Frédéric Torterat
email: frederic.torterat@umontpellier.fr

Brahim Azaoui
email: brahim.azaoui@umontpellier.fr

Katherine Ruprecht
email: katherine.ruprecht@etu.univ-montp3.fr

Collaborations in Early Childhood: Towards Other paradigms ? Les Collaborations en Petite Enfance : vers d'autres paradigmes ? Editorial / Éditorial

Version française à la suite

Introduction

Literacy development is vital for children's learning and participation in school, and for future participation in the work market and in society. A large body of educational research has shown that children's family SES (socio-economic status; in particular parents' education, but also books and other resources in the home) is one of the most influential factors in predicting academic achievement [START_REF] Sirin | Socioeconomic status and academic achievement: A meta-analytic review of research[END_REF][START_REF] Hattie | Visible learning: A synthesis of over 800 meta-analyses relating to achievement[END_REF][START_REF] Myrberg | Direct and indirect effects of parents' education on reading achievement among third graders in Sweden[END_REF]. For instance, 10-year-old children from high SES homes have shown higher reading achievement than children from homes with few resources [START_REF] Mullis | PIRLS 2001 International Report[END_REF]2007;2017). Research has also shown that aspects of children's home literacy environment (HLE), such as parents' reading related activities with their children in pre-school age (e.g., reading books, telling stories, singing songs) or parents' own positive attitudes towards reading may influence children's literacy development from an early age on [START_REF] Mullis | PIRLS 2001 International Report[END_REF]2007;2017). The relationship between the HLE and children's literacy development has remained positive even after socio-economic status (SES) is controlled for [START_REF] Esmaeeli | Contribution of family risk, emergent literacy and environmental protective factors in children's reading difficulties at the end of second-grade[END_REF][START_REF] Støle | The importance of parents' own reading 10-year-old students' reading achievement in the Nordic countries[END_REF]. In an equity perspective, it is therefore vital to explore such possible protective or compensating factors for children's reading development, especially for children who are at risk of reading difficulties in later school age. One of these at-risk groups is known as Family Risk of reading difficulties (FR). The term FR children refers to children with a history of reading difficulties within the family, such as having at least one parent or an older sibling with reading difficulties [START_REF] Snowling | Oral language deficits in familial dyslexia: A meta-analysis and review[END_REF]. Independent of which language these children speak and learn to read, the FR children show poorer pre-school emergent literacy skills and are at higher risk of developing reading difficulties in later school age than children without such a risk (Non-FR families) [START_REF] Snowling | Oral language deficits in familial dyslexia: A meta-analysis and review[END_REF]. In addition, the HLE in FR families, especially with low SES, has been reported being not as rich as the HLE that Non-FR families provide for their children [START_REF] Dilnot | Child and environmental risk factors predicting readiness for learning in children at high risk of dyslexia[END_REF][START_REF] Esmaeeli | What can Parents' Self report of Reading -Difficulties Tell Us about Their Children's Emergent Literacy at School Entry?[END_REF].

This study

The main aim of this article is to explore these promising, and possibly protective factors (such as the HLE) that may help to promote children's early literacy development, which consequently can have a positive effect on their later reading skills at school. Reading is a complex developmental skill involving the interaction of different factors at different levels: genetic, cognitive, and environmental [START_REF] Pennington | From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders[END_REF]. Accordingly, these factors influence the development of children's emergent literacy skills, which are prerequisites for the development of later literacy skills. For example, FR, as a proxy for genetic and environmental factors, may operate as a risk factor that can increase the risk of reading difficulties because it can negatively influence not only the HLE but also children's emergent literacy and later literacy skills [START_REF] Esmaeeli | What can Parents' Self report of Reading -Difficulties Tell Us about Their Children's Emergent Literacy at School Entry?[END_REF][START_REF] Pennington | From single to multiple deficit models of developmental disorders[END_REF][START_REF] Van Bergen | The intergenerational multiple deficit model and the case of dyslexia[END_REF]. Environmental factors such as the HLE, however, can operate as either/or both risk and protective factors. For example, [START_REF] Esmaeeli | Contribution of family risk, emergent literacy and environmental protective factors in children's reading difficulties at the end of second-grade[END_REF] found that the HLE can be considered as a potential protective factor against risk factors such as FR and emergent literacy difficulties. For this purpose, we sum up some important findings from two studies based on the "On Track" project [START_REF] Lundetrae | Protocol: 'On Track', a grouprandomized controlled trial of an early reading intervention[END_REF] to elaborate our understanding about the vital and long-lasting role of HLE in children's both early and later literacy development. Study 1 investigates the relation between three domains of HLE, children's code-related emergent literacy and parents' FR statuses while accounting for parents' education. The three factors of HLE are consisted as (I) access to print; (II) reading related activities at home; and (III) parents' own reading interest and habits. This multifactorial model tests the role of HLE as a protective factor against the risk of FR for children's emergent literacy outcomes at the onset of formal reading instruction [START_REF] Esmaeeli | A Model of the Home Literacy Environment and Family Risk of Reading Difficulty in Relation to Children's Preschool Emergent Literacy[END_REF]. Study 2 aims (a) to investigate the association between the HLE and children's emergent literacy skills with second grade reading skills [START_REF] Esmaeeli | Contribution of family risk, emergent literacy and environmental protective factors in children's reading difficulties at the end of second-grade[END_REF], and (b) and to test the role of HLE as a protective factor for later reading skills by adding the FR status in this model.

Methods

Participants

Our sample was a sub-sample from the longitudinal project "On Track". Altogether, 1,171 six-year-old children joined the project at the beginning of Grade 1, which is the onset of formal reading instruction in Norway. Second-language speakers, children with known disabilities or those who had participated in any known language or literacy program were excluded from our sample. In addition, children whose parents did not consent to their participation, did not provide information on their own reading difficulties status or answered "I don't know" in response to this question were excluded from our sample as well. For Study 1, the sample consisted of 794 children (mean age = 6.22, SD =.28; boys = 48.5%). For Study 2, besides the above-mentioned exclusion criteria, children from the schools that were randomly assigned to the intervention by the "On Track" project were excluded, and the final sample was 208 children (mean age = 6.21, SD =.28; boys = 45%).

Procedure

As first grade is the onset of formal education in Norway, schools usually invite parents to attend a welcome meeting. At this meeting, the research group gave parents both written and oral information about the project and invited them to take part in the "On Track" project. Parents also received a parental consent form and a questionnaire regarding demographic information, the HLE and FR status to be completed later at home. At the beginning of first grade, participating children were individually tested by eighteen trained researchers in emergent literacy skills, using digital tablets. For Study 2, children were also tested in literacy skills at the end of second grade.

Measures at the beginning of Grade 1

Parents' questionnaire Parents answered a questionnaire regarding their educational level, the status of their own reading difficulties (referred to as FR status), their HLE, in addition to the gender of the child and the years of kindergarten attendance. (a)

Parents' education: For Study 1, parents who had completed a university degree were considered to have a high educational level, while those with a diploma from upper secondary school or less were considered to have a low educational level. For Study 2, we made a sum score of parents' educational level. (b)

FR status: For both Study 1 and Study 2, a positive response to the questions on the status of parents' own reading difficulties from either the mother or father was sufficient to identify as FR. The term 'Reading difficulties', which refers to specific problems with word reading, is a familiar term for Norwegian parents as it is frequently used in schools and media. Moreover, we discussed this term at the welcome meeting with parents. (c) HLE: The measure of home literacy was adapted based on previous research [START_REF] Burgess | Relations of the home literacy environment (HLE) to the development of reading-related abilities: A one-year longitudinal study[END_REF][START_REF] Niklas | Home literacy environment and the beginning of reading and spelling[END_REF][START_REF] Torppa | Modeling the early paths of phonological awareness and factors supporting its development in children with and without familial risk of dyslexia[END_REF]: (1) "How many children's books do you have at home?" (1 "None" to 5 "More than 40"). (2) How often do you take your child to a public library? (1 "Never" to 5 "Several times a week"). (3) How old was your child when you first started reading to her or him? (1 "We never read to our child" to 5 "Before the age of two"). ( 4) How often do you read to your child? (1 "Never" to 5 "Several times a week"). (5-6) How often do fathers/mothers themselves read (a) books and (b) newspapers and magazines (1 "Never" to 5 "Several times a week"). ( 7) "I only read if I have to" (1 "Disagree completely" to 4 "Agree completely").

For Study 1, a three-factor model of the HLE was made by confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) in Mplus 8 (Figure 1). In Study 2, the factor score of this HLE model was obtained and saved in Mplus for further analysis.

Emergent literacy skills

Children's preschool emergent literacy skills were tested at the beginning of first grade because first grade is the onset of formal education in Norway.

Letter knowledge: This task consisted of 15 items with multiple-choice questions. For each item, the child was asked to listen to a prerecorded letter sound on the tablet and then respond by pressing one of four letters shown on the touch screen. Cronbach's α = .85.

Phoneme isolation: This task consisted of eight items. For each item, an object was first shown on the tablet screen. The examiner named the object while pointing at it. The child was then asked to produce the first sound of the word. The examiner scored the child's response directly on the tablet. The task was automatically discontinued if a child failed two subsequent items. Cronbach's α = .92. Blending task: This task consisted of eight items with increasing difficulty. For each item, a set of phonemes forming a word was presented orally by the examiner in the correct order but were pronounced separately. Then, the child was asked to "blend" the phonemes, i.e., put them together to form the corresponding word. The task was automatically discontinued if a child failed two subsequent items. Cronbach's α = .86.

For Study 1, a construct of code-related emergent literacy skills was made by CFA including Letter knowledge, Phoneme isolation and Blending task. Vocabulary: This test was an abridged version (20 out of 40 words) of the Norwegian vocabulary test [START_REF] Størksen | Norsk vokabulartest (NVT) for barn i overgangen mellom barnehage og skole. Psykometrisk vurdering av en nettbrettbasert test[END_REF]. A picture appeared on the screen, and the child was asked to name it. Cronbach's α = .83. In Study 2, a construct of emergent literacy was made by CFA using Letter knowledge, Phoneme isolation, Blending task and Vocabulary.

Measures at the end of Grade 2

Word reading 1: This test consisted of 14 items, and the time limit was two minutes. Four orthographically similar words were represented following a picture. The child was asked to read all the words as fast as possible and to tick the word that matched the picture. The test was suspended after two minutes. Cronbach's α = .74. Word reading 2: This test consisted of 78 sets of four words (word chains) joined together. Students were asked to separate each word from the next by inserting a vertical line after each word that they identified. The time limit was 5 minutes. We provided three practice sets of word chains. The score was the number of correct sets where all four words were correctly identified. Cronbach's α = .84. For Study 2, we used the factor score of these two tests.

Statistical analysis

Structural Equation Modeling (SEM) was conducted in Mplus 8 using a least squares estimator (WLSMV), which is a robust estimator that does not assume a normal distribution and provides the best option for modeling categorical or ordered data [START_REF] Muthén | Mplus user's guide[END_REF]. CFI, TLI and RMSEA were used for testing of the model fit: for CFI and TLI values equal to or greater than .95 and for RMSEA values equal to or below .05 are preferred [START_REF] Byrne | Structural equation modeling with Mplus: Basic concepts, applications, and programming[END_REF].

Results

Descriptive statistics

Study 1: Table 1 shows the descriptive for the whole sample (n=794) and for the groups of children with and without FR, as well as the results of the significance tests of the differences between these two groups. In the group without FR, both the mothers and the fathers reported a higher level of education than those in the FR group. In addition, the group without FR reported significantly richer HLE, in all components. Moreover, children without FR performed significantly higher than those with FR in all three components of code-related emergent literacy skills: letter knowledge, first-phoneme isolation and blending.

Table 1

Parents' education and the HLE measures: descriptive statistics for the whole sample, children with and without FR and the group comparison of means with effect sizes * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001. 1 Cohen's d [START_REF] Lenhard | Calculation of Effect Sizes[END_REF]; 2 Parents' level of education: 0 = secondary school; 1 = university/college.

Note. This Table is retrieved from [START_REF] Esmaeeli | A Model of the Home Literacy Environment and Family Risk of Reading Difficulty in Relation to Children's Preschool Emergent Literacy[END_REF].

Study 2: Table 2 presents the descriptive for the whole sample (n=208) and for the groups of children with and without FR, and the results of the significance tests of the differences between these two groups. There were differences in parents' education, Phoneme Isolation, Blending Task, and both Word Reading 1 and 2 between children without FR and children with FR (this sample was the sub-sample of the Study 1).

Correlations

Study 1: The correlations between the variables are shown in Table 3. All three factors of the HLE were correlated negatively with both maternal and paternal FR statuses. As expected, these factors of the HLE were also positively associated with maternal and paternal education. In addition, children's preschool code-related emergent literacy skills were negatively correlated with maternal and paternal FR statuses but positively correlated with both maternal and paternal education, and with the three factors of the HLE.

Table 3 Correlation between measures and latent factors for the whole sample * p < .001.

1 RD = reading difficulties 2 Factor Score

Note. This Table is retrieved from [START_REF] Esmaeeli | A Model of the Home Literacy Environment and Family Risk of Reading Difficulty in Relation to Children's Preschool Emergent Literacy[END_REF].

Study 2: Table 4 presents the correlations between the variables. The HLE was correlated with emergent literacy skills, word reading tests, and parents' education but not with FR status.

