Marie-Emmanuelle Chessel

Sophie Dubuisson-Quellier

The Making of the Consumer: Historical and Sociological Perspectives

While economics have, to a large extent, participated in the invention of the consumer as a category of knowledge, the discipline has paid little attention to the conditions of the production of his/her identity. Instead, it has largely assumed that each individual consumer has a set of preferences and values whose determination is outside the realm of economics.

, others have shown more interest in the ways in which consumers, their identities and their tastes are the product of specific techniques, activities and actors within societies. This chapter is a review of these social science studies.

. This chapter first considers market actors themselves who develop techniques to create specific representations of consumers on which commercial offers can be based. We then consider research on the role of the State and of civil society in the construction of consumers' identities. These studies show the extent to which such representations are rooted in specific political or moral projects, so that consumption is determined as a social and political practice with an impact way beyond the domestic sphere. To illustrate this, we investigate surveys on consumption. Finally, in the last part of this chapter we examine research that explores the forms of consumers' capacities and autonomy. We show that the construction of the consumer requires that he or she be given agency, which in return produces effects on the construction of the representation of consumers themselves.

Market Professionals and Intermediaries

 as producers and service providers, who do what sociologists have called market work

 [START_REF] Cochoy | The sociology of market work[END_REF]. These activities range from building up knowledge about the consumer, during the stage of product design, to the organization of the consumer's encounter with the offer, downstream, through the definition of the characteristics of the offer. They therefore involve the techniques of marketing as well as those of design, merchandising, packaging and retailing. But this marketing work also produces various elements, qualities, categories and nomenclatures, along with different prices and brands, guides and references to help consumers choose and match product offers with consumers' identities. Market work is particular insofar as it rationalizes the market encounter to a significant degree, by seeing consumers from the point of view of their ability to choose. In short, consumers can choose only between those products and services that market professionals have put together for them. The market relationship with consumers is therefore particularly important in this commercial work, where various market mechanisms have to be devised and set up [START_REF] Callon | Market Devices[END_REF] such as labels, prices, messages and advertisements, all of which will guide consumers towards the offers designed by these professionals. Some of this work and these mechanisms for creating consumers operate upstream from the market world, when the products or the market representation are designed. For instance, in the years around 1800, factory draughtsmen were instrumental in the transformation and diffusion of objects of daily life, such as fabrics, wallpaper, porcelain tableware, and so on. They participated in the new economy of appearances that was being established under the impetus of new technical processes. Their job was both to copy and to invent motifs that were printed on dresses or vases, and they were partially responsible for the profusion of images, colours and visual devices that gradually became a feature of urban life [START_REF] Millet | Les dessinateurs de fabrique en France (XVII e -XIX e siècles)[END_REF][START_REF] Roche | The Culture of Clothing: Dress and Fashion in the Ancien Regime[END_REF][START_REF] Roche | History of Everyday Things: The Birth of Consumption in France, 1600-1800[END_REF].

In the twentieth century, industrial designers designed objects of daily life, particularly small household appliances. By producing the shapes of electric irons or vacuum cleaners, they participated in the daily life of consumers in the 1960s [START_REF] Leymonerie | Le temps des objets. Une histoire du design industriel en France[END_REF]. In the fashion industry, certain actors served as mediators between consumers and producers. Some women created 'bureaux of stylists' which disseminated information on the season's fashion as ready-to-wear clothing became common [START_REF] Maillet | Histoire de la médiation entre textile et mode en France: des échantillonneurs aux bureaux de style (1825-1975)[END_REF]. Some of these specialists were also experts who explored ways of getting to know markets and consumers. This was the case for example in the 1930s around the London School of Economics, and Paul Lazarsfeld in the US, and the Gesellschaft für Konsumforschung (GfK) in Germany (Brückweck, 2011;[START_REF] Conrad | Observer les consommateurs. Etudes de marché et histoire de la consommation en Allemagne, des années 1930 aux années 1960[END_REF][START_REF] Schwarzkopf | In search of the consumer: The history of market research from 1890 to 1960[END_REF].

To a large extent, the marketing techniques of mass consumption were developed to further knowledge about the market. Yet, when they were developed in the early twentieth century, they served above all to sell large quantities of products resulting from agricultural surplus production in the US [START_REF] Cochoy | Another discipline for the market economy: Marketing as performative knowledge and know-how for capitalism[END_REF]. Underpinned essentially by a logic of supply, the rationalizing of the commercialization of these massive quantities of agricultural products forged very imprecise representations of consumers. But as these marketing techniques developed, segmentation of the demand became a strategic tool for controlling competition.

Firms and marketing specialists in universities defined consumers with multiple identities.

Their aim was less to improve their knowledge of the market than to enable the offer, in the context of saturated markets, to find new outlets. Marketing should thus be understood less as a technique aimed at telling 'the truth' about the market and consumers, than as an approach to promote the sale of what has already been produced, on the basis of stable relations between products and the demand. Marketing performs the market [START_REF] Callon | What does it mean to say that economics is performative?[END_REF]; insofar as it brings into existence the reality that it helps to describe and to produce [START_REF] Araujo | Shaping exchanges, performing markets: the study of marketing practices[END_REF]Araujo et al., 2010;[START_REF] Callon | The Laws of the Market[END_REF]. To this end, it uses various remote techniques to represent consumers and analyse markets, typical of market studies [START_REF] Dubuisson-Quellier | Product tastes, consumer tastes: The plurality of qualifications in product development and marketing activities[END_REF][START_REF] Heiskanen | The performative nature of consumer research: Consumers' environmental awareness as an example[END_REF], such as survey or focus groups (Grandclément and Gaglio, 2011). Consumers' expectations are thus constructed as multiple realities [START_REF] Kjellberg | Multiple versions of markets: Multiplicity and performativity in market practice[END_REF] that often compete with one another (Dubuisson-Quellier, 2013a) and that enable the various market operators to talk on their behalf in order to design the offer that they need.

Along with marketing, advertising is another set of techniques with performative dimensions. Advertising was provided by various actors even before advertisers became professionals in the twentieth century [START_REF] Chessel | La Publicité. Naissance d'une profession[END_REF][START_REF] Marchand | Advertising the American Dream: Making Way for Modernity, 1920-1940[END_REF]. In 1646, with pomp and ceremony, King Louis XIV and cloth manufacturers, supported by Mazarin, launched refined 'Dutch-like' sheets made in France. They contributed to establishing the royal manufacture of Sedan and used a publicity campaign to certify the products of the royal seal.

After the French Revolution, in a new context filled with uncertainty for commerce, the manufacturer and merchant Guillaume Ternaux organized a vast publicity campaign around Sedan sheets, to reassure his customers. In 1798 he positioned himself, without saying so, in the continuation of the Ancien Régime under which articles had been certified [START_REF] Gayot | Du logo d'entreprise royale à la libre enseigne de magasin. La publicité pour les draps fins en France de 1646 à 1830[END_REF].

Eighteenth-century retailers, particularly in the semi-luxury industry that promoted the spread of new materials, also used publicity [START_REF] Berg | Commerce and the commodity: Graphic display and selling new consumer goods in eighteenth-century England[END_REF][START_REF] Coquery | The language of success: Marketing and distribution semi-luxury goods in eighteenth-century Paris[END_REF].

In the nineteenth and twentieth centuries, retailers did not always need publicity professionals to tell them where to set up their shops and to help them produce innovative advertising [START_REF] Miller | The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920[END_REF]. Jules Ouaki, for instance, who founded the maxi-discount shop Tati in Paris in the 1950s, invented a brand, or more precisely a name and colourspink and white checksto symbolize his business [START_REF] Zalc | Tati, ou l'invention du maxi-discount textile (1945-années 1980)[END_REF].

