Afonso Ferreira

João Peres

Introduction

Despite what many readers may think, the metaverse is not a product, not even a brand of some social network company, but a name given to a set of technologies applied in platforms for the Web on the Internet. In fact, the concept of virtual worlds dates back at least to the 19 th Century [21]. Still, the term metaverse was used to name a futuristic concept, described in a science fiction book in 1992, which popularised it [198], and was shown in a visual format in a movie 20 years later (i.e. 10 years ago) [140]. Metaverse in practice today, refers to a new type of Web platform, which is supported through a comprehensive set of technologies, some of which already consolidated and others in evolution, which will allow users greater interactivity and socialisation in immersive 3D digital environments, represented by a universe of new digital virtual worlds, preferably mirrored in the physical world.

Metaverse research witnessed a first wave of "hype" between the years 2000 and 2006, with many results and visibility. Currently, in 2022, it is going through a second wave of interest, now brought about by commercial players that started to market their metaverses and events held inside them, but also by a widely publicised metaverse-related public announcement by one of the Western Big-Techs in late 2021.

Today, it is possible to understand what metaverses are, or could be, by browsing through Web platforms such as Second Life, Decentraland, Somnium Space, The Sandbox, Roblox, Horizon Worlds, Avakin Life, Mesh, among others.

The concepts of digital virtual worlds of today's metaverses are typically based on Web 2.0 technologies that include 2D and 3D Virtual Reality spaces, with computer graphics images ranging from low to high resolution, and some platforms using Augmented Reality technologies in various activities. The representation of users is always through avatars, and, as access to platforms depends on an exclusive login, there is a lack of interoperability, as avatars are confined to a single metaverse and its worlds, not being allowed to move from one metaverse to another, on another platform, without logging in again in the physical world.

The means of accessing the platforms can be done through various devices that include smartphones, tablets, laptops, desktops, workstations, and even head-mounted displays or virtual reality glasses. Some platforms already use monetisation through blockchain and cryptocurrencies, with the adoption of smart contracts and fungible and non-fungible tokens (NFTs) that enable mercantile activities. Note, however, that today there are still few platforms for metaverses that use Web 3.0 technologies, the HTTP/3 protocol, and other more advanced and secure technological resources, but this is clearly the path for the future.

To support these features, the most advanced technologies such as Web 3.0 (latest Internet version), Artificial Intelligence, Brain-Computer Interfaces, IoT (Internet of Things), Blockchains, and Virtual, Augmented, Extended, and Mixed Reality will usher in a large number of opportunities that will probably impact large parts of our societies, just like Social Networks did.

Who Is Going to Be Affected?

In order to analyse the plausible impact of metaverses in future, let's embrace in this chapter their full vision as digital worlds that are massive, immersive, persistent, open and economically developed, as follows [80].

• Massive: They can host an unlimited number, or at least a very high number of concurrent users, as the computing power of the Web platforms and of the users' machines evolves in terms of graphics processing and connectivity.

• Immersive: They offer three-dimensional and embodied experiences, based on Virtual Reality (VR) and Extended Reality (XR). Imagine that after work you go to a small room in your house or neighbourhood, dress up in a connected "sensory suit", and tell the computer the metaverse of your choice and, from there, you enter the site, having the sensation of being present and living "inside" a chosen digital virtual world, controlling many things with your thoughts. This is in contrast to the current experience of most game universes, which are two-dimensional, confined to screens, and mediated by clicks, typing, and either screen or mouse.

• Persistent: Metaverses will never stop or reset. Or at least that will be the perception of their users. The life and society of a metaverse will continuously evolve, even if some avatars are not present, as it happens to normal life in our world.

• Open: Anyone with good Internet connectivity and VR/XR computing power can go into metaverses, move within them as an avatar, interact with other avatars, socialise, trade, build, produce intellectually, and so on.

• Economically developed: There will be extensive trade in goods and services within the metaverses, which may or may not have an impact in the physical world outside them. They will likely be supported by Decentralized Finance (DeFi) architectures and digital monetary systems that encompass blockchain technologies, cryptocurrencies, smart contracts, and fungible and non-fungible tokens that will enable property rights assurance practices.

Clearly, such an ambitious vision points to a high likelihood of a renewed collision between Industrial Age Governance and Digital Age Governance, which would affect all layers of the population, from simple metaverse users to policy makers.

