waste management and the location itself as the Deux Lions is an old flood area. Now it is protected by a dyke but the flow of the river has been significantly modified.

The analysis of the students' work shows that all the groups emphasised the presence of nature. There is a lake to the east, a hill side and a little river in the south, a natural plain to the west and the river Cher (dyked) in the north. Some paths have been made along these corridors. The students insisted on the need to develop more paths for bicycles and pedestrians as cars are still very present. The idea is to test whether the students sum up their strengths to make a global analysis of sustainability. In fact they are mainly focused on environmental aspects. All the groups seek to establish a human size and convivial development.

The groups which worked on public spaces appreciated the surrounding nature. It is an opportunity and they suggested linking public space with natural areas. They expected nature to be closer to the inhabitants and the passers-by. They wanted to restore a pleasant atmosphere. With the same aim, they suggested promoting shops near the houses. They insisted on the need to install a process for water and waste management. We notice that nature is considered more as an ambient atmosphere than as an ecosystem.

The second group worked on a residential area. Like their friends they underlined the need to make nature closer to the dwellings. They suggested developing systems for waste and water management in the buildings and to educate people about it. They thought ground shops would improve the lifestyle of the inhabitants. They suggested developing citizen councils. Their philosophy is that people must find all basic requirements close at hand and they must not generate waste. They do not evaluate the profit -earning capacity for small shops.

Lastly, the groups in charge of commercial and community facilities developed once again the idea of well being for the inhabitants and workers. So they suggested developing people interactivity, proximity services and shops. They thought workers must find facilities for their children and good conditions of work. They did not develop any ideas to strengthen economic development. They suggested cooperation between the university and the companies but they did not check if there is a potential collaboration possible. This interesting suggestion remains very general. Moreover, they did not evaluate the profit -earning capacity for ground shops. To finish, they suggested that the companies should manage their waste and their energy consumption.

Conclusion

The main objectives of the programme were achieved. The students learned to work together and to listen to one another. The programme contributes to European construction by developing understanding across cultures and nations. However, it was very difficult for the students to link economic development with environmental development and social fairness. Only the English students studied economic development in depth and they concluded that the realisation of the airport was not sustainable. They did not make an alternative proposal. This highlights the necessity for schools of planning to focus on the link between economic development and the other two aspects of sustainable development.

Bibliography

Lionel Vilain, (2000). La méthode IDEA : indicateurs de durabilité des exploitations agricoles, guide d'utilisation. Dijon, Educagri Richard Pregent (1990)

  . La préparation d'un cours, Montreal, Editions de l'école Polytechnique de Montréal Wed. 10 th of March Thu. 11 th of March Fri. 12 th of March Sat. 13 th of March Sun. 14 th of March 9:30-11:30 : Guided tour :

	operations	Urban in	9:30-12:00 : Students' work	9:30-12:00 : Students' work	9:30-12:00 : Students' work	9:30-11:00 : Students' work
	Amboise	(J.C.				11:00-12:30 :	Final
	Buisson)					presentations : -Group 1 (30') -Group 2 (30') -Group 3 (30')
			Seminar Lunch	Seminar Lunch
	Independant sightseeing Amboise, Return to in Tours at 17:00	14:00-18:00 :State of advancement : each group presents their work 6 groups (40'/gr)	14:00-18:00 : Students' work	14:00-18:00 : Students' work	13:30-15:00 : presentations : -Group 4 (30') Final -Group 5 (30') -Group 6 (30')
			(M. Devereux, O.			15:30-16:00 :
			Gnest, N. Muller, J.			examiners assessment
			Serrano, C. Julien, D.
			Martouzet)			16:00-16:30 : Closing
						ceremony	of	the
						seminar
				Evening Distribute CESA's :
				student degrees

Acknowledgements : I thank Brynie Drain for correcting my English text

Rider : Time-table of the Intensive Programme

Fri. 5 th of March


Angeliki Kritikakou

Olivier Baldellon

Claire Pagetti

Christine Rochange

Matthieu Roy

Fabian Vargas

Onera

Monitoring On-line Timing Information to Support Mixed-Critical Workloads

published or not. The documents may come   L'archive ouverte pluridisciplinaire

I. INTRODUCTION AND MOTIVATION

Multi-/many-core architectures provide a drastic increase in computation power, enabling the simultaneous execution of several tasks on the system. Yet, in critical embedded systems, e.g. aeronautical systems, the uncertainty of the non-uniform and concurrent memory accesses prohibits the full utilization of the system potentials. To ensure safety, such systems impose static Worst Case Execution Time (WCET) estimations; memory access times are upper bounded considering a fully congested memory bus, leading to safe but almost unusable bounds and to overwhelmingly conservative schedules [START_REF] Wilhelm | Memory hierarchies, pipelines, and buses for future architectures in time-critical embedded systems[END_REF].