From the twentieth century, advertisers, as artisans of consumers' desires, also produced mediations to foster a relationship between products and consumers [START_REF] Hennion | The artisans of desire: The mediation of advertising between product and consumer[END_REF]. These mediations were based on particular representations of consumers [START_REF] Mcfall | A "good, average man": Calculation and the limits of statistics in enrolling insurance customers[END_REF], developed by professionals at advertising agencies. The definitions framed the relationship that advertisers were supposed to establish between consumers and products, with the intention of developing forms of attachment between the two [START_REF] Ariztia | Unpacking insight: How consumers are qualified by advertising agencies[END_REF].

Yet the performativity of operations carried out by these different professionals cannot be based solely on their representations of consumers. It is also connected to the production of a large number of market devices that organize the encounter between products and consumers, which also channel it around the choices that have been made as regards both product quality and consumer profiles [START_REF] Cochoy | How to build displays that sell: the politics of performativity in American grocery stores (Progressive grocer 1929-1946)[END_REF]. Some authors have paid particular attention to market architectures, to gain insight into their contribution to the making of consumers' competences. They have highlighted various 'trade revolutions' (Daumas, forthcoming 2018b). In seventeenth-century England, relations between consumers and merchants took place in a context of lasting social relations, those between an aristocratic family, its suppliers, and its servants [START_REF] Whittle | Consumption and Gender in the Early Seventeenth-Century Household: The World of Alice Le Strange[END_REF]. In eighteenth-century Paris these relations played out inside aristocrats' residences, where traders delivered their goods directly to their noble consumers [START_REF] Coquery | L'hôtel aristocratique: le marché du luxe à Paris au XVIII e siècle[END_REF]. In the mountains and then the countryside, up until the nineteenth century, goods tradingfrom clothes to books, watches or handkerchiefsrevolved around the pedlar's visit [START_REF] Fontaine | Histoire du colportage en Europe, XV e -XIX e siècles[END_REF]. Then in mid-nineteenth century Paris, shop windows were invented, and with them all sorts of architectural innovations intended to display products in public and private spaces [START_REF] Charpy | Amateurs, collectionneurs et chineurs parisiens au XX e siècle. Le commerce des apparences du passé, entre centre et périphérie[END_REF][START_REF] Charpy | Le théâtre des objets. Espaces privés, culture matérielle et identité bourgeoise[END_REF].

The nature and form of consumers' engagement in trade relations were therefore never independent of commercial devices. The trade relationship developed to a very large extent through the staging of the specific features that the two parties grant to this singular relationship within the market context. This point has been remarkably well illustrated by the work of Michelle de La Pradelle (2006). In the case of trading at fairs in the 1990s, she describes how merchants and consumers recompose the depersonalization that everyone believes characterizes the market relationship, by engaging in personalized interactions that are artificially staged to a greater or lesser degree.

Likewise, the analysis of the diversity of market architectures suggests designers' intention to invite consumers to engage in the relationship in different ways. The 'cosy', welcoming and hyper-selective nature of some shops, inspired by nineteenth-century boutiques, builds a commercial relationship with consumers that is intentionally dense, enhanced with various services, and not simply a transaction [START_REF] Miller | The Bon Marché: Bourgeois Culture and the Department Store, 1869-1920[END_REF]. Some cheap department stores use pale lighting and a very simple system of stacking products to suggest that the relationship is above all economic and devoid of costly artifices [START_REF] Dubuisson-Quellier | The shop as market space: The commercial qualities of retail architecture[END_REF]. This diversity of commercial structures and their evolution in time contribute, in turn, to modifying and diversifying consumers' competencies.

The evolution of commercial agencements shapes the roles and competences of traders and consumers alike. Paul Du [START_REF] Gay | Self-service: retail, shopping and personhood[END_REF] describes, for example, the development of selfservice in early twentieth-century English shops. Introduced in a context where the price war demanded new solutions to cut costs, self-service required consumers to adapt. Faced with these new sales techniques, consumers were initially hostile, to some extent, and complained about having to do the work of salespersons and shop assistants. New techniques and new knowledge contributed to the accessibility of merchandise, as new types of shelf space were designed, along with sign-posting intended to guide consumers and to channel their choices and their actions in the shop [START_REF] Cochoy | On the Origin of Self-service[END_REF]. A nomenclature was developed to enable consumers to identify categories of products so that they could learn to be familiar with them and to adopt them, while other objects became indispensable, such as supermarket trolleys [START_REF] Cochoy | Driving a shopping cart from STS to business, and the other way round: On the introduction of shopping carts in American grocery stores (1936-1959)[END_REF]. A mediated relationship gradually set in between consumers and products. It is the outcome of a fairly long process that started in the nineteenth century, which stemmed directly from the progressive development of various devices used to organize selling: counters, cash registers, labels, shelves, and packaging. With the advent of shopping malls [START_REF] Cohen | A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America[END_REF], supermarkets [START_REF] Daumas | Consommation de masse et grande distribution', Vingtième siècle[END_REF], urban commercial development [START_REF] Mallard | Concerning urban consumption: On the construction of market agencements for retail trade[END_REF], and e-commerce websites [START_REF] Licoppe | Understanding and reframing the electronic consumption experience: The interactional ambiguities of mediated coordination[END_REF], it became usual for customers to adapt constantly and to acquire new competencies. Today, market professionals organize the conditions of expression of consumers' choices in highly controlled and often optimized conditions, based on objectives of profitability of economic strategies rather than customer satisfaction.

Research has moreover shown the wide diversity of market devices framing the expression of consumers' choices. None of these devices is neutral or insignificant; on the contrary, they often reflect the competition and power struggles between the different agents involved in the supply and the commercialization of products or services. Susan Strasser's work shows, for example, that when packaged cereals gradually replaced the sale of products in bulk, it reflected producers' wish to build a more direct relationship with consumers through the guarantees of a brand, and thus to ensure that the seller alone could not control the relationship with consumers [START_REF] Strasser | Satisfaction Guaranteed: The Making of the American Mass Market[END_REF]. The making of the consumer is thus also the product of power relations between the actors of the supply: those upstream who do not wish those downstream to have a monopoly on the control of consumers' needs and expectations [START_REF] Schleifer | What your consumer wants: Business-to-business food advertising as a mechanism of market change[END_REF]. Market devices populate the entire market, and each of them contributes in its own way to shaping consumers' practices and identities, whether it be a question of brands, of packaging [START_REF] Cochoy | Une sociologie du packaging, ou l'âne de Buridan face au marché[END_REF], of shopping bags [START_REF] Hagberg | Agencing practices: a historical exploration of shopping bags[END_REF] or of loyalty cards [START_REF] Araujo | Shaping exchanges, performing markets: the study of marketing practices[END_REF]. We even find them unexpectedly in various different worlds, as recent studies on evangelical churches and their promotional practices recently showed [START_REF] Luca | Réussir dans le marketing relationnel de multiniveaux[END_REF][START_REF] Yip | Notre objectif: procurer un service d'excellence à tous ceux qui viennent à l'Eglise!" Le marketing des mega-églises à Singapour[END_REF].

To account for the systematic way in which these market operations and devices shape consumers' behaviours in markets, Michel Callon proposed the notion of market agencement.