In fact, governments are already nervous. In the EU the European Parliament is concerned mainly about Competition, Data Protection, Responsibilities,Financial Transactions,Cybersecurity,Health,Accessibility,and Inclusion [126], while the EU Council's main points of preoccupation are Geopolitics, Economic growth, Jurisdiction, Health, Consumer protection, Civil and Penal codes, and Climate change [15]. We note that massive intellectual investment would be required in order for practical solutions to be found and implemented in each of these areas. Besides, there will be thorny issues around reaching consensus in any of these topics. These are some reasons why the European Commission has just included metaverse policy among its priorities [36,42].

What Is Expected to Happen?

An analysis of the evolution of metaverse support technologies, such as those described above, the Internet, and the Web -from the Web 1.0 version and the current Web 2.0, to the new level of Web 3.0, especially when thinking about Web platforms with great interactivity and greater social reach -, brings many question and concerns, especially regarding cybersecurity, privacy and protection of (personal) data, regulations, and various aspects of the governance of such digital worlds [191].

Take governance inside of metaverses as an example. The concept of "inside" is highlighted because it is different from the concept of interface between the digital world of a metaverse and our physical world since such an interface is becoming regulated, at least in the European Union (EU), since 2016.

In the EU, the rule-of-law is dominant and its institutions are mostly fit for purpose. However, in this new technological frontier that are metaverses, it is not clear what will be regulated, who will establish and enforce rules, or how this will be done. But any place, physical or digital, at some point of population density will need some kind of order maintenance, including the notion of fundamental rights.

Indeed, thinking of unregulated parallel digital universes is worrisome. And as commerce will be ubiquitous, products, transactions, property rights, and other businesses will need some kind of protocols for markets to thrive. Then all kinds of conflicting situations will have to be resolved by some form of authorities, police, and courts. As well, there must be rules of trade, taxation, income, etc. But then, if a large set of rules has to be established, another important question is who is going to set them: Are they going to be the owners of the platforms of metaverses, since these universes are privately owned? Will they put users to help set up local rules? Or are public authorities from the physical world starting out and expanding their reach into the digital world as well? Whose public authorities to start with? Or are libertarians thinking about creative technologies to govern the metaverses, promoting the ideology that "code is law"? Likewise, what form does such a body of rules take? Accordingly, we can think of the following forms of regulation.

• Signing of usage contracts. However, they may be as long as constitutions.

• Replication of laws and regulations from the physical world. However, this may hinder innovation, and good justifications would be expected for the choice of one model over another.

• Distributed models, based on digital technologies, like blockchain, bitcoins, NFTs, smart contracts (i.e. , persistent scripts).

In addition, the very technological offer of interactivity and immersion of next-generation metaverses will heavily depend on wearable devices monitoring both biometric (e.g., gait, facial expressions, temperature) and neurometric (e.g., fear, satisfaction, attention) data, which will imply continuous and full surveillance of users. In Western societies, where privacy and protection of personal data are fundamental rights, commercial and public interests will have a very difficult relationship concerning this topic.

To compound such issues, the attack surface for security breaches and privacy invasions can become very large in the metaverse, because it integrates a variety of older, current, as well as untested new technologies and systems 10.4. What Is the Worst That Can Happen? whose intrinsic vulnerabilities and flaws will be inherited by the larger system. As a consequence, existing security threats will be amplified, with more severe effects. They include the following (non exhaustive) [216]:

• Lack of security culture from the part of users in such new environments,

• Mismanagement of massive data streams,

• Widespread user-profiling activities,

• Unfair results from Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms,

• Digital twins security,

• Security of metaverse physical infrastructures,

• Personal data involved in the metaverse will be more granular and biometric, including emotional, etc.

Finally, the enlargement of the attack surface brought by metaverses will facilitate existing threats in physical and cyber spaces, like persecution, harassment, and espionage, which may increase in frequency and impact. The use of emerging technologies will make more likely security incidents, like hijacking wearable devices or cloud storage, virtual currency theft, or AI misconduct to produce fake news autonomously within metaverses [57].

What Is the Worst That Can Happen?

Many things can go wrong if provision and usage of metaverses run amok in future, and most of them are related to the notion of trust in them.

It is certain that the vast majority of metaverse users are and will be lawabiding citizens and people who value civilised behaviour. However, among the users is also certain that there will be cheaters and other less honest persons who will join in just to try and make easy money out of what would be defined in most parts of the physical world as criminal activity. Such an environment would not invite trust from users, and licit commercial returns over investment may plunge as a consequence, while illicit undertakings may flourish.

