Andreas Moeller
email: moeller@uni.leuphana.de

Arno Rolf

IT Support for Sustainable Development in Organizations

Keywords: Communicative Action, Systemic Mechanisms, Communication, Conversation, Generalized Action Orientation, Lifeworld

This contribution is based on Habermas' theory of communicative action and his distinction between lifeworld and social subsystems like the economy, science and public administration. This distinction does not only help in understanding the role of generalized action orientations and symbolic mechanisms in social subsystems, one important conclusion is that evolution and transition of orientations and mechanisms require communication and discourse: communication about problems, about problematic orientations, new ways and mutual insights etc. IT support in this regard (conversation support) plays a completely different role than "normal" information systems that are aimed at the stabilization of established orientations (like in economy profit maximization in combination with Taylor's efficiency thinking). This allows discussion of different IT solutions with respect to their capabilities supporting the transition phase of sustainable development, as well as their contributions to modified or new generalized action orientations: environmental management information systems (EMIS), specialized modeling tools (e.g. life cycle assessment tools) but also all-purpose tools such as Excel, Email and web-based social networks.

Introduction

IT support for sustainability has been in discussion for more than fifteen years now. Many new approaches have been presented; prototypes and software tools demonstrated that, in principle, effective support for more sustainability in organizations, in particular in companies, is possible. Good examples in this regard are software tools for life cycle assessment [START_REF]International Standardisation Organisation: Environemental Management -Life Cycle Assessment -Principles and Framework[END_REF][START_REF]Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment -Operational Guide to the ISO Standards[END_REF]. The implementations of which are used in several companies and associations. They help to perform life cycle assessments as well as material and energy flow based cost accountings [START_REF] Möller | Grundlagen stoffstrombasierter betrieblicher Umweltinformationssysteme[END_REF]. Research projects addressed the question of how to combine the new concepts with standard software systems in companies, in particular enterprise resource planning systems (ERP systems): Interfaces, additional data fields within the ERP system, required reporting components etc. [START_REF] Page | Environmental Informatics -Methods, Tools and Applications in Environmental Information Processing[END_REF][START_REF]PAS 1025: Austausch umweltrelevanter Daten zwischen ERP-Systemen und betrieblichen Umweltinformationssystemen[END_REF][START_REF] Isenmann | Using Internet Technologies and Services for Sustainability Reporting: Research Initiative, Agenda, Early Results[END_REF][START_REF] Wohlgemuth | Analyse umweltrelevanter Daten in SAP und Implementierung einer Beispielanwendung zum Datenaustausch mit betrieblichen Umweltinformationssystemen (BUIS)[END_REF].

However, the success of all these efforts was limited since life cycle assessment tools are in use in only a very small percentage of companies. Effective and fully integrated support for corporate sustainability in ERP systems is still not available [START_REF] Funk | Integration von ERP-und Umweltinformationssystemen -Status quo, Perspektiven und Anwendungsfelder[END_REF][START_REF] Funk | Integration of Environmental Management Information Systems and ERP Systems using Integration Platforms[END_REF]. Companies use the new approaches mainly for the purpose of cost cutting. In this contribution we discuss the reasons for this. To do this we apply Habermas' communication theory [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF][START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF]. Habermas introduced the concept of lifeworld and social subsystems such as public administration, economics, science etc. We will show that software support is mainly developed to support these social subsystems. This kind of software is called management information system or decision support system [START_REF] French | Decision Support Systems[END_REF]. The social subsystems have established their own specific generalized action orientations (like value creation in economics) and systemic mechanisms. With respect to sustainable development, new concepts supporting sustainability can stay in conflict with these generalized action orientations so that they cannot be applied in practice. These theories might allow us to formulate ways to overcome these problems.

IT Based Decision Support

As mentioned above, computers should mainly support action in social subsystems. Because of this, researchers and software developers adopt the generalized action orientations of these subsystems. For example, in economics, managers are treated as the most important functional units. They are decision makers and need all relevant information to come to an optimal decision. Accordingly, the software solutions are called decision support systems or management information systems. With regard to environmental protection and sustainability, generalized action orientations of economy are the starting point, too. The corresponding software solutions are called environmental management information systems ((EMIS) [START_REF] Page | Environmental Informatics -Methods, Tools and Applications in Environmental Information Processing[END_REF][START_REF] Rautenstrauch | Betriebliche Umweltinformationssysteme -Grundlagen, Konzepte und Systeme[END_REF]. These systems are motivated by the idea that in order for managers to find the optimal solutions including aspects of environmental protection and sustainable development they require certain information which is provided by these information systems.

One of the first approaches for better decision support was the period-oriented input/output eco-balance [START_REF] Möller | Grundlagen stoffstrombasierter betrieblicher Umweltinformationssysteme[END_REF]. This type of eco-balance shows all input and output material and energy flows for one year. The problem with this concept is that it is not compatible with conventional approaches, in particular cost accounting. Cost accounting can be interpreted as a conclusion of Taylor's philosophy of efficiency: The main purpose of scientific management, and therefore of appropriate management information systems, is to increase efficiency. In the introduction of his book Taylor quotes the former US president Roosevelt: "The conservation of our national resources is only preliminary to the larger question of national efficiency" [START_REF] Taylor | The Principles of Scientific Management[END_REF].

Efficiency can be defined as a relationship between the positive outcomes of a process and the required effort to generate these outcomes. A typical form of efficiency is a ratio. The enumerator represents the outcomes, e.g. in terms of revenues for sold products, the denominator the effort. The effort can be quantified by costs [START_REF] Beattie | The Economics of Production[END_REF]. However, other quantifications can be applied. Here, life cycle assessment and in particular eco-efficiency approaches, come into play, e.g. contributions to climate change or cumulative energy demand [START_REF] Huppes | Why Eco-Efficiency[END_REF][START_REF] Huppes | A Framework for Quantified Eco-Efficiency Analysis[END_REF]. In other words: Life cycle assessment is the basic concept used to calculate the denominator of eco-efficiency ratios. Accordingly, ISO 14040 defines LCA as a "compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a products system throughout its life cycle" [START_REF]International Standardisation Organisation: Environemental Management -Life Cycle Assessment -Principles and Framework[END_REF][START_REF]Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment -Operational Guide to the ISO Standards[END_REF]. LCA does not comprise all flows of a material and energy flow system, e .g. a company or supply chain; all flows must be related to a product or service [START_REF] Berlin | Opportunity cost principles for life cycle assessment: toward strategic decision making in agriculture[END_REF][START_REF] Frankl | Life Cycle Assessment in Industry and Business -Adoption Patterns, Applications and Implications[END_REF]. This clarifies the intended application context of life cycle assessment. It is designed as a decision support instrument: "A decision-maker uses LCA for generating information on the environmental implications of products. For this purpose a model is set up covering the material and energy flows attributed to a product and their evaluation in view of their environmental impact" [START_REF] Werner | Ambiguities in Decision-oriented Life Cycle Inventories[END_REF].

Although eco-efficiency is compatible with Taylor's philosophy of efficiency on a formal level, eco-efficiency is not a very successful concept in practice. Taylor's interpretation of efficiency is linked to another important (or the most important) action orientation in economics: profit maximization or value creation. We have, thus, two slightly different interpretations (or dimensions) of efficiency: On the one hand efficiency of a sustainable society that tries to avoid inadvertent damages to its natural environment and, on the other hand, an interpretation of efficiency which has its origins in the basic action orientation of the economic system. Efficiency in the second interpretation is a generalized value in modern industrial societies.

It is, after all, not surprising that the new concepts are not applied in practice: They are not compatible with basic action orientations in the social subsystem of economy. One way to make the new concepts more attractive is to include the second dimension of efficiency, i.e. by including cost accounting. In fact, cost accounting components make the software systems more attractive. Many companies apply the new concepts mainly because they incorporate new cost accounting concepts that allow new insights: waste of energy and resources. Material flow cost accounting (MFCA) is such a new concept [START_REF] Möller | From Material Flow Cost Accounting to MFA and LCA In[END_REF]. However, these information systems cover only so-called win/win-constellations: We increase eco-efficiency only if it has a positive impact on profit maximization.

Another starting-point could be to question the generalized action orientations. Conventional and enhanced management information systems are not designed to support that. At least, these are not the only forms of IT support in organizations. To apply information technology in this regard, the question is how social subsystems and their systemic mechanisms and action orientations emerge in societies and how the action orientations can be modified or enhanced.

The Theory of Communicative Action

To answer these questions we applied Habermas' theory of communicative action. Habermas' concept of society [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF][START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF] distinguishes lifeworld and social subsystems like the society's economy or public administration. "From the internal perspective of lifeworld, society is represented as a network of communicatively mediated cooperation… What binds sociated individuals to one another and secures the integration of society is a web of communicative actions that thrives only in the light of cultural traditions, and not systemic mechanisms that are out of the reach of a member's intuitive knowledge" [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF]. Communication is not interpreted as information exchange between decision makers but as a special form of action: communicative action. This interpretation of the role of communication in a society is based on the speech act theory by Austin [START_REF] Austin | How to Do Things with Words[END_REF] and Searle [START_REF] Searle | Speech Acts[END_REF].