HLE and children's preschool code-related emergent literacy skills (Study 1)

The aim of Study 1 was to explore the relation between the three domains of HLE and children's code-related emergent literacy skills and parents' FR statuses while accounting for parents' education in a multifactorial model. Maternal and paternal FR statuses, their education and the three domains of HLE were added as direct and indirect predictors of children's code-related emergent literacy skills (Figure 1). The model fit the data adequately: RMSEA =.023; CFI =.992; TLI =.991.

Figure 1

Note. This model is retrieved from [START_REF] Esmaeeli | A Model of the Home Literacy Environment and Family Risk of Reading Difficulty in Relation to Children's Preschool Emergent Literacy[END_REF].

As Figure 1 shows there is positive association between all the three domains of HLE and children's code-related emergent literacy skills, although both maternal and paternal FR statuses are directly and negatively linked with children's coderelated emergent literacy skills. Neither of the indirect paths from parents' FR statuses to children's code-related emergent literacy skills is significant.

HLE, children's preschool emergent literacy skills and later reading skills (Study 2)

The Study 2 aimed a) to investigate the association between the HLE and children's emergent literacy skills at the beginning of first grade with reading skill at the end of second grade, and b) to test the protective role of HLE in an extended model by adding the FR status into the former model. First, parents' education, the HLE and emergent literacy skills were added as direct and indirect predictors of second grade reading skills while controlling for the child's gender and years in kindergarten (Figure 2). This model fit the data adequately (RMSEA =.028; CFI =.993; TLI =.987). Second, this model was extended by adding parents' FR status (Figure 3; The model fit the data adequately: RMSEA =.023; CFI =.995; TLI =.992).

Figure 2

Figure 3 As shown in Figure 2 there are positive associations between parents' education, the HLE, children's preschool emergent literacy and their later reading skills at the end of second grade. In addition, all indirect paths from parents' education, the HLE, and emergent literacy skills to second grade reading skills are significant. However, Figure 3 shows that FR status is directly and negatively linked with both parents' education and children's second grade reading skills but not with the HLE and emergent literacy skills. Further, neither of the indirect paths from FR status to children's emergent literacy skills and second grade reading skills is significant.

Discussion

Overall, the results of both Study 1 and 2 suggest that investing in parents' involvement as the HLE may impact on the development of children's preschool emergent literacy skills and consequently on their later reading skills at school. These findings will be discussed below.

HLE and children's preschool code-related emergent literacy skills (Study 1)

First, as shown in Figure 1, maternal and paternal FR statuses as risk factors can impact directly and negatively children's emergent literacy skills including letter knowledge, and phonemic awareness before onset of reading instruction. The negative associations between FR status and children's preschool emergent literacy skills remain significant even after controlling for the associations between parents' education and the home literacy environment. This means that having a parent with a history of reading difficulties is a risk factor for the development of children's emergent literacy skills long before starting school. These findings indicate that if parents report a history of reading difficulties, we should be concerned about the child's emergent literacy development at early age on. Second, and more importantly, in this model (Figure 1), we can see that the association between the HLE and children's preschool emergent literacy skills is significant and positive while controlling for parents' educational level and the direct and indirect associations between FR statuses. This finding supports the vital and protective role of the home literacy environment in the development of children's preschool emergent literacy skills even in the context of FR, where there is a history of reading difficulties within the family. This means that children's emergent literacy skills can be improved via such a dynamic environmental factor as the HLE, which includes the three domains reading-related activities at home (e.g., reading books with or to the child), access to print (i.e., how parents exposure the child to the world of reading by providing children's book and reading materials in the household, for example), and parents' own reading interest and habits (e.g., parents as a reading role model for the child and how they appreciate reading as a pleasure activity for themselves and their children). In summary, these findings support that the home literacy environment may enhance children's emergent literacy at an early age, even in the context of family risk of reading difficulties. Finally, all these three domains of the HLE (reading-related activities, access to print, and parents' own reading interest and habits) are positively related to each other; therefore, they can have impact on each other. This means that parents with higher reading interest and who read for themselves more often, may provide more reading material at home and read more often to their children as well. This finding supports that parents should be encouraged to not only read to and with their children from an early age, and to provide reading material and children's books at home, but also, they should act as role models for reading and talk to their children about how they appreciate reading as a pleasure activity.

HLE, children's preschool emergent literacy and later reading skills (Study 2)

First, the associations between parents' education, the HLE and children's preschool emergent literacy are positively significant in Model 2 (Figure 2). These findings highlight the role of early home literacy environment in children's preschool emergent literacy development, in line with our Study 1. More importantly, the pathway from children's emergent literacy skills to their second grade reading skill is the only pathway that is significant while controlling for the child's gender, the year of kindergarten attendance, their parents' education and the HLE. Furthermore, the indirect pathways from the HLE to children's second grade reading skills is significant as well (HLE → Emergent literacy skills → Second grade reading skills). This finding supports the long-lasting effect of early home literacy environment on children's later reading skills through their preschool emergent literacy skills. Altogether, findings from Model 2 suggest that an enhanced home literacy environment may boost children's preschool emergent literacy skills, which in turn can improve their later reading skills at school. In other words, children's later reading skills can be improved by involving their parents in early promotion program such as home literacy programs that emphasize on providing reading material and children's books at home, reading-related activities and enhancing parents' interest and motivation for such important activities at home. Second, Figure 3 shows that when we add FR status (having a parent with reading difficulties) to model 2, family risk and children's preschool emergent literacy skills are the only pathways that directly and negatively link with children's second grade reading while controlling for the child's gender, their years of attendance in kindergarten, parents' education and the HLE. These findings, in line with Study 1, support the vital role of children's preschool emergent literacy development in the context of family risk. In other words, improving children's emergent literacy skills at early age can positively impact on their later reading skills at school even with a history of reading difficulties within the family. Third, as can be seen in Model 3, family risk is neither associated with the HLE nor with children's emergent literacy skills when we control for parents' education. Furthermore, neither of the indirect paths from FR status to children's emergent literacy skills and second grade reading skills is significant. A possible interpretation of these findings might be that parents with higher education (independent of having a history of reading difficulties or not) are aware of the important role of reading-related activities at home and consequently provide more reading material for their children and read more often with/to their children. Finally, the relationships between the HLE, emergent literacy skills and second grade reading skills not only remain positive but somehow are at the same level of strength compared to Model 2. These results, taken together, support that the HLE may have a vital role directly for the development of children's emergent literacy skills, and indirectly for their later reading skills through emergent literacy skills at preschool age. Such dynamic and modifiable environmental factors like an enhanced HLE and involvement of parents in the HLE intervention, can promote children's emergent literacy development at preschool age, and consequently their later reading skills at school.

Implications

Based on the findings from Study 1 and 2, we find that family risk may impact negatively children's preschool emergent literacy development and their literacy outcomes after two years of formal reading instruction. More importantly, we have also identified possible protective factors like the HLE, which is modifiable and can be enhanced by effective intervention programs to improve children's emergent literacy skills at an early age and their later reading skills at school. We suggest that even parents with little education or who have reading difficulties may contribute positively to their children's reading development if these parents enjoy reading with their children. If the parents like reading, they may pass positive attitudes towards leisure reading on to their children and engage their children in shared reading, and thus help them develop better reading skills. Moreover, kindergartens and schools must take on more of the responsibility to help not only children but also their parents to learn how shared reading and reading related activities can be fun and enjoyable. This is particularly true for children from disadvantaged families, and involving families to support their children's literacy development, should be part of any early protection or intervention program.

Encounters with parents as situated interactions

This paper reflects on social relationships between parents and professionals in Early Childhood Education (ECE), as they unfold on a daily basis, when parents drop off children in the morning and pick them up in the afternoon. The conditions in which these relations are negotiated have attracted increasing attention in a context of growing expectations and institutional demands of rich symmetrical partnerships between families and education providers. Indeed, from a policy perspective, building partnership is now recognised as an integral part of the work of ECE, established in an increasing number of rules, norms and expectations for workers in the field (OECD, 2006). The concept of partnership refers to collaborative relationships, including shared decision-making, between the roles of parents and educators. Parents are, therefore, positioned symmetrically and involved in a process of "co-education"-a role that has been conferred on them by educational institutions and framed under the responsibility of others -.

As evidenced in the literature, establishing a partnership with parents is not easy and can be associated with numerous challenges. The conditions within which such relationships evolve are often complex and characterised by multiple practical contingencies. Encounters between parents and educators occur daily, particularly at morning drop-offs, when parents bring their children to the education Centre, and at pick-ups in the afternoon. These encounters are often very brief, although they may involve multiple participants and activities that are not necessarily compatible with the co-education project. These encounters may also materialise in formal meetings, but these tend to be rare and usually only occur yearly. Relations with parents are not always necessarily smooth and collaborative. As mentioned in the literature, they may also include power relations and conflictual educational norms or a sense of legitimacy [START_REF] Bouve | Confrontation des pratiques éducatives entre familles et crèches collectives[END_REF][START_REF] Cheatham | Listening for details of talk: Early childhood parent-teacher conference communication facilitators[END_REF]. When families come from cultural backgrounds different from the dominant local one, epistemic asymmetries and cultural misunderstandings may occur (Nunez, Moscono and Ogay, 2016;[START_REF] Scalambrin | Votre enfant dans ma classe ». Quel partenariat parents-enseignante à l'issue du premier entretien ?[END_REF].

From the perspective of professionals, encounters with parents can be seen as demanding situations, requiring specific and complex interactional competences.

According to Young and Miller (2004, p. 520), interactional competences can be defined as the set of knowledge and skills that participants in interactions deploy to collectively configure the resources they need to engage in specific social practices. These competences include the ways in which participants collectively accomplish actions in society, how they configure and delineate units of actions, and how they manage turn-taking rules, direct their attention, introduce new topics, take on and negotiate social roles, or use specific categories for referring to participants. Interactional competences should not be thought of as an exhaustive repertoire of skills associated with individuals who are isolated from each other. On the contrary, they should be conceptualised as situated resources distributed among the participants involved in an interaction and made visible through the circumstances in which they are being enacted [START_REF] Pekarek Doehler | Interactional Competences in Institutional Settings: from School to the Workplace[END_REF].

In fact, very little is known about how relations between educators and parents are enacted in practice or how a partnership might be created in observable social encounters and interactions. Our program's objective was to address these issues by investigating two main avenues of research. The first objective was to identify and recognise the sorts of interactional competences mobilised by early childhood educators when they encounter parents. The research questions developed here were the following: What are the typical interactional patterns and characteristics of parent-educator encounters in early childhood education? What kinds of challenges do educators face when interacting with parents? What interactional competences are required and mobilised to respond to these challenges? The second objective of the research programme was to assist early childhood educators in the development of their interactional competences for encountering parents. The research questions developed here can be formulated as follows: How can interactional competences be supported and developed through continuing education and training programmes? How can video-based interaction analysis contribute to such training?

Investigating interactional competences as empirical accomplishments

To answer these questions, we used video-based interaction analysis in an empirical research design comprising two consecutive phases. The first phase consisted of a video-ethnographic inquiry focusing on the encounters between parents, early childhood educators and children in ECE centres in Geneva, in French-speaking Switzerland. These interactions were videorecorded in standard work situations over two consecutive weeks. Our observations focused on three typical interactions: a) morning drop-offs, when parents bring their children to the educational centre, b) afternoon pick-ups, when parents collect their children, and c) formal yearly meetings with parents, when educators provide feedback on children's development and progress.

The second phase of the research used an intervention-training design with videobased interaction analysis to assist qualified childhood education professionals reflect on their interactional skills and competences. Data from the videoethnographic phase served as training material for small groups of volunteer educators, with the aim of expanding their interactional competences in relation to parent and family interactions. Educators were introduced to interaction analysis and the methodological principles associated with its analytical mentality. They were also trained to select and transcribe video data from their work and to perform a collective analysis of these data with the group. Finally, they prepared and delivered feedback about their training to a larger group of colleagues working in the same institutions. This empirical research took place in two childcare facilities in the canton of Geneva between Spring 2018 and Spring 2020. Data consisted of video recordings of typical multimodal interactions that took place during the two consecutive phases of the project. For the second phase of the project, consisting in training sessions involving professionals, participants were given access to video recorded data in which they were featured as active participants. During the training period, participants could select relevant excerpts of these recordings, connected to practical problems they experience about daily encounters with parents at work.

Video-ethnography phase

Key findings of the research program

The coded and transcribed data were then analysed collectively through data sessions within the research team from an interactional and multimodal perspective. These analyses led to the production of the findings presented below.

Readers can refer to the publications for a more detailed presentation.

Identifying interactional competences in drop-off and pick-up encounters

A first set of results concerned the analysis of social encounters that could be observed during drop-off and pick-up situations involving children and their parents. On this particular topic, various features of the interactional competences mobilised by educators were highlighted. A first characteristic of drop-off and pickup situations involving children and families is that social interactions that take place during such circumstances appear as complex, fragmented, discontinuous and distributed over a very large number of participants. In these circumstances, professionals must constantly reconfigure their participation, orienting themselves in a plurality of actions carried out in parallel or alternately [START_REF] Garcia | Travailler « sur le pas de la porte » : le cas des interactions avec les parents dans le champ de l'éducation de l'enfance[END_REF][START_REF] Wolter | L'analyse interactionnelle comme levier de compréhension du caractère complexe et invisible du travail : le cas de l'éducation de la petite enfance[END_REF].