Existing techniques for multicore systems address the optimization of the scheduling objectives, e.g. processor utilization, when the task set is schedulable at least in the highest criticality level. In the mixed-criticality theoretical model of [START_REF] Vestal | Preemptive scheduling of multi-criticality systems with varying degrees of execution time assurance[END_REF], multiple WCET values, related to different criticality levels, are considered for each task. The lower the level, the more unsafe is the WCET bound. In the highest level, the value is trustful. In [START_REF] Anderson | Multicore operating-system support for mixed criticality[END_REF], [START_REF] Mollison | Mixed-criticality real-time scheduling for multicore systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Li | Global mixed-criticality scheduling on multiprocessors[END_REF], all tasks are started at the low criticality level. When a task has not finished on time, its level is increased and the less critical tasks are dropped. When the WCET of the highest level is larger than the deadline, the problem is considered as unschedulable.

Let us now consider a critical task with a WCET below the deadline, when it is the only task executed on the system, i.e. in isolation. We advocate that in this case, the safety of the critical task can be ensured, while some less critical tasks are run in parallel on other cores. Fig. 1 depicts the aforementioned problem, where one critical task T C and one less critical task T 1 are considered on two cores. When both tasks are executed, the WCET of T C is estimated above its deadline D, and thus the problem is unschedulable, as depicted in Fig. 1(a). However, if T C is executed in isolation, it is schedulable, as shown in Fig. 1(b). In contrast with existing approaches, our methodology is capable of scheduling the T C by considering two execution scenarios. Initially, both tasks are executed on the system. Monitoring points are used to on-line monitor the real execution time of T C and decide switching to isolation execution of T C , as shown in Fig. 1(c).

In this work, we propose an approach to improve core utilization by running several tasks in parallel and guarantee the critical task safety.

Shared Memory

CPU1 L1 Core1 CPU0 L1 Core0 T C T 1 Core0 Core1 T C D t t a) b) T C t c) Core0 Core1 Core0 Core1 T 1

II. TARGET SYSTEM

Our application domain is described by a task set with a single critical task T C , which is schedulable in isolation, but non-schedulable when executed with other less critical tasks. The WCET of the critical task is computable, i.e. the whole code can be unfolded into a bounded tree. We represent binary code of the application under study as a Control Flow Graph (CFG) [START_REF] Cooper | Building a control-flow graph from scheduled assembly code[END_REF]. Each node represents a basic block and edges connect nodes that can be executed in sequence. Our target platform is a time-predictable bus-based multicore system. More precisely, we consider several processing IP-cores on an FPGA platform with hardware monitoring capabilities [START_REF] Paolieri | Hardware support for wcet analysis of hard real-time multicore systems[END_REF]. We assume a number of cores equal to the number of tasks, which can then be statically co-scheduled.

III. PROPOSED METHODOLOGY

Our methodology is two-fold: i) Off-line, we analyze the CFG and safely estimate the remaining WCET at several points of the T C , under two scenarios: isolation, where the critical task is executed alone, and maximum load, where the maximum interference from co-running less critical tasks exists. ii) On-line, we use a hardware monitor to observe the real execution time of T C and to check whether a risk exists that the critical task misses its deadline due to system overload. If so, the less critical tasks are stopped and the execution is continued in isolation scenario. The proposed approach is schematically depicted in Fig. 2.

A. Off-line critical task analysis

As we consider critical tasks, our approach uses safe static WCET analysis [START_REF] Wilhelm | The worst-case execution-time problem: overview of methods and survey of tools[END_REF]. From the annotated CFG, an Integer Linear Programming (ILP) formulation is written to express This expression is maximized to find the required WCETs, with a number of constraints that reflect flow facts, e.g. loop bounds and unfeasible paths. This approach is adapted to our requirements: by modifying the ILP formulation appropriately, we are able to compute partial WCETs, i.e. WCETs between two monitoring points in the code, and the remaining WCET from one monitoring point until the end of the program. The monitoring points are set at the first instruction of each basic block of CFG, at this project stage. Ideally, for each monitoring point b, the remaining WCET until the end of the program should be estimated. However, as a point may be visited several times, e.g. when it belongs to a loop, the number of point instances to be stored is equal to the number of loop iterations. This highly increases storage requirements. Hence, we need a hybrid approach: the initial remaining WCET until the end of the program (RWCET iso ) of the first point instance is computed off-line; then at runtime, the RWCET iso is updated each time the point is encountered, as described in Section III-B2. For this purpose, the information required for point b is: (i) the nested level in the CFG, level b , used to identify the reference remaining time; (ii) if b is a loop header, the WCET of the loop body (w b ); (iii) the WCET from the inner loop header to point b (d b ). Figure 3 depicts such parameters. The timing values (ii) and (iii) are always estimated for the isolation scenario to guarantee the T C safety.

B. On-line execution 1) Hardware monitoring scheme: Our approach relies on hardware monitoring, as proposed in [START_REF] Silva | An intellectual property core to detect task schedullingrelated faults in rtos-based embedded systems[END_REF]. The scheme observes the instruction addresses from the memory. We assume that cores do not have instruction caches at this project stage. An address that has been monitored indexes a local associative memory (CAM), where level b , RWCET iso , w b and d b are stored. The CAM returns the timing information of the monitoring address to be used by the on-line control mechanism. Whenever the on-line control mechanism determines that the non-critical tasks should be suspended, the hardware monitor interrupts the operating system.

