S Albizuri
email: silvia.albizuri@upc.edu

S Valenzuela-Lamas

D Bosch

M Fernandez

F J López-Cachero

Equid use and provision during the Early Iron Age in Can Roqueta (NE Iberian Peninsula). Zooarchaeological study and first strontium isotope result ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr)

Keywords:

This article reports the results of a zooarchaeological study (including, mortality profiles, and anatomical and pathological descriptions) of the Early Iron Age (8th-6th c. BCE) equid remains at the Can Roqueta site (Sabadell, Barcelona), together with the first strontium isotope results to determine their geographical origin. The zooarchaeological study reveals a remarkable number of equid remains at the site, the bone pathologies of which suggest their use for riding, drafting and load carrying. The mortality and sex profiles point to the presence of adult animals, while the absence of neonatal and juvenile remains raises the question as to whether these individuals may have originated from other sites specialised in equid breeding. The strontium values obtained from six individuals suggest that some equids were reared in a geological area with a similar strontium signature to that of the Vallès area, where the site is located. However, three equids present a different strontium signature, pointing to a possibly different geographical origin.

Introduction

Horses differ from other domesticates in terms of both their symbolic and economic value. This may be related to their care, feeding or training requirements, all of which are usually much more complex than those of other domesticates (e.g. cattle, sheep, pigs and dogs). Their work force value, slow growth, and low meat weight compared to that of other domesticates means horses have not usually been exploited for food (meat or milk) in the Iberian Peninsula.

In the northern half of the Iberian Peninsula, horse remains in domestic waste contexts have appeared sporadically in some 3rd and 2nd millennium BCE settlements (for details, see [START_REF] Alcalde | Procés d'ocupació de la Bauma del Serrat del Pont (la Garrotxa) entre 2900 i 1450 aC[END_REF][START_REF] Alonso | L'assentament protohistòric, medieval i d'època moderna de El Vilot de Montagut (Alcarràs, Lleida)[END_REF][START_REF] Legge | Animals remains and their interpretation[END_REF][START_REF] Nieto | Nuevos datos sobre la presencia del caballo en las comunidades protohistóricas del Valle del Segre[END_REF], but their presence does not become widespread until the 12th century BCE (i.e. Late Bronze Age) [START_REF] Albizuri | La visibilitat del cavall en el registre arqueològic del NE peninsular durant el final de l'edat del bronze i la primera edat del ferro. L'exemple de Can Roqueta (Sabadell, Vallès Occidental)[END_REF][START_REF] Albizuri | Noves dades sobre la ramaderia especialitzada en el treball i transport a les societats camperoles del bronze final i la primera edat del ferro en les depressions de l'Empordà i la Selva[END_REF][START_REF] Albizuri | Economia i canvi social a Catalunya durant l'edat del bronze i la primer edad del ferro[END_REF]. However, it is not until the Early Iron Age (8th-6th c. BCE), that the first archaeological evidence of horse remains and iron bits are documented in funerary zones and ritual structures, as in Can Roqueta [START_REF] Albizuri | La visibilitat del cavall en el registre arqueològic del NE peninsular durant el final de l'edat del bronze i la primera edat del ferro. L'exemple de Can Roqueta (Sabadell, Vallès Occidental)[END_REF]López Cachero et al., in press).

Horse taming and breeding require specialised knowledge and considerable economic investment before the animals can be put to use. Given the difficulties of equid breeding and training, as well as their value for light transport, the existence of specialised horse breeding sites in Europe during Late Prehistory has been suggested [START_REF] Bendrey | Patterns of Iron Age horse supply: an analysis of stronium isotope ratios in teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Bendrey | The horse[END_REF][START_REF] Grant | Animal husbandry[END_REF][START_REF] Harcourt | The animal bones[END_REF]. Only two sites in NE Iberia present signs of equid breeding, as evidenced by foetal remains registeredthat is, Vilars d'Arbeca and Tossal del Molinet (see [START_REF] Gómez | Fetos de équido en Els Vilars (Arbeca, Lleida): un nuevo tipo de deposición en el hábitat durante la primera Edad del Hierro en Cataluña[END_REF][START_REF] Nieto | Inhumations de foetus d'équidés dans la forteresse du premier âge du Fer de Els Vilars (Arbeca Catalogne)[END_REF] for details) -. The fact of finding few horse foetuses is already very significant and today it is the only clear evidence of equid breeding during the Early Iron Age in this area. At this time, the mobility of both human and animal populations in Europe is clearly visible in the isotope evidence recovered from certain areas [START_REF] Bendrey | Nomads, horses and mobility: an assessment of geographic origins of Iron Age horses found at Tsengel Khairkhan and Baga Turgen Gol (Mongolian Altai) based on oxygen isotope compositions of tooth enamel[END_REF][START_REF] Bendrey | Patterns of Iron Age horse supply: an analysis of stronium isotope ratios in teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Gerling | Prehistoric Mobility and Diet in the West Eurasian Steppes 3500 to. An isotopic approach[END_REF][START_REF] Makarewicz | Isotopic evidence for ceremonial provisioning of Late Bronze age khirigsuurs with horses from diverse geographic locales[END_REF][START_REF] Nuviala | L'origine des chevaux du site du Mormont (canton de Vaud, Suisse): l'apport des isotopes du carbone, de l'oxygène et du strontium[END_REF]. Concurrent with this, there was a growth in commercial networks and territoriality as well as an increasing social differentiation, something that was especially evident in tombs associated with horse remains (Albizuri et al., 2016a;[START_REF] Gerling | Prehistoric Mobility and Diet in the West Eurasian Steppes 3500 to. An isotopic approach[END_REF][START_REF] Kmeťová | Contacts between the Late Hallstatt groups of the Pannonian Basin, the south-east Alpine Hallstatt region and Veneti from the perspective of horse burials[END_REF]López Cachero, 2007). All this raises important questions about the economic specialisation of certain settlements, about mobility and trade in this period, and about the growing importance of the horse at a time when social differentiation, militarisation and territoriality were increasing [START_REF] Beylier | L'armement et le guerrier en Méditerranée nord-occidentale au premier âge du fer[END_REF][START_REF] Dedet | Héros, caciques et paysans armés en Languedoc et en Provence du VIIIe au IIe siècles avant J.C[END_REF][START_REF] Gruat | Stèles et sculptures de la Celtique méditerranéenne du premier âge du fer (VIIIe-Ve s. av. J.-C.)[END_REF][START_REF] López-Cachero | Necròpolis d'incineració. Tombes i pràctiques de dipòsit funerari a finals de l'edat del bronze i principis de l'edat del ferro al nord-est peninsular, in: La transició bronze final -1a edat del ferro en els Pirineus i territoris veïns[END_REF].

Aims of study

We analysed an unusual and important number of equid remains to increase scientific knowledge about the breeding and use of these animals at the site of Can Roqueta (Barcelona) during the Early Iron Age. The importance of Can Roqueta resides in the fact that it records the greatest number of equid remains so far in this area and period, and thus allows us to raise new questions about the breeding of these animals in NE Iberia, where equid remains are very scarce. The zooarchaeological study highlights the absolute predominance of adult animals. In addition, the absence of neonatal and juvenile remains raises the question as to whether these animals were the result of local breeding and taming or, on the contrary, whether they originated from other settlements that specialised in horse breeding. For this reason, and to assess the geographic range of horse provisioning, we performed a pilot strontium isotope study on six individuals.

Materials and archaeological context

The site of Can Roqueta

The archaeological site of Can Roqueta is located in Sabadell, about 25 km to the north of Barcelona. The site lies in the northeast margin of the Catalan Coastal Depression (Vallès-Penedès Depression), a valley forming a natural corridor parallel to the Catalan coast (Fig. 1).

The geology of the Vallès-Penedès Depression is characterised by fragmented outcrops of mainly Mesozoic and Tertiary sedimentary formations overlying infra-Silurian and Varingian batholith and other Palaeozoic metamorphic rocks [START_REF] Santanach | Variscan and Alpine structure of the hills of Barcelona: geology in an urban area[END_REF]. The site occupies an area of about 2.5 km 2 of distinct geological formations: thus, the sectors of 'Can Revella' (CRV), 'Diasa' (CR) and 'Can Roqueta II' (CRII) lie on Pleistocene alluvial fan sediments, while the sector of 'Torre Romeu' (CRTR) lies on sandstones, clays and limestones dated from the Lower Miocene (Fig. 2). In the vicinity of the site, within 10-15 km, other sedimentary (Triassic sandstones, dolomites, limestones and marls) and metamorphic (Cambro-Ordovician Micacitic slates) formations outcrop. Finally, to the northeast, an extensive outcrop of Late Hercynian biotitic granodiorite is also present (Fig. 2).

The settlement was first excavated at the end of the 1980s, with the site's most relevant areas being associated with the large cremation necropolis of 'Can Piteu' [START_REF] Carlús | Cabanes, sitges i tombes. El paratge de Can Roqueta[END_REF] (Fig. 1). Since then, > 2700 structures have been excavated, dating from the ancient Neolithic to present times, although most date from the Late Bronze Age (1300-750 cal BCE) and the Early Iron Age (750-550 cal BCE) (Fig. 1). In general, the best preserved structures are those found in the sediment, among which we find both cremation tombs and silos.

