Yohana Lévêque

E Glenn Schellenberg

Lesly Fornoni

Patrick Bouchet

Anne Caclin

Barbara Tillmann

Yohana Lévêque

Yohanna Lévêque

Isabelle Peretz

Yohana Leveque
email: yohana.leveque@inserm.fr

Individuals with congenital amusia remember music they like

Keywords: music, amusia, recognition, memory, emotion

niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Individuals with Congenital Amusia Remember Music They Like

Although associations between emotion and memory have been studied for more than a century (e.g., [START_REF] Tait | The effect of psycho-physical attitudes on memory[END_REF], numerous questions remain regarding the mechanisms underlying their reciprocal influences. It is well established that emotional events are better remembered than non-emotional events across different modalities and stimulus types (see [START_REF] Bennion | Oversimplification in the Study of Emotional Memory[END_REF]Talmi, 2013, for reviews;and also LaBar & Cabeza, 2006, for a review of brain correlates supporting emotional memory). Musical stimuli are particularly useful for this type of research because of their potential to engage cognitive resources (e.g., [START_REF] Krumhansl | Cognitive foundations of musical pitch[END_REF][START_REF] Tillmann | Music and language perception: Expectations, structural integration and cognitive sequencing[END_REF], and their ability to evoke complex emotional responses (e.g., [START_REF] Hunter | Mixed affective responses to music with conflicting cues[END_REF], seemingly without effort.

The effect of emotion on memory appears to be mediated by arousal and valence. For example, high-arousing musical stimuli are likely to boost attention, which facilitates information processing and encoding (e.g., [START_REF] Eschrich | Remember Bach: An investigation in episodic memory for music[END_REF][START_REF] Samson | Emotional Power of Music in Patients with Memory Disorders[END_REF], and positively valenced music is recognized better than negatively valenced music [START_REF] Eschrich | Unforgettable film music: The role of emotion in episodic long-term memory for music[END_REF]. Nevertheless, controlling the number of musical events negates the arousal effect on memory for happy music in comparison to neutral and sad music, and valence cannot explain enhanced memory for fearful excerpts over sad ones after accounting for arousal [START_REF] Aubé | The effects of emotion on memory for music and vocalisations[END_REF]. In short, associations between emotions and memory for music are not reducible to effects of arousal and/or valence. Indeed, the full emotional experience of music listening cannot be explained solely by stimulus-dependent features, including but not limited to arousal and valence [START_REF] Cowen | What music makes us feel: At least 13 dimensions organize subjective experiences associated with music across different cultures[END_REF]. Emotional responses to music are personal and subjective, and these listener-dependent processes might also influence memory. Such subjective influences are evident not only in the music domain [START_REF] Ferreri | Memory modulations through musical pleasure[END_REF], but also in the marketing domain, when advertisements that are liked lead to increased recall, recognition, or purchases [START_REF] Thorson | Effects of Over-Time Measures of Viewer Liking and Activity During Programs and Commercials on Memory For Commercials[END_REF][START_REF] Youn | Commercial Liking and Memory: Moderating Effects of Product Categories[END_REF].

In one study [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF], participants listened to a set of unfamiliar excerpts of music and rated how much they liked each excerpt. After a delay, they heard the same excerpts again, intermixed with foils, and judged whether each excerpt was presented in the liking phase. Participants recognized better the excerpts they liked initially compared to those they had disliked or felt neutral about. In follow-up experiments, other extraneous factors were controlled (e.g., order of liking and recognition judgments, familiarity with the music), yet the observed association was replicated in all instances. Moreover, in another study [START_REF] Ferreri | Music-related reward responses predict episodic memory performance[END_REF], participants heard a set of musical excerpts and rated how rewarding each excerpt was. One day later, excerpts that were previously experienced as more rewarding were also better recognized and remembered.

Associations between emotions and memory for music have also been reported for patients with pathologies that include impaired memory. In Alzheimer's Disease (AD), for example, higher levels of familiarity are observed for happy-than for sad-sounding music after eight sessions of exposure to the stimuli [START_REF] Samson | Emotional Power of Music in Patients with Memory Disorders[END_REF], indicating an improvement of episodic memory due to the presence of positive emotion at encoding. Music also enhances recall of autobiographical memories for patients with AD [START_REF] El Haj | Music enhances autobiographical memory in mild Alzheimer's disease[END_REF], particularly when the participants can select music they like. Although music recognition declines in healthy aging, emotions continue to benefit music recognition, as they do for younger listeners [START_REF] Alonso | Emotional memory for musical excerpts in young and older adults[END_REF].

In the present study, we investigated whether associations between emotion and memory for music remain evident when the ability to process and memorize music is selectively impaired. Congenital amusia is characterized by poor performance in discriminating tones and musical excerpts, and in particular by poor memory for music, even though general cognitive abilities (including verbal memory) are intact and the disorder cannot be attributed to hearing impairment or cerebral damage [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF]Peretz & Hyde, 2003;[START_REF] Tillmann | Impaired short-term memory for pitch in congenital amusia[END_REF]. Although impaired short-term memory for music and other nonverbal sounds (i.e., timbre) has been observed for individuals with congenital amusia in numerous studies (e.g., [START_REF] Tillmann | Congenital amusia: A short-term memory deficit for non-verbal, but not verbal sounds[END_REF]Williamson & Stewart, 2010;see Tillmann et al., 2016 for a review), far fewer studies have examined long-term memory. Congenital amusics recognize familiar songs (without lyrics) above chance levels, but their performance is impaired relative to controls (open-set naming in [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF] closed-set naming in [START_REF] Graves | Short-and long-term memory for pitch and non-pitch contours: Insights from congenital amusia[END_REF]. Specifically, compared to controls, the ability of amusic participants to identify a familiar melody based on its pitch contour is impaired, as is recognition based on brightness or loudness contours [START_REF] Graves | Short-and long-term memory for pitch and non-pitch contours: Insights from congenital amusia[END_REF]. In other words, mental representations of musical features seem to be impaired in congenital amusics' long-term memory, which could lead to impairments in melodic familiarity and recognition when participants are asked to make old-new judgments [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF]. Congenital amusic individuals also perform poorly on the Incidental Memory subtest from the Montreal Battery of Evaluation of Amusia (MBEA; e.g., [START_REF] Peretz | Varieties of Musical Disorders[END_REF][START_REF] Jiang | Difficulties with pitch discrimination influences pitch memory performance: evidence from congenital amusia[END_REF]Leveque et al., 2018), which tests recognition of computer-generated melodies that were heard five times previously.

Despite having impaired long-term memory for music, congenital amusics exhibit feelings of familiarity for instrumental music that are similar to those of controls when evaluated with a less direct (i.e., implicit) approach [START_REF] Tillmann | Musical familiarity in congenital amusia: Evidence from a gating paradigm[END_REF], which suggests that some aspects of musical information have been stored in memory. Thus, congenital amusics' long-term memory appears to retain a musical lexicon, even though it may be deficient or difficult to access. For example, amusic individuals take longer than controls to respond when they are asked to provide familiarity judgements [START_REF] Tillmann | Musical familiarity in congenital amusia: Evidence from a gating paradigm[END_REF].

Previous research that investigated musical emotions in congenital amusia reports equivocal findings. According to two surveys [START_REF] Mcdonald | Uses and functions of music in congenital amusia[END_REF][START_REF] Omigie | The experience of music in congenital amusia[END_REF], approximatively half of amusic participants reported not liking music and/or feeling few emotions when listening to music (see also [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Peretz | Congenital Amusia: A Disorder of Fine-Grained Pitch Discrimination[END_REF].

Nevertheless, some experimental studies found no differences between amusic and control participants in their ability to recognize emotions in music [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Gosselin | Sensitivity to musical emotions in congenital amusia[END_REF][START_REF] Jiang | Sensitivity to musical emotion is influenced by tonal structure in congenital amusia[END_REF] or in speech prosody [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Hutchins | Identification of Changes along a Continuum of Speech Intonation is Impaired in Congenital Amusia[END_REF]. In one instance (Leveque et al., 2018), amusics had impaired recognition of specific emotions expressed by music, even though they were similar to controls when asked to evaluate emotional intensity. This type of result across tasks was also observed for judgments of emotions in speech prosody [START_REF] Pralus | Emotional prosody in congenital amusia: Impaired and spared processes[END_REF].

In short, although amusics' performance on music perception and cognition tasks is impaired, their musical feelings in daily life and emotional judgments of musical excerpts may be preserved (Leveque et al., 2018;[START_REF] Mcdonald | Uses and functions of music in congenital amusia[END_REF]. This hypothesis is consistent with previous reports showing that a brain-damaged (acquired) amusic patient (I.R.) experiences musical emotions and provides normal emotional judgments for musical excerpts, even though she cannot discriminate the same excerpts or identify well-known excerpts, or detect an obvious melodic error (Peretz et al., 1998a;Peretz & Gagnon,1999). Other individuals show the opposite pattern, with intact music-cognition skills but impaired emotional responding to music, as in congenital or acquired anhedonia (e.g., [START_REF] Mas-Herrero | Dissociation between musical and monetary reward responses in specific musical anhedonia[END_REF][START_REF] Satoh | Musical anhedonia: Selective loss of emotional experience in listening to music[END_REF]. Additional evidence of partial independence between music cognition and emotion comes from the general populations, whose music-discrimination skills correlate weakly with their emotion-perception abilities (Fuentes-Sanchez et al., 2021).

Moreover, performance on music-perception tasks is often correlated positively with music training (for review see [START_REF] Schellenberg | Music and cognitive abilities[END_REF], whereas performance on tasks that measure emotional responding, such as ratings of tension or emotionality of music, as well as physiological measurements of emotion responding, can be independent of training (e.g., [START_REF] Steinbeis | The role of harmonic expectancy violations in musical emotions: Evidence from subjective, physiological, and neural responses[END_REF].

