David Bétaille
email: david.betaille@ifsttar.fr

François Peyret

Miguel Ortiz

Ola Martin Lykkja

Svend-Peder Oseth

Position error modelling for sensitivity analysis of GNSS road applications Based on Ifsttar-GEOLOC and Q-Free cooperation

Keywords: GNSS positioning, intelligent transportation systems, error modelling I

Road transport, after Location-Based Services, is the second application domain of GNSS. Measuring the end-toend performance of intelligent transportation systems (ITS)and how this depends on the embedded GNSS chipset -makes the core of the on-going European standardization initiative at CEN-CENELEC TC5/WG1. This article first presents the methodology, called "Sensitivity analysis", onto which the future norm will rely. Then the problem of modelling the GNSS positioning error is addressed, with some practical solutions, and the choice of one in particular, which is developed in an experimental context for validation purpose. The signal processing made from the full scale experiment in order to figure out the parameters of the model is presented. The use of this model in a simulation process is shown and analysed, so that first conclusions are drawn and research perspectives designed.

INTRODUCTION

Given the principle of GNSS positioning -whose performances are highly influenced by the conditions of the operational environment -and the need to ensure appropriate performances throughout the lifetime of the equipment, the development of standards and certification on positioning performance is fundamental for device vendors and service providers, especially when it concerns safety-and liabilitycritical applications.

In this context, European standardization organisations aim to produce standards for the use of geo-positioning services for navigation and localisation systems, especially in the road transport domain, which is the second application domain of GNSS, after Location-Based Services (LBS).

The development of such standards will certainly have a positive impact on future road ITS industry developments, especially in regard to the need to provide industry with the highest practicable degree of uniformity in the provision and operation of GNSS services [START_REF]GNSS Market Report, issue 4[END_REF].

One of these standardization organisations, the CEN-CENELEC TC5/WG1, proposed in its 1 st European standard [START_REF]Space -Use of GNSSbased positioning for road Intelligent Transport Systems (ITS) -Part 1: Definitions and system engineering procedures for the establishment and assessment of performances[END_REF] a general methodology for assessing the conformity of a road transport application or a complete road ITS system, using a given GNSS-based positioning terminal. This methodology, called "Sensitivity analysis", relies on the straightforward assumption that a road ITS system is composed of 2 main sub-systems, which are: the positioning terminal (using GNSS, but not always the only technology) and the application module that transforms the raw Position, Velocity and Time (PVT) data from the terminal into "Application quantities" necessary to provide the final ITS services to the users. For instance, the system "Personal Navigation Device" comprises a positioning terminal (the GNSS chipset) and an application that performs mapmatching, attributes retrieval and driver information through the man-machine interface. The final service is the guidance of the driver. The Sensitivity analysis is based upon field tests in real conditions of the GNSS-based positioning terminal (GBPT) to identify a PVT error model that will be used to generate automatically a high number of synthetic degraded trajectories that will be processed by the application module. From the outputs of the application module, using the end-to-end performance metrics (also called KPIs for Key Performance Indicators), will be assessed the end-to-end performance of the system, depending on the performance of both the GBPT and the application itself.

This method offers the advantage to duplicate field tests executed in real operational conditions, the only ones capable of capturing the reality of the physical phenomena, in order to run a high number of trials, necessary to assess performances that are generally expressed by low probabilities.

The sensitivity of the system to the performance of the GBPT can be analysed by increasing artificially step by step the amplitude of the errors of the PVT error model until the moment when the target E2E performance is no longer fulfilled. Figure 2 represents the general principle of the Sensitivity analysis. The present paper is about the position error modelling and more precisely about its application to a real set of experimental data that has not been used for the establishment of the model but for figuring out its specific parameters.

II. STATE OF THE ART

In the GNSS domain, the community has produced several degradation (or error) models applying to:

• Radio signal-in-space, before signal tracking,

• Pseudorange, phase and Doppler errors, also called raw data, where most literature references concentrate,

•

Position, Velocity and Time, after raw data have been processed for navigation purpose.

In this article, and within SaPPART action, road transport applications are targeted. Therefore, degradation models that refer to GNSS receiver Position output (and Velocity and Time to a lesser extent), are of key interest. Very few literature references address the question of directly modelling the error in the position domain, contrary to the pseudorange domain in particular.

Classically, the GNSS position errors are considered as white noise (e.g. in Extended Kalman Filters that perform loose coupling with odometry and/or inertial measurement unit integration).

More advanced models consider that these errors are coloured: their autocorrelation has not a Dirac shape, but rather a triangular shape, indicating significant correlation times. These correlation times are due to correlation in the pseudorange errors from which the positions are computed, and from the computation itself (least-squares, but more often Kalman filtered processes are implemented in black-box-like receivers, for which no implementation and filter tuning details are given).

For instance, in [START_REF] Tao | Mapping and localization using GPS, lane markings and proprioceptive sensors[END_REF] the authors fuse odometry, GPS positions and camera vision of lane markings in a Kalman filter using such position error model.

III. SAPPART MODELS

A. First modelling proposed within SaPPART

Important research efforts in GPS PVT error models have been carried out recently within the COST action SaPPART by Ifsttar and GMV researchers [START_REF]Satellite Positioning Performance Assessment for Road Transport[END_REF].

Several models have been proposed and assessed based on an experimental dynamic data set (uBlox LEA6-T receiver).

The models use the local Frenet frame (see Figure 3), tangent to the trajectory of the vehicle. The error is decomposed either into its along-track and cross-track components or into its local polar components, radius and angle. The local frame, whose orientation is that of the trajectory, has interesting properties concerning the error. Its orientation is actually also that of the travelled street, where buildings create multipath, and across which the positioning error is known to be larger than along [START_REF] Groves | GNSS Shadow Matching: The Challenges Ahead[END_REF]. -CDF-based: along and cross track errors are randomly drawn (and weighted the one with respect to the other) from part of the data set used for learning, and correlated with time using a filter parameterized with the speed of the vehicle.

-Laplace-Cauchy-based: errors are considered in a local polar frame, the radius being modelled by piecewise constant values Laplace distributed, changing with a probability p, on top of which is added a random walk from a Cauchy distributed noise. The angle is a random walk from a Cauchy distributed noise too. Truncatures are also applied on the distributions.

The probability p and the parameters of the statistical distributions have to be learnt from experimental data.

Last, low-pass filters and normalization constants have to be designed. Details can be found in [START_REF] Peyret | How GNSS performance standardisation can support the deployment of critical its applications[END_REF].

The CDF-based method needs only two parameters to be adjusted: the correlation parameter between along-track and cross-track, and the parameter for the time filtering. For the Laplace-Cauchy based method, the set of parameters to adjust is larger: parameters for the probability density functions of the radius and the angle, for the filters and for the normalization constants.

From the results presented in [START_REF] Peyret | How GNSS performance standardisation can support the deployment of critical its applications[END_REF], the autocorrelation of the error signal cannot be reproduced using the CDF-based method. The Laplace-Cauchy-based method seems to have better results: both the autocorrelations and CDFs are close to the true ones and the signals look similar to the actual signals from the uBlox LEA6-T receiver.

IV. FIRST EXPERIMENTAL VALIDATION OF THE LAPLACE-CAUCHY-BASED METHOD

A first experimental validation on a data set in Frankfurt, Germany, with uBlox LEA5-T receiver, was conducted during summer 2015 by Q-Free and Ifsttar [START_REF] Oseth | COST TU-1302; Generation and evaluation of simulated degraded trajectories by using PVT error models[END_REF]. It included the identification of the parameters, the simulation of error series, and their comparison to the true error. This data set was provided by Q-Free.

Generating the error signal in the radius consists of several steps. First a piecewise constant basis made of steps that are generated using a truncated Laplace distribution:

A'[n+1] = { (1)
where A'[n+1] is the radius signal with no noise, L r [n] is a realization of a truncated Laplace distribution giving the height of the new step, and p is the probability of a new step. Then, an additive noise, which is accumulated over each step, is added:

A'[n+1] = A[n+1]+C r [n] ( 2
)
where C r [n] is a realization of a truncated Cauchy distribution. To clarify, the accumulation of the Cauchy noise does not operate over the whole signal, but it is accumulated only during one step. It is reset when there is a new draw from the Laplace distribution. The values of the parameters to generate L r [n] and C r [n] samples are estimated by means of Bayesian identification methods [START_REF] Hutter | Exact Bayesian regression of piecewise constant functions[END_REF] assuming Gaussian distributions, with refinements made by trials and errors. Finally, the signal is filtered using an auto-regressive filter that relates the expected error signal with the simulated signal.