The term refers to the articulation of human and non-human actors that enables the circulation of products, from the people who design them down to those who use or consume them, by making possible the operations of calculation and adjustment that this this implies [START_REF] Callon | Qu'est-ce qu'un agencement marchand?[END_REF]. We owe to Lucien Karpik the construction of a framework for interpreting the various types of device in markets. [START_REF] Karpik | Valuing the Unique: The Economics of Singularities[END_REF] classified them according to the size of the market, the regimes of coordination that they supported, and the forms of consumer involvement. His analysis enables us to see the consumer as an individual whose forms of autonomy and engagement in markets are largely organized by the commercial activity itself. Circulation in market spaces, the identification of products and of their properties, their commensurability and their singularization, are operations that consumers perform with equipment consisting not only of physical means but also of principles of calculation and of nomenclatures provided to them by market actors. The identities and competences of consumers cannot be conceived of today in any way other than as a product of market engineering rooted essentially in competitive power relations and strategies of economic control (Dubuisson-Quellier, 2013a).

The Making of the 'Good Consumer'

The making of the consumer is not only the product of market techniques; alongside market specialists, other actors also construct consumer figures. Social reformers seek to know and to educate consumers, while the State, the law and civil society contribute to forging a specific status for the consumer, that of consumer-citizen [START_REF] Trentmann | The Making of the Consumer: Knowledge, Power and Identity in the Modern World[END_REF].

Whether they are sent by the central government or come from reformist groups wishing to transform society through philanthropy or legislative reform, those that we propose here to call 'researcher-reformers' are important actors in the construction of the consumer figure. Social inquiries have existed since the Middle Ages [START_REF] Dejoux | Les enquêtes de Saint Louis. Gouverner et sauver son âme[END_REF], but they took on particular importance in the nineeenth century (Bulmer et al., 1991;[START_REF] Kalifa | Enquête et "culture de l'enquête" au XIX e siècle[END_REF][START_REF] Karila-Cohen | L'État des esprits. L'invention de l'enquête politique en France[END_REF]. In this context, surveys on consumers' budgets preceded and sometimes prepared the first market surveys [START_REF] Schwarzkopf | In search of the consumer: The history of market research from 1890 to 1960[END_REF]. Underpinned by a particular ideology, especially from 1860, Frédéric Le Play's monographic studies painted a picture in France of ideal families [START_REF] Baciocchi | Esquisse pour une autre anthologie[END_REF][START_REF] Baciocchi | Esquisse pour une autre anthologie[END_REF]. We see emerging a normative portrait of working-class families that were supposed to save, to manage their budgets correctly, and to avoid consuming too much alcohol [START_REF] Deluermoz | Les bas-fonds en chair et en chiffres? Le budget leplaysien du chiffonnier Nieiri (1849)[END_REF][START_REF] Kalaora | Les inventeurs oubliés. Le Play et ses continuateurs aux origines des sciences sociales[END_REF][START_REF] Lhuissier | Alimentation populaire et réforme sociale. Les consommations ouvrières dans le second XIX e siècle[END_REF]. As these methods of surveying budgets, known as Leplaysian, have had an influence in other countries, such as China for example [START_REF] Gamble | Peking: A Social Survey Conducted under the Auspices of the Princeton University Center in China and the Peking Young Men's Christian Association[END_REF], they are particularly interesting comparative sources [START_REF] Conrad | Family budget as sources for comparative social history[END_REF].

In the twentieth century, Catholic communities, especially those that were organized in the framework of Catholic Actionthe participation of the laity in the apostolate of the hierarchywere also major producers of surveys that were not devoid of normative advice [START_REF] Lhotte | La préparation du futur foyer de la jeune travailleuse. Une enquête de la JOCF[END_REF][START_REF] Pelletier | Engagement intellectuel catholique et médiation du social. L'enquête monographique de Le Ply à Lebret[END_REF]. In the UK and the USA, as well as Japan and Eastern Europe, reformers carried out social surveys and studied consumer practices, especially regarding food (Bulmer et al., 1991;[START_REF] Converse | Survey Research in the United States: Roots and Emergence, 1890-1960[END_REF][START_REF] Thomann | La naissance de l'Etat social japonais: Biopolitique, travail et citoyenneté dans le Japon impérial (1868-1945[END_REF]. Some of these researchers had the status of social scientists, such as Phyllis H. Williams, research assistant in sociology at the Institute of Human Relations (Yale University) in the 1930s.

Williams published a book for social workers, nurses doing home visits, teachers and doctors who needed to know the community of Italian immigrants in the USA better. She described their lifestyle and criticized the richness of their diet, which was very different from that of Southern Italy (Trentmann, 2016: 598-599;[START_REF] Williams | South Italian Folkways in Europe and America: A Handbook for Social Workers, Visiting Nurses, School Teachers, and Physicians[END_REF]. The worlds of social reform and of the social sciences were indeed closely entangled in the first half of the twentieth century.

American empirical sociology owed a great deal to social workers, who were very often women, like Phyllis H. Williams [START_REF] Fitzpatrick | Endless Crusade: Women Social Scientists and Progressive Reform[END_REF][START_REF] Platt | A History of Sociological Research Methods in America 1920-1960[END_REF]Silverberg, 1998).

These surveys contributed to the making of consumers, but in a very different sense to that of market professionals. Here it is not a question of creating consumers' needs to sell products, but of normatively framing their behaviors. In this respect, the State and civil society have also regularly sought to define moral and citizen-related obligations of consumers (Chatriot et al. 2004;Dubuisson-Quellier, 2016). It is especially in particular contexts where resources were rare and countries experienced economic difficulties, as in times of war or economic crisis, that States appeal to consumers' duties as citizens. In many countries, the making of the citizen seems to be closely articulated to that of the consumer, not only because the State plays a fundamental role in consumer societies [START_REF] Strasser | Getting and Spending: European and American Consumer Societies in the Twentieth Century[END_REF] by defining a legal status for the consumer, but, more importantly, because consumption appears as a process through which consumers fully occupy the political space (Daunton and Hilton, 2001). The notion of 'pocketbook politics' [START_REF] Jacobs | Pocketbook Politics: Economic Citizenship in Twentieth-Century America[END_REF] defines citizens' engagement through economic behaviour that has to match the community's expectations [START_REF] Trentmann | Free Trade Nation: Commerce, Consumption and Civil Society in Modern Britain[END_REF]. Consumers are thus regularly invited to adapt their practices according to economic and political situations. During World War I, in both the USA and the UK, governments asked citizens to reduce their consumption so as not to worsen shortages, and thus to participate in the war effort. During World War II, a federal bureau created specifically to combat inflation even asked consumers to watch prices [START_REF] Cohen | A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America[END_REF]. After the war, women consumers in France were also called on to combat inflation [START_REF] Pulju | Women and Mass Consumer Society in Postwar France[END_REF].

The consumer became an actor in public policy-making and the market became an arena in which individuals could express their citizenship.

Consumption was thus also a driver of growth during the New Deal in the USA. It was even during this period that a real social contract was entered into between the State and citizen-consumers, aimed at basing both economic prosperity and democratic life on mass consumption. In A Consumers' Republic, Lizabeth Cohen describes how the 'citizenconsumer' of the 1930s morphed after World War II into a 'purchaser-citizen' to serve the national interest, by supporting the new mass consumption economy. This was not only the outcome of commercial trends but also revolved around urban development policies in the 1950s which segmented the population along the lines of class and race. These policies moved the white middle classes into suburban residential areas by assisting them in buying homes and cars, and by creating shopping malls devoted to them [START_REF] Cohen | A Consumers' Republic: The Politics of Mass Consumption in Postwar America[END_REF]. By facilitating access to credit for consumption and home ownership, the US government made consumption rather than savings the main driver of its economy. This contrasted with other countries such as France, where savings were encouraged [START_REF] Trumbull | Consumer Lending in France and America: Credit and Welfare[END_REF].