Evidence of equid remains are first attested to in different sectors of the archaeological site of Can Roqueta during the Late Bronze Age (1200 BCE). At this time, equids represent 5% of domesticates (NISP counts). In the Early Iron Age layers, there is a considerable increase in horse remains, representing up to 10% of all domesticates [START_REF] Albizuri | Economia i canvi social a Catalunya durant l'edat del bronze i la primer edad del ferro[END_REF][START_REF] Albizuri | La visibilitat del cavall en el registre arqueològic del NE peninsular durant el final de l'edat del bronze i la primera edat del ferro. L'exemple de Can Roqueta (Sabadell, Vallès Occidental)[END_REF].

The zooarchaeological analysis of this Early Iron Age phase facilitated the identification of a minimum number of 46 individuals, most with caballine characteristics. Of this set, 39 individuals (MNI) were deposited in 28 structures mixed with other bone groups as for example complete dogs skeletons (ABGs or Associated Bone Groups following [START_REF] Piggot | Heads and hoofs[END_REF][START_REF] Morris | Associated bone groups; one archaeologist's rubbish is another's ritual deposition[END_REF][START_REF] Morris | Investigating animal burials. Ritual, mundane and beyond[END_REF]. Certain patterns in the disposition of the bones and their anatomical selection suggest the intentionality of the deposits (ABGs), possibly in relation to cultic practices (López Cachero et al., in press). The deposits are mainly located in silos and pits, and in some cases in association with funerary structures. At Can Roqueta, the horse remains are often non-fractured and never found in association with domestic waste.

The taphonomy of the remains reveals several types of intentional accumulations of horse bones. The anatomical selection includes skulls and jaws, pelvis, scapulae, distal limb bones and, in some cases, bone segments appear in anatomical connection. On occasion, isolated bones (teeth, vertebrae, carpal/tarsal bones, metapodials and phalanges) were deposited. Finally, two complete skeletons (CR6 and CRII811, see Table 1) were found fully or partially articulated, with clear signs of anthropic manipulation. Moreover, horse bones appear in two the human burials (Albizuri et al., 2016a).

Materials

We have selected the best-preserved equids remains available. Twenty-two dated in Early Iron Age samples for osteometric study (Table 1) and six equid's teeth and two present-day evergreen oak leaves (Quercus cerrioides) for isotopic analysis (Table 2).

Methods of analysis

Osteoarchaeological analysis

The osteological similarity between horses and donkeys, as well as the diversity of characters among their hybrids, makes it difficult to differentiate Early Iron Age equids, especially as the archaeological evidence suggests that domestic horses (Equus caballus) and domestic asses (Equus asinus) were already present in the Iberian Peninsula. During the Early Iron Age there are no known cases of wild equids in NE Iberia, but their presence cannot fully be excluded as a possible factor contributing to the variability in equid sizes.

Traditionally, the introduction of the domestic ass is associated with the arrival of the Phoenicians and dated to around the 8th c. BCE in the eastern and southern Iberian Peninsula [START_REF] Nadal | Els orígens del burro domèstic a la Mediterrània i a la península Ibèrica segons les dades arqueològiques[END_REF]. At present, we have no clear evidence of the production of hybrids in the Iberian Peninsula, although they have been recorded from the end of the 2nd millennium BCE in the Near East [START_REF] Michel | The perdum-mule, a mount for distinguished persons in Mesopotamia during the first half of the second millennium BC[END_REF]. Additionally, in present-day Catalonia there are cases of deposits bearing a clear Phoenician influenceincluding, for example, the "small equids" of Hort d'en Grimau and Aldovestathat raise doubts about their classification as either donkeys or horses (or hybrids?) [START_REF] Albizuri | Estudi de l'èquid aparegut en relació amb l'Estructura E10 de l'Hort d'en Grimau[END_REF]Albizuri et al., 2016b;[START_REF] Nadal | Els orígens del burro domèstic a la Mediterrània i a la península Ibèrica segons les dades arqueològiques[END_REF].

Given the considerable likelihood of finding different equid species among the sample analysed, the zooarchaeological study focused specifically on distinguishing between them.

In this first work we prioritized the specimens that provided more information about the age, the morphometric characteristics and the pathologies that explain its possible use (see Table 1).

Morphological and osteometric studies were conducted on the tooth remains, scapulae, humerii, radii, metacarpals, femurs, tibias, metatarsals, taluses and proximal phalanges, in accordance with the various criteria and methods described in the literature [START_REF] Barone | Anatomie comparée des mammifères domestiques[END_REF][START_REF] Davis | Late Pleistocene and Holocene equid remains from Israel[END_REF][START_REF] Eisenmann | Les metápodes d'Equus sensu lato (Mammalia, Périssodactyla)[END_REF][START_REF] Eisenmann | Les chevaux (Equus sensu lato) fossiles et actuels: crânes et dents jugales supérieures[END_REF][START_REF] Eisenmann | Etude des dents jugales inférieures des Equus actuels et fossiles[END_REF][START_REF] Eisenmann | Adaptations esquelettiques chez des Equus sauvages actuels et fossiles. 10e journée d'étude[END_REF][START_REF] Eisenmann | Identification and discrimination of metapodials from Pleistocene and modern Equus, wild and domestic[END_REF][START_REF] Johnstone | A Biometric Study of Equids in the Roman World[END_REF]. The biometric study was conducted in line with the protocols devised by Von den [START_REF] Von Den Driesch | A Guide to the Measurement of Animal Bones From Archaeological Sites[END_REF][START_REF] Eisenmann | Estimation des hauteurs au garrot[END_REF]. Withers heights were calculated according to the greatest length (GL) of all bones in accordance with the factors proposed by May (1985[START_REF] Johnstone | A Biometric Study of Equids in the Roman World[END_REF]. The shape index (SD × 100/GL) was calculated using the smallest midshaft width (SD) and the greatest length of metacarpals, metatarsals, tibias and radii in order to estimate the slenderness or robustness of differentiated equids [START_REF] Johnstone | A Biometric Study of Equids in the Roman World[END_REF].

Age estimation of individuals was undertaken based on stages of dental eruption and tooth wear [START_REF] Guadelli | Détermination de l'âge des chevaux fossiles et établissement des classes d'âge/Age determination of fossil horses and the establishment of age classes[END_REF], as well as on average ages of epiphyseal closure [START_REF] Barone | Anatomie comparée des mammifères domestiques[END_REF]. Sex identification was based on morphology study of the pubis bone [START_REF] Barone | Anatomie comparée des mammifères domestiques[END_REF] and the presence/absence of canines. If canines were not present, we considered the individual to be female; when canines were well developed, we identified the individual as male. In intermediate cases (rudimentary canines), sexual attribution was not made, as both sexes can develop rudimentary canines. When there is no anatomical connection, sex is defined in accordance with cranial criteria (see Table 1).

The MNI was estimated in each structure by combining the best represented anatomical element and the age of the individuals and their general morphology [START_REF] Poplin | Remarques théoriques et pratiques sur les unités utilisées dans les études d'ostéologie quantitative, particulièrement en archéologie préhistorique[END_REF]. Bone and teeth pathologies were determined by equine veterinarian specialists (MF) at 608 Farm and Equine Veterinary Surgeons (UK) and by reference to specific scholars (Bendrey, 2007b;[START_REF] Brown | Bit wear, horseback riding and the Botai site in Kazakstan[END_REF][START_REF] Cook | Metal in the Mouth: The Abusive Effects of Bitted Bridles[END_REF].

To guarantee the accurate chronological assignment of the equids, most individuals were radiocarbon dated. This was particularly the case for those in which the associated archaeological material was not chronologically characteristic (see Tables 1,2).

Strontium isotope analysis

Strontium isotopes ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) from tooth enamel provide direct evidence of geographical origins and, hence, of patterns of human and animal mobility. Consequently, they enable us to determine whether the animals were raised locally or rather they were 'imported' from other areas (e.g. [START_REF] Balasse | The seasonal mobility model for prehistoric herders in the south-western Cape of South Africa assessed by isotopic analysis of sheep tooth enamel[END_REF][START_REF] Bendrey | Patterns of Iron Age horse supply: an analysis of stronium isotope ratios in teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Anglo-Saxon animal husbandry techniques revealed though isotope and chemical variations in cattle teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Minniti | Widening the market. Strontium isotope analysis on cattle teeth from Owslebury (Hampshire, UK) highlights changes in livestock supply between the Iron Age and the Roman period[END_REF][START_REF] Viner | Cattle mobility in prehistoric Britain: strontium isotope analysis of cattle teeth from Durrington Walls (Wiltshire, Britain)[END_REF]. Sr isotope ratio ( 87 Sr/ 86 Sr) varies from one geological formation to another depending on the age, the lithology of the considered rocks (schematically basic or felsic) and the original rubidium (Rb) content of the bedrock [START_REF] Bentley | Strontium isotopes from the earth to the archaeological skeleton: a review[END_REF]: the older a rock formation and the higher proportion of 87 Sr compared to that of 86 Sr. This is because 87 Rb decays into 87 Sr over time [START_REF] Faure | Tierra, fuego y agua: poder y sociedad entre el Ródano y los Pirineos durante la primera Edad del Hierro[END_REF]. Similarly independently of the age of the rock, the more felsic a rock is the higher the 87 Sr/ 86 Sr ratio.