Habermas' concept of lifeworld does not fit into the understanding of computer support discussed in the previous section. However, computers are not only used for decision support in economic and public administration. Email, chat and many Web 2.0 applications stand for a completely different form of computer use. Habermas' concept of lifeworld helps to better understand these developments.

The lifeworld is not another separated social subsystem besides others. It is rather a different perspective: an internal perspective. Winograd and Flores have applied the internal perspective of communicatively mediated cooperation to the management of organization beyond decision making: "In understanding management as taking care of articulation and activation of a network of commitments, produced primarily through promises and requests, we cover many managerial activities. Nevertheless, we also need to incorporate the most essential responsibilities of managers: to be open, to listen, and to be an authority regarding what activities and commitments the network will deal with. These can be characterized as participation in 'conversation for possibilities' that open new background for the conversation for action" [START_REF] Winograd | Understanding Computers and Cognition[END_REF].

From an external system's perspective a society can be described as a set of social subsystems. Action in these subsystems is not based on communication and discourse but on de-linguistified rules or systemic mechanisms. This set of rules includes mechanisms for self-organization and self-preservation. Members of these systems become functional units. Their activities are ideally completely rule-based: "Members behave toward formally organized action systems, steered via processes of exchange and power, as towards a block of quasi-natural reality" [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF]. If software systems are to support social subsystems, appropriate software engineering is required. In fact, many concepts and modeling tools of modern software engineering meet these demands.

A special kind of functional unit can change structures: decision makers. External observers can identify different phases of decision making abstract from the lifeworld: problem analysis, goal definition information collection, decision. Decision makers optimize the structures with respect to predefined rules. In fact, if decision support systems or the underlying concepts are not compatible with the rules, they cannot be applied by decision makers.

Co-Evolution of Lifeworld and Social Subsystems

The question is why modern societies need social subsystems? Habermas' answer is: because of complexity. He started with the ritually preserved fund of social solidarity and existing norms and personal identities in traditional societies [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF]. In a process of linguistification more and more of the old norms and rules are questioned. Step by step normatively guided actions are replaced by communication-based action. This dramatically increases the complexity. Not every new solution can be consensusbased. The focus of communication is rather on new mutual insights and action orientations. Rules are an effective way of reducing complexity. Finally, this process generates new rules and generalized action orientations. So the process of linguistification is a process of de-linguistification at the same time. "Action oriented to mutual understanding gains more and more independence from normative contexts. At the same time, even greater demands are made upon this basic medium of everyday language; it gets overloaded in the end and replaced by de-linguistified media" [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF]. That's the paradox of communication: It triggers a co-evolutionary process and "modern societies attain a level of system differentiation at which increasingly autonomous organizations are connected with one another via delinguistified media of communication: these systemic mechanisms -for example, money -steer a social intercourse that has been largely disconnected from norms and values, above all in those subsystems of purposive rational economic and administrative action that, on Weber's diagnosis, have become independent of their moral-political foundations" [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF]. Based on this theory, economic efficiency, as described by Taylor, cost cutting and value creation are generalized action orientations in the social subsystem of economy. It is the result of a "social evolution as a second-order process of differentiation: system and lifeworld are differentiated in the sense that the complexity of the one and the rationality of the other grow" [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF].

However, communication not only allows questioning of the norms and rules of traditional societies; it also allows challenging the systemic mechanisms and action orientations in social subsystems. With regard to corporate sustainability, before developing new information systems, it is required to place emphasis on generalized action orientations in relevant social subsystems: What is the relationship between the action orientations and the concept of sustainable development? If there are contradictory forces then how can we harmonize the orientations? Based on Habermas' theory of communication action, a process of linguistification is required.

IT Support -Lifeworld and System

Information technology can support these processes in two different ways. To support the process of linguistification, communication and conversation support systems come into play. If new generalized action orientations emerge, computer-based management information systems for corporate sustainability are required.

Because the process of linguistification is a process of de -linguistification at the same time, this process can be characterized as a transition phase. Computer support for this transition phase should be more than arbitrary conversation support. The action orientations in the subsystems, and of sustainable development, define the background of all communication processes in this phase so that IT support for "effective communication" [START_REF] Winograd | Understanding Computers and Cognition[END_REF] is required.

In the following, we make use of Habermas' two perspectives: lifeworld and system. In addition, another perspective on the subject will be adopted and examined: We are looking for "transition support systems".

Lifeworld Support

As mentioned above, research in the field of applied computer science is often focused on specific social subsystems. The basic action orientations and systemic mechanisms are adopted. The promise is that the IT systems help to optimize the structures. However, other forms of computer use play an important role in our societies: computers as a new medium of communication: Web 2.0, Twitter, chat rooms and forums on the web. Sites like Geocaching and OpenStreetMap have established new collective forms of cooperation. The most important and most dangerous aspect of many software games is that they provide a virtual background of new collective forms of life.

Habermas' definition of lifeworld: "From the internal perspective of lifeworld, society is represented as a network of communicatively mediated cooperation" can be used as well to characterize this form of computer support. Two questions arise: Can computers really support the lifeworld? The main problem in this regard is what Habermas calls the "colonization of the lifeworld" [START_REF] Habermas | The Theory of Communicative Action[END_REF]: If we apply concepts and software solutions to parts of the lifeworld, we will transform these parts into parts of social subsystems. But if lifeworld support is possible: What are the images of such an interpretation of computer science?

Winograd and Flores have presented an analysis and a new approach (languageaction perspective) for a special part of the lifeworld [START_REF] Winograd | Understanding Computers and Cognition[END_REF]. This approach is restricted to companies: companies are part of the subsystem economy as well as of the lifeworld of the members. They propose to interpret management as support for "effective communication" instead of decision-making. However, such an approach is closely related to the social subsystem of economy and cannot cover phenomena like Geocaching or Blogging. More general approaches for computer-based lifeworld support are still not available, whereas several components or basic findings of such an approach are already on hand: groupware, human computer interaction, computers as a medium etc.

In the following we discuss software applications with regard to their lifeworld support.

(1) The first example is Geocaching [START_REF]Geocaching -The Official Global GPS Cache Hunt Site[END_REF]. Geocaching is in a way a modern form of the treasure hunt. However, geocaches does not really contain treasures, the "cache items" are more or less cheap things like pencils, coins from foreign countries or similar. The geocaching website www.geocaching.com describes all available caches including their geographical position. GPS equipment is required to find the caches. If geocachers find a cache they log it on the website. There is a really significant community gathered around geocaching. Geocachers have developed their own language; they have developed special forms of communication and social interaction. These phenomena are remarkable because from a systems perspective geocaching is quite useless.

(2) A second example is instant messaging (IM). Of course, IM is not useless compared to geocaching. IM plays a more and more important role in office organization. IM has the potential to increase the efficiency and effectiveness of business processes. However, this was not an intended purpose of IM; special empirical analyses were required to prove this. Because of its group-oriented functionality (distributed cooperative work, real-time communication, planning social events, socializing) instant messaging supports teams in the workplace. Handel and Herbsleb have analyzed the content of chat and categorized chat content of instant messaging at workplaces. They found that 69% of conversations relate to specific work tasks [START_REF] Handel | What is chat doing in the workplace[END_REF]. Other reasons are negotiating availability (13%), greeting (7%), nonwork (3%) and humor (5%). Although work-related content dominates instant messaging at workplaces, data exchange between decision makers does not play an important role. This was a result of sub classifying 'work'. Handel & Herbsleb write: "We dropped 'walkthrough', 'goal', 'digression' and 'clarification' since we never observed them within the 'work' portion of our protocol" [START_REF] Handel | What is chat doing in the workplace[END_REF]. The most important sub categories were technical work, project management and meeting management. Finally, Handel & Herbsleb point out that "chat was used overwhelmingly for work discussions or for articulation work to coordinate projects and meetings, and to negotiate availability" [START_REF] Handel | What is chat doing in the workplace[END_REF]. After all, empirical analyses show that today communication support systems play a critical role in enhancing effective communication within organizations. Moreover, the fact that empirical analyses are required to understand email and instant messaging in organizations emphasizes the high flexibility of these support systems.

(3) The third example is a bit strange: We have analyzed computer tools regarding their lifeworld support capabilities [START_REF] Möller | Computer Support for Environmental Management Accounting[END_REF]. Computer tools have a predefined application domain. They are not useless like geocaching. However, computer tools are very flexible and unintended usage of computer tools is quite normal. Computer tools are often described as flexible decision support applications. Excel and LCA tools are good examples. As mentioned above, decision makers should make use of the tools to take rational decisions. An interesting aspect of computer tools with respect to lifeworld support is that they often define new languages and support good arguments, for instance, in the form of special diagrams and flow charts. For example in the field of material and energy flow analysis so-called Sankey diagrams play an important role. Sankey diagrams can be thought of as the language of material and energy flow analysis including life cycle assessment [START_REF] Schmidt | The Sankey Diagram in Energy and Material Flow Management. Part I: History[END_REF][START_REF] Möller | Voraussetzungen einer IKT-gestützten Nachhaltigkeitskommunikation in Unternehmen[END_REF]. The results of the analyses should be presented in the form of Sankey diagrams if possible. Here, the argumentation support becomes an important purpose of the tools.

