Emilie Rojas

Loïc Prosnier

Aurélie Pradeau

Nicolas Boyer

Vincent Médoc
email: vincentmédoc@univ-st-etienne.fr

Anthropogenic noise does not strengthen multiple-predator effects in a freshwater invasive fish

Keywords: Anthropogenic noise, Daphnia pulex, functional response, predator-predator interaction, Pseudorabora parva

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Introduction

Energy flow throughout communities, largely driven by trophic interactions, determines biomass distribution, species coexistence, stability and ultimately ecosystem processes [START_REF] Abdala-Roberts | Tri-trophic interactions: Bridging species, communities and ecosystems[END_REF]. It follows that any environmental stressor likely to modulate the strength of trophic interactions may have huge ecological impacts. Anthropogenic (i.e., man-made) noise is considered a pervasive pollutant, inducing behavioural, physiological, and sometimes anatomical alterations in animals [START_REF] Erbe | Effects of Noise on Marine Mammals[END_REF][START_REF] Popper | The effects of anthropogenic sources of sound on fishes[END_REF][START_REF] Shannon | A synthesis of two decades of research documenting the effects of noise on wildlife: Effects of anthropogenic noise on wildlife[END_REF]. Noise pollution has been shown to mask the acoustic cues used for prey [START_REF] Francis | A framework for understanding noise impacts on wildlife: An urgent conservation priority[END_REF] or predator [START_REF] Merrall | Anthropogenic noise reduces avian feeding efficiency and increases vigilance along an urban-rural gradient regardless of species' tolerances to urbanisation[END_REF] detection, and to distract prey when escaping predators [START_REF] Chan | Anthropogenic noise affects risk assessment and attention: The distracted prey hypothesis[END_REF][START_REF] Wale | Size-dependent physiological responses of shore crabs to single and repeated playback of ship noise[END_REF] or predators when searching for prey [START_REF] Allen | Noise distracts foraging bats[END_REF][START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF]. Animals can leave resource-rich areas to avoid noise [START_REF] Bayne | Impacts of Chronic Anthropogenic Noise from Energy-Sector Activity on Abundance of Songbirds in the Boreal Forest[END_REF][START_REF] Blickley | Experimental Chronic Noise Is Related to Elevated Fecal Corticosteroid Metabolites in Lekking Male Greater Sage-Grouse (Centrocercus urophasianus)[END_REF][START_REF] Goodwin | Effects of Traffic Noise on Occupancy Patterns of Forest Birds[END_REF] or exhibit behavioural stress responses at the expense of foraging [START_REF] Francis | Noise pollution alters ecological services: Enhanced pollination and disrupted seed dispersal[END_REF][START_REF] Hanache | Noise-induced reduction in the attack rate of a planktivorous freshwater fish revealed by functional response analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Voellmy | Acoustic noise reduces foraging success in two sympatric fish species via different mechanisms[END_REF]. However, understanding the ecological implications of noise-induced changes in per capita consumption rates needs to account for the context in which foraging occurs.

For many species, foraging has a social component as individuals do not forage alone in their environment. The per capita consumption rate of cooperative foragers will benefit from the presence of conspecifics whereas mutual interference usually reduces individual performance in non-cooperative foragers [START_REF] Harpaz | Social interactions drive efficient foraging and income equality in groups of fish[END_REF]. The time spent interacting is indeed not allocated to foraging, this effect being even greater when non-trophic interactions include agonistic behaviors. Consumption rates by multiple predators can thus differ from what could be expected with the assumption of independent, additive effects of each single predator on prey survival, and these effects are often referred to as multiplepredator effects (MPEs) [START_REF] Sentis | Predator diversity and environmental change modify the strengths of trophic and nontrophic interactions[END_REF].

There is growing evidence that anthropogenic noise can change the strength of non-trophic interactions. [START_REF] Bruintjes | Context-dependent impacts of anthropogenic noise on individual and social behaviour in a cooperatively breeding fish[END_REF] found that aggressive and submissive behaviors between dominant pairs and their subordinates were increased under playback of boat noise in the cooperative breeding cichlid Neolamprologus pulcher. Pile-driving noise was shown to disrupt the coherence and coordination of shoals in juveniles of the sea bass Dicentrarchus labrax [START_REF] Herbert-Read | Anthropogenic noise pollution from piledriving disrupts the structure and dynamics of fish shoals[END_REF]. Inter-individual distance is reduced by tonal signals [START_REF] Currie | Group behavior and tolerance of Eurasian minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) in response to tones of differing pulse repetition rate[END_REF] and motorboat noise [START_REF] Hanache | Noise-induced reduction in the attack rate of a planktivorous freshwater fish revealed by functional response analysis[END_REF] in the Eurasian minnow Phoxinus phoxinus, a behavioural response that has been suspected to contribute to the decrease in attack rate on live dipteran larvae [START_REF] Hanache | Noise-induced reduction in the attack rate of a planktivorous freshwater fish revealed by functional response analysis[END_REF]. Anthropogenic noise may therefore alter per capita predation indirectly through the emergence of MPEs and ignoring the social context in which foraging occurs may lead to misestimate the effect of noise. To our knowledge, this issue has received no interest yet.

Functional response derivation offers an experimental framework to characterize the dynamic of predation under context-dependencies. The functional response (FR) describes how per-capita consumption rate varies with resource density [START_REF] Holling | Some Characteristics of Simple Types of Predation and Parasitism[END_REF], the shape and magnitude of this relationship providing mechanistic insight into consumer behaviour and the phenomenological consequences for resource populations (i.e., prey). For instance, saturating (type II) FRs, where predation rate increases with prey density at a decelerating rate towards an asymptote, are more likely to promote unstable boom-bust population dynamics than sigmoidal (type III) FRs, where prey experience reduced predation when scarce [START_REF] Gentleman | Functional responses and ecosystem dynamics: How clearance rates explain the influence of satiation, food-limitation and acclimation[END_REF][START_REF] Juliano | Non-linear curve fitting: Predation and functional response curves[END_REF][START_REF] Kalinkat | Body masses, functional responses and predator-prey stability[END_REF][START_REF] Murdoch | Predation and Population Stability[END_REF]. Functional response derivation can be applied to single consumers as well as to conspecific or heterospecific groups of consumers [START_REF] Michaelides | Functional response and multiple predator effects of two generalist predators preying on Tuta absoluta eggs[END_REF][START_REF] Wasserman | Using functional responses to quantify interaction effects among predators[END_REF] and comparing group-level FRs to what could be predicted from the additive effect of individual-level FRs allows the detection of MPEs [START_REF] Kéfi | More than a meal… integrating nonfeeding interactions into food webs[END_REF][START_REF] Sentis | Predator diversity and environmental change modify the strengths of trophic and nontrophic interactions[END_REF][START_REF] Veselý | Temperature and prey density jointly influence trophic and non-trophic interactions in multiple predator communities[END_REF][START_REF] Wasserman | Using functional responses to quantify interaction effects among predators[END_REF]. Synergism between consumers and risk enhancement for the resource are expected when observed group-level FRs exceed predicted group-level FRs, whilst the reverse suggests antagonism and risk reduction.

In the present study, we investigated the effect of repeated daily exposure to motorboat noise (i.e., chronic noise) on the functional response (FR) and the behaviour of single individuals and pairs of the invasive topmouth gudgeon Pseudorasbora parva, listed as one of the top ten worst invasive species in Europe [START_REF] Britton | A case study on the population ecology of a topmouth gudgeon (Pseudorasbora parva) population in the UK and the implications for native fish communities[END_REF][START_REF] Pinder | Dispersal of the invasive topmouth gudgeon, Pseudorasbora parva in the UK: a vector for an emergent infectious disease[END_REF]. Pseudorasbora parva produces involuntary sounds while sucking in food items and it has a chain of Weberian ossicles that connect the swim bladder to the inner ear and improve hearing ability, with greatest sensitivity at 500 Hz (Scholz & Ladich, 2006). Prior to the FR experiments, P. parva were exposed to boat sounds as the response to noise was found to weaken with repeated exposure in some fish species (see [START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF] for an example in another freshwater invasive fish, the pumpkinseed sunfish Lepomis gibbosus). To detect MPEs, we compared for both noise conditions observed group-level FRs to predicted group-level FRs inferred from individual predation rates.

Based on published results on fish FR in shelter-free environments [START_REF] Cuthbert | Using functional responses to quantify notonectid predatory impacts across increasingly complex environments[END_REF][START_REF] Dick | Ecological impacts of an invasive predator explained and predicted by comparative functional responses[END_REF][START_REF] Hanache | Noise-induced reduction in the attack rate of a planktivorous freshwater fish revealed by functional response analysis[END_REF], we expected the FR of P. parva to be of type II (decelerating curve) where percapita predation is defined by two key parameters: the attack rate a that corresponds to the spatial pattern of prey searching per unit of time and fixes FR curve's initial slope (the higher the attack rate, the higher the slope), and the handling time h that is the average time spent on a caught prey item and determines FR curve's asymptote (the smaller the handling time, the higher the asymptote, [START_REF] Holling | Some Characteristics of Simple Types of Predation and Parasitism[END_REF]). The inverse of handling time and therefore the asymptote also correspond to the maximum feeding rate. Because noise was found to promote conspecific interactions through reduced inter-individual distance in another cyprinid fish the Eurasian minnow Phoxinus phoxinus [START_REF] Currie | Group behavior and tolerance of Eurasian minnow (Phoxinus phoxinus) in response to tones of differing pulse repetition rate[END_REF][START_REF] Hanache | Noise-induced reduction in the attack rate of a planktivorous freshwater fish revealed by functional response analysis[END_REF], we expected higher MPEs and therefore a negative indirect effect on per capita predation.

Materials and Methods

Animal collection and husbandry

Pseudorasbora parva (7.144 ± 0.4 cm, no distinction of sex) were collected in November 2019 using net fishing from the Grandes Lèches pond at Saint-Nizier-le-Désert (46°03'27.8"N, 5°07'09.0"E, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France), whose water is drained once a year to harvest the fish for commercial purposes. Fish from this pond are expected to be naïve to motorboat noise as there is no anthropogenic activity. They were transported in aerated water tanks to a breeding room of the ENES laboratory (Saint-Etienne, France) thermoregulated at 18°C with a 12:12 light: dark regime, and stored in two 110-L aquariums (community aquariums hereafter) at an average density of 0.5 fish.L -1 . The community aquariums were filled with dechlorinated tap water and equipped with an underwater speaker (Electro-Voice UW30, 0.1-10 kHz) inserted in the middle of a black foam rubber panel (15-mm thick), a 2-cm layer of Loire sand (Aquasand Nature, Zolux déco), artificial plants, an air pump, and an external filtering system (Tetra EX 600) whose power was calibrated to generate the same level of ambient noise among the two aquariums. Twenty-eight additional fish serving as companion fish in the functional response experiments (see 2.3) were stored in another 110-L aquarium (stock aquarium hereafter), equipped like the community aquariums but without speaker. Fish were fed daily with commercial food pellets (Tetra flakes, approximately 3 items per fish), preferred over live food to avoid habituation to a particular prey species and homogenize fish behaviour.

We used the water flea Daphnia pulex (Cladocera: Daphniidae) as prey species. They are widespread in freshwaters, represent an important food source for many species (Jurgens, n.d.;[START_REF] Persson | Food quantity and quality regulation of trophic transfer between primary producers and a keystone grazer (Daphnia) in pelagic freshwater food webs[END_REF], and are commonly used as prey items in laboratory experiments [START_REF] Laverty | Assessing the ecological impacts of invasive species based on their functional responses and abundances[END_REF][START_REF] Priyadarshana | Hunger-induced foraging behavior of two cyprinid fish: Pseudorasbora parva and Rasbora daniconius[END_REF]. To promote vigor and survival, water fleas were purchased regularly from a commercial supplier (AQUARIUS, Andrézieux-Bouthéon, Auvergne-Rhône-Alpes, France) and used in the predation tests within 24 hours.

Once at the laboratory, they were transferred into a 54-L aquarium to acclimate them to the temperature of the experimental room.

Fish pre-exposure to noise

We used the same procedure as in [START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF]. Briefly, we tried to mimic the daily activity of a small leisure lake by broadcasting from 9 am to 6 pm 150 sounds from recreational boats (from six to 25 per hour), previously generated from 15 original recordings made by V. Médoc in a surrounding lake (45°45′07.54′′N, 4°25′56.47′′E, Loire, France) at 1-m depth. We created five copies of each of the 15 original recordings, changing the amplitude between the copies. The resulting 75 (5*15) sounds were then duplicated to get the 150 sounds. Fish experienced the soundscape of their aquarium (ambient noise hereafter) between boat sounds and for the rest of the day. We looped continuously a 1-hr audio track of silence for control fish. On average, ambient noise level was 95 dB re 1 µPa RMS sound pressure level and resulted from the residual noise of the building and the electric equipment required for rearing. [START_REF] Rountree | Temperate freshwater soundscapes: A cacophony of undescribed biological sounds now threatened by anthropogenic noise[END_REF] investigated the soundscape composition of many freshwater habitats in North America. Our value of 95 dB belongs their lowest category of ambient noise level and is close to the average value of 98.7 dB obtained from 36 ponds and lakes. Our low level of ambient noise allowed us to make the boat sounds emerge from ambient noise without using high levels, with signal-to-noise ratios (SNR) ranging from 4.81 to 27 dB (SNR quantify the relative importance of boat sounds over ambient noise, see [START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF] for further detail on the playback track). The pre-exposure period lasted from 21 to 36 days depending on when fish experienced the predation test, a prolonged exposure period according to [START_REF] Magnhagen | Effects of motorboat noise on foraging behaviour in Eurasian perch and roach: A field experiment[END_REF]. Fish scheduled for the predation tests were starved for 24 hr to standardize hunger. A plastic canvas was fixed at the opposite side of the speaker to separate them from the other fish in the community aquariums. The audio tracks were played back as WAV files using a ZOOM H4next Handy Recorder, an amplifier (Dynavox CS-PA 1MK) and the UW30 underwater loudspeaker. Re-recordings for sound intensity calibration were made with an Aquarian Audio H2A-HLR hydrophone (frequency response from 10 to 100 kHz) connected to the ZOOM.

Functional response

Predation tests took place in an experimental room next to the breeding room, thermoregulated at 18°C. We used the same setup as in [START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF]. One or two P. parva (P = 1 or 2) were placed in a 50-L glass aquarium containing a 2-cm layer of Loire sand, a UW30 speaker fixed at the left end, and a translucent plastic tube (11.5 cm diameter) going up to the water surface in the middle (see Figures S1b,c in [START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF]. Pseudorasbora parva belongs to the minnow family (Cyprinidae) that mostly includes gregarious fishes (Pitcher, 1986, personal observation). We reared the fish in community aquariums during the preexposure period and expected that tests under solitary conditions would not reflect natural responses and induce additional stress that could mask the effect of noise. For these reasons, we introduced a companion fish (a P. parva of standard body length used only once and only for this purpose) into the plastic tube to promote normal behaviour in the single predator treatment (P = 1), the tube remaining empty when P = 2. To avoid external sounds, the aquarium was placed inside an acoustic box equipped with two cameras (HD-TVI ABUS TVVR33418, one facing the aquarium and another above) and a source of diffuse light delivering 185 lux at the water surface (Light Meter for Apple devices). We equipped the experimental room with two equivalent setups (aquarium + acoustic box) to run several tests concurrently and reduce the time needed to perform all the tests.