In the present study, we tested the hypothesis that liking music-an emotional evaluation-influences memory for music. Liking might boost subsequent recognition because of greater activation of the reward system, in congenital-amusic participants as well as controls [START_REF] Ferreri | Memory modulations through musical pleasure[END_REF][START_REF] Miendlarzewska | Influence of reward motivation on human declarative memory[END_REF]. The potential benefit of liking on memory has parallels with previously observed benefits of tonal structures, which improve musical memory in congenital amusia [START_REF] Albouy | Does tonality boost short-term memory in congenital amusia?[END_REF]Leveque et al., 2022). Amusics' memory traces for music, which fade easily due to memory load, interference, or time (e.g, Williamson et al., 2010;Williamson & Stewart, 2010;[START_REF] Gosselin | Impaired memory for pitch in congenital amusia[END_REF], could be enhanced by beneficial influences of other features, such as liking and tonality. Musical memory might thus benefit from its interaction with other functional networks, such as those underlying emotions or implicit knowledge of musical structure (tonality). For instance, joyful music improves visual attention in congenital amusia [START_REF] Fernandez | Influence of Background Musical Emotions on Attention in Congenital Amusia[END_REF], which suggests a potential influence of musical emotions on cognition.

Our goals were to evaluate (1) congenital amusics' ability to recognize a musical excerpt heard in a preceding experimental phase, and (2) the potential benefit of liking on musical long-term memory. As in [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF], the procedure had an initial experimental phase in which participants made liking ratings for musical excerpts, followed by a second experimental phase that asked for recognition ratings. To our knowledge, ours is the first study to examine associations between liking (or personal preference) and memory for music in congenital amusia using this type of experimental paradigm. The musical stimuli were unfamiliar but excerpted from real-world musical recordings. Instead of encoding one melody and intentionally keeping it in memory for a couple of seconds (as in a same/different task emphasizing short-term memory, see Tillmann et al., 2016 for a review), memory was tested across two experimental phases, with excerpts potentially encoded unintentionally in long-term memory during the first phase, when participants provided liking judgements. Incidental encoding was chosen to keep in line with the protocol of [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF], and because implicit processing mechanisms seem to be better preserved in amusia than explicit, conscious mechanisms (e.g., [START_REF] Omigie | The experience of music in congenital amusia[END_REF][START_REF] Tillmann | Music and language perception: Expectations, structural integration and cognitive sequencing[END_REF]. It also has the advantage of reflecting ecological listening conditions, when musical memories are created by mere exposure.

We predicted that overall music recognition would be lower for amusic participants compared to controls, based on their impaired long-term memory for melodies [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF]Peretz et al., 2003). A second, novel prediction was that amusics would better recognize music they liked, demonstrating an influence of personal musical appreciation on memory, even in individuals with musical impairments. This second prediction was motivated by amusics' preserved ability to perceive emotional intensity in music (Leveque et al., 2018), and from prosodic cues in speech [START_REF] Pralus | Emotional prosody in congenital amusia: Impaired and spared processes[END_REF].

Method

Participants

Eleven amusic participants (7 women) and 12 control participants (8 women) provided written informed consent to participate in the study. All participants received token remuneration. One control participant was excluded because of a difference between recognition scores for old and new excerpts (indicating successful recognition) that was more than two SDs below the average of the control group, and lower than any score in the amusic group. Thus, the final sample comprised 11 participants in both groups. As shown in Table 1, the two groups did not differ significantly in terms of age, education, and music training.

Mean MBEA scores are presented in Table 1. As expected, amusic participants had lower scores than controls on all MBEA subtests evaluating pitch perception, as reflected in the composite "MBEA Pitch" score [START_REF] Mcdonald | Uses and functions of music in congenital amusia[END_REF], as well as in the incidental memory subtest. This last subtest-the only test involving long-term memory and implicit encoding in the MBEA-evaluates recognition of melodic sequences that were heard in the preceding subtests. As shown in Table 1, the amusic group also had a higher (worse) mean Pitch Discrimination Threshold (PDT) and a lower Musical Emotion score (see below for details).

Materials and stimuli

Participants were first tested in a separate session with an audiometry, the MBEA with its six subtests (Peretz et al., 2003), and an adaptive pitch-discrimination threshold (PDT) test (two-down/one-up staircase procedure, following [START_REF] Tillmann | Congenital amusia: A short-term memory deficit for non-verbal, but not verbal sounds[END_REF]. The audiometry revealed normal peripheral hearing in all participants (loss < 25dB at 250, 500, 1000, 2000, 4000, 6000 et 8000 Hz in either ear). To be classified as amusic, participants had to obtain an average score on the MBEA at least two SDs below norms (i.e., a cut-off score of 23, maximum score = 30; Peretz et al., 2003).

Prior to the experimental session and as part of the general screening procedure, participants completed a questionnaire about their musical experiences and their relationship with music. This questionnaire, also used in Leveque et al. (2018), was based on others used previously [START_REF] Mcdonald | Uses and functions of music in congenital amusia[END_REF][START_REF] Peretz | The amusic brain: In tune, out of key, and unaware[END_REF][START_REF] Sloboda | Quantifying tone deafness in the general population[END_REF]. Among more than 90 questions, 14 asked about personal experiences of musical emotions (9 positive, 5 negative; e.g., Certain music can sometimes motivate or excite me). On a scale from 1 to 5, participants indicated their agreement with each statement (1: Completely disagree, 5:

Completely agree). One amusic and two control participants did not fill out the questionnaire.

Following Leveque et al. (2018), the ratings of the 14 "emotion" items were averaged for each participant (reverse coding negative items) to compute a Musical-Emotion score (see Table 1). Higher scores indicated stronger emotional reactivity to music.

The experimental stimuli were 48 music excerpts, with 32 taken from [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF], which came originally from [START_REF] Hunter | Mixed affective responses to music with conflicting cues[END_REF]. We added 16 new excerpts because informal pilot testing suggested that 16 of the 48 excerpts used by [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF] were at risk of being recognized by our French participants. These were thus replaced by lesser-known excerpts, according to the same design constraints regarding style, mode, tempo, length, and instrumentation. All excerpts were taken from commercial recordings (see [START_REF] Hunter | Mixed affective responses to music with conflicting cues[END_REF] Appendix for the 16 new excerpts). All had a duration of 15 s and were instrumental (i.e., without vocals), encompassing a wide variety of musical genres. Excerpts were paired by composer/artist or genre and by valence and arousal, so that we could form two stimulus lists (List A and List B), both with 24 excerpts with one from each pair in each list, such that valence and arousal were counterbalanced. In both lists, 6 excerpts were happy sounding (fast tempo, major mode), 6 were sad (slow and minor) and 12 were mixed (fast and minor, or slow and major).

Presentation software (Neurobehavioral systems, Albany, CA, USA) was used to present the stimulus excerpts and record responses.

Procedure

The experiment took place in a sound-attenuating booth. The testing session included two phases: an exposure phase when participants listened to target musical excerpts and provided a liking rating for each excerpt, and a test phase when participants listened to target and foil musical excerpts and provided a recognition rating for each one.

In the initial exposure phase, participants listened to 24 15-s excerpts (List A or List B). After each, they provided a subjective liking rating using a scale from 1 (dislike a lot) to 5 (like a lot). Presentation of the 24 trials was self-paced. The presentation of list A or list B was counterbalanced, with trials in a different random order for each participant. Participants were unaware that their recognition would be tested subsequently. A delay of 5 to 10 min followed, when participants filled out a demographic questionnaire. For a subset of participants (5 from the amusic group, 8 from the control group), we also asked whether they knew any of the music excerpts. If they answered positively, we asked them to provide details about the "recognized" pieces. Most responses (8 of 13) suggested no recognition at all or were vague (e.g., I think I recognized some classical music; sounds familiar). No artist, composer, or title of the musical piece was identified, except for one artist who was identified by one control participant.

In the subsequent test phase, participants heard all 48 musical excerpts (24 old, 24 new) presented in a different random order for each participant. For each, they rated how confident they were that they heard the excerpt in the exposure phase, using a scale from 1 (sure I heard it) to 7 (sure I did not hear it).

Results

Recognition Ratings

Recognition ratings were averaged for each participant, separately for old and new musical excerpts. Preliminary analyses revealed no main effect of list (A or B) on recognition ratings and no interactions involving list and liking or group. List was not considered further.

Data are illustrated in Figure 1 (response frequencies) and Figure 2 (mean comparisons). Both groups were above chance level, as measured by a paired t-test comparing "old" and "new" ratings (Controls: t(10) = 16.27, p <.001; Amusics: t(10) = 7.36, p <.001). A mixed-design Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), with excerpt type (old or new) as a repeated measure and group (amusic or control) as a between-subjects factor, revealed no main effect of group, F < 1. There was a significant main effect of excerpt type, F(1, 20) = 227.22, p < .001, partial  2 = .919, which was qualified by a two-way interaction with group, F(1, 20) = 7.58, p = .012, partial  2 = .275. The difference between old and new ratings was smaller for amusics than for controls, confirming impaired recognition for amusics, as predicted (see Figure 2). More detailed analyses identified that old ratings (i.e., correct recognition) were higher for controls than amusics, p = .045, but there was no group difference for new ratings (i.e., incorrect recognition or false alarms), p = .140 (see Figure 2).

Liking and Recognition

As in [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF], liking ratings for the 24 excerpts heard in the first phase were divided into three categories. Excerpts were considered "disliked" if they were rated 1 or 2, "neutral" if rated 3, and "liked" if rated 4 or 5. The number of liking ratings in each category could thus vary from participant to participant depending on how much they appreciated the musical stimuli. For example, some participants may have disliked 6 out of the 24 excerpts in the liking phase, whereas others may have disliked 8. Response proportions are provided in Table 2. Every participant liked, disliked, or felt neutral about some excerpts.

Recognition ratings were averaged separately for liked, neutral, and disliked excerpts.

Descriptive statistics are illustrated in Figure 3. A mixed-design ANOVA with liking as a within-subject factor (liked, neutral, disliked) and group as a between-subjects factor (amusic, control) revealed a main effect of liking, F(2, 40) = 13.47, p < .001, partial  2 = .402, but no main effect of group, p = .097, and no interaction between liking and group, p = .408. In other words, the liking effect on recognition did not differ significantly between amusics and controls. As in [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF], Bonferroni-corrected pairwise comparisons confirmed that liked excerpts were recognized better than neutral and disliked excerpts, ps ≤ .001, which did not differ, p = .882.

A final analysis used Bayesian statistics (JASP 0.16.3, JASP Team, 2022, default priors) to examine further the null group effect (i.e., no interaction between liking and group), and whether it was likely to be a Type II error. For each participant, a liking effect score was calculated as the difference between recognition ratings for liked and disliked excerpts. A Bayesian independent-samples t-test asked whether the observed data were more likely under the alternative (control > amusic) or null (control = amusic) hypotheses. The results revealed that the data were 5.2 times more likely under the null hypothesis, which provided substantial support for the null two-way interaction between group and liking reported above.

Correlations: Recognition, Liking, and Musical Ability

The next set of analyses determined whether recognition accuracy and the association between recognition accuracy and liking could be predicted by other musical abilities.

Recognition accuracy was calculated as the difference between old and new recognition ratings. Recognition accuracy and the liking effect were not correlated significantly, r = -.260, N = 22, p = .243.

Correlations with PDT, Musical Emotions, and MBEA scores (MBEA Global, Pitch, and Incidental Memory) are provided in Table 3. For both groups considered jointly, significant positive correlations with recognition accuracy were observed for MBEA Global, Pitch, and Incidental Memory scores. By contrast, the liking effect was associated negatively with only one variable, Emotional Responding, but this correlation was influenced by a single amusic outlier who had a high liking-effect score and a low musical-emotion score (see Figure A in supplemental material). Removing this participant made the correlation nonsignificant, r = -.271, N = 21, p = .277. Correlations conducted separately for the two groups are also provided in Table 3, but should be interpreted with caution because of the small sample sizes.

Discussion

The present study investigated recognition memory and its association with liking in a sample of individuals with congenital amusia, using a two-phase recognition paradigm and ecologically valid musical material. Our findings revealed impaired long-term musical memory in the amusic group compared to the control group, as predicted. We also observed a liking effect on music recognition that was similar for amusics and controls. This effect, which was demonstrated previously in a sample of undergraduates with various musical backgrounds [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF], is notable for being evident in a sample of participants with very little musical training, and even more remarkable for being evident among amusic participants. In short, favorable emotional responding improves nonmusicians' as well as amusics' memory for music, despite their impairments in pitch processing and music recognition.

Musical Memory in Congenital Amusia

Evidence of amusics' deficits in musical short-term memory comes from behavioral and neuroimaging studies (see [START_REF] Tillmann | Impaired short-term memory for pitch in congenital amusia[END_REF], for a review), which typically use same/different discrimination tasks, such that standard and comparison stimuli are separated by a few seconds. Poor performance on these tasks appears to be rooted in an impaired, primarily right-hemisphere, fronto-temporal network (e.g., [START_REF] Albouy | Impaired pitch perception and memory in congenital amusia: The deficit starts in the auditory cortex[END_REF]. When the to-be-remembered material involves pitch variations, encoding, retention, and retrieval processes-all of which are involved in short-term memory-are affected. In the present study, we examined music recognition across two experimental phases, such that the focus was on long-term rather than short-term memory.

In congenital amusia, frequent complaints from affected individuals indicate that they cannot recognize popular songs without lyrics. Such anecdotes are consistent with findings from laboratory-based studies. Although performance is above chance levels, amusics do poorly compared to controls in naming songs or judging their familiarity when the stimuli are well-known tunes presented without lyrics [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Graves | Short-and long-term memory for pitch and non-pitch contours: Insights from congenital amusia[END_REF]. Our results extend these findings by providing experimental evidence of poor long-term memory (compared to controls) for music, using an implicit procedure (no intentional encoding), and unfamiliar, but real-world music. In daily life, the general population is exposed to music frequently and involuntarily (e.g., in films, airplanes or department stores), such that listeners make no effort to remember it. Even infants remember lullabies and their pitch level simply through passive listening [START_REF] Volkova | Infants' memory for musical performances[END_REF]. Adult and adolescent listeners also recognize hits played on the radio, which are initially unfamiliar but subsequently stored in the musical lexicon with remarkable detail, again simply as a consequence of passive listening [START_REF] Schellenberg | Name that tune: Identifying popular recordings from brief excerpts[END_REF]. In fact, listeners with no music training remember melodies heard initially in the lab a full week later [START_REF] Schellenberg | Remembering the melody and timbre, forgetting the key and tempo[END_REF]. Such implicit learning, which is evident in the general population, is altered in amusia [START_REF] Peretz | Statistical learning of speech, not music, in congenital amusia[END_REF]see Omigie & Stewart, 2011, for contrasting data).

Whereas our stimulus excerpts had multiple instruments and harmonic structures (more than one note sounded simultaneously) and a single previous exposure, the incidentalmemory subtest of the MBEA tests long-term memory for piano melodies that are monophonic (one note at a time) and computer-generated. This incidental-memory subtestat the end of the battery-asks listeners whether they recognize melodies that they heard at least four times in the earlier subtests. Poor long-term memory in this final subtest is predicted by poor pitch-based short-term memory in the earlier subtests (Peretz et al., 2003). In the present study, we extended this finding to real-world music heard previously a single time.

Our findings also confirmed associations between poor short-term memory (as quantified by four subtests of the MBEA) and poor recognition performance.

Despite their impairments, amusics in the present study exhibited long-term memory for the real-world musical excerpts after a single exposure, as evidenced by higher recognition ratings for previously heard compared to novel excerpts. Other studies that used real-world musical stimuli have shown that congenital amusics' familiarity judgments do not differ from those of controls [START_REF] Ayotte | Congenital amusiaA group study of adults afflicted with a music-specific disorder[END_REF][START_REF] Tillmann | Musical familiarity in congenital amusia: Evidence from a gating paradigm[END_REF], except that they take longer to respond [START_REF] Tillmann | Musical familiarity in congenital amusia: Evidence from a gating paradigm[END_REF]. Thus, amusia does not prevent participants from developing a musical lexicon or feelings of familiarity, even though explicit memory or a direct link with the title or performer is impaired. Protracted response times [START_REF] Tillmann | Musical familiarity in congenital amusia: Evidence from a gating paradigm[END_REF] could stem from impaired access to the musical lexicon, an impoverished lexicon, and/or a lack of confidence in their abilities (see also [START_REF] Graves | Short-and long-term memory for pitch and non-pitch contours: Insights from congenital amusia[END_REF][START_REF] Omigie | Preserved Statistical Learning of Tonal and Linguistic Material in Congenital Amusia[END_REF]. The distribution of recognition responses in the present study (Figure 1) also suggests more uncertainty in amusics compared to controls, with a greater number of responses of 4 (scale midpoint) for both new and old excerpts.

One limitation of the present study is the small sample size, which restricts generalization of the results, although it is similar to other samples of participants with this rare condition (e.g., [START_REF] Gosselin | Sensitivity to musical emotions in congenital amusia[END_REF][START_REF] Lagrois | The co-occurrence of pitch and rhythm disorders in congenital amusia[END_REF]Williamson et al., 2010;Zendel et al., 2015). Another limitation is that our method does not allow us to distinguish whether amusics' recognition impairment stems from encoding, storage, or retrieval of musical information. Electro-or magnetoencephalography (EEG or MEG, respectively) or fMRI coupled with the present behavioral paradigm, as in studies of short-term memory (e.g., [START_REF] Albouy | Impaired pitch perception and memory in congenital amusia: The deficit starts in the auditory cortex[END_REF]2019), could shed light on this question. [START_REF] Albouy | Impaired pitch perception and memory in congenital amusia: The deficit starts in the auditory cortex[END_REF] demonstrated that musical short-term memory is altered in congenital amusia at the first (encoding) step, with delayed MEG responses in bilateral inferior frontal gyrus (IFG) and superior temporal gyrus (STG). Reduced connectivity within this fronto-temporal network during melodic encoding was subsequently confirmed with fMRI data [START_REF] Albouy | Specialized neural dynamics for verbal and tonal memory: FMRI evidence in congenital amusia[END_REF].

During the retention phase, which involved maintenance of melodic information in short-term memory, additional functional anomalies in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) and posterior parietal cortex were revealed with MEG [START_REF] Albouy | Impaired pitch perception and memory in congenital amusia: The deficit starts in the auditory cortex[END_REF]. The fMRI data further indicated that maintaining melodic information in memory is accompanied by reduced activation in the right auditory cortex, IFG, and DLPFC for amusics compared to controls, along with reduced connectivity between IFG and DLPFC [START_REF] Albouy | Specialized neural dynamics for verbal and tonal memory: FMRI evidence in congenital amusia[END_REF]. These previous results for short-term memory motivate a hypothesis that could be tested in the future: impairments in long-term memory for music among congenital amusics arise initially during the encoding phase, adversely affecting subsequent maintenance and retrieval.

Liking and Memory

Our most important finding was that liking influenced memory in amusic participants, and that this effect was similar to that observed in controls. In fact, the observed data provided support for the null hypothesis (no difference between groups). In absolute terms, liked excerpts were rated, on average, 1.0 point higher than disliked excerpts in the amusic group.

For controls, the difference was 0.6 points.

Our use of two counterbalanced lists of musical stimuli ruled out the possibility that some excerpts were inherently more likeable or memorable, which could have biased responding. Moreover, [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF] confirmed that the effect of liking on memory is not attributable to drawing participants' attention to liking, to familiarity with the musical excerpts, to similarities between the excerpts and the music participants favor, or to superficial processing of excerpts in the exposure phase. Moreover, the beneficial effect of liking does not extend to foils. In other words, previously unheard excerpts are not falsely recognized simply because they are liked [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF]. Thus, emotion (or liking) appears to facilitate the processing of information and/or reinforce encoding, which in turn facilitates memory of the same information [START_REF] Bennion | Oversimplification in the Study of Emotional Memory[END_REF], over the short [START_REF] Murray | The effects of emotion and encoding strategy on associative memory[END_REF] or long [START_REF] Kensinger | Memory enhancement for emotional words: Are emotional words more vividly remembered than neutral words?[END_REF] term. [START_REF] Ferreri | Dopamine modulations of rewarddriven music memory consolidation[END_REF] propose that the link between emotion and memory involves activation of the reward system. Reward responses to music are associated with arousal and emotional modulations generated by the musical features and structures, and extend further to prediction, motivation, and hedonic feelings of the listener [START_REF] Ferreri | Music-related reward responses predict episodic memory performance[END_REF]. Dopamine release, which is associated with reward, improves long-term potentiation in the hippocampus, increasing the capacity to store and consolidate new information in longterm memory [START_REF] Chowdhury | Dopamine Modulates Episodic Memory Persistence in Old Age[END_REF][START_REF] Ripollés | Intrinsically regulated learning is modulated by synaptic dopamine signaling[END_REF]. [START_REF] Ferreri | Music-related reward responses predict episodic memory performance[END_REF] showed that pleasantness ratings predict recollection of musical excerpts 24 hours later, in line with the results of [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF]. They also observed that "wanting" a musical excerpt modulated memory performance. Moreover, personal musical hedonia (a measure of sensitivity to music as a reward) was significantly correlated with memory performance. These results were later extended in a study that included a pharmacological intervention to alter dopamine levels [START_REF] Ferreri | Dopamine modulations of rewarddriven music memory consolidation[END_REF], see also [START_REF] Ferreri | Memory modulations through musical pleasure[END_REF]. By altering reward responses to music listening and measuring their impact on memory, the findings demonstrated that the influence of music on memory can be mediated by dopamine and the brain-reward system. In congenital amusia, it has been previously shown that the emotional content of music influences cognitive processes required in a visual task. Specifically, when amusics judge the direction of an arrow, their performance is influenced to the same extent as controls by the emotional content of music presented in the background [START_REF] Fernandez | Influence of Background Musical Emotions on Attention in Congenital Amusia[END_REF].

Typically, links between liking and memory are studied in the opposite direction, with a two-phase paradigm similar to the one used in the present study, but with liking judgments collected in the second phase. In the first phase, a set of stimuli is presented with a perceptual question, such as estimating the tempo in the case of music. In the second phase, participants provide liking or pleasantness ratings for old (previously exposed) as well as new excerpts.

The resulting mere exposure effect refers to the fact that simple exposure to a neutral stimulus increases liking for it [START_REF] Zajonc | Attitudinal effects of mere exposure[END_REF]; for review see [START_REF] Montoya | A reexamination of the mere exposure effect: The influence of repeated exposure on recognition, familiarity, and liking[END_REF], an effect that has also been reported for music (e.g., [START_REF] Peretz | Exposure effects on music preference and recognition[END_REF][START_REF] Schellenberg | Liking for happy-and sad-sounding music: Effects of exposure[END_REF][START_REF] Szpunar | Liking and memory for musical stimuli as a function of exposure[END_REF]. Such an increase in liking can arise only if participants remember the stimulus, at least implicitly. [START_REF] Zajonc | Attitudinal effects of mere exposure[END_REF] proposes, moreover, that affective responses to a stimulus (e.g., liking) typically precede a cognitive response (e.g., recognition; [START_REF] Montoya | A reexamination of the mere exposure effect: The influence of repeated exposure on recognition, familiarity, and liking[END_REF][START_REF] Moreland | Is stimulus recognition a necessary condition for the occurrence of exposure effects[END_REF].

In the present study, liking music in the exposure phase may have improved encoding and memorization, as evidenced by better recognition in the test phase. Typically, tasks used to evaluate emotional processing are less demanding (relative to attention or working memory tasks) and more global compared to music-related cognitive tasks, which are more analytic (e.g., same/different judgments). Emotional processing (e.g., emotion-intensity judgments, liking judgments, chills) is often assessed with implicit tasks (e.g., no verbal label to be associated with the music) in contrast to assessments of cognitive processing that require identification, discrimination, or judgments of closure. Future research could evaluate cognitive processing and memory in particular, using more implicit judgments (e.g., confidence instead of yes/no recognition) that are as similar as possible to those that index emotion processing. More generally, implicit encoding, as used in the present study, or implicit assessment, as in studies of the mere-exposure effect, could be considered in the design of future investigations.

Another interesting result of the present study was that disliking had no effect on recognition scores. As in [START_REF] Stalinski | Listeners remember music they like[END_REF], disliked and neutral excerpts were recognized similarly. One might question whether our music stimuli were varied enough to evoke strong disliking, yet listeners' use of the entire liking scale suggests otherwise (Figure 1). In one fMRI study, disliked music was not associated with cognitive or affective activations in healthy adults, compared to liked music [START_REF] Pereira | Music and Emotions in the Brain: Familiarity Matters[END_REF]. Rather, liked (but not disliked) music activated regions in the cingulate cortex and frontal lobe, including the motor cortex and Broca's area, regions that are also activated for beautiful visual stimuli [START_REF] Kawabata | Neural Correlates of Beauty[END_REF]. Pleasant (or liked) stimuli would thus be linked to a pattern of memory advantages and cerebral activations that are not observed for unpleasant stimuli.

Conclusion

The present study revealed the potential benefit of liking on musical long-term memory in individuals with congenital amusia. These individuals, who perform poorly at discriminating tones (short-term memory) and remembering musical pieces (long-term memory), showed an enhancement of music recognition due to liking, which was indistinguishable from that observed for controls. Although their capacity to recognize a previously heard musical piece was poorer compared to controls, amusic individuals were nevertheless sensitive to the aesthetic and subjective dimension of the musical experience, which was then shown to support memory processes.

Our results from congenital-amusic participants corroborate the hypothesis that positive emotions have the power to influence memory, even when memory is deficient.

Despite the vulnerability of the memory trace for music in amusia, which is highly sensitive to interference, memory load, or time (e.g., [START_REF] Gosselin | Impaired memory for pitch in congenital amusia[END_REF], Williamson et al., 2010;Williamson & Stewart, 2010), the memory network appears to benefit from connections with other networks: Both liking (as shown here) and tonality [START_REF] Albouy | Impaired pitch perception and memory in congenital amusia: The deficit starts in the auditory cortex[END_REF]Leveque et al., 2022) improve musical memory. These findings, even if limited by the relatively small sample size, contribute to a body of research that reveals distinctions and interrelations between emotional and cognitive processes. Music intrinsically generates emotions and requires structural processing. Further understanding of its effects on brain and behavior could inspire new perspectives for training and rehabilitation, taking advantage of emotions to ameliorate impaired cognitive processes. Zendel, B. R., Lagrois, M. É., Robitaille, N., & Peretz, I. (2015). Attending to pitch information inhibits processing of pitch information: the curious case of amusia. Neuroscience,35(9), 3815-3824. *Data missing for one amusic and two control participants. ^Unequal variances t-test. "Global" is the average of correct answers on all six subtests of the MBEA. "Pitch" corresponds to the average of correct answers on the three pitch subtests of the MBEA.

Journal of

"Rhythm" and "Meter" are subtests 4 and 5. "Incidental Memory" is to the final subtest of the MBEA.

Amusics

DeclarationsFunding:

  BT and AC were supported by a grant from the French National Research Agency of the French Ministry of Research ANR-11-BSH2-001-01. This work was conducted within the framework of the LabEx CeLyA (''Centre Lyonnais d'Acoustique", ANR-10-LABX-0060) and of the LabEx Cortex (''Construction, Cognitive Function and Rehabilitation of the Cortex", ANR-11-LABX-0042) of Université de Lyon, within the program ''Investissements d'avenir" (ANR-16-IDEX-0005) operated by the French National Research Agency (ANR).

Note:

  Bold font indicates a significant correlation, p < .05. * indicates significant correlations after Bonferroni correction lowering the significance threshold to .01. The music-related variables were significantly correlated with each other (rs > .4, ps < .03), except the PDT, which was not significantly correlated with the Musical Emotions score (r = -.31, p = .20), or the Incidental Memory score (r = -.28, p = .21).

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Distribution of recognition scores for "old" (upper panel) and "new" (middle panel)

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Mean recognition scores, averaged by Group and Excerpt type (old or new). Circles

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Mean recognition scores as a function of liking ratings, separately for amusics and

Figure B

 B Figure B Scatterplots illustrating associations between Pitch Discrimination Thresholds

Table 1

 1 Descriptive Statistics (Mean ± SD) and Group Comparisons (t-tests) for Age, Years of Education, Years of Music Training, Pitch Discrimination Threshold (PDT), Musical EmotionScores, and MBEA Scores. The Maximum MBEA Score was 30 (Chance = 15).

Table 2

 2 Percentage of Excerpts in Each Liking Category for Each Group.

		Controls	t-test
	(n = 11)	(n = 11)	p-value
	Age (years)^ 34.1 ± 14.1 30.4 ± 8.0	.457
	Education (years) 15.5 ± 2.2 14.4 ± 2.2	.214
	Music Training (years) 0.27 ± 0.9 0.36 ± 0.8	.806
	PDT (semitones) 0.73 ± 0.5 0.26 ± 0.2	.013
	Musical Emotion score*^ 3.27 ± 0.7 3.95 ± 0.4	.024
	MBEA
	Global 21.1 ± 1.5 26.9 ± 1.7	< .001
	Pitch 19.3 ± 2.5 26.6 ± 2.3	< .001
	Rhythm 24.3 ± 3.8 26.8 ± 2.7	.092
	Meter 21.3 ± 3.1 26.3 ± 3.0	<.001
	Incidental Memory 23.1 ± 3.1 28.6 ± 1.1	< .001

Table 3

 3 Pearson Correlations Between Outcome Variables (Recognition Accuracy, Liking Effect) andOther For All Participants (N = 22) and For Both Groups Separately (ns = 11).

		Recognition Accuracy		Liking Effect
		All	Amusics Controls	All	Amusics Controls
	PDT	-.011	.341	.540	.081	-.148	.043
	Musical Emotions	.390	.177	.179	-.501	-.380	-.321
	MBEA
	Global	.569*	.617	-.181	-.321	-.104	-.118
	Pitch	.517	.245	.026	-.414	-.419	-.163
	Incidental Memory	.584*	.510	-.389	-.175	.252	-.297

Availability of data, materials and code: Readers seeking access to the data, materials or code should contact the corresponding author Yohana Lévêque, at the Lyon Neuroscience Research Center. Access will be granted to named individuals for research projects or metaanalyses.

Conflicts of interest/Competing interests:

The Authors have nothing to declare.

Ethics approval:

The study was approved by a regional ethics committee (CPP Sud-Est IV) Consent to participate: Informed consent was obtained from all individual participants included in the study.

Consent for publication:

All authors consent to the publication of the manuscript. (Stalinski & Schellenberg, 2012, see Hunter et al., 2008, for more information):

Appendix

-Chopin: Etude in G major and Valse n14 in E minor