Thomas Lenoir
email: thomas.lenoir@univ-eiffel.fr

Thierry Dubreucq
email: thierry.dubreucq@univ-eiffel.fr

Thibaut Lambert
email: thibaut.lambert@cerema.frd.killinger@hauri.de

Denis Killinger

Safety factor calculation of a road structure with cement-modified loess as subgrade

The deformation and failure parameters of six mixtures of cement-modified loess have been determined based on direct tensile stress testing, indirect tensile test testing and unconfined compressive stress testing. Results have been used to determine the parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion and the parameter of the Hoek-Brown failure criterion. The Hoek-Brown model clearly shows that results from indirect tensile stress measurement must be weighted to describe materials properly. Both models' results were then used to calculate the safety factor of a road structure with cement-modified loess used as subgrade material using reduction techniques. Specifically, for the Hoek-Brown model, a new calculation adapted to structures with tensile stresses is proposed. Results vary by around 8.9 for the Mohr-coulomb model and around 3.2 for the Hoek-Brown model.

This shows, at the laboratory scale, that resource-based economies could be expected if cement-modified loess mechanical parameters were considered in the design of structures. It also shows that the Hoek-Brown model is a promising tool to study tensile stressed structures made with cement-modified materials.

1-Introduction

Loess is a detrical sedimentary rock, resulting from the accumulation of silt from wind erosion (deflation) in desert and periglacial regions. It has been estimated that loess covers up 10% of the world's land surface area [START_REF] Pecsi | Loess. In: Geomorphology. Encyclopedia of Earth Science[END_REF][START_REF] Frechen | Loess in Europe -mass accumulation rates during the Last Glacial Period[END_REF][START_REF] Juang | Loess geohazards research in China: Advances and challenges for mega engineering projects[END_REF]. It is mainly composed of silica (detrital quartz) and calcium carbonate (CaCO3) [START_REF] Haase | Loess in Europe-its spatial distribution based on a European Loess Map[END_REF]. It can also contain feldspars, biotite (mica) and clays (often kaolinite). The granulometric composition of a typical loess is 10% fine sand, 75% silt and 15% clay. The mean grain size ranges from 20 to 80 µm [START_REF] Vriend | Calibration of modelled mixing patterns in loess grain-size distributions: an example from the north-eastern margin of the Tibetan Plateau, China[END_REF][START_REF] Li | A review of shear and tensile strengths of the Malan Loess in China[END_REF]. This means that the typical loess is a loose silty rock, yellowish to brownish, with poor mechanical properties. To upgrade it for optimal use of this kind of material in civil engineering, it is common to add few percent of hydraulic binders. Adding binder to fine-grained soils like loess significantly increases their engineering and mechanical properties [START_REF] Maher | Behavior of fiber-reinforced cemented sand under static and cyclic loads[END_REF][START_REF] Bell | Lime stabilization of clay minerals and soils[END_REF][START_REF] Chew | Physicochemical and engineering behavior of cement treated clays[END_REF][START_REF] Kolias | Stabilisation of clayey soils with high calcium fly ash and cement[END_REF][START_REF] Sariosseiri | Effect of cement treatment on geotechnical properties of some Washington State soils[END_REF]. This process has the advantage of minimizing environmental impact and reducing the cost of the infrastructures [START_REF] Nunes | Assessment of secondary materials for pavement construction: technical and environmental aspects[END_REF][START_REF] Salem | Risk-based life-cycle costing of infrastructure rehabilitation and construction alternatives[END_REF][START_REF] Caponya | Monitoring and environmental modeling of earthwork impacts: A road construction case[END_REF][START_REF] Magnusson | Sustainable management of excavated soil and rock in urban areas -a literature review[END_REF][START_REF] Eyo | Performance of clay stabilized by cementitious materials and inclusion of zeolite/alkaline metals-based additive[END_REF]. It is used in numerous civil engineering applications such as embankments, foundations, slabs and pile, pavement and rail construction [START_REF] Al-Rawas | Effect of lime, cement and Sarooj (artificial pozzolan) on the swelling potential of an expansive soil from Oman[END_REF][START_REF] Al-Amoudi | Stabilization of a Saudi calcareous marl soil[END_REF][START_REF] Khay | Compacted sand concrete in pavement construction: an economical and environmental solution[END_REF][START_REF] Okyay | Use of lime and cement treated soils as pile supported load transfer platform[END_REF][START_REF] Consoli | Water content, porosity and cement content as parameters controlling strength of artificially cemented silty soil[END_REF][START_REF] Consoli | Spread footings bearing on circular and square cement-stabilized sand layers above weakly bonded residual soil[END_REF][START_REF] Nazari | Effect of compaction delay on the strength and consolidation properties of cement-stabilized subgrade soil[END_REF]. Nevertheless, nowadays, in the field, the mechanical properties are often limited to:

-unconfined compressive strength (RUCS); -a tangent or secant modulus E; -indirect tensile strength (RIDT) Though these measurements are easy to make, they are not enough to fully design structures, and the real mechanical performances of these materials are sharply downgraded during design processes [START_REF] Setra-Lcpc | Soil treatment with lime and/or hydraulic binders -application to the construction of fills and capping layers -technical guide[END_REF]). As a result, their uses are limited [START_REF] Preteseille | Structural test at the laboratory scale for the utilization of stabilized fine-grained soils in the subgrades of High Speed Rail infrastructures: Experimental aspects[END_REF]. For complete design of structures, materials' deformation and failure properties are needed [START_REF] Piratheepan | Determination of c and φ from IDT and Unconfined Compression Testing and Numerical Analysis[END_REF]. Cement-modified soils, like cemented sands [START_REF] Sitar | Slope stability in coarse sediments[END_REF], describe a wide range of materials and represent the transitional environment between soils and rocks. They often have characteristics of both. The simplest and most widely used geotechnical model in the field of soils mechanic is the Mohr-Coulomb failure criterion (MC). In the field of rocks mechanic, the Hoek-Brown criterion has become widely used [START_REF] Jaeger | Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics[END_REF]. The parameters of these geotechnical models are generally determined through laboratory triaxial tests (Ismail et al., 2002, Wang and[START_REF] Wang | Comparison of existing methods and a new tensile strength based model in estimating the Hoek-Brown constant mi for intact rocks[END_REF]. However, these types of experiments are rarely suitable outside research laboratories; triaxial tests are interpretable when done on soaked or dried materials, but cement-modified soils are non-saturated materials and are never found dried or soaked in the field. To avoid the use of triaxial testing, unconfined compression (UCS) testing and the direct tensile (DT) testing could be used to determine the geotechnical parameters of the two models [START_REF] Wang | Comparison of existing methods and a new tensile strength based model in estimating the Hoek-Brown constant mi for intact rocks[END_REF]. Nevertheless, like triaxial testing, DT testing is hard to implement outside research laboratories. From a purely theoretical point of view, indirect diametrical tensile (IDT) testing could replace DT testing. This approach is based on the analytical solution of stress distribution in the IDT testing [START_REF] Frocht | Photoelasticity[END_REF][START_REF] Piratheepan | Determination of c and φ from IDT and Unconfined Compression Testing and Numerical Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Consoli | Mohr-Coulomb failure envelopes of lime-treated soils[END_REF][START_REF] Preteseille | Structural test at the laboratory scale for the utilization of stabilized fine-grained soils in the subgrades of High Speed Rail infrastructures: Analytical and numerical aspects[END_REF][START_REF] Sivakugan | Determination of c and φ of rocks from indirect tensile strength and uniaxial compression tests[END_REF]), but it does not consider the occurrence of microcracks in the materials (Jeager et al., 2007). However, the failure of brittle materials is governed by the presence of microcracks [START_REF] Griffith | Theory of rupture[END_REF][START_REF] Van Mier | Framework for a generalized four-stage fracture model of cement-based materials[END_REF][START_REF] Hoek | Fracture initiation and propagation in intact rock -A review[END_REF]. As UCS testing and DT testing are homogenous stress testing, the entire volume of the sample is concerned by the presence of microcracks. In the case of IDT testing, stress distribution is concentrated in the center of the cylindrical sample along its height [START_REF] Piratheepan | Determination of c and φ from IDT and Unconfined Compression Testing and Numerical Analysis[END_REF]. Therefore, the volume concerned by the occurrence of microcracks is substantially lower than the DT volume. Thus, a weighting coefficient must be used to compare IDT testing with DT testing.

Based on DT testing, IDT testing and UC testing, our first aim was to determine deformation and failure parameters of six mixtures of cement-modified loess. Results are discussed and compared with values from literature to evaluate their accuracy and relevance. Beyond, the Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown models' parameters were calculated and discussed for those six materials. Our second aim was to quantify the interest of determining these parameters. Two simulations of a road structure to be implemented on a project site are presented. In this structure, cement-modified loess is used in the foundation layer (subbase) and in the capping layer. The first simulation was made in accordance with technical guides, with downgraded mechanical performances for the capping layer. In the second simulation, measured mechanical performances were considered in both layers. Based on reduction techniques, safety factors were determined. Specifically, for the Hoek-Brown model, a new calculation adapted to structures subjected tensile stresses is proposed.

