Hélène Michel

Sébastien Michon

The ambiguities of a regulatory agency in achieving the European labour market

Keywords:

The European Labour Authority (ELA) was announced in September 2017 by President Juncker in his State of the Union speech. Less than 18 months later, on February 14, 2019, the Commission's proposal was amended and negotiated between the European Parliament and the Council, and the ELA started its work on October 2019. The objectives of this new agency are to facilitate access to information for individuals and employers about their rights and obligations in the areas of labour mobility and social security coordination, to support cooperation between national authorities, and to provide mediation and facilitate solutions in cases of disputes between national authorities. While trade unions and some MEPs welcomed this new authority, employers' associations and some Member States were far less supportive. At the same time, this new regulatory agency was established quite rapidly, and each actor seems to have come to peace with its role. How can we explain this? To answer this question, we will examine the decision-making process and focus on the introduction and dissemination of a new term -"fair mobility"that is used by both administrative staff and social partners. This contribution tries to demonstrate that this notion succeeded in conciliating market objectives and the need for social integration. As a consequence, the ELA is less a tool of control and sanctioning for employers, and more a tool to make the market function by providing information and coordinating the national bodies in the different areas of labour mobility.

Section 1

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European rules in the social field is a long-standing demand from the ETUC."

5 But others, like BusinessEurope, recalled that there were already many organisations in existence and that it would have been better to "streamline the relevant existing bodies without creating a new agency."

6 Secondly, the speed of the process might make people believe that all the actors were in agreement on the mission of such an agency. Yet it is known that there were deep divisions on employment and social affairs, not only between social partners, but also between political groups and Member States. The parliamentary debates on the revision of the Posted Workers Directive demonstrated this very clearly.

7 There were very different conceptions of policies on Social Europe.

8 How could an ELA match up to all these different conceptions, which ranged from a simple information platform to a policing body able to apply sanctions or an organisation to help coordinate national instruments?

Furthermore, how was it possible to achieve agreement between those calling for additional European monitoring to avoid social dumping and unfair competition in the European labour market, and those refusing more processes that they perceived as ways of limiting the (insufficient, in their view) movement of workers?

To answer this question, we must take a close look at the decision-making process, and in particular the preparatory stages, such as the impact assessment and consultations, which worked to produce a census on the new labour authority. This work relied on the new concept of "fair mobility" that had emerged in European debate in the early 2010s and allowed market imperatives and economic growth to be reconciled with the social aspirations of those defending labour rights, in an ordoliberal approach. The case, we shall argue in this chapter, is that this rather vague notion allowed contradictory ideas and objectives to be reconciled. Most importantly, it helped turn worker mobility into an undeniable, even desirable, reality, 9 which simply needed to be encouraged in accordance with the principles included in the core set of social rights. And if it is possible to imagine the ELA as a policing body, it would be in the sense that it "directs traffic."

Section 1 Page 4 of 29

This chapter is divided into three sections. Firstly, we examine the preparatory documents of the regulation and describe how the issue of worker mobility was placed at the heart of the new agency. Secondly, we show how public consultation managed to direct the opinions collected and minimise divisions on this issue of mobility. Lastly, we return to the emergence and uses of the concept of "fair mobility" in the government of worker mobility.

The new ELA and the issue of labour mobility

For the majority of commentators in the media, Juncker's announcement seemed to have been enough to justify creating an ELA. The parallel he drew with the European Banking Authority suggested that he wanted to establish a supervisory and monitoring authority. Given the stormy debates that took place in the European Parliament when the Posted Workers Directive was being revised, this idea of supervision could not fail to please those who were calling for a

European labour inspectorate to prevent social dumping and enforce the law. The European Parliament had already published an own-initiative report on social dumping 10 along these lines in September 2016.

However, on a closer reading of the preparatory documents, and in particular the impact assessment produced to support the proposal for a regulation, 11 it is not at all clear that the European Commission's aim was to set up a body to supervise and sanction breaches of labour law. Firstly, there would have to be a legal basis for doing so, which is not the case, and Member What is surprising about the impact assessment, however, as reiterated in the explanatory statement for the regulation, is that the problem identified is not one of breaches of existing law or difficulties in enforcing social laws, which might justify resorting to a European policing body or monitoring body. The problem it identifies is not just a level of worker mobility that is judged to be insufficient, but also the complications and difficulties this causes to workers and businesses. According to those drafting the explanatory statement, this insufficient level of worker mobility is due to workers and employers having information problems which can be linked to problems in cooperation between Member States and national institutions in charge of collecting information about offers of employment and help with mobility. The impact assessment identifies two major problems that the ELA must respond to. The first is "the inadequate information, support and guidance for individuals and employers in cross-border situations."

13 This assessment contains an implied criticism of the existing information organisations, such as the network of EURES (European Employment Services)

14 or the SOLVIT service for businesses and individuals.

15

The second problem is "the inadequate cooperation between national authorities on rule enforcement,"

16 which contains a questioning of forms of cooperation. The issue is therefore not one of transferring competence for national labour inspections in order to have a Europe-wide agency, as with the centralised processes of the European Medicines Agency, 17 but one of finding ways to improve the exchange of information and mutual support. However, the agency appears to leave to one side any challenges linked to the social security system, which is covered by a specific regulation: the Regulations on the Coordination of Social Security Systems, 18 currently under discussion.

The impact assessment sets out a problem that is primarily one of worker mobility. Five "problem drivers" 19 are listed in the "ELA problem tree" mentioned in Annex 5 of the impact assessment:

(1) "weak or absent mechanisms for cross border enforcement to access/share information, to organise joint enforcement activities, to solve disputes;" Section 1 Page 6 of 29

(2) "insufficient capacity of authorities to organise cooperation with authorities across borders;"

(3) "insufficient cooperation set up at EU level;"

(4) "incomplete information for individuals and employers;" and

(5) "incomplete guidance and assistance to address cross border issues."

20

Negative consequences are outlined for workers, businesses, competent authorities, and the economy and society at large. After setting out these drivers, the study can justify the proposal for an ELA that will take action on these mobility problems.

The new authority still has to be positioned in relation to the existing organisations, however. On this point, the impact assessment puts forward several options to choose from. The first option is a minimalist proposal where the ELA would have a supporting role. It "would provide analytical and technical support to existing structures and tools in the field of labour mobility. Information to citizens and businesses, as well as capacity building for national administrations, would be provided in all areas under ELA's remit," according to the impact assessment. The second option is more operational: "ELA would promote common technical standards, increase cooperation between national authorities by taking over some technical tasks from the existing structures and further enriching them to address identified gaps and create synergies." Lastly, the thirdhighly ambitious -option consists of "a mandatory role under which ELA would set standards and requirements in all areas under its remit, including in the provision of information and services. It could take binding decisions in case of disputes between Member States and instruct inspections."

When presented in this way, the arguments point at the second option, which does not question the existence of current organisations, such as CEDEFOP and EUROFOUND, but rather proposes integrating certain dimensions of the EURES or reforming the system for the Coordination of Social Security Systems and its subcommittees. According to the explanatory Section 1 Page 7 of 29 memorandum COM (2018) 131 final, "the new setup will simplify the institutional landscape and foster synergies across the various aspects of cross-border mobility."

21

According to the impact assessment, the ELA therefore is part of a framing where worker mobility is the key concept that must be encouraged and the obstacles removed. Article 3 of the regulation itself thus has four main objectives:

"The Authority shall:

(1) facilitate access to information on rights and obligations regarding labour mobility across the Union as well as to relevant services;

(2) facilitate and enhance cooperation between Member States in the enforcement of relevant Union law across the Union, including facilitating concerted and joint inspections;

(3) mediate and facilitate a solution in cases of cross-border disputes between Member States; and

(4) support cooperation between Member States in tackling undeclared work."