A second characteristic of drop-offs and pick-ups concerns their temporally constrained and highly ritualised nature. In order to 'save time', parents and educators develop specific routines and adjust to scripted scenarios that are tailored to the characteristics and needs of the child. These routines allow them to ensure smooth and serene transitions for children (Zogmal & Filliettaz, 2021). However, these routines and their implementation may vary from one child to another and according to the participants involved in interaction. They also require from the participants an ability to adjust to the contributions of the other co-participants.

A third characteristic of drop-off and pick-up interactions refers to the collaborative processes at work in their accomplishment. Our analyses show that parents take an active role and exert agentic power to influence the conditions in which these dropoff and pick-up rituals are carried out (Filliettaz, Zogmal, Garcia, Bimonte, Billett & Flückiger, forthcoming). A fine-grained analysis of the data shows that parents contribute in multiple ways to the facilitation of children's drop-offs and pick-ups and their resistance. First, they exert agency through their contributions to the management of time and to the sequential progression of interactions. As shown in the audio-video recordings, parents often initiate units of actions that significantly progress the way encounters unfold. They decide when it is time to pass the child from arm to arm, and also introduce new topics in conversation or stray from topics introduced by other participants. Another way for parents to exert influence in the unfolding encounters is through framing and context management. Parents are actively shaping the contexts in which they leave their children in the mornings or reunite with them in the afternoon. These frames, enacted in collaboration with educators, can be either public with intersubjectivity understood by all participants, or they may be accomplished in a discreet or hidden manner, addressed exclusively to a subset of participants. A third way for parents to endorse active roles in dropoff or pick-up encounters is to use face work and interpersonal exchange as the interaction unfolds. As shown in the data, more or less symmetrical or asymmetrical relations may be built during such encounters. Parents and educators may agree on ways to categorise children's actions or attitudes, or negotiate these with more or less agreement. Depending on the circumstances of such negotiations, a climate of collaboration or distrust may emerge.

Children are not absent from these transition routines. On the contrary, they are both an object of discourse and active participants in their own right. Analyses carried out about drop-off and pick-up encounters show that educators spend a large part of their activity addressing children concerned and supporting them in active forms of participation (Garcia & Zogmal, forthcoming). Children are also being evaluated during "feed-back" routines observable during pick-up interactions. Their experiences during the day are being reported to parents and evaluated by educators (Zogmal, forthcoming b).

Identifying interactional competences in yearly meetings with parents

A second set of results concerned the analysis of the social encounters that take place during yearly meetings held between professionals and parents, in the absence of the child. These formal meetings unfold in a sequentially ordered way. They also include a large number of assessment statements, not only of the child's behaviour and development, but also oriented towards the parents' educational actions or the work of the professionals within the institution. In such contexts, statements such as "it's normal" can carry different meanings, depending on the circumstances in which they are produced (Bimonte & Zogmal, forthcoming). The interactional competences of educators observable during formal meetings with parents also concern the production of "advice". Such recommendations are sometimes requested by the parents, and sometimes spontaneously proposed by professionals. They are generally not only address to parents but co-constructed with them. They may concern different aspects of the child's development and constitute opportunities for both parents and professionals to assume various and often asymmetrical epistemic positions (Filliettaz & Zuppiger, forthcoming). Finally, yearly meetings with parents often include narratives, produced in a 'theatrical' or emphatic manner, which allow participants to reenact children's actions and make their voices accessible to participants. Thus, although children are usually absent from the frontstage of parents-educators meetings, they are reported as active and living participants within the talk shared by adults (Zogmal, forthcoming a).

Developing interactional competences in video-based interaction analysis sessions

A third set of results concerned the analysis of data recorded during the training sessions involving the researchers and groups of volunteer educators from the two institutions. The analysis of this material has highlighted various aspects of interactional competences as they are likely to be developed during video-based interaction analysis sessions in continuing education programs (Filliettaz, Garcia & Zogmal, forthcoming a).

A first feature of these competences is that they build on multiple sorts of knowledge, as they are revealed when interaction unfolds during collective data analysis sessions (Filliettaz & Zogmal, 2021;[START_REF] Garcia | Compétences interactionnelles et relations des éducateurs de l'enfance avec les parents : la formation comme ressource pour la recherche[END_REF][START_REF] Garcia | Penser les continuités entre recherche et formation professionnelle dans les métiers socio-éducatifs : le cas des compétences interactionnelles des éducatrices de l'enfance dans les relations avec les parents[END_REF]Garcia, , 2021a[START_REF] Garcia | Interagir au travail et en situation de formation : le cas des relations avec les parents dans le champ de l'éducation de l'enfance[END_REF][START_REF] Zogmal | De l'observation des enfants à l'analyse interactionnelle: contributions de la recherche à la formation continue des éducateurs et éducatrices de l'enfance[END_REF]. This knowledge is co-constructed by researchers and professionals during training sessions. It is transformed in the course of the co-analysis sessions and are subject to frequent shift of perspective as the analytical work progresses. This knowledge relates not only to the relational work with the parents, but more generally to the observable interactional processes as well as to the method of analysis being experienced and learnt. Finally, this knowledge gives rise to personal opinions and educational norms within the professional community concerned.

A second feature of the interactional competences as developed in the training sessions concerns how professionals in early childhood education account for time constraints in their work when engaging with audio-video recorded material during training sessions (Filliettaz, Garcia & Zogmal, forthcoming b). A systematic analysis of collective data sessions involving professionals shows that educators have the ability to recognise time constraints as a structuring ingredient of their encounters with parents. Different sorts of categories are used during collective analysis sessions for referring to time and temporality. A first set of categories refers to the sequential organisation of encounters with parents. Educators commenting on video recordings of encounters with parents orient to rhythmic patterns of drop-off and pick-up encounters, as well as the sequential progression of actions composing such interactions. They also often make visible the complex range of actions that are conducted simultaneously or alternatively. A second set of categories is related to mechanisms of "typicality". Beyond the situated nature of the encounters they analyse, educators make visible the sorts of typical or generic expectation and resources they use when engaging in drop off and pick-up encounters. These may apply to parents and children, but also to particular staff members or institutional practices. Finally, results also show that professionals have the ability to perform specific reasoning or cognitive resources when facing time constraints in their encounters with parents. For instance, they display anticipation skills as well as a capacity to adapt permanently to the evolving contingencies of interactions as they unfold.

Playing "drama" constitutes a third aspect of the interactional competence as it is observable in video-based training sessions. When commenting on their forms of engagement in interactions with parents, educators noted the "theatrical" nature of their discourse and the use of their "voice" to exaggerate specific characteristics of the encountered situations (Filliettaz & Zogmal, forthcoming). Similarly, the topic of the "image" of the self and the institution also emerged as a major concern for educators when commenting on the filmed interactions. Interacting with parents is a matter of "presentation of self" and of delivering a positive image of the institution as parents are present and observe educators at work (Garcia, forthcoming).

Conclusion: partnership relations with parents as situated accomplishments

The research conducted so far shows that collaborative relations between parents and educators in ECE do not derive from declared institutional intentions, but are the results of local and highly contextual actions which are observable in face-toface interactions between participants. As shown in our data, encounters between parents and professionals are shaped by recurrent social practices that generate routines, habits and cultural expectations. However, to navigate the numerous contingencies of each local situation, both parents and educators have to adapt to each single occurrence of drop-off and pick-up. To do so, they have to display and enact elaborated forms of interactional competences, which help them to progress their course of action, renegotiate a joint understanding of the context in which their interactions take place, share knowledge about such contexts, and utilise a complex range of semiotic resources available in the environment. It is through these interactional competences that partnership relations constructed daily.

To make such interactional competences visible and to allow professionals to develop their capabilities when encountering parents at work, it is important to foster collaborative forms of research, in which educators are not only considered as objects under scrutiny, but also as active co-participants to the production of research findings. Developing training programs closely interconnected to research methods can serve as fruitful resources to bridge the gap between research and practice. From our own practical experience in this project, it seems that the concepts and methods that define the principles of video-based interaction analysis can be applied fruitfully to the field of continuing education in early childhood. Not only is it a method through which researchers can investigate how interactions unfold in work situations and settings, but it can also be used by professionals as a way to reflect on their own work practices. From what we have observed in our data, professionals seem to have the capacity not only to enact and mobilise interactional competences but also to recognise and identify these competences when describing and commenting on what they did in video recordings of their work. From there, the opportunities for reflection provided by video-based interaction analysis can be seen as a promising avenue for seeing training not only as a secondary and consecutive outcome of research, but as an integral object of investigation.

Introduction

Les interactions que les professionnels de la petite enfance établissent avec l'enfant sont primordiales dans la construction de ce dernier, et possèdent un impact considérable sur le bien-être et le développement des enfants (OCDE, 2015, p.134)

Interactions adulte-enfant en crèche

Les crèches constituent un contexte typique de socialisation et de développement langagier des jeunes enfants. Les professionnels de la petite enfance se situent en effet dans un rôle de passeurs « entre le petit enfant, sa famille et le grand monde » (Giampino, 2016, p. 41) Si l'on se penche spécifiquement sur l'interaction de tutelle3 , il convient de noter qu'il existe très peu d'études comparant ces interactions dans divers contextes, dont la crèche [START_REF] Giraudeau | Interactions de tutelle dans différents modes d'accueil préscolaires[END_REF]. L'indépendance progressive de l'enfant est au coeur du métier de l'éducateur de jeunes enfants, même lorsqu'il s'agit d'ouvrir à la diversité linguistique [START_REF] Caporal-Ebersold | Language policy and practices in early childhood education: A case study of an English-French bilingual crèche in Strasbourg[END_REF]. Cette question de la place des langues vivantes en crèche se pose de plus en plus, notamment dans une optique de valorisation et légitimation des langues des familles [START_REF] Laubier | Albums bilingues et plurilingues, lectures du soir et intergénérationnelles à la crèche départementale Anatole-France[END_REF][START_REF] Hélot | De la pluralité des langues et des cultures en crèche. Ou comment accueillir l'altérité[END_REF][START_REF] Rezzoug | Oser la transmission de la langue maternelle[END_REF]Vandendroeck, 2005) [START_REF] Ferré | Analyse multimodale de la parole[END_REF] des participants dans une forme de métissage théorique (Kerbrat-Orecchioni, 2005) comprenant les outils d'analyse des discours en interaction ainsi que les apports des études en sémiotique sociale [START_REF] Kress | Multimodality: a Social Semiotic Approach to Contemporary Communication[END_REF] et celles relevant de la gestuelle coverbale [START_REF] Mcneill | Hand and mind. What gestures reveal about thought[END_REF]. L'ensemble de ces outils ont permis de prêter une attention à la multimodalité des échanges incluant, en plus des éléments vocauxverbaux, toute forme de matérialité du discours : gestes, regard, prosodie, affichages, objets du quotidien, jouets, etc.

Résultats

Il peut paraitre assez paradoxal qu'une crèche se donne pour projet d'ouvrir à la diversité linguistique des enfants qui n'ont aucun rapport avec la langue de l'auxiliaire de puériculture, alors que les interactions enfants-adultes sont au coeur des actions du métier, et contribuent d'une manière ou d'une autre au développement de l'enfant. C'est une forme de pari qui semble être lancé par rapport aux acquisitions langagières, et à l'idée d'un environnement (la crèche) qui est supposé être sécurisant (comment un enfant peut-il se sentir en sécurité si des échanges se font dans une langue inconnue ?). Nous verrons les ressources et stratégies linguistiques et multimodales que l'auxiliaire de puériculture mobilise pour relever ce pari au service des enfants.

Le rôle de l'alternance codique dans la réussite des échanges exolingues

Rôle des gestes coverbaux et du langage des signes pour bébé en situation exolingue en crèche

Le geste coverbal, c'est-à-dire associé à la parole, apparait clairement comme un support à la compréhension et l'interaction. Constamment dans les échanges, la place des gestes est tout aussi importante que les schèmes d'interaction. Ainsi, si nous reprenons l'énoncé du tour 8, nous voyons comment l'auxiliaire de puériculture accompagne son explication de gestes mimant les actions et l'organisation des activités (Fig. 1). R. ah, si, [luego] (Fig. 1a), iremos al [jardin] (Fig. 1b) con la moto [y con el coche] (Fig. 1c). Y [hacer escalara] (Fig. 1d) y [el tobogan] (Fig. 1e) [START_REF] Batista | Rôle et évolution des combinaisons bimodales au cours de l'acquisition du langage. Données chez l'enfant francophone âgé de 18 à 42 mois[END_REF][START_REF] Morgenstern | Le développement multimodal du langage de l'enfant : des premiers bourgeons aux constructions multimodales[END_REF]. Le principe éducatif retenu par la crèche a permis d'observer et documenter l'usage du langage des signes pour bébé. Les rares travaux que nous rencontrons sur ce langage sont pour l'essentiel en faveur de son usage tant il aurait des effets positifs sur le plan linguistique et développemental (Acredolo & Goodwin, 2009) ou de la socialisation langagière (Pizer, 2004). Notre analyse montre tout au moins que l'utilisation de ce code, qui se rapproche selon nous des gestes emblématiques dans le sens où ils répondent à une certaine convention spécifique à chaque langue 7 , contribue à la réalisation de l'interaction. Ils sont produits et compris aussi bien par les adultes que les enfants de la crèche, voire innervent progressivement la communication familiale comme le signale une mère lors d'un des entretiens réalisés.