After a 30-min acclimatization period during which we played back the ambient noise recorded in the community aquariums, we introduced water fleas at a single time using a 250-ml glass beaker and with a circular hand movement to homogenize their spatial distribution. We tested seven initial prey densities (for P = 1: N0 = 4, 8, 16, 32, 64, 128 and 256; for P = 2: N0 = 15, 25, 50, 100, 200, 300 and 400) chosen based on previous studies [START_REF] Laverty | Assessing the ecological impacts of invasive species based on their functional responses and abundances[END_REF]) so as to reach predator saturation (high densities) and to promote model fitting and the type II versus type III discrimination (low densities). During the foraging period, fixed at 45 min to limit predation satiation, fish experienced the same ambient noise than during the acclimatization period supplemented or not (noisy and control conditions, respectively) with motorboat noise. We used the same playback track for all the tests performed under the same noise condition and the track of the noisy condition was made of 24 boat sounds randomly chosen from the 75 used for preexposure (see 2.2) and distributed over six consecutive "noise sequences" (two to six boat sound per sequence) separated by a few minutes of ambient noise (Figure .1, see Table 1 on Rojas et al 2021). Ambient noise and boat sounds were re-recorded and calibrated to have the same RMS sound pressure levels than is the community aquarium (see [START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF] for further detail on the playback tracks).

At the end of each predation test, the companion fish (for P = 1 only) was returned to the stock aquarium, the focal fish measured for fork length to the nearest mm and sacrificed using MS-222, and the remaining water fleas collected using a hand net and counted. Water was bubbled between tests to maintain oxygenation and changed after three consecutive tests to remove potential chemical cues. We ran four replicates per prey density, giving a total of 112 predation tests if we consider all the modalities regarding prey and predator densities, and noise conditions. For both noise conditions, we also ran four replicates without fish at the highest prey density (N0 = 400) to control for mortality that would not result from P. parva predation. The whole experiment needed six consecutive days during which the predation tests were distributed in a quasi-systematic way to balance the effect of time among replicates, prey and predator densities, and noise conditions.

Behaviour

Fish behaviour was recorded over three minutes during the six successive noise sequences, where exposed fish experienced boat sounds and control fish ambient noise. We used the above camera, a video player (VLC media player 1.1.8) and visual tracking with Mousotron 12.1 (Blacksun Software) to measure swimming distance. As a proxy of the strength of non-trophic (i.e., social) interactions, we measured interindividual distances (head-to-head): between focal fish and companion fish for P = 1 and between the two focal fish for P = 2. We measured the distance between focal fish (head) and the center of the speaker to assess noise avoidance. Both distances (between fish and to the speaker) were estimated every 15 sec during each 3-min period using the front camera and the PixelStick application (for Apple devices). We studied 108 water fleas to assess their mobility under both ambient (n=56) and boat noise (n=52 instead of 56 due to a technical issue) playlist used during functional response test (45-min). We used two 50-L glass aquaria with an underwater loudspeaker inserted in the middle of a black foam rubber panel (15mm thick) fixed on the left end, and a lightning above for better visibility (185 lux light intensity at the water surface, Light Meter for Apple devices). Four individuals were assessed simultaneously in a 4-well dish (diameter 6 cm, depth 1.5 cm) placed above a brick in the middle of the aquarium. The water fleas were filmed using a GoPro Hera 4 Session camera and videos were analyzed using Kinovea software (0.9.1 beta).

Statistics

We used the R software (version 3.5.1, R Core Team, 2018) with a significance level of 0.05 for all the statistical analyses. We first controlled for the absence of difference in fish size (average value when P = 2) between the four experimental groups (two noise conditions for two fish densities) using a Wilcoxon test with single fish and an ANOVA for the tests with two fish as the data did not meet the assumptions of parametric statistics. FR analysis was done with the frair R package [START_REF] Pritchard | FRAIR: An R package for fitting and comparing consumer functional responses[END_REF]. Modelling the three categorical forms of FR (linear type I, Rogers' type II and Hassel's type III) by maximum likelihood estimation [START_REF] Bolker | Ecological models and data in R[END_REF] allowed us to exclude the linear type I whose Akaike Information Criterion (AIC) was significantly higher compared to that of types II and III (∆AIC >2). To better discriminate between types II (decelerating) and III (sigmoidal) we fitted a polynomial logistic function to the proportion of prey eaten, with type II indicated by a significantly negative first order term and type III by a significantly positive first order term and negative second order term [START_REF] Juliano | Non-linear curve fitting: Predation and functional response curves[END_REF]. To account for the fact that we did not replace consumed water fleas and because the best model was always of type II (first order term ± SE for one fish in ambient noise: -0.0072 ± 0.0005, one fish in boat noise: -0.0039 ± 0.0005, two fish in ambient noise: -0.0081 ± 0.0003, two fish in boat noise: -0.0052 ± 0.0007, all p < 0.001), we used a modified version of the Holling's original type II model through the Rogers' (1972) Random Predator Equation where the number of prey eaten (Ne) follows the relationship:

𝑁 𝑒 = 𝑁 0 (1 -𝑒 𝑎(𝑁 𝑒 ℎ-𝑇) ) with N0 the initial prey density, a the attack rate, h the handling time and T the total experimental time. Equation solving was achieved using the Lambert's transcendental equation [START_REF] Bolker | Ecological models and data in R[END_REF] and we used non-parametric bootstrapping (n = 999) to get multiple estimates of the FR curves and parameters, and generate bias corrected and accelerated (BCa) 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs hereafter), which account for the bias and skew as well as the bounded nature of a and h. All FRs being of the same categorical form (type II), pairwise FR comparison was possible with the delta method from the frair package. It tests the null hypothesis that differences in a (Da) and h (Dh) do not differ from zero making assumptions about their error structure. We also compared FRs visually, inspecting how the BCa intervals of a and h overlapped as recommended by [START_REF] Pritchard | FRAIR: An R package for fitting and comparing consumer functional responses[END_REF].

To detect non-trophic interactions (i.e., MPEs), we compared for each noise condition the observed group-level FR obtained with two fish to a predicted group-level FR inferred from the FR of single fish and assuming the absence of MPEs. Following [START_REF] Sentis | On the use of functional responses to quantify emergent multiple predator effects[END_REF] and [START_REF] Mccoy | Emergent effects of multiple predators on prey survival: The importance of depletion and the functional response[END_REF], we parameterized a population-dynamic model with the attack rate and handling time estimates obtained with one fish to predict how prey density would change with time as a function of initial prey density and predator density:

𝑑𝑁 𝑑𝑡 = -∑ 𝑓 𝑖 (𝑁)𝑃 𝑖 𝑛 𝑖=1
where N is the prey density, Pi the predator density (i = 1, 2) and fi(N) its FR. Compared to alternative approaches like the multiplicative risk model, the population-dynamic model has been shown to be more robust to infer MPEs and account for prey depletion [START_REF] Sentis | On the use of functional responses to quantify emergent multiple predator effects[END_REF]. We generated four random FR parameter sets (to match with the number of replicates of our predation tests) considering the 95% CIs of observed a and h via a Latin hypercube sampling algorithm [START_REF] Soetaert | Solving Differential Equations in R: Package deSolve[END_REF] to account for uncertainty in the FR parameter estimates. Initial values of N were set at the experimental initial prey densities (i.e., 15, 25, 50, 100, 200, 300 and 400) to calculate predicted prey survival (and thus consumption) for the four parameter sets. As for observed FRs, we fitted a type-II FR that fitted best the 999 predicted values and compared their parameter estimates (a and h) to those of the corresponding observed FR using the delta method (frair_compare function). We repeated this procedure 999 times.