2) On-line control mechanism: Our on-line low-overhead control mechanism implemented in hardware guarantees the safety of the T C execution. Initially, both the critical and less critical tasks are executed on the multicore system. At each monitoring point b, the on-line control mechanism decides whether switching from the maximum load scenario to the isolation scenario is required. This decision is taken based on the information retrieved from the CAM memory in each monitoring point b. The RWCET iso is on-line computed and updated in CAM. When the CFG is traversed in the forward direction, the RWCET iso (b) is computed as RWCET iso (level b ) -d b . When the CFG is traversed backward to a loop header b, the RWCET iso (b) is computed as RWCET iso (b) -w b and the new value is updated to the CAM memory. Scenario switching is triggered at monitoring point b when the condition of Equation 1 holds: ET(b) denotes the monitored real execution time of T C until point b, WCET mon is the maximum WCET between two successive monitoring points and t Over is the cost of our recovery mechanism. The latter includes the time to monitor ET(b), the time for the hardware logic to access the CAM memory and to decide, and the time for the operating system to suspend the non critical tasks. Intuitively, Equation 1 means that the critical task might miss its deadline in the current (maximum load) scenario, but by switching to the isolation scenario in point b, the deadline can still be met. Our future work is the implementation of the proposed offline analysis tool and the online hardware control in the FPGA platform. We will also extend our approach to systems with several critical tasks and larger (scheduled) task sets.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Scheduling based on WCET when are considered for execution (a) both tasks, (b) only the critical task and (c) proposed hybrid approach.

4 Fig. 3 .

 43 Fig. 2. Overview of the proposed approach

  ET(b) + RWCET iso (b) + WCET mon + t Over > D[START_REF] Wilhelm | Memory hierarchies, pipelines, and buses for future architectures in time-critical embedded systems[END_REF]


José Serrano

Janet Askew

Nick Smith

Jasper Beekmans

Stefanie Dühr

Paul Olau

Frank Scholles

Laura Verdelli

Serrano José

/ Askew

/ Smith Nick

/ Beekmans Jasper

/ Dühr

/ Olau Paul

/ Scholles Frank

/ Verdelli

A European intensive seminar to learn both spatial quality and the cooperation process

Keywords: Intensive programme, Europeanization of spatial planning education, international team work

établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Since the start of the ERASMUS Programme in 1987, an ever growing number of students from all over

Europe have been able to study a semester or more in one of over 1600 universities in 30 different countries.

Within the ERASMUS student mobility programme, Intensive Programmes (IPs) take a special position. The aim of an IP is to bring together students from the same discipline for a period of at least ten working days and work together on a specific theme or topic of common interest. In Bristol, in 1991, a group of five universities first brought students together in an IP that has been held almost annually since (see appendix 1). These universities, UWE Bristol (UK), Hannover (Germany), Tours (France), Bologna (Italy) and Nijmegen (Netherlands), found a sixth partner from Oradea (Romania) to join for the first time in the IP held in 2009.

The organisation of the IPs in this consortium is rotating, with IPs being held in a different location every year, and on different spatial planning topics that are of concern to all the partner countries.

1 University of Tours 2 University West of England 3 Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen 4 University of Oradea 5 Leibniz University Of Hanover 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010 Track 3: Planning Education Over the years, planning practice throughout Europe has been influenced by many ongoing reforms.

Europeanisation and globalisation have not only influenced planning practice, but also planning education.

The Bologna Agreement in 1999 has prompted many changes to the curriculum of planning education across Europe, not merely because universities are changing their study formats to the Bachelor-Master system, but also in order to reflect the increasingly European nature of spatial planning policies. This paper discusses how European Union (EU) and international influences are influencing planning education in different European countries. In tracing the evolution of the ERASMUS Lifelong Learning programme over the years, and the format and content of our joint Intensive Programme in general, we try to show how the framework for cooperation in planning education has shaped our cooperation over the years and supported its institutionalisation. However, changes to planning education across Europe following the Bologna agreement, and the increasingly ambitious expectations for cooperation in higher education funded by the EU"s Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP) also imply some challenges for international student workshops in the field of spatial planning, which will be discussed in this paper.

The outline of this paper is as follows. In section 2 the aims and objectives of the EU Erasmus Programme and the evolution of objectives for cooperation in higher education over the past decades will be discussed. Section 3 will look more closely at the Europeanisation of planning and its reflection in planning education. Section 4 will elaborate on the IP by the regional planning network, and discuss how the IP brings the students to case studies which force them to consider new approaches and which improves the collaborative skills of the students. Section 5 concludes and discusses opportunities and challenges that emerge for a longstanding cooperation network in the field of spatial planning.

Aims and objectives of the EU Erasmus activity and their evolution during the recent funding period

Internationalisation of education in the EU is an important topic for higher education institutions nowadays.

One type of successful action to meet this expectation is the IP. As part of Action 4 of the ERASMUS programme, IP is a short programme of study which brings together students and staff from higher education institutions of at least three participating countries. They were introduced for the first time in 1988, one year after the ERASMUS start in 1987.