Lorsque produits en synchronie avec la parole, ils peuvent être rapprochés d'une forme de bilinguisme-bimodalité [START_REF] Estève | Approche bilingue et multimodale de l'oralité chez l'enfant sourd : outils d'analyse, socialisation, développement[END_REF] à base espagnole. Partant, ils offrent une convergence multimodale qui facilite la compréhension du message [START_REF] Colletta | Le Développement de la parole chez l'enfant âgé de 6 à 11 ans : corps, langage et cognition[END_REF]. Qu'ils puissent représenter une aide à la compréhension est à mettre en lien avec le fait que ces mêmes gestes sont utilisés par l'ensemble des adultes de la crèche dans les interactions en français. Dès lors, ils constituent une forme non documentée, dans les études sur les communications exolingues, de « bouées transcodiques » [START_REF] Moore | Bouées transcodiques en situation immersive ou comment interagir avec deux langues quand on apprend une langue étrangère à l'école. Acquisition et interaction en langue étrangère[END_REF] auxquelles peuvent se raccrocher les enfants. Moore montre comment le recours aux langues premières dans les échanges exolingues permet notamment de représenter au final un repère stable pour l'enfant, et d'autant plus sécurisant que ce dernier se retrouve parfois à les produire pour exprimer un besoin.

Conclusion

Au terme de cette étude, il apparait que la situation exolingue observée dans la crèche bilingue ne semble pas constituer un obstacle pour les interactions avec les enfants ni pour leur épanouissement. Les quelques exemples analysés dans cet article montrent que le recours à l'alternance codique et aux gestes, qu'ils soient coverbaux ou qu'ils relèvent du langage des signes pour bébé, contribuerait à faciliter l'accès au sens. Les résultats permettent de montrer que l'usage d'une langue inconnue avec des enfants en crèche ne constitue pas un frein à leur épanouissement et au développement langagier : les enfants produisent des énoncés en français, enrichissent leur palette de sons. L'alternance codique assure leur bien-être, en cas de conflit.

Dans ce contexte d'interaction, le langage des signes pour bébé présente un réel intérêt dans ce type d'ouverture à la diversité linguistique puisqu'il possède un caractère stable et sécurisant dans le passage entre les deux langues. Cela dit, le développement de ce langage, souvent promu car il serait un accélérateur d'acquisition langagière [START_REF] Acredolo | Baby signs. How to talk with your baby before your baby can talk? Mc Grawl Hill[END_REF], semble donner raison aux propos de Mollo-Bouvier (1995) lorsqu'elle signalait une certaine dérive dans l'éducation des jeunes enfants qui recherche à tous prix une précocité des acquisitions et des apprentissages. Aussi nous parait-il essentiel que soient engagées des recherches sur l'effet de l'utilisation du langage des signes pour bébé sur les différentes étapes de l'acquisition du langage en comparant des enfants exposés ou pas à ce type de gestes.

7

Cela dit, leur catégorisation peut être discutée car il est aussi possible de le rapprocher des gestes coverbaux en ce qu'ils sont produits principalement en synchronie avec la parole. Cette discussion fait partie d'une réflexion en cours (Azaoui, en préparation). This study presents an emergent device of collaboration between Nursery School and families operated in the last decade of the 20th century, with a renegotiation over the last thirty years. The author analyses kindergarten notebooks introduced at the turn of the 21st century, as a retranslation into action of educational initiatives which aim at reducing school inequalities from the earliest years of schooling, by forstering the relationship between school and families. Based on school materials, the cross-analyses of the contents and uses of pupils' notebooks expose the gradually predominant and more expert educational role required from parents.

Nursery School, notebooks, parents, pedagogy, inequalities

Préambule

Cette contribution porte sur l'étude de l'évolution de deux types de cahiers de maternelle, « du médiateur » et « de vie », introduits dans la dernière décennie du XX e siècle dans les écoles maternelles françaises. Leur recours s'inscrit comme une retraduction en actes de politiques éducatives engagées à cette période, pour lesquelles l'enfant est mis au centre des préoccupations des acteurs éducatifs afin de réduire les inégalités scolaires [START_REF] Rayou | L'enfant au centre, un lieu commun pédagogiquement correct[END_REF]. D'une part, la dotation de cahiers dès la prime scolarisation est décrite par les professionnel•le•s comme un des moyens de répondre à l'enjeu officiel et prévalent de socialisation précoce des jeunes élèves au langage scolaire. D'autre part, la circulation régulière de ces supports écrits entre la classe et le domicile des enfants est pensée comme une manière de créer les conditions de relations renforcées de l'école avec les familles, telles que le promeut dès lors l'institution. L'analyse sociohistorique conduite croise une étude diachronique de cahiers de maternelle archivés au musée national de l'éducation de Rouen , de publications d'une revue pédagogique mensuelle Éducation Enfantine destinée aux professionnel•le•s de la petite enfance (de 1903 à 2002) ainsi qu'une étude synchronique composée d'une enquête menée par recueils de cahiers, par questionnaires et par entretiens entre 2017 et 2019. Les contenus et les usages des cahiers « du médiateur » et « de vie » sont décrits dans ce texte à partir d'extraits idéaux-typiques des polarités identifiées par croisement des données de notre corpus. Les traits saillants des reconfigurations des cahiers sont soulignés ici sur la période des deux dernières décennies du XX e siècle à nos jours. Ils conduisent à discuter la place prépondérante prise par un rôle pédagogique toujours plus expert à tenir par les parents eux-mêmes à l'intérieur d'un discours puérocentré maintenu dans les cahiers de maternelle des années 1990 à nos jours.

Contexte général

Au cours des trente dernières années, l'École maternelle s'est transformée avec un redécoupage de la scolarité à l'école primaire par cycles arrimant la maternelle au curriculum scolaire [START_REF] Garnier | Préscolarisation ou scolarisation ? L'évolution institutionnelle et curriculaire de l'école maternelle[END_REF]. À partir de 1995, les programmes officiels de maternelle se succèdent. Ils sont marqués par petits paliers par l'introduction progressive de l'approche par compétences puis par la mise en oeuvre de la loi de refondation de l'école (MEN, 2013) valorisant un parcours d'apprentissage toujours plus individualisé dès les premiers âges scolaires. Des années 1990 à nos jours, le langage reste toutefois au coeur des enjeux de la maternelle avec une injonction officielle qui perdure de mettre en oeuvre des situations d'enseignement dans lesquelles le développement des dispositions langagières de l'enfant est primordial [START_REF] Montmasson-Michel | Enfance du langage et langages de l'enfance. Socialisation plurielle et différenciation sociale de la petite enfance scolarisée[END_REF]. C'est dans ce contexte d'une redéfinition des enjeux de l'École maternelle que les nouveaux cahiers « du médiateur » et « de vie » trouvent leur place et se développent dans les pratiques scolaires (Dabestani, 2022a). Ils sont décrits par les professionnel•le•s comme des « supports de langage » grâce à la fréquentation par les élèves des traces de leurs activités scolaires qu'ils y retrouvent (dessin, collage, peinture, photographie, etc) et dont ils en seraient les producteurs et les destinataires, reprenant ici l'expression de Leleu-Galland au sujet des cahiers de vie [START_REF] Leleu-Galland | Les cahiers, mémoires de vie : cahiers, albums, carnets, journaux et autres supports de notation et de tracés[END_REF]. Les professionnels de la maternelle sont conjointement enrôlés au cours des trente dernières années dans des actions visant le renforcement de leurs relations avec les familles : par exemple via le déploiement du dispositif de la mallette des parents8 , puis après 2013, par l'injonction de livrer aux parents des carnets de suivi des apprentissages dès la petite section de maternelle, ou encore par la mise en place de dispositifs tels que « Ouvrir la classe aux parents pour la réussite des enfants »9 . Dans ce contexte persistant d'injonction à la collaboration entre éducateurs, les cahiers d'élèves sont ressaisis par les professionnel•le•s pour un usage en dehors des murs de la classe : ils sont peu à peu utilisés comme des supports d'information et de communication avec les familles au tournant du XXI e siècle (Francis, 2000) et leur usage se développe plus largement ensuite [START_REF] Dabestani | La délimitation des traces d'activités scolaires dans les cahiers en circulation entre école maternelle et familles : une codification qui ne va pas de soi[END_REF]. On pourrait communément penser que la multiplication des modes de communications et des messages adressés aux familles, directement (réunions et rendez-vous avec les parents, mise en oeuvre des dispositifs institutionnels) ou indirectement (via des ressources écrites) a créé les conditions d'une relation plus resserrée entre éducateurs. Celle-ci semble de surcroit être favorisée par la spécificité d'une école maternelle déjà inscrite dans l'entre-deux des socialisations scolaire et familiale [START_REF] Thouroude | L'école maternelle : une école de l'entre-deux[END_REF], comme le rappelle d'ailleurs sa dénomination. Pourtant, le caractère individuel et la portée des normes éducatives transmises par les professionnel•le•s semblent générer des tensions sur les modes d'éducation parentale (Mackiewizc, 2010) et sur la division des rôles éducatifs dès les premiers âges scolaires [START_REF] Mangez | Les familles défavorisées à l'épreuve de l'école maternelle[END_REF]. La récente enquête dirigée par Bernard Lahire montre d'ailleurs à nouveaux frais que « l'école maternelle n'est pas un jeu d'enfant », ni pour les jeunes élèves socialement les moins favorisés dont les acquisitions langagières restent fragiles à l'issue de leur scolarité maternelle, ni pour leurs parents qui n'accordent pas tous le même sens aux expériences scolaires de leurs enfants [START_REF] Lahire | Enfances de classe. De l'inégalité parmi les enfants[END_REF] et ne partagent pas les mêmes repères scolaires [START_REF] Dabestani | Quel est le sens donné aux enjeux d'apprentissage et aux savoirs inscrits dans les cahiers de maternelle ? Thèse de doctorat en sciences de l'éducation sous la direction de Stéphane Bonnéry[END_REF](Dabestani, , 2022b ; ;[START_REF] Mangez | Les familles défavorisées à l'épreuve de l'école maternelle[END_REF]. L'analyse des cahiers de maternelle que nous avons conduite contribue ainsi à étudier l'évolution des discours scolaires adressés aux familles et à analyser leurs usages actuels en classe comme aux domiciles des enfants.

Approche retenue

Dans cette recherche doctorale, les rapports de pouvoir et les processus complexes de ce qui « se vit aux frontières » entre instances de socialisation [START_REF] Bernstein | Pédagogie, contrôle symbolique et identité : théorie, recherche, critique[END_REF][START_REF] Bernstein | Pédagogie, contrôle symbolique et identité : théorie, recherche, critique[END_REF] ont été étudiés en croisant une analyse diachronique et synchronique des définitions sociales de l'enfance et du rôle pédagogique parental [START_REF] Chamboredon | Le "métier d'enfant". Définition sociale de la prime enfance et fonctions différentielles de l'école maternelle[END_REF] inscrits dans les cahiers de maternelle. L'étude diachronique vise à saisir l'évolution du sens donné aux cahiers et à mettre à jour ce qu'Isambert-Jamati nomme « des pratiques qui n'ont pas perdu leur raison d'être, mais qui ont cessé de la manifester clairement » (Isambert-Jamati, 1995, p. 132-133). Nos différents corpus permettent d'identifier l'inscription et les glissements de sens (Isambert-Jamati, 1995, p. 134-137) du discours puérocentré véhiculé par des dispositifs non prescrits officiellement, qui relèvent d'habitus professionnels installés et banalisés [START_REF] Bonnéry | Les définitions sociales de l'apprenant : approche sociologique, interrogations didactiques[END_REF]. Les interprétations des textes officiels et d'une revue professionnelle sont en effet le produit, au fil du temps, de tout un travail de sélection, de reconfigurations et de l'accent mis sur tel ou tel aspect en fonction des publics scolaires qu'ils accueillent et de l'idée que les enseignant•e•s s'en font (Isambert-Jamati, 1995, p.9). La notion de discours pédagogique [START_REF] Bernstein | Pédagogie, contrôle symbolique et identité : théorie, recherche, critique[END_REF](Bernstein, /2007, p. 55-73) , p. 55-73) est à appréhender dans un sens large qui ne se restreint ni au seul mode direct de communication, ni à l'enceinte scolaire. Elle englobe les messages inscrits dans les supports (Bonnéry, 2011, p. 69) : les cahiers sont les « réceptacles » des définitions sociales de la petite enfance scolarisée et, lorsqu'ils sont donnés à voir aux parents, ils « supportent » des modes d'actions parentales requises par l'institution. Pour l'étude diachronique, un premier corpus est composé de 121 cahiers produits entre 1891 à 2000 et issus de la collection du musée national de l'éducation de Rouen 10 . Un second est constitué de livrées de la revue pédagogique Éducation Enfantine dépouillées de 1903 à 2002 11 et complète la collection des cahiers du MUNAÉ qui dépend des dons réalisés. L'étude synchronique comporte deux types de données recueillies entre 2017 et 2019. Les contenus et les usages des cahiers de maternelle ont été collectés par déclaration des enseignant•e•s (n=472) dans une enquête par questionnaire. Les résultats chiffrés permettent de souligner des « traits saillants » des cahiers mais aussi de nuancer les analyses que nous avons menées à partir des cahiers recueillis, en variant les âges scolaires et les contextes sociaux dans douze écoles des académies de Créteil et de Lille (n=103 cahiers). Des entretiens ont été conduits dans ces écoles auprès de 25 enseignantes et de 27 mères.