The angle is generated using a random walk given by:

φ[n+1] = φ[n]+S φ [n] (3)
where S φ [n] is a realization of a Cauchy distribution, before the signal is low-pass filtered. The values of the parameters to generate S φ [n] samples properly are determined experimentally.

The data set is composed of 28 trajectories from Frankfurt, Germany, see Figure 4. The drive route goes through deep urban canyons with dense traffic, comprising 4.9 km, with average driving speed of 15 km/h. It is without tunnels and covered sections. The reference track is provided by a Novatel CPOS combined with an IMU by applying kinematic Precise Point Positioning (PPP) post processing using Terrapos software. The vehicle is equipped with 8 low-cost GNSS receivers of various models from uBlox, ST, and SiRF in addition to a camera providing photographic evidence of the driving environment. The equipment is shown on Figure 5. On the roof one can see the antenna for the reference NovAtel receiver. In the front window one can see the test devices. In this article, only the low cost receiver uBlox LEA5-T is considered, but a similar study could be made on the other GNSS receivers.

A[n] with probability (1-p) L r [n] with probability p

Manual inspection of the recorded trajectories reveals that 22 trajectories show good GNSS performance from the uBlox receiver, 4 trajectories show significantly larger errors, while 2 trajectories contain large error peaks of 400 meters for a duration of up to 30 seconds (see Figure 6). The parameters were estimated for all trajectories using the Hutter method [START_REF] Hutter | Exact Bayesian regression of piecewise constant functions[END_REF] implemented by Monsifrot.

The Hutter method is a Bayesian exact regression of piecewise constant functions. It operates for Gaussian distributions of both the identified steps (their mean µ and standard deviation σ are identified) and the noise applying above them (this noise is centred and its standard deviation σ noise is identified as well). A similar optimization algorithm does not exist for Laplace distributed steps and, a fortiori, with the accumulated Cauchy noise. This is the reason why, after running the Hutter algorithm and getting initial values for simulating a Laplace-Cauchy-based model, there is an adjustment of the set of parameters to achieve manually, by trials and errors.

The Gauss, Laplace and Cauchy distributions are defined by their respective probability density function:

f Gauss (x) = 2 2 1 2 1       - - σ µ π σ x e ( 4
)
f Laplace (x) = b x e b µ - - 2 1
(5)

f Cauchy (x) = ( )         - + 2 2 0 1 1 1 γ πγ x x (6)
By analogy, the mean value µ from Hutter is kept the same as the initial mean value for the Laplace simulated signal.

Similarly, the parameter b is fixed initially at σ. Since the Cauchy noise is accumulated in the simulation, its parameter γ must be much lower than the standard deviation σ noise of the additive noise of the Hutter identification (otherwise the error would grow much too much within the duration of a step), and this is typically to be fixed in simulation by trials and errors. When simulating, the analysis of the signal produced is visually inspected with regard to the original signal time series. In addition, the CDFs are compared, as well as the autocorrelations.

Despite the Hutter method is exact, the complete process leading to the final parameters is an approximation, with empirical results. Trajectory 25 was, after thorough analysis, chosen as the best data set to estimate an outline of the complete set of parameters. Figure 8 shows the result of a Hutter derived estimation of step probability where the stepwise red line is the approximation. The filter applied to the radius has been modelled by an autoregressive moving average with exogenous inputs (ARMAX), and identified with the stepwise approximation as signal input, and the original error as signal output. The number of poles (here: 2) and zeroes (and: 0) must be determined by trial and error. Moreover, a dead time of 1 sample (1 second) was applied and the noise disturbance was pink (it used 1 previous value). To summarize, the Matlab armax function was called with [na=2, nb=1, nc=1, nk=1] parameters. The trial and error approach is judged successful when the residuals of the ARMAX identification are uncorrelated. This can be checked with the resid Matlab function.

The filter applied to the angle is here empirically a moving average of the 10 previous input values.

Table I shows the obtained parameters. Radius errors were simulated using the selected parameters within the model. One simulation result is shown in Figure 9 along with trajectory 25. The can be seen in Figure 10. It is somewhat lacking at the second lobes, but the simulation is quite good as can be seen in Figure 11 where the CDFs of the simulated signal and the targeted signal are close.

Figure 12 shows a tentative to reproduce trajectory 21. For this purpose, the upper bound of the truncated Laplace distribution has been moved from 22 m to 400 m, all other parameters being unchanged.

A peak is a sudden very big error that has a relative short duration. The big error around t = 100 s is very sudden, but it lasts for some epochs, this lasting effect of the error is probably due to filtering in the GNSS receiver. In the simulated error signal, this lasting effect is not completely satisfying. The correlation is not matching well and neither is the CDF (not shown). There is obviously a model mismatch: large transient peaks are still not properly reproduced.

V. ANALYSIS OF THE RESULTS OBTAINED

A. Parameter estimation

The model has a number of parameters for the error radius simulation. These relate to the error magnitude step probability (p), to the Laplace distribution parameters (µ, b, min and max), to Cauchy distribution parameters (x 0 , γ, min and max), and to the filter coefficients (a and b). The Hutter derived method, currently implemented in a Matlab script, estimates the parameters for the Laplace distribution and step probability quite well. However, because of a model mismatch between the Cauchy noise-based simulation and the Hutter implementation, the parameter γ is currently not properly estimated. The simulation accumulates the Cauchy random samples during one step, whereas the parameter estimation model assumes that the error is not accumulated. To the best of the authors' knowledge in signal processing and identification, γ must be fitted manually.

B. Effect of stops and slow traffic flow

As the trajectories are from downtown Frankfurt, stops are frequent, caused by red lights and traffic jams. This requires further attention, in particular when reconstructing the alongand cross-track errors. Actually, in case of a large radius error, this error should not rotate if stopped. The angle of the error vector must be limited taking into account the vehicle speed.

C. Exceptional large position errors

A challenging issue is with the peaks, i.e. gross outlying errors. The poor fit of the simulation results is due to the fact that the error model does not have, at this moment, the ability to model peaks. The simplest modification to the model would be to add a small chance of having a very big error at every point. The occurrence of such peaks and their magnitude, frequency and duration should be tuned. In the Frankfurt data set, the peaks occurred twice (at the same geographical location), and have a duration of 20-25 seconds, this accounts for approximately 0.4% of the total driving time (total over all 28 trajectories).

D. Conclusions

Suggesting for GNSS position error modelling -and applying to real data -a Laplace-Cauchy-based model has improved the understanding of the simulation method, its performances and limitations. Several parameters cannot be estimated by the existing identification tools, and need to be manually adjusted. The algorithm should be refined to the extent that it becomes more automatic, but the distributions handled being non-Gaussian, it seems that identification tools well suited still do not exist in the signal processing community.

Although the method needs more development, it has been found that the model, with parameters estimated from one trajectory, is representative for most trajectories, tuning only the upper truncature bound of the Laplace distribution, except for those with peaks. The modelling was easier due to the shift from cross-and along-track errors to radius and angle. The study has shown that the model is able to work well in challenging urban GNSS environment with typically urban driving patterns with frequent start/stop. Future work is needed to refine the error model for peaks which occur on start-up and after exiting tunnels for example.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Simplified architecture of a positioning-based road ITS system

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Sensitivity analysis general principle

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: The local Frenet frame Among these models, let us focus on the two followings:

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Drive route in Frankfurt recorder by the refernce receiver

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: test vehicle from Q-Free

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: Position error of best (25) and worst (21) trajectories

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: The standard Gauss, Laplace and Cauchy distributions (µ = x0 = 0 and σ = b = γ = 1)

Figure 8 :

 8 Figure 8: Hutter estimation of stepwise approximation and step probability

Figure 9 :Figure 10 :Figure 11 :Figure 12 :

 9101112 Figure 9: Time evolution of simulated and target signals (trajectory 25)

TABLE I

 I

	.	SIMULATION PARAMETERS
	Parameter	Selected parameter
	Laplace
	(radius)

Acknowledgment

The research investigations that produced this material have been sponsored by the European COST Action SaPPART, and they were conducted during two short term scientific missions (Carlos Moriana Varo and Svend-Peder Oseth) and with the support of a post-doctorate (Jonathan Monsifrot). The data collection campaign to Frankfurt was part of a Norwegian national research project (SAVE), which was supported by the Research Council of Norway.