The 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotope composition of skeletal material derives from the food and drink ingested by the animal, with strontium substituting calcium in the minerals of the skeletal tissue [START_REF] Comar | Strontium-calcium movement from soil to man[END_REF][START_REF] Toots | Strontium in fossil bones and the reconstruction of food chains[END_REF]. Here, teeth are particularly valuable, as the isotopic signature of enamel bioapatite persists with few subsequent changes, thus preserving the isotopic signature of the area in which the animal was raised during tooth formation. Dentine is more susceptible to diagenetic alteration, and its strontium isotope values usually reflect those of the burial environment [START_REF] Budd | Human tooth enamel as a record of the comparative lead exposure of prehistoric and modern people[END_REF][START_REF] Evans | Anglo-Saxon animal husbandry techniques revealed though isotope and chemical variations in cattle teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Price | The characterization of biologically available strontium isotope ratios for the study of prehistoric migration[END_REF]. It can therefore be used as a baseline to determine the local strontium values of the archaeological site (e.g. [START_REF] Minniti | Widening the market. Strontium isotope analysis on cattle teeth from Owslebury (Hampshire, UK) highlights changes in livestock supply between the Iron Age and the Roman period[END_REF][START_REF] Viner | Cattle mobility in prehistoric Britain: strontium isotope analysis of cattle teeth from Durrington Walls (Wiltshire, Britain)[END_REF]. Six equid teeth were sampled to assess place of rearing during the period of tooth formation (see Table 2). Only one case (CR6) coincides with the animals selected for the osteometric and pathological study (see Table 1) because in general the specimens studied did not have teeth available.

A transversal slice from the protoconid of each tooth was taken for strontium isotope analysis using a diamond cutter disc coupled to a dentist drill. Only fully formed teeth (i.e. in terms of wear and presenting largely closed roots) were chosen for analysis. Wherever possible, the sample was located just above the enamel root junction (ERJ) to facilitate data comparison. The results obtained thus reflect the final period of mineralisation of the sampled tooth (see Table 2 for details).

In addition, three dentine samples and two present-day evergreen oak leaves (Quercus cerrioides) taken from two different sectors of the site (namely, Can Revella and Torre Romeu) were analysed to obtain the strontium signature and the bioavailable strontium of different areas of the site.

The enamel samples were first cleaned mechanically using a rotating drill to remove the tartar, dentine and dirt, and then transferred to the Laboratoire de Géosciences-CNRS in Montpellier (France) to complete the process. This involved ultrasonic cleaning to remove any adhering material and immersion in 60 °C ultrapure water for 1 h for further cleaning. After each cleaning phase, the sample was rinsed three times in MilliQ high purity de-ionised water. In a final cleaning step, the sample was immersed in an ultrasonic bath containing 5% acetic acid for half an hour, and rinsed three or four times with pure water, to ensure that all potential remaining diagenetic effects had been removed. Once cleaned and dried in a laminar flow hood, the samples were weighed in pre-cleaned Teflon beakers. The samples were then dissolved in closed Teflon beakers with 1 cc of tridistilled nitric acid (8 M HNO 3 ) using sonication to help digestion during 15 min and subsequently put on a hotplate at 70 °C during 12 h followed evaporation to dryness. Samples were then diluted in nitric acid 2 M and uploaded into Teflon columns filled with Eichrom Sr-Spec ion-exchange in order to isolate Sr using standard procedure (e.g. [START_REF] Pin | Concomitant separation of strontium and samarium-neodymium for isotopic analysis in silicate samples, based on specific extraction chromatography[END_REF]. The strontium was purified following four steps of elution using various concentrations of nitric acid solutions. The solutions were then evaporated to dryness at 85 °C before to be diluted with nitric acid 2% in order to be analysed using a Neptune + ThermoScientific Multi-Collector Inductively-Coupled-Plasma Mass Spectrometer (MC-ICP-MS) from the AETE-ISO platform (OSU OREME) from the University of Montpellier. Total chemistry blanks were < 20 pg and thus negligible for this study. The samples were alternatively run with international NBS 987 standards using a sample-standard-bracketing measurement protocol wherein standards were run every 3 unknowns. The 88 Sr beam intensity for all standards and samples ranges from 8 V to 15 V. 87 Sr/ 86 Sr isotopic ratios were internally normalized from the instrumental bias using a value of 0.1194 for the 86 Sr/ 88 Sr ratio. Then the corrected ratios were normalized to the NBS 987 standards, which gave a mean value of 0.710245 with a reproducibility of ± 0.000004 (2σ, n = 8) during the course of this study. Samples of present-day leaves were crushed using a pestle and mortar, and weighed into pre-cleaned pressure vessels in a clean laboratory environment. They were dissolved in Teflon distilled nitric acid (8 M HNO 3 ) overnight at room temperature. Additional nitric acid and a trace of H 2 O 2 were then added, before the samples were processed in a microwave oven at 175 °C for 20 min. The samples obtained were dried overnight on a hotplate prior to a secondary oxidation step involving the repetition of the entire process. To convert the samples to chloride, 6 M HCl was added, the sample was dried and a further 2 M HNO 3 was added prior to strontium separation using the same chemical procedure as that previously described for enamel samples. The strontium isotope composition was determined by MC-ICP-MS using the same equipment as that used with the enamel samples.

Results

The zooarchaeological study of equid remains allowed us to identify 310 bones and a minimum number of 46 individuals, most presenting caballine characteristics. The remains are distributed around the whole of the archaeological site, but concentrate especially in the southern sector Can Revella (Fig. 1).

Osteometric data

Withers height estimations revealed a notable diversity in equid sizes (Table 1) among complete individuals or isolated bones in partial anatomical connection. Most presented a withers height between 125 and 135 cm. Three specimens were between 110 and 122 cm and a further four specimens represented by isolated bones were around 140 cm. Only a single individual (CRV05-217) was taller than 143.5 cm (Fig. 3).

The shape index, calculated on radii, metacarpals, tibias and metatarsals revealed the existence of two groups: a very slender group (< 13.5) and a slender group (13-14) (Fig. 3). But four individuals

Table 2

Radiocarbon dates (IntCal13 atmospheric curve) and details of the teeth and reference samples analysed in the pilot study of strontium ratios. Age M: Age of mineralisation [START_REF] Hoppe | Isotopic analysis of tooth enamel carbonate from modern North American feral horses: implications for paleoenvironmental reconstructions[END_REF] presented higher values in relation to their metacarpals (14.5-15, medium slender) (Fig. 4), in accordance with Brauner's metacarpal slenderness index. We recorded diversity of sizestall and less tall horsesin the very slender and slender groups. In general, for those individuals for both metacarpals and metatarsals were present, the index of robustness was higher for metacarpals than for metatarsals (Table 1). In individuals represented by all skeletal elements (e.g. CR6 and CRII-811), we found no correlation between the greatest length and breadth of the different bones, which seems to be indicative of allometric growth differences (Table 1). The variability observed in the withers heights and the robustness of the individuals might reflect specific incidents in the development of the animals, such as castration.

In the metacarpals attributed by sex (Fig. 4), both males and females present the same range of variability, and it would seem that there is no sexual differentiation in terms of the morphology.

In general, the morphological characteristics presented by the metacarpus and metatarsi are horse-like. But the classification of one specimen (CRV05-89) is unclear as its metacarpus presents mule-like morphological traits (Fig. 5) [START_REF] Johnstone | A Biometric Study of Equids in the Roman World[END_REF]). The correlation between GL and SD of the metacarpus places this individual among the tallest and most robust specimens, near to archaeological and modern mules (the offspring of a male donkey -jack -and a female horse -mare -) (Fig. 6). The main group is defined by the length (> 200 cm) and midshaft width (> 28 cm). In contrast, some individuals, most notably CRII-811 and CRII-9, occupy an intermediate position between the group of horses and donkeys in Eisenmann's dataset. Despite there having horse-like osteological characteristics, we cannot rule out a hybrid origin. The male CR6 presents values that correspond closely to those of the donkeys (Figs. 5,6) but their skeleton presents morphological caballine characteristics (severe wear of its dentition impedes the analysis of discriminant parameters). These characteristics force us to exclude him from the group of donkeys and to include him in the smaller hybrids such as the hinnies, which is the offspring of a female donkey (jenny) and a male horse (stallion). This group also includes the specimens CRII-811 and CRII-9 (Figs. 5,6).

The comparative morphometry of the metacarpus (Fig. 7) reinforces the hypothesis of the presence of two clearly differentiated groups of equids at Can Roqueta. Among the smallest, the complete specimens CR6 (male) and CRII-811 (female) and the articulated limb of CRII-9, present measurements more similar to those of the donkey, albeit with different metacarpal dimensions (Fig. 7). The remaining specimens are all larger and more robust.

Mortality profiles and sex

The age of death of 46 individuals in Early Iron Age are estimate. The mortality profiles define clearly a selection of adult animals between the ages of 5 and 10 years. Only one individual -Torre Romeu CRTR-179was aged below this. On the basis of their deciduous dentition their age is between one and two and a half years, and, as such, was still a juvenile (Fig. 8). Taphonomic explanations for missing young animals can be excluded, as new-borns or young animals from other species (e.g. dogs, piglets) are present at Can Roqueta site.

Among the adults, about 48% died when they were older than 5 years. This means most of the equids found in Can Roqueta were old enough to have been tamed, saddled and mounted, and to have reached reproductive maturity and adult weight. As such they would have been used for several years before they died. In preserved skulls and mandibles male characteristics, that is, bulky canines are present (see Tables 1,2). All in all, our results point to a shortage of females, at least among the animals deposited as ABGs. The higher presence of males in the ABGs can attest from a selection of individuals for ritual or symbolic value.