Even since the establishment of the Joint-Study Programmes (JSP) in 1976, higher education became part of the European agenda. As they remained operative for about a decade their purpose was to promote student mobility. Subsequently, in 1987 the ERASMUS programme was inaugurated. It rapidly became the most visible of the various newly emerging European educational programmes. Although the financial basis of the programme did not reach the volume needed for pursuing the ambitious aim initially set by the European 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010 Track 3: Planning Education Community of supporting a temporary study period in another European country of 10 percent of students in higher education, ERASMUS became the largest student mobility programme established.

A new chapter in the history of European support for temporary student mobility and transborder cooperation of higher education institutions was expected to begin when the SOCRATES programme was established in 1995. Implemented in the area of higher education from the academic year 1997/98, SOCRATES brought together the various education programmes, thus aiming at increased administrative efficiency of education activities in various sectors. When ERASMUS became a sub-programme of SOCRATES, support for student mobility and cooperation in higher education was substantially increased. In addition to student mobility, teaching staff mobility and curricular innovation were now also promoted in order to place special emphasis on a broad development of the European dimension in higher education and to make the non-mobile students profit from the programme as well. While ERASMUS in the past had clearly focused on the learning opportunities of mobile students, SOCRATES aimed to also address the non-mobile of students, i.e. to make the majority of students benefit from the European dimension in higher education. Notably, curricular innovation and increasing teaching staff mobility was expected to contribute to European experiences on the part of the non-mobile students. For this purpose, activities supported in addition to student mobility, such as IPs, were given an increasing share of the resources and were expected to play a greater role. Support for Curriculum Development and IPs was extended and newly structured. Recently, SOCRATES has been replaced by the Lifelong Learning Programme (LLP), with ERASMUS now forming the higher education section of the latter. Promotion of the European Credit Transfer System became one of the priorities of the targeted measures to improve the conditions of student mobility.

The European Commission"s expectations for IPs are set out as follows:

-Encourage efficient and multinational teaching of specialist topics which might otherwise not be taught at all, or only in a very restricted number of higher education institutions; -Enable students and teachers to work together in multinational groups and so benefit from special learning and teaching conditions not available in a single institution, and to gain new perspectives on the topic being studied; -Allow members of the teaching staff to exchange views on teaching content and new curricula approaches and to test teaching methods in an international classroom environment. for Curriculum development projects, 1271 for IPs and 166 for networks. Outputs have been appropriate and their generation has benefited participant organizations and individuals. At the project level, there is evidence of tangible and useful outcomes, in particular positive impacts on curricula development. The important role of IPs can best be understood in considering the wider context for planning education in Europe, and the changing requirements for the profession which result from "Europeanisation" processes. These implications will be discussed in the following section.

The implications of the Europeanisation of spatial planning for planning education

Spatial planning systems in Europe have over the past two decades increasingly become subject to international influences. The globalisation of economies and societies, and the international movement of people and goods that comes with it, have implied a need for planners to know more about for example the circumstances in other countries for trade and for developments in the construction industry. The influence 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010 Track 3: Planning Education of the EU on spatial development has considerably expanded over the past years. Despite the fact that there is no EU competence for spatial planning (or land use planning), there is an increasing number of EU sector policies with spatial impacts, for instance in the field of environment, transport, agriculture and regional policy [START_REF] Van Ravesteyn | Unseen Europe. A survey of EU politics and its impact on spatial development in the Netherlands[END_REF]. EU legislation also regulates planning procedures, for instance through the requirement to undertake Environmental Impact Assessments (EIA) for large scale developments and a Strategic Environmental Assessment (SEA) for spatial planning instruments. For spatial planners in the current 27 EU member states, it has been estimated that around 70% of their decisions and policies now have their origin in EU law and policy. In recognition of the increasing interlinkages between regions, spatial planners from across Europe have collaborated since the 1980s to agree on spatial development strategies for the European continent (CEMAT 2001) and for the EU territory (CSD 1999;TAEU 2007).

The Council of Europe and the EU institutions have for many decades supported cooperation between regional and local authorities across Europe. Many of the existing cooperation networks have their roots in the search for joint responses to common spatial development problems, such as for instance the management of large rivers such as the Rhine or Danube [START_REF] Dühr | The visual language of spatial planning[END_REF]. The EU has since the 1990s financially supported cooperation across national borders through the INTERREG initiative, in order to reduce the effects of national borders in the single market and to provide an incentive to fostering European integration. Many thousands of planning professionals have over the past decades become involved in such cooperation projects, seeking for instance joint responses to spatial development issues (such as cross-border transport or river management) or to exchange experience on how to respond best to challenges, such as climate change. Cooperation with planners and other partners from other policy sectors or NGOs in other European regions has now become a routine part of the work of planning professionals in all EU member states [START_REF] Dühr | Europeanization through transnational territorial cooperation? The case of INTERREG IIIB North-West Europe[END_REF]. Indeed, the EU influence on spatial planning within the member states is such that it has been argued that "although it certainly remains necessary to conduct spatial policy at the national level, doing so without regard to the growing influence of 'Brussels' will doom it to failure" (van Ravesteyn and Evers 2004: 9).

In response to these international and EU influences, many planning systems in Europe have over recent years undergone often far-reaching reforms (see [START_REF] Albrechts | Strategic spatial planning and regional governance in Europe[END_REF], and the question has been raised whether such a "Europeanisation of spatial planning" (Dühr et al. 2007) may perhaps lead to a convergence of planning systems. There is current little research evidence that would allow firm conclusions, but there are indications that spatial planning systems are responding to shared challenges and through processes of learning and policy transfer may develop similar adaptations [START_REF] Dolowitz | Learning from abroad: The role of policy transfer in contemporary policy-making, Governance[END_REF][START_REF] Colomb | The added value of transnational cooperation: towards a new framework for evaluating learning and policy change[END_REF]de Jong et al. 2002). However, it has also been pointed out that fundamental national characteristics of planning cultures will likely remain. This is because planning systems have developed within a particular legal, administrative and institutional environment, and fundamental values and deep-seated beliefs about the organisation of space are not likely to change in the short-to medium-term. De [START_REF] Jong | An insider's look into policy transfer in transnational expert networks[END_REF]Edelenbos (2007: 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010 Track 3: Planning Education 687), in their account of participant observation of knowledge transfer in a transnational expert network on sustainable urban management, have for instance shown how actors adjust EU concepts of foreign policy ideas in such a way that vital institutional differences remain: "Often this exchange is to a very large extent a process of absorbing appealing labels for policy solutions from the international or national policy levels, and then adopting an interpretation of it suitable to one"s own context". So far, therefore, there are no indications that territorial cooperation and other exchanges between planners would lead to a convergence of planning systems and policies: "For those who believe European integration and harmonization implies that European cities should become more similar this may be a disappointment. Planning convergence is not really what European cities and regions are headed for. For those who have placed their faith in continued variety, it is rather a relief. Continued variety has a greater potential to offer innovative solutions" (De Jong and Edelenbos 2007: 704).

Changes to planning systems in response to international influences, and increasing territorial cooperation in Europe, are also having an effect on planning academia and planning education. Spatial planning academics have traditionally been cooperating on research projects, many of which are co-financed by the EU"s Research Framework Programme or the ESPON programme, and have sought to exchange ideas at international conferences. The Association of European Schools of Planning (AESOP) holds an annual congress to provide a platform for such exchanges on planning research and education. AESOP is also undertaking ongoing reviews of planning education approaches in the member countries, in particular in response to the current changes in many curricula following the Bologna agreement in 1999 (Geppert and Verhage 2008; [START_REF] Davoudi | Implications of the Bologna process for planning education in Europe. Results of the 2006 survey[END_REF]. Increasing cooperation in the field of spatial planning has brought to the fore differences in the understanding of what spatial planning is about and how it is conducted (CEC 1997). There are considerable differences across Europe in the scope of planning systems and the disciplines involved in spatial planning. Reflecting different planning traditions in Europe (see [START_REF] Dühr | The visual language of spatial planning[END_REF], "spatial planners" thus come from a diverse field of different disciplines, including land use planning, town and country planning, economics, law, geography, political and social sciences, environmental studies, architecture, real estate, and so on. Planners in Europe continue to be largely educated in the context of these planning traditions, although following the Bologna agreement many changes aimed at harmonisation and further exchanges have been taking place to higher education in Europe, including in relation to planning degrees. In recognition of the European dimension of spatial planning, and the need for the new generation of spatial planners to possess cross-cultural communication skills that are a prerequisite for territorial cooperation, many planning schools have over recent years launched International Masters programmes on different aspects of European or international spatial planning. One example of such a new Masters programme, which considers the EU influences on spatial planning and educates planners on comparative planning research, is the Masters programme "European spatial and environmental planning" of Radboud Universiteit Nijmegen in the Netherlands (www.ru.nl/fm/esep). Yet, also for the Bachelor programmes, 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010 Track 3: Planning Education planning schools increasingly recognise the advantages of facilitating cooperation with students representing other planning traditions and to include an international dimension in the "regular" planning curriculum.

Initiatives, such as the long-standing IPs between the universities from Hannover, Nijmegen, Bristol, Tours, Bologna and Oradea, therefore play an important role in stimulating learning processes across cultural and disciplinary boundaries. They can be understood as playing a vital role in preparing future planning graduates for the changing context for spatial planning in Europe and the different expectations that planning professionals have to meet.

The Erasmus IP by the regional planning network

The Intensive Programme brings together 36 students in planning from 6 universities of 6 different countries, with students being expected to work on a real planning project. It can be divided into two main stages: the preparation work at home and the case study (see fig. 2). During their work, the students are autonomous. They are managed by one or two teachers during the preparation phase and by a team of six or seven teachers during the second stage. The meetings between students and teachers are very regular during the two stages. The aim is to orientate the students to the results expected rather than evaluate them.