2-Materials and methods

2.1-Soil

The material studied is a loess from the Alsace plain in France. The sampling was performed with an excavator equipped with a ditch bucket at a depth between 2 and 3 meters. The diameter of larger elements in the soil is 18 mm (Figure 1). The silt (2 μm <d <20 μm) content is 40.5%, the fine sand (20 μm <d <200 μm) content is 32.5%, the coarse sand (200 μm <d <2 mm) content is 3.3%, and the gravel content (2 mm <d <20 mm) is 3.0%. It is a very fine sandy-silty material containing of non-negligible amount clay (AFNOR, 2018). The liquid limit LL is 30% and plastic limit PL is 22% (AFNOR, 1993). The plasticity index PI (=LL-PP) is 8. The soil is classified A-4 following the AASHTO Soil Classification System, at the edge between lean clay (CL) and silt (ML) following the USCS Soil Classification System and A1 following the French Soil Classification System [START_REF] Afnor | [END_REF]. The clay activity is A = PI/C2µm = 0.4. These results mean that the clays may be inactive and should have a low impact on soil behavior when soil is wetted or dried. The specific mass is ρs = 2720 kg/m 3 (AFNOR, 1991)

2.2-Treatment and sample preparation

To prepare samples, three different binders were mixed with the loess in a blender. In each case, 5.5% and 7% of dry matter were added to the soil. These six different configurations of treatment are all in accordance with usual treatments that could be found in the field of earthworks. The three binders came from the German cement manufacturer HAURI. ZIP 35 is a pozzolanic binder HRB 32.5E (AFNOR, 2014a) made of 55% clinker and 45% natural pozzolans. PHOCAL C15 is also a pozzolanic binder HRB 32.5E. It is made of 47% clinker, 15% lime and 38% natural pozzolans. PHONOS is a hydraulic binder CEMII/B-Q 42.5 N (AFNOR, 2012) made of 75% clinker and 25 % natural pozzolans. Chemical features are given in Table 1. The optimum moisture content (OMC)/optimum proctor dry density (OPD) relationships (WOPN/γd) of the cement-modified materials (Figure 2) were determined (AFNOR, 2014b). For mechanical experiments, samples were prepared at WOPN and 96% of γd, a common fixed objective when materials are prepared and used in the field. Samples were compacted in a double static mode in one layer in a cylindrical mold. For UCS and DT testing, diameter and height were 10 cm and 20 cm respectively. For IDT testing, both diameter and height were 10 cm. After preparation, as recommended in French technical guide (SETRA-LCPC, 2004), samples were stored in a room with temperature regulated at 20 °C and protected with thin plastic films to keep constant water content. Curing time was 90 days before testing.

2.3-Experiments

All tests were carried out on a Zwick/Roell Z150 press with a crosshead speed of 0.3 mm/min in absolute value. Elastic moduli and Poisson's ratios were determined in compression with UCS testing and in tension with DT testing. In both cases, two samples were molded. Vertical displacements were measured with three Micro-Epsilon CS5 capacitive sensors and radial strain perpendicular to the loading was measured with two HBM LY41-20/120 strain gauges. For the calculation five loading/unloading cycles were done. To reduce friction boundary effects, only the strain/stress relationships during unloading were considered and averaged (Figure 3). Elastic moduli, EUCS and EDT are defined as the slope between stress measurements and vertical strain measurements. Poisson's ratios νUCS and νDT are defined as the slope between vertical strain and radial strain measurements. For UCS testing, loading/unloading cycles varied between 100 N and 500 N and applied load (F in N) was measured with a force sensor TME F522TC (max. load = 100 kN). For DT testing, loading/unloading cycles varied between 100 N and 200 N and applied load (F in N) was measured with a force sensor TME F521TC (max. load = 10 kN). After E and ν measurements, samples were broken to determined maximum loadings and strains in tension and compression. Rupture parameters were also determined using IDT testing [START_REF] Afnor | Unbound and hydraulically bound mixtures -Part 42: test method for the determination of the indirect tensile strength of hydraulically bound mixtures AFNOR[END_REF]. In that case, four samples were molded. Applied load (F in N) was measured with a force sensor TME F521TC (max. load = 10kN). Diametrical displacements perpendicular to the loading were measured with RDP D6 linear variable differential transformers (range ± 0.25 mm). Some photos are provided in an accompanying Electronic Supplementary Material to illustrate sample preparation and tests. All calculations were done using Python version 3.6.1 [START_REF] Van Rossum | Python tutorial[END_REF].

2.4-Numerical modeling

Selected structure

The structure under consideration (Figure 4) is to be built as part of the beltway construction project around the town of Strasbourg in France. It has been designed in accordance with the French Technical Guide on the design of pavement structure [START_REF] Corté | Design of Pavement Structures: The French Technical Guide[END_REF][START_REF] Setra-Lcpc | French Design Manual For Pavement Structures[END_REF] and the French Technical Guide on the application of soil treatment with lime and/or hydraulic binders to the construction of capping layers [START_REF] Setra-Lcpc | Soil treatment with lime and/or hydraulic binders -application to the construction of fills and capping layers -technical guide[END_REF]. This structure has been selected to support a traffic forecast of 4.77 million Heavy Goods Vehicles over 24 years. The design is based on mechanical fatigue results (not shown nor discussed in the paper) obtained for loess treated with 5.5% of binder PHONOS. It is a composite pavement. It consists of four layers defined as follows: a 6 cm surface course of bituminous materials (medium-grained asphaltic concrete) [1], a 12 cm base layer of bituminous materials (bitumen-bound graded material) [2], a 20 cm subbase layer of cementmodified loess [3], and a subgrade [4]. The subgrade is divided in two layers, with a 55 cm capping layer of cement-modified loess [4a] and with the natural ground that is loess, which has been graded and compacted [4b].

Modelling

All layers of the studied structures are assumed to have an elastic behavior (Hooke's law) as described by the Young moduli and Poisson's ratios. In the first simulation, in accordance with French design of pavement (SETRA-LCPC, 1997), the subgrade layers [4] are considered as a single layer in the modelling with a modulus of 200 MPa and a Poisson's ratio of 0.35. In the second simulation, measured mechanical properties of cement-modified loess in the capping layer are considered and thus, two layers [4a] and [4b] are considered for the subgrade. Values of elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio of the layers [3] and [4a] (subbase layer and capping layers) depend on the specific mixture of cement-modified loess and will be justified later. All hypotheses given (bituminous material performances, bonding conditions, subgrade performances) are in accordance with the French design of pavement (SETRA-LCPC, 1997). Design assumptions are detailed in Table 2. Calculations are done with the software ALIZE-LCPC [START_REF] Autret | ALIZE III practice[END_REF], which is commonly used in the French design of pavements. ALIZE-LCPC computes the Burmister solution [START_REF] Burmister | The theory of stresses and displacements in layered systems and applications to the design of airport runways[END_REF] of an elastic multilayered space under static loading. The reference loading used in the French design of pavements represents a 65 kN axle. It is made of two disc-shaped loads (0.6620 MPa) of 0.25 m in diameter spaced by d=0.375 m applied on the free surface of the pavement structure [START_REF] Chupin | Influence of sliding interfaces on the response of a layered viscoelastic medium under a moving load[END_REF].

3-Results and Discussion

3.1-Linear Elasticity

Values of E and ν parameters determined with different configurations are summarized in Table 3. Poisson's ratios range between 0.10 and 0.14 with a standard deviation around 0.03 regardless of the testing type and regardless of the type and amount of binder. The literature has little data about the Poisson's ratio of cement-modified soils. It seems that it varies with the stress intensity [START_REF] Reddy | Influence of joint Thickness and Mortar-block elastic Properties on the Strength and Stresses Developed in soil-Cement Block Masonry[END_REF]. That study reports, for a clayey sand treated with 8% of cement prepared at a specific weight of 18 kN/m 3 with a water content of 10%, linear values between ν = 0.05 for a Stress/Peak strength ratio of 0.1 to ν = 0.11 for a Stress/Peak strength ratio of 0.1. Using ultrasonic waves [START_REF] Khan | Measurment of dynamic properties of stiff specimens using ultrasonic waves[END_REF], for a sand mixed with 15% of cement prepared at a mass density of 1653 kg/m 3 with a water content of 12.5%, a value ν=0.17 has been reported. Thus, the obtained results seem to be relevant in terms of order of magnitude. To compare with close materials, for intact rocks, Poisson's ratio ν generally (Wyllie, 1992;[START_REF] Gercek | Poisson's ratio value for rocks[END_REF] ranges between 0.20 and 0.30. For granular soils, it ranges between 0.15 and 0.45 [START_REF] Gercek | Poisson's ratio value for rocks[END_REF][START_REF] Das | Advanced Soil Mechanics. 3 rd Ed[END_REF] and for concrete, it ranges between 0.10 and 0.20 [START_REF] Gercek | Poisson's ratio value for rocks[END_REF][START_REF] Persson | Poisson's ratio of high-performance concrete[END_REF]. Elastic moduli are highly correlated (R=0.97). With a EUCS/EDT ratio of 1.05 (0.05), they are also very close. They depends on the type and the amount of binder. Cement-modified loess exhibits lower stiffness with the binder PHOCAL C15 that is lime-rich and clinker-poor. Results are close for ZIP 35 and PHONOS. Amounts of pozzolans do not seem to impact E. On the other hand, for each binder, the higher its amount, the higher the material stiffness. This result is classical for cement-modified soils [START_REF] Chew | Physicochemical and engineering behavior of cement treated clays[END_REF][START_REF] Reddy | Characteristics of soil-cement blocks using highly sandy soils[END_REF]. The increases are similar, for 1.3 (7%/5.5%) times more binder, on average, elastic moduli increase by around 1.1 times. With values close to 5000 MPa, these results are also in accordance with previous measurements of elastic moduli at small strain (Kongsukprasert and Fumio, 2007;[START_REF] Preteseille | Sustainable upgrading of fine-grained soils present in the right-of-way of High Speed Rail projects[END_REF][START_REF] Preteseille | Mechanical fatigue behavior in treated/stabilized soils subjected to a uniaxial flexural test[END_REF][START_REF] Preteseille | Structural test at the laboratory scale for the utilization of stabilized fine-grained soils in the subgrades of High Speed Rail infrastructures: Experimental aspects[END_REF][START_REF] Choo | A practical method for estimating maximum shear modulus of cemented sands using unconfined compressive strength[END_REF]).