Madiha Kassawat

Decoding Transcreation in Corporate Website Localization into Arabic

Keywords: Arabic, cultural adaptation, functionalist translation, internationalization, transcreation, website localization

As adaptation is often associated with localization, and with the promotion of transcreation as an extra service in the industry, there is a need to analyze how and to what extent transcreation is used in localization as a type of target-culture-focused translation. This paper looks into adaptation and analyzes transcreation as a translation strategy. It investigates online promotional texts localized into Arabic (for Saudi Arabia) as an underresearched language in website localization. The analysis follows a functionalist approach and examines 15 international corporate websites.

The results illustrate components of transcreated texts and shed light on the use of different procedures to achieve the creative persuasive purpose.

Introduction

With the increase of virtual globalization, localization practices have been adopted in different areas, including services, entertainment, and product sales. Marketing represents a central aspect in most of these areas. The digital environment is estimated to absorb between 20 and 30 percent of advertising expenses with an increasing pace (Stenger and Bourliataux-Lajoinie 2014, 132), making digital platforms, particularly websites, pivotal to marketing. Furthermore, the development of technologies such as mobile devices cannot be ignored in meeting marketing objectives (Chaffey, et al. 2014, 5) as they narrow distances between businesses and consumers everywhere and at any moment. These developments have led to new channels and formats, introducing new text types, such as User Interface (UI) elements and hypertexts, thus underlining the need for the theoretical framing of localization within Translation Studies (TS). However, established text types, such as advertisements, need to be researched too due to their presence in localized products and the different process they undergo. In particular, advertising is known to require creativeness and cultural adaptation (see [START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the Concept of Transcreation-Transcreation as 'More than Translation'?[END_REF]. With the emergence of the phenomenon of 'transcreation' for marketing purposes, more insight should be sought to understand its components and how it differs from translation, especially involving the Arabic language. This paper will highlight the goals of localization and internationalization, discuss adaptation, and find a framework for transcreation analysis using a corpus of commercial websites localized into Arabic. The paper aims to break down the transcreation components and procedures in order to better understand its position in translation and in localization.

Localization and Internationalization: Interdependent Phases

Linguistic and cultural adaptation have been central in the definitions of localization, including the one introduced early by LISA (Localization Industry Standards Association):

Localization involves taking a product and making it linguistically and culturally appropriate to the target locale (country/region and language) where it will be used and sold." (cited in Jiménez-Crespo 2013, 13).

Another industry definition includes the notion of 'content' and notes that localization aims to "give a product the look and feel of having been created specifically for a target market" (GALA 2019). In TS, the earliest discussions on localization have been observed to deal mainly with its definition and impact on translation concepts and practices (Folaron 2020, 209). Localization was viewed as one of the concepts "steadily making their way into Translation Studies" (Pym 2005, 17). Certain definitions suggested in TS reiterate the adaptation needs [START_REF] Quirion | La Formation en Localisation à l'Université : Pour Quoi Faire ?[END_REF][START_REF] Rémon | Interculturel et Internet: le Site Web, Objet Culturel ?[END_REF]) with a focus on eliminating the traces of the country of origin [START_REF] Gouadec | Le Bagage Spécifique du Localiseur/Localisateur : Le Vrai « Nouveau Profil » Requis[END_REF][START_REF] Schäler | Reverse Localisation[END_REF][START_REF] Schäler | Reverse Localisation[END_REF]Pym 2011) and stressing the cultural appropriateness to the target market [START_REF] Pierini | Quality in web Translation: an Investigation into UK and Italian Tourism Web Sites[END_REF]. Although certain definitions expanded the concept to include the product's acceptability by the target users (Quah 2006, 19-20), more TS-oriented definitions have emerged, highlighting the functionalist approach and the end user's expectations (Jiménez-Crespo 2013, 18). This aligns with [START_REF] Katan | Translation at the Cross-Roads: Time for the Transcreational Turn?[END_REF] who underlines the application of functionalist theory in localization.

The above definitions highlight localization's desired outcomes without specifying the process that a product goes through. As components of the 'globalization' process, 'internationalization' and 'localization' aim to make the product "general", then adapt it to specific locales (Pym 2005, 17).

Internationalization is a preparatory phase but should also account for rewriting the source text in a way that ensures an efficient and consistent translation (Yunker 2003, 124), i.e. "writing for translation" [START_REF] Musacchio | Quality in Translation through "Controlled" Writing, Editing, and/or Revising[END_REF]. It aims to remove any cultural peculiarities to achieve the zéro spécifique (Gouadec 2003, 528) or, technically, the "localizationenablement" (Quah 2006, 115). Hence, internationalization and localization are interdependent. The former is believed to have an influence over the latter's success (Jiménez-Crespo 2007, 5), although they seem contradictory regarding the aim and the results (Jiménez-Crespo 2010, 13). From another perspective, internationalization is viewed as the "key element" in the localization industry (Pym 2006, 56). Pym considers it as the "real revolution, and bad scheduling or a lack of testing can cost more heads than a bad translation" (2014, 42).1

In view of the above, the internationalized product, along with the use of the English language as a lingua franca, has drawn the attention of several TS scholars to its influence over the translation, which is represented by calquing practices in localized websites [START_REF] Bouffard | Localisation et Variation Linguistique. Vers une Géolinguistique de l'Espace Virtuel Francophone[END_REF] and the lack of abidance by the target locale conventions (Jiménez-Crespo 2009). Internationalization is claimed to have direct consequences over languages and the translation process altogether (Guidère 2008, 10) and to limit the translator's creativity as well (Munday and Gambier 2014, 31).

This can be due to the possible influence of the linguistically simplified and culturally neutralized text which does not impose the need to transform, adapt or re-create. By this, literal translation can be considered a faster solution that provides an acceptable output. However, literal translation is less successfully able to achieve the text's function and meet the audience's expectations (Guidère 2008, 21). The possible influence of one language over another due to literality has been pointed out in light of the "global/local and central/peripheral dichotomies" (Collombat 2014, 16), which implies imposing the central language genres on the peripheral target languages (Pym 2011, 10).

Website Localization and Adaptation

Website localization increasingly gained more significance than software localization due to the volume of work (Jiménez-Crespo 2013). The importance of the former can also be associated with their use as multi-purpose platforms that are shared across cultures and are more widely visible than printed materials, making the website viewed as a cultural object [START_REF] Rémon | Interculturel et Internet: le Site Web, Objet Culturel ?[END_REF]. Therefore, and based on the adaptation requirements discussed above, more importance should be given to the micro-textual adaptation level of the translated content which is used and read and which can have a more direct impact on the target culture, as opposed to the macro adaptation, i.e. the design and the transferred content proportion [START_REF] Singh | The Culturally Customized Web Site: Customizing Web Sites for the Global Marketplace[END_REF] or the general communication strategy [START_REF] Guidère | Publicité et Traduction[END_REF].

Jiménez-Crespo highlighted the fact that adaptation is seen as the "additional component that localization provides, as opposed to the textual or wordly nature of 'translation'" (Jiménez-Crespo 2013, 15). Cultural adaptation in particular is commonly associated with localization [START_REF] Thibodeau | Making a Global Product at MapInfo Corporation[END_REF][START_REF] Quirion | La Formation en Localisation à l'Université : Pour Quoi Faire ?[END_REF][START_REF] Rémon | Interculturel et Internet: le Site Web, Objet Culturel ?[END_REF][START_REF] Schäler | Reverse Localisation[END_REF]/2008[START_REF] Mangiron | Journey to the East: Cultural Adaptation of Video Games for the Chinese Market[END_REF]. 'Localization' is sometimes used interchangeably with linguistic and cultural adaptation (Antonucci 2017), which might be one of the reasons that adaptation in localization is considered a "fuzzy concept" (O'Hagan and Mangiron 2013, 107). This fuzziness has been explained by the fact that these terms were "frequently used interchangeably in early literature published by industry and TS scholars alike" (Jiménez-Crespo 2019, p. 33).

However, adaptation is considered a translation procedure (Delisle, Lee-Jahnke, and Cormier 1999;Vinay and Darbelnet 2000) with a wide range:

The limits of translation are represented by transcription or transliteration, in which 100 per cent of the ST surface elements are preserved, and free text production (in the target culture), in which none of the ST surface elements are preserved. Between these two poles we find several forms of translation, which are characterized by different percentages of adaptation, depending on the translation skopos. (Nord 2005, 33) Adaptation is necessary for readers to associate the offered information with their previous knowledge and memories (Nord 2005, 96). In this context, readers get used to certain conventional forms with repetitive kinds of texts with a similar function(s) (Nord 1997, 53). Nord highlights that the assumptions made by the translator should be different from those made by the original author (Nord 1997, 35). Having said that, how does this point of view correspond to a text which is written neutrally for an 'international audience'? The text is "de-culturalized" by the sender to achieve "zerodistance" for both audiences (Nord 2005, 150). Are the translations performed from the point of view of the 'author' or the 'reader' (Ladmiral 2014, 75)?

In this paper, focus will be given to the message effect in promotional contexts, where the appellative intention needs to be expressed in order to persuade the receiver to perform a certain activity (Nord 2005, 55), such as purchasing the product. More specifically, product descriptions (blurbs) will be looked at as an example. Adaptation techniques will be analyzed, but a general framework of adaptation should be provided as a multi-percentage (Nord 2005) procedure used sometimes interchangeably with transcreation (and with re-writing, as detailed in 3.1). This should help in determining the transcreation markers and how it is performed because deciding the transfer strategy in translation is as important as deciding whether to transfer something and what is transferred (Reiss and Vermeer 1984, 85).

In advertisements, adaptation is viewed as a less costly approach than the creation of original campaigns (Vandal-Sirois 2015, 4). It is more accepted in advertising than in literary translation given the invisibility of an author and the focus on achieving the aims of the text (ibid.). Although translation necessitates "the importation of other ideas, other viewpoints, other worldviews" (Maitland 2017, 07), adaptation does not have to be used blindly (Vermeer 2012, 198, Vandal-Sirois 2015, 13) as it depends on the function of the text. In relation to the practice of internationalization, literal (and fast) translation should ensure cultural adequacy. While culturally customized websites have been found to be rare cases (Singh and Pereira 2005, 15), the mirror website type has been noted to follow a purely technical approach where languages change from one version to another to offer a fast and low-cost adaptation (Guidère 2008, 52). However, literal translation has been observed to be a strategy more commonly followed in English-into-Arabic translated e-brochures, without meeting the intended function [START_REF] Obeidat | Translation Strategies in the English-Arabic E-brochures of Baby Care Products[END_REF]. While this can be attributed to several factors, including dealing with new genres, promotional texts are not new and, therefore, need more investigation. They provoke certain expectations in the recipients' minds. Moreover, advertising translation, referred to sometimes as advertising localization (Guidère 2008, 31), is often provided as an example where adaptation and creativeness are required to persuade the consumer. Advertising online specifically imposes further restrictions and requirements, such as the space, interactivity, the fast screen-reading tendencies and navigating web pages in search of a specific item. Those factors increase the need to quickly draw the consumer's attention and persuade him/her with the product as they navigate.

Transcreation in Relation to Adaptation

Although transcreation is being presented as a service in the localization context (Yunker 2017, 126), the term 'adaptation' used to be used in earlier research on advertising translation and in relation to persuasion and function [START_REF] Tatilon | Le texte publicitaire : traduction ou adaptation?[END_REF]. Advertising transfer forms are suggested to include rewriting, adaptation and transposition (or even transcoding; Guidère 2000),

i.e. re-writing represents the highest degree of modification 2 . Adaptation, in turn, has two categories: formal and conceptual (ibid.). The former modifies the surface and structure of the original statement to make it receivable by and, if possible, familiar and idiomatic to, the target audience, while the latter affects the meaning and synchronizes the initial content with the cultural expectations of the final recipient (ibid., 124). As for re-writing, it is viewed in two ways: it either provides a different expressive orientation to the initial message idea, or it develops a totally new idea while respecting the original style (ibid., 129). Terms are multiple when it comes to modification in translation. Gambier notes that the multiple notions destabilize Translation Studies and its students and attributes such changes to the evolution of technologies and the surrounding conditions (Munday and Gambier 2014, 21).

Like other terms which infiltrated into TS, 'transcreation' has received its share of debates. Although the concept of 'transcreation' has been used in different contexts and can be traced to India and Brazil (O'Hagan and Mangiron 2013, 196), it started to be revived in translation about a decade ago [START_REF] Gaballo | Exploring the Boundaries of Transcreation in Specialized Translation[END_REF]. Transcreation has been described on several occasions as offering more than translation given the adaptation of cultural nuances it provides (Pedersen 2014, 60). Although different translation theories have given attention to the notion of culture and the importance of transferring the message effect, the notion of 'culture' and rendering the desired persuasive effect were specifically valued in transcreation. It seems that existing notions in translation are making transcreation an "extra service, beyond translation proper, to be paid for as something extra." (Chesterman 2019, 19). Such a view limits translation to word-for-word transfer and puts transcreation on pedestal. Different translation theories have given attention to the notion of culture and the importance of transferring the message effect. From another perspective, transcreation has been viewed as an independent term which "does not duplicate or fully match any other term, not even the more general term 'translation', and therefore it has its own right to exist" (Gaballo 2012, 96). Although 'transcreation' refers to a specific 'service' offered by agencies, and by this, it seems to have already had its place in the translation industry, the responses of the same study (ibid.) viewed it as a target-audience-focused strategy to adapt a text to local markets. Transcreation is also viewed, for instance, as a "radical adaptive strategy" in game localization (O'Hagan and Mangiron 2013, 196). Having said that, a strategy term cannot be measured against or matched with its own umbrella term. It has been noted that the fuzziness in the terms exist among the professionals who conceptualize localization, transcreation and adaptation unclearly (Dam and Zethsen 2019, 214).

It is necessary to differentiate certain views with regards to the position of transcreation in translation practice. Pedersen calls to investigate "why the transcreation industry seeks another word rather than "translation" to describe its activities" (2014, 69). Moreover, "transcreation is claimed to add something to a more prosaic translation, and therefore, to be a specialism that is worthy of being 'moderately expensive' compared to translation's 'moderately inexpensive'. Clients need to pay for that extra service" (Munday and Gambier 2014, 20). This corresponds with Chesterman (2019) cited earlier. There are also calls for translators to compete in order to distinguish themselves from cheap/volunteer services, or to take the "transcreational turn" to show their creative side (Katan 2016, 377-378).

By looking at these different views, which seem to commodify translation, the term 'transcreation' is being used to keep the prestige of professional translation practice and ensure the sustainability of the translation industry.

It emerged and gained momentum due to industry developments and globalization. Therefore, it is important to see how it is being practiced in localization as an industry that has emerged in the same conditions. In this paper, 'transcreation' is viewed as "a recent term but not a new practice" (Dam and Zethsen 2019, 216) whether in the industry or in TS. It will be viewed and analyzed as a strategy of translation and an existing concept in TS, as detailed in the next section.

Conceptualizing Transcreation

Similarities between 'transcreation' and 'localization' also exist. They both follow a functionalist approach (Katan 2016, 374), the same culture and target-audience considerations are at play, the text preparation phase is similar, and in both cases, the terms are associated with marketing and website translation in general [START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the Concept of Transcreation-Transcreation as 'More than Translation'?[END_REF]. The creativity aspect of transcreation has been viewed as the factor distinguishing it from localization [START_REF] Rike | Bilingual Corporate Websitesfrom Translation to Transcreation?[END_REF]. Therefore, transcreation is a translation strategy, while localization is understood as a translation modality (Jiménez-Crespo 2013) that involves many "translation types" and operates on many "digital genres", and a concept accommodated in the concept of 'translation'

(O'Hagan and Mangiron 2013, 107). In other words, transcreation is performed within localization as one possible strategy for certain textual subcomponents of the whole website.

In the marketing and advertising context, "transcreation seeks to perform all the adjustments necessary to make a campaign work in all target markets, while at the same time staying loyal to the original creative intent of the campaign" (Pedersen 2014, 58). Although the definition refers mainly to the transcreation goal, it is not particular to transcreation. Adaptation and other translation procedures can help in meeting that goal as discussed earlier.

Furthermore, the focus on transferring the creative intent falls into the functionalist translation approach. Transcreation is sometimes considered the "creation of a new original" (Benetello 2017). Transcreation is also viewed as a "crosswise strategy" [START_REF] Costales | Exploring Translation Strategies in Video Game[END_REF]) and as a productive practice which shows the ability to generate new solutions (Gaballo 2012, 111). A more detailed definition has been provided by Gaballo with a focus on transcreation as a strategy used to deal with untranslatable cases by employing different methods:

Transcreation is an intra-/interlingual re-interpretation of the original work suited to the readers/audience of the target language which requires the translator to come up with new conceptual, linguistic and cultural constructs to make up for the lack (or inadequacy) of existing ones. It can be looked at as a strategy to overcome the limits of 'untranslatability', but in fact it is a holistic approach in which all possible strategies, methods and techniques can be used. (Gaballo 2012, 111) This view does not correspond with the definition of a strategy which "applies globally to any given text and is distinguished from ad hoc decisions such as those regarding the application of various translation procedures" (Delisle, Lee-Jahnke, and Cormier 1999, 192). Transcreation does not equal "domestication" or "foreignization" [START_REF] Venuti | Strategies of translation[END_REF]) as holistic approaches for instance. It cannot be considered as a simple procedure either (like calquing or borrowing) due to its complex nature. Therefore, it can be seen as a dynamic and functional translation genre-specific strategy, or sub-strategy, that can be applied on a text segment or a whole text, and implies creativity through combining and making use of different strategies and procedures to achieve an aesthetic, entertaining and/or persuasive effect in the audience. Although transcreation is generally viewed as a domesticating approach, it should be noted that it has no clear-cut orientation as foreign words can be used as well to meet the desired purpose

(see examples provided later).

3.3.

When Are Adaptation and/or Transcreation Used?

The adaptation level has been discussed earlier in the context of websites.

However, it is also conceptualized in terms of the type of business or market. In other words, the degree to which the adapted website conforms to the initial site depends on the importance of its target market. The more competitive the market, more liberty is given when the website is adapted;

and when the markets are segmented, websites tend to be more conforming to the initial site, mainly to reduce costs (Guidère 2008, 51). Advertisements have a significant persuasive aspect, but also a non-negligible informative aspect. In this context, the information-to-persuasion ratio has been used as a tool to assess the need for transcreation, where "the higher the persuasion and the lower the information, the higher the possibility, and potentially the need, to trans-create." (Torresi 2010, 25).

In sum, transcreation is viewed alternatively as a concept, a strategy and a practice; nonetheless, there is an agreement that research on transcreation in marketing and advertising is lacking [START_REF] Gaballo | Exploring the Boundaries of Transcreation in Specialized Translation[END_REF][START_REF] Pedersen | Exploring the Concept of Transcreation-Transcreation as 'More than Translation'?[END_REF] although advertising translation has been frequently discussed in TS (Pedersen 2014, 66). TS scholars have been said "to have abdicated their role as critical investigators of a substantial part of their discipline and passed the buck to the industry, which is free to dictate the preferred terminology to be used in this sector" (Gaballo 2012, 98). Moreover, while transcreation was discussed in literary contexts for decades, in other contexts, "the term transcreation has only recently gained considered attention" (Pedersen 2014, 63). The emergence of the need for research in advertisement transcreation can be due to the increased need for intercultural communication, particularly through localized websites with their complex processes, multi-agent cooperation and the concerns around and in the industry.

A Target-Based Approach Employing a "Reference Text"

The process of localization involves multi-agent cooperation and continuous maintenance of textual content. In addition, researchers do not have access to the "internal knowledge" (Pym 2004, 28) about the text workflow, the source language, who performed or updated the translation, or whether machine translation has been used. This study therefore focuses on the final translation as it will be presented to the user or consumer. It also proceeds with the hypothesis that adaptation is a human-based solution. Moreover, the source-target text relation has become ambiguous in the web localization domain [START_REF] Lee | The Medium is Global, the Content is Not: Translating Commercial Websites[END_REF], given the "one-to-many" model in contrast with the "language-into-language" model (Pym 2006, 750). This makes it difficult for the researcher to determine the source language and source text unless the persuasive function and expectations from the studied advertising genre.

At this stage, the texts were analyzed to see whether any of the markersboth the preliminary markers and those identified in the pilot projectwere present. In the pilot project, making direct comparisons between the reference text and the target text did not prove particularly helpful. The target-based approach is therefore well-suited to identifying the function markers, which are monolingually detectable constructs. It ensures an objective analysis without an influence by the reference text.

In the second stage of the investigation, once the Arabic text was assessed, 104 bilingual blurbs containing the markers were collected as candidates for comparison. The reference text was analyzed in terms of its intent and compared against the localized one to investigate the possible translation strategies and procedures that were adopted to provide a creative content.

Defining the Micro-Analysis Pillars

Based on the pilot project's findings, there was a need to define more thoroughly the procedures and solutions used in order to scrutinize the transcreation cases accurately. The following rationale was adopted:

A 'cultural reference' can be incorporated into the text via substitution or addition. It can include proverbs, food names, songs, character names, symbols, entities, language-specific expressions and idioms, etc. (cf.

González [START_REF] Davies | A Problem-Solving and Student-Centred Approach to the Translation Of Cultural References[END_REF]. 'Linguistic adaptation' is where the same idea of the RT is reflected using similar wording in a more suitable manner and structure for the target language, for example, by employing common collocations. This corresponds to what Guidère terms l'adaptation formelle (form adaptation), where the surface or structure is modified to make the sentence acceptable and if possible familiar and idiomatic (2000,124). Finally, 'cultural adaptation' is where the message wording and main idea are kept while adapting culturally unacceptable elements. This corresponds to what Guidère terms l'adaptation idéelle (conceptual adaptation), which modifies the meaning of the message and synchronizes the content with the target recipient's cultural expectations (ibid.). Finally, 'transcreation' is where the message wording may or may not be inspired by the RT but presents different ideas or puts the same idea in a different frame to achieve the same intended effect. This is based on Gaballo's definition mentioned earlier, which underlines the notion of "re-interpretation of the original work" and introducing "new conceptual, linguistic and cultural constructs" or producing "novel ideas" (2012,111). This also corresponds to Guidère's conception of 're-writing', which can be done in two ways:

providing a different expressive orientation from the initial message idea and developing a completely new idea while respecting the original style (2000,129).

Transcreation: A Mix of Procedures and Solutions

The function markers identified based on the monolingual analysis include the use of rhetorical devices in 7 non-transcreational instances as part of the textual units and in the majority of the transcreation cases as detailed below.

Comparing 104 cases to the RT resulted in categorizing 69 cases as transcreational, as defined in Section 4.2. Interestingly, 14 cases were identified in the monolingual analysis with local-culture constructs but with a close similarity to the RT. (2) RT: Add music. Make GIFs. Get likes.

صور مع الموسيقى

GIF

يجف. ال إعجاب ...

TR :

BT: Music with GIF images… an admiration that doesn't dry.

The translation in Example (3) shares the idea of the RT, which describes a Mac mini device, but with slightly different metaphors which suit the Arab user's imagination and the common collocations. Two structures, implying the same notion of power but using different collocations, were used in parallel. An approximately equal length was achieved in each structure, which helped in expressing the strengths of the product in a simple and short form.

(3) RT: Part racehorse. All workhorse.

TR: مصارع. قدرة ّاء. عد سرعة

BT: A runner's speed. A wrestler's capability.

In the last examples, metaphors have been used more than similes. Although the metaphor is derived from the simile, it has an added value. It depends on impersonation, providing movement and life to objects, blurring the simile and making the reader forget the original metaphor and described entity (ibid., 111). This in turn will likely enhance the persuasion function.

Furthermore, it can be noticed that the length of the Arabic sentences is close to that of the RT and that the sentences are equally distributed. The previous and next examples show how rhetoric has been combined with other components, such as cultural references, colloquial language, and procedures like addition and linguistic adaptation.

Cultural References as a Transcreation Component

Example (4) is a heading for an online color testing tool (without a description text). The Arabic sentence is structurally differently from the RT, but both versions share a similar rhetorical strategy. The first part of the translation is a proverb which is equal to 'the proof of the pudding is in the eating'. The second part invites the reader to try the product and reflects the English intent with an addition to achieve a balanced rhythm as the word 'now' rhymes with 'proof': 'alān' and 'burhān'.

(4) RT: Now it's time to take it for a spin.

TR: اآلن. جرب برهان... خير التجربة BT: Trying is the best proof… try now.

In Example (5), the 'in' and 'out' contrast in English was also used in Arabic. However, a metaphor has also been included, picturing the device and its tools as persons who have hearts. The word 'heart' has been used for paronomasia as it carries two different connotations in Arabic. In the first part, it means the 'core' of the device and in the second, it refers to an anatomical heart. The second part, 'give from their heart', is a common expression in Arabic and is familiar in all Arab countries whether in dialect or in Standard Arabic. It is used to refer to giving, generosity and honesty.

(5) RT: macOS: Built-in tools that go all out.

TR: macOS: قلبها من تعطي أدوات، قلبه في BT: macOS: There are tools in his heart, which give from their heart.

Cultural references can be used alone as a transcreation component as well.

In Example (6), although the RT provides the expression 'eye-opening' to describe the MacBook Pro features, the Arabic version used an adaptation into 'eye-fulfilling' which is a commonly used expression in Arabic and means 'satisfying'.

(6) RT: Eye-opening graphics performance.

TR: العين. يمأل قوي، رسومات أداء

BT: A strong graphics performance, it's eye-fulfilling.

Example (7) represents a proverb 'causes may vary but death is the same' to describe a USB adaptor. The same proverb has been used but adapted to the given context, making use of the description.

(7) RT: USB-C. Singularly versatile.

USB-C

واحد. والمنفذ المهام ّدت تعد .

TR:

BT: USB-C. The tasks may vary but the port is the same.

Addition with Rhetorical Devices as a Transcreation Component

Example ( 8) is about the features of a device camera. The translation is slightly adapted in Arabic. It is similar in meaning to the RT but adds the word 'closely', which also means 'tightly', in order to balance the rhyme.

Assonance has been also used here with the words 'moment' and 'precision': 'laḥẓa' and 'diqqa'.

(8) RT: Cherish every moment with precision TR: ودقة بإحكام لحظة كل تذكر BT: Remember every moment closely and precisely

Colloquial Tone as a Transcreation Component

Examples of colloquial language were limited in the corpus. The following example includes Standard Arabic words, but the expressions are more common in everyday spoken language than in the written language.

Example (9) describes a tablet and the apps it comes with. The words 'adapt' and 'mood' in Arabic are derived from the same root, making a play on words effect.

(9) RT: Apps: Make your iPad whatever you want it to be. The first, monolingual stage of analysis aimed to spot cultural references in Arabic. However, a few cases were identified as having cultural references, but during the bilingual analysis, these examples appeared to be close to the RT wording and ideas. Example ( 15) is taken from a furniture website and is about safe blinds and curtains. Assonance was used in the tagline in the words 'cords ' and 'mind', 'hibal' and 'albāl', although was rendered in a way close to everyday language but is still derived from Standard Arabic, and the word 'laughter' was added, the strategy can be considered transcreation.

(16) RT: Work, learn, and play using AR.

TR: المعزز. الواقع في وشغل. ودرس ولعب ضحك BT: Laughter, joy, learning and work. In augmented reality.

The Function(s) of the Translation and the 'Source Text'

The examples of transcreation components found in the corpus include various strategies and procedures, which makes transcreation a "holistic approach" [START_REF] Gaballo | Exploring the Boundaries of Transcreation in Specialized Translation[END_REF] or an inclusive strategy in translation for specific genres. More importantly, the study has revealed certain tendencies of transcreation use in the industry, particularly in light of the "internationalized text" (Pym 2006). The main study shows a limited use of transcreation (69 out of 2524 checked blurbs). Although these cases do not represent the localization practices on other websites, they do not seem to correspond to academic and industry discourses with respect to the targetculture orientation of localization. The study has found that the majority of these published translations do not include cultural markers to enhance persuasion, which were found in only 4.1% of the blurbs in this study. This tendency toward cultural neutrality is not common in the advertising genre.

Having said that, the characteristics and norms of an established text type can change under the influence of the process it undergoes, and the influence of the nature and function of the 'source text'. Although not all the website content in this study was analyzed bilingually, the limited use of local constructs suggests that a neutral, international stance was preferred over a local, culturally adapted one.

The findings indicate specific areas in the use of transcreation as well.

Transcreation cases were found mainly in the high-tech corporate websites and one cosmetics brand website. This can be explained by two variables:

the product type and the level of internationalization. On the one hand, as noted by [START_REF] Guidère | Publicité et Traduction[END_REF], more liberty in the translation is manifested in competitive markets, while conformity to the initial site is adopted in more segmented markets in order to reduce the localization costs. This was evident in the two high-tech websites used in the study, compared to those of cosmetic and furniture product websites. Having said that, in competitive industries, the online content can be considered more visible and critical for online shopping, compared to in-store purchases of products such as cosmetics. Therefore, the high visibility of content can be a motivation for more creativity and local customization. On the other hand, an exceptional case of one cosmetic website revealed that the English text included many colloquial expressions, metaphors, instances of wordplay, and culturespecific references which may not suit other locales. These factors might have imposed more adaptation-and transcreation-oriented paths, which corresponds to Gaballo's explanation of transcreation as "a strategy to overcome the limits of 'untranslatability'" (2012). The same applies to the high-tech websites, where the English text introduced a play on words and metaphors in multiple occasions. On the contrary, the furniture website and most of the cosmetic products websites did not show a similar tendency.

Therefore, the culturally and linguistically neutral approach is not necessarily associated to dealing with new genres but also to other economic and source-text-related factors which shape the function and strategy of the translation, over and above the workflow itself.

As for the internationalized text, besides targeting an international audience, it seems to have a double function in terms of its translation purposes. It is designed to facilitate less problematic translation and/or allow more room for cultural customization. The former function serves low-cost-oriented and probably faster localization which provides a comprehensible and culturally neutral product in the target language, i.e. a text with "zero distance" (Nord 2005, 150), whereas the latter function opens the door for major modification to provide the same message effect that suits the target locale.

The nature and function of the reference text (as an international version)

can have a relationship with the translation strategy choice. This has been true for the majority of the transcreated cases. Having said that, and in view of the same wide audience, channel, and assumed function, the same text type can be translated differently based on the visibility level, the importance of the market for the company, cost and the 'source text' function. The results highlight not only the function of the translation, but also that of the 'source text'. Furthermore, they underline the similarities of approaches used in transcreation and translation, based on the function.

Conclusion

This paper was an attempt to investigate the components of transcreation in

  he/she has access to the internal process. Therefore, the term 'reference text' (RT) is proposed(Kassawat, forthcoming) for methodological purposes. It does not aim to replace the source text or to equal the "internationalized text"(Pym 2006) as the former is known for the working agents only and the latter has a specific function in the process. Moreover, conceptualizing the text as a reference enables researchers to avoid direct comparisons of the version in question with another one, which might be updated without the change being reflected in all versions. It allows them to instead analyze the localized versions based on their monolingual functionality in the target language, as seen by the end user. The English text will be used as a reference in the analysis.4.1. A Target-Based Corpus SelectionThe corpus for this study was collected for a wider research project on international commercial websites localized into Arabic. A bilingual corpus (Olohan 2004, O'Brien 2014) made up of English and Arabic texts was generated. For consistency and availability reasons, the Saudi Arabia version was the one analyzed for all the websites, whenever a country gateway was available. If a country gateway was not available, the Middle East website was chosen instead. A gateway specifically for Saudi Arabia was lacking only in two cases, which can be attributed to the country's position as one of the main target markets in the Arab world. These two cases did not have instances of transcreation. The collected texts are blurbs consisting generally of a tagline, an image and a short description. A few cases include just a slogan for a product page. The blurbs are similar in length with a slight difference in high-tech products, where each product page has several blurbs. These texts are both informative and promotional. The tagline is considered the appellative element, while the description provides information but is often designed to persuade the consumer. As the focus in marketing and advertising texts is "on ensuring cultural/local relevance, and commercial intent involved" (Pedersen 2014, 62), product blurbs have been chosen due to their high dependence on the translation function and likely need for transcreation. First, a pilot project of four websites (49 blurbs, cosmetic products) was explored by comparing the instances of textual adaptation and transcreation. The function markers were specified beforehand but were open for elaboration based on the comparisons and initial results. The initial function markers were based on Gully's (1996) study of Egyptian Arabic advertisements and Pedersen's (2014, 62) study of marketing and advertising texts, namely metaphors, rhetorical devices, local dialect, wordplay, assonance, and alliteration. 34 candidate cases were found to have these markers. The analysis of and observations in the pilot project showed other forms and units of speech which add dynamism to the text, such as literary vocabulary, collocations, exclamatory sentences, and questions. However, the findings at that stage included only two transcreation cases based on the pre-specified markers and expectations for advertising texts. Therefore, the corpus was expanded to 15 websites for high-tech (840 blurbs), cosmetics (804 blurbs) and furniture products (880 blurbs), to constitute the second stage. The websites were checked in March and April 2019, based on their commercial nature, international reach, and the availability of an Arabic version to be as representative as practicably possible for the given target language for this type of study. Images were excluded from the analysis. They were found to represent the product alone without an obvious relation to the text. The main corpus (2,524 blurbs) has been investigated following two stages based on Nord's model for translation criticism (2005). The first is targetbased, i.e. performing a monolingual analysis of the localized version to check its coherence with the situation in which it is functioning (ibid.), i.e.