The Chinese government also opted for consumption when it changed its economic policies after 1979. Aware of the failure of the planned economy in improving lifestyles, the authorities revised their priorities. Production was henceforth to be turned more towards the satisfaction of immediate desires for consumer goods. To sustain growth, buy social peace and ensure its longevity, the Party placed its bets on a Chinese consumer society. Initially this regime was based on exports but then, from the 2000s, it started to rely on the domestic demand. Consumers and especially the middle classes were thus encouraged to consume (Davis, 2000;[START_REF] Gerth | As China Goes, So Goes the World: How Chinese Consumers are Transforming Everything[END_REF][START_REF] Guiheux | La construction d'un sujet consommateur dans la Chine urbaine[END_REF].

Civil societyespecially the non-profit and activist worldhas also played an active part in morally framing consumption (Dubuisson-Quellier, 2013b[START_REF] Dubuisson-Quellier | Ethical Consumption[END_REF]. Since the emblematic cases of revolutionary boycotts against the British Empire in the eighteenth century in the USA, and then 'free produce' approaches of the abolitionist movements in the early nineteenth century which proposed goods not produced with slave labor, there has been a significant political tradition in civil society consisting in making the consumer an agent of change [START_REF] Glickman | Buying Power: A History of Consumer Activism in America[END_REF]. From this tradition sprung the US and European consumer leagues that developed at the turn of the twentieth century, with the mission of making consumers responsible for their purchases, and protecting women's labor rights (Chessel, 2012b). They thus embodied two forms of consumer mobilization: both as agents of political change and as a social group that can benefit from these changes. At the same time, in the UK, consumers defended 'free trade' [START_REF] Trentmann | Free Trade Nation: Commerce, Consumption and Civil Society in Modern Britain[END_REF]. Although they did not entirely move away from their ambiguous position, the consumer movements that developed in the 1930s in the US and in the 1950s in Europe specialized in defending consumers' rights and interests [START_REF] Hilton | Prosperity for All: Consumer Activism in an Era of Globalization[END_REF]. Organizations such as the Consumers' Union in the USA, the Consumers' Association in England, the Union Belge des Consommateurs in Belgium, and the Union Fédérale des Consommateurs in France invented and disseminated techniques for testing products, with the idea of training consumers to make better choices [START_REF] Aldridge | The construction of rational consumption in Which? magazine: The more blobs the better?[END_REF][START_REF] Mallard | La presse de consommation et le marché. Enquête sur le tiersconsumériste[END_REF]. This new representation of consumers, often largely institutionalized by governments themselves, served to defend their interests and was behind many laws passed to protect consumers (Chatriot et al., 2006;[START_REF] Trentmann | Bread, Milk and Democracy: Consumption and Citizenship in Twentieth-Century Britain[END_REF][START_REF] Trumbull | Consumer Capitalism: Politics, Product Markets and Firm Strategy in France and Germany[END_REF]. Indeed, states are themselves very proactive in building representations of the good consumer by designing a large set of public instruments, from taxes, to public campaigns, labeling and more recently nudges, aiming at orienting consumers' decisions towards common good objectives, such as public health or the preservation of the environment (Dubuisson-Quellier, 2016) In post-war Poland, textile workers and the trade-union, Solidarność which formed de facto the largest consumer movement, even if they spoke as workers, demanded that socioeconomic resources be distributed equitably [START_REF] Mazurek | Consumerism, solidarity and communism: Consumer protection and the consumer movement in Poland[END_REF]. In western countries, from the 1990s and 2000s, civil society organizations developed actions that targeted consumers, providing them with labels [START_REF] Bartley | Looking Behind the Label: Global Industries and the Conscientious Consumer[END_REF]. Consumers were invited to engage in 'individualized collective action', that is, to manifest their political engagement by either boycotting or on the contrary 'buycotting' certain types of product [START_REF] Micheletti | Political Virtue and Shopping[END_REF]. These movements thus proposed numerous types of protest or resistance, or else engagement in forms of alternative consumption or in sustainable community movements [START_REF] Dubuisson-Quellier | Ethical Consumption[END_REF][START_REF] Forno | Sustainable community movement organisations[END_REF].

Market actors, researcher-reformers, government authorities and militant organizations all construct 'figures' of normative consumers. It is in this framework that the consumer usually appears as a woman, the shopper whom people notice in the streets of London, or the 'housewife' that advertising wants to appeal to, that the reformer wants to educate, that government wants to control, and that militant organizations want to enroll [START_REF] Chessel | The gender of consumption in 1900: Women and men in the Ligue sociale d'acheteurs[END_REF][START_REF] De | The Sex of Things: Gender and Consumption in Historical Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Rappaport | Shopping for Pleasure: Women in the Making of London's West End[END_REF]. Thus, the shoplifter in department stores in France, the UK or the USA who appeared at the end of the nineteenth century was almost always a woman; she represented the dangers of middle-class female consumption [START_REF] Abelson | When Ladies Go a-Thieving: Middle-Class Shoplifters in the Victorian Department Store[END_REF][START_REF] Roberts | Gender, consumption, and commodity culture[END_REF]. On the other hand, the consumer as an economic figurehomo economicuswas always a man and was never considered dangerous [START_REF] Donohue | What gender is the consumer? The role of gender connotations in defining the political[END_REF]. Let us now move away from these normative figures and look at the practices of ordinary men and women. Do consumers not also contribute to the making of themselves? What can be said of their agency?

The Consumer's 'Agency'

The framing of consumption by the market, civil society and the State may suggest that the consumer is a passive individual whose acts are largely the product of multiple framings. This view was spread by voices critical of consumption, which tended to see it as being essentially manipulated by marketing and advertising that, they claimed, were capable of stripping consumers of their free will. Advertising messages allegedly alienated consumers and maintained the working classes in a state of dependence on mass consumer products [START_REF] Marcuse | One-dimensional Man: Studies in the Ideology of Advanced Industrial Society[END_REF], thus reducing products to the state of signs mirroring social identities, devoid of substance [START_REF] Baudrillard | The System of Objects[END_REF]. These studies were set in a long tradition of moralizing writings [START_REF] Trentmann | Empire of Things: How We Became a World of Consumers, from the Fifteenth Century to the Twenty-First[END_REF].

In The Theory of the Leisure Class, Thorstein Veblen (1899) described how the upper classes in ancient societies compelled themselves to invest heavily in ostentatious consumption intended to show their rank and power in society. As this norm spread from the top down, their servants and then the lowest ranks of society adopted the same modes of consumption. The sociologist Maurice [START_REF] Halbwachs | La Classe ouvrière et les niveaux de vie[END_REF] similarly showed the propensity of working-class households to increase the share of spending on clothes as soon as their income increased, in order to integrate into society more fully. But he emphasized that consumption should not only be read from the angle of imitations and adaptations between social classes; it is above all a strong marker and identification of class. He thus showed that the working classes' consciousness stemmed precisely from their understanding that, with regard to consumption, their employers did not have to make the same sacrifices as they did. Moreover, the family played a crucial role as the consumer unit par excellence, there where class identity was expressed, inculcated and maintained. It was probably Pierre Bourdieu who proposed the most thorough analysis of the forms of discipline that the social structure exerted on consumption practices. Inspired by Veblen and by Halbwachs, Bourdieu showed the links between lifestyles and the maintenance of positions in society. From his point of view, the manifestation of taste and above all of disgust, through consumption practices, was one of the main factors in the construction and maintenance of social relations of domination and submission. Material goods, he argued, make it possible to make these tastes visible and thus to participate in the construction of social hierarchies [START_REF] Bourdieu | Distinction: A Social Critique of the Judgement of Taste[END_REF]. Individuals develop a class identity shaped in a habitus, thus constructing and stabilizing the positions of social groups as much as do individual consumption practices. While Bourdieu's analyses of cultural goods strongly reflect the period in which they were set, the importance of the social group in the diffusion of certain consumption practices remains strong to this day, as the middle classes' role in spreading organic farming and 'good food' attests [START_REF] Johnston | Good food, good people: Understanding the cultural repertoire of ethical eating[END_REF].