On another, perhaps more important registry, metaverses place major challenges to privacy and governance and they may have the potential to accelerate the geopolitical shift of power from Nation States to private companies. Remind that already today some social network companies have populations that are larger than that of the largest country on Earth. If national governments cannot trust that metaverses will treat their citizens in a legal manner, then governments may decide to over-regulate metaverses, hampering innovation and increasing fragmentation.

Accordingly, the lack of trustworthy governance and of security and privacy regulations inside metaverses may turn this high-tech Eldorado into a 21 st Century Wild-West, where fortunes will be made and lawlessness will be the rule rather than the exception.

Research Gaps

As seen above, the field for State regulation of metaverses is vast, ranging from issues at macro levels (e.g., geopolitics) to micro levels (e.g., selling a digital bracelet in the metaverse). In a nutshell, the major current EU legislation and policies governing the digital sphere are as follows.

• Digital Markets Act : Regulation of competition for online markets. It establishes harmonised rules that define and prohibit unfair practices, such as the use of competitors' data and lack of interoperability, on the part of "gatekeepers" of the Web.

• Digital Services Act : Due diligence obligations on all digital services that connect consumers to goods, services, or content, including procedures for faster removal of illegal content as well as comprehensive protection for the fundamental rights of online users [38].

• GDPR : Protection of personal data. Due diligence and cybersecurity [41].

• Data Governance Regulation and Data Act: While the Data Governance Regulation creates the processes and structures to facilitate data, the Data Act clarifies who can create value from data and under which conditions.

[40]

• Various in cybersecurity: Cybersecurity Act (eg certification), NIS2, ENISA , ECCC / NCCs , Joint Cyber Unit, Cyber Resilience Act, etc.

[37]

However, from a governance and policy viewpoint such existing legislation are probably not sufficient to induce trust in the domain, and perhaps not even suitable for metaverses. Consequently, much research is needed in these areas in the near future. For instance, there will be a need to regulate security and privacy in multiple universes that are being built from scratch. Questions may be simple extensions of existing concerns, like whether metaverses should be subject to existing laws for the physical world and, if so, how not to hinder innovation and creativity. Or they may be turned much more towards future concepts, like whether avatars should be given citizen status.

Likewise, the technologies needed to build metaverses as envisioned here are just emerging, and a great deal of technological research will be required in the next few years. Moreover, one likely result of market forces is that several metaverses will be created, representing parallel universes, not only between them, but also to the physical one we are used to live in.

What is certain is that a new gold rush has already begun. Required research areas can be presented in clusters, as follows.

Building trustworthy metaverses

One governance research area should analyse all aspects within metaverses that would impact individual users. These encompass inter alia Data protection, Liability, Digital Identities, Cybersecurity at the user level, Mental and Physical Health, Accessibility, Inclusion, Financial transactions, and Consumer protection.

Metaverses and the physical world

Another governance research area should propose new societal systems for metaverses and their interrelation with existing forms of governance and government. These would include Cybersecurity at physical infrastructure and at systems levels, Privacy, Competition, Global governance, Jurisdiction, Civil rights, Penal code, Climate change, Innovation.

Compliance by design

The emergence of metaverses raise a wide range of concerns regarding their compatibility with the law, as seen above. Therefore, it will be necessary to go beyond the well-known concepts of security-by-design and privacy-by-design towards an encompassing compliance-by-design paradigm, if at all possible. For instance, research will be required about adapted technical regulations to guide hardware manufacturers and software developers with respect to compliance, including data governance and operational governance rules.

Such governance topics should be addressed together with research in the new technologies and systems integration that will be needed in order to achieve the full metaverse concept described above in this chapter. Some technological and systems research areas are as follows. Note that they are intrinsically transdisciplinary.

Interactivity and immersive technologies

Making the metaverse fully interactive and immersive is an evolutionary research area. it should be focused on the massive capture and fast analysis of data (telemetry, biometric, and neurometric tracking, among others) of users and their avatars. Data will be collected through "wearable interfaces" (wearable devices) of different types that will gradually bring to metaverse XR platforms more and more sensitive personal information, which will need systemic protection.