  Transcreation seems to be a mixture of different procedures and linguistic solutions put within a new frame, which will be detailed with examples below. Compared to the pilot project, transcreation cases jumped up significantly in the main corpus analysis. However, one factor contributed to this difference: the inclusion of high-tech websites, accounted for 49 of the 69 transcreation cases. This result was expected due to the competitive nature of the high-tech industry where the differentiation from the competitors is the key. More discussion will follow later.As mentioned earlier, 69 transcreation cases were observed mainly in four websites. The most prominent component used in transcreation were rhetorical devices, present in 32 cases in addition to 11 other cases where they were used in combination with other solutions or procedures, making this component represent 62% of all the cases. The use of colloquial language was very limited (only 1 instance), possibly to keep consistency with the rest of the website, which is in Standard Arabic.

Figure 1 Figure 2

 12 Figure 1 Transcreation proportion in the corpus based on the monolingual analysis

  is about a lip and cheek tint. The translation was identified in the monolingual assessment stage due to the use of the word 'our darling' -in the feminine formwhich is Arabic-specific and close to everyday usage. It is considered a transcreation through linguistic adaptation.Although the Arabic version does not include creative constructs, cultural references or metaphors, it expresses the expressions 'gogo' and 'girl' differently to provide more culturally suitable equivalents. (10) RT: You go-go girl! TR: حبيبتنا! استعداد، على كوني BT: Be ready, our darling! Example (11) is another case of linguistic adaptation for a liquid lip color. The RT introduces locale-related expressions that do not have equivalents in Arabic. The Arabic version uses culturally suitable phrases and a style tweaked in a creative manner to comply with the locale convention. This aspect was observed in several cases in the same website. (11) RT: Pop goes your pucker! TR: ملفتة! لشفاه BT: For attractive lips! In Example (12), a blurb on a lip gloss, the Arabic version uses a slightly different idea than the RT, but semantically equivalent wording. The adjective does not describe the action itself but rather the product. In this and previous examples, the difference between adaptation and transcreation becomes blurry, since there is a considerable similarity between the English and Arabic texts on the lexical and semantic levels; yet, it is a different way of conveying the message. (12) RT: Sweet surrender! TR: الحلو! المنتج لهذا استسلمي BT: Surrender to this sweet product! 5.6. Cultural Adaptation as a Transcreation Component In Example (13), a blurb on another lip gloss product, the title was adapted to avoid using the word 'kiss' which can be unacceptable in certain conservative Arab societies. While the translation simply introduces a collocation, it transformed the wording by using the notion of 'color' attractive color In Example (14), a description of a similar cosmetic, the word 'bliss' was not rendered similarly as it could be problematic. It is usually used in religious contexts in Arabic. The translation included an exaggerating expression that served the persuasive function. (14) RT: Pure lip bliss! TR: النعومة! غاية في شفاه BT: Very smooth lips! 5.7. Literal Translation or Accidental Transcreation?

  Arabic-localized content. It started off by discussing adaptation and how it is applied in advertising translation. Then, it provided a framework of transcreation as a translation strategy, having surveyed the literature for different perspectives on transcreation. The research followed a functionalist approach in the corpus selection and in the analysis and aimed to provide insight into the practices through target-based selection criterion. Although the target-based assessment might not have detected all forms of adaptation, it was fit for the purpose of this research using the function markers of the translation and the transcreation concept. The results have shown the proportion of transcreation identifiable in the studied Arabic-localized websites and the various components which shape this strategy. The adopted approach has distinguished the appellative function markers in the target situation rather than extracting them through direct comparison. The approach has been flexible and open to elaborate the criterion. The analysis of the reference text in relation to the translation strategies per product type has brought to the fore economics-driven practices and tendencies which affect the function of the translation even within the same genre. Although internationalization has been thought to be conducive to transcreation, the results of the monolingual analysis showed a shortage of cases with local traits and more cases of cultural neutrality. Nonetheless, this area still needs more investigation to reveal whether internationalization is always used and what influence it has over localization. While the study looked into the transcreation practice in Arabic, which is an under-researched language in localization, it can be applied to similar research in other languages in order to explore locale-based variables in terms of the adopted translation strategies. With the paucity of studies on transcreation in the advertising context, and in localization in Arabic in particular, this paper hopes to contribute to the existing theoretical and empirical data through the adopted methodology and the findings. It is hoped that the results will help translation students and professionals have a better understanding of the components of transcreation and how different translation strategies are used to meet the function of a text. 8. References Antonucci, Barbara. 2017. "The Language of Beauty: Localisation Processes and Transcreation Phenomena in Nationally-Targeted Advertisements." In The Many Facets of Remediation in Language Studies, by Michela Canepari, Gillian Mansfield and Franca Poppi, 91-113. Beau Bassin: LAP LAMBERT Academic Publishing. Benetello, Claudia. 2017. "Transcreation as a Creation of a New Original: A Nortontm Case Study." In Exploring Creativity in Translation

Internationalization shares a few of the aims of Controlled Language (CL) in terms of writing for translation or an international audience. For more research on CL, cf.[START_REF] Quah | Translation and Technology[END_REF],[START_REF] Bowker | Translatability and User Experience: Compatible or in Conflict?[END_REF][START_REF] O'brien | Controlled Language and Writing for an International Audience[END_REF]

Cf.[START_REF] Lefevere | Translation/History/Culture: A sourcebook[END_REF] on the conceptualization of re-writing in other contexts.


est destinée au dépôt

Could you discuss with us your work and summarize the main findings of your project presented during the latest edition of the EMBO Workshop Bacterial morphogenesis, survival and virulence and explain why it is relevant to our field?

In my project, I investigated how the terminus region of the E. coli chromosome is organized during the cell cycle.

For this study, we employed a high-throughput, single-cell imaging and analysis pipeline that involved the use of microfluidics devices known as 'mother machines'. Using mother machine, I was able to image and track thousands of cell cycles from birth to division. Through quantitative image analysis, we identified an unknown coupling between the segregation of the origin region and the terminus region of the E. coli chromosome. Interestingly, one of our key findings was that the segregation of the origin is not a prerequisite for the segregation of the rest of the chromosome. This finding is significant because, although the origin of replication is the first part of the chromosome to be replicated and segregated, one might assume it to be the primary driver of chromosome segregation. However, our results suggest that this is not necessarily the case.

Can you tell us more about the genesis and the story behind this scientific project?

The terminus region of the bacterial chromosome is the last part to be replicated and segregated. Unlike other chromosomal loci, it exhibits unique dynamics throughout the cell cycle. We were interested in understanding the factors that enable these dynamics by tracking the behaviour of the terminus during the cell cycle.

Did you encounter any challenges in this study? If yes, can you tell us more about that?

Just like any other PhD project, I had my fair share of challenges. One of the initial hurdles was setting up the microfluidics system. Thankfully, I had support from my department colleague, Dr. Eugen Kaganovitch, which was instrumental in getting started. Subsequently, it required a great deal of trial and error from my side to identify the optimal imaging conditions for continuously imaging bacteria over several days. Many of the existing protocols were only intended for short-term imaging, so I had to troubleshoot many problems specific to continuous, longterm imaging.

The second challenge involved image analysis. Coming from an experimental microbiology background, I had no prior experience with quantitative image analysis. I am grateful to my colleagues, especially Robin Köhler, and my advisor, Dr. Sean Murray, for designing the image analysis platform and guiding me in taking the first steps into programming and quantitative image analysis.

On the other hand, is there any fun fact about this scientific journey that you would like to share with us?

I started as an experimental biologist, and my PhD journey has transformed me into more of a computational biologist. It's interesting as I've mostly heard stories going the opposite way.

Can you tell us what are your long-term career goals and maybe explain what will be the next step for you in your career?

I am nearing the completion of my PhD. During my final year, I was able to establish collaborations that capitalized on my expertise in imaging bacteria using the mother machine. I am enthusiastic about continuing this line of research and establishing pipelines to study various spatiotemporal dynamics in bacteria. However, these plans are contingent on available opportunities and funding. Alternatively, I am interested in science management and if a research path doesn't materialize, that is where I aim to direct my career.

Similarly, is there a story behind a well-known scientific discovery that impresses or fascinates you and you would like to share with us?

Yes. That would be the discovery of the structure of DNA, especially the contribution of Dr. Rosalind Franklin. Despite facing limited resources and recognition, Dr. Franklin tenaciously worked to elucidate DNA's structure and produced Photo 51, a pivotal piece of evidence that was crucial to understanding the double helix structure of DNA. Her life story, marked by persistent effort and resilience, continues to inspire me to persevere in my own work.