22

These objectives seem quite far-removed from the ambition for a policing organisation expressed in the press release and comments. A number of observers rapidly took a stance on the idea of an authority that would supervise or enforce the law, this being the aspect that aroused both hopes and fears. But within the European Commission, the drafters of the proposal stressed the second objective of encouraging mobility, as did the open consultation.

The open consultation on the ELA: a means of approval?

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As Sofia Fernandes, Senior Research Fellow at Jacques Delors Institute, remarks in a preliminary policy paper, 23 there is an ambiguity in the initiative for setting up an ELA. In her view, "The future authority should not be reduced to a cooperation and information exchange platform…. At the same time, the new agency should not become a European superinspectorate." That is why she welcomes the Commission's strategy "to mount a broad case for the establishment of ELA that goes beyond the sole issue of compliance." For her, "providing ELA with a positive missionto facilitate the activities of workers and businesses exercising their right of free movementis important for both functional and political reasons. It will strengthen the role ELA can play to improve the functioning of the single labour market and to reinforce its dynamism. Also, this positive mission addresses the risk that the creation of ELA could be perceived by some countries as an instrument aimed at limiting intra-EU mobilitya perception that would undermine their support for this Commission initiative."

24

However, the Commission had to get the stakeholders as a group to acknowledge this positive aspect; hence, our interest in examining the open public consultation (OPC) on the ELA.

The consultation ran from November 27, 2017, to January 7, 2018, in parallel to the drafting of the impact assessment and the proposal for a regulation. Like all consultations, its aim was to gather opinions from the different stakeholders. However, because it used a closed questionnaire which limited the opinions that could be expressed, it laid emphasis on the idea of an ELA that would aim to facilitate worker mobility.

I. A consultation with limited scope

The questionnaire used in the consultation 25 included questions about the labour force in the EU and the creation of an ELA and a European social security number. The questions asked matched the framework imposed by the Commission. The dialectic had three elements, identifying first an assessment (insufficient cooperation between national authorities), then a cause (the fragmentation of information networks is harmful to cooperation between national authorities), Section 1 Page 9 of 29 and finally a solution (the role of the new authority). The questionnaire placed constraints upon respondents, who were unable to formulate the problem in different terms or from a different perspective. Most of the questions were closed. Respondents had to use a rating scale where the options available were "strongly disagree," "disagree," "neutral," "agree," "strongly agree," and "don't know/cannot answer." Responses to the questions were therefore reactions (favourable, unfavourable, or neutral), rather than proposals or expressions of needs.

The consultation received 8,809 responses, but among these the European Commission rapidly identified 8,420 identical responses, which were the result of a campaign by ETUC. After removing not just these identical responses but also those that were incomplete or illogical, only 374 responses remained. They came from three types of respondents (see Figure 5.1): those responding on behalf of an organisation; those responding as individuals who wanted to remain anonymous; and those responding as individuals who did not want anonymity. There were 113 responses made on behalf of an organisation, which is the Commission's normal target group for consultations.

26

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This consultation on the ELA was therefore not one that aroused many strong feelings, even among those who are traditionally put forward as representatives of civil society. Many privileged partners of the institutions did not respond. This was the case with ETUC, for example, which preferred to concentrate its efforts on a campaign to support the creation of an ELA via its activist networks by asking its members to respond to the consultation en masse.

The organisations that responded to the consultation were not very diverse.

II. A favourable response to an ELA that facilitates mobility

The questions were asked in such a way as to identify the drivers of obstacles to mobility (without that assessment ever being discussed) and then put forward solutions to deal with them.

Thus, we find the following responses to the various drivers put forward (Table 5.1): The ELA proposed by the European Commission was manifestly more of a facilitating body than a monitoring one. The questionnaire does not really refer to the monitoring role that the ELA could take.

Respondents to the questionnaire appeared to vindicate the Commission's vision. We may observe a relative consensus among respondents on the importance of transparency, access to information, and the need to simplify procedures, but the position is less clear when it comes to the new authority having a possible coordinating role, in accordance with the principle of subsidiarity. There was little consensus among respondents regarding a "lack or insufficiency of for a for dispute settlement," for which the ELA could compensate (41 percent of respondents Section 1 Page 13 of 29 agreed that there was such a lack). Similarly, just under half of respondents responded favourably to the idea of an ELA that could resolve disputes in cross-border employment and social security matters (47 percent).

III. Differing stances on the role of the ELA

The analysis of the responses to this consultation can be clarified by constructing a space to represent respondent organisations' stances on the ELA, based on an analysis of the respondent organisations' characteristics through Multiple Correspondence Analysis (MCA), a statistical technique that allows the data to be summarised on factorial axes and provides a structural perspective.

30

The MCA described here focuses on 49 respondents. This reduction in the number of respondents was based on two levels of screening. The first level of screening related to whether respondents' characteristics could be identified. Given the variety of organisations and how difficult it was to identify the characteristics of some of them, the analysis only includes organisations listed in the Commission's Transparency Register, 31 which is based in the EU.

This register makes available some relatively standardised data about the organisations listed, which allows some comparisons to be made, although it should be borne in mind that the data were provided by the organisations themselves. The second level of screening relates to the quality of the responses. Only respondents who answered at least 75 percent of the section about the creation of an ELA were retained in the data set.

The MCA carried out 32 for this research was based on the main questions about the creation of an ELA: the assessment that there is insufficient cooperation, the main cause put forward (fragmentation of information networks), and the role of the new authority (resolving conflict, coordinating cross-border inspections, collecting information) (see Table 5.3).

Responses were structured in a specific way and organised hierarchically along the first two axes of the MCA, which form a good summary (Figure 5.3). We can distinguish three configurations Section 1 Page 14 of 29 of modalities that follow the trajectory of a parabola. The "agree" modalities are in the southwestern quadrant, while the "disagree" modalities are in the eastern sector of the map, and the "neutral" modalities in the northern sector of the map. The "agree" modalities are both more concentrated and closer to the origin than the other modalities are: they contribute less to the creation of the factorial map.

The first axis (32.6 percent of total inertia) is specifically structured around the lack of cooperation between national authorities. The "agree" modality is opposed the "neutral" and "disagree" modalities. This axis also summarises responses regarding the mandate to be given to an ELA, more specifically the question of an authority that would coordinate inspections and involve itself in resolving conflicts between parties. In the opinion of a proportion of respondents, an ELA should resolve conflicts, while for another group of respondents, its role ought to be limited to coordinating cross-border inspections. The second axis (23.9 percent of total inertia) differentiates between the "neutral" and "disagree" modalities on three groups of questions: cooperation, the role the ELA could take, and the fragmentation of networks as the cause of a lack of cooperation between the national authorities of Member States.

Projecting supplementary variables into the factorial map allows organisations' stances to be related to their characteristics. Views on the creation of an ELA are highly differentiated by type of organisation, between employer organisations that want the status quo to continue, and workers' organisations concerned about working conditions and social protections. The three stances on the ELA relate to three types of organisation.

Firstly, in the northern sector of the map, we find a relatively neutral group of respondents. This group is mainly made up of public authorities and associations.

Secondly, in the eastern sector of the map, we find the organisations that are most wary of the creation of an ELA. They are among the respondents with the greatest financial resources and also tend to be based in Northern Europe. These employer organisations, which often have an office in Brussels, favour the status quo. Without necessarily being opposed to an ELA, they

are not happy for it to have a supervisory and monitoring role. They are the most strongly Section 1 Page 15 of 29 opposed to a monitoring role for the ELA, which would ultimately lead to the EU having greater powers in this domain. Thus BusinessEurope, in its position paper, defends retaining the fight against fraud as a competence that should stay with individual Member States: "It is essential that labour inspections remain the competence of national authorities, in accordance with enforcement and industrial relations practices. Therefore, it is not appropriate that one Member

State can request a joint inspection on its own. We also do not support the proposed Authority's role in suggesting a concerted or joint inspection of its own initiative to the authorities of the Member States concerned."

33 Similarly, the European Association of Craft, Small and Medium- sized Enterprises (UEAPME) writes, "The (European Labour) Authority should not take-up the role of national authorities."

34

Thirdly, in the southwestern sector of the map, we find the organisations that are the most enthusiastic about the creation of a regulatory body. They are also the ones with the lowest financial resources, and trades unions are among this group. They are the most strongly in favour of a monitoring role for the ELA, like ETUC: "To enable better prevention, detection and monitoring of cross border social fraud, and undeclared work."

35

Table 5.3 Characteristics of the MCA on the space of the organisations participating in the ELA consultation (N = 49) Active variables (Figure 5.

3)

The initial assessment insufficient cooperation between national authorities: "agree" [START_REF]ETUC Position on a European Labour Authority: Ensuring Fairness for Workers in the Single Market[END_REF]; "neutral" (8); "disagree" (6).

Main cause suggested

fragmentation of information networks is harmful to cooperation between national authorities: "agree" [START_REF]Mobility, an Instrument for More and Better Jobs: The European Job Mobility Action Plan[END_REF]; "neutral" (7); "disagree" (3).

The role of the new authority

an ELA will permit conflicts to be resolved: "agree" [START_REF] Fernandes | What Is Our Ambition for the European Labour Authority?[END_REF]; "neutral" (8); "disagree" ( 16).

an ELA will permit cross-border inspections to be coordinated: "agree" (32); "neutral" (6); "disagree" (8).

Section 1

Page 16 of 29 -an ELA will allow information to be provided to workers: "agree" (46); "neutral" (3); "disagree" (3). Supplementary variables (Figure 5.4) -Organisation typology: consultants (1); public authorities (3); associations (7); worker trade unions ( 16); employer representative bodies [START_REF]1149 of the European Parliament and of the Council Of 20 June 2019 Establishing a European Labour Authority[END_REF].

-

Organisations' financial resources (empty triangle): Lower (16); higher [START_REF]The authors wish to thank Eric Wiest for his help in collecting and analysing the data[END_REF]; unknown (7).

[Insert 15032-5573-005_Figure_003 Here] Our analysis of the public consultation accounts for respondents' differences of opinion on the ELA. The Commission's report on responses to the consultation, 36 in contrast, emphasises consensus and the views of the majority of respondents ("A vast majority of the respondents agreed that insufficient access to information and transparency on cross-border mobility rules is a problem for individuals and businesses," or "All the potential functions for the ELA proposed in the OPC received strong support overall, in particular supporting information exchange for businesses, individuals and between national authorities"). However, an analysis of the data brings some nuances to light. One is the difference between the worker representatives and the employer representatives: the former were more strongly in favour of a monitoring ELA than were the latter, who were very happy with an ELA that provided a platform for exchanging Section 1

Page 17 of 29 information and assistance with finding it. That being said, the closed questionnaire used in the consultation did not permit trade unions to express that point of view. That is why other preparatory studies also had to be consulted, such as the discussions among the expert group and the position papers published by the main stakeholders and many European think tanks.

From "fair market" to "fair mobility"

The proposal for a regulation aroused hopes among the trade unions and Members of European Parliament who wanted an organisation to be set up that would be capable of monitoring compliance with employment law through a labour inspectorate. At the same time, though, it encountered criticism from employers who complained of a lack of available labour and obstacles to mobility and who thought that the role of the ELA should not be to add further difficulties by imposing monitoring and sanctions. The two sides appeared to take opposing stances. However, they appeared to agree on one essential point: worker mobility is an essential objective of European construction and must be encouraged. For employers, mobility allows them to recruit workers from across the whole of the EU and thus find takers for the jobs they are offering in the market. For the trade unions representing workers, intra-European mobility is a chance to obtain a job if a worker cannot do so in their home country, or to obtain a more appealing or better-paid job if a worker already has one. It is from this agreement, which makes mobility a key element of growth and of the proper functioning of the European labour market, that the concept of "fair mobility" emerged.

This expression did not give rise to much commentnot even to point out the obvious

38

This is the context for "fair mobility," meaning a mobility that ensures all European workers will have their social rights respected. together to make recommendations on the creation of the ELA. In view of the consensus on "fair mobility," the work was directed from the outset not at monitoring and sanctioning, but at information flow and cooperation between existing organisations. In this context, it was unimportant whether the future body would be called an "authority" or an "agency." When the proposal was being examined by the rapporteur Jeroen Lenaers at the meeting of the Employment and Social Affairs Committee, discussion on this issue was quickly closed down as being a technical question of no particular importance, when it could have led to a debate between supporters of a monitoring and sanctioning body and supporters of a liaison body along the lines of Eurojust.

The ELA's success lies, therefore, not so much in the speed with which it was created as in its ability to reconcile two opposing views through the concept of "fair mobility. 31 This is a database of self-declared and publicly available data on interest groups that intercede with European institutions. Updated daily, the register includes 47 variables relating to the structure and operation of these organisations. We were able carry out the necessary cross-matching between the Transparency Register and the consultation results because of the identification number used in both.

32 The questions originally asked with five response categories were recoded into three response categories: "agree," "neutral", and "disagree." Using the data available in the register, several indicators were constructed for each organisation: having an office in Brussels, the number of employees, and economic capital. Alternative sources were also drawn on to complete the information about each organisation: data from business directories (e.g., Kompass), feedback given to the Commission by the organisations (accessible by carrying out an advanced search in Google for "organisation name," "feedback" site:

Figure 5 . 1

 51 Figure 5.1 Respondent profile after removal of duplicates and illogical responses

Figure 5

 5 Figure 5.3 MCA on the space of the organisations taking part in the OPC (N = 49): projection of active modalities onto the map formed by axes 1 and 2

  parallel with "fair competition." It even seemed as though it might have gone unnoticed. Yet in the text of the regulation, it appears twice in the recitals (numbers 22 and 47) and as an objective in Article 2: "The objectives of the Authority shall be to contribute to ensuring fair labour mobility across the Union." 37 This objective of mobility did not seem to attract any criticism, and the adjective "fair" seemed to provide all necessary guarantees regarding its good intentions Section 1 Page 18 of 29 towards both workers and employers. The regulation recalls the importance of the European Pillar of Social Rights, proclaimed jointly by the European Parliament, the Council, and the Commission at the Social Summit for Fair Jobs and Growth, in Gothenburg on November 17, 2017. In their declaration, they committed themselves to: taking action to reinforce the social dimension of the Union, by working on improving the coordination of social security systems, by protecting workers from health risks in the workplace, by ensuring fair treatment for all in the Union labour market through modernised rules on posting of workers, and by further improving cross-border enforcement of Union law. In order to protect the rights of mobile workers and to foster fair competition between companies, in particular small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs), it is crucial to improve the crossborder enforcement of Union law in the area of labour mobility and to tackle abuse.

Table 5

 5 This body of responses helps produce a kind of consensus on the obstacles to mobility. It also points to simple solutions that the ELA could provide (Table5.2). The questions about the possible functions of the ELA all relate to the role of a facilitator bringing down the barriers of lack of information and ignorance about processes and rules. An ELA which would gather information centrally and disseminate it would therefore permit efficiency to be improved,

	.1 Proportion of responses agreeing with the consultation questions on suggested drivers
	(N = 113)
		In agreement
		(%)
	Fragmentation of networks of cooperation in different areas (e.g., posting,
	free movement of workers, social security coordination)	71
	Insufficiency of resources of national authorities to cooperative effectively	80
	Difficulty in accessing relevant documentation from other Member States	61
	Difficulties in addressing complex cases of fraud and/or abuse that have a
	cross-border dimension	61
	Lack of access to information on EU or national rules in my language	69
	Lack of easily understandable explanations of rights and obligations to
	comply with when working abroad	73
	Lack of easily understandable explanation of rights and obligations to comply
	with when sending people to work abroad (posting of workers)	78
	Difficulty to identify and/or contact the competent authority to solve my
	problems	53
	Lack of assistance and/or guidance by the competent authorities in my own
	country	47
	Information on rights and obligations in the field of labor mobility is
	fragmented across different platforms	67

  In spite of being new at the time, it seems to have passed unnoticed. It came up in European debate only when the question of posted workers was raised. In the European Parliament resolution of June 14, 2012 on "Towards a job-rich recovery," MEPs "urged the European Commission to strengthen fair mobility and combat any misuse of posted workers, both in host and home countries." 41 It is therefore not surprising that "fair mobility" should have returned to centre stage with the discussions on an ELA that took place after the revision of the Posted Workers Directive and in close connection with the European Pillar of Social Rights.Marianne Thyssen, the European Commissioner for Employment and Social Affairs, gave a speech in Dublin on November 13, 2015 on Europe's vision for fair labour mobility. Her predecessor, László Andor, had already used the expression in a speech at the University of Ghent on labour mobility in the EU on September 24, 2014, Social Agenda magazine, issue 51, in which the creation of the ELA was announced, had the words "fair mobility" on its cover.

		42 before publishing a paper titled
	"Fair Mobility in Europe."	43 Other think tanks took up this expression; for example, the CEPS
	"Labour Mobility in the EU: Addressing Challenges and Ensuring 'Fair Mobility'"	44 in July
	2016, and the DG EMPL's 45
	It was based on this agreement that the members of the European Advisory Group for the
	ELA met between May 16, 2018, and May 21, 2019. Over five meetings, the members (drawn
	This was the first time the term "fair mobility" had been mentioned in a European from worker and employer organisations and also from Member State ministries) worked
	legislative text. A first sighting of it can be found in a European Commission communication
	from 2007, titled "Mobility, an Instrument for More and Better Jobs: The European Job Mobility
	Action Plan (2007-2010)" 39 in which the European Commission "encourage[s] authorities at
	regional and local levels, and other relevant stakeholders, to remove remaining practical
	obstacles to mobility and to promote the concept of 'fair mobility,' namely by fighting
	undeclared work and social dumping." This sentence would go on to be included in the EURES
	Charter in 2010. According to the EURES Charter, "Mobility should be promoted whilst
	ensuring the concept of 'fair mobility,' particularly fighting undeclared work and social
	dumping, which is to ensure that labour standards and legal requirements are always fully
	respected." 40 Section 1		Page 19 of 29

  of the Council Establishing a European Labour Authority (Strasbourg: European Commission, 2018), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=CELEX:52018SC0068&from=EN. 12 "Decision (EU) 2016/344 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 9 March 2016 on Establishing a European Platform to Enhance Cooperation in Tackling Undeclared Work," Official Journal of the European Union 59 (2016), https://eurlex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L:2016:065:FULL&from=EN. 13 European Commission, Commission Staff Working Document, 9. 14 "Regulation (EU) 2016/589 of the European Parliament and of the Council on a European Network of Employment Services (EURES), Workers' Access to Mobility Services and the Further Integration of Labour Markets," Official Journal of the European Union 59 Commission Staff Working Document, 9. 17 Boris Hauray, "The European Regulation of Medicines," in European Union Public Health Policy: Regional and Global Trends, ed. Scott L. Greer and Paulette Kurzer (London: Routledge, 2013), 81-94. 18 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council, Amending Regulation (EC) No 883/2004 on the Coordination of Social Security Systems and Regulation (EC) No 987/2009 Laying Down the Procedure for Implementing Regulation (EC) No 883/2004, COM(2016) 815 final (European Commission, 2016), https://eur-Uses of Governance: Studying an EU White Paper, ed. Didier Georgakakis and Marine de Lassalle (Opladen, Berlin, Toronto: Barbara Budrich Publishers, 2012), 87-102. 28 Thomas Persson, "Democratizing European Chemicals Policy: Do Online Consultations Favour Civil Society Participation?," Journal of Civil Society 3, no. 3 (2007): 223-38. 29 See Hélène Michel and Guillaume Courty, "Interest Groups and Lobbyists in the European Political Space: The Permanent Eurocrats," in The Field of Eurocracy: Mapping EU Actors and Professionals, ed. Didier Georgakakis and Jay Rowell (London: Palgrave Macmillan, 2013), 166-87. 30 See Brigitte Le Roux and Rouanet Henry, Multiple Correspondence Analysis (Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage, 2010).

	expression not only linked a vision of a market involving free movement with a more Stakeholder Consultation: Synopsis Report. 2018. European Commission. https://eur-
	interventionist vision of monitoring and sanctions, but it also institutionalised mobility at the lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=SWD%3A2018%3A0080%3AFIN.
	heart of the European labour market. Here, as in other domains, European construction was UEAPME. 2018. UEAPME Position on the Proposal Establishing a European Labour Authority.
	carried out by means of "the market," a broad palette of ideas COM (2018) 131. UEAPME. www.smeunited.eu/admin/storage/smeunited/180605-46 from which others such as "fair
	mobility" are created so that they in turn can champion different options and allow a European ueapme-position-on-the-proposal-for-a-european-labour-authority.pdf.
	space for public policy to develop greater depth. Vesan Patrick, and Francesco Corti. 2019. "New Tensions over Social Europe? The European
	Pillar of Social Rights and the Debate within the European Parliament." Journal of
	Notes Common Market Studies 57, no. 5: 977-994.
	2 Proposal for a Regulation of the European Parliament and of the Council Establishing a
	European Labour Authority (European Commission, 2018), https://eur-
	lex.europa.eu/legal-content/EN/TXT/?uri=CELEX%3A52018PC0131.
	3 "Regulation (EU) 2019/1149 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 20 June 2019
	Establishing a European Labour Authority," Official Journal of the European Union 62
	(2019), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legal-
	content/EN/TXT/?qid=1647330032960&uri=CELEX%3A32019R1149.
	4 Marco Rocca, "Les dernières minutes de la dernière chance: l'agence européenne du travail et
	l'Union en 2019," in L'autorité européenne du travail, ed. Silvia Borelli, Marc Morsa,
	and Andrea Allamprese (Brussels: Bruylant, 2020), 25-44.
	5 ETUC, press conference, January 29, 2019.
		" This
	Section 1 Section 1 Section 1 Section 1	Page 20 of 29 Page 23 of 29 Page 25 of 29 Page 27 of 29

1 Jean-Claude Juncker, "President Jean-Claude Juncker's State of the Union Address 2017," European Commission, https://ec.europa.eu/info/priorities/state-union-speeches/stateunion-2017_en. (2016), https://eur-lex.europa.eu/legalcontent/EN/TXT/PDF/?uri=OJ:L:2016:107:FULL&from=EN. 15 SOLVIT homepage, https://ec.europa.eu/solvit/index_en.htm. 16 European Commission,

legislative proposal in such a short time. This haste nevertheless raises questions. Firstly, it gives the impression that such an agency was expected and required. Certainly, for Liina Carr, Confederal Secretary of the European Trade Union Confederation (ETUC),


Nicolas Vaxelaire

Kien Nguyen

E Bellec

E Zatterin

Challenges

Challenges and opportunities of Coherent X-Ray Diffraction for 3D nanoscale imaging of domain in ferroelectric thin film during in-situ biasing

Challenges and opportunities of Coherent X-Ray Diffraction for 3D nanoscale imaging of domain in ferroelectric thin film during in-situ biasing

Nicolas Vaxelaire 1* , Kien Nguyen While 2D structures of domain are well documented thanks to piezo force microscopy or in-situ transmission electron microscopy, their 3D dynamic structures remain hardly measurable due to the lack of an adequate in-situ characterization technique. On the other hand, coherent X-ray diffraction imaging technique [1] has been intensively developed during the last two decades in modern synchrotron light sources and can now offer 3D imaging with spatial resolution up to 10nm, hence compatible with ferroelastic domain size. More recently, this technique has also been extended to in-situ strain monitoring in polycrystalline thin films used for coatings [2,3].

In this work, we proposed to implement this approach to polycrystalline ferroelectric thin film. Firstly, it will been shown how we succeed in collecting the diffraction signal from a single grain within a prototypal lead zirconate titanate (PZT) film during the application of an electrical cycle.

Then phase retrieval strategy and its accuracy will be discussed through a numerical example [Fig].

This research contributes to a better understanding of the local behaviors in ferroelectric polycrystalline films and in the improvement of their performance for different applications.

Figure: (

  Figure: (a) Synthetic a, c domain Voronoi structure used for (002)/(200) peak intensity calculation (b). This peak is used to test phase retrieval algorithm convergence and accuracy.

  1 , E. Bellec 2 , E. Zatterin 2 However, the case of polycrystalline thin films is particularly complex to model. Several effects (i.e. stress, substrate clamping, interface, grain boundary) affect the behavior of the domains in 3D.

	1 Univ. Grenoble Alpes, CEA, Leti, F-38000 Grenoble, France
	2 ID01/ESRF, The European Synchrotron, Grenoble, France
	*nicolas.vaxelaire@cea.fr
	Understanding ferroelectric and ferroelastic domain behaviors at the local scale is essential to
	address structure/properties relationship in ferroelectric thin film.


domain: info math

text:
Basics of Symmetric Cryptography Block Cipher Design How Standardization Works How Standardization Fails Some Examples Advanced Encryption Standard competition → AES block cipher Secure Hashing Algorithm-3 competition → SHA-3 hash function Lightweight Cryptography (not) Competition

Keywords:

hash function Lightweight Cryptography (not) Competition

⊕ x x ⊕ a a E κ E κ E κ (x) E κ (x ⊕ a) b ⊕

Differential Attack

If there are many x such that E κ (x) ⊕ E κ (x ⊕ a) = b, then the cipher is not secure.

Basic Block Cipher Structure

How do we build block ciphers that prevent such attacks (as well as others)?

Basic Block Cipher Structure How do we build block ciphers that prevent such attacks (as well as others)? The S-Box (2/2)

Importance of the S-Box

If S is such that

S(x) ⊕ S(x ⊕ a) = b
does not have many solutions x for all (a, b) then the cipher may be proved secure against differential attacks.

The S-Box (2/2)

Importance of the S-Box

If S is such that

S(x) ⊕ S(x ⊕ a) = b
does not have many solutions x for all (a, b) then the cipher may be proved secure against differential attacks.

In academic papers presenting new block ciphers, the choice of S is carefully explained. The Two Tables

S-Box Design

Let S : F n 2 → F n 2 be an S-Box.

Definition (DDT)

The Difference Distribution The Two Tables

Let S : F n 2 → F n 2 be an S-Box.

Definition (DDT)

The Difference Distribution Table of S is a matrix of size

2 n × 2 n such that DDT[a, b] = #{x ∈ F n 2 | S (x ⊕ a) ⊕ S(x) = b}.

Definition (LAT)

The Linear Approximations Table of S is a matrix of size The DDT of S.

2 n × 2 n such that LAT[a, b] = #{x ∈ F n 2 | x • a = S(x) • b} -2 n-1 = 1 2 × ∑ x∈F n 2 (-1)
       
8 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2 0 4 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 4 0 4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 2 2

        The LAT of S.         4 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 2 2 0 0 2 -2 0 2 2 0 0 2 -2 0 0 2 0 2 0 -2 0 2 0 2 0 -2 0 -2 0 -2 0 -2 2 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 0 -2 2 0 0 -2 -2 0 0 0 0 -4 0 0 0        

Belarussian inspiration

The last standard of Belarus (BelT) uses an 8-bit S-box, somewhat similar to π...

Streebog and Kuznyechik

Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Generation Process Cryptographic Properties

Conclusion for Kuznyechik/Stribog?

The Russian S-Box was built like a strange Feistel... ... or was it?

Belarussian inspiration

The last standard of Belarus (BelT) uses an 8-bit S-box, somewhat similar to π...

κ: an affine function F m 2 → F 2 2m with κ(F m 2 ) ⊕ F 2 m = F 2 2m , s: a permutation of Z/(2 m -1)Z;
it works as follows:

     π(0) = κ(0) , π ( (α 2 m +1 ) j ) = κ(2 m -j), for 1 ≤ j ≤ 2 m -1 , π ( α i+(2 m +1)j ) = κ(2 m -i) ⊕ ( α 2 m +1 ) s(j) , for 0 < i, 0 ≤ j < 2 m -1 .
Streebog

Cosets to Cosets

F 2 8 π(F 2 8 ) = F 2 8 {0} {fc} F * 2 4 κ(0) ⊕ F * 2 4 α 16 F * 2 4 κ((F 4 2 ) *
) Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Generation Process Cryptographic Properties

Cosets to Cosets

F 2 8 π(F 2 8 ) = F 2 8 {0} {fc} F * 2 4 κ(0) ⊕ F * 2 4 α 16 F * 2 4 κ((F 4 2 ) * ) ... α 2 F * 2 4 α 1 F * 2 4 κ(15) ⊕ F * 2 4 κ(14) ⊕ F * 2 4
... Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Generation Process Cryptographic Properties

Cosets to Cosets

F 2 8 π(F 2 8 ) = F 2 8 {0} {fc} F * 2 4 κ(0) ⊕ F * 2 4 α 16 F * 2 4 κ((F 4 2 ) * ) ... α 2 F * 2 4 α 1 F * 2 4 κ(15) ⊕ F * 2 4 κ(14) ⊕ F * 2 4 ... ... Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Generation Process Cryptographic Properties Why it is Worrying Russia's π {0} V α × V α 2 × V ... α 16 × V κ(0) ⊕ V κ(15) ⊕ V κ(14) ⊕ V ... κ({1, . . . , 15}) κ(0) ... Backdoored S-box κ(0) ⊕ V κ(15) ⊕ V κ(14) ⊕ V ... β(0) ⊕ W β(15) ⊕ W β(14) ⊕ W ...

  There are many symmetric algorithms! Hash functions, MACs... Definition (Block Cipher) Input: n-bit block x Parameter: k-bit key κ Output: n-bit block E κ (x) Symmetry: E and E -1 use the same κ are many symmetric algorithms! Hash functions, MACs... Definition (Block Cipher) Input: n-bit block x Parameter: k-bit key κ Output: n-bit block E κ (x)Symmetry: E and E -1 use the same κ at a typical cryptanalysis technique: the differential attack.

  How do we build block ciphers that prevent such attacks (as well as others)?Such a block cipher iterates the round function above several times. S is the Substitution Box (S-Box).

  The S-Box (1/2)The S-Box π of the latest Russian standards, Kuznyechik (BC) and Streebog (HF).

.

  .. based on a finite field exponential! Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Generation Process Cryptographic Properties A Third and Final Decomposition: the TKlog π is a TKlog! π operates on F 2 2m where m = 4 using:α: a generator of F 2 2m ,

  Using the sage.crypto.sboxes module.

	What are S-Boxes? What are S-Boxes? What are S-Boxes?	Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik
	On Standardization and Trust On Standardization and Trust On Standardization and Trust	Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box
	Don't Trust, Verify (and How to do it) Don't Trust, Verify (and How to do it) Don't Trust, Verify (and How to do it)	Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process
	Conclusion Conclusion Conclusion	Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties
	Coding Time! Coding Time! (Kuznyechik) The TU-Decomposition Final Decomposition Number 1 Conclusion for Kuznyechik/Stribog? Conclusion for Kuznyechik/Stribog? Conclusion for Kuznyechik/Stribog?
	Definition
	The TU-decomposition is a decomposition algorithm working against S-Boxes α The Russian S-Box was built like a The Russian S-Box was built like a The Russian S-Box was built like a with vector spaces of zeroes in their LAT. strange Feistel... strange Feistel... strange Feistel...
	JP representation of the LAT of π I	Multiplication in F 2 4 ... or was it? ... or was it?
	The AES S-box: differential uniformity, etc Reordering the columns ν 1 ν 0	α α Linear permutation
	Reordering both rows and columns with linear permutations
	The Jackon Pollock representation Comparison with a random permutation Deduce an interesting permutation L ′ • π • L I Inversion in F 2 4 Notice the integral distinguisher S TU-decomposition T ϕ ν 0 , ν 1 , σ 4 × 4 permutations U
			ϕ 4 × 4 function
	σ		ω ω Linear permutation
	ω
			20 / 35 21 / 35 23 / 35

T and U are mini-block ciphers ; µ and η are linear permutations.

  Everything is wrong except for the green part.

		What are S-Boxes?	and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik Streebog and Kuznyechik
		On Standardization and Trust	Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box Decomposing the Mysterious S-Box
		Don't Trust, Verify (and How to do it)	Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process Generation Process
		Conclusion	Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties Cryptographic Properties
	Timeline Timeline Timeline From the Designers, at ISO From the Designers, at ISO Cosets to Cosets Cosets to Cosets
		July GOST standardization of Streebog July GOST standardization of Streebog July GOST standardization of Streebog F 2 8 F 2 8	π(F 2 8 ) = F 2 8 π(F 2 8 ) = F 2 8
		Aug. RFC for Streebog (RFC6986) Aug. RFC for Streebog (RFC6986) Aug. RFC for Streebog (RFC6986)
		June GOST standardization of Kuznyechik June GOST standardization of Kuznyechik June GOST standardization of Kuznyechik
	{0} {0}	Mar. RFC for Kuznyechik (RFC7801) Mar. RFC for Kuznyechik (RFC7801) Mar. RFC for Kuznyechik (RFC7801) F * 2 4
		May Publication of the first decomposition May Publication of the first decomposition May Publication of the first decomposition [...]
		Oct. ISO standardization of Streebog (ISO 10118-3) Oct. ISO standardization of Streebog (ISO 10118-3) Oct. ISO standardization of Streebog (ISO 10118-3)
		Jan. Publication of the final decomposition 2 Jan. Publication of the final decomposition 2 Jan. Publication of the final decomposition 2
		Feb. Kuznyechik at ISO: decision post-poned Feb. Kuznyechik at ISO: decision post-poned
		Sep. Kuznyechik at ISO: decision had to be taken!
			κ(0) ⊕ F * 2 4	{fc} {fc}
			30 / 35

[...]

March 2014 First mentions of a LW standardization process

Streebog and Kuznyechik

be an S-Box.

L. Perrin. Partitions in the S-box of Streebog and Kuznyechik. IACR ToSC. 2019.

ASCII characters that fit on 7 bits: this program is 1155-bit long It is impossible that all 2 1684 8-bit permutations have an implementation this short!

https://codegolf.stackexchange.com/questions/186498/ proving-that-a-russian-cryptographic-standard-is-too-structured Timeline July GOST standardization of Streebog Aug. RFC for Streebog (RFC6986) June GOST standardization of Kuznyechik Mar. RFC for Kuznyechik (RFC7801) May Publication of the first decomposition Oct. ISO standardization of Streebog (ISO 10118-3) Jan. Publication of the final decomposition 3 Feb. Kuznyechik at ISO: decision post-poned Sep. Kuznyechik at ISO: thanks, but no thanks

The Russian delegation failed to convince the experts that they were honest: the standardizatoin of Kuznyechik was refused


Hui Xie

Michaël Gauthier

Philippe Lutz

Stéphane Régnier

Nicolas Chaillet

Recent advances in the study of Micro/Nano Robotics in France

à la diffusion de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

I. INTRODUCTION

In France, micro/nanorobticis research are mainly addressed at two institutes: (i) Automated Systems for Micromanipulation and Microassembly (SAMMI) group of AS2M Department of FEMTO-ST in Besanc ¸on, France. (ii) Institut des Systèmes Intelligents et Robotique (ISIR), Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris VI/CNRS, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France.

At FEMTO-ST, significant activities have been performed in micro/nanorobotics: 1) Design, fabrication and the control of microrobots and microrobotic cells. 2) Research on micro scale effects.

3) Micro force sensing and control. 4) Techniques on micro/nano positioning. 5) Design and fabrication micro-grippers. At ISIR, research activities on micro/nanorobotics are mainly focused on:

1) Design, fabrication and the control of microrobots.

2) Develop haptic devices for macro-micro/nano coupling. 3) Micro/nano physics phenomena. 4) High-efficiency and three-dimensional AFM-based nanomanipulation and nanoassembly. 5) Nanomanipulation and nanoassembly in scanning electron microscope.

Manuscript received September 20, 2009. Hui Xie and Stéphane Régnier are with the Institut des Systèmes Intelligents et Robotique (ISIR), Université Pierre et Marie Curie-Paris VI/CNRS, 4 Place Jussieu, 75005 Paris, France. (e-mail: xie@isir.upmc.fr, stephane.regnier@upmc.fr).

Michaël Gauthier, Philippe Lutz and Nicolas Chaillet are with the Universités Dpartement AS2M/FEMTO-ST, UMR CNRS 6174 -UFC/ENSMM/UTBM, 24 rue Alain Savary, F-25000 Besanc ¸on. (e-mail: michael.gauthier@femto-st.fr, philippe.Lutz@ens2m.fr, chaillet@ens2m.fr). This paper is organized as follows: research on microrobots at FEMTO-ST and ISIR will be introduced in section II. In section III, nanomanipulation and nanoassembly at ISIR will be discussed and section IV concluded the paper.

II. MICROROBOTS RESEARCH AT FEMTO-ST AND ISIR

A. Micromanipulation and Microasembly at FEMTO-ST

In this framework, most of the research of the SAMMI (Automated Systems for Micromanipulation and Microassembly) group of AS2M Department of FEMTO-ST in Besanc ¸on, France, deals with the micromanipulation and micro assembly issues. More precisely, FEMTO-ST deals with robotic motions, perception, control and manipulation at the microscale and also new activities at the nanoscale.

It corresponds to various and multidisciplinary scientific issues:

1) Microrobotic and adaptronic systems: systems for feeding, carrying, gripping, micrometer size and microfabricated robotics, strategies for microassembly. 2) Advanced control of dynamic and complex systems: modelling and control of microactuators microsystems, and smart materials, of discrete or continuous distributed systems, control by exteroceptive sensors notably by vision. 3) Micromanipulation and microassembly: characterization of the interactions in the microworld, strategies for microhandling based on physical principles relevant at this scale. 4) Perception and measurement: measure of microforces and artificial vision.

An overview of the femto-st activities in micro and nanorobotics is given below, included the main references.

1) Modelling and Simulation:

The characterisation (modelling or measurement) of the specific forces of microscale is necessary to design robotic systems for micromanipulation. The study of micromanipulation strategies is usually limited by two major problems: (i) the lack of microforce models usable by the robotic community, (ii) the shortage of force sensors really suitable to measure these effects. Current works in FEMTO-ST and ISIR institutes deal with the development of scientific platforms to address these issues. We are focusing on: (i) simulation of the behavior of micro-objects to improve the design of new microrobotic methods and, (ii) the measure of the forces to validate the simulations (see in figure 1). These works enables to increase the knowledge of the microworld phenomena necessary to the development of microrobotic scientific activities [START_REF] Rabenorosoa | Measurement setup of pull-off force for planar contact at the microscale[END_REF][START_REF] Alvo | Adhesion Model for Micromanipulation based on van der Waals forces[END_REF][START_REF] Gauthier | Forces analysis for micromanipulations in dry and liquid media[END_REF][START_REF] Gauthier | Robotic micro-assembly[END_REF][START_REF] Gauthier | Capillary Force Disturbances on a Partially Submerged Cylindrical Micromanipulator[END_REF]. Fig. 1. Examples of a distance-force curves measured with an AFM in order to characterized the interaction forces between microgrippers and micro-objects : This curves show the impact of the Ph of a solution on the interaction between functionnalised surfaces, the behaviour is attractive at natural pH and repulsive in case of basic solution [START_REF] Dejeu | Adhesion forces controlled by chemical self-assembly and pH, application to robotic microhandling[END_REF][START_REF] Dejeu | Reduction of microobject's adhesion using chemical functionnalisation[END_REF].

2) Robotic Microhandling Methods: The development of new robotic microhandling methods is a key point to fabricate hybrid micro-systems as well as micromechatronic products. At present, the release task is the most critical and unreliable phase because of the impact of the surface forces and adhesion forces. Theoretical and experimental comparative analysis between the water medium and the air show that both types of medium show the potential interest of the liquid in micromanipulation applications [START_REF] Gauthier | Forces analysis for micromanipulations in dry and liquid media[END_REF][START_REF] Gauthier | Robotic micro-assembly[END_REF]. In fact, surface and adhesion forces decrease significantly in water while the hydrodynamic force increases. Both phenomena are able to reduce respectively the electrostatic and adhesion perturbations and the loss of micro-objects. Manipulation of artificial objects in water is consequently a promise to obtain reliable handling. Some submerged microhandling strategies have been studied in FEMTO-ST (see in figure 2). Negative dielectrophoresis can be used to control the release of an object grasped with a two-fingered gripper [START_REF] Gauthier | Submerged Robotic Micromanipulation and Dielectrophoretic Micro-object Release[END_REF]. Submerged freeze gripping enables the grasping with high blocking force and the release of micro-objects without adhesion perturbations [START_REF] Lopez-Walle | Principle of a Submerged Freeze Gripper for Micro-assembly[END_REF]. At least, chemical properties of the medium (e.g. pH) can be used to directly control the surface behavior of functionalized objects and gripper. This chemical control is able to switch interactions between gripper and object from attraction to repulsion [START_REF] Dejeu | Adhesion forces controlled by chemical self-assembly and pH, application to robotic microhandling[END_REF][START_REF] Dejeu | Reduction of microobject's adhesion using chemical functionnalisation[END_REF].

3) Microrobotic and Adaptronic Systems: About microrobotic systems, we design and realize microrobots based on the used of actuators adapted to the small size. Notably, we propose modelling and control of smart materials like piezoelectric materials, shape memory alloys and magnetic shape memory alloys [5-9, 16, 17]. The smart actuators are redesigned to integrate new microrobotics structures that give interesting repeatability, precision and dynamics. These structures can be included in air or liquid media [START_REF] Rakotondrabe | Voltage/Frequency proportional Control of Stick-Slip Microsystems[END_REF][START_REF] Grossard | Mechanical and control-oriented design of a monolithic microgripper using a new topological optimization method[END_REF][START_REF] Rakotondrabe | Development, Modelling and Control of Micro/Nano Positionning 2 DoF Stick-Slip Device[END_REF][START_REF] Clévy | A Micromanipulation Cell Including a Tool Changer[END_REF][START_REF] Clévy | Flexible micro-assembly system equiped with an automated tool changer[END_REF][START_REF] Perez | Modelling, Fabrication and Validation of a High Performance 2 DOF Microgripper[END_REF]. The control of MEMS and particularly of nanotwezeers is also a research activity in femto-st. The aim is to develop control techniques that enable to reach very high precision, under the nanometer when comb drive actuators are used or piezo actuators. A last explored domain is the proposal of advanced control for smart surfaces.

In order to test our original strategies, some microassembly platforms have been built and integrated several elementary works presented above. We focus our works on the study of the packaging and the assembly of silicon microparts in order to produce microscopic assembly systems [START_REF] Agnus | Silicon End-Effectors For Microgripping Tasks[END_REF][START_REF] Hériban | Mechanical detethering technique for Silicon MEMS etched with DRIE process[END_REF]. An original hybrid method between adhesion manipulation and standard gripping has been proposed [START_REF] Hériban | Robotic Micro-assembly of Microparts Using a Piezogripper[END_REF]. A complete teleoperated robotic structure included micropositioning stages, vision capabilities, piezogripper with silicon end-effectors, has been built. Our micro-assembly demonstrators are able to perform (i) teleoperated assembly of micro-objects in 30 seconds; (ii) automatic pick-and-places along two degrees of freedom in an open loop with a time cycle of 1.8 seconds; (iii) automatic pick-and-places along four degrees of freedom using visual servoing in 90 seconds (see in figure 2) Note that an application field for microassembly is the realization of microoptical benches. We have designed holders and supports with rails to obtain reconfigurable and adjustable benches (see in figure 3). In the point of view of the control, we have proposed hybrid force/position control to guide optical holders in the rails.

B. Micromanipulation and Microasembly at ISIR

Three-dimensional (3-D) automated micromanipulation at the scale of several micrometers using three-dimensional micromanipulation system (3DMS) with a nanotip gripper has been developed at ISIR [START_REF] Xie | Three-dimensional automated micromanipulation using a nanotip gripper with multi-feedback[END_REF]. The gripper is constructed from protrudent tips of two individually actuated atomic force microscope cantilevers (seen in Fig. 5); each cantilever is equipped with an optical lever. A manipulation protocol allows these two cantilevers to form a gripper to pickand-place microobjects without adhesive-force obstacles in air. For grasping, amplitude feedback from the dithering cantilever with its normal resonant frequency is used to search a grasping point by laterally scanning the side of the microspheres. Real-time force sensing is available for monitoring the whole pick-and-place process with pickup, transport and release steps. For trajectory planning, an algorithm based on the shortest path solution is used to obtained 3-D micropatterns with high levels of efficiency. In experiments, twenty microspheres with diameters from 3 µm to 4 µm were manipulated and five 3-D micropyramids with two layers were built (seen in Fig. 6). 3-D micromanipulation and microassembly at the scale of several microns to the submicron scale could become feasible through the newly developed 3-D micromanipulation system with a nanotip gripper.

III. NANOROBOTICS RESEARCH AT ISIR

A. Two-Tip Atomic Force Microscope

The Two-Tip Atomic Force Microscope is equipped with an optical microscope (Olympus BX50WI) and two sets of devices commonly used in a conventional AFM, mainly including two cantilevers with two sets of nanopositioning devices and optical levers. As shown in Fig. 1 (a), one XYZ piezoelectric actuated nanostage (MCL Nano-Bio2M) with a maximum scan range of 50 µm × 50 µm × 50 µm and a XYZ piezotube (PI P-153.10H) with a scan range of 10 µm × 10 µm × 10 µm are used. Note that hysteresis of the piezotube are well compensated by PI operator [START_REF] Xie | Characterization of the piezoscanner with an optical lever and a reference nanopositioning stage[END_REF]. The AFM cantilevers with protrudent tips (ATEC-FM), as shown in right inset of Fig. 1 (a), are employed as end-effectors for image scanning and manipulation. Two sets of optical levers, typically composed of a laser and a quadrant photodiode, are arranged on two vertical planes and used to detect actions of cantilevers during the manipulation, as shown in Fig. 1. This system can be used for high-efficiency parallel nanomanipulation and three-dimensional nanomanipulation.

B. Parallel Manipulation Force Microscopy

The atomic force microscope (AFM) has been widely used to manipulate nanoparticles, nanowires and nanotubes for applications, such as, nano-structure building, nanocharacterization and bio-manipulation. However, conventional AFM-based nanomanipulation is inefficient because of the serial scan-manipulation-scan process involved. In this paper, high-efficiency automated nanomanipulation with the developed parallel imaging/manipulation force microscope (PIMM) is presented. With the PIMM, image scan and nanomanipulation can be performed in parallel through the collaboration between two cantilevers: one cantilever acts as an imaging sensor and the other is used as a manipulating tool. Two automated manipulation schemes were introduced for normal-and high-speed image scanning, respectively. An automated parallel manipulation task is managed by system control software with multi-thread through a procedure of dynamic image processing, task planning, twotip collaboration, and a controlled nanoparticle pushing with the force or amplitude feedback from both the cantilevers. The efficiency of automated parallel nanomanipulation with normal-speed image scanning was validated by building nanoparticle patterns [START_REF] Xie | Parallel imaging/manipulation force microscopy[END_REF].

A parallel manipulation results is shown in Fig. 8. Highspeed image scan is not yet available on the current system. Fig. 8. A parallel imaging/manipulation result with a normal-speed image scan of tip I. (a) Emergences of four particles (with a diameter of 74nm -82nm) on four different dynamic displays, namely, image I to IV. Once one particle has been fully scanned, a corresponding manipulation task will be activated to push it to its destination. (b) A manipulation result. Four nanoparticles were pushed along a line within the frame period of the image scan. The total manipulation time for these four particles was less than one minute, which is much less than the entire imaging time of ten minutes [START_REF] Xie | Parallel imaging/manipulation force microscopy[END_REF].

However, a parallel image/manipulation task was performed with a normal-speed image scan on the PIMM we developed. Manipulation results are shown in Fig. 3, in which four Ag nanoparticles with a diameter of 74 nm-82 nm, emerged on dynamic image I to IV in sequence, were pushed onto the image midline during the image scan. In the experiment, the frame period was about ten minutes. In contrast, the total manipulation time of these four nanoparticles was less than one minute with a pushing velocity of about 300 nm/s. These results indicate that we can complete a more complex manipulation task during the image scanning thread to greatly increase the efficiency of the AFM-based nanomanipulation and making mass production feasible.

C. 3-D Nanomanipulation and Nanoassembly

Applications of the conventional atomic force microscope (AFM) succeeded in manipulating nanoparticles, nanowires or nanotubes by widely used pushing or pulling operations on a single plane. However, pick-and-place nanomanipulation is still a challenge in the air. In this paper, a modified twotip AFM (seen in Fig. 7), called three-dimensional (3D) manipulation force microscope (3DMFM) was developed, aiming to achieve the pick-and-place in the air. This system mainly consists of two microcantilevers and each is quipped with a nanopositioning device and an optical lever, constructing a nanotweezer with capabilities of picking and releasing nanoobjects with force sensing. Before the 3D manipulation, one of the cantilevers is employed to position nanoobjects and locate the tip of another cantilever by image scanning, then these two cantilevers fit together as a nanotweezer to grasp, transport and place the nanoobjects with real-time force sensing. In pick-and-place experiments, silicon nanowires (SiNMs) with different diameters were manipulated and 3D nanowire crosses were achieved [START_REF] Xie | A versatile atomic force microscope for 3D nanomanipulation[END_REF]. 3D nanomanipulation and nanoassembly in the air could become feasible through the newly developed 3DMFM.

Figures 9 exhibits the 3D manipulation of the SiNWs with a diameter of 25 nm (top) ∼ 200 nm (root). A scanned image 9 µm × 9 µm is shown in Fig. 9 (a), which includes the topographic image of several nanowires, and of course also involves the local image of Tip II (see the insert). A Grasping location of the nanowire are marked with a short green line A-A, where the nanowire has a height of 166 nm, as seen in the top insert. Fig. 9(c) shows the re-scanning image after pick-and-place manipulation. It can be found that the nanowire has been successfully transported and placed onto another nanowire to build a nanocross. A full force curve was recorded from the force response on Tip II, as shown in Fig. 9 (b). The force curve exhibits four steps, including grasping, picking up, transporting and placing.

Another type of cone-shaped SiNWs with diameters of 15 nm (top)∼ 70 nm (root) were manipulated as seen in Fig. 10. After image scan shown in Fig. 10 (a), three silicon nanowires were selected and the manipulation locations were placed near the top, the root and on the middle part of the SiNWs, marked by short green lines B-B, C-C and D-D, respectively. The SiNWs heights on these locations are 46 nm, 66nm and 58 nm, respectively. In the first grasping on the location B-B, after successful contact detection on Tip II, as Tip I approach the nanowire to form a nanotweezer, the "dig into" response did not occur, that meant the first silicon nanowire could not be picked up but be pushed by Tip I, which is verified on the Fig. 10 (b). On the second manipulation location C-C, the 3DMFM succeeded in pickand-place manipulation and building a nanocross.

IV. CONCLUSION

Researches on micro/nanorobotics at two institutes FEMTO-ST and ISIR, as French representatives in the field of micro/nanorobotics, have been introduced. In the field of microrobotics, concerning system design and building, manipulation principle and strategies, force sensing and control, and manipulation results, research activities at both institutes have been presented. For nanomanipulation, present work at ISIR, including parallel nanomanipulation and threedimensional nanomanipualtion and nanoassembly, have been briefly presented.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Microhandling strategies. (a) Handling by submerged ice [25]. (b)Dielectrophresesis release[START_REF] Gauthier | Submerged Robotic Micromanipulation and Dielectrophoretic Micro-object Release[END_REF]. (c) Manipulation with tweezer[START_REF] Hériban | Robotic Micro-assembly of Microparts Using a Piezogripper[END_REF]

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Assembly of an optical microbenches at FEMTO-ST. (a) Microassembly system configuration. (b) Micromachined rail. (c) Manipulation result.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Example of a microassembly done with a robotic platform of FEMTO-ST. (a) Micro-object on the substrate. (b) Assembly of 2 microojects. (c) Assembled microobjects.

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Assembly results. (a)C(c) show three images intercepted from assembly process of the first layer of the micropyramids. (d)C(f) depict assembly process of the second layer of the micropyramids. The images (a)C(f) are captured under magnification of 20 µm. (g) The 3D microassembly results under magnification of 100×, in which the scale bar represents 5 µm [31].

Fig. 7 .

 7 Photodiode I

Fig. 9 .Fig. 10 .

 910 Fig. 9. Building a nanocross using SiNWs with diameters of 25 nm (top) ∼ 200nm (root). (a) A pre-scanned image. (b) A full force curve on Tip II. Inserts show the zoom topography of Tip II and height information at A-A. (c) A post-manipulation image shows that a nanocross has been built [34].100 nm