The persistence of particularities related to social groups is clearly highlighted by historians, even though they tend to qualify the determinisms (Daumas, 2018a). Under the Ancien Régime, when one was part of the 'people of Paris', one's dwelling was poor, in a single room in which it was impossible to feel really 'at home'. Despite the introduction of new objectsfor instance porcelain tableware, mirrors and razorslifestyles were linked to a particular relationship with precariousness [START_REF] Roche | The People of Paris: An Essay in Popular Culture in the 18th Century[END_REF]. The risk of extreme poverty was an incentive to build safety nets, including by buying and selling goods, as needed [START_REF] Fontaine | L'économie morale. Pauvreté, crédit et confiance dans l'Europe préindustrielle[END_REF]. In the nineteenth century the workers studied by Leplaysian researchers used all sorts of strategies to be able to eat: they could glean vegetables or use bartering [START_REF] Lhuissier | Alimentation populaire et réforme sociale. Les consommations ouvrières dans le second XIX e siècle[END_REF].

At the end of the nineteenth century, small farmers gradually adopted the urban model of consumption, but their practices remained widely diverse and particularities did not disappear.

Rural populations still consumed a large amount of their own production [START_REF] Daumas | La consommation dans les campagnes françaises dans les années 1880-1914: un régime de transition[END_REF]. These popular practices were perpetuated in Paris in the early twentieth century, in a period when there was a broadening of the consumption of goods, notably through the development of credit intended for the working classes. These classes maintained specific practices, notably the use of goods as a means of saving, or by tinkering to extend the lifespan of objects [START_REF] Albert | Working-class consumer credit during the Belle Epoque: Invention, innovation, or reconfiguration?[END_REF][START_REF] Albert | Consommation de masse et consommation de classe[END_REF]. Ethnographic studies show that in the past, and still today, low-income households devise solutions to live 'from day to day' and to manage. They count money and time, adapt their spending according to their income, travel far to obtain the cheapest goods, or use their social network [START_REF] Cottereau | Une famille andalouze: ethnocomptabilité d'une économie invisible[END_REF]. In contemporary China we find the persistence of working-class consumption practices alongside a new extremely rich population. In Shanghai, which in the 1990s recovered the commercial activity that it had known in the early twentieth century, standardized spaces of mass retailing coexist with quasi-rural markets [START_REF] Guiheux | Shangaï, société de consommation[END_REF].

We thus discover consumers' capacity for 'bricolage', their re-appropriation of objects [START_REF] Certeau (de | The Practice of Everyday Life[END_REF]Lüdtke, 1994) or their willing to negotiate the recommendations they receive while consuming [START_REF] Plessz | How consumption prescriptions affect food practices: Assessing the roles of household resources and life-course events[END_REF]. This was for instance how the middle classes invented a new way of using, arranging and displaying goods in the nineteenth century. Being bourgeois was not solely a matter of owning goods; it was also one of 'making personal use of them that was consistent with collective practices'. Middle-class consumers protected their dwellings with locks, displayed their ornaments in cabinets, stored their documents in secretaires, kept their jewelry in boxes, and became enthusiastic collectors of objects. In this way, consumers contributed to their own social making [START_REF] Charpy | Le théâtre des objets. Espaces privés, culture matérielle et identité bourgeoise[END_REF]. In the twentieth century, it was through their 'bricolage' and their use of goods that European consumers constructed a common material culture, around, for example, the bicycle or the computer [START_REF] Oldenziel | Consumers, Tinkerers, Rebels: The People Who Shaped Europe[END_REF].

We now know from studies on men and women's daily lives that consumption was not absent in the Soviet Union and Eastern European countries before the 1990s. Consumers here could also be active in particular contexts [START_REF] Kott | Le communisme au quotidien. Les entreprises d'Etat dans la société estallemande[END_REF]Pence and Betts, 2008;[START_REF] Reid | Style and Socialism: Modernity and Material Culture in Post-war Eastern Europe[END_REF]. Life in the Soviet Union in the 1930s demanded resourcefulness and luck, in order to maintain normal life in exceptional conditions [START_REF] Fitzpatrick | Everyday Stalinism. Ordinary Life in Extraordinary Times: Soviet Russia in the 1930s[END_REF]. More broadly in East Europe, consumers were neither puppets nor heroes, but they did contribute to transforming the socialism of daily life through their resourcefulness within the framework of a normed system (Ragaru and Chapelle-Popacean, 2010;[START_REF] Zakharova | How and what to consume: Patterns of Soviet clothing consumption in the 1950s and 1960s[END_REF][START_REF] Zakharova | Was the Soviet telephone a medium of secondary orality? Some evidence from Soviet films of the 1930s-1970s[END_REF].

In other words, consumers are also made through their own practices, and they constantly negotiate the norms they encounter in an ongoing play with market actors. By setting up market architectures, marketers structure the relationship between products and consumers that does not exist in the absolute. By researching and commenting on their research, social reformers shape consumer figures and norms, all the while providing valuable information on popular practices. By creating a framework, actors of the State facilitate or limit acts of consumptionan extreme example of which we see in contemporary China. The technological and general framework cannot be transformed by consumers; it is for instance impossible to heat one's apartment if the infrastructure is absent.

Yet consumers do not necessarily conform to the multiple injunctions aimed at them. Through 'bricolage', adaptation and negotiation they survive on wages below the breadline, articulate consumption and savings, maintain ostentatious consumption even when such practices are frowned upon, and come to terms with nutritional or environmental norms to choose their food. Normative and practical discourses must therefore be distinguished, even if they are intrinsically interlinked in reality. This dissociation is one contribution by recent studies on consumption, which are now focusing as much on practices and objects as on normative discourses [START_REF] Crossick | Introduction[END_REF][START_REF] Daumas | S'approprier les choses. Consommateurs et consommation en France au XIX e siècle (1800-1914)[END_REF][START_REF] Trentmann | Empire of Things: How We Became a World of Consumers, from the Fifteenth Century to the Twenty-First[END_REF].

Acknowledgments

We would like to thank Jean-Claude Daumas and Frank Trentmann for their helpful comments on a first draft of this chapter.


Maria Moreno

Ernesto Exposito

Mamadou Gueye

Process Mining Model to visualize and analyze the Learning Process

Keywords: Learning Analytics, Learning Process, Process Mining, Learning Paths, Online Education

In online learning environments, the teacher provides students with a learning path to follow in order to acquire the expected competencies and skills. However, students' profiles are different as they can learn according to different learning paces or media content. Therefore, the actual learning path followed by each learner may vary from the initial path provided in the learning management system (LMS). This paper proposes an analysis of the learning paths followed by the students in order to identify and promote the most adapted learning processes in order to improve competencies and skills acquisition.