Metaverses design

The area of research on the establishment of structured projects and design of digital virtual worlds in a metaverse environment now has great potential to study and establish a minimum necessary architecture. These can be platform infrastructures, usual protocol standards, security systems, or even the constructive and operational aspects of the application of XR in 3D. The establishment of a minimum standard should not make creativity unfeasible, but encourage the effective construction of interoperable metaverses with rules for social coexistence among avatars, which are acceptable in ethical and moral terms, universally, whether in digital or physical worlds.

Interoperability between metaverse platforms

Interoperability of metaverses needs to be intensified, so that it should be possible for avatars (users) who are experiencing a digital virtual world on a particular metaverse platform of a company, to be able to move, without impediments and in a transparent way, into another platform of metaverse, from another company, without the need to identify themselves again in the physical world. Research on interoperability in metaverse environments would touch upon digital identities and allow the establishment of a seamless collection of metaverses, maybe using the concept of self-sovereign digital identities and digital passports [220].

Metaverses and Environmental, Social, and Governance (ESG) issues

One of the key research points concerning metaverses relates to their impact on climate change, because of their need to rely on huge data centres, high performance computing, and even blockchain platforms, all of which necessitate very high electricity consumption. This area of research requires advances in architectures and algorithms, but also in other areas such as cooling techniques, that can enable the use of those technologies without major environmental impact. ESG considerations will play a major role in the provision and adoption of metaverses in future. It's worth noticing that in the areas mentioned above, isolated and unconsolidated actions are already ongoing, which aim to cover the existing gaps in metaverse research. We can mention the actions of: the World Economic Forum [70], the Metaverses Standards Forum [131], the Open Metaverses In-

Example problems

Tangible example problems include: Data protection inside the metaverse. Personal data collected in the metaverse will be more granular, biometric, and neurometric. The question is then how to reconcile the fundamental need of metaverse immersion technologies to implement widespread user-profiling and the fundamental right to data protection, including bioethics. Note that such a question touches upon protecting the data from both the physical user and the digital avatar. More specifically, it should be investigated how to ensure that metaverses will not make illegal use of such data, for example for sales and monetisation (such as social networks already do), for promoting media influence, or in the effective production of subliminal advertisements, among other aspects of active and interactive persuasion.

Protecting avatars from identity theft. The protection of avatars' identity is a very important issue to be solved. Although there are already several proposals and strategies for applying security in databases, with the use of technologies such as distributed ledgers and scatter or hash tree structures, such as Merkle Trees (which are, by the way, key elements of Blockchain), there is still no consensus on how to keep avatars' digital identities without compromising their Lifelogging (metaverses life history).

Regulation of creation of metaverses.

The technologies currently applied by many Web platforms already provide easy-to-use tools that allow users to create their own metaverses. Even if these are simple, they are totally under the users' control. The problem here is centred on the improper creation of metaverses that camouflage digital worlds meant to harbour avatar gangs for criminal practices, social activism, racism, and terrorism, among other unethical and illegal practices.

Equal opportunities in the metaverse. Ensure accessibility and inclusion in the metaverse in order to safeguard equal opportunities. The Web platforms that host metaverses will be able to segregate avatars based on their physical users' hardware characteristics, computing capacity, personal profile, or according to the geographic region of their access, giving more privileges to some than others.

Cryptocurrencies and NFTs usage in the metaverse. Issues of ownership, misuse, interoperability and portability. As the Web platforms are proprietary, they maintain control over the digital assets owned by avatars, as well as, determine the monetary standards used. Some platforms have their own internal cryptocurrencies, a fact that can jeopardise the portability and interoperability of avatars' digital assets between platforms.


Sofia Sakka

Afonso Ferreira
email: afonso.ferreira@irit.fr

Chrysostomos Stylios

On the privacy and security for e-education metaverse

Keywords: metaverse, education, security, privacy, authentication, blockchain

Metaverse brings a new era of digital networking, blurring the lines between the physical and digital realms, enabling users to engage in social, educational, commercial and entertainment activities in a distributed environment. Especially in the field of education, this innovation brings various facilities and benefits, empowering all involved in a new world of learning. However, like the physical world, metaverse raises security and privacy issues that generate concerns among users, hampering its integration especially into everyday life, such as education. Therefore, in this work we identify security and privacy challenges associated with e-education metaverse environments, posing a series of research questions encompassing a wide spectrum of concerns. We also analyse protocols intended to create a trustworthy metaverse environment.