Variations in the three distances used to characterize fish behaviour (for each 3-min recording period: swimming distance, average inter-individual distance calculated from the 12 measures, average distance to the speaker calculated from the 12 measures when P =1 and 24 measures when P = 2) were explained with linear mixed-effects models via the lme4R package [START_REF] Bates | Fitting Linear Mixed-Effects Models Using lme4[END_REF], applying a square-root transformation to improve normality of the residuals when needed. Each response variable was modelled as a function of one qualitative predictor: FR Noise (i.e., the noise condition during FR derivation with ambient noise as control), three quantitative predictors: Time (implemented as the start position of the first boat sound for each noise sequence), Prey density and Fish size, and taking individual fish as random factor. We added one interaction terms: between FR Noise and Time as temporal variation in behaviour can change with noise. For P = 2, we used the same global model. We performed AIC model selection using the MuMlm package [START_REF] Barton | MuMIn: Multi-Model Inference[END_REF] and ranked the models based on small sampled-corrected AIC values (AICc), choosing a AICc cut-off of 3, a conservative threshold suggested by [START_REF] Bolker | Ecological models and data in R[END_REF].

A linear mixed-effects model was also used to explain the cumulative swimming distance of water fleas as a function of noise condition (ambient noise or boat noise) interacting with test duration and taking position in the 4-well box as a random factor.

Ethical notes

The capture and transport of P. parva have been approved by the Direction Départementale des Territoires de la Loire (DDT 42). We followed the European (Directive 2010/63/EU) and French national guidelines and got the permits (Approval no C42-218-0901, Direction Départementale de la Protection des Populations de la Loire, Préfecture du Rhône) to conduct experiments on animals.

Results

For both noise conditions, Daphnia survival was 100% in absence of fish demonstrating that mortality during FR tests was due to the predation by P. parva. Fish body length did not differ between the experimental groups (Wilcox test, for one fish: W = 351.5, p = 0.51; ANOVA for two fish, Sum-square = 0.0112, df = 1, F = 0.699, p = 0.407). Whatever noise condition and predator density, the type-II FR was always the best model (Figure 2). When alone, fish exposed to chronic noise showed a significantly decreased attack rate compared to control (Da: estimate = -1.24, Standard Error = 0.31, p < 0.001) but no difference in handling time (Dh: estimate = -0.0003, SE = 0.001 p = 0.80), resulting in a less steep FR curve with a similar asymptote (Figure 2a). When they were two, both FRs matched perfectly and there was no difference in attack rate neither handling time between the two noise conditions (Da: estimate = 0.26, SE = 0.29, p = 0.38; Dh: estimate = 0.0003, SE = 0.0003, p = 0.28, Figure 2b). Observed group-level FRs were in the low range of predicted group-level FRs for both noise conditions (Figure 3). Under ambient noise, Da was significatively negative 870 times over the 1000 iterations indicating that observed FR was less steep than predicted FR while Dh was not different from zero more than half the times suggesting relatively similar asymptotes (Table 1, Figure 3a). Under boat noise, Da did not differ from zero 508 times over the 1000 iterations, indicating similar slopes. Dh was significantly positive more than half the times suggesting higher asymptote in the predicted FR compared to the observed FR (Table 1, Figure 3b).

The swimming distance of solitary fish was significantly lower with noise than without noise (estimate = -3.58, SE = 1.62, p = 0.028; Figure 4), and the distance to the companion fish significantly decreased over time (estimate = -0.23, SE = 0.06, p < 0.001). No difference was observed in the distance to the loudspeaker between the two noise conditions (p = 0.610). In the presence of a conspecific, none of the predictors had any significant effect on the distance to the speaker, the distance between fish and on swimming distance (all p > 0.10).

The cumulative swimming distance of water fleas increased over time (𝒳 1 2 = 8.69 and p = 0.003) but did not differ between ambient and boat noise conditions (𝒳 1 2 = 0.74 and p = 0.39).

Discussion

Anthropogenic noise is known to alter both trophic and non-trophic interactions [START_REF] Braga Goncalves | Impacts of additional noise on the social interactions of a cooperatively breeding fish[END_REF][START_REF] Herbert-Read | Anthropogenic noise pollution from piledriving disrupts the structure and dynamics of fish shoals[END_REF][START_REF] Mickle | Integrating techniques: A review of the effects of anthropogenic noise on freshwater fish[END_REF] but how these effects interact to influence the social dimension of foraging through the modulation of multiple-predator effects (MPEs) remains undetermined. To address this question, we derived the functional response (FR) of solitary and pairs of the invasive topmouth gudgeon (Pseudoraspora parva) feeding on the water flea Dapnhia pulex in the absence or presence of motorboat sounds. Noise significantly reduced solitary fish's FR at low prey densities while the pairs of fish displayed similar FR between the two noise conditions, highlighting the importance of social context in the response to noise. The FR obtained with two fish tended to be in the low range of those predicted from individual-level FR and based on additive effects only, suggesting a slight negative MPE (i.e., conspecific presence tends to decrease per capita predation rate). Interestingly, noise did not strengthen the MPE as the difference between observed and predicted group-level FR was not greater with noise.

We did not find any effect of motorboat noise on water flea mobility. This is consistent with previous findings [START_REF] Sabet | Experimental test of sound and light exposure on water flea swimming behaviour[END_REF] and suggests that the alterations in FR we found were related to fish behaviour only. However, because water fleas were purchased regularly and used 24 hours after arrival, they did not experience a 21-36 days pre-exposure period to noise as the fish did. Additional investigation is needed to exclude a potential effect of chronic motorboat noise on the behaviour of water fleas, which could influence FR parameter estimates but should not change our conclusions about the role of conspecific presence on P. parva's individual response to noise (see below). FR shape and magnitude can be influenced by many environmental factors including temperature, habitat complexity or light regimes [START_REF] Alexander | Functional responses of the intertidal amphipod Echinogammarus marinus: effects of prey supply, model selection and habitat complexity[END_REF][START_REF] South | Predicting predatory impact of juvenile invasive lionfish (Pterois volitans) on a crustacean prey using functional response analysis: effects of temperature, habitat complexity and light regimes[END_REF]. As commonly found in previous experiments made with shelter-free experimental arenas [START_REF] Cuthbert | Using functional responses to quantify notonectid predatory impacts across increasingly complex environments[END_REF][START_REF] Dick | Ecological impacts of an invasive predator explained and predicted by comparative functional responses[END_REF][START_REF] Hanache | Noise-induced reduction in the attack rate of a planktivorous freshwater fish revealed by functional response analysis[END_REF], the best FR model in our study was always the decelerating type II whose shape is captured by attack rate that determines the initial slope and handling time that fixes the asymptote.

When conspecific interactions were not permitted (i.e., with a companion fish), handling time did not significantly differ between the two noise conditions, leading to similar FR asymptotes, whereas attack rate was significantly reduced by boat noise making the FR less steep compared to that obtained under ambient noise. This decrease in attack rate could have resulted from the shorter swimming distance also observed with noise during the FR trials. Pseudorasbora parva is indeed considered as a cruise searcher [START_REF] Priyadarshana | Hunger-induced foraging behavior of two cyprinid fish: Pseudorasbora parva and Rasbora daniconius[END_REF] so higher mobility provides more opportunities to encounter and catch mobile prey, and vice versa. When approaching saturation at high prey densities, prey items are so numerous and reachable (because present everywhere) that predator mobility has little influence on prey capture. This could explain why the negative effect of noise on predation rate through reduced mobility is less perceptible at high prey densities (i.e., right of the FR curve). We also found increased attack rate associated with increased mobility in another invasive fish, the round goby Neogobius melanostomus (unpublished data).

In the European minnow Phoxinus phoxinus, a native counterpart of P. parva, the noise-induced decrease in attack rate was associated with reduced searching area (fish swam more but closer to the companion fish, [START_REF] Hanache | Noise-induced reduction in the attack rate of a planktivorous freshwater fish revealed by functional response analysis[END_REF]. This illustrates how linking FR parameter estimates with behavioural metrics, which is not a common approach, can help better explain alterations in feeding rates.

Prior to the FR experiments, P. parva experienced a playback track of boating activity for more that 20 days to account for a potential habituation effect, namely when the response to noise weakens with repeated exposure. This is quite common [START_REF] Bejder | Impact assessment research: Use and misuse of habituation, sensitisation and tolerance in describing wildlife responses to anthropogenic stimuli[END_REF][START_REF] Nedelec | Repeated exposure to noise increases tolerance in a coral reef fish[END_REF][START_REF] Neo | European seabass respond more strongly to noise exposure at night and habituate over repeated trials of sound exposure[END_REF][START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF] and can happen when the organisms learn that a stimulus is not associated with any threat (i.e., associative learning). In previous FR investigations made on solitary fish, we found that individuals can resume normal values of attack rate [START_REF] Hanache | Noise-induced reduction in the attack rate of a planktivorous freshwater fish revealed by functional response analysis[END_REF] or handling time [START_REF] Rojas | From distraction to habituation: Ecological and behavioural responses of invasive fish to anthropogenic noise[END_REF] when preexposed to noise. Here, we cannot rule out a weakening of the response to noise that could be stronger after first exposure, what we did not assess. It might be that our pre-exposure period was not long enough for associative learning to occur in P. parva.

We did not formally test for the presence of auditory damage and hearing loss after the pre-exposure period. Although the relationship between hearing loss and specific behavioural deficits remains to be elucidated [START_REF] Smith | Causes and consequences of sensory hair cell damage and recovery in fishes[END_REF], we carefully checked the community aquariums daily and did not observe mortality or any behaviour that might be expected in case of discomfort, pain or physical damage like abnormal swimming, reduced foraging or aversion for the sound source. If the response to noise of solitary fish resulted from physical damages, then there would be no reason for it to be weakened by conspecific presence. The fact that pre-exposed solitary fish behaved differently both in terms of mobility and feeding under noise suggests that they were still able to perceive the acoustic signals.

When the two P. parva were free to interact and foraged concurrently, we found no difference neither in FR nor in swimming distance between the two noise conditions. It was as if in the presence of a conspecific, individual fish did not pay attention -or at least did not respond -to noise. Further experiments are needed to test whether conspecific presence also weakens individual response to stimuli associated with real threats, like predation risk, which could be disadvantageous. From a more methodological perspective, our results tell us about the usefulness of providing a companion fish to the focal fish to promote normal behaviour in fish used to live in groups. Although pilot experiments on another fish indicated that it increased predation rate compared to the focal fish alone (unpublished results), the present study reveals that it does not fully reproduce conspecific presence, probably because direct interactions are not possible.

In the absence of boat noise, the observed group-level FR was in the low range of the predicted grouplevel FRs inferred from individual predation rates, suggesting antagonism and a negative effect of mutual interference on individual foraging performance. This effect (i.e., the difference between predicted and observed FRs) was stronger when comparing the attack rates, so at low densities. Conspecific presence did not change individual swimming distance and we did not compare the area covered between one and two fish, but the most likely explanation is that the time and attention devoted to the conspecific were not allocated to foraging. Many studies on MPEs have indeed found risk-reducing effects on predation rates [START_REF] Cuthbert | Assessing multiple predator, diurnal and search area effects on predatory impacts by ephemeral wetland specialist copepods[END_REF][START_REF] Sih | Emergent impacts of multiple predators on prey[END_REF], which could be the "null hypothesis", simply because predators spend time in interactions instead of foraging.

Contrary to our expectation, noise did not promote MPEs as the difference between predicted and observed FRs was not greater than with ambient noise, and even smaller when considering low densities (i.e., the difference between attack rates). This is consistent with the observation that conspecific presence weakened the negative effect of noise on attack rate found with single individuals. Additional investigations are needed to rule out negative effects of noise on other biological traits, but our study suggests that foraging is not compromised.

There have been increasing calls to get away from laboratory experiments because of potential deviations in natural behaviours (Popper andHawkins, 2019, but see Pieniazek et al., 2020). We acknowledge that extrapolation of lab results to natural populations requires extreme caution and to this respect our study demonstrates how a slight increase in ecological complexity through the presence of a conspecific can influence the results. Hypothesis testing under the FR framework requires highly controlled experimental conditions that are difficult to meet in the field. But in return, this allows to detect fine-tuned relationships, for instance between mobility and functional response parameters, which raise new predictions for further in situ validation. Another limitation of tank-based experiments lies in the three acoustic biases that contribute to signal distortion: low frequency attenuation, resonant frequencies and sound reverberation [START_REF] Akamatsu | Empirical refinements applicable to the recording of fish sounds in small tanks[END_REF]. We therefore acknowledge that our playbacks did not fully reproduce the original recordings. However, because boat sounds are long and broadband signals compared to complex biological sounds, we assume that even distorted, our playbacks have somewhere mimicked what fish could experience in their natural environment.

We reported sound levels in units of sound pressure while P. parva also detects the particle motion component of a sound, which is expected to predominate in lab tanks. We don't have the dedicated sensor needed to measure the kinetic energy (KE) of particle motion that cannot be calculated from the potential energy (PE) of sound pressure in our conditions [START_REF] Nedelec | Repeated exposure to noise increases tolerance in a coral reef fish[END_REF]. However, the lab investigation by [START_REF] Olivier | Assessing the impacts of anthropogenic sounds on early stages of benthic invertebrates: The "Larvosonic system[END_REF] demonstrated that when source level increases or decreases by N dB, both PE and KE will increase or decrease by N dB. Relying solely on pressure should therefore not qualitatively change our conclusions.

Pseudorasbora parva is known to produce involuntary short broadband pulses while sucking in food items ("suction" feeding) that could serve as auditory cues for the presence of food (Scholz & Ladich, 2006). We don't know if such sounds were emitted during our experiments but even if it was the case, they were unlikely to play a role relative to visual or olfactory cues given the size of our aquariums. If the function of these sounds in food intake is proven, then an interesting perspective would be to test whether they can be masked by elevated noise level thereby disrupting foraging when fish are more distant.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure1: Spectral density of the motorboat noise (red lines, one per noise sequence, see text for further detail) and ambient noise (blue line) playback tracks used the assess the relationship between per capita predation rate and prey density (the functional response) in the invasive topmouth gudgeon Pseudorasbora parva feeding on the water flea Daphnia pulex.

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2: Type-II functional responses of (A) single and (B) two topmouth gudgeon (Pseudorasbora parva) feeding on Daphnia pulex under control ambient noise (blue solid line) and motorboat noise (orange solid line). Dots are raw data (n = 4 replicates per prey density) and shaded areas represent bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Predicted type-II functional responses (FRs, green solid lines, n = 1000) for two invasive topmouth gudgeon (Pseudorasbora parva) feeding on Daphnia pulex and inferred from the FRs obtained with single individuals under (A) control ambient noise and (B) motorboat noise. Predicted FRs are compared to those obtained with two fish feeding simultaneously under ambient (solid blue line) or boat (solid orange line) noise. Dots are raw data (n = 4 replicates per prey density) and shaded areas represent bootstrapped 95% confidence intervals.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Boxplot of the total swimming distance (m) covered by (A) single and (B) pairs of the invasive topmouth gudgeon Pseudorasbora parva during the predation tests performed to derive their functional response towards water fleas (Daphnia pulex) under control ambient noise (blue) and motorboat noise (orange).

Table 1 :

 1 Results (p values) of the delta method used to compare both functional response (FR) parameters (attack rate and handling time) between the observed and predicted group-level FRs obtained for two noise condition (ambient noise and boat noise) in the topmouth gudgeon Pseudorasbora parva feeding on Daphnia pulex. P values are distributed according to the significance level of 5%. Positive values of Da indicate when the observed FR is above the predicted FR and positive values of Dh indicate when the observed FR are below the predicted FR.

		No boat Noise		With boat Noise
		p value < 0.05	p value > 0.05	p value < 0.05	p value > 0.05
	Da > 0 Da < 0	4 870	126	392 100	508
	Dh > 0 Dh < 0	358 131	511	566 134	300

10.1111/jfb.15397EmilieRojas et al. (2023)

Acknowledgments

We thank Arnaud Sentis and David S. Boukal for help in the statistics and Guy Pernin for assistance in fish capture.

Data availability

The data that support the findings of this study are open available in Zenodo (https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.7234923)

Conflict of Interest

The authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.


Cécile Chantraine Braillon
email: spect@tor

Keywords: e-learning, blended learning, digital humanities, performing arts, video annotation, media literacy

In the framework of DiMPAH (Digital Methods Platform for Arts and Humanities), an online course "espect@tor for performing arts" has been designed to make available digital methods created by the Digital Humanities project "The spectator's school" to the scientific community and the students. The main aim of this course is to train learners to analyse performative works from video recordings. Those analysis are notably achieved with the use of the digital tool e-spect@tor developed by "The spectator's school" to annotate live art videos with different features that allows to study performative aspects. While "Unit I" is focused on introducing the "Performing arts", "Unit II" is dedicated to the analysis of case studies proposed to serve as models. The course can be used on elearning and in a hybrid teaching format through a possible course structure and aims as described and tested with students. Furthermore, by using digital technology, this course can be at the forefront of new stories for Europe in terms of pedagogy as it trains to enable new media literacy and to analyse any activity that is staged such as political discourses, public meetings, or interviews.

e-spect@tor for Performing Arts is an online course dedicated to learning how to analyse Performing Arts with video resources by using digital technology. This pedagogical product is the result of research carried out within the project "L'École du Spectateur (The spectator's school)". It is a digital humanities programme which is developing the digital tool used in this course to annotate videos of live performances: "e-spect@tor".

In this paper, we describe the research project upon which this course is based, research that is exploring digitalisation of the performing arts. We then look at the way in which case studies are considered in the course, both to illustrate the course subject and to train the students. Finally, we underline how this course can be at the forefront of new stories for Europe in terms of pedagogy, i.e. it can be used to study performative works but also any activity that is staged such as political discourses, public meetings or interviews for example.

Performative Studies, Performative turn a. "L'École du Spectateur" : the research project

The e-spect@tor for Performing Arts course stems from the research project "L'Ecole du Spectateur" which is founded on the observation that the current digital transformation is leading to record audiovisual performances, and in recent years, this number has been growing constantly. Since the Covid-19 pandemic, some of these records have been made available to the public by the institutions or entities that produced the performance. While a performance is first and foremost a unique, collective and ephemeral experience, the video allows the spectator to relive the performance, also out of the supposed dedicated space. The question that arises then is how the use of the video in research, and training, is introducing a new paradigm in theatre studies? Our perspective does not aim to discuss the differences between a performance on stage, in front of an audience, and a distanced performance through a video, our question concerns the way the video, now more accessible than before the pandemic, is contributing to the renewal of research and training in theatre studies? We investigate how the video facilitates the detection of certain performative aspects in works that have been performed, how it enables the study of performative elements that are difficult to attest and analyse from the memory of the spectators' experience which is sometimes misleading, or from documents such as photos, writings, or sound recordings. All these traces or "impressions" do not account for the visual experience, at least not in such a convincing way as the video with its temporal unfolding. It must be recalled that the theatre, θέατρον, is, etymologically, "the place from which one sees" and the "historicity" of the performative work is appreciated through its realisation and not (only) through its final version. With the emergence of many platforms for viewing videos of theatrical or performative works, especially since the pandemic, intended for the general public1 or the teaching community 2 , we now have the relevant video resources needed to analyse theatrical live performance, however, we are currently still lacking the relevant digital tools to work with such resources. We are also noting that the performing arts are gradually undergoing what [START_REF] Davis | Introduction : the Pirouette, Detour, Revolution, Deflection, Deviation, Tack, and Yaw of the Performative Turn[END_REF] calls a "performative turn", i.e. an epistemological shift from theatre studies to performance studies.

The theoretical turn began in the 1960s in the UK and US, more precisely, in the English-speaking world, with Richard Schechner3 and Victor Turner4 works. With the emergence of the performance as a practice of artistic expression in the 1950s and the acceleration of the digitalisation of the field from the 2000s onwards, they have seen performance studies develop and theatre studies embrace some of the concepts of this field. The performance studies consider that the theatre, as well as dance and music, is a performative artistic activity. Consequently, they favour a phenomenological approach to performances that integrates the analysis of the audience response or appreciation. In the last twenty years, this performative turn has accelerated, coupled with the digital turn. The digital has appeared as a means to have access to information that was previously inaccessible, and to use it together with the public, to give rise to new and innovative studies of the works. In this context, a new concept has emerged, "theatrology", a field that combines several methodological approaches to the study of theatre (Pavis 2002, 381), including from now on, using digital tools. The research project "L'Ecole du Spectateur'' fits in the "theatrology" field and has two main objectives, the first one is to encourage the young public to go to the theatre by providing the keys to understanding a sometimes complex art. The other objective is to recreate, in the virtual environment, the Post-Show Discussion about the performance. It has been inspired by the format and approach of the Argentinian "Escuela de Espectadores" created in 2001 by the theorist and critic in Performing Arts, Prof. Jorge Dubatti (Universidad de Buenos Aires). J. Dubatti has developed a framework for analysing the performance with the public focusing on three components that define what makes the work performative: the "convivio" (the coming together of spectators and performers), the "poiesis" (the artistic event), and the "expectación" (the spectators' appreciation) [START_REF] Dubatti | Introducción a los estudios teatrales[END_REF]). However, using his framework is not easy because there is no roadmap that can be exploited by others; Dubatti's method does not incorporate the use of mobile devices that would allow the spectators to describe their experience during the live show. There are models and analytical grids in theatrical theory that have already been developed and proposed by theorists such as Ubersfeld, Helbo, and Pavis (Pavis 2012, 39-44), but none of them have considered the analysis of the performative dimension of the spectacle in line with the theoretical shift previously mentioned, nor, obviously, the performative turn currently underway. The "Spectator's school" project aims at filling these gaps through a virtual school that studies videos of performative works as well as developing the needed digital tool for it. The e-spect@tor course presents these scientific outputs in a pedagogical context: the performative turn history is part of the theoretical course, while the digital tool developed is dedicated to analysing videos of performing arts. The tool enables the annotation of the videos with words, sentences, emoticons but also with a controlled vocabulary that is part of pioneering ontology for analysing performing arts.

b. e-spect@tor annotation tool

The e-spect@tor video annotation tool for performances , is the result of enhancing an existing application : Celluloid 5 which was launched in 2015 by Laurent Tessier, a researcher in sociology, and Michaël Bourgatte, a researcher in information and communication sciences, both from the Institut Catholique de Paris. Celluloid was initially designed to read and annotate videos extracted from YouTube; the annotation work can be done individually or collectively (as part of a teaching activity) and the videos and associated comments shared. These initial functionalities have been adapted to analyse performance art videos: indeed, the fact of being able to annotate a video while it is viewed, according to a timeline, makes it possible to reproduce the duration of a live performance through technology, and therefore its event dimension. This allows spectators to record their impressions and reflections, exactly when these come to mind, as is the case when they attend a performative work. The tool also had multi-hand annotation functionality included which is completely relevant for this project because, as a "convivio" [START_REF] Dubatti | Introducción a los estudios teatrales[END_REF], live performance is experienced and appreciated collectively. In addition, the celluloid tool was stored in the servers of the infrastructure Huma-Num to ensure its robustness. The idea was therefore to improve an existing code by adding functionality that was missing to address the specific needs of the live performance: four features were then added.

a) A first feature developed was the possibility of using videos from platforms other than YouTube and to upload them from their own computer as some videos are unavailable online for reasons of image rights or because the author of the work refuses to broadcast the recording of his work but might be willing to share it with research teams or teachers. b) A second feature was an addition to the classic viewing mode (called "analysis mode"): we called it the "performance" viewing mode. When activated, this implies the user cannot have access to the "pause", "stop", "forward" or "backward" functions. This constraint recreates, by means of technology, one of the conditions for the run of live performances: the fact it generally takes place without interruption. Through the "performance" mode, the user artificially puts himself in the shoes of a spectator attending a live show and can feel, with a certain spontaneity, some of the emotions of the performance, such as joy, laughter, sorrow, or other sensations. c) A third feature was the ability to export the annotations in an XML file format and/or in a CSV spreadsheet: this allows the users to use the data outside of the tool. The export makes it easier to manipulate the data, especially if the annotation has been done by several people. d) A fourth functionality was the integration of an ontology. Specialised in performing arts, this ontology organises and structures the application information. A suggested set of emoticons connected to the ontology enables the users to state their basic emotions and judgements about the show. The emoticons can only be used when the "performance mode" is activated. A set of selected keywords, also linked to the ontology, is also suggested to the users. These are available when the user chooses the analysis mode.

Having presented the research framework, we will now present two case studies below to illustrate the course.

User Case Studies

a. Karen Veloso's "Ramona au Grill" and Scheherazade Zambrano Orozco's Chutes

While "Unit I" is focused on introducing the "Performing arts" and the different artistic performative disciplines or activities considered such as, as theatre, dance, performance art and fashion shows, "Unit II" is dedicated to the analysis of examples, they are case studies proposed to serve as models for the students. "Ramona au Grill" ("Unit II 2.1 The theatrical show: a performed poetics"), the play of the Chilean playwright, director and actress Karen Veloso was created in 2011 while the dance performance, "Chutes" ("Unit II 2.4 Performance Art: liminal, strange and body experience"), by the choreographer and dancer, Scheherazade Zambrano Orozco was created in 2014. Both are very recent performative creations and were chosen as they are representative of the Performative Turn previously described. These plays have not been recorded for a public viewing but to create archives of the works. It must be recalled here that in most cases, the plays' recordings do not have the goal of enhancing the artist's works or professional in question, or even to serve as creative, scientific or educational material, but to create a personal archive. This is the case for the two plays presented as case studies in the course which were used to orient learners to analyse performative elements. The theatrical performance "Ramona at the Grill" is the story of a housewife, Ramona, who is recording a recipe for television, that of the Chilean "cazuela", a typical dish of the country. At each step of the recipe preparation, memories of the past resurface, those of the Pinochet dictatorship and the military repression against civilians. The spectator understands that the memories of that time are still haunting her, that the sounds and images of daily life emerge her in a difficult past. Past and present are superimposed in the play, they collide to illustrate how long the road towards the repair of the past and the healing of the wounds is. The dance performance "Chutes" aims to tell the history of today's Mexico, illustrating its falls, the chaos due to the confluence with the different problems its geographical situation provokes "so close to the USA and so far from God" as Porfirio Díaz would have said while he was Mexican President (in 1876-1880 and in 1884-1911). The performance illustrates the collapsing bodies suffering the earthquake and metaphorically the economic crisis, migrations, corruptions, and, of course, the consequences of drug trafficking.

For the learners, these case studies illustrate how some unsolved 20th historical problems are currently disrupting some Latin-American societies, with regards the theory (Unit I), they illustrate theatre's commitment to shine a light on society's issues and make greater demands on learners' engagement.

b. Case studies' organisation

Each case study starts with instructions that engage the learners to read in an active way. The link with the theoretical part of Unit I is always provided at the beginning of the page, so that the learner can make the connection immediately and if necessary, re-read, the theoretical part on theatre, dance, fashion shows or performance art. Then, the learners are asked to watch the video: the video is embedded directly in the instructions page to avoid having to copy a link and to leave the course.

The learners have to first watch the video in the "Performance mode", in one go, without stopping it.

As stated previously, this instruction is linked to the theoretical postulate that, even if the video cannot obviously recreate the conditions of a live performance, both the ephemeral nature of the performance and the co-presence of the actors and the public in the same room, the fact the learners are watching the video in one go, without stopping it, without taking notes, tries to recreate, virtually, some of the conditions of the performative works in real conditions. As a matter of fact, in a theatre hall, the audience cannot stop the performance in progress and rarely take notes so as not to disturb other spectators. Moreover, the spectator's appreciation is not made from a final version but during the temporal process of its run: the awareness and the comprehension of a performative work is thus characterised by its historicity. This historicity is inherent and essential to analyse the work when it takes into account the audience response. This is a common method when teaching the analysis of live works in Human Sciences: the teachers usually ask the students to take time to first watch or to attend the performance, before beginning the analysis. Once this step is done, the second instruction given to the learners is to watch the video a second time (or more) with a "pencil in hand". Of course, they can take notes, but we have chosen to ask them to focus their attention on three phenomena that highlight the performative works chosen for learning. For example, for the case study based on the theatrical performance, Ramona au Grill, they were asked to focus their attention and take notes according to three points: 1) The relation between the play Ramona au grill and Performance Art, more precisely concerning the audience's position and condition, 2) The concrete presence of digital art in the play and its semantic role in the plot 3) The way the play conveys and mixes the Chilean History and culture (last military dictatorship) on stage .

For the case study based on the Chutes performance, they were asked to focus on 1) The location of the performance (where did it take place? what is the performance space?) and its main impact on you 2) The commitment of the performer's body during the live work and what it conveys for her and for the audience 3) The unusual vision of the world the performance presents to the spectators.

Each page of each case study is devoted to an aspect of the live show's analysis, and each one repeats the initial instructions. The learners are asked to reread the notes taken and to compare them with the analysis that follows. By using the course in hybrid mode, the learners will be able to share the elements noted with what other students have noted (and that may not be included in the analysis suggested by the course) and the teacher will then be able to discuss with them whether the elements identified by them are relevant or not. In self-study, the learners will not be able to go beyond and compare with others what they have indicated on their paper or computer if applicable.

It should be pointed out that on each page, the video is embedded so that the learners do not have to open an additional tab or return to the case study introduction page: they can therefore access the analysis of each issue raised and watch the video at the same time.

Since the videos were taken from the YouTube platform, we took advantage of one of its featuresthe possibility of integrating bookmarks -to illustrate our point regarding a precise moment of the video. In addition, each page includes one or two screenshots of the videos to illustrate the most characteristic elements of the performative dimension of the analysed work: for example, the choice of an unconventional place for the dance performance or the use of the body in the performance in both cases.

b. Use case of the course "e-spectator for performing Arts"

In December 2022, at La Rochelle Université, "e-spect@tor for performing arts" course was used in a real course, in hybrid format. Within a course on "Hispano-American cultural environment", we have combined our in person teaching with the DiMPAH course and asked the students to write an essay on Karen Veloso's theatrical performance entitled Superposition (2019) as a final task.

During the first class (each class lasts one hour and a half), we presented first the course structure and aims, then we asked the students to read the theoretical part of the online course concerning the general overview ("1.1 General Overview") on Performative Arts. They were asked to focus on answering the following points: 1) what are Performing arts? 2) what is the relationship between the Performing Arts and, in France, "le spectacle vivant"? 3) what is the Argentinean theoretical approach for the analysis of Performing Arts? 4) why do we talk about obsolescence? 5) what is the "Performative Turn"? They were given about 20 minutes to do this preliminary work and then their feedback was pooled to check what they had understood. The last part of the session was devoted to viewing the play within the e-spect@tor platform by using the performance mode. Thus, the students were only allowed to use the set of emoticons for declaring their emotions, experienced and basic opinions and also the free annotation. After this first viewing, we spent ten minutes listening to their first impressions and opinions on this play in order to roughly define what had been understood and felt.