Recap how planning can response to climate change and high quality of space

Since 2009, the intensive programme has focused on planning responses to climate change. Climate change is due to the increase of CO 2 in the atmosphere. The main origins of its emission have been identified as being individual transport and housing. Technical innovations (insulation of houses, new car engines…) can reduce consumption of carbon energy but will not be sufficient [START_REF] Souami | L'intégration des technologies énergétiques dans l'action humaine[END_REF]. Energy consumption can also be reduced by urban morphology and the model of a compact city is often brought into discussion in this context. Some authors (e.g. [START_REF] Massot | La contrainte énergétique doit-elle réguler la ville où les véhicules ? Les annales de la recherche urbaine[END_REF][START_REF] Sieverts | Zwischenstadt. Zwischen Ort und Welt, Raum und Zeit[END_REF] argue that this is a rather ideological position that cannot be substantiated. Indeed, the compact city is associated with social mix and collective life, short distances and public transport, which all contribute to saving energy. Massot and Orfeuil (idem) argue that it is more effective to work on the consumption level of each mode of transport than to increase the density of peripheral fringes of the cities or of the peri-urban areas. Or, as [START_REF] Sieverts | Zwischenstadt. Zwischen Ort und Welt, Raum und Zeit[END_REF] puts it: why deliver density in the Zwischenstadt, when people prefer and can afford less dense housing? An alternative to the compact city is a decentralised-concentrated city (Holden and Norland, 2005). The city would be fragmented in a center and several secondary towns linked by a strong transport network. This type of city maximizes advantages of the density (low energy use for both housing and every day travel) and minimizes 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010 Track 3: Planning Education the disadvantages (long distance leisure travel time correlated with very extreme densities). Climate change call into question undelimited urban sprawl and low densities. However, the "right" and adapted to climate change morphologies of towns are still under debate. There is no clear model that planners can refer to.

Planning response to climate change comes up against another difficulty. It seems much more difficult to adapt the town to low-level energy consumption than to modernise any other technical network [START_REF] Souami | L'intégration des technologies énergétiques dans l'action humaine[END_REF]. As the energy systems consumption (flows, volumes…) is highly correlated to the given territory, it is hardly possible to import a concept from somewhere else and an original solution has to be found for each city. Energy consumption can be seen as a systemic problem. One can influence modes of transports, siting of employment poles and housing areas, citizen behaviour etc. Each item is strongly influenced by the local configuration of the town considered, but the general response depends on the way of combining each of them. Is not as easy to transfer as a technical solution for classical technical networks as a waste water network (Ibid). The energy system can be characterized by the flows, the storage capacity and the outputs.

But the physical characteristics of the system itself influence the level of energy consumption. The compacity of the town (Maizia, 2007) influences the loss of energy from buildings. The green infrastructure can make the atmosphere of the cities more suitable for the inhabitants and avoid the use of energy to cool it in summer [START_REF] Gill | Adapting cities for climate change: the role of the green infrastructure[END_REF]. According to its shape (corridor, patch, matrix), the green infrastructure modifies shading, evaporative cooling, the infiltration or flood storage capacity. More generally, the micro urban climate can be designed by planners. They can model the correlations between the urban shape and local temperature, winds and air hygrometry.

Planners are face with great difficulties to implement a city adapted to climate change. They need new knowledge. For example planners are uncomfortable with climate knowledge [START_REF] Eliasson | The use of climate knowledge in urban planning in Landscape and urban planning, n°48[END_REF]. Some departments in planning develop specific modules to teach planners to design with urban micro climates (de [START_REF] Schiller | Training architects and planners to design with urban microclimates in[END_REF]. Energy systems can also be considered as a new field for planners. Dedicated modules can acculturate planners but they will not become specialists in such fields. In principle the intensive seminar is quite similar to a classical workshop. The students are face with a planning problem. They begin their work with an academic review, they formulate objectives and orientations and they design a master plan. They are asked to justify their proposals according to selected (i.e. sustainability) criteria. The teachers team think that doing this kind of exercise in an international 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010 Track 3: Planning Education context brings specific added values as we will try to demonstrate. The rolling organisation allows a quick adaptation of the contents of the Intensive Programme to the more usual issues the students are going to face during their professional life. The interdisciplinary approach is stronger and the cross-cultural skills are strengthened.

The added value of rotating organisation and studied cases across Europe

The organisation of the Intensive Programme rotates among the six partners of the network. The partner who receives the others has the main load of the organisation of the case study (scientific programme and material matters). The rotating organisation allows the sharing of the load between all the partners and it also has a pedagogical interest. The themes of the Intensive Programme evolve, reflecting the current policy debates at EU and national levels, and the sites studied present a diverse set of planning challenges. Fubini A. (2004, p. 17) defines planning as a metaphor of its time. The field of planning is progressively integrating changes taking place in society. For example the emergence of sustainable development obliges us to widen the temporal and spatial scales. These changes affect the legal and socio-economic spheres.

An adaptive process

Environmental rights and tiers of governmental rights are more strongly asserted. As a consequence, planners have to consider new relationships between territories and the system of human activities.

The IP themes have evolved over time to reflect the prevailing priorities of the planning profession alongside the developing focus of European interest. The chronology (see appendix 1) shows a broad shift from the focus on policy and decision making initially, to small area designation in the mid 90s toward sustainable planning in more recent years in line with shifting priorities at national and European levels. In the last few years we can see the Intensive Programme themes evolve from sustainable planning, to water management and climate change.

The evolution of the themes is encouraged by the process of organising every Intensive Programme. Every year, one of the partners coordinates the application for EU-funding on behalf of the consortium in order to organise the Intensive Programme. The European Union does not fund the same Intensive programme over successive years but requires renewal applications or completely new applications on different topics.