Le rôle des parents peu à peu inscrit dans les fiches pédagogiques des professionnel•le•s

À partir de la deuxième moitié du XX e siècle, les enseignantes de maternelle deviennent peu à peu des spécialistes de la petite enfance et sont porteuses de nouvelles valeurs éducatives auprès des familles [START_REF] Chamboredon | Le "métier d'enfant". Définition sociale de la prime enfance et fonctions différentielles de l'école maternelle[END_REF]. De 1965De à 1973, la revue Education enfantine consacre ainsi une rubrique intitulée « Conseils aux parents ». Un discours d'expertise est proposé dans chacune des rubriques. Il est composé de messages à tenir par les enseignantes aux parents et sont illustrés par des « études de cas » analysées sous un angle psychologique (« Colette la bougonne » 12 , « Nathalie, une voleuse ? » 13 ). Les conseils sont centrés sur des pratiques éducatives familiales à transformer, à normaliser (au sujet de la relation de la mère à l'enfant, du rôle du père par exemple). La rubrique se transforme après 1973 à une période où les familles des classes sociales plus favorisées adhèrent plus largement à l'école maternelle [START_REF] Chamboredon | Le "métier d'enfant". Définition sociale de la prime enfance et fonctions différentielles de l'école maternelle[END_REF], comme l'indique d'ailleurs le numéro de la revue publiée en septembre 1973 : « Les années précédentes, nous avons exposé divers aspects de cette relation du psychologue avec les parents […] Mais on constate que les parents émettent des avis… » (ÉE, 1973, n°1, p.21). Dans la revue, les liens entre le développement psychologique de l'enfant et les traces des activités menées en classe sont dès lors mis en exergue. De 1973De à 1978, , , 1987, n°4, p. 8). En prolongement de cet usage scolaire, la revue propose d'en garder une trace (photographies, transcription des productions orales des enfants entre autres) dans un cahier dédié pour que les enfants puissent s'en ressaisir comme supports de langage entre eux. La revue suggère en outre de valoriser cette expertise pédagogique scolaire auprès des familles en mettant la poupée 14 et son cahier en circulation aux domiciles des enfants, comme un « pont, jeté entre l'école et la famille » (ÉE, 1987, n°4, p. 9). Dès la première décennie du XXI e siècle, son rôle d'objet de la relation entre école et familles semble même devenir prévalent. En 2001, la revue consacre en effet un numéro spécial sur les liens entre école et familles dans lequel le recours à la mascotte y figure au premier plan. En 2011, le rapport de l'Inspection Générale de l'Éducation « l'école maternelle » mentionne de même son usage dans la rubrique « Relation école-familles » comme un levier pour mobiliser les parents dits les plus éloignés de l'univers scolaire (IGEN, 2011, p. 134). Dans notre corpus de données recueillies entre 2017 et 2019, les enseignantes se réfèrent d'ailleurs uniquement aux contenus produits par les familles pour les présenter à l'enquêtrice. Elles insistent sur leurs sollicitations faites aux parents pour « accueillir la mascotte » à leur domicile et pour les inciter à produire des traces (photographies, dessins, écrits) à destination de la classe, comme c'est le cas du message ci-après adressé aux familles en première page du « cahier de Loup » :

Les cahiers contemporains de la mascotte contiennent ainsi les traces de la vie du jouet scolaire aux domiciles des parents tandis que les traces des mises en scène scolaires sont absentes. Aucun contenu ne rend compte des usages scolaires et des interactions langagières menées en classe à partir de la mascotte et de son cahier éponyme, même s'ils sont évoqués implicitement dans la présentation faite aux parents : « Nous en parlerons en classe » (Extrait du Cahier de Loup, classe de PSM/GSM, 2018-2019). Pour notre corpus, une quasi-inversion des contenus des cahiers de la mascotte semble ainsi s'être opérée, les traces des activités scolaires ayant laissé leur place à celles produites par les familles, sans pour autant rendre visible aux parents les manières de conduire les interactions de tutelle [START_REF] Bruner | Le développement de l'enfant. Savoir faire[END_REF] pour en faire usage des cahiers dans le sens scolairement requis. Les cahiers de vie diffèrent à ce titre de ceux de la mascotte. Leur étude diachronique et synchronique souligne en effet que la présence des traces d'activités menées en classe a été maintenue dans les cahiers de vie des années 1990 à 2019, bien qu'ils aient été eux aussi ressaisis comme supports d'un mode indirect de relation de l'école aux familles.

Un cahier « de vie » de l'élève pour un travail parental expert

La revue Éducation Enfantine consacre aux cahiers de vie de nombreux encadrés et dossiers dans la dernière décennie du XX e siècle. Ils sont avant tout décrits comme des objets produits par et pour l'enfant, comme des supports de langage et de socialisation à l'écrit, répondant ainsi aux orientations institutionnelles de réduction des inégalités scolaires (ÉE, n°5, janvier 1990).

Le cahier de vie de Félix (grande section, 1995-1996) présenté ci-après est extrait du corpus collecté au MUNAÉ. Il fournit d'abord un exemple concret d'un enfant mis au centre de préoccupations partagées entre enseignant•e•s et parents (figure 2), comme l'indiquent la dénomination du support (« Mon cahier de vie »), la photographie du garçon en première page ainsi qu'un message de l'enseignant•e écrit à la première personne du singulier pour symboliser la parole de l'enfant (« je serai très fier ») : [le cahier de vie] peut revêtir de nombreux aspects, tant en ce qui concerne le fond que la forme ; il conviendra de moduler selon la population, ses souhaits et ses possibilités, l'usage que l'on veut en faire […] : ce peut être un cahier, un album, une reliure, etc. Il peut aller et venir entre la famille et l'école, ou n'être remis qu'en fin d'année, les parents peuvent participer ou pas à son élaboration, etc. Longue vie au cahier… (ÉE, n°5, janvier 1990, p. 40) Les contenus du cahier de Félix correspondent toutefois à ceux présentés par les parents enquêtés ayant eux-mêmes été scolarisés dans la dernière décennie du XX e siècle dans une école maternelle française. Ses contenus recoupent aussi les propos recueillis par entretiens auprès d'enseignantes déjà en exercice au tournant du XXI e siècle. Leur description de cahiers pointe la place prépondérante prise alors par les fiches individuelles d'activités (« on collait du papier sur du papier », « c'étaient des fiches, des fiches, des fiches »). Leur témoignage fait aussi écho à un usage renforcé de fiches individuelles à cette période déjà identifié dans une autre recherche [START_REF] Joigneaux | La diffusion des fiches à l'école maternelle[END_REF], les cahiers répondant de manière pragmatique à une logique d'archivage (Dabestani, 2022a). Le cahier de vie de Félix témoigne ainsi d'un usage important de fiches individuelles qui prend le pas sur le projet initial de productions créatives et 15 Il serait par exemple nécessaire de décrire les usages de ces cahiers dans les classes empruntant aux techniques Freinet, diffusées à cette période par l'Institut Coopératif de l'École Moderne (ICEM) et dans les instituts de formations [START_REF] Dabestani | Quel est le sens donné aux enjeux d'apprentissage et aux savoirs inscrits dans les cahiers de maternelle ? Thèse de doctorat en sciences de l'éducation sous la direction de Stéphane Bonnéry[END_REF]. Les deux fiches illustratives marquent l'inscription des enfants dans un groupe social et leurs activités : « Dans la CLASSE j'explore, je manipule… la colle, la peinture, le sable, l'eau, les jeux… » (Figure 3). Les photographies sont là encore pensées comme un moyen pour les enfants de recontextualiser les apprentissages scolaires dans un temps différé de la situation d'enseignement, en classe ainsi qu'à leurs domiciles (« le regarder avec maman, papa… », Figure 3) grâce à des écrits professoraux précisant le langage scolaire : « Dans la classe, j'explore, je manipule… ». l'univers et à la langue scolaire des informations les plus complètes possibles (les photographies permettant à leurs yeux de s'adresser aux parents ne maitrisant pas la langue française et de rendre compte des activités scolaires au plus près de leur réalisation). L'extrait du cahier d'Hamina ci-après (PSM, REP, figure 4) contient ainsi plusieurs photographies imbriquées, cette organisation étant récurrente dans l'ensemble de son cahier. Sur 69 pages, 64 sont des fiches illustratives, pour un total de 273 photographies :

Discussion

Les « nouveaux cahiers » présentés tendent à s'adresser à des parents déjà experts pédagogiques, tout en resserrant la relation entre éducateurs sur le discours consensuel d'une préoccupation commune pour la petite enfance scolarisée. Pour le cahier du médiateur (de la mascotte), il s'agit dès lors pour les parents de livrer précocement non seulement un enfant scolarisable [START_REF] Glasman | Parents' ou 'familles' : critique d'un vocabulaire générique[END_REF] The present article discusses the interplay between bilingualism and Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), i.e., a neurodevelopmental disorder that negatively affects children's language expressive and comprehension abilities. Given the close resemblance between the developmental language trajectories of typically developing L2 children and language-impaired children, the risk of confounding a delayed yet normal development with a language disorder in the L2 population is very high. The current study discusses assessment tools and good practices that (Italian) school educators and health practitioners could adopt to disentangle these two dimensions early and accurately. It also reviews studies showing the 'protective' effects of bilingualism on DLD and, in this light, emphasizes the relevance of home language maintenance for a harmonic and complete bilingual development of L2 children with and without language impairments. L2 children, bilingualism, Developmental Language Disorder (DLD), clinical markers, L2 Italian, screening tools, parental questionnaires, home language maintenance

Italian L2 development and language impairments

Over the last years, the Italian school system has witnessed a constant increase in the number of pupils with non-Italian citizenship. Nowadays, they represent around 10% of the whole school population and form a heterogeneous group, including children born abroad to non-Italian parents, adopted with international procedures, and those of nomadic ethnic groups (MIUR, 2020). However, more than 60% of these pupils are second-generation immigrants, who are exposed to a minority language at home from birth, and subsequently to Italian mainly through daycare, kindergarten, and community life (at around three years of age). Although it generally starts as a second language, Italian rapidly becomes their dominant language: as shown by a number of studies (Valentini, 2005;[START_REF] Chini | Repertori e usi linguistici nell'immigrazione. Una indagine su minori alloglotti dieci anni dopo[END_REF], indeed, as they start kindergarten or school these children generally prefer to use the community language also at home. Furthermore, most of them do not receive any formal instruction in the minority language, which tends to be deployed in an exclusively oral dimension and demoted to the status of heritage language [START_REF] Kupisch | Terminology matters! Why difference is not incompleteness and how early child bilinguals are heritage speakers[END_REF]. As a consequence, their competence in the L1 might remain quite low: in a study reporting the results of a survey conducted on over 1500 6 to 7-year-old children with a migrant background, [START_REF] Arici | Che lingue conosci, ascolti, parli ? Una ricerca sugli usi linguistici dei bambini plurilingui[END_REF] observe that only half of these children have good or excellent comprehension skills in their home language, according to their parents, and even fewer are able to speak this language well, while little or no attention is paid to L1 literacy or exposure to written resources in the L1. The low competence in the family language seems to be attributable to the linguistic policies adopted at home, in which children, especially second-generation immigrants, tend to answer in Italian even when parents speak to them using the home language, and to the quality of input they receive in this language, which tends to be restricted to a very colloquial level. Combined with an often fragile L1 competence, delayed and insufficient exposure to the community language can deeply affect the developmental profile of L2 children, who may lag behind their monolingual peers across various language dimensions. The gap is especially evident in early childhood (3-6-years of age) when children with a migrant background typically engage in the process of learning Italian. The limitations are particularly manifest in vocabulary, which is smaller in size and quality in the bilingual population [START_REF] Bialystok | Lexical access in bilinguals: Effects of vocabulary size and executive control[END_REF]. However, difficulties also emerge in the oral expression of sophisticated morphosyntactic structures, such as Italian clitic pronouns [START_REF] Vender | How early L2 children perform on Italian clinical markers of SLI: A study of clitic production and nonword repetition[END_REF]. Phonological awareness, in comparison, appears as a spared domain in L2 acquisition, especially when the target language has a relatively simple phonotactic system. This is the case of Italian, where L2 children performed at the level of their monolingual peers across tasks of nonword repetition, rhyme detection, and spoonerisms [START_REF] Vender | Phonological Awareness across Child Populations: How Bilingualism and Dyslexia Interact[END_REF]. Importantly, there are striking similarities between the developmental language trajectories of L2 and language-impaired children, who both struggle with vocabulary and morphosyntactic abilities across different languages [START_REF] Håkansson | Developmental sequences in L1 (normal and impaired) and L2 acquisition of Swedish syntax[END_REF][START_REF] Paradis | Tense and temporality: Similarities and differences between language-impaired and second-language children[END_REF], 2004;[START_REF] Paradis | Grammatical Morphology in Children Learning English as a Second Language: Implications of Similarities With Specific Language Impairment[END_REF]. Preschool years are an especially critical age since, usually, it is in kindergarten that language impairments such as Developmental Language Disorder are first identified. Moreover, at this age predictors of future learning disabilities such as Developmental Dyslexia also tend to emerge. However, with L2 children, the risk of confounding some typical limitations of a developmental bilingual profile with actual language impairments is high. On the one hand, an excessive concern on the part of educators and parents could prompt a premature diagnostic process, which might result in the erroneous identification of a language disorder in these children -what is also called a mistaken identity [START_REF] Paradis | Grammatical Morphology in Children Learning English as a Second Language: Implications of Similarities With Specific Language Impairment[END_REF]. This is a feasible outcome due to the lack of norms for the bilinguals, who are often assessed with tools designed for and tested on the monolingual population (Bedore & Peña, 2008; but see [START_REF] Bedore | Understanding disorder within variation: Production of English grammatical forms by English language learners[END_REF] for a finergrained evaluation of the effectiveness of diagnostic tools in the bilingual population) 19 . On the other hand, a real impairment could be misinterpreted as a delayed L2 acquisition, resulting in a wait-and-see behavior on the part of educators and families, which could cause, in turn, a missed identity [START_REF] Paradis | Grammatical Morphology in Children Learning English as a Second Language: Implications of Similarities With Specific Language Impairment[END_REF].