3.2-Failure criteria

Failure parameters

The maximum unconfined compressive stresses RUCS, direct tensile stresses RDT and indirect tensile stresses RIDT of the specimen under different treatment configurations are summarized in Table 4. This table also summarized the measurement of sample strain at rupture (εrupt.). Range of RUCS is between 3.1 MPa and 4.9 MPa. This is in the range previously reported on loess treated with cement [START_REF] Zhang | Effect of cement on the stabilization of loess[END_REF]. They are correlated with EUCS (R=0.99) and EDT (R=0.97) with a ratio RUCS/EUCS= 9.1 10 -4 (0.3 10 -4 ). Therefore, as elastic moduli, RUCS depends on the type and amount of binder. RDT range from 0.16 to 0.55 MPa. They depend on the type and amount of binder. Surprisingly, direct tensile strength RDT seems not to be correlated with RUCS (R=0.21). The sensibility of direct tensile stress to (micro-)crack occurrence (Jeager et al., 2007) is probably responsible for this lack of correlation. Nevertheless, the RDT/RUCS ratio is 0.09 (0.04), which is similar to the ratio already observed for cement-treated aggregate material [START_REF] Chakrabarti | Direct tensile failure of cementitiously stabilized crushed rock materials[END_REF][START_REF] Xuan | Mechanical properties of cementtreated aggregate material -A review[END_REF] and lightly cemented sand [START_REF] Dass | Tensile Stress-Strain characteristics of Lightly Cemented Sand[END_REF]. As reported for other cement-stabilized materials [START_REF] Babic | Relationships between mechanical properties of cement stabilized materials[END_REF], unconfined compressive strength RUCS is correlated with RIDT (R= 0.96). The RIDT/RUCS ratio = 0.11 (0.01) and the RDT/RIDT ratio = 0.84 (0.30). This last result is in accordance with remarks about micro-crack distribution [START_REF] Griffith | Theory of rupture[END_REF][START_REF] Van Mier | Framework for a generalized four-stage fracture model of cement-based materials[END_REF][START_REF] Hoek | Fracture initiation and propagation in intact rock -A review[END_REF]. All observed ratios are similar to values observed in literature, [START_REF] Clough | Cemented sands under static loading[END_REF][START_REF] Dass | Tensile Stress-Strain characteristics of Lightly Cemented Sand[END_REF][START_REF] Jiang | An investigation of mechanical behavior of cement-stabilized crushed rock material using different compaction methods[END_REF][START_REF] Cardoso | Bonding effect on the evolution with curing time of compressive and tensile strength of sand-cement mixtures[END_REF] and generally imposed for practical applications (SETRA-LCPC, 1997; SETRA-LCPC, 2004). Regarding the local strain that leads to rupture in compression, εrupt.UCS ranges between 0.6-0.7 percent. We found no study dealing with this specific subject for cement-modified loess in the literature. To compare with close materials, this is around 1.5 to 2 times higher than the range found on cement-mixed gravelly or sandy soils [START_REF] Dass | Tensile Stress-Strain characteristics of Lightly Cemented Sand[END_REF][START_REF] Reddy | Characteristics of soil-cement blocks using highly sandy soils[END_REF][START_REF] Reddy | Strength and Elastic Properties of Stabilized Mud Block Masonry Using Cement-Soil Mortars[END_REF]Kongsukprasert and Fumio, 2007). In these four studies, the amount of clay in the untreated materials was below 10% while it was around 20% in the studied loess. Maybe the occurrence of clay up to a certain amount in cement-modified materials allow higher deformations, without deleterious effects on the failure parameters in compression. The local strains that lead to rupture in traction εrupt.DT and εrupt.IDT ranged between 0.01-0.02 percent. This was within the range of results found on lightly cemented sand [START_REF] Dass | Tensile Stress-Strain characteristics of Lightly Cemented Sand[END_REF] but five times higher than the values found on soil-cement blocks using highly sandy soils [START_REF] Reddy | Characteristics of soil-cement blocks using highly sandy soils[END_REF]. RUCS and εrupt.UCS are negatively correlated (R=-0.93). In compressive mode, the higher the resistance of the sample, the lower its deformation before failure. This is a classical observation [START_REF] Dass | Tensile Stress-Strain characteristics of Lightly Cemented Sand[END_REF] in accordance with the correlation between EUCS and RUCS. On the other hand, RDT and εrupt.DT are positively correlated (R=0.96). In tensile mode, the higher the resistance of the sample, the higher its deformation before failure. Comparing to the literature, on lightly cemented sand, opposite observations have been made [START_REF] Dass | Tensile Stress-Strain characteristics of Lightly Cemented Sand[END_REF], while no trend was observed with soil-cement blocks using highly sandy soils [START_REF] Reddy | Characteristics of soil-cement blocks using highly sandy soils[END_REF]. RIDT and εrupt.IDT are not correlated (R=0.46). This is probably due to the lack of sensibility of displacement sensors LVDT.

Mohr-Coulomb criterion

This criterion is the simplest and most widely used failure criterion. It can be written following the formula:

τ = C+σ tan (φ) (1)
with τ shear stress, σ normal stress, C material apparent cohesion, and φ apparent angle of internal friction.

The apparent parameters C and φ are generally graphically determined in the {σ , τ} plane using at least two Mohr's circles (Figure 5). For unconfined compressive measurements with a cylindrical shape, unconfined compressive strength RUCS is the major principal stress, while the minor principal stress is zero. For direct tensile measurements with a cylindrical shape, the major principal stress is zero, while the direct tensile strength RDT (<0) is the minor principal stress. For indirect tensile measurements, the indirect tensile strength RIDT (<0) is the minor principal stress and -3RIDT is the major principal stress [START_REF] Piratheepan | Determination of c and φ from IDT and Unconfined Compression Testing and Numerical Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Preteseille | Mechanical fatigue behavior in treated/stabilized soils subjected to a uniaxial flexural test[END_REF]. The tangent to the circles represents the envelope of Mohr-Coulomb's failure.

In addition, considering the well-used relationship RDT≈0.8xRIDT measured in Table 4, and knowing the higher repeatability of the indirect tensile test compared with the direct tensile test, it is also interesting to determine C and φ using direct tensile measurements principles with the value of 0.8xRIDT. Results of cohesion and internal friction angle based on UCS testing and DT testing (CDT, φDT) and UCS testing and IDT testing (CIDT, φIDT) and (CIDTx0.8, φIDTx0.8) under different treatment configurations are summarized in Table 5.

CDT ranged from 0.35 to 0.75 MPa, CIDT ranged from 0.62 to 0.98 MPa and CIDTx0.8 ranged from 0.46 to 0.71 MPa. They depend on the type and amount of binder. In the literature, we found only one result about cohesion of cement-modified loess [START_REF] Aflaki | Study on the failure behavior of three different stabilized problematic soils[END_REF]. For a loess treated with 5% and 8% of cement, prepared at 95% optimum Proctor density (OPD)/optimum moisture content (OMC), with seven days of curing and in consolidated drained condition, cohesion was 0.155 and 0.244 MPa. Measurements of cohesion from shear box testing on non-saturated cement treated-materials ranged from 0.1 to 0.4 MPa after seven days of curing [START_REF] Harichane | Effect of curing time on shear strength of cohesive soils stabilized with combination of lime and natural pozzolana[END_REF][START_REF] Shooshpasha | Effect of cement stabilization on geotechnical properties of sandy soils[END_REF]Shirvani, 2015, Zhang et al., 2017).

A cohesion of 0.277 MPa was obtained with triaxial testing on a saturated silty fine sand stabilized with 5% of cement, compacted at OPD/OMC after seven days of curing [START_REF] Schnaid | Characterization of Cemented Sand in Triaxial Compression[END_REF]. φDT, φIDT and φIDTx0.8 ranged from 46° to 65°, 44° to 48°, and 56° to 58° respectively. Unlike cohesion, they did not exhibit a high dependency to the type and amount of binder. Results were still in the upper range compared with literature results [START_REF] Schnaid | Characterization of Cemented Sand in Triaxial Compression[END_REF][START_REF] Aflaki | Study on the failure behavior of three different stabilized problematic soils[END_REF][START_REF] Shooshpasha | Effect of cement stabilization on geotechnical properties of sandy soils[END_REF][START_REF] Zhang | Effect of cement on the stabilization of loess[END_REF]) However, the cohesion and friction angles of cemented materials are known to increase with curing time [START_REF] Harichane | Said Stabilization of Algerian Clayey Soils with Natural Pozzolana and Lime[END_REF]. Thus, considering that in this study, cement-modified loess performances were measured after 90 days of curing and that materials were unsoaked, the results can be considered as relevant. On the other hand, all results obtained with IDT testing are in accordance with results from literature [START_REF] Piratheepan | Determination of c and φ from IDT and Unconfined Compression Testing and Numerical Analysis[END_REF] obtained in similar conditions. CIDT and CIDTx0.8 are highly correlated with RUCS (R=0.97 and R=0.99 respectively). The relationship between CDT and RUCS is less clear (R=0.64). It can be attributed to the sensitivity of DT testing to micro-cracks. RUCS is not correlated to tan(φDT), tan(φIDT) or tan(φIDTx0.8), with respectively R = 0.01, R=0.28 and R=0.28, but resulting from the geometrical construction, the RT/RUCS ratio (with subscript T=DT, IDT and IDTx0.8) are highly correlated with tan(φT) with respective values of R of -0.96,-1.00 and -1.00. Concerning cohesions, CDT/CIDT = 0.74 (0.13), CDT/CIDTx0.8 = 1.01 (0.18) and CIDTx0.8/CIDT = 0.73 (0.01). Concerning angles of friction, tan(φDT)/tan(φIDT) = 1.50 (0.29), tan(φDT)/tan(φIDTx0.8) = 1.02 (0.20) and tan(φIDTx0.8)/tan(φIDT) = 1.48 (0.03).