Among other things, the Lifelong Learning Programme requires that the potential outputs to professional actors are demonstrated in order to qualify for the grant. Because of the partnership with the European Union and with professionals, the lead partner has to keep in mind their relevance.

Diversity of case studies across Europe

The rotating organisation of the IP across the network members adds value to the learning experience, which a single country could hardly achieve. The students are expected to work on a real planning case that is, of course, deeply influenced by the national context in which it takes place. Implementing these criteria, students conformed with the criteria suggested by Holden and Norland (2005) to adapt the city to climate change. At this stage, the students define a master plan without elaborating a finished project but they define the principles to respect to achieve high quality space. The main output of the rotating organisation is the specificities of each national context. In the case of Tours and Nijmegen, the case studies are marked by both their geographical and political context. The human density and the approach of floods are quite different. In France, towns spread in empty spaces, while in the Netherlands, towns extend in already occupied spaces. In France, the urbanisation of flood prone areas is derogatory while in the Netherlands it is the rule [START_REF] Hernandez | Aménager un port de pèche et de tourisme de façon durable : formes et contenus d'une expérience pédagogique européenne[END_REF]. This rotating organisation combined with the different main themes is at the origin of amazement and discovery for the students. The added value is also for staff members who have been able develop a set of international examples of planning responses.

The multidisciplinary approach

An integrated exercise

In order to help students to have a wider view, students prepare a review on a specific aspect of climate change (see table 1) resulting in a comparable outcome. Theses areas are defined according to the orientation of the planning degrees at the partner universities. The preparation work at the home university is for the students to develop an understanding of the causes and effects of climate change in their country and region, and what the role of spatial planning should be in response to these. In this part of the preparation, attention should be paid to the geographical, socio-economic and environmental context, as well as the political and institutional dimension for spatial planning responses to climate change, the need for an integrated multilevel governance perspective in finding appropriate responses, and the interdisciplinary nature of planning responses to climate change. This approach is anticipated to ensure that the multi-national teams for the IP project work consist in "specialists" with complementary expertise and knowledge of certain aspects of planning and appropriate mitigation and adaptation responses of planning. During the Intensive Programme, students from the participating universities develop proposals for a major urban site. During the first stage they have to do a SWOT analysis in order to appreciate the geographical and urban context of the site. Then, they have to design a master plan which indicates the strategic orientations for the site. In doing so, they do not only work in international groups of students who study different aspects of spatial planning in the participating universities (e. g. comprehensive integrated planning, landscape planning or urban design) but moreover, they are also expected to consider a wide range of issues affecting the development of major urban sites. The wider geographical and socio-economic context of the site, the legal and administrative planning context, transport and accessibility, energy efficiency and water management issues are examples of issues that have to be considered in an integrated way in developing development proposals.

Multidisciplinary and international staff team

The students are supported by guest lecturers from different disciplines (planning, economics, architecture, political science), and an international multidisciplinary staff team (see appendix 2).

The multidisciplinary team is assembled during the second stage of the intensive seminar. It orientates the students" work. It gives them a feedback twice: in the middle of the workshop and at the end for the final presentations. Thanks to the diversity of the disciplines constituted, each student group receives sector-based 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010

Track 3: Planning Education advice which he or she can integrate. While the staff team does not cover all the fields of planning, it presents a considerable variety of planning professions from across Europe, including architects. Apparently they bring the same disciplinary approach but they are imbued with their specific cultural background. Thus students benefit from a wide range of points of view.

European territorial cooperation and learning

The topical themes and the multidisciplinary approach are some of the strengths of the Intensive Programme.

They are not specific to it, classical workshops can also bring them. The international dimension of the Intensive Programme just intensifies them. The most specific and maybe the most important added value is cooperation and learning. During the workshop, students have to confront a double issue at stake: apply their knowledge in order to design a master plan and get to know each other by working with unknown people abroad and in a foreign language. The students improve their cross-cultural skills.

Improve cooperation skill

The European Union has a greater and greater influence on actions in the field of environment and planning (see section 3. above). The European construction has another major influence on planning policies, it brings out cooperation as an important instrument to achieve European development objectives [START_REF] Faludi | European territorial cooperation and learning[END_REF].

There is no EU competence for spatial planning, and despite numerous EU influences on planning systems, policies and practices in the member states, considerable diversity in how planning is conducted remains.

Governments and planners have to invent it through the concrete problems they want to solve. Planning is heavily influenced by the national context, people must at first learn to understand each other. The European Union invents specific tools for this kind of cooperation between several member states on common problems: the Interreg programmes. Progressively, the European Union wants to improve the competitiveness of the territories and to narrow the development gap between them. Territorial cooperation is seen as the main means to achieve both. Progressively, territorial cooperation is leaving the Interreg programmes where it is explicitly the aim of the work to spread to all European policies. Territorial cooperation is so widely used that it can be considered as a specific approach developed in the European Union. Thus there is a European way of planning, a European model of society which results in mutual learning about differences and similarities (Idem). Cooperation can be considered as a major skill for planners because of the increase in collaborative work with colleagues coming from other countries. It is also considered as a basic skill for planners in their core curriculum (Geppert and Verhage, 2008).