Clinical markers of DLD

Since assessment tools and protocols for the diagnosis of language impairments are designed for monolingual populations, psychologists and speech therapists are often left with few resources for understanding whether a bilingual child is in need of special service, or whether instead her or his language development is following a normal path. Therefore, in an increasingly multilingual society, it is of utmost importance to identify specific tasks across language domains that may help the identification of language (or learning) disorders in bilingual children. This goal has especially been pursued by studies assessing L2 children's performance in clinical markers of DLD (previously called SLI, Specific Language Impairment), which are highly specific and sensitive diagnostic tools that assist in the accurate identification of this disorder. As for Italian, a recent study by [START_REF] Vender | How early L2 children perform on Italian clinical markers of SLI: A study of clitic production and nonword repetition[END_REF] investigated the performance of 120 early L2 Italian children with different L1s (40 L1 speakers of Albanian, 40 L1 speakers of Arabic, 40 L1 speakers of Romanian) and 40 age-matched monolingual children in two tasks recognized as sensitive clinical markers of DLD/SLI in Italian: object clitic production and nonword repetition, which measure morphosyntactic and phonological processing skills, respectively. The authors found significant qualitative and quantitative differences between the profiles of typically developing L2 children and DLD children in these two tasks. First, like children with DLD, L2 children underperformed their monolingual peers in the clitic production task. However, their typical error was the production of a non-target clitic (i.e., a clitic with wrong gender or number features), whilst DLD children typically omit the clitic altogether [START_REF] Bortolini | Clinical marker for specific language impairment in Italian: The contribution of clitics and non-word repetition[END_REF]. Even more importantly, while children with DLD are significantly impaired in nonword repetition (a marker that applies across several languages and is typically regarded as a purely verbal test), no differences were found between L2 and monolingual children on this task. 20These results suggest that, at least in Italian, it is possible to differentiate between L2 children and children with DLD. Specifically, a close inspection of their language profiles shows indeed that their resemblance is only superficial, and both clinical and educational practice should take advantage of these specificities of the two populations for ensuring more accurate diagnosis and targeted educational strategies.

Preschool L2 children and language development: the educators' role

Research on clinical markers has had a great impact on the development of tools for the diagnosis of language impairments but it has also led to the design of prediagnostic or screening tools that can be used by educators with preschool children. Educators, indeed, play a critical role in the early identification of potential deficits, as they inform the families about the presence of potential impairments in their children. Indeed, it is often in kindergarten, for DLD, and in primary school for learning disabilities, that educators identify children in need of special services and advise their parents about the opportunity of a clinical investigation of the children's language or learning profile. However, in increasingly multilingual classes where pupils have different language backgrounds and learning profiles, the task may be extremely challenging, and teachers might inadvertently contribute to the late identification of language impairments in bilingual children. A screening tool for language impairments in Italian is CLAD-ITA GAPS [START_REF] Vernice | CLAD-ITA GAPS: un test di screening delle abilità fonologiche e morfosintattiche in bambini con un Disturbo Specifico del Linguaggio[END_REF], a standardized test that can be administered by educators and parents to kindergarten children (4-5 years of age) when language impairments are suspected. The test is inspired by the English version of van der [START_REF] Van Der Lely | An investigation to validate the Grammar and Phonology Screening (GAPS) Test to identify children with Specific Language Impairment[END_REF], the GASP test, and adapted to the specificities of the Italian language and clinical markers. The CLAD-ITA GAPS test examines children's phonological and morphosyntactic/syntactic skills through two psycholinguistic tasks, i.e., nonword repetition and sentence repetition. As explained by the authors of the test, the choice of these two areas is motivated by the fact that they are especially compromised in children with DLD, as evidenced by research on clinical markers. 21Despite lacking a diagnostic value, the CLAD-ITA GAPS test allows nonprofessionals to highlight some difficulties in critical areas such as phonology and morphosyntax in very young children. Moreover, the administration of this screening tool to preschool and school children confirms that repetition tasks are a promising area for the identification of DLD at different stages of development. On the other hand, research has shown that typically developing L2 children are not impaired in nonword repetition. Therefore, the administration of such a test, in particular, may prove useful for differentiating between typical and atypical language profiles among L2 children. Another valid method for recognizing atypical language development in bilingual children consists in collecting precise data on their home language skills, as a low competence in the L1 might be a signal of language impairment [START_REF] Erdos | Predicting risk for oral and written language learning difficulties in students educated in a second language[END_REF]. This goal can be pursued through the administration of questionnaires to the parents, like The Alberta Language and Development Questionnaire (ALDeQ), developed by [START_REF] Paradis | Assessment of English language learners: Using parent report on first language development[END_REF] and specifically aimed at evaluating clinical markers of DLD/SLI in sequential bilingual children. The Italian version of the ALDeQ parental questionnaire has been adapted to Italian and tested by [START_REF] Bonifacci | Sequential bilingualism and specific language impairment: The Italian version of ALDeQ parental questionnaire[END_REF]. As in the original version, most questions aim at collecting information on children's development in the L1 and the L2. In particular, questions are organized in four sections collecting information on: A. the children's early development in the L1; B. their current L1 and L2 skills; C. behavioral patterns and activity preferences (aimed at investigating markers of other developmental disorders, often in comorbidity with DLD); D. family history information. The administration of this questionnaire to the parents of 18 sequential bilingual children with DLD/SLI and 105 typically developing children revealed that this tool has considerably high sensitivity and specificity indexes. As stated by Bonifacci et al. (2016: 50), the ALDeQ parental questionnaire is "a reliable instrument to be used for assessing sequential bilingual children for whom clinicians and educators are in doubt of possible language impairments". Therefore, educators too are now endowed with resources and tools that, especially if used in combination, may help them in the challenging task of identifying potential language impairments in L2 children and promptly advising parents about the need for further in-depth diagnostic evaluation.

Bilingual Children with DLD

When a bilingual child is diagnosed as suffering from DLD, one of the major concerns expressed by families is that exposure to two languages might worsen their linguistic development, aggravating their difficulties. Unfortunately, the prejudice that bilingualism can negatively affect the child's development is still quite widespread, with the consequence that parents of bilingual children with DLD are often advised to simplify the linguistic environment and to adopt a monolingual approach in communicating with their children. In most cases, this leads families to sacrifice their minority language and give up bilingualism, in the hope of allowing for better development of the majority language, which they perceive as more valuable since it is used in the community and at school. Although their concerns are well-understandable, it is of the utmost importance to emphasize that this decision not only will not reduce the child's language problems but, on the contrary, it might even be counterproductive, inducing negative emotional states that might hamper the whole family's psychological wellbeing. The fear that bilingualism can worsen the clinical picture of children with DLD, or that bilingualism could even be the cause of their language difficulties, is indeed in sharp contrast with the results of scientific studies, which suggest that exposure to two languages does not negatively hamper the linguistic development. Contrariwise, it has been shown that the weaknesses exhibited by bilingual children with DLD are very similar to those of monolingual children. [START_REF] Paradis | French-English Bilingual Children with SLI: How Do They Compare with Their Monolingual Peers?[END_REF], for instance, analyzed the spontaneous speech of French-English bilingual children with DLD (aged between 6 and 7 years old) comparing it to that of two groups of age-matched monolingual children with DLD speaking either French or English and examining, in particular, the use of tense and non-tense morphemes. Importantly, results showed that the three groups of children displayed similar patterns of development and similar difficulties, thus excluding that bilingualism can exacerbate their problems. Likewise, [START_REF] Gutiérrez-Clellen | Bilingual children with language impairment: A comparison with monolinguals and second language learners[END_REF] reported that Spanish-English bilinguals and English monolinguals with language impairment performed similarly in verb finiteness and nominative subject use in spontaneous speech production. This confirms then that the weaknesses observed in bilingual children are not caused by bilingualism, but rather they are simply a manifestation of the DLD. Besides excluding that bilingualism can determine more profound deficits in children with DLD, it has been found that it can even be beneficial. Tsimpli and colleagues (2017), for instance, reported that bilingual children with DLD tested in Greek L2 were even more accurate than Greek monolingual children with DLD in the production of clitic pronouns in both elicitation and narrative retelling tasks, as well as in a second-order Theory of Mind task. [START_REF] Boerma | Effects of developmental language disorder and bilingualism on children's executive functioning: A longitudinal study[END_REF] investigated the executive functions of monolingual and bilingual children with and without DLD, and they found similar deficits in selective attention and inhibition in the impaired children; however, when their (lower) competence in Dutch L2, the language used in the administration of the experimental protocol, was controlled for, bilinguals with DLD showed an advantage in both verbal and visuospatial working memory. All in all, these results thus indicate that bilingualism does not cause more profound deficits in children with DLD, but that it can rather act as a protective factor, ensuring compensation for their difficulties. It is then very important that families be aware of the fact that sacrificing bilingualism will not lessen their children's difficulties but will deprive them of the many benefits of bilingualism. The role of teachers, educators, and health practitioners is therefore crucial in spreading correct information and reassuring families, emphasizing the importance of maintaining the family language in all of its components in order to guarantee a harmonic and complete bilingual development of their children.

Conclusive remarks

In this contribution, we have dealt with the interaction between Developmental Language Disorder and L2 development, discussing the delicate issues concerning the identification of this disorder in bilingual children and the effects that exposure to two languages can have on children with DLD. We observed that due to the similarities in the language trajectories of children with DLD and L2 children which can render it difficult to distinguish between the two, it is highly recommended in the diagnostic procedure to take into account the children's performance in the clinical markers of this disorder (as nonword repetition, which is rather reliable across different languages) as well as the child's language history, considering, in particular, their age of onset and their quantity and length of exposure in both languages. We also observed that bilingual children with DLD should not renounce one of their languages, as bilingualism does not hinder their linguistic development or worsen their difficulties but it can on the contrary provide important advantages. Besides guaranteeing higher mental openness and better professional and cultural opportunities, speaking two languages can indeed be beneficial at the linguistic and cognitive levels as well. Families should thus never be advised to sacrifice their minority language for supposedly better development of the majority language: this does not only lack scientific support but it can determine situations of great discomfort, even causing the isolation of the child from the family environment and the social and cultural community life, while also preventing other siblings to grow bilingual as well. Not to mention the fact that in some cases the suggestion of replacing the family with the community language is not even an option, as in the case of parents who are not proficient in that language as they learned it in adulthood, and risk providing a poor-quality input. Families should instead be advised to continue to use the family language, offering their children a rich and diversified input, not only in the orality but also encouraging early home literacy environment practices. This will allow a harmonious bilingual growth of children, strengthening the family bond while also maintaining cross-generational relationships and preserving their cultural heritage.

Introduction

The empirical evidence does not support the notion of a foreign language disability [START_REF] Sparks | If you don't know where you're going, you'll wind up somewhere else: The case of foreign language learning disability[END_REF][START_REF] Sparks | Myths about foreign language learning and learning disabilities[END_REF] and the inclusion of students with special educational needs (SEN) in foreign language education becomes a social justice issue (Graham-Day et al, 2020, p. 136) since these students are often excluded and do not receive sufficient support. [START_REF] Schwarz | Learning Disabilities and Foreign Language Learning[END_REF], one of the pioneers in research on Foreign Language Education (FLE) for learners with special needs, once aptly expressed the reason why more interest should be paid to the area of FLE for SEN learners: "For the student unencumbered by a learning disability, foreign language study is indeed an enriching and rewarding experience. For the learning disabled student, however, it can be unbelievably stressful and humiliating"(p. 1). All students can benefit from foreign language instruction from a young age including students with disabilities (Kleinert et al, 2007) and the use of individualized FL education program plans with defined learning targets is suggested to help maximize learning for students with SEN [START_REF] Konrad | Setting clear learning targets to guide instruction for all students[END_REF]. Therefore, foreign language teachers must be prepared to meet the needs of all students in an inclusive setting "with the confidence provided them in strong pedagogically-based teacher preparation programs and through administrative support" (Lucero, 2020, p. xi). The aim of this paper is to examine the current situation related to foreign language teacher education and challenges faced by foreign language instructors in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina (BiH) in teaching different language skills to young children with special needs. This investigation highlights difficulties they encounter and shows strategies they use depending on types of special needs their pupils have. Data were collected using the responsive interview approach [START_REF] Rubin | Qualitative interviewing: The art of Hearing data[END_REF] and the credibility of this qualitative study is enhanced by participatory and reflective framework [START_REF] Roulston | Reflective interviewing: A guide to theory and practice[END_REF] provided by the investigators who are FL educational experts fully engaged in the education and training of preservice FL teachers in Serbia and BiH. Unfortunately, for the reasons that will be exposed in the following sections, we are not able to give a detailed overview of the FL pre-service teacher education in this field, since it is extremely reduced and not adapted to their future tasks. We will however aim to describe their efforts to fulfil their responsibilities, in spite of the lack of formally acquired knowledge in this nuanced and complex domain.

The situation in Serbia

In the Republic of Serbia, five state universities (Belgrade, Kragujevac, Novi Sad, Niš, and Novi Pazar) and several private higher education institutions offer programs for studying Foreign Languages, Literature and Linguistics. After completing a B.A. degree a student can choose to continue with postgraduate studies in order to obtain a master's degree. Master's graduates are expected to possess advanced knowledge of a specialized body of theoretical and applied topics. The most gifted students enroll in a Ph.D. program, which enables them to dedicate themselves to scientific research, but they can also focus on teaching technics and didactics. But so far there is not a single doctoral student researching foreign language learning by pupils with intellectual or physical disabilities in Serbia even though there are some published papers on challenges immigrants and children face living in multilingual environments [START_REF] Vučo | Migrant Crisis and Language Education. The Case of Serbia[END_REF]. Unfortunately, the courses both at the B.A. and master's levels are much more oriented towards theoretical issues than towards practical knowledge. Hence, the students learn much more about syntax, semantics, and literary analysis than about pedagogical methods. As a rule, they have only two onesemester methodology courses: one in the 4 th year of studies and one at master's level. In these courses, they learn about the teaching process, lesson planning, learning strategies, shapes of working with pupils. In addition, they also study the structure of lessons, forms of testing and evaluation. They become simultaneously familiar with traditional and modern teaching methods such as direct method, grammar translation method, audio-lingual method, immersion method, total physical response, communicative approach, and computer assisted language learning [START_REF] Davies | Success in English Teaching: A Complete Introduction to Teaching English at Secondary School Level and Above[END_REF]. However, they are never trained to apply these technical aspects to pupils with disabilities. The mandatory part of master's program is a school internship. This student teaching consists of observation and analysis of FLE lessons and other strategies for teaching. It also includes teaching carried out under the direct supervision of a high school teacher, who guides, motivates and helps students improve their work. At the same time, he/she assists them in writing curricula and organising the content of the readings. After obtaining his/her degree in education, a person who starts working as a teacher gets the status of a probationer. Thus, with the help of their assigned supervisors, graduates are prepared for autonomous educational and pedagogical work and for passing the licensure exam. This exam contains both the written and the oral part, in which a student must organise a lesson. The examining board consists of several experts (both in pedagogy and linguistics) and it evaluates the new teacher's readiness to start working independently and successfully. Interestingly, this certificate should confirm that the teacher possesses the following capacities, although some of them are hardly mentioned in the preparation program:

1. Planning, programming, implementing and evaluating educational and pedagogical work; 2. Observing and encouraging the pupils' development and progress; 3. Cooperation with colleagues, pupils' family and local community. This concerns, in particular, the situations of socially vulnerable families and Roma population whose children are not included in education (FRA, 2016); 4. The knowledge of official regulations and his/her rights and obligations; 5. Understanding the importance of the professional specialisation and continuous acquisition of new knowledge in order to improve his/her teaching results; 6. Being informed about different methods of inclusion of the special needs children in the teaching process, being capable of creating a supportive and cooperative atmosphere in the classroom, knowing how to organize special activities for facilitating the mastering of the subject, understanding the importance of individualizing the learning process for pupils with difficulties.

It must be mentioned that it seems that FL teachers are not sufficiently trained to teach and explain cognitively complex issues such as syntactic and semantic relations between words. Even children with no learning difficulties complain about the troubles they have in acquiring grammar and idiomatic constructions particularly when they do not need them for basic communication (which is their main motivation). The key point here is to know whether the prescribed programs are too ambitious or whether new methods are needed, especially the ones based on pragmatic and sociolinguistic grounds.

The situation in Bosnia and Herzegovina

The formal foreign language (FL) teacher education and training in Bosnia and Herzegovina is very similar to education in Serbia and the FLE programs do not prepare the future teachers to meet the needs of SEN children. Unlike Serbia, Bosnia and Herzegovina has a cumbersome educational set-up defined by 13 laws on Higher Education: two at the level of entities and District Brcko and 10 cantonal laws as a direct result of the post-war government organization. There are eight public universities (Bihać, Banja Luka, Tuzla, Zenica, Sarajevo, East Sarajevo, Mostar and "Džemal Bijedić Mostar") offering bachelor's and master's degrees in FL teaching. There are no national qualification standards directly aimed at FL teachers, and knowledge and competencies from the qualification standards for teachers in elementary and high schools do not include SEN education [START_REF] Feden | Standard kvalifikacije za pedagoško-psihološko-didaktičko-metodičko obrazovanje nastavnika na univerzitetima u Bosni i Hercegovini[END_REF]. Teachers are aware of the issues and difficulties related to a complex, but inefficient educational set-up. Institutes for Education in charge of elementary education are currently in the process of revising the curricula in order to propose changes to appropriate authorities including an introduction of mandatory pre-school education. The problems for FL teachers in BiH, like in Serbia, are centered around how to prepare specific programs for SEN children and how to organize teaching in the inclusive context. Personal assistants are approved for SEN pupils in some cases by the Ministry of Education, but in general parents must hire and pay them out of their own pocket to help their children at school. There are also public special education schools but there are no public school programs for the talented/gifted or the vulnerable. Very often additional classes are offered by external partners or NGO programs to try to fill the gaps left by the public system. Some public elementary schools have special teams to help adapt teaching programs for these children who are enrolled in general elementary school programs, but it is mostly the duty of the homeroom teachers or the individual FL teachers to modify and adjust their work. The number of students attending a particular class is reduced, if a SEN student is attending it. Pre-service teachers are aware that they are not trained to teach the SEN students (Dankić and Matic-Raguz, 2014) and efforts must be undertaken to correct this practice to both help teachers to identify and handle the challenges of working with children with different needs, and to meet the educational goals of all students attending foreign language classes.

An attempt to overcome the disadvantages and shortage in the teaching programs

As explained above, although the licensure exams both in Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina imply that teachers are prepared to work with special needs children, their pre-service training and practice actually do not provide any kind of preparation for this challenging activity. Naturally, teachers are aware of this lack of skill. They even claim that they cannot recognize different learning disorders, let alone deal with them [START_REF] Mitić | Deca sa smetnjama u razvoju Potrebe i podrška[END_REF]. Even the university courses in psychology and pedagogy do not mention these issues. This means that the whole system of teaching foreign languages to special needs pupils relies on in-service practice, seminars, and individual efforts. Teachers usually do not have ready-made responses and models and must research and try various methods and techniques in order to find out empirically what they consider to be the best options for their SEN pupils. The remedy for the inadequacy of the university programs could be workshops organized by the Ministries of Education and Institutes for Education, dedicated to teaching pupils with learning difficulties and inclusive practices in the classroom. A review of the offered workshops over the last three school years shows that a number of accredited training programs for educators in Serbia and BiH were organized. They are generally based on the explorations and good practices in the SEN field in the Western Europe. These seminars have attracted a great amount of teachers. Their main disadvantage is that they are general -by presenting strategies that address the needs of an impaired child in learning and not in acquiring specific skills such as mastering foreign languages. The emphasis is also on the integration of these pupils into inclusive classrooms. Despite these efforts, foreign language instructors expect more expert and professional advice from these workshops. The good point is that they can use these workshops to exchange their own experience, problems, and solutions. It should be noted that the Faculty for the Special Education and Rehabilitation in Belgrade provides courses for the instruction of Serbian and mathematics for intellectually impaired pupils but nothing about foreign language teaching. One of the reasons is a prejudice that there is no reason to introduce a new language to children who already have problems in mastering the structure of their mother tongue, notably for reading and writing. At the Teacher Training Faculty of the University of Belgrade, the subject of methods of working with children with special needs was introduced as mandatory, along with the possibility of students specializing in working with children with special needs as an optional course. But this also has nothing to do with foreign language teaching. This seems quite surprising, for we live in times when SEN children are in direct contact with foreign languages (especially English) via mobiles phones, television and social networks, thus explaining their interest in usage and understanding of typical and frequent expressions. We would like to underline that foreign language teachers in Serbia and BiH have to face two types of challenges, one is how to prepare specific programs for pupils with learning difficulties and the other is how to organize teaching in the inclusive context, since SEN children either go to special educational institutions or are enrolled in ordinary mainstream schools. In the second case a teacher is obliged to perform two parallel tasks, following a normal curriculum for regular students and helping a special needs child to achieve the best possible results. It is indeed extremely demanding to track the individual progress, problems and achievements of each pupil during a lesson. If instruction is not modified to address the students specific needs, the difficulties of the inclusive approach may become more serious over time. Unless the special needs pupils receive appropriate interventions, they will continue to struggle, and the gap between their achievement and that of their peers will increase over time. This can create a lot of stress and a negative feedback in the classroom. A solution for that is to appoint teaching assistants who would be solely financed by the government. Their mission is to support children in attending classes, doing assignments and helping them with their homework. They also help children with physical impairment to move, write and take care of themselves. But their tasks have to be supervised by the main teacher who should give them precise instructions and monitor their work.

However, it must be emphasized that it is crucial for a special needs child not to feel isolated and to participate as much as possible in group activities in the classroom such as singing, acting and doing conversational exercises. It is important for teachers to be capable to recognize differences and not to single out students. They can find ways to include, lead, and harmonize the contribution of all students, thus stimulating and creating a pleasant and positive atmosphere. Teachers should find appropriate methods of achieving cooperation among students. Nevertheless, in language teaching, it is sometimes more useful to make homogeneous groups to whom the instructor will give easier tasks, making them suitable for particular types of students. For example there is no sense in giving mixed groups complicated grammar exercises which SEN children cannot understand even with the help of their colleagues. This can only discourage them and decrease their attention. In Special Education Schools 22 , teaching is often individualized and includes activities realized at home or in hospitals. This can be an advantage for a teacher who can dedicate himself/herself completely to finding ways to increase a special child's language performance. Tasks and activities can be individually paced to fit individual needs and abilities of every child. The home teaching also involves a strong cooperation with parents who (if they are able) can help children with doing homework and create more situations in which the foreign language is used. It is understandable that home lessons can be boring for pupils whose normal and natural need is to socialize in the school context. They can become easily distracted and can try to persuade their teacher to play with them using their mother tongue instead of doing foreign language exercises. A similar situation can be observed in hospitals where pupils are distracted by other young patients who are not involved in the same activities.

Individual education plans

A promising development occurred in 2015 when a new curriculum policy was introduced in Serbia and in 2020 when new directives on inclusive elementary education were presented in BiH. The policy and directives include individual education plans (IEPs) and teams for additional learner support. IEPs are highly appreciated by the diverse stakeholders. Up to two learners with specific educational needs can attend a single class in a mainstream school. The curriculum can be partially adjusted or changed entirely for these learners. This facilitates the organization of the lesson, and leaves enough space for completing the standard program. In special education schools, the IEP can center around the whole group of pupils with similar problems. Three types of IEPs can be established:

22

"Dragan Herzog" from Serbia is an example of a special education school discussed in this section. It is a specialized institution for the first level education for children with development problems and chronic diseases. Teaching is carried out in hospitals or at home. Cf. http://www.osdrdraganhercog.edu.rs (d) IEP1 characterized by adjustments in teaching methodology and organization of additional assistance, and compensatory activities. (e) IEP2 includes the provisions of IEP1 and also arrangements for reduced learning outcomes and modified teaching program Its purpose is to define the maximum that can be expected in terms of accomplishments and also describe the ways in which it can be realized. (f) IEP3 is used to enrich the education program for gifted learners especially by focusing on preparing them to participate in competitions.

In order for a child to enjoy all the benefits of an IEP, his/her special needs must first be analyzed. This process involves a commission that includes experts in Special Education, a defectologist (school psychologist), an individual representing the school system, and the child's parents. This team endeavors to recognize and meet the child's crucial needs in order for the child to achieve the best academic results despite learning difficulties. The conclusion of this team meeting leads to a specialized plan with precisely defined goals and objectives that need to be reached in the school year, stating the assistance the child will receive. In the domain of teaching foreign languages this can be reduced to acquiring basic communicational competence with no focus on grammar, reading and writing. These courses can help children with severe disabilities to gain social and life skills (the emphasis is either on the phatic role of language but also on using foreign words to instruct a child to perform an everyday task in context), and understand that there are different cultures and ways of interacting, even if they do not make significant academic progress. Given the failure of philological faculties in Serbia and BiH to prepare their students to work with pupils with learning disabilities, we interviewed instructors (7) both from special educational institutions and mainstream schools. They try to make it possible for every child to enjoy contacts with foreign languages and to learn, at least to a certain extent, some interlinguistic differences (concerning phonology, syntax and vocabulary). We wanted to get acquainted with all sorts of the problems our language teachers encounter in their work with special needs pupils and with the ways of dealing with them. These findings can be briefly summarized and presented as follows:

The most efficient modification is the reduction in the number of program objectives to contain only essential elements followed by a considerable slowing down of the instruction rhythm, teaching only the basic vocabulary, constant revision, and the incorporation of the maximum of stimulation and the multisensory support. Teachers can help the child by letting him/her practice a particular language structure by repeating it as many times as needed (via well-structured exercises), being very patient and not interrupting the child and correcting all the time the mistakes he/she makes. The instructors should recognize the pupils' achievements and insist on developing them and at the same time accept limitations and pay less attention to their weak points unless they can find a way to get over them with specific methods. Some children can become very fluent with excellent pronunciation skills while remaining weak in terms of grammar and written expressions. They should be stimulated to talk as much as possible. Some of them can be capable of reading and understanding texts but poor in oral conversation. This can be related to the psychological or articulation to problems related to their specific disability. They should be given written assignments such as questionnaires about the content of the stories they have read. For pupils with special needs the inductive method of mastering grammar (based on the idea that it is possible to acquire foreign language in the same way we acquire our mother tongue) is much more effective than explicit and formal teaching of syntax and morphology rules. Extensive contact with a foreign language will result in an innate mastery of its principles.