The three examples demonstrate typical characteristics of lifeworld support. The software applications have a barely or ambiguous purpose. If the applications have an impact on social subsystems, special empirical analysis is required and the impact on structures and orientations is not predictable. This results in modified software engineering models: engineering requirements must be redefined. In the use phase, empirical analyses help us to understand the impacts of the applications and to improve future versions of the application: better recognition of new languages in the community.

System Support

As already mentioned, system support applications adopt their purposes from generalized action orientations in the respective social subsystems. The software should be a step forward. The conclusions are:

(1) Optimal compatibility with systemic mechanisms is required. Therefore, extensive system integration is necessary. For example, so-called stand alone solutions are suboptimal. Highly integrated enterprise resource planning systems should be the backbone of the corporate management information systems [START_REF] Funk | Integration of Environmental Management Information Systems and ERP Systems using Integration Platforms[END_REF].

(2) A representation of the system as a computer model helps managers to find optimal structures and procedures [START_REF] Rolf | Grundlagen der Organisations-und Wirtschaftsinformatik[END_REF]. E.g. workflow management components do not only control all important business processes, they are as well an important interface to the real world: all processes are recorded so that the component provides basic data for cost accounting, financial accounting etc. [START_REF] Möller | Computer Support for Environmental Management Accounting[END_REF].

(3) idea of scientific management and in particular of standards (today we discuss business processes and works flows) should result in optimal and stable structures and operations. The dynamics of the socio-economic environment is an annoying and hopefully marginal phenomenon [START_REF] Funk | Integration of Environmental Management Information Systems and ERP Systems using Integration Platforms[END_REF][START_REF] Simon | Notwendige und vorläufige Formalisierungslücken in Organisationen[END_REF].

From a systems perspective, computer tools are a less than optimal solution. Normally, the use of software tools is less efficient: the efforts of data collection are high, the consistency of data is often in question and system integration is poor. They are used for dealing with the dynamics of the socio-economic environment. The tools become prototypes of future fully integrated information components. LCA tools are again a good example. LCA tools are regarded as special environmental management information systems. However, they are suboptimal because of their insufficient system integration. So, it is self-evident based on experiences with LCA tools that material and energy flow based enterprise resource planning system components should be developed.

Transition Support

One aspect of lifeworld support can be interpreted as a problem. Its support applications cannot enforce predefined orientations, including sustainable development. It can happen that our societies develop new orientations, which are quite different from current definitions and interpretations of sustainable development. However, based on Habermas' theory of communicative action, modifications and enhancements of generalized action orientations require communication. As stated above, we can interpret this process of linguistification and de-linguistification as a transition phase.

Concepts for transition phase are already well known. They help to overcome problematic structures and mechanisms with respect to basic action orientations like profit maximization. Typical examples are Business Process Re-engineering, Lean Production and Supply Chain Management [START_REF] Hammer | Reengineering the Corporation[END_REF][START_REF] Hlupic | Business Process Modelling and Analysis Using Discrete-Event Simulation[END_REF]. Even if the goals of these concepts do not have much to do with lifeworld and communication, successful implementation of the concepts does require communication. Kieser [START_REF] Kieser | Moden und Mythen des Organisierens[END_REF] has analyzed the concepts in this regard. He identified different phases and aspects of such a transition: good arguments and examples for the identification of problems, the argumentation that the problems must be solved if the organization wants to have success in the long run, the presentation of several plausible examples of how to solve the problems and the advantage of being a pioneer. Successful concepts include a new language for the communities and a set of typical visualizations. Members of the communities obtain important hints on how to operationalize basic action orientations in their social context. Often the concepts can be combined with specialized consulting concepts and software applications.

With respect to sustainable development, socio-ecological transitions were connected with events like Rio 1992 or the Stern report 2006. Concepts like business process reengineering and lean production have not played a decisively important role. Maybe life cycle assessment has the capabilities.

Conclusions

From the perspective of social subsystems, computer science and computer applications are useful in supporting the respective generalized action orientations and optimal systemic mechanisms and structures. This results in a problematic equivalence in applied computer science. Computer science is relevant if -and only if -it is useful in a systems perspective. Our starting point, however, is "useless" computer support: People and communities can use computers in any way they want; there is no predefined purpose. By doing this, very important developments in our societies can be examined. To analyze these phenomena we adopted Habermas' theory of communicative action. This theory allows us to make the right distinctions: lifeworld support and system support.

What is the relationship to sustainable development? Based on the theory of communication action, the challenges of sustainable development are not a problem of insufficient software support. Rather, problematic generalized action orientations in relevant social subsystems prevent substantial steps forward: socio-ecological transitions. One conclusion of Habermas' theory is that societies can modify generalized action orientations and systemic mechanisms through consensus-oriented communication in the lifeworld. It is interesting that computer based lifeworld support is possible and already available; these systems have been in discussion for several years. We interpret several important Web 2.0 applications as lifeworld support systems. Many conventional software applications, in particular computer tools, also support communication processes in the lifeworld (or they provide corresponding components). However, lifeworld support includes that we cannot enforce and plan a sustainable development. So it is not useful to implement a "Sustainability Management System" in order to support the transition phase. Sustainability Management Systems, to support sustainability governance as well as enhanced EMIS, will be the second step.


Fabiana Soares

Claudio Barberato
email: claudio.barberato@gmail.com

Antonio Mauro Saraiva
email: saraiva@usp.br

A Reference Process to Design Information Systems for Sustainable Design Based on LCA, PSS, Social and Economic Aspects

Keywords: SOA, Reference Process, Sustainable Design, Information Systems, Information Systems to Support Sustainable Design

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Sustainable Development is "the development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" [START_REF] Brundtland | Our Common Future[END_REF]. Eco-Efficiency addresses the delivery of products and services, raising the quality of life, reducing ecological impacts to acceptable levels and providing competitive prices [START_REF] Fiksel | Design for Environment: Creating Eco-Efficient Products and Processes[END_REF]. Cleaner Production [http://www.uneptie.org/pc/cp/home.htm] is the continuous application of environmental strategies so as to increase Eco-Efficiency [START_REF] Dewulf | Proc. of CIRP Seminar on Life Cycle Engineering[END_REF]. One of the main purposes of Cleaner Production is reducing the environmental impacts that, despite all concerns about the subject, continue to grow [START_REF] Dewulf | Proc. of CIRP Seminar on Life Cycle Engineering[END_REF][START_REF] Meadows | The Limits to Growth[END_REF].

Climate change and ecological disasters attributed to global warming, are leading to the establishment of legal and trade restrictions related to the development of products and services so as to increase their sustainability [START_REF] Maxwell | Developing sustainable products and services[END_REF][START_REF] Manzini | A strategic design approach to develop product service systems: examples taken from the 'environmental friendly innovation' Italian prize[END_REF]. This is known as Sustainable Design, SD, or Design for Sustainability. Product Service System [START_REF] Manzini | A strategic design approach to develop product service systems: examples taken from the 'environmental friendly innovation' Italian prize[END_REF], PSS, is a system proposed to create new products and services focused on meeting the client's needs, eventually replacing products for services or vice versa, or modifying the existing productive processes. Life Cycle Assessment, or LCA, is a standard technique [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF][START_REF]LCA -Requirements and Guidelines[END_REF] used to evaluate the impact of a product on the environment.

SD is a highly complex activity with many tensions and trade-offs, and one of its main challenges is to design products integrating PSS concepts and LCA techniques to the social and economic aspects of the production process. The purpose is to offer a complete and realistic evaluation of the environmental burden caused by a product or a service. This complexity can be reduced with the development of appropriate information systems for SD. Software tools to assist in the design activity and for performing analysis and evaluations of quantitative aspects of SD would be very helpful to the designer.

Information systems for SD will demand resources for integration and interoperability with other systems and data, obtained from many potential different providers, since it requires information about raw material, the productive process, the product disposal and many others. Hence, a solution based on Service-Oriented Computing, SOC, is recommended [START_REF] Bichler | Service-Oriented Computing[END_REF][START_REF] Papazoglou | Service-oriented computing: state of the art and research challenges[END_REF].

The development of a SOC-based solution may start with the design of a Service-Oriented Architecture, SOA. A SOA-based solution may start with the definition of a reference process to present a clear elicitation of the tasks to be performed and to include the experts' knowledge in a single process view [START_REF] Endrei | Patterns -Service-Oriented Architecture and Web Services[END_REF].

A reference process is thus presented here to address the requirements of an information system for SD. This is the first step for defining a SOC-based software solution for this problem. As additional benefits, the reference process can show improvements in the design activity and can be very useful for beginners, as a guide to SD.

Evaluating the Environmental Burden

This section presents basic concepts related to the evaluation of the environmental burden of products and services, and strategies to try and reduce it.

Processes, Products, Services and the Environment

A process is a collection of steps, arranged in a sequence and following a particular set of rules. The decomposition of a domain is recommended as a starting point to identify the problems to be solved in a SOA-based system [START_REF] Huhns | Service-Oriented Computing: Key Concepts and Principles[END_REF]. This can be achieved by designing a process in which the steps required are described with the respective inputs and outputs.