PURPOSE OR GOAL

The learning traces left by students in their learning environment could be exploited in order to better understand and guide learning processes. Unfortunately, with large-scale education, the analysis of different learning paths can be a complex task to be manually carried out by teachers. For this reason, our objective is to propose an approach to model, visualize, analyze and recommend the most efficient learning process in order to improve students' education experience and results.

APPROACH OR METHODOLOGY/METHODS

The approach adopted is based on the learning traces left by the students following their interactions with the Learning Management System (LMS). After collecting, processing, and storing these learning traces, Process Mining technologies are used to analyze the data through an exploration of the learning process, as well as the students' learning paths.

ACTUAL OR ANTICIPATED OUTCOMES

The first results obtained have made it possible to visualize the learning process, as well as the learning paths followed by each learner. They also provide analysis indicators for understanding and optimizing the learning process and the students' paths in digital learning environments. These results allow the stakeholders (training managers, teachers, and students) to improve the way they teach and learn.

CONCLUSIONS/RECOMMENDATIONS/SUMMARY

This approach made it possible to comprehensively understand the learning processes and the learning paths of each learner, to visualize their differences, as well as their advantages and disadvantages. The analysis of the learning processes promoted a correlation study between the behavior of the learner (i.e. the number of connections between the sections of a course followed) during the learning process and their mark obtained on the final exam. The correlation coefficient of the evaluated courses was of the order of 0.49 and 0.53 respectively. Moreover, in order to improve the predictive model, it's necessary to implement advanced analysis: diagnosis, predictive and prescriptive based on the descriptive elements (Process visualization). This allows teachers to have an integrated tool for analyzing learning traces through a monitoring, diagnostic, alert, and early intervention system in order to better promote the success of students.

Introduction

Nowadays, online learning is largely present in educational institutions around the world. In online learning environments, teachers provide students with a learning path to follow in order to acquire the competencies and skills related to the courses. However, students present different profiles and they learn according to different learning paces and can interact differently face to heterogeneous media content. Therefore, the final learning path followed by each learner may vary from the initial path provided in the learning management system (LMS). The learning traces left by students in their learning environment could be exploited by teachers for an improvement of the learning, but unfortunately, with large-scale education, the analysis of different learning paths can be a complex task to be carried out manually by teachers. In the Learning Analytics domain, several solutions applying different methods to improve learning processes have been developed to visualize data about students and their performance or to generate recommendations using prediction models to improve the decision-making process. Other solutions have also been proposed in order to manage adaptive feedback and support collaborative argumentation in F2F (face to face) contexts. In contrast, studies oriented to better understanding how exactly the learning process occurs have not been extensively carried out. Nevertheless, an integrated approach aimed at analyzing students' behavior patterns, could offer interesting benefits by combining both process mining and learning analytics techniques. In this paper, a Process Mining Model is proposed to visualize and analyze the learning process, as well as the learning paths followed by the students in order to globally improve students' results. This will consist of the generation of a step-by-step modeling process to guide the implementation of learning analytics techniques based on process mining: starting with the collection of data (definition of sources), the storage of data (Learning Record Store), treatment of data (necessary transformations to be able to implement the process mining), analysis of data (application of process mining) and finally, data visualization (the respective analyses "process discovery"). The paper is organized as follows: Section II describes the Background. Section III summarizes Related Works. Section IV presents the proposal for the process mining model. Finally, section V concludes the paper.

Background

In the context of learning environments, every interaction made by the stakeholders (students, educators, institutions), leaves important traces of information that can be recorded, obtaining large sets of educational data or Big Data. The term Big Data is referred to as datasets whose size is beyond the ability of a typical database software tool to capture, store, manage and analyze [START_REF] Manyika | Big Data: The Next Frontier for Innovation, Comptetition, and Productivity[END_REF]. The capability to extract value from such datasets is the work of Learning Analytics, defined as the application of analytics to enhance or improve student success, as well as the use of data, statistical analysis, and explanatory and predictive models to gain insight and act on complex issues [START_REF] Arroway | Learning Analytics in Higher Education[END_REF].

Learning Analytics is still in its infancy; however, its short life has produced numerous conceptualizations [START_REF] Munguia | A learning analytics journey: Bridging the gap between technology services and the academic need[END_REF]. It has also helped with the development and implementation of tools that allow institutions to monitor and understand their students and the barriers to student learning. To provide a better understanding for educators of how their content is being used and how effective it is in favor of enabling its continual enhancement. Also enabling students to take control of their learning to give them better information on how they are progressing and what they need to do to meet their educational goals [START_REF] Leitner | Learning Analytics in Higher Education-A Literature Review[END_REF].

Students within an LMS follow a learning path, defined as the implementation of a curriculum design; it consists of a set of learning activities that help users achieve particular learning goals [START_REF] Nabizadeh | Learning path personalization and recommendation methods: A survey of the state-of-the-art[END_REF]. However, all the students due to their different profiles, backgrounds, and levels of knowledge, have particular behaviors, and accordingly, the resulting learning path can differ across students. All the data generated through these interactions can be stored implementing xAPI (Experience API) which is a technical specification that aims to facilitate the documentation and communication of learning experiences (Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL) Initiative, 2013) All the stored data can be analyzed, bringing benefits not only in terms of learning research but also in terms of didactics and actual teaching practice [START_REF] Juhaňák | Using process mining to analyze students' quiz-taking behavior patterns in a learning management system[END_REF]. To accomplish this it is possible to apply process mining techniques, defined as the creation of a consistent and explicit process model given an event log and the use of tools to diagnose issues observing dynamic behavior (van der [START_REF] Van Der Aalst | Process Mining: The Missing Link[END_REF]. Process mining is an emerging discipline providing comprehensive sets of tools to provide fact-based insights and to support process improvements, this new discipline builds on process model-driven approaches and data mining. The goal of process mining is to use event data to extract process-related information, to automatically discover a process model by observing events recorded by some enterprise system. This field has had important developments and their main goals are focused on offering ways to automate some tasks integrated into a human task and to control the information flow. [START_REF] Aalst | Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes[END_REF].

Related Works

One of the approaches was developed by [START_REF] Gutiérrez | LADA: A learning analytics dashboard for academic advising[END_REF], which includes the implementation of LADA, a Learning Analytics dashboard to help advisers in the decision-making process, thanks to the delivery of predictions in terms of percentage of students academic risk based on an Adaptive Multilevel Clustering technique using data from the past such as previous academic records, and data from the present like the specific course selected by the student. The success component uses these estimations translating the percentage of risk in the likelihood of student success towards an individual course or a group of selected courses.

Additionally, [START_REF] Han | Learning Analytics Dashboards for Adaptive Support in Face-to-Face Collaborative Argumentation[END_REF]) developed a dashboard system for both students and instructors to support "collaborative argumentation". The student dashboard delivered benefits such as monitoring current learning status, receive adaptive assessing from the teachers and support for FCA (face-to-face collaborative argumentation), and allow the possibility to ask for help from the teacher. The teachers' dashboard benefits were related to monitoring the general performance of the class and identifying groups that needed help, which allowed teachers to improve decision-making regarding selection and preparation of the support to give to students based on their respective needs. Furthermore, [START_REF] Aljohani | An integrated framework for course adapted student learning analytics dashboard[END_REF] presented a "course-adapted student learning analytics framework" that had four different levels. Instructor level, data level, data analytics level, and presentation level (data visualization). The instructor level, included some configurations steps, being the first to specify the tools from the LMS to apply into the course; the second was to specify the data of interest, based on the chosen LMS tools; and finally in order to communicate with students could be implemented emailing process or posting in the announcement area of the LMS. As for the data level, this aimed to extract and retrieve the data from LMS that relates to the LMS tools being used by students for the course, to be later analyzed in the data analytics level employing several techniques. Regarding data visualization, the AMBA tool was developed which is a web-based application; teachers and students had access to the tool; as for the teachers they were able to configure the tool, and as for the students, the tool provided three types of feedback in the order of statistical, textual and visual.