We started the second session by asking the students to log back onto the on-line platform and to readthe part on the theatrical performances for 20 minutes ("1.2 Theatre") considering the following aspects: 1) what is theatre? 2) why is theatre also mimetic in addition to being performative? 3) in theatrical work, who communicates with whom? 4) In a theatrical performance, what is the space like? As we did during the first class, we first took stock of what they had understood: then we together defined the essential concepts characterising theatrical performances. At this point, they were asked to log back into the e-spect@tor platform and to watch the video for a second time in "Analysis mode": they were able to use the free annotation and also the ontology (the set of emoticons and the set of performing arts concepts) and to stop, forward and rewind the video as they wished.

The third session was organised with a different scenario: to help the students in their future analysis of Superposition, they were invited to watch Karen Veloso's theatrical performance, Ramona au grill (2011) again and then to read the course section "2.1, for 20 minutes: The theatrical show: a performed poetics" dedicated to its analysis. They were asked to answer the following questions: 1) to what extent is Ramona au grill a "canonical" performative play and to what extent is it not a classical play? 2) what kind of spectator is the audience also embodied in the play? For what purpose? 3) What relationship is established between food and Chilean history? After that, they have been invited to share, pool, check and organise their answers orally for them to develop a clear and structured analysis of the main characteristics of this theatrical performance.

We started the fourth session asking the students to watch Superposition for a third time through espect@tor, in "Performance mode", and to annotate the video again in relation to three aspects directly connected with the specifications we defined for Ramona au grill: 1) The hybrid form of the live show Superposition 2) The role of the spectator 3) The leitmotiv of the Chilean disappeared. Then, as with previous sessions, we put together their ideas and comments and defined the main lines of the analysis of the theatrical performance, Superposition, as well as giving them the opportunity to develop their own ideas and interpretations. At the end of this session, which was the last one, we showed them how to extract their annotations in CSV or XML files, so that they could retrieve and easily reuse the notes taken during the class. They were asked to write a commentary on the theatrical performance, Superposition, to deliver two weeks later.

A course for future stories for Europe

The e-spect@tor for performing arts course is a model for digitally assisted video analysis for independent online study or in hybrid class. In terms of pedagogy, it enables the analysis of multiple phenomena of the living works and of their performative nature and contributes to the emergence of new pedagogical methodologies for the study of works and performative activities.

When it comes to working on performative works, as a first step the teachers usually consider taking their students to the theatre, particularly when they can take advantage of a work performed in the city, close to them. As seen previously, it is indeed a key step for an initial appreciation of a performative work in its real conditions. But actually, most of the time, the teachers do not have the opportunity to take the students to the theatre: as a consequence, thay have been used to basing their teaching on the theatrical text and/or a VHS video, if it luckily exists. The manipulation of a video by VHS training was generally only carried out by the teachers themselves, because there was only one device available in the classroom. Now, with the abundance of video resources of live performances and their direct accessibility for users, the learners are able to use, handle and discover the relevant elements of analysis. The e-spect@tor for performing arts course is a part of the actual pedagogical context, it considers the teachers to use more and more easily in their course (Archat Tatah, Bourgatte, 2014).

Furthermore, by making the student operate the video, either in a relatively simple way (by simply viewing and adjusting the timeline) and/or using the e-spect@tor digital tool with its advanced features previously described, the course also engages the learners in an awareness and understanding of the interactive dimension of the performative work. A dimension that they do not necessarily notice in its totality when they actually watch a live performance as spectators, sitting in the stands and the darkness of a performance hall. Indeed, the learners generally feel passive about what is happening on stage and this feeling is strengthened by the activation of the principle of "denial" defined by Anne Ubersfeld: the spectator has the impression that he is witnessing a dream when he sees a performative work (Ubersfeld, 1996 : 37-38). Nevertheless, his whole body reacts to what he sees and perceives, and his mind constructs its own reception of the work: contrary to what he thinks, the spectator is really active during a live performance. By allowing him to dwell on live performance videos and to define the effects it has on him, the e-spectator for performing arts course thus contributes to the construction of the participatory figure of the spectator, the "spect-actor". Moreover, if the e-spect@tor for Performing Arts course can be used by learners to better understand the interactions between the Performing Arts and the spectators, and especially to identify their role in the construction of the meaning of a work of this type, it can also allow a better understanding of the way in which the work or the performative activity plays with him, or even manipulates him. An analysis and interpretation of how these artistic or cultural productions can use our emotions (in terms of quantity or categories) to make us feel a situation, to move us to a state or even to make us adhere to a specific cause, to a political idea, is quite interesting in terms of the construction of critical thinking in the learner. The development of these skills and values to enable new media literacy is supported by the European Union in the education and training of young European citizens6 .

The methodology to analyse a performative work offered by this course thus plays an essential role in the learner's training to keep a critical eye on any performative production aiming at producing an immediate and impacting effect on the public: a political speech, activism or simply a journalistic reportage. In today's world, where the video image has replaced the written word as the preferred medium not only for the dissemination of information but also for communication between individuals, the promotion of products and political propaganda, it is an undeniable asset to have digital methods and tools at one's disposal that allow one, and mostly young people, to identify elements of performative intents.

Concluding remarks

E-spect@tor for Performing Arts is an innovative course based on a pioneering scientific project in Digital Humanities for the digitalisation of performing arts research. Based on the hypothesis that the digital video archive is today the best trace of what was the performance essentially ephemeral and not reproducible, this course therefore aims to approach performative Arts analysis by making a privileged use of this abundant quantity of media available today with the digital turn. This course thus shows how to analyse video archives of a live performance from several performance case studies, in the second part of the course, as examples or models of analysis. However, the learners are asked to participate in the discovery of these case studies so that they can develop the knowledge acquired on different disciplines or performative activities and position themselves as true spectators. In the classroom, the course can also be used in hybrid mode by teachers: as we have seen in the test example we carried out, it is possible to build on the existing online course, in its entirety or part of it, using the e-spect@tor tool as well, and to encourage direct ideas exchanges with the students.

Finally, the e-spect@tor for performing arts course based on the digital analysis of video resources of live performances is giving birth to a series of new narratives in Europe: first in the way in which it transforms the didactics of the analysis of the performative arts for the learners by making it the participatory role that they play in the construction of the meaning more convincing and more palpable and secondly, the way in which it allows the learners to exercise a critical look at the video content that invades their daily life and that is not insignificant in terms of impact on the viewers.

Drama online: https://www.dramaonlinelibrary.com/, last visit

2023-03-05; CyranoTV : https://www.cyranotv.com/, last 2023-03-05; Teatrix: https://www.teatrix.com/, last visit 2023-03-05. 2 CyranoTV has a version dedicated to teachers, cyrano.education: https://www.cyrano.education/home, last visit 2023-03-05)

Richard Schechner is a director and theatre theorist. He is also a university professor at the Tisch School of the Arts (New York University) and editor of the largest American theatre magazine, The Drama Review. Considered one of the founders of performance studies, he is the author of several texts and books on the discipline: Performed Imaginaries (2015); PerformanceStudies (2002); The Future of Ritual (1993); PerformanceTheory (1988); Between Theater and Anthropology 1985; Environmental Theater (1973); Dionysus in 69 (1970), among others.

Victor Turner (1920-1983) is a British anthropologist whose work focuses on the study of rituals, rites of passage and dramaturgy. His bestknown works include The Anthropology of Performance (1986); Liminality, Kabbalah, and theMedia (1985); and From Ritual to Theatre. The Human Seriousness ofPlay (1982); Dramas, Fields, and Metaphors. Symbolic Action (1974)

. 5 https://celluloid.hypotheses.org/, last visit 2023-02-01.

https://digital-strategy.ec.europa.eu/en/policies/media-literacy, last visit 2023-02-01.