A reference process in SOA maps the detailed information contained in an existing standard or model [START_REF] Bass | Software Architecture in Practice[END_REF][START_REF] Santana | A reference business process for ecological niche modelling[END_REF]. It summarizes and organizes the knowledge about a subject. Besides documenting and formalizing current practices, a reference process may be a guide to define each specific step of the process and can also be applied to identify gaps, extra work, failures and improvements. It represents an important tool for a software architect because it condenses all the knowledge about the problem in a single diagram.

SD must consider the conservation of raw materials, energy and water, the reduction of emissions and wastes and the elimination of toxic components during the production process. Reduction of environmental burden through the complete product life cycle must be considered in SD, in addition to the well-established concerns about safety and health. Environmental impacts must also be considered in the design, delivery and disposal of each product. Therefore, the main purpose of SD must be to integrate efforts in designing clean processes, products and services in order to achieve a global result that is more effective in preventing environmental damage than isolated solutions. The design stage is the adequate moment to approach environmental impact minimization [START_REF] Dewulf | Proc. of CIRP Seminar on Life Cycle Engineering[END_REF].

Eco-Design is an adequate strategy for approaching the problem, since the entire life cycle of the product or service system must be discussed [START_REF] Charter | Integrated Product Policy and Eco-Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Fiksel | Design for Environment: Creating Eco-Efficient Products and Processes[END_REF][START_REF] Mcaloone | Industrial Application of Environmentally Conscious Design[END_REF]. If the economic, social and legal aspects are also considered then the sustainability of the productive system can be completely evaluated, because of the interconnected views [START_REF] Dewulf | Proc. of CIRP Seminar on Life Cycle Engineering[END_REF]. For example, the reduction of raw material usage may reduce both the environmental burden and the cost of the product; thus, sustainability and economy aspects are related. Legal aspects are also relevant in a global economy, since many countries have restrictions on import products whose production process does not follow certain conditions and, in the future, perhaps, compliance with SD will be mandatory. Actually, there is already a market share for "green products", so this concern may not be disregarded.

Ecological product design must consider [START_REF] Dewulf | Proc. of CIRP Seminar on Life Cycle Engineering[END_REF]: 1) Optimal function and ecology efficiency; 2) Durability; 3) Minimization of the energy and non-renewable resources use during the product life cycle; 4) Minimization of the use of non-biodegradable substances; and 5) Recycling and waste management.

PSS -Product Service System

PSS integrates products and services in order to design a system able to meet the clients' demands. The main idea is to sell client satisfaction instead of selling products only [START_REF] Manzini | A strategic design approach to develop product service systems: examples taken from the 'environmental friendly innovation' Italian prize[END_REF]. This stems from a new concept of mutually dependent products and services focusing on the compliance of a client demand instead of the physical result of an industrial production process [START_REF] Manzini | Product-service systems and sustainability[END_REF].

PSS potentialities include the synergy among the environmental benefits and other product issues such as profit and competitiveness [START_REF] Goedkoop | Product services systems, ecological and economic basics, report 1999/36[END_REF][START_REF] Manzini | A strategic design approach to develop product service systems: examples taken from the 'environmental friendly innovation' Italian prize[END_REF][START_REF] Mejcamp | Changing consumer behavior through eco-efficient services[END_REF]. However, PSS may not result in a sustainable solution because of the rebound effects. They are the result of changes in consumer behaviour or profile due to the introduction of a new PSS, even when it is designed to reduce the environmental burden. The classical example is related with the use of computers and Internet for text editing and exchanging. It could avoid the waste of paper but, at least in the beginning, computers and the Internet only increased our capacity to produce content and a large deal of this content was printed, causing an overall waste of paper many times greater than previously thought [START_REF] Manzini | A strategic design approach to develop product service systems: examples taken from the 'environmental friendly innovation' Italian prize[END_REF].

A PSS may be sustainable or not and the following aspects must be analyzed along the life cycle of products and services in PSS [START_REF] Manzini | A strategic design approach to develop product service systems: examples taken from the 'environmental friendly innovation' Italian prize[END_REF]: 1) Greenhouse effect analysis to evaluate gas emissions; 2) Use of renewable resources, e.g. raw materials; and 3) Overall environmental and social impacts. A sustainable PSS designer may require ability to undertake the business, understanding the social context and applying patterns from a different point of view. The result may be a new product, a new service, or a new system including both a new product and a new service, so as to satisfy the client demands.

Sustainability may rely on providing added value to the entire PSS life cycle by establishing infrastructure to enable its implementation and rules for ownership and usage, resulting in benefits to the consumer. It means, for instance, that a client may operate the product with decision power for a while but, when the contract is over or the product or system is no longer useful, the producer may take it back, deciding new sales opportunities or disposal treatment. This simplifies the control of the PSS life cycle and allows the establishment of more effective rules for reducing the environmental burden.

LCA -Life Cycle Assessment

Life Cycle Assessment is defined by ISO [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF][START_REF]LCA -Requirements and Guidelines[END_REF]. [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF] establishes the main principles and the framework for the adoption of LCA in a language accessible to a broad target audience, and [START_REF]LCA -Requirements and Guidelines[END_REF] presents the formal requirements for a more specialized audience, and is hence the core reference document for LCA practitioners [START_REF] Finkbeiner | The New International Standards for Life Cycle Assessment[END_REF]. [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF] and [START_REF]LCA -Requirements and Guidelines[END_REF] are currently the only valid references for LCA, replacing the older versions.

LCA is defined as the "compilation and evaluation of the inputs, outputs and potential environmental impacts of a product throughout its life cycle" [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF] and it includes [START_REF] Guinée | Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards[END_REF]: 1) Analysis of the problem origins for each product; 2) Comparisons among the variations of the same product; 3) Adequate design of new products; and 4) Product choice, considering a variety of analogous offers. In LCA, the term product includes goods and services at the operational and strategic levels, and all types of impacts of a product on the environment must be considered [START_REF] Guinée | Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards[END_REF].

LCA must be as quantitative as possible, so as to allow comparisons among different products that accomplish the same function. For comparative analysis, the function provided by the acquisition or rental of a product must be considered, as well as both the present and future environmental burdens.

The guiding principles of LCA are transparency, credibility, comprehensiveness and consistency [START_REF] Finkbeiner | The New International Standards for Life Cycle Assessment[END_REF]. Transparency interferes with the LCA planning and execution, and establishes that the scientific approach or international conventions must be the base for decisions [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF]. For credibility, a comparative assertion considering unambiguousness, clarity and accuracy, and the intention to disclose it to the public, is fundamental. Comprehensiveness refers to the consideration of all aspects of the environment, resources and human health, using a cross-media perspective so as to identify potential trade-offs. Consistency refers to the harmony among all parts of the process.

LCA must consider the entire life cycle of the productive process [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF][START_REF]LCA -Requirements and Guidelines[END_REF], including: 1) Material choice -extraction and acquisition of the raw material; 2) Manufacturing -energy required for the production and distribution processes; 3) Product use -consumption aspects; and 4) Product disposal -treatment and final disposal of the product at the end of its life cycle.

The broad scope of the analysis usually results in the simplification of some aspects of a product, so LCA has limitations [START_REF] Guinée | Handbook on Life Cycle Assessment: Operational Guide to the ISO Standards[END_REF]. For instance, LCA does not address local impacts and dynamic approaches, and does not consider the rebound effects from the introduction of a new product onto the market, since the analysis is linear. Data availability for the analysis may also represent an important constraint in some cases. Social and economic impacts are outside the scope of LCA. There are intrinsic limitations when conclusions and recommendations about a product are being prepared, so the consistency of the technique is dependent on the methodological approach [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF]. A critical review or third party reports are strongly recommended [START_REF] Finkbeiner | The New International Standards for Life Cycle Assessment[END_REF].

LCA allows environmental management and environmental performance evaluation, identifies relevant aspects of products within a specific context, incorporates environmental concerns into product design and development, and quantifies and certifies greenhouse gas emissions.

However, LCA may be dependent on the size, culture, product, internal system and strategy of each organization. Hence, in the SD context, LCA adoption is even more complex, requiring many techniques and software packages.

Sustainable Design

SD is "a strategic activity to conceive and develop sustainable solutions" [START_REF] Manzini | Design research for sustainable social innovation[END_REF]. The solution must allow people to live with quality of life but consuming less environmental resources. SD must consider social and economic impacts [START_REF] Mcaloone | Design for utility, sustainability and societal virtues[END_REF][START_REF] Maxwell | Developing sustainable products and services[END_REF].

Social impacts involve [START_REF] Maxwell | Developing sustainable products and services[END_REF]: 1) Evaluation of the best alternative between a product or a service for meeting a specific demand; 2) Verification of social aspects related to the raw material, e.g.: extraction and processing, ownership rights and trading arrangements; 3) Employment conditions; 4) Impacts and investments on the local community; and 5) Adverse impacts for local and global communities, considering safety and health aspects.