Additionally, [START_REF] Juhaňák | Using process mining to analyze students' quiz-taking behavior patterns in a learning management system[END_REF] carried out a study, centered on student behavior in LMS (in this case, the widely used open-source system Moodle), specifically on student interactions while engaging in specific quiz-based learning activities. The analysis of student interactions uses process mining methods, allowing for mapping and modeling the process of completing quizzes by students.

The following Table 1 summarizes the approaches of the sources consulted, in the different steps identified to implement Learning Analytics.

Process Mining Model Model Overview

The main goal of this model is to generate a generic approach. A step-by-step guide that helps institutions acknowledge all the concepts related to the implementation of a Process Mining model to visualize and analyze the learning process that takes place on an LMS (see Figure 1).

Data Sources

In order to visualize the learning process, it is necessary to extract all the relevant information referring to how these processes occur, and the places where such activities happen are systems like OLE Online Learning Environment or LMS Learning Management Systems. In those systems each click, view, answer, success, error, time consumed, resource downloaded, viewed, listened or score obtained, has an important meaning, and all of those interactions build some digital footprint, also called Learning Records which are the one's vitals to collect.

Data Collection

To collect, extract and store the interaction data, it is necessary to follow a standard approach like the one proposed byTinCanAPI or xAPI (Experience API) which is a technical specification that aims to facilitate the documentation and communication of learning experiences. In general, when an activity needs to be recorded, the application sends secure statements in the form of noun, verb, object or I did this to a Learning Record Store (LRS) which is a server that is responsible for receiving, storing, and providing access to Learning Records. In general (Advanced Distributed Learning (ADL) Initiative, 2013) explains that its necessary to collect the following:

• Actor: is an individual or group representation tracked using Statements performing an Action within an Activity. Is the "I" in "I did this". • Verb: Is the action being done by the Actor within the Activity within a Statement. A Verb represents the "did" in "I did this".

• Activity: a type of Object making up the "this" in "I did this"; it is something with which an Actor interacted. It can be a unit of instruction, experience, or performance that is to be tracked in a meaningful combination with a Verb.

Data Treatment

The process mining analysis starts with an 'Event Log' and inside this structure, a process is described as follows, a process consists of cases, a case consists of events such that each event relates to precisely one case and each sequence of activities executed for a case is a trace. Each line in the event log presents one event. Events within a case are ordered. Events can have attributes (e.g., activity, time, cost, resource, etc) [START_REF] Aalst | Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes[END_REF].

The event log structure can be summarized as follows:

• Case ID: indicates at which case or instance belongs an event or activity.

• Activity: Action captured by the event.

• Timestamp: Indicate the time when the event took place.

Concerning the proposed model, the first field to build the "Case ID", should include information that allows a unique identification of the actor (student), like the student ID. The second field is the activity field, this can be obtained using the "activity" of the previously stored learning experiences. Regarding the timestamp field, the easiest approach is to duplicate the timestamp information of each learning record into the respective event log. Table 2 displays an example of a construction of an event log from trace data of a course called "Advanced Databases" followed by twenty-one students (some interactions of two students are displayed). Additionally, it is possible to record other information considered important, which subsequently will function as filters in the analysis phase, the "verb" of the learning experiences previously-stored the could be used. Another interesting filter could be the grades associated with the student, however, this isn't necessary to add it in the events logs, on the contrary, this information could be stored in a separate file with a simple structure that contains the "Case ID", and the respective grade; Table 3 describes an example of this (20.0 scale). At the analysis phase, it will be possible to filter by grades, adding the grades table to the analysis and connecting the events logs to the grades table using the "Case ID" as a foreign key.

Data Analysis

Once the data have been transformed to the necessary structure 'event log', one of the most suitable algorithms to implement in this step is the "discovery" type. This technique takes an event log and produces a model without using any a-priori information [START_REF] Aalst | Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes[END_REF]. It is important to point out that the actual implementation of this algorithm is not specified by this model, thus it can vary from one implementation to another. However, it is strongly recommended to use an online existing solution that already implements process mining, for example, the Celonis platform (Process Mining and Execution Management Software, n.d.) to speed up the process. However, regardless of the final implementation once applied to the discovery algorithm, the discovery model should be "representative" for the behavior seen in the event log [START_REF] Aalst | Process Mining: Discovery, Conformance and Enhancement of Business Processes[END_REF].

To summarize some benefits of applying process mining to educational event logs (from trace data), hereafter these are going to be described focused on the three main stakeholders of a learning process (educators, training managers, and students).

Benefits for educators

• Visualize globally the learning process: with this kind of analysis, it is possible to visualize globally all the interactions made in the learning process by all students (Figure 3a). At first, this visualization is too complex to be analyzed, however, it is possible to group the activities by sections (several activities can be part of the same section or learning outcome), with this approach it is possible to globally visualize all the interactions of the students grouped as needed (Figure 3b). Case frequency is also displayed, which applied to the current context represents the number of students that follow a specific path. In (Figure 3b), it is possible to visualize that twenty-one students started the process and went to perform the activities of the first section "1 -Getting started". After that the twenty-one students went to the second section "2 -Data Integration", being in this section eleven students went back to the first section "1 -Getting started". In summary, it gets visually described all the sequence of resource usage by students, it is possible to see not only the straight link between resources but also all the turns, reuses and go-backs, performed in the way. • Visualize frequency of resource usage: the activity frequency can also be displayed (Figure 4a), which translates to the number of times an activity was performed. This can be helpful at the time of evaluating the resources usage and value. Several assumptions can be performed based on the number of times a resource is being used; depending on the context this could lead to improvement of the quality of resources if they are considered as difficult for students. As previously stated the visualization can be generally grouped by sections (Figure 4a), or detailed sections expanded (Figure 4b).

• Visualize the learning process of an individual student or group of students: it is possible to filter the cases (students), to visualize the individual performance or even subgroup performance. The filter can also be performed by grades to help identify the paths taken by students that led to higher or lower grades. Also, could help to identify patterns in behavior to be able in the future to predict if a student could be at risk of obtaining a bad grade or even dropping out. Another important benefit is the possibility to visualize students having problems with specific subjects. For example, Figure 5a and Figure 5b, represent the learning path taken by two different students who obtained a grade of 17.539 over 20 and 6.672 over 20 respectively. The big disparity between these two students' grades can be visualized also in the path taken. In Figure 5a it is possible to see a more organized path, with fewer connections between sub-learning paths of the course. On the contrary, Figure 5b, represents a learning path more disorganized, with several connections between sub-learning paths of the course.