Pathologies

Several horses present visible wear marks in the second premolars (PM2) of the mandible and maxilla, at the point where the bit impacts in the mouth. According to dental wear studies in archaeological horses the presence of such features is indicative of the use of metal bits [START_REF] Anthony | Looking a gift horse in the mouth: identification of the earliest bitted equids and the microscopic analysis of bit wear[END_REF][START_REF] Brown | Bit wear, horseback riding and the Botai site in Kazakstan[END_REF]Bendrey, 2007a). Individuals CRV16-15, CRV16-18, CRV05-79 (2), CRV16-31 and CRTR-179 show tooth wear in the shape of a step (Fig. 9). The heavy wear shown by individual CRV05-79 (2) (Fig. 10) may be due to poorly fitting bit, with the horse developing the habit of biting down on the bit [START_REF] Cook | Metal in the Mouth: The Abusive Effects of Bitted Bridles[END_REF]. This type of wear has also been recorded in horses of the Early Iron Age Iberian Peninsula (Soto de Medinilla in [START_REF] Liesau | IV el Soto de Medinilla. El Soto de Medinilla: faunas de mamíferos de la Edad del Hierro en el Valle del Duero[END_REF] and at the Buhen site in Egypt, dated from 1675 BCE [START_REF] Clutton-Brock | The Buhen horse[END_REF]. Furthermore, four iron snaffles were found inside the tombs at the necropolis of Can Piteu-Can Roqueta, dated from the Early Iron Age [START_REF] Carlús | Cabanes, sitges i tombes. El paratge de Can Roqueta[END_REF][START_REF] López-Cachero | Necròpolis d'incineració. Tombes i pràctiques de dipòsit funerari a finals de l'edat del bronze i principis de l'edat del ferro al nord-est peninsular, in: La transició bronze final -1a edat del ferro en els Pirineus i territoris veïns[END_REF]. The measurements of these snaffles correspond anatomically with the horse jaws documented at Can Roqueta [START_REF] Albizuri | La visibilitat del cavall en el registre arqueològic del NE peninsular durant el final de l'edat del bronze i la primera edat del ferro. L'exemple de Can Roqueta (Sabadell, Vallès Occidental)[END_REF].

A rubbing bit can damage the horse's soft tissue structures, resulting in mandibular periostosis on the surface of the diastema in the free space between the canines and the premolars (Bendrey, 2007a). Damage attributable to the bit includes the bone spurs observed in three Can Roqueta equids (complete mare CRII-811 -Fig. 11 and individuals CR6 and CRII-223).

Osteophytes have been observed at the ends of the posterior or palmar face of some of the fore 1st phalanxes at the point of insertion of the flexor tendons. These pathological findings are related to trauma and other factors such as age (Bendrey, 2007b;[START_REF] Rooney | Equid Palaeopathology[END_REF][START_REF] Thomas | The zooarchaeology of animal 'care[END_REF]. The small lesions can also be attributed to stress of the tendons given the exertions associated with the traction of carts and/or ploughs (Fig. 12).

During load dragging, the horse's fore limbs are subjected to a greater force and pressure than the hind limbs. This was more so before the appearance of the plough head collar in the Middle Ages [START_REF] Lignereux | Un cheval gallo-romain inhumé dans le cimetière du site de Notre-Dame du Bon Accueil (IIe-IIIe siècle après J.-C., Rodez)[END_REF]. However, the study of an isolated pathology can be misleading, since, for example, the exostoses may have an infectious or traumatic origin or may be associated with ageing. It is, therefore, important to have the complete skeletons from which a comprehensive study provides a differential diagnosis. Indeed, the complete mare of Can Roqueta (CRII-811) presents a set of pathologies that can be related to dragging (plough, chart, etc.) and carrying loads on the loins [START_REF] Albizuri | Using palaeopathological evidence to assess the economic importance of horses in the North East part of the Iberian Peninsula during the early Iron Age, Animal Diseases in Past Human Societies[END_REF]. The lesions observed include significant enthesophytes or bone neoformations caused by the age of the animal (> 10 years) or by the constant pressure of a strap on the right scapular girdle and an obvious neoformation on the margin of the glenoid cavity (right proximal humerus is broken and so possible alterations in this area are not observable). This neoformation invades the path of the circumflexa scapolae artery on the neck of the scapula, near the shoulder joint surface (Fig. 13A). These pathological changes might be related to continuous effort and oppression in the articulation area of the humerus and scapula where the clamping unit or strap would press. An example of similar pathologies was recorded on the scapulo-humeral joints of a 3rd century CE Roman horse, excavated in a pit of Bois Harlé (Oise) [START_REF] Lepetz | Le cheval gallo-romain du puits 116 au "Bois Harlé" à Longueil-Sainte-Marie (Oise)[END_REF]. These lesions were interpreted as resulting from the animal having been used for draught purposes, as they are characteristic and well documented in draught horses of the 19th and 20th centuries CE [START_REF] Lepetz | Le cheval gallo-romain du puits 116 au "Bois Harlé" à Longueil-Sainte-Marie (Oise)[END_REF].

Individual CRII-811 also presents enthesophytes over the vertebral bodies and transverse process from the 11th thoracic to the 2nd lumbar vertebrae (Fig. 13B,C). In some cases, impingement of the supraspinous processes is observed with partial ankylosis of one process to the next ("kissing spines") [START_REF] Albizuri | Using palaeopathological evidence to assess the economic importance of horses in the North East part of the Iberian Peninsula during the early Iron Age, Animal Diseases in Past Human Societies[END_REF]. This pathology is related to the animal having been ridden bareback or with a soft saddle, according to the studies of Levine [START_REF] Levine | Abnormal thoracic vertebrae and the evolution of horse husbandry[END_REF][START_REF] Levine | Palaeopathology and horse domestication: the case of some Iron Age horses horn the Altai Mountains, Siberia[END_REF] on Scytho-Siberian horses dated from the 5th to the 3rd centuries BCE. But the pathological incidence between the 11th thoracic and the 2nd lumbar also suggest that this animal had loaded weight in the posterior area of the back, on the loins. In summary, these pathological features on the spinal cord coincide with natural ageing processes and can be caused by congenital and hereditary factors, as well as intensive labour, such as riding and traction [START_REF] Bartosiewicz | Bamboo spine in a migration period horse from Hungary[END_REF]. Similarly, lumbar injuries could also be linked with load carrying. Horses with such pathology in the spinal column might have been ridden before skeletal growth was completed [START_REF] Janeczek | Anatomical and biomechanical aspects of the horse spine: the interpretation of vertebral fusion in a medieval horse from Wroclaw (Poland)[END_REF]. This old female also presented bite damages on the mandibular diastema and may reflect that the animal was ridden.

Geographic origin of equids at Can Roqueta

Table 2 summarizes the strontium isotope results obtained on both the archaeological samples and the present-day leaves. The strontium isotope ratios of the local baseline samples (dentine and leaves) range between 0.7093 and 0.7107. These values are in close agreement with those recorded in other samples of Pleistocene and Miocene sediments from other places (e.g. [START_REF] Evans | Anglo-Saxon animal husbandry techniques revealed though isotope and chemical variations in cattle teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Scheeres | Evidence for "Celtic migrations"?. Strontium isotope analysis at the early La Tène (LT B) cemeteries of Nebringen (Germany) and Monte Bibele (Italy)[END_REF][START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Shipping amphorae and shipping sheep? Livestock mobility in the north-east Iberian peninsula during the Iron Age based on strontium isotopic analyses of sheep and goat tooth enamel[END_REF][START_REF] Voerkelius | Strontium isotopic signatures of natural mineral waters, the reference to a simple geological map and its potential for authentication of food[END_REF].

The archaeological enamel samples display a greater variability and range from 0.7103 to 0.7126 (Table 2 and Fig. 14). Three enamel samples -CR6, CRV09-285 (1) and CRII-223 (nd)are consistent with the local strontium signature, whereas the other three (CRV09-294, CRV05-79 (2), CRV05-103) probably originate from another location. The only study mapping the bioavailable strontium in the central Catalan area [START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Shipping amphorae and shipping sheep? Livestock mobility in the north-east Iberian peninsula during the Iron Age based on strontium isotopic analyses of sheep and goat tooth enamel[END_REF] has registered values higher than 0.71101 on Middle Upper Palaeozoic sediments and Mesozoic metamorphic rocks, which occur about 15 km from the site, in both the Littoral mountain range and the pre-Littoral mountain range, which marks the limit of the Vallès-Penedès valley in which Can Roqueta lies.

Sediments of this kind are also present in other areas of Catalonia, including Cap de Creus and the Pyrenees (180 km range), and further afield in the mountains near Béziers (Montagne Noire), in France (Fig. 2). Studies conducted in other geographical areas of Western Europe have also reported ranges between 0.71101 and 0.71300 on Middle Upper Palaeozoic sediments and Mesozoic metamorphic rocks (e.g. [START_REF] Evans | Anglo-Saxon animal husbandry techniques revealed though isotope and chemical variations in cattle teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Scheeres | Evidence for "Celtic migrations"?. Strontium isotope analysis at the early La Tène (LT B) cemeteries of Nebringen (Germany) and Monte Bibele (Italy)[END_REF][START_REF] Voerkelius | Strontium isotopic signatures of natural mineral waters, the reference to a simple geological map and its potential for authentication of food[END_REF][START_REF] Waterman | In search of homelands: using strontium isotopes to identify biological markers of mobility in late prehistoric Portugal[END_REF].