I. INTRODUCTION

From chalkboards to projectors and textbooks to tablets, education has always evolved alongside technology. The latest technological frontier in education are metaverses, which are interconnected, virtual shared spaces created by the convergence of virtually augmented physical reality and interactive digital spaces. This innovation brings about changes in the traditional forms of communication of individuals and traditional teaching methods, providing new perspectives and a wide range of new teaching and learning areas.

The metaverse is more than just an online environment; it serves as a portal to possibilities that were previously unthinkable in the physical world. With its immersive features, it regularly places students in mental or practical scenarios that would be too risky or hazardous to reproduce in reality. Additionally, it makes simpler to understand something that needs extensive practice and effort and motivates students to attempt to produce or investigate something that they would otherwise be unable to undertake due to practical considerations like cost or a lack of genuine resources. Also, it enables learners to perceive, experience, or observe things from different perspectives or roles and learn to interact and collaborate with individuals they might not have opportunities to work with in the real world [START_REF] Hwang | Definition, roles, and potential research issues of the metaverse in education: An artificial intelligence perspective[END_REF].

To take advantage of all these opportunities, metaverseenabled education systems are expected to efficiently utilise an unprecedented amount of data, with the risk of disclosing sensitive or private information of individuals during data collection, communications, and learning-based processing [START_REF] Letafati | On the privacy and security for e-health services in the metaverse: An overview[END_REF]. Therefore, using the metaverse for educational purposes has the potential to offer a useful learning mode, but it may also bring up significant moral concerns such violating people's privacy, bullying, cheating, and educational inequality [START_REF] Hwang | Definition, roles, and potential research issues of the metaverse in education: An artificial intelligence perspective[END_REF].

In this work, we identify security and privacy challenges associated with e-education metaverse environments, particularly concerning data collection, communication, and processing, while preserving the anonymity and privacy of users. As we delve further into our exploration, we pose a series of research questions encompassing a wide spectrum of concerns and analyse protocols intended to create a trustworthy metaverse environment.

II. RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

It is important to set some research questions that could serve as a guide to our research. These questions will shed light on challenges at different levels of the metaverse environment and help identify possible holistic solutions for this innovative landscape. These are the following:

RQ1: What are the potential privacy and security risks for accessing the metaverse for educational services? RQ2: Artificial Intelligence (AI) algorithms are employed in the metaverse for personalized and intelligent educational experiences. However, can they ensure the privacy of users, especially for students? What are the potential security threats to AI algorithms used for educational purposes in the metaverse? RQ3: What is the role of blockchain technology in enhancing privacy, security, and trust among users in educational metaverse applications? Addressing these issues can pave the way for a trustworthy e-education metaverse, otherwise the metaverse may become a lawless digital space [START_REF] Zhang | The metaverse in education: Definition, framework, features, potential applications, challenges, and future research topics[END_REF].

III. SECURITY AND PRIVACY ISSUES

A wide variety of personal data, including biometric and behavioural data is collected and stored in the metaverse. In an educational metaverse environment, the risk of unauthorized access, impersonation, or harassment can lead to privacy violations and emotional distress. Personal data, academic records, and even the actual location of students/educators may be at risk. Wearables or Augmented/Virtual Reality (AR/VR) devices act as a "gateway" to the metaverse era, collecting this data, potentially providing adversaries with a broad attacking surface [START_REF] Letafati | On the privacy and security for e-health services in the metaverse: An overview[END_REF]. Furthermore, the Machine Learning models help to personalize learning experience and recommend customised learning activities that suit to each student's needs, or to early detect and prevent potential risks, such as inappropriate content, by analysing patterns of behaviour and content [START_REF] Zhang | Secure Preschool Education Using Machine Learning and Metaverse Technologies[END_REF]. However, the utilised learning algorithms are still vulnerable to privacy and security risks [START_REF] Letafati | On the privacy and security for e-health services in the metaverse: An overview[END_REF].