It is necessary to consider the surrounding world and the recommended economic model is the distributed one; power generation, creative communities and cooperative networks take place [START_REF] Vezzoli | Design for sustainability: the new research frontiers[END_REF]. The consumption of natural resources and innovation would be based on local structures, enterprises, initiatives and communities. The main question is how to practice SD in a global economy.

The economic impact includes evaluating the cost-effectiveness of a product or service compared to other available solutions. A balance between ecological and economic issues is necessary, in addition to technological development, specific legislation and changes in social life [START_REF] Feldmann | Foreword[END_REF]. Life cycle must be considered to evaluate the nature and quality of PSS, confronting economic and environmental aspects to obtain significant environmental improvements [START_REF] Feldmann | Foreword[END_REF]. Social and economic issues depend on the product or service that is being developed, but both aspects must be considered in all steps of SD.

Relevant aspects of SD are [START_REF] Coelho | Brazilian sugarcane ethanol: lessons learned[END_REF]: 1) Sustainable consumption is as important as sustainable production so as to avoid the rebound effects; 2) Replacing a product with a service will not necessarily improve its sustainability; 3) Consumer satisfaction is divided into one-off occurrences (e.g.: eating a hamburger) or continuous occurrences (driving a car); 4) Products and services have a different apprehension for the consumers; 5) The time to consumer satisfaction is different from a product or service use, so the consumer must thoroughly understand the substitution of one product for a service.

SD of products and services also must consider functionality, quality, demand, customer requirements, technical feasibility and compliance with legislation and technical specifications, as well as any other standards [START_REF] Maxwell | Developing sustainable products and services[END_REF].

A Reference Process for Sustainable Design

The reference process considers products, services and other dimensions of the problem, in order to balance economic and social aspects with the environmental approaches provided by PSS and LCA.

The aim is to provide a balance among environmental protection, social equity and economic prosperity, maintaining the traditional product design requirements, such as quality, demand, technical and cost issues [START_REF] Maxwell | Developing sustainable products and services[END_REF]. LCA requires the analysis of the product life cycle [START_REF]LCA -Principles and Frameworks[END_REF][START_REF]LCA -Requirements and Guidelines[END_REF], which will be made in this paper considering the standard viewpoint.

The reference process for SD will extend the concepts of ecodesign, design for disassembly, design for recycling [START_REF] Gertsakis | A guide to EcoReDesign[END_REF], LCA, PSS and social and economic impacts. All concepts are integrated in a single process, considering the basic product life cycle, Fig. 1, according to the standard [START_REF] Finkbeiner | The New International Standards for Life Cycle Assessment[END_REF].

The reference process presented in Fig. 2 was defined in order to incorporate all relevant aspects of SD. The steps describe the activities to be performed during the design stage of a product. Some steps or activities must require software tools or experts to evaluate the environmental impacts.

The six steps of the Reference Process for SD are described in Fig. 2. They are:

Step 1 -Functionality conception: this step defines the functionalities of the item Fig. 1. The basic product life cycle can be summarized as the application of six main steps, from the raw material choice to the product disposal [START_REF] Endrei | Patterns -Service-Oriented Architecture and Web Services[END_REF].

to be designed, analyzes its environmental impacts and the alternatives between products and services.

Step 2 -Raw material acquisition: this step must consider minimizing the volume of material used, especially non-renewables, and replacing the type of raw materials so as to reduce environmental impact; besides this, it must analyze the trade-offs between extracting and processing the raw materials and the transport conditions.

Step 3 -Manufacturing: the purpose of this step is to optimize the technology for manufacturing a product or delivering a service, by eliminating or reducing emissions to the air, effluents, waste, and energy use.

Step 4 -Trade and delivery: this step defines the requirements for the transport related to the delivery of a product or service, including its volume and nature, and the type of vehicle and fuel to be used; the purpose is eliminating or minimizing emissions to the air, effluents, waste, and energy use.

Step 5 -Use and maintenance: the purpose of this step is eliminating or reducing the waste related to a product or service, including its packaging and consumption.

Step 6 -Reuse, recycling, energy recovery and disposal: the purpose of this step is to extend the life of a product or to facilitate the recovery of its components for reuse, recycling, and treatment/disposal. The design must be modular, so as to maximize the upgradability, or adequate to allow the repair of eventual damages to the product.

The economic aspects are the same for all steps of the process, and the purpose is to verify the cost-effectiveness of products or services in all the previous steps of the process, comparing them to available products, evaluating environmental and nonenvironmental costs, and analyzing global vs. distributed economy.

Before starting the design stage, data about the raw material, the manufacturing process and the trade and delivery processes are essential. Data availability is a serious limiting factor for SD.

A Case Study: The Ethanol Program in Brazil

This section presents a brief overview of the ethanol program in Brazil so as to illustrate the reference process for SD. The purpose is only to comment on each step of the reference process using ethanol as an example. The evaluation of this program, the analysis of the possibilities for its adoption worldwide, and all types of metrics are outside the scope of this section so as to simplify the example and keep the focus on the reference process. The ethanol program in Brazil will be presented according to the steps of the process, even if this process was not available when the product was conceived.

Step 1 -Functionality conception: Brazil was critically affected by the oil crisis of 1973 and, in addition to the increased efforts in prospecting petroleum under the deep waters of the continental shelf, the country started the PROALCOHOL program so as to produce large amounts of sugarcane ethanol [START_REF] Goldemberg | The ethanol program in Brazil. Institute of physics publishing environmental research letters[END_REF]. Sugarcane ethanol is a substitute for gasoline. It has the same purpose as gasoline, similar properties, the same health and safety requirements are necessary and the social and economic impacts are related, since the purpose is to reduce the price of the fuel, and the legal aspects are abided by [START_REF] Goldemberg | The ethanol program in Brazil. Institute of physics publishing environmental research letters[END_REF]. Steps 2 and 3 -Raw material acquisition and Manufacturing: The raw material for ethanol, in Brazil, is sugarcane. Therefore, raw material acquisition is related to sugarcane production, and sugarcane production is related to ethanol production, both will hence be studied together in this example.

Since the beginning of PROALCOHOL, the legislation has improved and the land use has been severely controlled, avoiding deforestation and preserving natural ecosystems (60% of the sugarcane production is in the state of São Paulo, no sugarcane is produced in Amazonia as the humid climate is unsuitable for sugar production), the adoption of controlled fertirrigation practices is being applied, the harvest burning practices are being phased-out through a strict legal enforcement, and the industrial sugarcane and ethanol plants have their air emissions controlled [START_REF] Coelho | Brazilian sugarcane ethanol: lessons learned[END_REF]. From the economic point of view, new investments are private and the cost of the production of sugarcane is decreasing [START_REF] Coelho | Brazilian sugarcane ethanol: lessons learned[END_REF]. From the social point of view, at least 700,000 jobs were created with the sugarcane production for ethanol while the competition for land with food production has been shown to be a myth [START_REF] Coelho | Brazilian sugarcane ethanol: lessons learned[END_REF]. Energy needs for its production come from the bagasse, which is used to generate power and, since the Brazilian Energy Matrix is mainly based on hydropower, the indirect consumption of fossil fuels is low [START_REF] Goldemberg | The sustainability of ethanol production from sugarcane[END_REF]. The direct consumption of fossil fuels in these steps is related to the use of fertilizers and harvest machines and the main liquid effluents of ethanol are vinasse and wastewaters [START_REF] Goldemberg | The sustainability of ethanol production from sugarcane[END_REF]. There are laws and technical standards to regulate vinasse disposal and techniques to reduce organic pollutants in wastewater [START_REF] Goldemberg | The sustainability of ethanol production from sugarcane[END_REF].

Step 4 -Trade and delivery: One of the main requirements for trading ethanol is to prepare the vehicles for replacing gasoline with ethanol [START_REF] Goldemberg | The sustainability of ethanol production from sugarcane[END_REF]. Since the beginning of the PROALCOHOL, the multinational automobile industries in Brazil agreed to produce automobiles with converted motors and have introduced all the necessary engine and vehicle modifications for ethanol use. Even gasoline vehicles use blends from 20% to 26% of ethanol. Nowadays, many cars in Brazil use a flexible fuel technology, which means the driver can choose between ethanol and gasoline or a mix of both.

Besides the vehicles, the availability of an infrastructure for ethanol pumps in service stations and ethanol distribution is required and this infrastructure started to be developed in Brazil at the beginning of the PROALCOHOL [START_REF] Goldemberg | The sustainability of ethanol production from sugarcane[END_REF]. Transportation trucks, however, still use fossil fuels, but their emissions are included in the studies for evaluating the greenhouse gas emissions of ethanol [START_REF] Macedo | Green house gases emissions in the production and use of ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil: The 2005/2006 averages and a prediction for 2020[END_REF].

Step 5 -Use and maintenance: Nowadays, ethanol is a renewable replacement for gasoline; its GHG emissions are reabsorbed by photosynthesis during the growth of sugarcane in the following season [START_REF] Goldemberg | The sustainability of ethanol production from sugarcane[END_REF]. The only difference from the use of gasoline in Brazil is related to the consumption of fuel. From the economic point of view, it is regulated by the ethanol price, which is usually smaller than that of gasoline or at least in the same proportion. The consumption of ethanol in Brazil tends to drop when this proportion in not respected.

6) Reuse, recycling, energy recovery and disposal: Only the ethanol greenhouse gas emissions must be considered in this step. There is the reuse of bagasse for energy recovery and other aspects related to the ethanol production, but they were analyzed in the previous steps.

In this case, as compared to gasoline, ethanol has additional benefits, the importance of which was reinforced years after the beginning of the PROALCOHOL program. They are: a) The use of ethanol as fuel has smaller impact on the environment because it avoids CO2 emissions as compared to gasoline [START_REF] Goldemberg | The sustainability of ethanol production from sugarcane[END_REF][START_REF] Macedo | Green house gases emissions in the production and use of ethanol from sugarcane in Brazil: The 2005/2006 averages and a prediction for 2020[END_REF]; and b) Ethanol has a favorable energy balance and is a renewable and sustainable energy source [START_REF] Goldemberg | Ethanol for a Sustainable Energy Future[END_REF].

Discussion

The definition of this reference process shows that many aspects must be considered and weighted so as to put SD into practice. However, the process is mainly a guideline and researchers and companies must define more specific criteria for each step of the reference process. The use of numeric criteria for evaluating products and services is mandatory in order to define comparable criteria on which to base design activity and the consumer rules.

Note that the reference process uses words such as "minimize" or "maximize", and these are not adequate or precise evaluations. However, more restricted criteria do not depend on process modeling but on the research in other areas of knowledge such as Chemistry and Physics that are able to define numerical values for LCA. Besides, as a reference process, this process must be customized for each company or production segment, by detailing each step and defining the metrics and parameters for its adoption as a regular company process. Some activities identified in the reference process are very difficult to perform. For instance, stakeholder reconfiguration may involve the pressure of the investors or the interference of external partners, such as governments, to achieve good results. Another difficulty is to evaluate rebound effects. Some social impacts may also be hard to evaluate and, in this case, a consulting service may be a good strategy to adopt.

The definition of a reference process is a starting point in providing a more accurate evaluation of SD. It also represents the first step in the software engineering process for designing a SOA-based solution for the development of information systems for SD. The main challenge is building tools for data synthesis and analysis in SD, which must be able to get results faster and allow easy visualization, interpretation, and analysis of environmental information.

The purpose of the reference process is also to integrate the activities so as to obtain a global maximum result instead of only local results, directing the production towards client satisfaction and improvements in quality of life. This may produce unexpected synergies to improve many aspects of a consumer's satisfaction, including profit, competitiveness and environmental benefits.

Conclusion

The reference process to design information systems for SD based on LCA, PSS, social and economic aspects captures the main steps and activities involved in SD. The process stratifies the design activity and performs a careful analysis of each step so as to identify the problems and, within the context of a SOA-based solution, to capture the software requirements.

Since the designers must work with sustainability concepts, the reference process presents a list of activities to be performed and is also a guide to beginners. Considering the complexity of SD, the clear definition of each step for each company is mandatory.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. A Reference Process for Sustainable Design.

Acknowledgments. The authors thank FINEP -Financiadora de Estudos e Projetos (Research and Projects Financing) -from the Ministry of Science and Technology -MCT/Brazil for supporting the PROSENSAP project (01.08.0566.00).


Tania Xiao

Wendy Broxham

Cara Stitzlein
email: cara.stitzlein@uqconnect.edu.au

Jasmine Croll

Penelope Sanderson

{penelope Sanderson

Two human-centered approaches to health informatics: Cognitive systems engineering and usability

Keywords: health information systems, human-centered technology, cognitive systems engineering, usability, cognitive engineering

There is growing recognition among many healthcare researchers that a human-centered approach to the design and evaluation of health information systems is vital for the success of such systems in healthcare. In this paper, we survey the work of two human-centered research communities that have been active in the area of health information systems research but that have not been adequately discussed in past comparative reviews. They are cognitive systems engineering and usability. We briefly consider the origins and contributions of the two research communities and then discuss the similarities and differences between them on several topics relevant to health information systems. Our objective is to clarify the distinction between the two communities and to help future researchers make more informed decisions about the approaches and methods that will meet their needs.

Introduction

The Institute of Medicine's report -Crossing the quality chasm‖ (2001) has generated great interest in the development of health information systems to support safe and effective healthcare. Unfortunately, there has been limited success associated with the introduction of health information systems in healthcare settings [START_REF] Wears | Computer Technology and Clinical Work Still Waiting for Godot[END_REF]. There is growing recognition amongst many healthcare technology researchers that the failure of many health information systems can be attributed to poor understanding of the needs and work practices of the human user and the socio-technical context in which work is done [START_REF] Greenhalgh | Tensions and Paradoxes in Electronic Patient Record Research: A Systematic Literature Review Using the Meta-narrative Method[END_REF].

There is already much research focused on human-machine interaction from a human-centered perspective. For example, Hoffman and Militello [START_REF] Hoffman | Perspectives on cognitive task analysis[END_REF] identify eight ‗communities of practice' that emerged in the 1980s driven by the common goal to better understand and support human cognitive tasks. In the healthcare context, Greenhalgh et al. [START_REF] Greenhalgh | Tensions and Paradoxes in Electronic Patient Record Research: A Systematic Literature Review Using the Meta-narrative Method[END_REF] classified existing human-centered research into nine metanarratives which include ‗computer supported cooperative work', ‗actor-network analyses' and ‗critical sociology'.

Greenhalgh et al.'s [START_REF] Greenhalgh | Tensions and Paradoxes in Electronic Patient Record Research: A Systematic Literature Review Using the Meta-narrative Method[END_REF] review offers new insights into human-centered health information systems research. However, because they limited their focus to Electronic Patient Records (EPR), they may have overlooked traditions that have done less research on EPRs and more research on other types of health information systems. In this paper, we extend Greenhalgh et al.'s work by discussing two research communities that have also made important contributions to our understanding of the needs and practices of the human user.

Current Paper

In this paper we highlight the work of the cognitive systems engineering and usability communities, neither of which was covered in Greenhalgh et al.'s [START_REF] Greenhalgh | Tensions and Paradoxes in Electronic Patient Record Research: A Systematic Literature Review Using the Meta-narrative Method[END_REF] review. Based on our interpretation of the literature and our participation from time to time in these communities, we identify and discuss similarities and differences between them. Our goal is to bring these two communities to the attention of health informatics researchers and to clarify actual or potential confusions that may exist in the literature.

To achieve this aim, first we describe how we identified some key papers that represent the core ideas of the two traditions. Then we discuss each tradition in detail, considering their similarities and differences. Finally we note current and potential contributions of each community to the successful development and implementation of health information systems.

Method

We conducted a systematic and comprehensive search of the Web of Science (via ISI Web of Knowledge) between January and May, 2009 to investigate which research communities were involved in health information systems research. Combinations of keywords including patient safety, technology, decision support, usability, health information systems and automation were used to conduct an extensive literature search of technology in healthcare. Three researchers read through the abstracts of 1642 papers and identified four contributing research communities. We focus on two research communities, usability and CSE, for the purposes of this paper.

To refine our search to the key papers in each of the above two communities, we selected papers (1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009) with ten or more citations. A focused search of highlycited papers from 2006 to 2009 ensured we did not miss important recent contributions. This process resulted in approximately 25 papers for each community.

Five group sessions were conducted during which the papers were discussed in terms of their representativeness of a research community and the quality of the empirical research. As a result of the discussions, we chose to exclude certain papers to achieve a more coherent message for our paper. First, we focused on empirical work because we were interested in the application of theoretical ideas to practice.

Second, we limited our scope to hospital-based work because it represented the dominant research context. Third, we excluded all conference papers because we wanted to focus on journal publications in which authors could present more information about their research. For the usability and CSE communities, the above exclusion process yielded a total of 7 and 8 papers respectively that we considered most representative of each area Finally, an examination of the reference lists of these empirical papers and communications with experts in the areas helped us to identify key theoretical papers that define the historical roots and major contributions of the two research communities.

Results

Usability

Background. Usability is defined as -the extent to which a product can be used by specified users to achieve specified goals with effectiveness, efficiency and satisfaction in a specified context of use‖ [START_REF]Ergonomic requirements for office work with visual display terminals (VDTs) Part 11: Guidance on Usability[END_REF]. Fundamentally, usability professionals are concerned with enhancing the interactive experience between human users and a piece of technology (usually a computer software interface). Usability emerged as an important property of computers and computer software during the proliferation of computers in the general workplace during the 1960s and 1970s. The launch of the Macintosh in 1984 led to usability being recognized as essential to the development of computer technology [START_REF] Dumas | The great leap forward: The birth of the usability profession (1988-1993)[END_REF].

The work of usability practitioners is usually informed by other research traditions including cognitive psychology, human factors and software engineering. Some of the earliest proponents of usability worked for companies such as IBM, Macintosh and Xerox PARC and later shared their experiences with the research community. In the last few decades, the usability profession has acquired a distinct identity. The Usability Professionals Association (UPA) was established in 1991 and it provides resources to support usability research and practice. In addition, the ACM-sponsored Computer Human Interaction (CHI) conference covers some advances in usability research, amongst many other topics. Moreover, publications dedicated to usability research have emerged, such as Journal of Usability Studies.

For usability professionals, the usability of a system is determined by five main criteria [START_REF] Nielsen | Usability Engineering[END_REF]: its learnability, efficiency, memorability, ease of recovery from errors, and user satisfaction. To achieve these criteria, usability researchers encourage (a) early user participation in terms of setting usability goals and design requirements and (b) early and iterative user testing and redesign of prototypes both in the laboratory and work context. Many sets of principles have been created to guide the development of user-centered designs [START_REF] Nielsen | Heuristic Evaluation[END_REF][START_REF] Norman | User-centred system design: New perspective on humancomputer interaction[END_REF] and many techniques exist for evaluating designs, including heuristic task analysis, cognitive walkthroughs, and benchmark user testing [START_REF] Nielsen | Heuristic Evaluation[END_REF][START_REF] Polson | Cognitive walkthroughs -A method for theory-based evaluation of user interfaces[END_REF]. Figure 1 gives a characterization of user testing.

Usability in healthcare. In recent decades, usability has emerged as a critical issue in healthcare. Many health information systems fail because of poor usability [START_REF] Johnson | Why did that happen? Exploring the proliferation of barely usable software in healthcare systems[END_REF]. Allwood and Kalen [START_REF] Allwood | User-Competence and other Usability Aspects when introducing a Patient Administrative System -A case-study[END_REF] were amongst the first to report research on health information systems inspired by usability concepts. Following a four-year field investigation of the introduction of a patient administration system in a Swedish hospital, they identified key issues related to the development process (such as failing to identify usability goals, not having user participation) that contributed to the difficulties users experienced when learning and using the system. More recently, many researchers have raised concerns about how poorly-designed technology may make healthcare systems more vulnerable to adverse events [START_REF] Ash | Some unintended consequences of information technology in health care: The nature of patient care information system-related errors[END_REF]. Thus, there is growing urgency among the usability community to use their methods to identify and prevent technology-induced error in healthcare systems [START_REF] Borycki | Identifying and preventing technology-induced error using simulations: Application of usability engineering techniques[END_REF].

Usability research in healthcare is now quite commonhere we highlight some representative examples. First, researchers have used usability methods to identify associations (a) between physician order entry systems and adverse drug events [START_REF] Koppel | Role of Computerized Physician Order Entry Systems in Facilitating Medication Errors[END_REF] and (b) between handheld prescription writing tools and prescription errors [START_REF] Kushniruk | Technology induced error and usability: The relationship between usability problems and prescription errors when using a handheld application[END_REF]. Second, researchers have applied user-centered and iterative testing and design principles to the development of a health information system interface [START_REF] Johnson | A user-centered framework for redesigning health care interfaces[END_REF] and a mobile electronic patient record prototype [START_REF] Kjeldskov | Exploring context-awareness for ubiquitous computing in the healthcare domain[END_REF]. Third, usability evaluation has been used to assist with decisions about the procurement of hospital equipment such as infusion pumps [START_REF] Ginsburg | Human factors engineering: A tool for medical device evaluation in hospital procurement decision-making[END_REF] and patient monitoring systems [START_REF] Liljegren | Cognitive engineering methods as usability evaluation tools for medical equipment[END_REF]. Finally, given the wide range of methods used in usability research, some research focuses on making comparisons between different usability methods to determine which method is best suited to certain evaluation needs [START_REF] Jaspers | A comparison of usability methods for testing interactive health technologies: Methodological aspects and empirical evidence[END_REF]. CSE research is influenced by many disciplines, including systems engineering, cognitive, ecological psychology, work psychology and anthropology, and so is not considered a -discipline‖ by its adherents [START_REF] Rasmussen | Cognitive systems engineering[END_REF]. It is specifically concerned with supporting human cognitive performance in complex safety critical industries such as nuclear power, aviation and healthcare. Some CSE analysts focus on identifying constraints that operate in work domains and that shape activity [START_REF] Rasmussen | Cognitive systems engineering[END_REF][START_REF] Vicente | Cognitive work analysis: Toward safe, productive, and healthy computerbased work[END_REF]. CSE researchers argue that if people have a good understanding of fundamental constraints in their work environment, they can reason more effectively about how to solve unfamiliar work problems. More recently, many CSE researchers have embraced a proactive approach to risk management called resilience engineering [START_REF] Hollnagel | Resilience Engineering: Concepts and Precepts[END_REF]. Resilience engineering focuses on (a) identifying existing work processes that help people achieve robust and adaptive performance and (b) designing systems that support those processes. Figure 2 gives a characterization of field observation with the questions that a cognitive engineer might bring to it.

CSE in healthcare.

Because the ‗computerization' of healthcare has been slower compared with other domains such as aviation, CSE research is less well established in healthcare than in other domains. An early CSE-oriented healthcare study was conducted by Gaba who investigated anaesthetists' responses to critical incidents in a simulated operating theatre environment [START_REF] Gaba | The Response of Anesthesia Trainees to Simulated Critical Incidents[END_REF]. Following the Institute of Medicine's suggestion that technology could be more effectively used in healthcare [START_REF]Crossing the quality chasm: A new health system for the 21st century[END_REF], CSE researchers have been quick to express concerns that the technology push might result in brittle work practices that make a system more vulnerable to failure [START_REF] Vicente | Less is (sometimes) more in cognitive engineering: the role of automation technology in improving patient safety[END_REF].

We now highlight some key empirical works that reflect CSE concerns. First, some research [START_REF] Patterson | Improving patient safety by identifying side effects from introducing bar coding in medication administration[END_REF] [28] has highlighted side effects that technology (e.g. bar code medication administration system, computerised clinical reminders) can have on communication and coordination practices that may, in turn, contribute to adverse patient outcomes.

Second, researchers have explored how the use of non-electronic cognitive artefacts (e.g. schedules and whiteboards) can reveal hidden aspects of the work that can be used to define information and usage requirements for the design of electronic support [START_REF] Nemeth | Discovering Healthcare cognition: The use of cognitive artifacts to reveal cognitive work[END_REF][START_REF] Xiao | Emergent CSCW systems: The resolution and bandwidth of workplaces[END_REF].

Third, a few researchers have applied CSE principles to the design of health information systems including a blood antibody detection decision support system [START_REF] Guerlain | Interactive Critiquing as a Form of Decision Support: An Empirical Evaluation[END_REF] and a cardiac display [START_REF] Effken | Improving clinical decision making through ecological interfaces[END_REF].

Finally, CSE researchers have studied how variability in and adaptation of work practices contribute to resilient and successful performance in contexts with and without technology such as the introduction of new patient monitoring systems in the operating theatre [START_REF] Cook | Implications of automation surprises in aviation for the future of total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA)[END_REF] or the management of bed resources in the ICU [START_REF] Cook | Being bumpable: Consequences of resource saturation and near-saturation for cognitive demands on ICU practitioners[END_REF].

Nuanced distinctions between areas

The terms -usability‖, -cognitive systems engineering‖ and -cognitive engineering‖ are increasingly used in healthcare, but are sometimes confused. Here we provide our own perspective on how the terms can be distinguished and the confusions that might occur otherwise.

A term often used interchangeably with -cognitive systems engineering‖ is -cognitive engineering‖ (CE) [START_REF] Vicente | Cognitive Engineering research at Riso from 1962-1979[END_REF]. However, for some practitioners there are important differences between CSE and CE. According to Norman, who introduced the term in 1980 and was the first person to describe CE as a unique discipline [START_REF]User Centered System Design -New Perspectives on Human-Computer Interaction[END_REF][START_REF] Norman | Problem solving and education: Issues in teaching and research[END_REF], CE is the application of cognitive science principles to the design and evaluation of technical tools that enhance human cognitive performance in general. CE is typically concerned with a broader and simpler range of applications than CSE, including educational support tools and the -design of everyday things‖ [START_REF] Norman | Problem solving and education: Issues in teaching and research[END_REF][START_REF] Norman | The Psychology of Everyday Things[END_REF]. Many methods proposed by early CE researchers were relatively simple user-centered design and evaluation techniques that are now more commonly associated with usability evaluation. More recently, many CE researchers have performed more complex analyses using methods such as cognitive task analysis and computational cognitive modeling [START_REF] Gray | Cognitive architectures: Choreographing the dance of mental operations with the task environment[END_REF].

In a recent paper assessing usability of healthcare technology, Liljegren and Osvalder [START_REF] Liljegren | Cognitive engineering methods as usability evaluation tools for medical equipment[END_REF] referred to cognitive walkthroughs and usability tests as cognitive engineering methods. Although such methods were described as cognitive engineering methods in 1986 by Norman [START_REF] Norman | User-centred system design: New perspective on humancomputer interaction[END_REF] this description may be less apt now for several reasons. First, cognitive walkthroughs and usability tests are now more closely associated with usability engineering or user-centered design. Second, given that cognitive systems engineering is often referred to as cognitive engineering, if cognitive walkthroughs and usability tests are referred to as cognitive engineering methods, readers might infer that they are central to CSE as well.

Given that the CSE and usability communities differ in their approach to the design and evaluation of technology, Liljegren and Osvalder's usage could conceivably lead to future researchers thinking they have adopted one approach when they are using methodologies that actually better reflect another approach. For that reason it is probably clearer if methods such as usability tests, cognitive walkthroughs, heuristic evaluations, and so on be referred to as usability engineering methods or usercentered design and evaluation methods rather than as cognitive engineering methods.

Comparisons of CSE and usability

In their review of different theoretical approaches to examining the impact and effectiveness of EHRs, Greenhalgh et al. [START_REF] Greenhalgh | Tensions and Paradoxes in Electronic Patient Record Research: A Systematic Literature Review Using the Meta-narrative Method[END_REF] presented some themes that highlight tensions among different research meta-narratives. In a similar vein, below we present five themes that show where usability and CSE approaches to healthcare may be most strongly contrasted. The first three themes are inspired by themes in the Greenhalgh et al. paper. The last two are new themes that emerged during our group discussions and that helped us distinguish between the usability and CSE communities. In Table 1 we present the studies reviewed according to which theme we think each study best represents.

Note that we do not say that the two research communities have no connection. Researchers in each community incorporate ideas from the other to strengthen their work. In addition, the two communities share many similarities: both are concerned about user experience, both are empirical in nature, and both draw from the human sciences in different forms and different ways.

The Technology. Greenhalgh et al. [START_REF] Greenhalgh | Tensions and Paradoxes in Electronic Patient Record Research: A Systematic Literature Review Using the Meta-narrative Method[END_REF] noted two different perceptions of technology in healthcare among the human-centered research communities: (a) technology as a ‗tool or container' or (b) technology as an artifact that ‗acts' in the environment. Usability professionals are more likely to adopt the former view that technology is a tool that processes and communicates information [START_REF] Benyon | Designing interactive systems: People, activities, contexts, and technologies[END_REF]. Their primary concerns are to (a) determine which tasks need to be supported by the technology, and (b) design the technology and test whether it helps users effectively perform the task.

On the other hand, CSE professionals are more likely to adopt the latter view that technology is an artifact that brings new opportunities and challenges into the work environment. The primary concern is to develop new concepts or models that give designers insight into new phenomena that may emerge when new technology is introduced into a workplace (e.g. automation surprises, clumsy automation) [START_REF] Cook | Implications of automation surprises in aviation for the future of total intravenous anesthesia (TIVA)[END_REF][START_REF] Sarter | Automation Surprise[END_REF].

Table 1: List of reviewed usability and CSE studies organized according to theme comparisons.

Usability CSE

The Technology Liljegren & Osvalder (2004) [19] Ginsburg (2005) [18] Cook & Woods (1996) [33] The User Kjeldskov & Slov (2007) [17] Xiao & Seagull (2006) [30] Saleem (2005) [28] The Work Context Kushniruk et al. (2005) [15] Patterson et al. ( 2002) [27] Nemeth et al. ( 2006) [29] Theory Johnson et al. ( 2005) [16] Jaspers (2009) [20] Effken (2006) [32] Guerlain (1999) [31] Human Error Koppel et al. ( 2005) [14] Cook (2006) [34] The User. Given that both are human-centered approaches, usability and CSE emphasize the importance of drawing from user experience when designing and evaluating health information systems. However, different aspects of the user are considered in each case, because of differences in their research goals. Usability researchers focus on physical, perceptual, and cognitive similarities and differences between users in order to design technology that supports all kinds of people. The user is an evaluator of the technology and may also be involved in the design process on a participatory basis. On the other hand, CSE researchers focus on the adaptive and resilient behaviors of users as they tailor their work practices and work environment (including technology) to achieve successful performance. Each design is considered a hypothesis about how technology shapes work behavior and it is the user who completes the design with their workarounds and tailor-made adaptations [START_REF] Woods | Designs are hypotheses about how artifacts shape cognition and collaboration[END_REF].

The Work Context. Usability and CSE researchers handle work context differently. In much usability evaluation, users are tested on specific tasks in controlled environments [START_REF] Dumas | A practical guide to usability testing[END_REF] where there is a strong focus on measurement. Contextual factors such as time and place, social norms or power structure are only considered later, in terms of how they affect the adoption and use of technology in the workplace. On the other hand, in CSE research there is less separation of work context, work itself and the technology designed to support work. CSE empirical work is usually conducted in the field where researchers explore the so-called ‗wrapped package' of dynamic interactions among workers, tools, tasks and structures that make up the cognitive work context [START_REF] Hoffman | Perspectives on Cognitive Task Analysis: Historical Origins and Modern Communities of Practice[END_REF]. Consequently, CSE researchers may identify more subtle or tacit factors that should also be considered when evaluating designs, even though such factors may be less directly measurable.

Theory. The role of theory also differs across usability and CSE research. Usability and user testing are often embedded in the software engineering process. Designers may draw from various theories in cognitive science, cognitive psychology, and social psychology when developing and testing designs [START_REF] Carroll | HCI models, theories, and frameworks: toward a multydisciplinary science[END_REF]. Similarly, evaluators may draw from theories of human perception and cognition when considering how a user might interact with a system. On the other hand, CSE involves the development of general theories about human interaction with systems, but particularly with technology-intensive and safety-critical systems. CSE research is informed by a broad range of theories such as systems theory, control theory, ecological psychology and cognitive sciences in the quest to gain insight into the interaction between people and technology. Model-development is a key theme.

Human error. Both the usability and CSE communities recognise that accidents conventionally attributed to ‗human error' are more often the result of badly designed technology. However, there are differences in the way the two communities approach this problem. Usability researchers focus on how to design technology that reduces the likelihood of user mistakes, slips, and lapses. In contrast, CSE researchers see -error‖ as emerging from the same work processes that lead to success. People adapt their behavior to respond to workplace pressures towards efficiency or thoroughness [START_REF] Hollnagel | The ETTO principle: Efficiency-thoroughness tradeoff -Why things that go right sometimes go wrong[END_REF]. Most of the time such adaptation is successful, but occasionally conditions are hostile and unintended consequences occur.

Discussion and conclusion

The aim of this paper was to review research that demonstrates similarities and differences between CSE and usability-two research communities contributing to the design and evaluation of health information systems. Both communities share the goal of designing technologies that support human cognitive performance, and both encourage active user participation in the design and evaluation of health information systems. Although the review is limited in scope given our exclusion criteria, we hope it provides readers with a better understanding of the type of work carried out in both research communities and, more importantly, of some key distinctions between them.

The design and evaluation of human-centered health information systems is a challenging task. Reviews such as Greenhalgh et al.'s [START_REF] Greenhalgh | Tensions and Paradoxes in Electronic Patient Record Research: A Systematic Literature Review Using the Meta-narrative Method[END_REF], Hoffman and Militello's survey of communities of practice investigating cognitive tasks [START_REF] Hoffman | Perspectives on cognitive task analysis[END_REF], and the current paper can provide useful information to help healthcare researchers and practitioners make more informed decisions about which theoretical approaches and methods are most appropriate for their needs. Usability techniques can be very effective when practitioners need objective measurements about relatively fine points of interaction. However, researchers may wish to start with CSE methods when a broad perspective on work processes is needed, or if they want to check whether technology affects other work processes that are important for successful performance, but that are removed from the immediate point of interaction. All research communities have their unique strengths and limitations. It is up to the researcher to find the right combination that will help them answer their specific research question.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Characterization of a traditional usability method (user testing). Researcher is the gray figure at right looking through a two-way mirror at a participant performing a task under controlled laboratory conditions. Thought clouds indicate representative concerns of researcher and participant.

3. 2

 2 Cognitive Systems Engineering Background. Cognitive systems engineering (CSE) is an approach to the analysis, modeling, design and evaluation of complex socio-technical systems. It emerged in the early 1980s from studies of the human operator's role in process control during the 1960s and 1970s, culminating in analyses of the Three-Mile Island accident in 1979. The first published usage of the term -cognitive systems engineering‖ was in 1983 by Hollnagel and Woods [21] who argued that ‗instead of viewing man-machine systems as decomposable mechanistic principles, CSE introduces the concept of a [joint] cognitive system', where man and machine work together as a team responding adaptively to complex work problems. Many CSE researchers are human factors specialists and there is a CSE technical group within the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society. There are several journals dedicated to CSE research including the Journal of Cognitive Engineering and Decision Making journal and Cognition, Technology and Work. In addition to activity within the Human Factors and Ergonomics Society conference, there are also strong CSE communities in Europe.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Characterization of a cognitive systems engineering method (field observation). Panel in background represents a workplace artefacta whiteboard. Figures at left are people in their workplace, whereas gray figure at right is the researcher. Thought clouds are representative questions about how work is organized and supported.

Acknowledgments

We gratefully acknowledge substantial input and assistance from members of the National Information and Communication Technology Australia (NICTA) Cognitive and Organisational Systems Engineering (COSE) project. NICTA is funded by the Australian Government as represented by the Department of Broadband, Communications and the Digital Economy and the Australian Research Council through the ICT Centre of Excellence program.