We can consider that students are put in a similar situation as planners who are confronted with the working out of transnational territorial projects. When they arrive, the students are mixed in multinational groups. In each group there is one student of each nationality. They are at the end of their curriculum in planning. They already have knowledge and skills in planning within their own country and national context. But according to their country students develop a specific approach to planning [START_REF] Serrano | Learning the European culture of metropolitan planning. Metropolitan planning and environmental issues[END_REF]. Students are asked to 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010

Track 3: Planning Education analyse a situation and to design a master plan to improve it. They have to do it in a limited time at the same time as getting to know each other. Students have to develop their own ideas and demonstrate their pertinence. They also have to try to understand different points of view from their own. In a few words students learn to present arguments and to elaborate a compromise in order to achieve a common solution.

Develop an open mind

Learning helps to accumulate one of the resources needed in governance: the capacity to jointly identify and solve problems. It is more and more invaluable in a world marked by uncertainties [START_REF] Faludi | European territorial cooperation and learning[END_REF].

The students are faced with an unknown situation and unknown colleagues, they are destabilised which weakens their usual approaches and solutions. They have to shape new solutions and approaches. The short time available for the SWOT analysis and the design of the master plans prevent truly original solutions.

Because of the urgency, the students mobilize some stereotypes. Should we deplore the lack of creativity despite the organisation of multinational teams? In fact, the students become aware of specific approaches inside general schemes [START_REF] Hernandez | Aménager un port de pèche et de tourisme de façon durable : formes et contenus d'une expérience pédagogique européenne[END_REF]. The final evaluation shows there is a shift between the first and the second stage. The second stage is much shorter yet it is much more rewarding for the students. They declare that the main benefit of the Intensive Programme is the acquisition of new knowledge from the others. This stimulates their curiosity and their international mobility.

Conclusion: Response to the EU objectives and Europeanisation of planning achievements

As we saw, students working in international and multidisciplinary groups introduce elements from their national and disciplinary background into the case study they are working on. Often, these approaches are challenged by group members from other countries and then intensively discussed. Students learn, thus, to defend their position or, if confronted with good arguments, to think it over. Students may move towards a common European planning approach, which can be described as a form of "Europeanisation" process. These discussions, accompanied by intensive after-work exchanges, contribute by far more to mutual understanding than any lecture on comparative European planning ever could. It is obvious that the IP contributes considerably to the internationalisation strategies of the participating universities.

Further considerations can be derived from this kind of short but intensive collaboration between universities. The Bologna declaration, which aims to achieve greater compatibility and comparability in the system of higher education can be seen as a response to the twenty first century"s two big trends of internationalisation and competition. In planning, despite the appearance of homogeneity with the two cycles systems, a survey has revealed major differences in defining the degree levels (Davoudi and Elison 2006).

The IP is a shared module recognized by all partners. It is included in the current curriculums and credits are 24th AESOP Annual Conference, Finland, 7 -10 July 2010

Track 3: Planning Education given according to the ECTS. The IP can be considered as a limited part of the whole curriculum but students must mobilise all their background to be able to treat a real case. This kind of final exercise obliges every university to bring the students to an equivalent and compatible level of skills.

At last but not at least, the language used during the IP is English. The IP can be considered as a module with its lectures and case studies. It contributes to the development of English language courses observed across planning higher schools in Europe (Davoudi, in Geppert and Verhage 2008).

  Figure1: Evolution of Erasmus complementary measures(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: General organisation of the Intensive Programme

  Planning response to climate change mobilize core skills of planners: the diagnosis and synthesis of multidisciplinary knowledge. Planners have to design adapted solutions. They work on an inheritance situation which has its own dynamics. They cannot transfer standardized solutions and have to elaborate original solutions. Diagnosises are central to understanding the local situation. To design a global and innovative solution which incorporates new approaches, planners have to lead multidisciplinary teams in order to amalgamate fragmented and specialized knowledge.

  2010, the intensive programs focused on climate change. The students have to design a master plan for a new major urban extension. As in the previous examples, the case studies proposed are specifically characterized by country. The sites of Joué-les-Tours (in Tours) is located in the urban fringe of the built up area while Waalsprong is close to the city-centre of Nijmegen and concerned by floods. Students have to elaborate a list of criteria for climate change and spatial planning. Then they have to elaborate a swot analysis and design a master plan. The results of these works show that each group of students favoured high density, social mixity, mixity of uses and green infrastructure. They reverse the priority between the road network and the green infrastructure. The latter influences the global architecture of the new district.

Table 1 :

 1 areas for "specialisation" of the national groups in preparation for the IP 2010

	Bologna	Specialists in urban design and urban form (energy efficiency in design, passive
		solar gain, etc.)
	Bristol	Specialists in transport and traffic (reducing the need to travel, etc.)
	Hannover	Specialists of the natural environment (green infrastructure, urban climate,
		biodiversity, landscape and open space etc.)
	Nijmegen	Specialists in water management (adaptation responses to flood risk, sea level rise,
		etc.)
	Oradea	Specialists in site analysis, and on policy responses on recycling and waste
		management
	Tours	Specialists in energy efficiency and renewable energies (incorporating renewable
		energy sources in the built environment, etc.)