Finally, any tips for PhD students and/or Junior Post-Docs to be awarded best poster?!

Firstly, understand your audience and craft an accurate, catchy title to attract them. Design your poster with a logical flow, clarity, and visual appeal to cater to viewers of different expertise levels. Instead of displaying all results, focus on crucial findings that narrate your research story effectively. Use jargon-free language and highlight the key takeaways of your work.

Prepare to succinctly present each section and anticipate possible questions. Engage with attendees to generate meaningful discussions, and afterward, seek feedback for future improvements. Remember, a poster presentation is not only about showcasing research but also building valuable connections.

  Meet early career researcher-Ismath Sadhir-Awardee of the molecular microbiology poster prize at the EMBO workshop bacterial morphogenesis, survival and virulence: Dynamic genomes and envelopes Pierre Santucci To cite this version: Pierre Santucci. Meet early career researcher-Ismath Sadhir-Awardee of the molecular microbiology poster prize at the EMBO workshop bacterial morphogenesis, survival and virulence: Dynamic genomes and envelopes. Molecular Microbiology, 2023, 120 (1), pp.103-104. 10.1111/mmi.15111. hal-04471700 Meet Early Career Researcher -Ismath Sadhir -Awardee of the Molecular Microbiology Poster Prize at the EMBO Workshop Bacterial morphogenesis, survival and virulence: Dynamic genomes & envelopes 06 -10 February 2023 | Goa, India

you briefly introduce yourself for our readers, tell us who you are and what do you do?

	Pierre Santucci 1 *
	1 Laboratoire d'Ingénierie des Systèmes Macromoléculaires (LISM), Institut de Microbiologie,
	Bioénergies et Biotechnologie (IM2B), Aix-Marseille Université -CNRS, UMR 7255,
	Marseille, France.
	My name is Ismath Sadhir. I am from Kerala, India. I completed my undergraduate and masters studies at the
	Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. Currently, I am a final year PhD student at the Max Planck Institute for
	Terrestrial Microbiology, Marburg.

*Correspondance : psantucci@imm.cnrs.fr

Could


Patrice Berthod

Lionel Aranda

Ghouti Medjahdi

Ghouti Medjahdi High

High temperature oxidation of HEAs and MC-strengthened HEAs in presence of water vapor

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Exposed to air at high temperature, chromia-forming alloys, and even alumina-forming alloys, may behave differently in presence of water vapor by comparison to dry air. Notably, chromia volatilization may be accelerated for a given constant temperature and even it may take place at temperatures lower than 1000°C. Usually not really concerned by volatilization, alumina may start to be affected by volatilization in case of humidified air. Due to the presence of manganese in their chemical compositions, Cantor's alloys and derivatives oxidize with the development of complex oxide scales including mixed {Cr,Mn}-oxides, which may behave differently than pure chromia. In this work, oxidation tests in hot humidified air are carried out, followed by kinetic treatment of the mass gain files. Characterization focuses not only on the isothermal mass gain at the stage temperature (1000°C) but attention is also paid to the mass variations during heating and to the ones during cooling. Differences in mass variation behavior will be evidenced and interpreted in term of influence of the presence of water vapor and also in term of effect of the alloy's chemical composition.

Presentation of the HEA-based single-phased (C), TaC-containing alloy (T) and HfC-containing alloy (H) concerned by this study [1]

• "C" is the original Cantor's alloy (equimolar in Co, Ni, Fe, Cr and Mn) in a conventionally cast version modified by a decrease in Mn (× 0.5 → 10 at.%) and an increase in Cr (× 1.5 → 30 at.%) ; it is singlephased • "T" is based on the "C" alloy described above, but it contains additionally Ta and C (to reach the 0.25 %C and 4 %Ta weight contents) ; its matrix is similar to the "C" alloy (with about 1 wt.%Ta in solid solution) and it contains eutectic TaC carbides located in the interdendritic spaces • "H" is also based on the "C" alloy and it contains also Hf and C (added to reach the 0.25 %C and 4 %Hf weight contents) ; its matrix is identical to the "C" alloy (no Hf inside) and it contains interdendritic eutectic HfC carbides and some blocky HfC (seemingly of a pre-eutectic origin).

"T" alloy H "alloy"

Details concerning the oxidation tests

•

Conclusion

The presence of water vapor, with the content tested here, obviously lowered significantly the isothermal mass gain kinetic by oxidation at 1000°C of these {Mn,Cr}-modified Cantor-type cast alloys (but without change of the hierarchy among the carbide-free and the MC-containing alloys). Another beneficial effect is perhaps also to notice, concerning the mass loss during cooling, according to the present kinetic results. This thermogravimetry part of the study of the effect of water vapor on the high temperature oxidation behavior of these alloys will be soon completed with the results of the ongoing post-mortem metallography investigation of their oxidized states. One can hope that these results will explain the present observations.

Acknowledgements:

Nassima Chenikha, Corentin Gay, Pauline Spaeter and Anne Vernière for their help for synthesizing the alloys and for preparing the specimens for the tests.

  Sample geometry and size: parallelepipeds with square main faces, about 2 mm × 8 mm × 8 mm, all faces ground with #1200-grit SiC papers and all edges and corners smoothed • Temperature for the isothermal stage: 1000°C; isothermal duration: 50 hours; hot air flow: 20 mL/min • Apparatus for the tests in dry air (80%N 2 -20%O 2 ) SETARAM TG92 thermobalance • For the tests in humidified hot air: SETARAM SETSYS thermobalance with a WETSYS vapor generator; partial pressure of water vapor = 179 mbars (achieved by producing 90% of relative humidity at 60°C) Results: isothermal oxidation • All isothermal mass gain curves globally parabolic; in some cases: jumps caused by local unsticking of the oxide scale followed by new fast oxidation of the corresponding denuded part of alloy • In ascending order of global mass gain kinetic: "C" < "T" < "H" whatever the oxidizing atmosphere • Water vapor: slower mass gain than in dry air "C" alloy "T" alloy "H" alloy High temperature oxidation of HEAs and MCstrengthened HEAs in presence of water vapor Patrice Berthod 1,2 , Lionel Aranda 2 , Ghouti Medjahdi 2 1 Faculté des Sciences et Technologies, Campus Victor Grignard, F-54500 VANDOEUVRE-LES-NANCY (France) 2 Institut Jean Lamour, CNRS (UMR 7198), 2 allée André Guinier, Campus Artem, F-54000 NANCY (France) patrice.berthod@univ-lorraine.fr • Plot of the mass gain versus the square root of time: straight lines → seemingly no volatilization of oxide (≠ Cr 2 O 3 which can be re-oxidized into gaseous CrO 3 in the case of chromia-forming alloys) • In the table below, values of the total mass gain achieved during the whole isothermal stage and values of the parabolic constant deduced from the slopes of the straight lines obtained by plotting mass gain versus the square root of time (in some cases only from the straight curve part preceding the first significant mass gain jump) • By comparison with Ni-25/30Cr (wt.%) alloys oxidized in the same conditions of temperature and atmosphere (dry air: Kp ≈ 3 × 10 -12 g 2 cm -4 s -1 , Kv ≈ 1 × 10 -12 g cm -2 s -1 [2]; wet air: Kp ≈ 3 × 10 -12 g 2 cm -4 s -1 , Kv ≈ 50 × 10 -12 g cm -2 s -1 [3]) the parabolic oxidation is faster but no linear mass loss (e.g. due to oxide volatilization) can be evidenced Results: oxidation during heating, scale spallation during cooling • Plotting mass variation versus temperature instead time allows observing the mass phenomena during heating and during cooling • Heating: no difference due to the presence of water vapor can be evidenced for the mass gain by oxidation in the high temperature part of heating • Cooling: water vapor seems totally inhibiting the small oxide spallation occurring in dry air (change in oxide nature? better plasticity of the oxide scale?) • Heating and cooling: possible difference of artificial mass variation due to gas buoyancy (consequence of a density difference between dry air and wet air?)

time (s)

	Alloy:	C alloy	T alloy	H alloy
	Oxidant atmosphere:	dry air	wet air	dry air	wet air	dry air	wet air
	Total isothermal mass	1.595	1.438	2.407	1.927	4.335	3.088
	gain (mg cm -2 ):
	Kp (× 10 12 g 2 cm -4 s -1 ):	9.55	6.70	16.13	9.50	64.98	18.79