Benefits for training managers

• Predictions of students' performance: In order to predict student's performance, it was necessary to apply a more detailed study of the individual cases. In general, two courses were analyzed, called "Advanced databases" and "Cloud Computing II" respectively. For each of the courses a generic path was constructed, in Figure 6a we see an example of this generic path for the course "Advanced databases". With this, it is possible to visualize the weights between sections of a learning path. We hypothesize that the connections between sections directly related should weigh 'one', while the connections between sections not directly related should weigh the sum of the previous weights. For example the weight of the connections of the sections "1 -Getting Started" and "2 -Data Integration" has a value of 'one', however, the connection between the sections "1 -Getting Started" and "3 -Data Intelligence" or vice-versa has a value of 'two' which is the sum of the two previous steps. This is proposed with the idea of carrying out a linear regression model taking as an independent variable the sum of weight per connections of students' individual paths and as the dependent variable the final grade. As a result, it is possible to predict the grades of the students based on their interactions on the learning management system, analyzing their learning paths and identifying patterns. This study was performed with two courses and Table 4 represents the results obtained and the corresponding correlation coefficient, in both cases the coefficient represents an average value, in consequence further testing with more courses data need to be analyzed in order to improve the predictive model, based on each particular course.

Benefits for students

• Learning path recommendations for a course: recommendations for the learning path are related to the one that obtained the higher grades. Based on the previous academic course, recommendations can be made to students following the same course. In Figure 7 it is possible to visualize a learning path of students that obtained grades between 18 -20 on a scale of 20.

Limitations

This research was performed during the academic year of 2020-2021 and the data available for the courses analyzed was limited to only this period. In order to improve the results of the recommendations and predictions, it's necessary to analyze more data from the same courses but in another academic period.

Conclusions and Future work

This paper proposed the design of a Process Mining model to visualize and analyze the Learning Processes of students. The analysis is performed by collecting learning experiences from students in regular LMSs, store them on a common LRS using the xAPI standard and apply some transformations to build event logs. Those event logs are then analyzed using process mining and their results are exposed visually recreating the learning processes in their given contexts. This approach allows the possibility to explore all the different ways that students take to learn similar subjects (different learning paths); be able to visualize globally, individually, or by subgroups the learning process of each one of them, and remark their differences, advantages, or disadvantages. The frequency of resource usage can also be visualized and each teacher can draw their own conclusions that help them evaluate the quality of their resources. Consequently, teachers and educational institutions can have access to the visualization of all this information allowing them to self-reflect on their practices and have an overview of the current situation that could help them to make the best decisions that would help improve as much as possible the learning environment processes. The analysis of the learning processes promoted a correlation study between the behavior of the learner (number of connections between the sections of a course followed) during the learning process and their mark obtained on the final exam. The correlation coefficient of the two courses studied was of the order of 0.49 and 0.53 respectively, representing an average value. In consequence, to improve the predictive model, it's necessary to implement advanced analysis: diagnosis, predictive and prescriptive based on the descriptive elements (Process visualization). This allows teachers to have a complete tool for analyzing learning traces through a monitoring, diagnostic, alert, and early intervention system to better promote the success of students.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Process Mining Model to visualize and analyze the learning process.

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Learning process. Case Frequency -Process explorer Celonis platform.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: Learning process. Activity frequency -Process explorer Celonis platform.

Figure 5 :

 5 Figure 5: Individual Learning process grouped by sections. Case frequency -Process explorer Celonis platform.

Figure 6 :

 6 Figure 6: Generic path with weights between sections.

Figure 7 :

 7 Figure 7: Path with high grades. Case frequency -Process explorer Celonis platform.

Table 1 : Learning Analytics Implementation Comparison Features Sources (Gutiérrez et al., 2020).

 1

			(Han et al., 2020)	(Aljohani et al., 2019)	(Juhaňák et al., 2019)	Proposal
	Data	YES	YES	YES	YES	YES
	Collection
	Data Storage	YES	YES	YES	YES	YES
	Data	NO	YES	YES	YES	YES
	Treatment
	Data Analysis	Multilevel Clustering	Statistical Analysis	Unclear	Process Mining	Process Mining
	Data	YES	YES	YES	NO	YES
	Visualization

Table 2 : Event log construction example from trace data Table 3: Grades file

 2

	case_id activity	timestamp	status	case_id final_grade
	55138	Data Integration Introduction	12/01/21 08:23 viewed	67256	17,539
	55138	Data Integration Introduction	12/01/21 08:23 completed	67108	15,091
	67108	Data Integration Introduction	12/01/21 08:32 viewed	55138	13,746
	...	...	...	...	...	...
	67108	Lab 1 -Data Integration	12/01/21 09:07 viewed	67239	6,672

Table 4 : Linear regression on the number of connections of students' individuals' paths Course Final grades predictive model Correlation coefficient

 4

	Advanced Databases	-0.13 * connections + 15.84	0.4951
	Cloud Computing II	-0.08 * connections + 19.99	0.5373

Proceedings of REES AAEE 2021 The University of Western Australia, Perth, Australia, Copyright © Authors' Maria Moreno a , Ernesto Exposito a , and Mamadou Gueye a , 2021 -Process Mining Model to visualize and analyze the Learning Process


Louise C Lemonnier

A Courouce

M Cessans

L Petit

J M Cardwell

M- P Toquet

E A Richard

Variability of fungi detection in the respiratory tract of racehorses according to the sampling site

RESULTS

• Fungal culture (Table 1)

• TW: 28/30 (93%) positive • BALP: 4/30 (13%) positive à All positive in TW, 3/4 with same fungi • 9 genus (alone or concomitant) : Aspergillus (5 genus) 13/28 (46%), Penicillium 12/28 (43%)

INTRODUCTION•

  The clinical relevance of colonization of equine airways by fungi is unclear. • Diagnosis of fungi in the respiratory tract is fastidious and there is no method of reference. OBJECTIVES • To characterize fungi from upper and lower airways of racehorses • To determine the most reliable methodology for fungal detection HYPOTHESIS • Fungal cytology of a pooled BAL (BALP) is representative of corresponding left (BALL) and right (BALR) samples. METHODS • 30 Standardbred racehorses in active training, aged 4.6 ± 1.6 years, from 3 different training stables • TW, followed by BAL from each lung separately, collected through a guarded catheter and gastroscope • Fungi detection, identification and characterization by cytology and culture • Positive culture: ≥ 1 mold identified • Positive cytology: ≥ 1 fungal element (hyphae, spore) observed CONCLUSION Pooled BAL is a highly specific while fairly sensitive alternative to combined cytology of individual left/right samples for mold/fungi detection. DISCUSSION • Despite a similar prevalence of fungi detection in left and right BAL, a large disparity was found between lungs on cytology. • Detecting fungi by cytology on either BALP or BALL + BALR was not equivalent

Table 1 :

 1 Identification of fungi in horses with a positive BALP culture

		BALL only	BALR only	BALL+R	Agreement (κ)
	Cytology	4/7	5/8	3	0,015
		Culture	Cytology	Culture +	Agreement
		only	only	cytology	(κ)
	BALP	3/4	6/7	1/7	0,015

Table 3 :

 3 Comparison of BALF sample sites, and of BALF methods of analysis

disparity between lungs • Comparison of sample sites (Table 3 )

 3 • Poor agreement between BAL L and BAL R • Poor agreement between culture and cytology • BALP vs separate lungs: • Not equivalent (p = 0.025 by McNemar Test) • Sensitivity = 0,58 ; Specificity = 1,00

		Cytology positive	Spores	Hyphae	Phagocyted
	TW	22/30	18/22	16/22	14/22
		7/30
	BAL P	3 bilateral	7/7	2/7	6/7
		4 unilateral
	BALR	8/30	5/8	6/8	5/8
	BAL L	7/30	7/7	0/7	6/7

• Fungal cytology (Table

2)

• TW: 22/30 (73%) positive ; 12/22 (55%) with both spores and hyphae, frequently phagocyted • BAL: Large

Table 2 :

 2 Cytology of pooled and individual BALF, and of TW

FINANCIAL SUPPORT: