Tom Mansion
email: tom.mansion@irt-systemx.fr

Raphaël Braud
email: raphael.braud@irt-systemx.fr

Ahmed Amrani
email: ahmed.amrani@irt-systemx.fr

Sabrina Chaouche
email: sabrina.chaouche@irt-systemx.fr

Faouzi Adjed
email: faouzi.adjed@irt-systemx.fr

Loïc Cantat
email: loic.cantat@irt-systemx.fr

DebiAI: Open-Source Toolkit for Data Analysis, Visualisation and Evaluation in Machine Learning

Keywords: Data Analysis, Data Visualization, Bias Detection, Contextual Evaluation, Machine Learning, Trustworthy AI

DebiAI is an open-source tool designed for data analysis, visualization, as well as evaluation and comparison of Machine Learning (ML) models. It is intended to be used both at the stage of the project data preparation, and for the evaluation of the ML models performances. It has a rich and user-friendly graphical interface that allows to visualize, analyze, select, edit and annotate data and metadata, as well as for bias detection and contextual evaluation of ML models. The tool relies on a generic data model, making it applicable to any type of ML task: classification, regression, object detection in images and more. It is an open source code distributed under the Apache License, Version 2.0 . The code is publicly available on https://github.com/

I. INTRODUCTION

Data analysis and visualization are fundamental tasks in Machine Learning (ML) projects. They are playing a crucial role in a typical ML process, and are contributing not only in the data preparation phase but also during and after the model building. This emerging research topic, which combines several interactive systems and domains for ML processes, focused on human interaction and collaboration [START_REF] Sperrle | A Survey of Human-Centered Evaluations in Human-Centered Machine Learning[END_REF] created a new field that is Human-Centred Machine Learning (HCML) interaction [START_REF] Kaluarachchi | A review of recent deep learning approaches in human-centered machine learning[END_REF]. Thus, a typical HCML framework allows an interactive visual analytic and ML evaluation [START_REF] Sacha | What you see is what you can change: Human-centered machine learning by interactive visualization[END_REF]. Consequently, efficient tools are needed to assist, during the whole ML process, in data preparation and quality inspection before and after using the data for model training.

An effective tool should help enhance the iterative ML process across various phases: data preparation, analysis, anomaly detection, and annotation during the preparation phase, as well as the analysis and evaluation of models results. This aids in identifying the model's weaknesses and detecting issues at the data level. In real-world ML projects (e.g., industrial ones), the data is enriched by metadata including operational context, expert knowledge, etc; that can help better understand the raw data and can be informative for the learning process, and hence improving the quality of the model's learning and predictions. Having such tools contribute also to the enhancing the trustworthiness of the used ML algorithm.

In ML-based engineering systems, it is crucial to guarantee key properties like accuracy, robustness, explainability, fairness, privacy, among many other primary values of Trustworthiness. Current research and development challenges of deploying trustworthy ML solutions are covered by wide programs like Confiance.ai [START_REF] Confiance | Confiance.ai Program[END_REF], the French AI flagship program to industrialize trustworthy AI-based critical systems [START_REF] Adedjouma | Engineering Dependable AI Systems[END_REF] [START_REF] Juliette | Ai engineering to deploy reliable ai in industry[END_REF] and the TAILOR [START_REF] Taylor | TAYLOR Network Program[END_REF] network at the European level.

DebiAI has been developed by the IRT SystemX in the framework of Confiance.ai program to contribute in ensuring trustworthiness by data, and serves as the main interface to view, analyze, select, edit and/or annotate any type of data and metadata. The rest of the paper is organized as following: Section II presents a brief state of the art of developed HCML tools, Section III presents methodology, followed by implementation description and application in a real use case described in Sections IV and V, respectively. Finally, conclusions and perspectives are drawn in Section VI.

II. LITERATURE REVIEW

Data visualization is the practice of representing information using graphical representations, employing technology-driven tools and software. Its fundamental objective is to enhance pattern recognition, improve understanding of complex concepts and facilitate in-depth exploration, thereby fostering the generation of new insights. Well-designed data visualizations can help in understanding large datasets and establishing connections between ideas, concepts, and processing stages. Therefore, visual analysis can contribute to the optimization of AI approaches by actively participating in all aspects of the model building process [START_REF] Yuan | A survey of visual analytics techniques for machine learning[END_REF] [START_REF] Wang | Visual analytics for machine learning: A data perspective survey[END_REF]. Similarly, Hohman et al. [START_REF] Hohman | Understanding and visualizing data iteration in machine learning[END_REF] highlights that successful ML applications often require iterations in data handling and continuous adjustments of the model. The authors introduced CHAMELEON, an interactive tool designed to attribute data iteration, thereby enhancing model performance, data validation, and the overall quality of ML projects. To improve data quality, Kandel et al. [START_REF] Kandel | Profiler: Integrated statistical analysis and visualization for data quality assessment[END_REF] presented Profiler, a tool using data mining to automatically detect issues and recommend coordinated visualizations for context-based assessment. Profiler offers methods for integrated statistical and visual analysis and view suggestions. ScrutinAI [START_REF] Haedecke | ScrutinAI: A visual analytics tool supporting semantic assessments of object detection models[END_REF] is a Visual Analytics tool specifically tailored for enhancing the comprehension of deep neural network (DNN) predictions. Its primary objective is to identify and investigate potential weaknesses within models. To facilitate this, ScrutinAI provides interactive visualizations of input and output data, along with interactive plots and data filtering for comprehensive analysis of predictions. This tool is specifically designed for object detection and semantic segmentation, whereas DebiAI is applicable to a wide range of use cases. Zhang et al. [START_REF] Zhang | Manifold: A model-agnostic framework for interpretation and diagnosis of machine learning models[END_REF] presented Manifold, a visual analytics platform designed for comparing and debugging ML models. The platform empowers users to categorize instances based on the model's accuracy and confidence, identify symptomatic instances that generate incorrect results and continually help to enhance the model's performance. As DebiAI, Manifold is created as a generic tool that operates independently of the internal logic of the ML model. It focuses on the input and the output. In order to improve the models' performances and gain insights into their limitations, relying solely on the overall result from the test and training sets is insufficient. To address this limitation, the ModelTracker [START_REF] Amershi | ModelTracker: Redesigning Performance Analysis Tools for Machine Learning[END_REF] tool offers instance-level visualization of results and enables users to individually inspect each instance. The tool has been applied to the binary classification task. In [START_REF] Ren | Squares: Supporting interactive performance analysis for multiclass classifiers[END_REF], the authors applied the approach for a multi-class classification task. They used Parallel Coordinates Plots (PCP) to visually represent the multi-class predictions for a subset of instances. To complete these shortcomings and improve the understanding of models results, the proposed DebiAI enables the analysis of model's outcomes across various levels of granularity (instance, subset and dataset). This functionality has been applied to multiple tasks such as regression, classification, object detection, etc. In line with the approach outlined in [START_REF] Ren | Squares: Supporting interactive performance analysis for multiclass classifiers[END_REF], DebiAI leverages the use of PCP for model's results analysis. However, the implementation of PCP within DebiAI is flexible, enabling its use not only for result analysis but also for assessing attributes.

III. METHODOLOGY

DebiAI is a web-based visual analytics application designed to support ML and data analysis. Its emphasis lies in two crucial phases of the ML pipeline: pre-model and post-model building. It facilitates the development of ML models by assisting in data analysis during data curating and processing stage and enabling models performances comparison.

In the pre-model construction phase, DebiAI serves as a key resource for data scientists and ML engineers during project preparation. It enables them to visually identify biases and errors in data inputs, detect anomalies and outliers throughout the data life cycle, assess data quality and domain coverage through relevant metrics and select and analyze subsets of data to improve the quality of ML models.

In the post-model building phase, DebiAI serves as a visual analytics solution, simplifying the interpretation of the ML model's outputs. Its primary objective is to present the model's results in an intuitive and easily understandable manner, ultimately enhancing user confidence in the model's predictions. Additionally, DebiAI offers features to identify model's weaknesses, comparing performances, and evaluating model's effectiveness. This comprehensive approach fosters ongoing model refinement, tailored to the specific needs of the use case.

In both phases, DebiAI provides tools for creating and sharing statistical visualizations of the project data and results with collaborators (team or/and clients).

A. Functional Description

DebiAI is an intuitive visualization tool designed to simplify the creation of interactive dashboards, empowering users without little to no programming skills. It offers a diverse set of graphical widgets, including charts, tables, parallel categories, parallel coordinate plots, interval plots, night stars plots, and sample arrays. Moreover, DebiAI provides a user-friendly and flexible solution for interactive dashboard design, allowing users to effortlessly configure, adjust, resize, and position these widgets within their dashboards, ensuring the utmost customization of data presentation. This includes the ability to generate and share statistical visualizations of project data with team members or clients, fostering collaboration and informed decision-making by providing clear insights into the data. One of DebiAI's standout features is its dynamic data selection and filtering capabilities, encouraging continuous exploration. Users can effortlessly create data subsets (selections) and apply filters based on various variables and contexts. This ensures that the dashboard consistently presents the identified subset of data. Furthermore, DebiAI assists users in identifying biases and inaccuracies in inputs, results, project data contexts or ground truths, thereby improving data integrity. DebiAI facilitates the evaluation and comparison of ML model's performances within the whole dataset or a specific data subset. It enables the analysis of results across multiple levels of granularity. Indeed, the model's performances are calculated at the level of each instance. Consequently, it is possible to identify the contexts or a combination of contexts in which the model encounters difficulties. It also simplifies the generation and organization of datasets, supporting in-depth analysis and potential retraining. DebiAI relies on a generic data model that facilitates seamless application across various datasets, data types and use cases while maintaining consistent data processing practices. This essential feature provides DebiAI with flexibility, allowing it to transition effortlessly between various datasets or model's results. In addition to its visualization capabilities, DebiAI incorporates implementations of statistical measures such as correlation analysis using Pearson or Spearman coefficients. To support these visualizations, DebiAI also integrates techniques for discretizing continuous variables. In addition, it enables the use of internal or external algorithms to compute metrics or indicators on the data. Consequently, these metrics can be calculated either before integrating the data into DebiAI or during the data analysis phase. Various types of calculations can potentially be carried out by these algorithms, including the computation of new features, the assessment of model's results quality, as well as indicators of data quality and distribution.

IV. IMPLEMENTATION DESCRIPTION In this section, we describe DebiAI's global architecture and further dive into the detail of each component. that not only provides an API but also serves the Web dashboard. This API is employed by the dashboard for data retrieval and by the Python module for data insertion. Additionally, it manages communications with the Web Data-providers and processes computational requests made by the dashboard. • Data storage: DebiAI uses a folder-based data store that contains data in a JSON format. This data store supports the DebiAI backend by retaining projects created by the Python module and some specific dashboard elements, including layout configurations for project dashboards.

A. DebiAI Technical architecture

B. DebiAI Generic Data Model

The data format required must follow a CSV structure with no missing values. One of the most important features of DebiAI is its data model. The main objective is to enable the determination of the format of instances and the relationship between instances, models, models' outputs, and models' evaluation metrics per instance. Syntactically, each instance is composed of attributes, contexts and annotations. The instance is linked to multiple ML models, where each model produces an output. Evaluation metrics are also associated with the model's outputs. This structure is applicable to all types of data and ML tasks (classification, regression, object detection, etc.).

C. DebiAI Data Integration Process

DebiAI offers two main ways to add data, each suited for different types of users and projects:

1) Python Module: This principal method enables seamless integration of project's data into DebiAI via a dedicated Python module. Made for an integration within Python workflows, this approach, for example, facilitates the direct transfer of models' results post-evaluation. This method is especially handy for those who primarily use Python. 2) Data Providers: Alternatively, DebiAI can interface with data through RESTful services, termed 'Data Providers'. This method is database-agnostic, allowing DebiAI to directly request project's data, thereby making the data loading process faster and more efficient. Unlike the Python module, it doesn't require DebiAI to duplicate data within its integrated database. Although setting up a Data Provider is more time-consuming than using the Python module, it offers greater efficiency and flexibility. This is particularly beneficial for long-term projects that regularly update their data. Each method offers distinct benefits, and the choice depends on the specific requirements and scale of the project.

V. DEBIAI APPLICATION

DebiAI is built upon a generic data model, and does not depend on data type (for instance images and time series), making it pertinent to various use cases across a multitude of datasets. This intrinsic adaptability allows it to be valuable in a wide range of scenarios. It demonstrates its utility in the analysis of time series data, simplifying essential tasks such as regression. Furthermore, its functionality seamlessly extends to computer vision applications. Indeed, DebiAI provides tailored visual support for each stage of the process, enhancing models in tasks such as object detection and image classification.

In the following two sections, we will present the use of multiple widgets in DebiAI for various use cases and provide an overview of a use case related to 2D object detection.

A. DebiAI Visual Functionalities

As described in Section III-A, DebiAI gives the ability to visualize and create interactive dashboards. Moreover, it can visualize various data types such as time series, point clouds and tabular data and display computed attributes of images. However, for images viewing, it can establish links with external tools. In this section, we review a set of graphics implemented on different datasets with different data types. We also illustrate the main filtering features proposed by DebiAI. Four graphical visualizations are presented by exploring the parallel coordinates, the data distribution, the points plots and the time series widgets enhanced with interactive options. Fig. 2 illustrates a visualization of a dataset by using a parallel coordinates and the possibility to filter directly a set of variables. Another graphic visualization to analyse data distributions variables with the possibility of grouping by other variables is shown in Fig. 3. The third visualization selected from DebiAI is the possibility to apply statistical measures. Fig. 4, captures a data cloud visualized with its primary statistical measures; an envelope of min and max of the data, the average, the confidence interval ±σ, where σ represents the standard deviation and also two deciles of the data. Fig. 5 visually encapsulates the two distinct stages in the statistical analysis of a time series. Initially, Fig. 5a displays the original data over an extended period. Subsequently, in the second stage, Fig. 5b illustrates the time series after a more detailed analysis and filtering, focusing on a shorter timeframe. Among the statistical measures, a noteworthy one to explore when analyzing dataset's variables is examining their correlation, a task effortlessly accomplished using the DebiAI's correlation matrix widget.

B. WoodScape Dataset: 2D Object Detection Case Study

The WoodScape dataset [START_REF] Yogamani | Woodscape: A multi-task, multi-camera fisheye dataset for autonomous driving[END_REF] is a public dataset containing more than 100.000 images of urban scenes captured using fish-eye cameras for automotive driving tasks. The images are provided by 4 different cameras with different angles of view (front, rear, middle right and middle left) with 360 • coverage and have annotations for a diverse set of computer vision tasks.

In our study, we focus on the 2D bounding boxes detection task with five classes: vehicle, person, bicycle, traffic light and traffic sign. We applied two versions of YOLO-based architectures, specifically YOLOv5 and YOLOv8. A YOLOv5 and a YOLOv8 models trained on WoodScape dataset and a YOLOv8 model pre-trained on COCO2017 [START_REF] Lin | Microsoft coco: Common objects in context[END_REF].

The first step is to obtain a comprehensive overview of the data distribution, understand its scope and how it can be effectively used in a ML process. This comprehension is crucial, as it helps in the formulation of effective training strategies. The Fig. 6 shows the distribution of the dataset's train set composition of each class of the five cited above grouped by the camera id. By applying the same configuration to display the distribution of each of the three sets (train, validation and test), we observe a similar distribution among the three of them. This confirms the appropriate split of the data. Nevertheless, the figure highlights the imbalance among the distributions of the five classes, suggesting the need for adaptive training techniques, for example using a weight sampler. It is essential to consider this imbalance when interpreting the models outputs to avoid biased and skewed conclusions. In the second stage, we used DebiAI to analyze the results of our models applied on the WoodScape test set and put them back into the context of the dataset and its features. This approach ensures an accurate interpretation of the models' outputs and provides potential improvements directions. The Fig. 7 shows the distribution of the f1-score of each model grouped by the camera id, where we can easily spot the gap in performance between the three models: having the two models trained on WoodScape dataset showing higher scores compared to the one pre-trained on COCO 2017 dataset, which is expected giving the discrepancy between the two datasets. We can also notice that the Yolov5 trained on the WoodScape

VI. CONCLUSIONS AND PERSPECTIVES

In this paper, we introduced DebiAI, a versatile web-based visual analytics tool that enhances data preparation process, quality assessment, model results analysis and comparison in ML projects. Its adaptability to various use cases and userfriendliness make it a valuable asset contributing to the trustworthiness in AI. For instance, we illustrated its application in a use case of 2D object detection task for driving assistance. As Machine Learning evolves, DebiAI can play a pivotal role in ensuring reliable and interpretable ML outcomes, solidifying its relevance in the field. In DebiAI's outlook, the priorities are to simplify the data integration process, enhance interoperability with the learning process to retrieve and analyze data from each cycle. The concepts of robustness and explainability are also tied to model's quality. Therefore, incorporating these metrics into the process is critical for overall trust. Furthermore, we are considering coupling DebiAI with a data version control system to ensure traceability of dataset and models' results evolution.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: DebiAI architecture overview

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: parallel coordinates widget. (a) represents the original data uploaded and (b) represents the same widget by selecting a subset of variables interactively.

  Fig. 3: illustration of data distribution by adding the option of "grouped by". (a) represents an example of data and (b) represents the same data grouped by another variable with two different colors.

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Statistical treatment for an example of cloud data. (a) represents the original data and (b) represents the data by adding a set of statistical measures. Here illustrated measures are: mean, standard deviation, min and max and deciles

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Dataset's train set split by objects class distribution grouped by Camera ID

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: f1-score results by Camera ID grouped by Models

ACKNOWLEDGMENT

This work has been supported by the French Government under the "France 2030" program, as part of the SystemX Technological Research Institute. This work was conducted as part of the Confiance.ai program, which aims to develop innovative solutions for enhancing the reliability and trustworthiness of industrial AI-based systems.


PhD Camille Humeau
email: camille.humeau1@univ-nantes.fr

Philippe Guimard
email: philippe.guimard@univ-nantes.fr

Isabelle Nocus
email: isabelle.nocus@univ-nantes.fr

Jean-Michel Galharret
email: jean-michel.galharret@univ-nantes.fr

Parental Language Practices and Children's Use of the Minority Language: the Mediating Role of Children's Language Attitudes

INTRODUCTION

Growing up in a bilingual environment does not necessarily imply speaking two languages [START_REF] De Houwer | Parental language input patterns and children's bilingual use[END_REF][START_REF] Pearson | Social factors in childhood bilingualism in the United States[END_REF]. While learning the majority languagei.e. official language of the country, the media, the education system and civil services [START_REF] Hélot | Du bilinguisme en famille au plurilinguisme à l'école[END_REF] is easier for children, notably through school, the practice of the minority language is not systematic and some children decide not to speak it. The role of parents, and in particular their language practices at home, is one of the reasons given by De Houwer (2020) to explain the underlying causes of the problem of single-language use by children raised in a bilingual family context. According to Blanchet (2012), a minority language is collectively "minorated", i.e. has a lower social status than another language, and "minoritised", i.e. is less practiced (speakers, productions, interactions) than another language. A minority language could be considered a non-official language of the country [START_REF] Fairclough | Emerging literacy in Spanish among Hispanic heritage university students in the USA: A pilot study[END_REF]. In France, the state promotes monolingualism in French, whose hegemony increased over the course of the 20th century [START_REF] Filhon | Le patrimoine linguistique africain en France[END_REF] leading to the minorization of languages, which legitimises and reproduces inequalities of access to power and resources for different minority language groups.

Researchers have been interested in minority language maintenance for several decades, and Family Language Policy (FLP) research attempts to understand why some children retain and use their minority language, while others "lose" it (Curdt-Christiansen, 2013, p.1). The focus has often been on the role of parents (ideologies, practices, language management) and research has mainly concentrated on children as passive receivers [START_REF] Smith-Christmas | Child agency and home language maintenance[END_REF].

Postprint

First published online November 17, 2023 However, the most recent works on FLPs recognise family as a dynamic system (Curdt-Christiansen & Huang, 2020), i.e. more and more studies are encouraging the recognition of children's agency in maintaining minority languages (Fogle & King, 2013;[START_REF] Smith-Christmas | Child agency and home language maintenance[END_REF]. This study examines whether and how children influence the way in which a minority language can (or cannot) be maintained. It provides new evidence in the context of France to highlight the role of parents' language practices in maintaining minority languages in children, while considering children as co-actors. We will use the term parental language practices to describe how parents use languages with their children at home. The literature shows that favouring the parent(s)'s use of the minority language at home would encourage children to use it in addition to the language used at school [START_REF] De Houwer | Parental language input patterns and children's bilingual use[END_REF][START_REF] Hoff | Expressive vocabulary development in children from bilingual and monolingual homes : A longitudinal study from two to four years[END_REF][START_REF] Macleod | Simultaneous bilingual language acquisition : The role of parental input on receptive vocabulary development[END_REF][START_REF] Pearson | Social factors in childhood bilingualism in the United States[END_REF][START_REF] Schwartz | Achieving Success in Family Language Policy : Parents, Children and Educators in Interaction[END_REF], however, no research has been carried out on this issue in the French context. Children's agency will be illustrated through their language attitudes, as a child-related factor likely to influence language maintenance. While other research indicates that the attitudes of teenagers and adults towards a language are directly related to its use and learning [START_REF] Blondin | L'apprentissage des langues en Communauté française : Curriculum, attitudes des élèves et auto-évaluation[END_REF][START_REF] Castellotti | Guide pour l'élaboration des politiques linguistiques éducatives en Europe -De la diversité linguistique à l'éducation plurilingue[END_REF][START_REF] Lasagabaster | Les attitudes linguistiques : Un état des lieux[END_REF][START_REF] Letsholo | Language maintenance or shift? Attitudes of Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue[END_REF][START_REF] Nguyen | Language attitudes, identity and L1 maintenance : A qualitative study of Vietnamese ethnic minority students[END_REF], few studies examine children's attitudes towards their minority language, even though these are built up before adolescence [START_REF] Riaño | Les attitudes linguistiques chez de jeunes adolescents dans la principauté des asturies[END_REF] and seem to play an important role in the maintenance of this language [START_REF] Yang | Reflexive language attitudes and language practices among school-aged Chinese Australian immigrant bilinguals[END_REF].

This study is guided by the following research question: do children's language attitudes mediate part of the relationship between parental language practices and children's minority language maintenance? More specifically, our first objective is to verify, in the French context, the results of De Houwer (2007) which show that increased use of minority language by the parents at home, increased children's use of this language. Our second objective is to examine the mediating role of children's language attitudes in the relationship, widely studied in research, between parents' language practices and children's language use. The role of children's language attitudes in this relationship was investigated using mediation analysis. More precisely, we focused on the role of the language attitudes of children in this association: the effect that passes through them (indirect effect) and the remaining effect between parental language practices and the child's use of the minority language (direct effect).

The Context of France

According to the latest figures from the National Institute of Statistics and Economic Studies (INSEE), seven million immigrants live in France in 2021, or 10.3% of the total population. France is a country with a great linguistic diversity where 26% of the population is Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 bilingual, one out of four received from their parent a language other than French, in half of the cases a language of immigration. There are two types of languages in France: regional languages which include languages spoken in metropolitan France (Alsatian, Basque, Breton, Corsican, Catalan, Occitan, etc.) and Outre-mer (Creole, Mauritian, Malagasy, etc.), and foreign languages brought by migrations and/or learned at school (Arabic, Berber, Chinese, English, Italian, Spanish, Turkish, etc.) [START_REF] Deprez | Évolution du bilinguisme familial en France[END_REF]. According to the Ministry of Culture (2016) and the National Institute of Demographic Studies (INED), the most widely spoken languages in France, apart from French, are dialectal Arabic (3 or 4 million speakers), Creole and Berber (2 million), Alsatian (548,000), Occitan (526,000), etc. [START_REF] Calvet | Pratiques des langues en France. Oui, mais[END_REF] points out that speakers of immigrant languages (Arabic, Soninke) are increasingly represented, unlike speakers of regional languages (Breton, Basque). Languages other than French have always been spoken in France, but some are depreciated because they are considered "poor", "complicated to pronounce", "without grammar", and for these reasons, "useless" to teach at school, even "harmful" for the development of the child [START_REF] Nocus | Bilinguismes des enfants en contextes multilingues (PUR)[END_REF]. Some professionals even suggest that parents do not speak their minority language to their children to avoid disturbing them and causing language and/or academic difficulties (Nocus, ibid.). Advice that, Barontini (2016) reminds us, is given only about "discredited" immigrant languages. On the other hand, other languages can be seen as more prestigious, because they are considered as "languages of reason or knowledge", which should be taught in schools [START_REF] Nocus | Bilinguismes des enfants en contextes multilingues (PUR)[END_REF]. For example, immigrant languages like African languages (Arabic, Wolof, Lingala, Malagasy, etc.) are minorated, whereas English or Spanish are popular and valued [START_REF] Filhon | Le patrimoine linguistique africain en France[END_REF]. The bilingualism of these migrant children is thus curbed, whereas it is encouraged for the elite and valued languages. At school, there are thousands of children whose family language is not French. The official language of instruction is French and since 2013, the teaching of a living language is compulsory from the first grade (1h30/week), in 90% of cases, English.

Parental Language Practices and Children's Use of the Minority Language

According to Schwartz and Verschik (2013, p.1), family is "a central position as a key prerequisite for maintaining and preserving languages". It is partly in their family environment that children find the indispensable incentives to speak the minority language [START_REF] Dalgalian | L'importance de l'environnement[END_REF].

In bilingual families, parents use and transmit their languages in a variety of ways; we generally distinguish three main types of practices [START_REF] Grosjean | Parler plusieurs langues[END_REF][START_REF] Hélot | Du bilinguisme en famille au plurilinguisme à l'école[END_REF]Piller, 2001). The first, "one parent -one language" (OPOL), identifies families where each parent speaks their language exclusively. The child naturally receives dual exposure to both languages, but this Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 strategy seems difficult to maintain and the contribution of a single parent in the minority language would not be sufficient [START_REF] De Houwer | Parental language input patterns and children's bilingual use[END_REF]. The second, exclusive use of the minority language at home, is based on the hypothesis that the child will systematically learn the majority language through the school. The third approach, language mixing or "mixed strategy" identifies parents who use both languages in a mixed manner daily. This practice is by far the most common in bilingual families [START_REF] Andritsou | Family Language Policy and Childhood Bilingualism : A Multidimensional Theoretical Analysis[END_REF]. Other approaches exist, although they are less widespread: for instance, the approach centered on the use of languages according to the time of day or the child's age [START_REF] Grosjean | Parler plusieurs langues[END_REF].

These practices can be conscious or not and can play a significant part in the children's use of this language. In a study conducted in Belgium with 1899 families, De Houwer (2007) shows that a significant exposure to the minority language from parents is essential to support children's bilingual development: the more parents favour the use of the minority language, the higher the proportion of children use two languages. For instance, when both parents only use the minority language (MinL) at home (MinL+MinL profile), 97% of the children speak both the minority and majority languages. If one of the parents uses the majority language (MajL) in addition to the minority language (MinL/MajL+MinL profile), the proportion of children speaking both languages falls to 93%. When both parents use the majority language and only one of them uses the minority language (MinL/MajL+MajL profile), only 34% of the children say they use both languages. Furthermore, there is no significant difference between the first two profiles regarding the proportion of children who use both languages. Thus, the parents' use of the majority language does not threaten the transmission of the minority language. De Houwer (2007)'s findings call into question Ronjat's "one parent, one language" (OPOL) strategy and incite bilingual parents to mainly speak to their children in the minority language.

Other research goes in the same direction: in [START_REF] Macleod | Simultaneous bilingual language acquisition : The role of parental input on receptive vocabulary development[END_REF]'s study conducted on 9 simultaneous bilingual (French-German) children (mean age 59 months), 8 out of 9 families had developed the "one parent, one language" (OPOL) approach. The results show a correlation between the degree of exposure to the majority language and the child's proficiency in this language, but this correlation is not significant for the minority language. Hoff and colleagues (2014) also recommend a high exposure to the minority language from parents to support children's bilingual development. According to them, encouraging the native speakers, i.e. the parents, to use the minority language at home would help their children maintain it.

In summary, these studies show that parents' use of the minority language fosters their children's use or maintenance of it. However, according to Mishina-Mori (2011), parental Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 choices do not alone explain children's language choices. Bilingual development also depends on the perceptions children have of their language(s), i.e. their language attitudes.

Language Attitudes and Use of Minority Language

An attitude can be defined as a "global and relatively lasting assessment that people make of objects, ideas or other people. They can be positive, negative or neutral and vary in intensity." (Petty et al., 2003, cited by Vallerand, 2006, p.237). A language attitude thus refers to a speaker's feeling towards their language(s) and that/those of others (Crystal, 1997, cited by [START_REF] Dweik | Language choice and language attitudes in a multilingual arab canadian community : Quebec-Canada : A sociolinguistic study[END_REF]. Language attitudes can be constructed or deconstructed over time, depending on the child's language, social and family environment.

The values children associate with languages contribute to the maintenance and learning of the minority language and proficiency. According to [START_REF] Dalgalian | L'importance de l'environnement[END_REF], children are affectively involved with their languages, either positively or negatively. Their language attitudes could thus be explained by the subjective values they associate with languages [START_REF] Castellotti | Guide pour l'élaboration des politiques linguistiques éducatives en Europe -De la diversité linguistique à l'éducation plurilingue[END_REF]. In the context of learning a second language at school (L2), [START_REF] Blondin | L'apprentissage des langues en Communauté française : Curriculum, attitudes des élèves et auto-évaluation[END_REF] show that when teenagers have very positive attitudes towards a language (usefulness of the language, sympathy for the country and its inhabitants) then they are more motivated to learn it.

Conversely, when the language is perceived negatively, i.e. when they do not like it or find it unpleasant to hear, students say they have little motivation to learn it. Thus, an attitude can either be beneficial to the use and learning of a language or cause its disappearance [START_REF] Castellotti | Guide pour l'élaboration des politiques linguistiques éducatives en Europe -De la diversité linguistique à l'éducation plurilingue[END_REF]. [START_REF] Letsholo | Language maintenance or shift? Attitudes of Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue[END_REF] interviewed 232 Bakalanga youths, aged 17-25 years, and living in Botswana about their attitudes towards Ikalanga (minority language), and the official languages of the country (Setswana and English), as well as their use of these languages. 26% of the participants feel "ashamed", "embarrassed", or "guilty" about speaking Ikalanga. Nevertheless, over a half of the participants (53%) are in favour of language diversity in their family. 43% want to transmit Ikalanga to their future children in addition to Setswana and/or English. The author concludes that "if the youth embrace a language and see value in it, they are likely to maintain the language and hence pass it on to their children" (Letsholo, 2009, p. 593) The maintenance of minority languages is thus partially linked to the subjective values attributed to them. In [START_REF] Nguyen | Language attitudes, identity and L1 maintenance : A qualitative study of Vietnamese ethnic minority students[END_REF]'s more recent study, the majority of Vietnamese teenagers interviewed express a positive attitude towards their minority language (Rengao, Bahnar, Jarai, Halang). They say that speaking it is a marker of their ethnic identity and practicing it is important to preserve their cultural specificities. In parallel, they consider that speaking Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 Vietnamese (the majority language) is an important factor of social, academic, professional, and financial success. Positive attitudes towards languages play a fundamental part in their preservation but they might not be sufficient to preserve and maintain minority languages because of possible discrepancies with its use. Speakers of a minority language may have a positive attitude towards it without using it in their daily lives [START_REF] Nguyen | Language attitudes, identity and L1 maintenance : A qualitative study of Vietnamese ethnic minority students[END_REF]. These findings are consistent with Alsahafi (2020)'s work with Saudi Arabian adults aged 17 to 55: their positive opinions regarding each language depend on specific needs: while Arabic (majority language) is essential on a social (integration, education) economical and religious level, Rohingya (minority language) is important in relation to family and ethnicity. Among Arabic-speaking adults living in Quebec, [START_REF] Dweik | Language choice and language attitudes in a multilingual arab canadian community : Quebec-Canada : A sociolinguistic study[END_REF] also show that the use of Arabic (minority language) was related to the family domain, social relationships, and sense of ethnic identity while English and French (majority languages) were instead considered important for education and work. These results indicate that speakers' perceptions of the role of each language in different situations are also important.

The role of parental language practices and attitudes, and society in the development of children's language attitudes

Transmission of the minority language can only take place if the parents see value or benefit in it [START_REF] Letsholo | Language maintenance or shift? Attitudes of Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue[END_REF]. Many studies in FLP state that parents' positive attitudes towards the minority language influence their practices are beneficial to the child's bilingualism [START_REF] Letsholo | Language maintenance or shift? Attitudes of Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue[END_REF][START_REF] López | A Look into the Homes of Spanish-Speaking Preschool Children[END_REF][START_REF] Makarova | Children's language exposure and parental language attitudes in Russian-as-a-heritage-language acquisition by bilingual and multilingual children in Canada[END_REF][START_REF] Park | Parents' Attitudes Toward Heritage Language Maintenance for Their Children and Their Efforts to Help Their Children Maintain the Heritage Language : A Case Study of Korean-Canadian Immigrants[END_REF]. For example, [START_REF] López | A Look into the Homes of Spanish-Speaking Preschool Children[END_REF] shows in 12 Anglo-Hispanic families in the U.S. that mothers' positive attitudes and beliefs about languages promote their child's bilingual development. More recently, Makarova and colleagues (2019) confirm that parents' positive attitudes toward a minority language promote its transmission, which affects children's proficiency in that language. The language practices of parents are therefore partly based on their attitudes, which are important for the transmission and maintenance of minority languages in children. Furthermore, these practices are not only a private matter, they are also closely related to social, educational and economic prestige (Curdt-Christiansen, 2015; King & Fogle, 2013) and the less positively a language is perceived by society, the harder it will be for parents to use it at home [START_REF] Ghimenton | Reading between the code choices : Discrepancies between expressions of language attitudes and usage in a contact situation[END_REF]. For example, in their longitudinal study conducted with 72 mothers and their children (4.1 years old at the start of the study) living in Pennsylvania, [START_REF] Hammer | The Effect of Maternal Language on Bilingual Children's Vocabulary and Emergent Literacy Development During Head Start and Kindergarten[END_REF] show that the percentage of mothers who speak English (majority language) to their children has increased Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 over the three years of follow-up, while that of mothers who speak Spanish (minority language) has decreased between the 1 st and the 2 nd year. All the children attended school and were taught by teachers who used English as the primary language of instruction. The authors suggest that the mothers' choice to increasingly use English is influenced by "the wider community and the educational system" (Hammer et al., 2009, p. 114). [START_REF] Curdt-Christiansen | Conflicting language ideologies and contradictory language practices in Singaporean multilingual families[END_REF] indicates, in her study on three multilingual families in Singapore, that even if the parents express positive attitudes towards their minority language (Mandarin, Malay and Tamil), the social ideologies surrounding it can constrain their actual practices. Therefore, over the past thirty years, Singaporean families have gradually stopped using the minority languages at home, in favour of the official language, English, which "enjoys a privileged position as the language of law, administration and commerce" (Curdt-Christiansen, 2015, p.1). Society's attitudes to languages also shape the actual practices of early childhood educators and education professionals in ways that can go against or in favour of minority languages (Pacini-Ketchabaw & Armstrong de [START_REF] Pacini-Ketchabaw | Language Discourses and Ideologies at the Heart of Early Childhood Education[END_REF], which in turn can influence parental language practices. When citizens and public institutions do not support families' minority languages, the chances that parents will pass these languages on to their children diminish [START_REF] Ghimenton | Reading between the code choices : Discrepancies between expressions of language attitudes and usage in a contact situation[END_REF]. When the minority language inflow is reduced, children have fewer occasions to use it, which could negatively affect their linguistic representation of it [START_REF] Paradis | The impact of input factors on bilingual development : Quantity versus quality[END_REF]. Moreover, when parents relay society's negative image of the minority language, children risk internalising these negative values and no longer wanting to speak this language later on [START_REF] Dalgalian | L'importance de l'environnement[END_REF]. [START_REF] Yang | Reflexive language attitudes and language practices among school-aged Chinese Australian immigrant bilinguals[END_REF] noticed in interviews conducted with Australian children of Chinese origin (aged 4 to 16) that when family members share positive attitudes towards Chinese (the minority language), not only does it foster this family's use of Chinese, but also the children's positive perception of this language. "There is no doubt that attitudes are directly influenced by [a factor] as powerful as the family" (Lasagabaster, 2006, p. 394). However, other factors may play a role in the development of children's language attitudes and practices, such as friends, peers, media, and school (Lasagabaster, ibid.). For example, children may refuse to use their minority language at home if that language is looked down on by their peers [START_REF] Ghimenton | Reading between the code choices : Discrepancies between expressions of language attitudes and usage in a contact situation[END_REF]. More largely, society's positions on language could also affect children.

The Present Study

The present study is in line with the new questions at stake in the FLP research field, which concern children's agency in maintaining their minority languages. For a long time, FLP studies have considered children as passive receptors, which has had an effect on the Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 methodologies used to study them [START_REF] Palviainen | Future prospects and visions for family language policy research[END_REF]. Studies on children's agency have become more numerous, but their growing evolution has not always been accompanied by methodologies that take into account children's perspectives and are adapted to their level of development [START_REF] Palviainen | Future prospects and visions for family language policy research[END_REF]. The child's point of view is often measured indirectly (e.g. observation) and is often based on indicators provided by adults (often parents) [START_REF] Smith-Christmas | Family language policy : New directions[END_REF]. Few FLP studies have involved children's points of view, despite the fact that their ability to act has become a key issue, and that children are considered competent to talk about themselves; they are the best informed about what they experience (Fuchs, 2005, cité par [START_REF] Bratož | Identifying children's attitudes towards languages : Construction and validation of the LANGattMini Scale[END_REF]. As a result, questions relating to children's point of view in the transmission and maintenance of a minority language remain partly unanswered, since on the one hand FLP research places greater emphasis on the role of parents and society, and on the other hand, few methodologies have been developed to gather children's point of view. Considering children and what they have to say is not only an adult's role, but also children's right to be heard and considered (Annual report on children's rights, 2020). In this perspective, children's language attitudes were evaluated in order to illustrate child agency. According to Smith-Christmas (2017, p.23), developing « research that is designed explicitly to elicit the child's views of the language would be particularly fruitful in expanding the field ». To our knowledge, few studies have been carried out on young children's attitudes towards their minority languages, in contrast to studies on adults or teenagers, or on attitudes towards learning a foreign language at school. Few FLP's studies have taken into consideration children's views of their language, even though linguistic attitudes are constructed before adolescence [START_REF] Riaño | Les attitudes linguistiques chez de jeunes adolescents dans la principauté des asturies[END_REF] and that this aspect seems to play an important role in the maintenance of the language [START_REF] Letsholo | Language maintenance or shift? Attitudes of Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue[END_REF][START_REF] Nguyen | Language attitudes, identity and L1 maintenance : A qualitative study of Vietnamese ethnic minority students[END_REF]. Keeping in mind that attitudes are learned in a specific political, ideological, familial and cultural context and that it is important to study language attitudes across ages, countries and cultures [START_REF] Bratož | Identifying children's attitudes towards languages : Construction and validation of the LANGattMini Scale[END_REF].

Since new research tends to consider children as co-actors in the maintenance of minority languages, we were interested in the mediating role of children's point of view when looking at the effect of parental language practices on children's use of the minority language.

Our first objective is to verify De Houwer's (2007) findings in the French context regarding the role of parents' language practices in children's maintenance of minority languages. Our second objective is to examine the mediating role of children's language attitudes in the relationship between parents' language practices and children's language use. Two hypotheses were established: Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 Hypothesis 1: in the French context, the use of the minority language by parents at home increases children's use of this language (H1).

Hypothesis 2: The link between family language practices and children's use of the minority language is mediated by children's attitudes towards this language (H2).

METHODOLOGY

Participants

The study involved 135 children (82 girls and 53 boys1 ) aged between 10 and 12 (M=10.76 years, SD = 0.38) living in a bi/multilingual family and attending Year 6 classes (CM2, 5th Grade) in 13 schools of the Loire-Atlantique department (France). 83 children go to state schools located within the high-priority education network (REP+2 ), 44 outside of REP/REP+, and 8 in private schools. The families speak one or two languages at home; the minority language3 ; the majority language: French; or a combination of the two languages. Most of these children come from North Africa, Arabic-speaking immigrant families (49 %). No children in this study reported speaking a metropolitan regional language. For the participants, school is compulsory from the age of 64 to 16 and they learn French as soon as they start school. Most children are also exposed to French through the media, and some are exposed at home either through their father, their mother, or both. Finally, according to the teachers, none of the children have special educational needs and all have lived in France for at least two years or were born in France.

Measures Question on Children's Use of the Minority Language

To identify whether the child speaks a minority language in addition to French, they answer the question "What language(s) do you speak?" by choosing: "Always French" or "French and another language". They must then specify the name of their minority language. No children had difficulty naming their language.

Questionnaire on Parental Language Practices

The children answered a question about the language(s) spoken by their mother and father. We chose to question the children rather than parents by questionnaire because we found in our previous studies that many parents did not complete the questionnaires. They answer the question "What languages are spoken at home?" by choosing for each parent: "Always French"; "French and one or several other languages"; "Never French, but one or several other languages". They must then specify what language(s). Four parents' language use profiles were identified, like those proposed by De Houwer (2007) (see table 1).

Scale of Children's Attitudes towards Their Minority Language

To study linguistic attitudes, researchers have made extensive use of observation. However, this indirect measurement poses methodological problems because the observation of an individual's behaviour is not always representative of their attitudes [START_REF] Bratož | Identifying children's attitudes towards languages : Construction and validation of the LANGattMini Scale[END_REF]). In addition, many studies have questioned parents about their children's attitudes. As the population under consideration (10-year-olds) is able to directly answer questions about their attitudes [START_REF] Bratož | Identifying children's attitudes towards languages : Construction and validation of the LANGattMini Scale[END_REF], we questioned them directly with a self-assessment scale.

Inspired from the "attitudes" sub-scale of Chapman and Tunmer (1995)'s "Reading selfconcept scale" and adapted by Nocus and collaborators (2012), the attitudes scale 5 is initially composed of 9 items apprehending global representations children have of their minority language (e.g. "Speaking the minority language well is important for making friends; studying; raising one's children"). For each item, they must choose their answer on a four-point scale from 1 (not very important) to 4 (very important).

Protocol

Statistical analysis

The first hypothesis (H1) of the study was tested using a Chi-square test which allowed the profiles to be constructed according to the parents' different language practices. The second hypothesis (H2) investigated whether the relationship between parents' and children's use of the minority language is mediated by children's attitudes towards it (see for example Hayes 2018).

This analysis aims to identify what in children's use of the minority language is directly attributable to parental language choices (direct effect) and what is mediated by children's language attitudes (indirect effect of parental language practices on children's use of the minority language via parental language attitudes). To assess these effects, we used linear regression to predict children's attitudes towards the minority language as a function of their parents' language practices and logistic regression to predict children's use of the minority language as a function of their parents' language practices and their own attitudes towards it.

FINDINGS Preliminary Analyses

An exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted using JASP (0.16.2) software to test the hypothesized unifactorial structure of the minority language attitude scale and to determine its psychometric qualities in terms of internal consistency. The scale was initially designed with 9 items. The results indicate that only six items can be summed up by this one dimension (see factor weights, table 2). Three items are excluded: "Speaking the minority language well is important for living in France; practicing one's religion; communicating with Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 people who speak the same language." The Cronbach's alpha value of .71 and the intra-class correlation coefficient of .29, indicate that the scale has good internal consistency [START_REF] Kline | Principles and practice of structural equation modeling[END_REF].

The minority language attitude score is the average of the six items, a high score reflecting a positive attitude. .57

Table 3 provides the descriptive analyses of the children's attitudes towards their minority language according to the other variables of interest. A Student's t test did not reveal a significant difference between boys and girls in their attitude towards their minority language (t (133) = -1.197, p = 0.233). Gender was therefore not controlled in the following analyses. Table 4 displays the children's use of the minority language according to the parents's use: When both parents use only the minority language (profile 1), 100% of children say they use it, while only 52% say they use it when only one parent uses the minority language in addition to the majority language (profile 4). A chi-square test reveals that the children's language practices differ significantly as function as the parents' profiles (𝝌 2 (3, N = 135) = 24.50, p <. 001), verifying the study's first hypothesis. However, the fourth profile is the only one that differs significantly from the three others.

Use of the Minority Language by Parents and Children (H1)

Table 4. Note. N = 135; MinL: minority language; MajL: majority language Following this analysis, the "parental language practices" variable was broken down into two modalities. The modality "0" corresponds to families in which one of the two parents speaks only the majority language (profile 4) and modality "1" includes all the other families (profiles 1, 2, 3).

Use of Languages by Parents and Children

Profiles

Mediation Analysis (H2)

The results of the mediation analysis are presented in Figure 1. Linear regression shows that parental language practices predict children's language attitudes, F (2,132) = 7.30, p < .01, R 2 = .052. Parents' language choices (OR 6 = 8.43, p <. 001) and the children's attitudes towards their minority language (OR = 2.26, p <. 05) predict their use of the minority language. We can note that this model has a good sensitivity of 96% [START_REF] Agresti | An Introduction to Categorical Data Analysis[END_REF].

The two indirect effects of the parents' language practices on their children's are significant and positive (NIE(1)= .028, p < .05 and NIE(0)= .071, p < .05). The second hypothesis is verified. More precisely, for children in families where one parent speaks only the majority language, 18.1 % of the relationship between the parental language practices and the children's use of the minority language is mediated by the children's attitudes towards this language. By contrast, for children whose parents use the minority language exclusively or alongside the majority language, only 6,3% of the relationship between the parental language practices and the children's use of the minority language is mediated by the children's attitudes towards this language. Attitudes thus play a more important role in the children's use of the minority language in families where one parent speaks only the majority language. (1) Proportion mediated by language attitudes for modality "0"

(2) Proportion mediated by language attitudes for modality "1"

DISCUSSION

The majority of FLP's research investigates how the minority language maintenance of children growing up in a bilingual environment is related to parents' practices, which in turn are related to their language intentions or ideologies (King & Fogle, 2013). These questions have been the subject of several studies, but few have taken into consideration children's view of

Parental language practices

Children's use of the minority language

Children's attitudes towards the minority language a = 0.41** b = 0.82* c = 2.13*** (X = 0) = 18.1 % (1) (X = 1) = 6.3 % (2) Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 their language. Today, FLP research has set itself the challenge of taking into account the child's role in language maintenance (Smith-Christmas, 2020). It is crucial to expand knowledge of children's agency by providing empirical evidence of the role they can play in maintaining their minority language. Using developmental psychology methodologies for collecting children's voices is one way of meeting the new challenges of FLP. Children must be considered as actors in their bilingual development and special attention must be given to them in conjunction with the FLP field. Moreover, these questions have been very little studied in France and through a quantitative approach.

It appears that, out of the 135 children, 15% say they do not use the minority language even though at least one of their parents uses it at home. This result is consistent with the finding that growing up in a bilingual environment does not systematically mean speaking two languages [START_REF] De Houwer | Parental language input patterns and children's bilingual use[END_REF][START_REF] Pearson | Social factors in childhood bilingualism in the United States[END_REF] and confirms the relevance of studying the factors that help maintain the minority language in children. Additionally, this study shows there is no significant difference between profiles 1 (MinL/MinL), 2 (MinL+MajL/MinL) and 3 (MinL+MajL/MinL+MajL). Thus, the use of the majority language by one or both parents does not impede the children's choice to use the minority language, as long as it is practiced with the minority language [START_REF] De Houwer | Parental language input patterns and children's bilingual use[END_REF]. The results indicate that the use of the minority language by both parents at home fosters the maintenance of this language in children. Indeed, if both parents use the majority language and only one uses the minority language then this will have a negative impact on the child's use of the minority language.

Second, the results reveal that in addition to parents' language choices, children's language attitudes predict children's use of the minority language. Similar to studies in adults and adolescents [START_REF] Alsahafi | When homeland remains a distant dream : Language attitudes and heritage language maintenance among Rohingya refugees in Saudi Arabia[END_REF][START_REF] Dweik | Language choice and language attitudes in a multilingual arab canadian community : Quebec-Canada : A sociolinguistic study[END_REF][START_REF] Letsholo | Language maintenance or shift? Attitudes of Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue[END_REF][START_REF] Nguyen | Language attitudes, identity and L1 maintenance : A qualitative study of Vietnamese ethnic minority students[END_REF] and those on learning a second or foreign language at school [START_REF] Blondin | L'apprentissage des langues en Communauté française : Curriculum, attitudes des élèves et auto-évaluation[END_REF], more positive the children's attitude towards their language is, the more likely they are to use it. In the same manner that parental language attitudes play an important role in their use and transmission of languages to their children [START_REF] Letsholo | Language maintenance or shift? Attitudes of Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue[END_REF][START_REF] López | A Look into the Homes of Spanish-Speaking Preschool Children[END_REF][START_REF] Makarova | Children's language exposure and parental language attitudes in Russian-as-a-heritage-language acquisition by bilingual and multilingual children in Canada[END_REF][START_REF] Park | Parents' Attitudes Toward Heritage Language Maintenance for Their Children and Their Efforts to Help Their Children Maintain the Heritage Language : A Case Study of Korean-Canadian Immigrants[END_REF]), children's language attitudes toward their minority language are a key factor in their use. Additionally, the more parents use the minority language at home, the more children express a positive attitude towards this language. This finding is consistent with Yang (2021)'s study, suggesting that the way parents use and negotiate languages at home can have a positive or negative impact on children's attitudes towards their language. Furthermore, the results of the mediation analysis shows that the link between parental language practices and children's use of the minority language is partially mediated by children's attitudes towards Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 this language. The link between parents' and children's language choices is therefore more complex than a simple cause-and-effect relationship, as children's attitudes can redefine this link. More precisely, their attitudes mediate a more important part of this relationship in families where one parent speaks only the majority language. This interesting and innovative result suggests that the role of children's language attitudes on their language choices is more important when both parents use the majority language and only one uses the minority language. It invites us to consider child's perspective when looking at the effect of parental practices on children's minority language maintenance. Their language attitudes must therefore be considered to help them maintain their minority language. Maintaining minority languages would provide children with a strong emotional and cultural reference point that can promote cohesion within a multicultural family and the quality of intra-family relationships [START_REF] Tseng | Parent-Adolescent Language Use and Relationships among Immigrant Families with East Asian, Filipino, and Latin American Backgrounds[END_REF]. The quality of the relationship that children have with their parents contributes to their well-being [START_REF] Coudronnière | Quelle conception de la qualité de vie et du bien-être chez des enfants de 5 à 11 ans ?[END_REF]. For example, a recent study in France shows that children who prefer to use their minority language at home have better life satisfaction than those who do not [START_REF] Humeau | Life satisfaction of 10-year-olds in a bilingual context in France : The predictive role of parental language practices and children's use of the minority language[END_REF]. Therefore, reinforcing children's positive attitudes towards their language would be essential to the maintenance of their language but more largely to their well-being.