Discussion

The results of the zooarchaeological studyage at death, predominance of males based on the skulls and mandibles recovered and the pathologies registeredsuggest the selection of adult male equids for the purposes of riding and work, at least as far as the remains deposited in the silos and other excavated structures indicate. The pathologies recorded on mandibles and maxilla suggests that the equids were bitted and, probably, ridden. In the case of the complete mare specimen, CRII-811, there is the highly suggestive physical evidence on its back of her having been used for dragging loads.

The variability in the shape index values and the withers heights may reflect sexual dimorphism and local/regional variation in morphotypes (the influence of wild equids cannot be fully excluded). But in some metacarpals of Can Roqueta (see Fig. 6) males and females present a similar range of variability. The variability may also reflect the presence of hybrids. In this sense, some individuals present mule morphological and morphometric traits (e.g. CRV05-89, Figs. 5 and6) and others present morphometric features close to archaeological and modern hinnies (e.g. CR6, CRII9, CRII811, Fig. 6). Alternatively, the differences might be attributed to the effects of castration and to the age at which this was performed, since if bone growth was complete (over the age of 4), castration would not influence any increase in bone robustness. This fact is critical in work animals [START_REF] Johnstone | A Biometric Study of Equids in the Roman World[END_REF]. Castration is widely documented in Greco-Latin writings, and was used for the more effective management of animals, since it reduces aggression. However, the effects of castration on mules have not been extensively studied, though it seems that in young castrated animals today their bones maintain their graceful characteristics [START_REF] Chuang | The Acquisition of Domestic Equids in Roman Britain. The Identification of Domestic Equids and Case Study With Isotopic Analyses[END_REF]. A further factor to consider in the osteometric variability present is the influence of putting the animals to work, since this is likely to have affected the development of certain skeletal areas in the working horses [START_REF] Hanot | The impact of artificial selection on morphological integration in the appendicular skeleton of domestic horses[END_REF].

The range of withers heights of the Can Roqueta equids (110-143.5 cm) agrees with that reported for the Iron Age Celtic horses (c. 110 cm to 140 cm) of the Iberian Peninsula and Western Europe (e.g. horses of Manching) [START_REF] Altuna | El caballo al final de la última glaciación y en el periodo postglacial del País Vasco, Euskal pottoka[END_REF][START_REF] Liesau | Arqueozoología del caballo en la antigua Iberia[END_REF][START_REF] Quesada | La alzada del caballo antiguo: un estado de la cuestión aplicado a la Edad del Hierro de la Península Ibérica[END_REF]. Specimens from France dated from the Bronze Age and the Early La Tène have an average withers height of around 130 cm, and evidence of a wider range is only found from the 3rd c. BCE onwards [START_REF] Arbogast | Archéologie du cheval[END_REF]. The variability in the withers heights at Can Roqueta may reflect the diversity of geographical origin of the equids, especially if we consider that Chalcolithic and Bronze Age equids in the Iberian Peninsula had withers heights around 130-145 cm [START_REF] Legge | Animals remains and their interpretation[END_REF][START_REF] Liesau | Arqueozoología del caballo en la antigua Iberia[END_REF][START_REF] Morales Muñiz | Estudio de la fauna del yacimiento calcolítico de «Las Pozas» (Casaseca de Las Chanas, Zamora): campaña 1979[END_REF]. However, the presence of hybrids and donkeys among the remains identified as horses cannot be fully ruled out given the difficulties involved in equid species identification. Indeed, from the Early Iron Age onwards, "small equids" (hybrids?) appear in the archaeological record of the Iberian Peninsula, which coincides in time with the presence of Phoenician materials from the Mediterranean and with the introduction of the ass (Albizuri et al., 2016b). This is the case of three small size equids of Can Roqueta that could be assigned to the group of hinnies. In addition, these animals appear in a context where Phoenician materials have been recovered from silos and from two cremation tombs in the Can Piteu sector [START_REF] Carlús | Cabanes, sitges i tombes. El paratge de Can Roqueta[END_REF].

The low incidence of females and juveniles seems to be inconsistent with on-site equid breeding, but it might equally reflect an archaeological bias due to the nature of the deposits. The characteristic of the remains reveals several types of intentional accumulations of equid bones (ABGs). Anatomical selection includes bone segments in anatomical connection, isolated bones, and two complete skeletons. In the same way higher presence of males in the ABGs can be evidence a selection of individuals for ritual or symbolic purposes. In this case, the possibility that the individuals do not reflect the real composition and management of domestic equids at the site cannot be fully excluded. In any case, the individuals that we could gender correspond to six adult males and two adult females, but not to any juveniles. This does not coincide with what we would expect from a typical stud farm, even if the males had been castrated. In the Iberian Peninsula at present, a proportion of one stallion for every 5 to 10 mares (without counting the offspring) is the norm in semi-feral herds (Spanish Ministry of Agriculture, 2003).

The results of the strontium isotope analysis suggest the presence of two distinct geographical origins for the six individuals sampled, although seasonal movements cannot be ruled out here. Three of the individuals present strontium signatures that are compatible with the geological layer on which the site is located -0.7102-0.7103: individuals CR6, CRV09-285 (1) and . However, the wide extension of Cenozoic sediments in the Iberian Peninsula and neighbouring areas does not allow us to determine, on the sole basis of the strontium values, whether these three samples were raised on the site or somewhere else with similar strontium ratios. Conversely, three individuals (CRV09-294, CRV05-79 (2) and CRV05-103) present higher strontium values (0.7111-0.7126). Based on the local bioavailable strontium sampling as well as on other values drawn from the literature [START_REF] Scheeres | Evidence for "Celtic migrations"?. Strontium isotope analysis at the early La Tène (LT B) cemeteries of Nebringen (Germany) and Monte Bibele (Italy)[END_REF][START_REF] Valenzuela-Lamas | Shipping amphorae and shipping sheep? Livestock mobility in the north-east Iberian peninsula during the Iron Age based on strontium isotopic analyses of sheep and goat tooth enamel[END_REF][START_REF] Voerkelius | Strontium isotopic signatures of natural mineral waters, the reference to a simple geological map and its potential for authentication of food[END_REF], these strontium ratios correspond with those detected in relation to Triassic sediments. Within a 200-km radius of the site, Triassic sediments are present in the nearby Collserola mountain as well as in the Montseny, Albera-Serra de Rodes, and the Montagne Noire in France (Fig. 2).

The teeth were all sampled close to the enamel-root junction, so the strontium values reflect the latest period of enamel mineralisation (at around age 3, see Table 2). This means that three of the animals would have been grazing somewhere with Triassic sediments when they were about 3 years old. As stated above, seasonal movement between different geological areas during the period of enamel mineralisation cannot be fully ruled out, as we only have one sample per tooth. However, a more plausible explanation is that (at least some of) the equids of Can Roqueta were acquired as a final product, i.e. older than 3 years old and when they were old enough to be trained for riding and work.

The archaeological evidence suggests that the territory comprising the whole of the Vallés area as well as the immediate coastal zone were integrated within the same cultural entity [START_REF] López-Cachero | Necròpolis d'incineració. Tombes i pràctiques de dipòsit funerari a finals de l'edat del bronze i principis de l'edat del ferro al nord-est peninsular, in: La transició bronze final -1a edat del ferro en els Pirineus i territoris veïns[END_REF][START_REF] Cachero | El Món funerari a la depressió prelitoral catalana entre el bronze final i la primera edat del ferro: ritual i dinamisme social a partir del registre arqueològic[END_REF]. These communities would have exploited the rich variety of resources in the surrounding mountains, suggesting that the equids may have originated from the local area and its surroundings. However, other more distant origins (e.g. the Pyrenees or the Béziers area) cannot be ruled out. Contact with the Pyrenees is not well documented, there being evidence only of temporary cave occupations and the presence of some cremation necropolises. Within the Pyrenees, the most likely areas of origin would be the plain of La Cerdanya or the mountainous area between the Albera range and the Serra de Rodes (Fig. 2). The latter, moreover, lies very close to the Empordà, which was an active trading area during Protohistory a time when the Greek colony of Emporionand earlier settlements on this site was one of the main trading points during the Iron Age in this area (Fig. 2). The similarity of the metallic objects recovered at the necropolis of Vilanera (Empordà) and those of the necropolis of Can Piteu-Can Roqueta (Fig. 1) suggest the existence of tradeor at least of some influencebetween these two areas. The specific elements that support this claim are the similarities between the iron knives and certain types of fibulae found at both sites, in particular those with a serpentiform (López [START_REF] Cachero | El Món funerari a la depressió prelitoral catalana entre el bronze final i la primera edat del ferro: ritual i dinamisme social a partir del registre arqueològic[END_REF][START_REF] Rovira | Las fíbulas serpentiformes de Cataluña en el marco del Mediterráneo noroccidental[END_REF]. Some morphotypes of metal objects (i.e. knives, horse bits, fibulas and needles) similar to those found in Can Piteu-Can Roqueta have also been recovered in some cremation necropolises in southeastern France, especially in those lying close to the Montagne Noire. This is the specific case of the necropolis of Grand Bassin in Mailhac, and of the three necropolises of Castres and Le Peyrou in Agde [START_REF] Rovira | Las fíbulas serpentiformes de Cataluña en el marco del Mediterráneo noroccidental[END_REF]. Additionally, the lead isotope analyses performed on some bronze objects from the necropolis of Can Piteu-Can Roqueta (i.e. a Mialhacian arrowhead, and a double-spring fibula) [START_REF] Rovira | Caracterización isotópica de bronces de la necrópolis protohistórica de Can Piteu-Can Roqueta[END_REF][START_REF] Rovira | Las fíbulas serpentiformes de Cataluña en el marco del Mediterráneo noroccidental[END_REF] show the probable use of copper ores from the area of Les Cévenneslocated in the area adjacent to the Montagne Noire -.