IV. RELATED WORKS

Research on security and privacy challenges in metaverse environments is still in its infancy [START_REF] Zhang | The metaverse in education: Definition, framework, features, potential applications, challenges, and future research topics[END_REF], [START_REF] Zhang | Gastroenterology in the Metaverse: The dawn of a new era?[END_REF]. Although there are several research works that identify these challenges, such as [START_REF] Awadallah | Identity Threats in the Metaverse and Future Research Opportunities[END_REF]- [START_REF] Huang | Security and Privacy in Metaverse: A Comprehensive Survey[END_REF], the quest for comprehensive solutions remains a relatively uncharted territory. Most of these papers offer solutions based on blockchain technology promising transparent, decentralised, and reliable services that protect users' privacy creating a sustainable ecosystem [START_REF] Zhang | The metaverse in education: Definition, framework, features, potential applications, challenges, and future research topics[END_REF]. Unfortunately, there are no specific solutions for providing a trustworthy environment in metaverse educational settings, so we are examining existing solutions that could be applied to our requirements. Ryu et al. [START_REF] Ryu | Design of Secure Mutual Authentication Scheme for Metaverse Environments Using Blockchain[END_REF], designed a mutual authentication scheme for metaverse relying on blockchain technology that ensures secure communication and transparency in the management of user identification data. Despite the building of secure communication between platform servers and users, their scheme also implements secure interactions between avatars. However, avatars need to demonstrate their real-world user details to other avatars in certain circumstances (e.g., age, gender). Thus, the avatar authentication phase developed by Ryu et al. could expose users' private information to providers of metaverse services [START_REF] Kim | Secure and Privacy-Preserving Authentication Scheme Using Decentralized Identifier in Metaverse Environment[END_REF]. In addition, their scheme had high computational cost [START_REF] Thakur | A Robust Privacy-Preserving ECC-Based Three-Factor Authentication Scheme for Metaverse Environment[END_REF]. Therefore, Kim et al. [START_REF] Kim | Secure and Privacy-Preserving Authentication Scheme Using Decentralized Identifier in Metaverse Environment[END_REF], proposed a secure authentication scheme between avatars that allows users to protect their privacy during avatar interactions without relying on the service provider. However, after our security analysis we found out that their protocol was vulnerable to private key disclosure providing an adversary with multiple advantages. Thakur et al. [START_REF] Thakur | A Robust Privacy-Preserving ECC-Based Three-Factor Authentication Scheme for Metaverse Environment[END_REF], proposed a secure mutual authentication scheme for safer user-server and avatar-avatar interactions utilizing Elliptic Curve Cryptography (ECC) and fuzzy extractor. Nevertheless, they assume that their scheme is vulnerable against physical implementation attacks including differential side-channel analysis and deep learning-based side-channel analysis.

Although these schemes aim to build a trustworthy metaverse environment, security vulnerabilities of the ML models are not conveniently addressed [START_REF] Son | On the Design of a Privacy-Preserving Communication Scheme for Cloud-Based Digital Twin Environments Using Blockchain[END_REF]. Therefore, we also have to consider such issues, justifying research question 2. Finally, research works such as [START_REF] Badruddoja | Trusted AI with Blockchain to Empower Metaverse[END_REF] V. CONCLUSIONS The integration of metaverse in education heralds a new era of learning. However, there is a need for balancing this innovation with strict security and privacy safeguards to create a trustworthy educational environment. In this work we identified security and privacy challenges associated with e-education metaverses and discovered vulnerabilities in existing solutions, shedding the light on open issues within the educational field of metaverses.


Ecole d'été RRI 2017 : « L'innovation agile : quels défis pour les individus, les organisations et les territoires ? » Atelier : l'innovation agile dans l'histoire, quels enseignements pour le futur ?

Construction sociale du prix équitable : une innovation agile inversée ? Cas du lait de vache

Hanitra Randrianasolo-Rakotobe1 , Loïc Sauvée2

En octobre 2016, l'ancien ministre de l'Agriculture, Bruno Lemaire, invité de « L'émission politique » a vu voler sur le plateau de France 2 une brique de lait accompagnée d'interpellations : « (…) cette brique de lait a été inventée par les consommateurs pour pouvoir réparer (les dégâts de la crise du lait, ndlr), pour pouvoir faire en sorte que les agriculteurs puissent vivre dignement de leur boulot. Ce sont les citoyens qui ont fabriqué la solution » (Jardin, 2016)