Finally, these results are consistent with Curdt-Christiansen's (2013) finding that studying the transmission of minority languages within families is a complex undertaking. The maintenance of minority languages and the establishment of FLPs are dynamically influenced by many internal and external factors [START_REF] Spolsky | Language policy[END_REF][START_REF] Wang | Journey towards an unreachable destiny : Parental struggles in the intergenerational transmission of Chinese as a heritage language in Australia[END_REF]. The present study provides empirical evidence that children's ability to act (internal factor) is important to consider when looking at minority language maintenance. Children's views and language attitudes must therefore be taken into account to explain the link between parental language practices and the fact that some children retain and use their minority language, while others do not. This finding is consistent with [START_REF] Said | No, no Maama ! Say 'Shaatir ya Ouledee Shaatir '!" Children's agency in language use and socialisation[END_REF] who show through their study of an Arabic and English-speaking family in the United Kingdom, that children have an important role to play in the use of their minority and the implementation of FLP in the family. A flexible FLP that considers children's preferences would create positive experiences of bilingualism [START_REF] Said | No, no Maama ! Say 'Shaatir ya Ouledee Shaatir '!" Children's agency in language use and socialisation[END_REF], which are known to contribute more broadly to family well-being (De Houwer, 2019). However, neither children's language attitudes nor parents' language practices alone can explain the maintenance of minority languages. While decisions about language choices are made within the family, and the role of children is important, external pressures are Postprint First published online November 17, 2023 exerted on bilingual families, and micro-and macro-social realities are important to consider [START_REF] Wang | Journey towards an unreachable destiny : Parental struggles in the intergenerational transmission of Chinese as a heritage language in Australia[END_REF].

Limitations

Despite its interesting findings, this study has limitations. Firstly, the COVID-19 pandemic greatly disrupted data collection and reduced the number of responses from families, resulting in significant missing data on the families' migration background, family form (twoparent, single-parent separated or blended families) and socioeconomic status (SES). It would thus be important to take these variables into account in future research. Secondly, the study is based solely on the answers children gave to questionnaires that are vulnerable to the social desirability bias [START_REF] Bratož | Identifying children's attitudes towards languages : Construction and validation of the LANGattMini Scale[END_REF]. To limit the impact of this factor and to control for possible underreporting of minority language use among children, it would have been relevant

to complete this study with semi-structured interviews and naturalistic observation of the parents and their children. Finally, the literature suggests that favouring the use of the minority language at home increases children's proficiency in this language [START_REF] Hoff | Expressive vocabulary development in children from bilingual and monolingual homes : A longitudinal study from two to four years[END_REF] and that attitudes towards a language are directly linked to the proficiency level acquired [START_REF] Lasagabaster | Les attitudes linguistiques : Un état des lieux[END_REF][START_REF] Letsholo | Language maintenance or shift? Attitudes of Bakalanga youth towards their mother tongue[END_REF][START_REF] Nguyen | Language attitudes, identity and L1 maintenance : A qualitative study of Vietnamese ethnic minority students[END_REF]. It would thus be interesting to conduct research including this individual variable. All these factors, which were not measured in our study, should have been control variables included into the mediation model.

CONCLUSION

This study conducted with 10-year-old children in France shows that parents' language choices do not alone explain their children's. Children's language attitudes are important, especially when both parents use the majority language and only one uses the minority language. Minority language maintenance is not only a reflection of how parents feel about the language, how they use it, and how hard they work to maintain it. Children also have a role in the development of their bilingualism, and when the child's bilingual development is not supported by active language use by both parents at home, the children's attitudes are even more crucial and decisive. The success of minority language transmission therefore depends not only on the parents but also on the children, hence the importance of taking into account children's perspective when addressing minority language maintenance issues [START_REF] Ghimenton | Reading between the code choices : Discrepancies between expressions of language attitudes and usage in a contact situation[END_REF].

Children's language attitudes must therefore be considered to help them maintain their minority language. Strengthening children's positive attitudes toward their language would therefore be a way to promote the use of their minority languages and preserve their family Postprint First published online November 17, 2023

  Schools were randomly selected in the Loire-Atlantique region (France). After obtaining children's consent and the written parental agreement, the data were collected in accordance with the code of ethics for psychologists(2012). The data collection lasted for three years (2019 to 2021), and the questionnaires were administered to the children during an individual administration conducted in a room isolated from the rest of the classroom. The examiners read the items aloud and recorded the children's responses on the questionnaires. They used only French during the examinations.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Mediation model of the relationship between parental language practices and children's use of the minority language via their attitudes towards this language, with regression coefficients

Table 1 .

 1 Categorization of parents' language use profiles based on children's responses to the question:

	What languages are spoken at home?
	Profiles	Parent 1	Children's answers Parent 2
	1. MinL/MinL	Never French, but one or	Never French, but one or
		several other languages	several other languages
	2. MinL+MajL/MinL	French and one or several	Never French, but one or
		other languages		several other languages
	3. MinL+MajL/MinL+MajL French and one or several	French and one or several
		other languages		other languages
	4. MinL+MajL/MajL	French and one or several	Always French
		other languages

Note. MinL: minority language; MajL: majority language

Table 2

 2 Factor loadings of the items of the one-dimension scale assessing children's language attitudes

	Factor

Table 3 .

 3 Descriptive Statistics (N=135)

The gender of the student was determined by the examiner and no non-binary options were offered to the children.

The REP+ networks have the greatest concentration of social difficulties that have a strong impact on academic success.

List of minority languages represented in the study: Albanian, Arabic, Comorian, Creole, Fon-Gbe, Ingush, Italian, Khmer, Kurdish, Lingala, Mauritanian, Malagasy, Moldavian, Peul, Portuguese, Romanian, Russian, Sango, Soninke, Soussou, Spanish, Turkish, Wolof.

As of the start of the 2019-2020 school year, education is mandatory from age 3, not age 6 (article L. 131-1 du Code de l'éducation, tel qu'issu de l'article 11 de la loi n° 2019-791 du 26 juillet 2019).

Since the completion of this study (early 2019),Bratož and colleagues (2021) have validated a very interesting multidimensional scale to identify Slovenian children's attitudes toward their languages (LANGattMini).


est destinée au dépôt

Aphid conservation biological control in arable crops via flower strips: the predominant role of plant resources over diversity effects Oral

A Gardarin

To cite this version:

A Gardarin. Aphid conservation biological control in arable crops via flower strips: the predominant role of plant resources over diversity effects Oral. SFE2 GfÖ EEF Joint meeting international conference on ecological sciences. The implementation of habitats to improve functional biodiversity is known to increase natural enemies of pests, but it does not necessarily lead to a significant reduction in pest populations. The performance of flower strips and natural enemies in terms of biological control depends on many factors and we need to understand why some mixtures of plant species perform better than others.

In a field experiment, we compared the effect of contrasting floral mixtures comprising native and perennial plant species. In these mixtures, we have varied the proportion, the species and functional diversity of plant species providing resources towards natural enemies. Each flower mixture was sown on a 6 × 45 m strip and replicated on three blocks. In the adjacent oilseed rape crop, at 5 and 20 m from the strip, we recorded aphids, their predators and parasitized aphids in all the crops at rotation scale (wheat, maize, barley, pea-barley intercrop, faba bean and oilseed rape). We investigated the effects of the plant mixtures on aphid infestation, predator-prey ratios and parasitism rates. The observed plant composition of the different mixtures was characterized by the species richness and the functional diversity of the plant traits involved in plant-insect interactions.

In general, the percentage of plant cover providing trophic resources to natural enemies (nectar resources and alternative prey hosted by legumes) increased predator-prey ratios as well as aphid parasitism, and it decreased aphid population growth rates. Species richness and the functional dispersion of traits involved in plant-arthropod interactions had a lower importance and the direction of their effect was crop specific. These results provide useful insights into the design of perennial plant mixtures for creating or restoring habitats supporting a range natural enemies. Plant communities providing large amounts of nectar and alternative-prey resources are the best able to enhance the biological control of aphids over a crop rotation.

04470987 00013 Aphid conservation biological control in arable crops via flower strips: the predominant role of plant resources over diversity effects Oral A. Gardarin 1 1 Inrae-Agroparistech -Thiverval-Grignon (France) Abstract

Ecology and Evolution : New perspectives and societal challenges, Nov 2022, Metz, France. hal-