Consequently, the ensemble of informationarchaeology, 2), the red triangles show the ratios obtained on the three-dentine samples, and the green dots display the strontium ratios from the two tree leaves. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

zooarchaeology, Sr geochemical datapoints to the complex management of Can Roqueta's equids population. The combination of isotope data from six individuals and the archaeological finds suggests that (at least) some of the equids from Can Roqueta could have been introduced to the site having already been tamed and trained, perhaps from the Empordà or south-eastern France. Local breeding in neighbouring mountain areas cannot completely be ruled out, but the lack of juvenile and foetal remains and the low percentage of females greatly weaken this hypothesis. Indeed, there is evidence of the exchange of horses in Europe during the Iron Age [START_REF] Bendrey | Patterns of Iron Age horse supply: an analysis of stronium isotope ratios in teeth[END_REF][START_REF] Gerling | Prehistoric Mobility and Diet in the West Eurasian Steppes 3500 to. An isotopic approach[END_REF][START_REF] Nuviala | L'origine des chevaux du site du Mormont (canton de Vaud, Suisse): l'apport des isotopes du carbone, de l'oxygène et du strontium[END_REF]. Regardless of the role or roles attributed to horses in Early Iron Age societies in Iberia and Europe, equid deposits documented at the site and snaffle bits documented in the necropolis of Can Piteu-Can Roqueta suggest the emergence of people of differentiated status associated with the use of horses (Albizuri et al., 2016a).

From the late 7th c. BCE, and especially during the 6th c. BCE, the progressive appearance of weapons in the necropolises of the northeastern Iberian Peninsula and southern France suggests that the material related to equid riding, as well as the greater presence of horses in the faunal record, reflects the consolidation of a warrior elite in these societies (Gailledrat, 2015;[START_REF] Graells | Mobilité des hommes, diffusion des idées, circulation des biens dans l'espace européen à l'àge du Fer[END_REF][START_REF] Cachero | El Món funerari a la depressió prelitoral catalana entre el bronze final i la primera edat del ferro: ritual i dinamisme social a partir del registre arqueològic[END_REF]. Further studies will be able to expand the number of samples so that we can address the question of the provisioning and mobility of horses in greater depth. Moreover, studies examining the diet together with DNA analyses are currently underway.

Conclusion

The absence of foetal and juvenile remains together with the low percentage of females suggest that Can Roqueta was not a centre for equid breeding despite the important volume of equid bone remains recovered. The predominance of adults with caballine characteristics and the pathologies related to work and riding indicate a probable supply of horses (and probably donkeys) from other places. The strontium results may support this hypothesis since some of the six equids analysed could have been brought to the site once tamed and trained (i.e. after they were 3 years old). On the other hand, commercial relations with the area of the Pyrenees and Phoenician materials in Can Roqueta can explain the supply of equids. Previous studies on the metallic items recovered at the site (i.e. iron knives and fibulae; López [START_REF] Cachero | El Món funerari a la depressió prelitoral catalana entre el bronze final i la primera edat del ferro: ritual i dinamisme social a partir del registre arqueològic[END_REF] attested the existence of contacts between the Vallès area, the Empordà, and southeastern France (Béziers area). Indeed, an analysis of the lead isotopes of these items from Can Roqueta confirmed that copper ores from South-eastern France were used in their fabrication. Likewise, animals may also have originated from the Empordà or from South-eastern France, although local breeding in the neighbouring hinterland cannot be completely ruled out.

These results considerably broaden our knowledge about the breeding of horses and other equids in the Iberian Peninsula, especially for the Early Iron Age where the remains of equids are very scarce. In this first work we prioritized the specimens that provided more information about the age, the morphometric characteristics and the pathologies. But within the available sample there are more cases (teeth) for the analysis of strontium that will be part of a second work that broadens the problematic about the breeding and exchange of these animals.

Declaration of Competing Interest

None.

Fig. 1 .Fig. 2 .

 12 Fig. 1. Site location. Can Roqueta archaeological sectors.

Fig. 3 .Fig. 4 .

 34 Fig.3. Shoulder height ratio expressed as shape index: radii (red), metatarsal (blue), tibia (green). SH and SI average is calculated for individuals with more than two data (yellow). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. CRV05-89 metacarpal. Details of distal morphology (palmar view).

  Fig. 6. Metacarpal measurements correlation: greatest length (GL) and midshaft width (SD). Can Roqueta equids (yellow); donkeys from Eisenmann's dataset (blue). Archaeological -Serrat dels Espinyers site-and modern hybrids (red) are from dataset of Albizuri et al. (2017). (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Fig. 7 .Fig. 8 .

 78 Fig. 7. Logarithmic differences of the metacarpal measurements in horses and asses (Onager -Equus Hemionusis used as a standard. Shoulder height is estimated in 115.8 cm). The shoulder heights for each specimen were estimated in the metacarpus. Data of Onager, donkeys -Equus asinus -, Przewalskii, Island pony and Steblev's horse K6 (Kiev, 5th century BCE) are extracted from Eisenmann's dataset. GL: maximum length, SD: smallest midshaft width, D SD: thickness of the midshaft, Bp: maximum width of the proximal joint surface, Dp: maximum thickness of the proximal joint surface, Bd-10: maximum width of the surface distal joint on the trochlea, Bd-11: maximum width of the distal joint surface in the trochlea.

Fig. 9 .

 9 Fig. 9. CRV16-31: concave abrasion in anterior surface of both upper PM2. Occlusal view (left), labial surface view (right).

Fig. 10 .

 10 Fig. 10. CRV05-79 (2): concave strong abrasion in anterior occlusal surface of lower PM2. Labial surface view (left), occlusal and anterior surface view (right).

Fig. 11 .

 11 Fig. 11. CRII-811: diastema osseous ridge. Details of fracture on the distal half of the second premolars due to an abnormal occlusion (were produced shortly before the death of the animal as partial bone alveolar resorption can be observed).

Fig. 12 .

 12 Fig. 12. CRV05-133: Pathological changes on first anterior phalanx (palmar view).

Fig. 13 .

 13 Fig. 13. CRII-811. (A) Pathological changes on the neck of the scapula, details (ventral view). (B) Bone neoformation in transverse process of first lumbar vertebrae (cranial view). (B) Details of pathological changes in spinous process (dorsal view).

Fig. 14 .

 14 Fig.14. Six Can Roqueta-Can Revella strontium isotope ratios and the baseline samples. The blue dots show the six enamel samples (two points overlap, see Table2), the red triangles show the ratios obtained on the three-dentine samples, and the green dots display the strontium ratios from the two tree leaves. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.)

Table 1

 1 Osteometric

	SI MT		10.3	11.6		11.1
	SI tibia						11.5		9.7
	SI MC
	SI radius	11							9.8
	SH average	143.5	138.8	138.3		134.1	134.2		132.85
	GL/SH metatarsal		(265.0) 138.8	(264.0) 138.3		(256.0) 134.1
	GL/SH tibia						(340.0) 134.2		(345.0) 136.2
	GL/SH femur
	GL/SH metacarpal
	GL/SH radius	(349.0) 143.5							(315.0) 129.5
	Sex (skull)					M	M
	Radiocarbon date BP			2505 ± 40	2540 ± 30	2510 ± 30	2505 ± 40	2540 ± 30	2450 ± 30
	Period	EIA	LBA/EIA	EIA		EIA	EIA		EIA
	Individual	CRV05-217	CRTR-167	CRII-223 (2)		CRV09-285 (2)	CRII-223 nd		CRV16-30	CRV16-29

data. GL: greatest length in mm, SH: shoulder height in cm and in bold the results obtained from various measures in articulated individuals, SI: shape index. Period: Late Bronze Age-Early Iron Age (LBA-EIA), Early Iron Age (EIA) and Iberian Culture (IB).

  ; Age D: age at death.