Hoek-Brown criterion

The Hoek-Brown criterion is a failure law that is widely used in the field of rock mechanics [START_REF] Jaeger | Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics[END_REF]. For intact rock material, it is expressed as follow [START_REF] Hoek | Empirical strength criterion for rock masses[END_REF]:

σ1 = σ3+(mσcσ3+ σc 2 ) 1/2 (2)
Parameters of this law are σc, the unconfined compressive strength (RUCS), and σ1 and σ3, which are respectively the major and minor principal stresses (Figure 6).

The constant m depends on rock properties. As with Mohr-Coulomb criterion, for direct tensile measurements σ3 = RDT (<0) and σ1 = 0. For indirect tensile measurements, σ3 = RIDT (<0) and σ1 = -3RIDT. As with the Mohr-Coulomb model, m was also determined using direct tensile measurements principles with the value of 0.8xRIDT. Thus, values of m are:

m = ((σ1 -σ3) 2 -σc 2 )/ (σcσ3) (3)
Values of m determined with DT testing (mDT), and IDT testing (mIDT and mIDTx0.8) under different treatment configuration are summarized in Table 6. The ranges were as follows: mDT was 5.89 to 19.57, mIDT was 6.66 to 8.31, and mIDTx0.8 was 10.58 to 12.32. They do not seem to depend on type and amount of binder. In the case of DT testing, the values of mDT were on average 12.42 (4.17) and correspond to values generally attributed to lithified argillaceous rocks [START_REF] Hoek | Empirical strength criterion for rock masses[END_REF][START_REF] Jaeger | Fundamentals of Rock Mechanics[END_REF]. This is relevant to describe the cement-modified loess. For IDT testing, in average, mIDT = 7.61 (0.56). This range is generally attributed to carbonate rocks with well-developed crystal cleavage. Interestingly, mIDTx0.8 = 11.58 (0.59). These two points highlight that IDT measurements are not relevant to describe directly cement-modified loess [START_REF] Eberhardt | The Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion[END_REF] and must be weighted.

Values of mDT seem not to be correlated with mIDT or mIDTx0.8 (R=0.35 and R=0.34 respectively), while mIDT and mIDTx0.8 are highly correlated (R=1.00). As with previous observations, this lack of correlation may be attributed to RDT measurements. Geometrical constructions also lead to high correlation of mT (with subscribe T=DT, IDT and IDTx0.8) with tan(φT) with respective values of R of 0.99, 1.00 and 1.00. Ratios mDT/mIDT=1.62 (0.53), mDT/mIDTx0.8=1.07 (0.35) and mIDTx0.8/mIDT=1.52 (0.04).

Application to the calculation of the safety factor

Tensors with the highest tensile stresses

Considering the RUCS/RT ratios for cement-modified materials, it is conventionally admitted that failures of layers made of cement-modified materials result from tensile stresses. In both cases, tensors that exhibit highest tensile stresses are located at the vertical of the middle of the axle, without stress rotations. They are found at the bottom of the foundation layer in the first case and at the bottom of the capping layer in the second case. Values are given in the Table 7. In both cases, a small amount of compression is present in the vertical direction. It is around 0.04 MPa in the first structure and 0.003 MPa in the second structure. In the two horizontal main directions, tensile stresses are found. In the first structure, the σXX (parallel to axle direction)/σYY (perpendicular to axle direction) ratio is around 1.5, while it is around 1 in the second case. Major tensile stresses in the first structure are around 3 times higher than major tensile stresses in the second structure. Also, σXX and σYY depend on the moduli of the materials. For both principal directions, the higher the modulus, the higher the tensile stress.

Safety factors

The Hoek-Brown model clearly highlights that results from indirect tensile stress measurements describe a non-relevant material [START_REF] Eberhardt | The Hoek-Brown Failure Criterion[END_REF]. They cannot be considered without weighting. Therefore, in the following only results from DT measurements and 0.8*IDT measurements are considered.

With the Mohr-Coulomb model, the safety factor can be defined using a Phi-c reduction method [START_REF] Brinkgreve | PLAXIS 2D 2010 Reference Manual[END_REF]. Based on the serviceability tensor, a reduced cohesion c * and a reduced angle of friction φ * are determined (Figure 7). Naming c and φ the material cohesion and angle of friction, the safety factor Fn is determined following the formula:

Fn= c/c * =tan(φ)/tan(φ * ) (4)
With the Hoek and Brown model, reduction techniques can also be applied [START_REF] Hammah | The Shear Strength Reduction Method for the Generalized Hoek-Brown Criterion[END_REF][START_REF] Benz | A Hoek-Brown criterion with intrinsic material strength factorization[END_REF]. Generally, those approaches are used to deal with slop stability issues or deep foundation issues. In these issues, confining stresses are positive (compression). Thus, the tensile stress is kept and the compressive strength is reduced following the formula:

Fn=RUCS/R * UCS However, in this issue, only one principal stress is positive (σZZ) and it is very close to zero compared with the absolute values of the two other principal stresses σXX and σYY (Table 7) which are tensile stresses. On the other hand, in the Mohr's plane, the radius of the serviceability tensor (σZZ-σYY)/2 is lower than the tensile circle radius RT/2 (Figure 7). It is thus impossible to determine a reduced compressive strength. To adapt this approach to the specific case of pavement layers made with cement-modified soils, it is proposed to keep the compressive stress and based on the serviceability tensor deduce a new value of m, named m2 that leads to a reduced tensile stress (Figure 7):

m2=((σZZ -σXX) 2 -RUCS 2 )/ (RUCSσXX) (5)
From this new value, it is possible to determine a reduced tensile strength RT * which is the solution of the quadratic equation:

RT * ²-m2RT * -RUCS²=0 (6)
The safety factor is thus expressed as:

Fn=RT/R * T (7)

In Figure 7 it is interesting to see that due to the low σZZ, R * T is close to σXX. For this engineering application, a good approximation of Fn could thus be RT/σXX. Values of Fn determined with both models and both structures are summarized in Table 8.

For structure 1, if RDT is used, treatments with 5.5% of PHOCAL are not suitable. The absolute value of RDT is lower than the corresponding absolute value of σXX (Tables 4 and7).

That is why it is not possible to determine a safety factor with the Mohr-Coulomb model (MC) and the safety factor is lower than that with the Hoek and Brown model (HB These results show that current design procedures are relevant when the subgrade mechanical properties are downgraded because factors of safety range between 1 and 2. It also justifies the selected structure after the fact. When the measured mechanical properties are considered in design process, safety factors are greater than two and resource-based economies could be expected in the field. For example, in the current case, the capping layer could be also used as foundation layer. Decreasing the thickness of the base layer made with bituminous materials could also be considered.

4-Conclusions

This work shows that it is possible to determine the elastic and failure parameters of cementmodified loess with direct tensile stress testing, indirect tensile stress testing and unconfined compressive test testing. Direct tensile stress measurements exhibit higher standard deviations than indirect tensile stress measurements, but the RDT/RIDT ratio is around 0.8 as expected for this kind of materials.

The values we determined can be used to calculate parameters of the Mohr-Coulomb and Hoek-Brown failure criteria. The Hoek-Brown model clearly show that results from indirect tensile stress measurements must be weighted to describe materials properly. Regardless of the model used, the parameters calculated with DT measurements or weighted IDT measurements are statistically similar.

For a classical road structure where some layers are made with cement-modified loess, parameters from both models can be input in numerical modelling. Based on reduction techniques, safety factors adapted to structures with tensile stresses are determined. Results vary around 8.9 for the Mohr-Coulomb model and around 3.2 for the Hoek-Brown model. At the laboratory scale, we show that resource-based economies could be expected if cementmodified loess mechanical parameters were considered in the design of structure. To generalize these results and to become more refined in modeling, the mechanical behavior of cement-modified loess at the field scale must be studied. Rock mass parameters from the Hoek-Brown model could then be determined for cement-modified loess. They could describe the frequency and the distribution of discontinuities and cracking in layers made with cementmodified loess.

Figures

Figure 1: Synthesis of particle size analysis with standard deviation based on four measurements. Main characterization properties are plastic limit (PL), liquid limit (LL), plastic index (PI) and specific mass (ρs) εrupt.IDT (%) 0.010 (0.002) 0.014 (0.004) 0.009 (0.003) 0.013 (0.002) 0.011 (0.002) 0.011 (0.000)

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Variation of dry density with moisture content of the six cement-modified loess.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Principle for E and ν measurements for UCS and DT testing. Five loading/unloading cycles were performed on the samples. Only unloading parts (in bold) are considered. For sample Rc96Z90-8CDTrac, raw data vs time t(s), in a) load F(N), b) vertical displacements d(mm) and c), radial strain εr(µm/m). In d) E(MPa) is defined as the slope between stress σ(MPa) and vertical strain εv(mm/mm) and in e) ν is defined as the slope between radial strain εr(µm/m) and vertical strain εv(mm/mm).

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Sketch of the studied pavement structure.

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Principle of the determination of cohesion C and internal friction angle φ based on UCS testing and DT testing (left), and UCS testing and IDT testing (middle and right).

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: Principle of the Hoek-Brown model based on UCS testing and DT testing (left), and UCS testing and IDT testing (middle and right).

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: Principle for safety factor determination in Mohr's plan. In solid lines, circles deduced from tensile measurements (T refers to DT or IDTx0.8) and rupture criteria (left, Mohr-Coulomb, right, Hoek and Brown) determined from materials properties. In dotted lines, circles representing serviceability tensor and associated reduced rupture criteria. In both cases, the RUCS (RC) circle is not shown, for clarity.

Table 1 :

 1 Chemical features of the three binders expressed in % of oxides

	Tables
		SiO2	Al2O3	Fe2O3	CaO	MgO	SO3	CaOfree
	ZIP 35	36	14	3.7	35	1.5	1.7	0
	PHOCAL C15	30	11.6	3	44	1.6	1.4	14
	PHONOS	25	8	3	53	2	2	2

Table 2 :

 2 Properties of the two pavement structure layers. Values of elastic modulus and Poisson's ratio of layers [3] and [4a], X and Y, depend on the specific mixture of cementmodified loess.

	Structure 1

Table 3 :

 3 Values of E and ν parameters of different mixtures. Standard deviations are given in brackets.

	Treatment	ZIP35	PHOCAL C15	PHONOS
		5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%
	νUCS	0.13 (0.02)	0.14 (0.03)	0.12 (0.03)	0.14 (0.02)	0.13 (0.02)	0.14 (0.04)
	EUCS (MPa)	4346 (89)	5221(167)	3531 (198)	3810 (122)	4582 (134)	5230 (220)
	νDT	0.12 (0.03)	0.10 (0.03)	0.12 (0.04)	0.12 (0.02)	0.10 (0.02)	0.14 (0.04)
	EDT (MPa)	4100 (401)	5061 (546)	3461 (242)	3490 (254)	4097 (523)	5367 (856)

Table 4 :

 4 Maximum stress/strain values for the different treatment and test configurations (unconfined compression RUCS/εrupt.UCS, direct tension RDT/εrupt.DT and indirect tension RIDT/εrupt.IDT). Standard deviations based on four measurements are given in parentheses; differences based on two measurements are in square brackets.

	Treatment	ZIP35	PHOCAL C15	PHONOS
		5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%
	RUCS (MPa)	3.82 [0.11]	4.86 [0.05]	3.14 [0.01]	3.33 [0.16]	4.40 [0.09]	4.81 [0.15]
	εrupt.UCS (%)	0.648 [0.001] 0.618 [0.019] 0.695 [0.034] 0.673 [0.035] 0.639 [0.028] 0.640 [0.036]
	RDT (MPa)	0.35 [0.09]	0.46 [0.15]	0.16	0.55 [0.00]	0.31 [0.01]	0.35 [0.03]
	εrupt.DT (%) 0.013 [0.001] 0.016 [0.001]	0.006	0.024 [0.000] 0.012 [0.000] 0.011 [0.001]
	RIDT(MPa)	0.39 (0.05)	0.49 (0.02)	0.33 (0.04)	0.39 (0.03)	0.48 (0.07)	0.53 (0.01)

Table 5 :

 5 Cohesion and internal friction angle values based on UCS testing and DT testing (CDT, φDT) and UCS testing and IDT testing (CIDT, φIDT)

	Treatment	ZIP35		PHOCAL C15	PHONOS
		5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%
	CDT (MPa)	0.58	0.75	0.35	0.68	0.58	0.65
	φDT (°)	56	56	65	46	60	60
	CIDT (MPa)	0.73	0.92	0.62	0.71	0.89	0.98
	φIDT (°)	48	48	47	44	46	46
	CIDTx0.8 (MPa)	0.55	0.69	0.46	0.51	0.65	0.71
	φIDTx0.8 (°)	58	58	58	56	57	57

Table 6 :

 6 Values of m based on DT testing (mDT) and IDT testing (mIDT and mIDTx0.8)

	Treatment	ZIP35		PHOCAL C15	PHONOS
		5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%
	mDT	10.82	10.47	19.57	5.89	14.12	13.67
	mIDT	8.16	8.31	7.83	6.66	7.42	7.31
	mIDTx0.8	12.16	12.32	11.81	10.58	11.37	11.26

Table 7 :

 7 Serviceability stresses tensor at the bottom of the foundation layer in structure 1 and at the bottom of the capping layer in structure 2

	Treatment	ZIP35		PHOCAL C15	PHONOS
		5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%
				Structure 1
	σXX (MPa) σYY (MPa) σZZ (MPa)	-0.29 -0.20 0.04	-0.33 -0.23 0.04	-0.25 -0.18 0.04	-0.26 -0.19 0.04	-0.29 -0.21 0.04	-0.34 -0.24 0.04
				Structure 2
	σXX (MPa) σYY (MPa) σZZ (MPa)	-0.11 -0.10 0.003	-0.11 -0.11 0.003	-0.10 -0.10 0.003	-0.11 -0.10 0.003	-0.11 -0.10 0.003	-0.12 -0.11 0.002

Table 8 :

 8 Safety factors. MC refers to Mohr-Coulomb and HB to Hoek and Brown.

		Treatment	ZIP35		PHOCAL C15	PHONOS
			5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%	5.5%	7%
					Structure 1
	MC	RDT	1.87	2.51	/	3.52	1.31	1.10
		RIDTx0.8	1.38	1.88	1.18	1.70	2.26	2.01
	HB	RDT	1.22	1.40	0.63	2.08	1.06	1.02
		RIDTx0.8	1.08	1.19	1.05	1.18	1.31	1.24
					Structure 2
	MC	RDT	8.87	11.36	4.21	11.46	8.63	9.05
		RIDTx0.8	8.16	10.20	6.93	7.86	10.07	10.37
	HB	RDT	3.24	4.05	1.56	5.22	2.85	2.99
		RIDTx0.8	2.89	3.45	2.57	2.96	3.53	3.62

Funding and Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the French Ministry for the Ecological and Inclusive Transition and the cement manufacturer HAURI. We thank Dr. Matthieu Blanc and Dr. Luc Thorel for fruitful scientific discussions about these issues and Ms. Sophie Ricordel for her high-quality experiments. The manuscript benefited from comments and suggestions by three anonymous reviewers.

Conflict of interest

Authors wish to confirm that there are no known conflicts of interest associated with this publication and there has been no significant financial support for this work that could have influenced its outcome.


Maria Eriksson Baaz

Sexual Maria Stern

Cecilia Navarra

Cristina Udelsmann Rodrigues

TRANSFORMATIONS OF RURAL SPACES IN MOZAMBIQUE Africa Now

Africa Now is published by Zed Books in association with the internationally respected Nordic Africa Institute. Featuring high-quality, cutting-edge research from leading academics, the series addresses the big issues confronting Africa today. Accessible but in-depth, and wide-ranging in its scope, Africa Now engages with the critical political, economic, sociological and development debates affecting the continent, shedding new light on pressing concerns.

Rural dependence, production and poverty While Angola's booming oil sector laid the foundations for an unprecedented peacetime development period, the rural populations, a crucial subset of its population has seen its marginalization grow conspicuously. Decades of underinvestment have left the agricultural sector in chronic underproduction and the rural populations with scarce public or private support to rely upon. This constant socio-economic instability of the rural populations, coupled with the potential for exploitation by outsiders has been identified by the Catholic Church, one of the most respected institutions in modern-day Angola, as being potentially the biggest threats facing the stability of Angolan society (Chatham House, 2005, p. 28). The access and use of land has been a fundamental asset for these communities, who depend directly on subsistence agriculture for their livelihoods.

The central role of land tenure and access throughout the country is confirmed by a number of revealing statistics. Agriculture remained the principal economic activity for the majority of the population until 2012, slightly dipping to 46.2 per cent as of 2015 (CEIC, 2015a, p. 294). According to the Ministry of Agriculture, in 2010 family-based agriculture represented 99 per cent of all agriculture in the country, accounting for 94.2 per cent of the total cultivated area (Pacheco, Carvalho and Henriques, 2013, p. 315). Six years later, these numbers have hardly changed, with smallholders accounting for 95 per cent of total production and 92 per cent of land under cultivation (World Bank, 2019, p. 45). Furthermore, poverty has remained entrenched in Angolan society: 36.6 per cent of the total population live in absolute poverty, with an estimated 58.3 per cent of that population being rural and 18.3 per cent of it being urban (CEIC, 2015b, p. 146). These statistics highlight the very sensitive position that agrarian issues hold across Angola today.

A similar dynamic is playing out in Mozambique. Agriculture represents the principal economic activity for 70 per cent of the population, corresponding to the same amount of population that lives in rural areas (Cammaer, 2016, p. 6;Nhelengethwa, Matchaya and Chilonda, 2014, p. 106). In rural areas, 53 per cent of the population live in poverty, compared to 40.7 per cent in urban areas (World Bank, 2019, p. xiii). Smallholder agriculture using family labour dominates 99 per cent of agricultural production, comprising around 80 per cent of the total workforce (Cammaer, 2016, p. 6). Without a strong oil sector to depend upon, like their Angolan counterparts, agricultural production also plays a more important role in the national economy. The sector contributed 25-30 per cent of the country's gross domestic product (GDP) during the first decade of the 2000s (Nhelengethwa, Matchaya and Chilonda, 2014, p. 106), dipping slightly to an average of 23 per cent over the last five years (World Bank, 2019, p. 3). These figures represent a significant contribution to the overall economy, though the sector is also characterized by erratic annual growth (World Bank, 2019, p. xiii). Nevertheless, the situation in both of these countries demonstrates the central role of agriculture for vast portions of their populations and thus the importance of achieving stable, long-term access to the land worked. It is important, then, to explore how the connection between the revolutionary governments, land use and the peasantry eventually led to national campaigns, led by civil society groups from each country, mobilized around land issues. The case of Angola is expanded upon below.

Marxism-Leninism and the role of the peasantry

After independence, 1 the newly installed transitional government resolved to reverse the depreciation of the rural world and provide it with institutional support to get it back to its colonial-era production levels. This grand vision, however, faded in the face of the many internal and external structural obstacles facing the new nation. While many areas of the country were significantly affected during the war of independence, the fighting 'did not cause substantial damage to the colonial agricultural production, as the battles were fought in areas of little economic importance and never achieved the levels of high intensity in subsequent armed conflicts' (Pain, 2008, p. 183). The agricultural infrastructure was therefore still mostly physically intact, but was severely lacking in the technical know-how to keep the systems running. The Portuguese population that had managed the sector had fled the country en masse upon independence: 'Between 1975 and1976, in the space of one year, about 300,000 of these settlers left Angola. They too decamped with consumer durables, vehicles, boats, machinery, and equipment, and sabotaged what they could not take with them' (Bhagavan, 1986, p. 7). The agricultural sector was therefore severely affected by the loss of the technical capacity and knowledge jealously guarded by the Portuguese settlers. It was also affected by the collapse of the commercial network that delivered the goods from the fields to the markets. This breakdown in the urban/rural connection was arguably the most significant loss for the rural economy post-independence.

The government first started to nationalize the country's resources because of the heavy influence of the Soviet centralized models inspired by the political philosophy of Marxism-Leninism. This process gave overall power to the governing party, which was now in charge of remaking the entire political economy in its image with little, if any, opposition: 'The motivations for this vast enterprise, which has been compared with the Portuguese "effective occupation" 2 a century ago, were the party-state's own, i.e. consolidating its hegemony through territorial occupation, the co-optation of local elites, and the subjection of the majority' (Oliveira and Taponier, 2013, p. 173). The policy of nationalization had a profound effect on the agricultural sector. Its export system was one of the few areas that had been invested in and considerably developed during the colonial period, with its commercial impact changing the overall landscape of the country's urbanization. During the colonial days of the nineteenth century, 'Luanda was one of the most developed cities outside Europe, with many active trading companies exporting palm and peanut oil, wax, timber, ivory, cotton, coffee, cocoa, and many other products' (World Bank, 2018, p. 1). The growth of the agricultural sector driving the infrastructure boom across the urban landscape would later influence the mindset of Angola's leaders as they took the reins of their country and sought to drive their own future destiny back to the colonial heights guided by colonial production models. The looming towers of concrete rising above the skyline of Luanda's bay, today the ultimate symbol of its oil-driven economic prosperity, are in fact building on the foundation previously set by Angola's colonial agricultural exports.

The government's strategy for a state-led centralized agricultural system was twofold: (1) nationalize and reactivate the colonial-era farms and (2) organize peasants into associations and cooperatives, all overseen and directed by the government. In a first attempt to transform the disparate actors of the rural economy into organized sections, Agostinho Neto's transitional government created the Commission on Support and Dynamism of Cooperatives (CADCO) 3 in August 1975 to provide official support for the creation of cooperatives. This commission only lasted a matter of months due to mismanagement, but its pioneering work would be the first of many ill-conceived attempts at institution building, with the goal of stimulating cooperative and associative practices among the workers (Morais and Pacheco, 1991, p. 11). The various versions that would follow all shared the same tension between promoting a free participative spirit in organizing rural workers and the colonial legacy of burdensome and invasive checks and controls on these same initiatives.

In 1977, the National Direction of the Organization of Production (DNOP 4 ), under the guidance of the Ministry of Agriculture, published the first rough statistics on the level of the organization of cooperatives in twelve of the eighteen provinces, classified into two different grades (see Table 2.1). Grade one was composed of cooperatives or peasant associations based on organizing services and inputs among each other, while grade two was composed of cooperatives that collectively worked farms and plantations abandoned by the European colonizers under a Soviet-inspired kolkhoze system (a form of collective farm; Morais and N/A (not available) means that the province was not included in the study. '-' means that data were unavailable despite the province being included in the study. The provinces of Bengo, Cabinda, Kwanza Norte, Luanda, Lunda Norte and Namibe were part of the study. Source: data compiled from Morais and Pacheco (1991, p. 13). Pacheco, 1991, pp. 11-12). The category of 'peasant associations' was described as being 'agglomerations of peasant households making their own production decisions' (World Bank, 1991, p. 61). Their presumed advantage was having priority in terms of government services and inputs, though they were different from cooperatives in that they did not work or produce collectively. The latest manifestation of CADCO's legacy is the Confederação das Associações de Camponeses e Cooperativas Agro-Pecuárias de Angola (UNACA, the Confederation of Associations of Peasants and Livestock Cooperatives of Angola) founded in 1990. Going against the original principles of voluntary association intrinsic to the associative and cooperative movement, in reality this structure represents the rural manifestation of Angola's various 'mass organizations' that appear as spontaneous social organizing but find their origins and direction behind self-interested political actors. UNACA remains the main organization of the cooperative and associative movement and claims to assist 8,662 associations and 2,115 cooperatives, comprising nearly one million members. 5 Given that UNACA is clearly associated with the Popular Movement for the Liberation of Angola (MPLA), the political party in power since independence, membership is viewed as implicit support for the party and vice versa. Similarly, refusing membership of UNACA could be seen as an implicit rebuke to the MPLA itself. 6 The suspicions cast on those not willingly aligning themselves with the government appear to survive from the time of the Neto administration.

The Roots of rural suspicion

One of the main reasons that Neto's administration failed to provide significant material or financial support directly to these rural organizations, beyond the difficult socio-economic context, was his mistrust of the structure of the agrarian economy. This mistrust was fomented by the intervention of his Soviet allies, who had come to assist in setting up their centralized agricultural farming models. Neto's apparent support of the spontaneous formation of rural organizations was a central line of disagreement between his Soviet assistants: 'For them, the farming cooperatives provoked suspicion by keeping the commercialization process in the hands of the farmers … who would become not only an economic, but also a political force' (Conceição, 1999, p. 142). Agostinho Neto later appeared to fully embrace this mistrust of independent rural entrepreneurship.

While initially wanting the farmers to organize themselves, ulterior motives quickly became a political concern. After initially lauding farmers as essential actors in the Angolan nation, Neto later expressed his misgivings of their true intentions, as he was once quoted as saying: 'The farmer has, in himself, a capitalist seed. What is the dream of a farmer? It's to have a big property … to make lots of money. And his profits increase the costs of the workers that he hires. Farmers are exploiters' (Pain, 2008, p. 190). 7 However, this clear scorn of capitalism was not a dogmatic position across the political economy. In 1978, he expressly stated that his government was not against private entrepreneurship as such, but that it would only be tolerated in cases where private capital could not 'exercise control over the economy' (Bhagavan, 1986, p. 26). Private capital was welcome as long as the state maintained majority ownership. This position demonstrates the extent to which the new Angolan government was willing to bend its ideology to the realities of the ensuing Civil War in order to ensure the survival of the economic engine, most notably in the oil sector:

Oil production, organized totally outside of the norms of the socialist economy and conducted by transnational firms in isolated enclaves, accounted for close to 90 per cent of export earnings, and these revenues enabled the military to purchase increasing quantities of arms and ammunition. The state virtually abandoned the peasantry and agricultural production, while the cities subsisted as best they could on exports. (Pereira, 1994, p. 10) An increasing dependence on the oil sector and Neto's questioning of the peasants' motives laid the foundations of the essential abandonment of the peasantry as the agricultural sector received the least amount of public investment despite 80 per cent of the population being dependent on it for their livelihood (Pain, 2008, pp. 189-190). The MPLA quickly became financially dependent on a growing oil sector 8 and was able to use these resources to construct a political machine that would come to overshadow every other economic sector. A system of clientelist distribution 9 would serve as the favoured tool to silence critics, placate allies and spread the wealth among the well connected. The urban/rural divide of the conflict represented a major obstacle to implementing any coherent rural policies as the Civil War led to political forces that further marginalized the rural populations' exclusion politically, socially, economically, institutionally and even symbolically.

Land tenure reform and rural mobilization

The transition to a liberalized economic model meant that the nationalization of the country's resources needed to be modified to allow for enough incentives to attract foreign investment and codify the resource transfers already underway. This period 10 was 'characterized by legal ambiguity' , which 'set the precedent for "land grabs"' perpetrated by 'the political elite, members of the armed forces, and businessmen' (Clover, 2010, p. 152). The Land Law of the time, Law 21-C of 28 August 1992, had been created and adopted against the backdrop of Civil War and a lack of technical and historical precedent to rely upon. Land conflicts continued to emerge shortly after its passage as its lack of effectiveness for resolving land disputes became clearer. 11 Despite the raging Civil War, by 1999 the Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MINADER) was still able to distribute more than 2 million hectares of land, representing almost half of the land previously conceded to the commercial sector before 1975, though the vast majority of it was left fallow (Pacheco, 2002, III). This land distribution to 'businesspeople' (Pacheco, 2002, III), 'commercial farmers' (Clover, 2005, p. 358), or the 'new Angolan bourgeoisie' (Rede Terra, 2005, p. 6) solidified the colonial land grab of the last decade of Portuguese occupation, wherein 'one million rural families saw the average land area they occupied reduced from a little more than 9 hectares per family in the mid-1960s to about 4 hectares in 1973, while 6,000 commercial farmers had an average of 700 hectares, of which only 10% was actually cultivated' (Pacheco, 2004, p. 45). From 2000 to 2009, the considerable increase in agricultural production was due to increased land use, not higher production efficiencies (Pacheco et al., 2013, p. 316). Nevertheless, large investments have been made in support of this small segment of commercial agriculture. 12 Just before the turn of the century, the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) was called upon by the Direcção Nacional de Desenvolvimento Rural (DNDR, the National Directorate of Rural Development) in 1999 to provide technical assistance in formulating a new regulatory approach to the myriad land issues affecting the country's urban and rural areas (Carranza and Treakle, 2014, p. 24). In July 2002, after a multi-pronged lobbying campaign led by the Acção para o Desenvolvimento Rural e Ambiente (ADRA), the most prominent national non-governmental organization (NGO) for rural land issues, the Canadian NGO Development Workshop, led by Allan Cain, which specializes in urban and peri-urban land issues, and the FAO, led by Dr Paulo Groppo, a land tenure systems analysis officer, the government announced its intention to host a public consultation period to modify the existing Land Law (21-C/92). Social synergies and historical convergence led to the foundation of an NGO network that came to be known as Rede Terra, an organization guided in large part by the similar Campanha Terra, which emerged in Mozambique in 1998.

Mozambique leads the way

In order to understand the evolution of Angola's experience in both the government's efforts and the social organization around the issue of land reform, a brief review of the influence of Mozambique's case is needed (see Table 2.2). Importantly, both countries share similar political and legal colonial inheritances, the strong national presence of church organizations across the rural landscape, and decades of Civil War that destroyed their rural economies. In the early 1990s, an ad hoc land commission was set up through the support of the University of Wisconsin Land Tenure Center 13 and USAID, 14 aimed at addressing the land issues in Mozambique amid the structural readjustment programmes after the end of the war in 1992 and the country's first multi-party elections in October 1994.

The desire for land reform was brought to prominence by three major influences: (1) the support of the Catholic Church through its Caritas mission and the Diocesan Commissions for Justice and Peace; (2) the Christian Council of Mozambique via its Organization for Mutual Aid; and (3) the União Nacional de Camponeses (UNAC, the National Peasants Union) reporting on the land conflicts resulting from the accelerated privatization of state land and the attempted land grabs of cooperatives (Negrão, 2003, pp. 6-7). In addition to Catholicism, there were also active Muslim and African Zionist influences (Negrão, 2003, p. 7). This was significantly different from Angola's experience, as it was almost exclusively influenced by the Catholic Church -there was no explicit mention of other religions participating in the process.

In order to try to consolidate the different efforts, the government created a new Inter-ministerial Commission in 1995 'with a clear multi-sectoral composition' involving '[n]ine separate ministries' 15 and 'two representatives each working within the Commission' (Negrão, 2003, p. 16). In order to strengthen the voice of the national population in the debate, a National Committee was formed 'in order to join forces in the dissemination of information aimed, in particular, at rural families' (Negrão, 1999, p. 1). This Committee, comprised of nine national NGOs, 16 formed a network later called Campanha Terra. It organized a timespecific (six-to-nine month) information campaign after the new land tenure bill (Law no. 19/97) had been promulgated. Campanha Terra was officially launched on 13 June 1998 in the village of Marracuene in Maputo province (Negrão, 1999, pp. 3-4), coordinated by José Negrão of the Eduardo Mondlane University. Its formation brought the people directly involved in 'the legislation process into active collaboration with the NGO sector and continues to sustain an effective dialogue and working partnerships' (Tanner, 2002, p. 41). While it was active throughout the territory, 'the Campaign did not consider itself to be a new NGO nor a forum for organizations' and was decentralized at the provincial and district levels (Negrão, 1999, p. 1). Overall, the Campaign's mission 17 was to mobilize NGOs, churches, associations and cooperatives so as to disseminate educational campaigns about the new Land Law, promote justice through its proper application, and stimulate dialogue between the traditional and commercial agricultural sectors in the targeted areas (Negrão, 1999, p. 2). Building from this example, Rede Terra aimed to construct its own land-based social movement.

Rede Terra: The birth of Angola's first land network

Amid all of these major changes, at the turn of the twenty-first century the country found itself at the cusp of a historic moment: the first officially sanctioned 'dialogue' between the MPLA-led government and civil society over a pressing legislative issue: a reform of the Land Law. The unique environment was set up, ' … by the new multi-party "freedom" and "democratic" legislative framework, fuelling the emerging Angolan civil society organisations, which were able to grow throughout the nineties and voice growing criticism of the government despite the severe constraints imposed by the regime' (Chabal and Vidal, 2007, p. 204). The multiple pressures on the government appear to have created the opportunity to further open this space of civic political discourse by bringing the public, private and donor spheres together around the negotiating table.

This unprecedented civic dialogue can be explained by the desire of the government to present itself, as much to the international community as to its national audience, as a legitimate actor by demonstrating that it was responsive to its people's needs and was looking to take on its role as a positive force for national unity. The country's precarious financial situation 18 after the Civil War meant that ' Angola's leaders were well aware that they could not put the country back together without major foreign input and repeatedly called for a donors' conference to help them mobilize financial resources' (Oliveira, 2015, p. 54). This recognition of the importance of foreign aid and assistance prompted a significant number of these democratic overtures, but the participatory spaces provided by party officials remained closely guarded.

The demonstration of this desire was opening up a highly controlled democratic space, with land policies at the heart of the process. The public debate was initially fixed by the MPLA for a period of three months, but was later indefinitely extended after lobbying by various NGOs and the FAO, which had agreed to participate in the public consultation campaign for the new law. This time extension represented a first major victory for civil society participation in public policy formulation by considerably opening up the opportunities for dialogue between the government and its citizens. Otherwise, the whole exercise would have been little more than a symbolic gesture to the international community and the few participants of the activist civil society who wanted to have their voices heard.

After securing more time, different NGOs began to put together their own ideas, mostly revolving around strengthening the defence of agrarian rights, land access and use, and the protection of customary rights. The informal discussions eventually led to a consortium that became Rede Terra on 26 November 2002 at the Tivoli Hotel in Luanda, with twelve national and international NGOs in the initial group (see Table 2.3). Rede Terra declared its intention to officially begin its national campaign of public consultations, for an initial period of nine months, in January 2003.

The Rede Terra network was dominated by international NGOs, which comprised 66 per cent (eight out of the total twelve). This demonstrates the heavy influence that Western organizations had in founding the umbrella organization and in securing foreign financing for its work. The network was supported by three main donors, all coming from Western sources: Oxfam Novib (UK), Oikos Intermón (Spain/Portugal) and World Learning (USA). This Western funding of the organization and the heavy influence of Western NGOs supporting democratic initiatives and human rights would turn out to be very significant in the network's relationship with the government, as described later in this chapter. The initial coordination was led by ADRA engineer Manuel António da Silva Neto. As a network, the group decided on a list of five main activities in the preparations for the new Land Law (see Table 2.4).

One of the most influential activities the group undertook was the creation of a pamphlet used by its activists during their initial ground campaign to educate the local populations about the planned proposals being considered by the government. They simultaneously documented the needs and desires of the rural communities themselves to bring their voices to the debate for potential changes to the draft Land Law. The pamphlet was translated into five national languages 19 to reach a maximum audience, and the activists were present in ten of the total of eighteen provinces in the country (Neto,n.d.,p. 2). The provinces active in IV. Organize social advocacy and other activities that directly or indirectly relate to land issues or the defence of citizen's rights.

V. After the passage of the new Land Law, establish advocacy networks to ensure that rural communities negatively affected by the changes receive proper compensation.

Source: translated from Neto (n.d.,p. 2).

the campaign were Bengo, Bié, Huambo, Huíla, Kuanza-Sul, Luanda, Malange, Namiba, Uíge and Zaire.

After the end of the ground campaigns were finished, the local information gathered by the Rede Terra representatives was shared with the local officials and sent on to the headquarters in Luanda. During this campaign, Rede Terra became a vehicle for directly educating the rural populations about their rights and the current legislation, while also communicating the needs and desires of these affected communities directly to the public officials who would be deciding on the final form of the Land Law. This type of democratic exercise, bringing the citizens' voices directly to the legislators, was the first in Angola. The final report, entitled 'Position of Rede Terra, relative to the Land Law project of 28 of November of 2003' , was relayed to the president of the National Assembly (Neto,n.d.,p. 2). While the MPLA accepted the work of Rede Terra and at least nominally worked in tandem with it, in the end the dialogue was limited to only a few specially designated local contacts. 20 In the final version of the Land Law, Rede Terra claimed as its own victoriesthe modification of certain articles of the law, such as the inclusion of proper compensation for the expropriation of land (though it lacked mechanisms to measure and enforce it), in the time required for the legalization of land titles (one to three years), and the introduction of a chapter dedicated to managing land conflicts. Another victory was the inclusion of provisions that both recognized and protected customary rights. The customary issues had been at the forefront of the concerns of Rede Terra, and their recognition was clear evidence, now written into law, of the positive measures achieved during these unprecedented discussions. However, they were sufficiently diluted to create significant ambiguities and were not legally operational, thus negating in part this supposed success.

The final Land Law (no. 9 of 9 November 2004) decreed that all land officially registered as 'communal' cannot be taken over by the state, except in cases where the public interest demands it (Foley, 2007, p. 11). This represented an important advance in rural customary protections, although the public interest clause left room for ambiguities and therefore its potential misuse. However, a last-minute revision added by the Dos Santos administration included 'the legal possibility of land appropriation for "private utility" motives -rather than just for public interest, as before' (Clover, 2005, p. 360). This provision allows for rural land to 'be requisitioned with payment of compensation' , though a clear framework for establishing just compensation has not been established (USAID, 2007, p. 25). The accumulation of these ambiguities built into the 2004 Land Law is a central mechanism in creating the conditions for illegal and ambiguous land occupations. Ultimately, its 'effect was to weaken, not strengthen, property rights for the poor. […] Weaker and less secure tenure also limited political empowerment. Simultaneously, the position of the authorities has been strengthened' (Clover, 2005, p. 360). A major goal of Rede Terra had been to reduce the ambiguities present in the law through the introduction of clear procedures and enforcement mechanisms, but the newest Land Law leaves much to interpretation, with rural communities still vulnerable to potential predatory practices.

Challenges: Stifling civil society

If access to government officials has always been a fundamental obstacle for civil society and the NGOs working in the country, the democratic deficit of Angola and its young civil society represented just as much of a challenge to community organizers. The authoritarian governing model, coupled with the enduring colonial legacy of the Portuguese, left the Angolan society with a mainly vertical system of governance. Amid the ongoing Civil War in the foreground, the expansion of oil production and the massive profits that came with it added another layer of verticality between the political elites and the population as a whole that 'inhibited the appearance of an alternative social logic based upon notions of citizenship or class (where people place themselves horizontally in relation to the state) and therefore hampered the emergence of civil society as understood in the West' (Chabal and Vidal, 2007, p. 203). Civil society found itself stalled 21 in its quest for growth and development. In a 2008 monitoring report by Oxfam Novib, a major donor of the initiative, it was noted that: Some of those interviewed, after having had time to reflect, made it clear that they had a firm conviction that after the whole process of consulting/involving civil society at the national level […] while civil society was able to apply pressure, "in the end, the process ended up significantly manipulated and was no more than a well-set-up propaganda operation (…) providing social legitimacy to decisions that had already been taken at the higher levels". (CCPE, 2008, p. 197) The government's reluctance to open up to Rede Terra is therefore not surprising given that it was fully financed by Western donors and 66 per cent of the overall organization was composed of Western NGOs. In May 2006, shortly after the passage of the Land Law, the MPLA government began implementing a new decree (no. 84 of 2002) designed to severely limit the freedoms of NGOs working within Angola and to regulate their activities through a burdensome system of constant surveillance. The intention was 'to reduce the independence of NGOs, and to keep NGOs' interventions restricted to humanitarian and emergency approaches only' (Amundsen and Abreu, 2006, p. 7). Given that Rede Terra's proposed mandate went far beyond humanitarian work, the organization would have been a prime target for the new decree's ambitions to bring to heel any NGOs working outside of the MPLA's accepted areas of influence. These suspicions went well beyond Angola's leadership, representing a trend across the continent.

Table 2.5 reveals a wider trend of anti-NGO sentiment even though many of these governments rely upon the aid and assistance of non-state actors to provide basic services to their respective populations. In Angola, Executive Decree no. 74 of 2015 attempted to increase the control of NGOs using new mechanisms, specifically putting burdens on the foreign financing of activities. In 2016, Rede Terra went to court and won alongside the Ordem dos Advogados de Angola (the Angolan Bar Association) and the NGOs SOS Habitat and the Centro Nacional de Aconselhamento (CNA, the National Counselling Centre) by arguing that the government's Decree no. 74 of 2015 was unconstitutional. The Constitutional Court upheld their argument on 5 July 2017, declaring that such decrees must come from the parliament and not the presidency, thereby imposing a significant check on the president's seeming omnipotence (USAID, 2007, p. 2). For Mozambique, the still-pending legislation strengthens the Law of Associations of 1991, under which NGOs currently operate, with a number of amendments to the law drafted in 2009 but never enacted (Musila, 2019, p. 16). The country is a restrictive environment for NGO operations, with multiple NGO leaders harassed, abducted or killed between 2010 and 2017 (Musila, 2019, p. 20). The effectiveness of these land networks must be considered within the restrictive spaces they were operating in.

Conclusion: Diverging interests in rural Angola

Despite decades of declarations of economic diversification and support for the agricultural sector, little has changed. In a rare public moment of introspection, President José Eduardo dos Santos admitted as much during his end-of-year speech on 15 December 2015: 'We spoke a lot about diversifying the economy, we did very little. Even so, it's better to start late than never' (CEIC, 2015a, p. 193). Nevertheless, this legacy of inaction appears set to continue to neglect the production potential of the peasantry in favour of an underdeveloped commercial sector, as evidenced in the 2017-2018 budget proposal for the Ministry of Agriculture (MINAGRI). The document showed an across-the-board cut to nearly every programme supporting smallholder agricultural production, with the money saved funnelled instead into a 'Programme for commercial agricultural development' (UNICEF and ADRA, 2018, p. 15). Concentrating these resources into a limited commercial sector allows the political elite to remain in total control of the segmented economic diversification taking place. This strategy's logical end would be to undermine the development capacity of the rural populations in order to maintain control. Political and military elite interests run counter to those supported by the activities of Rede Terra, which largely explains why the Land Law ultimately weakened property rights. However, public involvement in legislative matters in Angola is a rare occurrence. Developing democratic norms is a long-term process that occurs in fits and starts and even regresses. The opening up of the Land Law debate to the public could have had significant effects on democratic participation in the country, and these are only now beginning to appear. The election of João Lourenço in September 2017 represented a change in the office of the presidency, though the MPLA remains in power, with the same dynamics that continue to motivate the party to maintain its hold on power. Discussions have restarted on updating the current Land Law once again, to conform to current social and market conditions (Angop, 27 March 2019). Whether another process of social mobilization will accompany this process remains to be seen.

FIGURES Chapter 2 T

 2 FIGURES

Table 2 .1

 2 Total number of cooperative organizations per province in 1977

	Province		Grade 1		Grade 2	Total
		Number Members Number Members Number Members
	Benguela	15	1,136	N/A	N/A	15	1,136
	Bié	13	42,115	5	-	18	42,115
	Cunene	9	713	-	-	9	713
	Huambo	52	9,860	10	2,535	62	12,395
	Huíla	136	15,164	-	-	136	15,164
	Kuando Kubango	12	827	-	-	12	827
	Kwanza Sul	158	15,717	31	2,480	189	15,197
	Lunda Sul	3	-	10	-	13	-
	Malanje	43	4,385	35	2,340	78	6,725
	Moxico	31	-	3	-	34	-
	Uíge	78	9,516	15	1,858	93	11,374
	Zaire	9	1,500	-	-	9	1,500
	TOTAL	559	58,819	109	9,213	668	68,032

Table 2 .2

 2 Comparative timeline on land laws and campaigns

	Time period	Angola	Mozambique
	1979	-	Land Law no. 6
	1992	Land Law no. 21-C	End of Civil War
		First multi-party elections
	October 1994	-	First multi-party elections
	1996		National Land Conference -discussion
			of final draft of Land Law
	1997	-	Land Law no. 19
	13 June 1998	-	Campanha Terra launched
	April 2002	Draft Land Law announced
	26 November 2002	Rede Terra launched	-
	August-December 2003	Consultation with rural	-
		communities
	9 November 2004	Land Law no. 9	-

Table 2 .3

 2 Founding members of Rede Terra

	Name of organization	Origin	Main activities
	Agência de Cooperação	UK	Human rights, food security, rural
	e Pesquisa para o		development
	Desenvolvimento (ACORD)
	Acção para o Desenvolvimento	Angola	Rural development, social justice,
	Rural e Ambiente (ADRA)		democracy, organization of civil society
	Norwegian People's Aid (APN) Norway	Post-conflict reconstruction, humanitarian
			help, human rights and democracy
	Caritas de Angola	Angola	Post-conflict reconstruction, institutional
			capacity building, literacy and vocational
			training, and agricultural development
	Centro Cultural Mosaiko	Angola	Contribute to establishment of culture and
			education of human rights
	Development Workshop (DW) Canada	Policy and programme development for
		(first international	human settlements and housing, support
		NGO, 1981)	for civil society
	Oxfam Intermón	Spain	Support for social inclusion and human
			rights, gender justice, creating sustainable
			food systems and poverty reduction
	Centro Nacional de	Angola	Democracy, human rights, community
	Aconselhamento (CNA)		support
	National Democratic Institute	USA	Citizen participation, democratic
	(NDI)		governance, gender equality, youth
			political participation
	Oikos	Portugal	Social mobilization and participation,
			democracy, transparency and development
	Netherlands Development	Netherlands	Food security, gender equality, sustainable
	Organization (SNV)		agricultural practices
	World Learning (WL)	USA	Government accountability, education,
			women empowerment, poverty eradication

Source: information compiled by the author.

Table 2 .4

 2 Main activities of Rede Terra I. Develop actions to share information about the government's proposal for a new Land Law and its reorganization of territory. II. Promote civil debate around the Land Law proposal and land issues affecting rural and periurban communities. III. Collect citizens' contributions and recommendations in order to create a global document that reflects the range of opinions in civil society, in advance of the Land Law.

Table 2 .5

 2 African countries with anti-NGO policies or legislation(2004( to May 2019) )

	Enacted measures restricting	With pending or impending	Measures abandoned, rejected
	activities (12)	measures (6)	by legislature or invalidated by
			the courts (6)

Source: data compiled from[START_REF] Clover | Land reform in Angola: Establishing the ground rules[END_REF],[START_REF] Groppo | Land tenure support in post-conflict Angola[END_REF],[START_REF] Negrão | Presentation at the Associative Movement of Mozambique conference[END_REF] and[START_REF] Tanner | Law-making in an African context: The 1997 Mozambican Land Law[END_REF].