  'appuyant sur un aller-retour continuel entre la théorie et les pratiques observées ai niveau de la filière du lait, la deuxième partie précise que l'innovation sociale développée dans cet exemple, et qui a permis à des éleveurs de contrecarrer la crise se présente comme un mode de qualification spécifique dont la spécificité repose sur la mise en connexion et en relation d'ordres socioéconomiques distincts. Nous mobilisons pour ce faire les travaux centrés sur l'innovation systémique(Knickel et al., 2009 ; Klerkx, 2012) qui mettent en évidence la logique du processus construction de ces innovations multiéchelles. D'autres travaux, notamment ceux de Tor Hernes (2014), sont mobilisés. Cette approche pose les modes d'innovation organisationnelles comme des processus disruptifs de mises en réseaux d'acteurs humains et non humains appliqués ici à la dimension éthique et équitable.La troisième partie discute les éléments défendant la qualification de cette innovation sociale d'agile et d'inversée. Elle se base notamment sur les résultats de la veille menée sur le lait équitable depuis 2008 à ce jour (Randrianasolo-Rakotobe, 2017). Elle analyse deux initiatives de lancement de lait équitable en France, la première par Candia en 2008 et la seconde par la Marque des consommateurs en 2016 et montre en quoi l'implication du consommateur et le changement d'échelles des interactions entre les acteurs du commerce équitable permises par les technologies de l'information et de la communications (TIC) ont fait la différence.En conclusion, nous proposons de mettre en exergue les piliers d'un tel type d'innovation sociale, agile et inversée. Et nous ouvrons le débat en questionnant : « Comment le rayonnement du commerce équitable dans les pays hors de son périmètre cible et prioritaire peut aider à renforcer le changement d'échelles du commerce équitable dans les pays souffrant de la pauvreté et des inégalités structurelles ? ». Cette pratique du commerce équitable en France peut-elle à son tour un berceau d'une innovation inversée qui bénéficierait aux pays historiquement cibles du commerce équitable ? Si oui, par quels moyens, par quels canaux ?Références clésRandrianasolo-Rakotobe, H., Sauvée, L., (2014) Social Innovation in lock-ins: Insights from a French initiative of Fair Trade standardization. ISPIM Innovation Conference, « Innovation for sustainable economy and society », Dublin, 8-9 juin 2014. Randrianasolo-Rakotobe, H., (2017) Le consommateur peut-il « sauver » l'agriculteur ? Contribution croisée de D. North et de D. Talbot. Soumis à Revue d'économie régionale et urbaine. 25 ans de proximités. Knickel, K., Brunori, G., Rand, S., & Proost, J. (2009). Towards a better conceptual framework for innovation processes in agriculture and rural development: from linear models to systemic approaches. Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 15(2), 131-146. Klerkx, L., Van Mierlo, B., & Leeuwis, C. (2012). Evolution of systems approaches to agricultural innovation: concepts, analysis and interventions. In Farming Systems Research into the 21st century: The new dynamic (pp. 457-483). Springer Netherlands. Hernes, T. (2014). A process theory of organization. OUP Oxford.

	producteur à un juste
	prix : le « prix équitable ». En s'appuyant sur cet exemple du lait, cette communication prolonge une
	dizaine d'années de recherche conjointe sur le concept de « commerce équitable » historiquement
	qualifié de partenariat « Nord-Sud » et sur les innovations en agriculture.
	En constatant des avancées majeures sur la mise en oeuvre du prix équitable depuis la Loi Hamon de
	2014 permettant la pratique d'un commerce équitable « Nord-Nord » ou

3

. Cette brique de la Marque des consommateurs : « C'est qui le patron ? » est présentée comme un lait équitable qui rémunère le « Local ». Elle se pose la question de savoir si le prix équitable représente une innovation sociale pouvant être qualifiée d'agile et inversée et amène au débat un début de modélisation d'un tel type d'innovation.

Nos éléments de réponse sont organisés en trois parties. La première présente le commerce équitable, berceau du prix équitable peut être approché comme une innovation sociale (Randrianasolo-Rakotobe, Sauvée, 2014) initiée par des acteurs de terrain sensibles à la pauvreté, au développement humain depuis un peu plus d'un demi-siècle et dont la cible prioritaire était la population des pays pauvres, notamment, les petits et les producteurs marginalisés. Elle souligne que si le commerce équitable ne dispose encore que d'une définition informelle formalisée en 2001 (la définition FINE), les pratiques du commerce équitable, les expérimentations faites depuis près d'un demi-siècle ont bien permis aux produits issus du commerce équitable de trouver un marché, des marchés qualifiés souvent des plus dynamiques et prospères. S

Paris Sud, Cei-Idest, Chercheure associée, UniLaSalle, InTerACT

UniLaSalle, InTerACT

Interview d'Alexandre Jardin, Emission politique, France 2, première diffusion, 20 Octobre 2016