	Structure	Radiocarbon date BP	95.45% probability	COD LAB	Sample	Type	87Sr/86Sr	2std dev	Age M	Age D
	CR6	2470 ± 30	768 BCE (92.4%) 476 BCE	Beta 449094	Pm3 inf.	Enamel	0.710253	0.000007	14-36 m	10-13 y (male)
	CRV09-294	2480 ± 30	774 BCE (94.9%) 482 BCE	Beta 423328	Pm3 inf.	Enamel	0.712636	0.000007	14-36 m	> 5 y
	CRV09-285 (1)	2510 ± 30	790 BCE (27.7%) 701 BCE	Beta 463865	Pm3 sup.	Enamel	0.711099	0.000008	14-36 m	7-8 y (male)
			696 BCE (67.7%) 540 BCE
	CRV05-79 (2)	2590 ± 30	820 BCE (92.7%) 754 BCE	Beta 423330	Pm3 sup.	Enamel	0.710341	0.000005	14-36 m	10 y (male)
	CRV05-103	2460 ± 30	758 BCE (29.5%) 678 BCE	Beta 423329	I2 inf.	Enamel	0.711747	0.000005		7 y (male)
			672 BCE (65.9%) 428 BCE
	CRII-223 (0)	2540 ± 30	799 BCE (44.4%) 736 BCE	Beta 423331	I2 inf.	Enamel	0.710218	0.000007		10 y (male)
			688 BCE (12.2%) 662 BCE
			647 BCE (38.9%)547 BCE
	CR6	2470 ± 30		Beta 449094	Pm3 inf.	Dentine	0.710049	0.000003
	CRV09-294	2480 ± 30		Beta 423328	Pm3 inf.	Dentine	0.710735	0.000006
	CRV09-285 (1)	2510 ± 30		Beta 463865	Pm3 sup.	Dentine	0.710295	0.000005
	Can Revella	2016				Oak leaf	0.709291	0.000007
	Torre-romeu	2016				Oak leaf	0.710347	0.000003

Acknowledgments

This paper was written as part of the research undertaken by the consolidated research group SGR2017-00011 Seminari d'Estudis i Recerques Prehistòriques (SERP), and was funded by Ministerio de Economía y Competitividad of Spain, within the projects HAR2013-48010-P and HAR2017-87695-P. We are grateful whith the collaboration of Ramón Alvárez Arza of the University of Barcelona, Department of History and Archeology (SERP) for his photographic work.

The authors thank the two anonymous reviewers for their valuable insights to improve the work.


Habtamu Tkubet
email: habtamu-tkubet.ebuy@univ-lorraine.fr

Hind BRIL E L Haouzi

Rémi Pannequin

Riad Benelmir

Multi-agent simulation of occupant behavior impact on building energy consumption

Keywords: occupant behavior, co-simulation, multi-agent, energy simulation, behavior modeling

Building energy consumption and environmental emission are significantly influenced by end-users and building energy simulations tools are used to optimize the performance of the building. Currently, most of the simulation tools considered oversimplified behavior and contribute to the energy gap between the predicted and actual consumption. However, the building energy performance also depends on occupant dynamic behaviors and this tools fails to capture the dynamic occupant behavior. To overcome this, developing a co-simulation platform is an effective approach to integrate an occupant behavior modeling using a multi-agent-based simulation with building energy simulation tools. The co-simulation process is conducted in Building Control Virtual Test bed (BCVTB), a virtual simulation coupling tools that integrate the two separate simulations on a time step basis. This method is applied to a case study of a multi-occupant office building within an Engineering school in France. The result shows the applicability and relevance of the developed platform.

INTRODUCTION

The world is accelerating towards a severe energy crisis due to high energy demand compared to energy resources [START_REF] De Silva | building energy consumption factors : a literature review and future r esearch a gendA[END_REF]. The energy crisis and sustainability have become increasingly crucial topics among academia and industry. With the rising demands for energy use and future concern of scarce energy resources, the need for energy efficiency is growing steadily [START_REF] Jia | Exploring the validity of occupant behavior model for improving office building energy simulation[END_REF]. The energy challenge is one of the most significant events of today's society, and governments worldwide have to adopt strategic policies to confront it.

According to the International Energy Agency, residential and commercial building consumes more than 40% of total primary energy and releases 33% of carbon dioxide emissions in the universe [START_REF] Paone | The impact of building occupant behavior on energy efficiency and methods to influence it: A review of the state of the art[END_REF], [START_REF] Pérez-Lombard | A review on buildings energy consumption information[END_REF]. Two-third of the total energy utilized by the building will be used within the households for heating, cooling, and lighting. The edifice is the sector with greater potential and lowest cost for carbon dioxide reduction, and has been named as a key potential contributor to bring down the energy consumption and greenhouse emissions. To be able to optimize building energy performance, researchers need a way to evaluate it.

Traditionally, building energy consumption is analyzed by a simulation tools, which is an effective approach for estimating building performance. Almost all of the simulation tools are considered a static building features for determining building energy performance [START_REF] Wang | Modeling individual's light switching behavior to understand lighting energy use of office building[END_REF]. For example, the occupants, electric equipment plugin, thermostat point and lighting in an offices follow static patterns without considering the dynamic interaction with the building systems, occupants and environmental factors (weather conditions), to mitigate their discomfort condition.

[6] Shows that occupants influence building energy directly and indirectly by manipulating light, equipment, thermostat, shade, domestic hot water (DHW) and operable windows to maintain their comfort as depicted in Fig. 1. The main challenge of estimating building energy consumption using simulation tools is the consideration of the dynamics and stochastic behavior of end users and the evaluation of multi-occupant influence. This is indeed a complex endeavor since buildings are used by different occupancy with a different perception, beliefs and actions [START_REF] Schaumann | Simulating multi-agent narratives for pre-occupancy evaluation of architectural designs[END_REF]. To solve this, multi-agent based simulation has been developed to represent dynamic occupant behavior. This modeling and evaluation tools is included in a large project FORBOIS2, which will provide environmental sensors data (temperature, carbon dioxide, energy consumption, humidity) and thermography image (heat source and loss) for validating the simulation results. In this paper, we focused on a simple case to validate the approach.

The rest of the paper is structure as follows: Section 2 describes the state of the art on occupant behavior modeling. Sections 3 present on the modeling elements of the multi-agent systems and implementation of the co-simulation environment. Section 4 presents the application case and finally, the conclusions section explain the advantage and limitations of the proposed approach.

State of the art

For the last many decade, researchers emphasized the influence of occupant behavior on building energy consumption. For example, Wilde et al [START_REF] Gilani | Best Practices Guidebook on Advanced Occupant Modelling[END_REF] report that the electricity consumption of an office deviated by 30% from what was simulated.

Experimentally measured building energy consumption demonstrated a large energy variation range by a factor of two to five between edifices with the same function and located in the same weather. Brien et al [START_REF] Gilani | Best Practices Guidebook on Advanced Occupant Modelling[END_REF] performed experimental investigation on one university residence room for two academic years with different occupancy and observed a 20% energy consumption variation for the last two academic years. Hong et al [START_REF] Turner | A technical framework to describe occupant behavior for building energy simulations[END_REF] has shown that the impact of occupant behavior on building energy use reaches up to 300%. Hani [START_REF] Sait | Auditing and analysis of energy consumption of an educational building in hot and humid area[END_REF] studied the energy auditing for an office and the analysis revealed more energy consumption in non-working hours than working hours. The use of daylight systems or intelligent lighting control by reducing artificial lighting decreases energy use of the building for electricity by about 15% [START_REF] Piotrowska | Energy consumption of buildings depends on the daylight[END_REF]. Commonly in building simulation programs, fixed schedules for typical days are assumed to represent the dynamic occupant behavior (occupancy, lighting) energy use in buildings.

Over the last years, researchers considered the occupant behavior impact on the simulation tool to simulate building performance. For example, Rijal et al [START_REF] Rijal | Development of a window opening algorithm based on adaptive thermal comfort to predict occupant behavior in Japanese dwellings[END_REF] modeled the probability of window opening in terms of operative indoor/outdoor temperature. Jacob et al [START_REF] Chapman | On the multi-agent stochastic simulation of occupants in buildings[END_REF], [START_REF] Chapman | coupling multi-agent stochastic simulation of occupants with building simulation Enviromental Physics and Design ( ePAD )[END_REF] integrated multi-agent-based occupant behavior modeling into a residential building simulation tools. The dynamic occupant behavior models were developed as a functional mock-up interface (FMI) for co-simulation with energy plus [START_REF] Li | Implementing Occupant Behaviour in the Simulation of Building Energy Performance and Energy Flexibility: Development of Co-Simulation Framework and Case Study[END_REF]. Mengda et al [START_REF] Jia | A framework of occupant behavior modeling and data sensing for improving building energy simulation[END_REF] developed a dynamic occupant behavior modeling framework to improve the building energy simulation. The agentbased occupant behavior model is used for validation. However, researchers fo-cused on the group-level behavior models, mainly used for residential, implementation process instead of performance analysis, and then proposed requirements for future occupant behavior models in order to be used by building an energy simulation tools. In this paper includes, individual-level occupant behavior models developed independently and coupled to building.

Buildings have been portrayed as complex systems involving several kinds of dynamically interacting components that are non-linear, dynamic and complex. The aforementioned driving parameters can be modeled and simulated through thermal dynamic building simulation tools. However, due to its complexity and stochastic nature, it is hard to completely indicate the influence of occupant behavior through dynamic energy performance simulation [START_REF] Jia | A framework of occupant behavior modeling and data sensing for improving building energy simulation[END_REF], [START_REF] Li | Implementing Occupant Behaviour in the Simulation of Building Energy Performance and Energy Flexibility: Development of Co-Simulation Framework and Case Study[END_REF]. Therefore, we need to know a way to pair off the occupant behavior on the building simulation.

Hong et al. [START_REF] Chen | Simulation and visualization of energyrelated occupant behavior in office buildings Lawrence Berkeley National Laboratory Energy Technologies Area[END_REF] indicate that co-simulation allows a more realistic and robust representation of occupant behavior and aim to couple two or more simulation tools, offering a data exchange environment between subsystems. Co-simulation offers a flexible solution that allows consideration of network behavior and physical energy system state at the same time and also enables the possibilities of large scale system assessment [START_REF] Raad | FMU software component orchestration strategies for co-simulation of building energy systems[END_REF]. Therefore, co-simulation, takes occupant behavior into consideration in energy performance simulation and predicts it more precisely. The aim of this paper is to propose a co-simulation platform to couple occupant behavior modeling using the well-known BRAHMS, a multi-agent-based simulation environment with EnergyPlus, building energy simulation tools and validating this software in order to deal with a complex occupant behavior by considering a simple scenario.

DEVELOPMENT OF CO-SIMULATION FRAMEWORK

Modeling dynamic occupant behavior to create situation in the simulation are closer to what could happen in real life of office occupancy. In order to examine these interactions and to express clearly, it is necessary to model and include dynamic occupant behavior in energy simulations. These behaviors are not activated at regular times. They depend only on the value of some environmental factors. When the physical state of the environment exceeds its threshold value, it makes a psychological state in the users. This initiates the occupants to perform some activities to adjust their environments.

The dynamic occupant behavior is modeled and simulated in BRAHMS, multiagent based simulation platforms. It is a descriptive language to record and simulate the causal relations of occupant's behavior. Moreover, it is a fully fledged multiagent, rule-based, activity programming language [START_REF] Kashif | Simulating the dynamics of occupant behaviour for power management in residential buildings[END_REF]. This multi-agent environment uses a belief-desire-intention (BDI) approach, with an accent on the belief base of agents. It also makes a clear distinction between facts and beliefs. This is useful to model the rational action of humans. Agents can have needs and can perform activities based on their needs and can also communicate for the fulfillment of various needs. The outside context and the inside psychology state are perceived by the agent as a thoughtful frame, which becomes its need [START_REF] Kashif | Simulating the dynamics of occupant behaviour for power management in residential buildings[END_REF], [START_REF] Lez-Briones | Multi-agent systems applications in energy optimization problems: A state-of-the-art review[END_REF]. This need is carried by the workframe through primitive or composite activities.

The Brahms environment defines agents and objects that we map to human occupants and building devices. It also provides a rich geographical model which is used to model the various location in the building simulation and the travel between them. Therefore the multi-agent model has three types of concepts:

 Area, that represents the various places where occupants and objects are.

They have facts corresponding to the environment variables (temperature, light), which come from the building simulation.

 Agents, that correspond to the human occupants. They have beliefs about their goals and current environment variables (temperature, humidity, light level, etc…). They execute work frames that contain activities to achieve their goals.

 Object, that models the building actuators, such as lights, thermostat, HVAC, windows, etc… They have states that will be sent to the building simulation.

The interaction between the three types of entities is as follow:

 At each simulation time-step of the energy simulation software, variables are received and used to set the facts of the area.

 Occupants can detect these facts and react by triggering a work frame. In these work frames, they express their needs for a change of a building device.

 Device perceives and reacts to the needs of the occupants, by changing their state.

 The state of the devices, and some simulation parameters such as the number of occupants in an area is collected and send to the building simulation software.

EnergyPlus is a new building performance simulation program that combines the best capabilities and features. EnergyPlus comprises a completely new code written in Fortran 90. Energy Plus is a broadly used building simulation tools that allows the analysis of energy throughout the building and the thermal load [START_REF] Sousa | Energy Simulation Software for Buildings : Review and Comparison[END_REF] on a subhourly basis [START_REF] Crawley | EnergyPlus: Creating a new-generation building energy simulation program[END_REF].

It is important to outline that in Energy Plus does not exist a visual interface that allows users to see and concept the building. In this case, third-party software tools need to be used.

The Co-simulation environment couple the occupant behavior model, BRAHMS, multi-agent-based modeling, with energy plus. A java application has been developed for this application. It communicates with the BRAHMS virtual machine using the Java application programming interface (JAPI) of the BRAHMS platform. Using JAPI, the co-simulation environment is able to start the agents, and alter the facts and belief base. On the other side, it communicates with EnergyPlus using the Building Control Virtual Testbed (BCVTB) interface by exchanging packets formatted using the Ptolemy II standard over a TCP socket.

The information interchange between BRAHMS and Energyplus is duplicated in Fig. 2. Energy plus simulates zone-based level and passes output environmental features such as illuminance to the BRAHMS as input to model occupant behavior. From the BRAHMS, the occupant behavior model output which includes occupancy schedule and building equipment statuses are sent back to the energy plus and used for the next time steps. The whole process of information exchange is transmitted through building control virtual testbed (BCVTB). The process repeats until the simulation end time is reached.

APPLICATION

To test the applicability and significant of the developed platform, a simple behavior scenario and case study are conducted.

Occupant Behavior Scenario

The process scenario is presented in Fig. 3. When an occupant enters the room, this agent had a perception of indoor light from the room and this triggers physical perceptions like visual comfort such as the agent feels dark or light, For example, the occupant perceives light intensity of the room and compares with a reference of the external illuminance threshold. If the illuminance extracted from the simulation tools is less than the threshold, the agent interacts with the light device to turn on. The output of the light device is then resend to the simulation for the next time step.

Case Study

To test the platform, a small case study is conducted. The educational building which consists of four adjacent multi-user office is selected to test the coupled simulation. It is located in Epinal, France.

 Each office had one external wall with window facing NorthEast direction and has a rectangular shape with a floor area of 206.3 m 2 .

 The offices are occupied by 1 to 3 persons in this study depending on the purpose of the office. Its 3D view is shown in Fig. 4.

 The simulation coupling is conducted at the room level. The simulation period is for a whole year (from January to December 2019).

 The weather data used for this simulation is extracted from online source.

 The time step for this simulation is set 10 min.

Simulation and Results

The model has been made applied to a simple case study, with one occupant controlling the lighting in an office room. The control of the temperature was done using a thermostat controlling a HVAC (Heating, Ventilation and air conditioning) systems, maintaining temperature in the range of 22-23 0 C.

The activity executed when the agent is in the office room is a compound activity: It contains several repeating workframe competing for execution. The first one is to simulate the work task that the occupant does (with some delay) and the second one pertains to turning the lighting on/off. The two workframe are triggered by the value of the room light level and also by the belief they set, to avoid repeating execution.

So, when the illuminance of the room is less than the threshold, the agent adds a belief to its belief base meaning that he needs light, and that triggers an action with the lighting device to light on. Result of this from BRAHMS simulation environment is shown in Fig. 5: In the timeline view of agents, the location of the agent is shown at the top, while below its workframe (in blue) and activities (in green, or orange for compound activities). The occupant execute a main workframe that corresponds to his day routine: like at arrival, departure and concerning with the illuminance. All these periods are implemented using activities. Using stochastic values for the duration of these activities enable to create randomness for the arrival, lunch and departure. A clock object is added to the multi-agent system to send notification for the period of the day (morning, afternoon, evening) changes.

The simulation was run over a year with a time step of 10 minute interval. The whole year simulation result is difficult to represent in a single illustration, hence a sample result is extracted to show the relation of the various features as in the Fig. 6. The figure shows how the occupant reacts to change indoor illuminance, and how it influences the energy consumption in an office building, which is the determinant factor in the lighting device status.

The occupancy schedule is shown with the white area generated by a blue broken line, and the occupant behavior schedule is represented with the green area created by a small green broken line, which varies depending on the value of the illuminance indicated by the purple line. For example, when the agent departs from the office for lunch or belief that the illuminance is beyond the threshold (9:00 to 11:00 and 15:00 -17:00), they try to switch off the light, else the reverse will happen. Lighting and occupancy value is represented by a Boolean number (0 for off, and 1 for on).

Fig. 6. Lighting relationship with illuminance and occupancy

The energy consumption using co-simulation, which considers dynamic occupant behavior, is much lower than that of simulation considering occupancy factors in deterministic or predefined schedule as presented in Fig. 7. 30 to 40% energy consumption saving is expected by integrating dynamic occupant behavior. Fig. 7. Occupant behavior Impact on electricity consumption in lighting and equipment.

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORKS

The main contribution of this study is to test the applicability and relevance of our approach in modeling the occupant's behavior and co-simulation environment. The key concepts are to employ three types of entities: area, occupants and devices. The latter two implement their behaviors using work-frames that compete for execution. The capacity to recursively embed the workframe in activity seems very promising to simply describe occupant behaviors.

The case study shows that this modeling approach enables us to create a simple case. The results confirm the literature: occupants' behavior can have a big impact on energy consumption, even in a simple case.

This case study has also shown some limitations of the Brahms multi-agent environment. The major one is the inability to run several workframe in parallel. This is completely realistic for cognition-intensive activities (e.g. reading), but when dealing with modeling of building occupants, it is very important to process perceptions continuously, in parallel with the workframe execution. Another limitation is also the poor expressivity of Brahms language (e.g. there is currently no support for more than two operands or for nested arithmetic expressions). The maintenance status of the Brahms software is also a concern for us.

We are therefore planning to develop a new simulation package specifically adapted to building occupants that would keep the good aspects of Brahms while overcoming its limitations.

In future works, we aim at working with more complex simulations to test the scalability of our modeling approach. An open issue is also to create a robust reference model for inter-occupants interactions (e.g. how they take into account the action of other neighbor occupants).

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Occupant type of activities influencing building energy performance.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Data flow of BRAHMS and Energyplus co-simulation framework.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. MAS to Energy Performance Simulation.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. 3D view of the building

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Simulation result of an occupant behavior example lighting control

Acknowledgments the author wants to acknowledge the financial support of CPER FORBOIS 2-2016-2020 project. Secondly, the author also acknowledge to Campus France and the Ethiopian Ministry of Science and Higher education for their financial support.