One thing is certain: students should consistently receive immediate positive feedback for successful improvement of targeted behaviors. Praise is encouraged, but students also benefit from a well -chosen reinforcement. A possible reward, as a French teacher working with special need children told us, can be watching a favorite cartoon or playing a computer game.

How can FL teachers deal with different impairments affecting FL development?

In this section, we discuss different impairments affecting FL development, present observations and suggestions made by interviewed teachers regarding how approaches to meet the needs of these pupils could be adjusted in the FL classroom. DYSLEXIA This language impairment generally affects the oral and written language skills that are essential for success in learning a foreign language. Besides the difficulties of reading and spelling that are generally associated with dyslexia, there are difficulties in recognizing language patterns that are presented orally. This makes the discovery of grammatical and/or lexical word patterns difficult or sometimes almost impossible without specific interventions. The accommodations made by a teacher should enable the person to demonstrate what they know without the necessity to read or write directly. The emphasis should be on a pupil's oral performance. A tendency to combine parts of speech without any logic can be partially overcome by developing stronger metacognitive thinking skills, selfcorrection strategies and intensive practice. A teacher should also insist on vocabulary development.

ATTENTION DEFICIT DISORDER

Students with attention deficit disorder may have high level of intelligence and creativity. However, their short attention span and distractibility make it hard for them to concentrate and complete the tasks. They should be given short assignments and allowed to have longer pauses between intellectual tasks. These pupils prefer discussions on different compared to grammar exercises. With the proper motivation and teacher attention, they can show a good progress in foreign language learning. They also need specific classroom conditions including a quiet area free of distractions. AUTISM If a child affected by autism is capable of using speech as a means of communication, it means that he/she can master a foreign language to a certain extent. They can understand concrete concepts but have difficulties in the comprehension of abstract concepts or metaphors. Usually, visual images rather than verbal language can catch their attention. The best way for teaching a foreign language to them is to make them repeat the words for objects presented on the pictures or encourage them to learn short songs or poems. They also like to learn words for numbers or repeat typical expressions from favorite cartoons.

INTELECTUAL DISSABILITY

Since their thinking ability is less mature than expected for their age, they will have difficulty in generalization, classification, association, abstract thinking and application. Their memory capacity is limited and the memorization process is slow. Direct and explicit teaching of linguistic encoding and decoding skills in the foreign language cannot give satisfactory results. It is still however possible to teach them basic conversational forms, songs and play with them using simple words. Incorporating more physical learning experiences and encouraging music in the classroom is very motivating for them.

CEREBRAL PALSY

Pupils affected by cerebral palsy with no intellectual disability only have problems in word pronunciation and speech fluency. Sometimes they need to use laptops or to record lessons because they are unable to write with pencils but in general they can follow general education programs. Since they frequently have eye coordination problems, they prefer listening to reading. They often need lots of attention and emotional support, for their physical disability can make them depressed and unmotivated.

BLIND PUPILS

Blind pupils usually have excellent memory capacities. Teachers suggest that they prefer acquiring syntactic rules by being exposed to speech to being taught grammar explicitly. The reason for this is that they lack visual representation of the sentence structure. They are capable of memorizing a great amount of words and expressions and love listening to stories and learning poetry by heart. ASPERGER SYNDROME A very specific case represents teaching foreign languages to pupils with the Asperger syndrome. Most of these pupils are gifted for mathematics and like learning formal rules of grammar. When the teachers talk to them they have to be very explicit, avoid using metaphors since they are incapable of processing them. They have a very literal understanding of language and think people always mean exactly what they say. Hence there is no point teaching idioms to them. Quite often they are introverted and not very much interested in others and do not easily participate in conversation but enjoy reading and analyzing texts.

Final comments

Based on these qualitative findings, it can be suggested that foreign language education for children with special needs in Serbia and BiH must employ a multimodal, collective and research-oriented pedagogical approach. Without this, it cannot advance to foster an inclusive teaching environment. It can be structured on already successfully employed models and formative instructional practices [START_REF] Konrad | Setting clear learning targets to guide instruction for all students[END_REF][START_REF] Kaplan | Inclusive assessment practices: Using formative instructional practices to support the needs of all students[END_REF] and this study can serve as a call for all stakeholders in these two countries to initiate the necessary systematic actions to strengthen FL teacher preparation programs and administrative support. It also requires development of the social and political contexts in the region, which would allow expanding the view of higher education as "primarily the institution supporting post-conflict economic recovery, and building the nation or state in the post-conflict setting" (Zgaga et al, 2013, p. 72). Here appears the importance of a master's degree in teaching foreign languages to pupils with special educational needs: through learning and practice, each future teacher should acquire knowledge about methods of teaching various contents to heterogeneous classes. The students should also be introduced to unique aspects of different disabilities, as well as approaches and strategies for teaching students with these disabilities. Therefore, courses should provide both the explanation of different challenges future teacher might encounter and ways how to address them. Teacher preparation should also include more classroom management training with an emphasis on time allocation and attention maintenance. The philological faculties in Serbia and BiH need wider and deeper reforms in higher education curricula in the area of teacher education. A combined master's degree or a specialized program for FL teaching and SEN education should be offered. Effective educators and policy makers at all levels within the inclusive educational practices will lead to development of engaged citizenship so that every child will be provided with all educational opportunities including foreign language instruction. In addition, a professional network for sharing practices for identifying SEN/exceptional children before formal primary education and at the beginning of primary education could be established for teachers to immediately respond and meet the needs of these children. It would also be helpful to establish formal categorization of SEN children in relation to FL and the second language acquisition issues. Due to many challenges related to FL teaching and SEN children, the increased number of exceptional children, but also the influx of refugees and immigrants, it is crucial to organize a research network between EU partners and regional researchers and practitioners to propose and submit EU research and professional projects in the future to effectively address the issues put forth in this paper.

Education at home and first introduction to school

A number of empirical studies establish that an increased socialization of young children, during the 20-26 to 40 months following birth, significantly influences the ability to enter into the first formal learning setting (cf. among others [START_REF] Maso-Taulère | La construction des inégalités : déjà en maternelle ! Spirale[END_REF]Joignaux, 2009;[START_REF] Becker | Social disparities in children's vocabulary in early childhood. Does preschool education help to close the gap?[END_REF][START_REF] Hackett | Literacy, language as material practices: Rethinking social inequality in young children's literacies[END_REF][START_REF] Torterat | Initiatives collaboratives pour l'enfance[END_REF]. During this period, the combination of learning within and outside the family, constitutes a determining factor for children's verbal-cognitive acquisition [START_REF] Veneziano | Interaction, conversation et acquisition du langage dans les trois premières années[END_REF][START_REF] Hudelot | Pourquoi et comment étudier le langage en contexte ? Dans Josie BERNICOT[END_REF][START_REF] Sauvage | L'Acquisition du Langage[END_REF][START_REF] Lüke | Development of pointing gestures in children with typical, delayed language acquisition[END_REF][START_REF] Canut | Accompagner l'enfant dans son apprentissage du langage : de la recherche en acquisition à l intervention des professionnels[END_REF][START_REF] Vandenbroeck | Les lieux d'accueil des jeunes enfants qui peuvent faire la différence[END_REF]. In this regard, what can be called the "contact circle" of young children [START_REF] Torterat | Apports et mise en pratique de démarches coopératives en classe Passerelle[END_REF], is understood in the broad sense. This means the daily support of daycare workers, preschool teachers and other social stakeholders that are responsible for the socio-cultural activities that foster (on different levels) the link that distinguishes between simply what precedes primary school versus what facilitates a high-quality preparation for primary school. On the specifically socio-discursive level, the stakes are multiple. In addition to support for intra-family dialogue, there is a question of getting children to actively participate in the creation of language [START_REF] Martel | Introduction. L'étude de la prosodie en acquisition: un enjeu clinique[END_REF] by encouraging them regularly, to move from the unformulated to the formulated (Torterat, 2012b(Torterat, , 2021)). The constant (re)working of these skills therefore relates in whole or in part to the spontaneity of the topic, and intelligibility for the interlocutor, in particular in connection with the exercise of phonological awareness [START_REF] Soulé | La délicate question du langage. Intervention à l'IFÉ disponible à l'url[END_REF]. These learning processes and social interactions thus make it possible to familiarize the children, moreover, with how language will be used specifically in the school environment. This can constitute: gatherings, various types of workshops, free-choice games, introduction to writing, and many other educational activities, which can be hosted by a variety of institutions, including even toy or classic children's libraries.

Questions concerning collaboration

Dialog and discussion about learning

The continuous monitoring of the discourse development of young children is part of several distinct arguments. The first led some to distinguish differences using the metric of the "below average", "average" and "above average" talkers [START_REF] Florin | Pratiques du langage à l'école maternelle et prédictions de la réussite scolaire[END_REF][START_REF] Florin | Pratiques du langage à l'école maternelle et prédictions de la réussite scolaire[END_REF]cf. Pulido, 2016), but such a division is subject to critique among linguists when concerning classes before primary school [START_REF] Boeck Supérieur | L'oral dans la classe. Discours, métadiscours, interactions verbales et construction de savoirs à l'école primaire[END_REF]Péroz, 2010;[START_REF] Masseron | Langage oral à l'école maternelle. Étude d'un corpus homogène[END_REF]. A second argument, promoted by the latter authors, applies to the "intra/interlocutory" dimensions of language expression, with a focus on "tasks" and "behaviors" relating to discourse (Banks-Leite, 1999 ; [START_REF] Grandaty | Place et rôle des conduites discursives orales dans le système des médiations en classe : des objets travaillés aux objets enseignés ?[END_REF][START_REF] Torterat | La Diversification des constructions verbales lors d'écrits collectifs en classes de maternelle : productivité de l'exercice pour une approche pédagogique du verbe[END_REF]Péroz, 2016). This second perspective is in line with the conclusions from studies done in the field of language acquisition from different methodological viewpoints (in particular the so-called "emergentist" approaches: Salazar-Orvig, [START_REF] Salazar Orvig | Enchaînements, continuités et déplacements dialogiques chez le jeune enfant[END_REF][START_REF] Ninio | The development of pragmatics : learning to use language appropriately[END_REF][START_REF] Hickmann | Children's discourse : person, time, space across languages[END_REF][START_REF] Bassano | Emergence et développement du langage : enjeux et apports des nouvelles approches fonctionnalistes[END_REF][START_REF] Hudelot | The Use of a Functional Dialogic Model of Verbal Interaction to compare how Day-care Workers, Teachers scaffold 3-year-old children[END_REF][START_REF] Golinkoff | How toddlers learn verbs[END_REF], and constitute part of the French curriculum of preschool. Indeed, language acquisition of children appears in the dialogical presentation in which the verbal dimension represents only one of the elements of individual expression. Moreover, the component of collaboration encouraged by the bond with the parents, but also through the skills of early childhood education professionals to grasp the issues, provide in this respect a zone for effective learning with multiple variables (cf. [START_REF] Gilakjani | The effect of multimodal learning models on language teaching, learning[END_REF][START_REF] Torterat | Une recherche collaborative en REP, entre apports de la recherche et reconfiguration du travail[END_REF]. On this subject, one of the common strategies regarding language acquisition assessment consists of identifying the individual abilities of a child, for example, to rely on the phono-prosodic dimensions of language, to use and reuse words, or such constructions, from this period of 20-26 months as well as thereafter [START_REF] Kail | Early comprehension of transitive, intransitive French sentences[END_REF]Martel, 2009a;[START_REF] Fayol | L'acquisition du langage[END_REF][START_REF] Ochs | Language socialization : An historical overview[END_REF]. On the cognitive level, it has also been shown that access to macrosyntactic information predominates in children's understanding of what is generally formulated (Snow, Ferguson, 1977;[START_REF] Bucciarelli | How Children comprehend speech acts, communicative gestures[END_REF]Barret , 2017). The evaluation of language acquisition in 2-3 year olds in multiple interactions, when the groups do not exceed (or exceed very little) 10 to 15 subjects, makes it possible to create an interdisciplinary analysis (over such a period with such a population of children) and an in-depth follow-up of "intra" and "inter"-individual variations in language development. This follow-up is easier in an interprofessional context, as it makes it possible to extend the study over 4 to 6 years, and into the later grades of primary school. As noted in the accompanying document, Programmes de l'École française [START_REF] Men | Apprendre à parler et à raconter[END_REF]:

The implementation of these principles makes it possible to observe student progress on the following points: -the time given to pupils to reflect, the repetition of open questions, the possibility given to pupils to take up and reformulate what has already been said […]; -the lengthening of the responses, confronting the students with the real problems of narration, both on the linguistic level (coherence of interpropositional sequences, marks of the construction of the second level) and on the semantic level (management of information , organization of discourse). 23

The Study

The study setting includes small groups of children (10-15, uncombined headcount), making it possible to consider the cognitive and social dimensions of this very particular transition, which leads from the first forms of community life to "class life," strictly speaking. Since the 1990s in France, two early childhood education systems have been in competition. One system is the "très petite section" (very early section) of preschool that allows children at the age of 2 to be optionally enrolled in preschool ("l'école maternelle", in French) instead of at the obligatory age of 3. The other is the "passerelle" class option [START_REF] Villain | Rapport sur les dispositifs Passerelle. De la famille et du lieu de garde à l'école maternelle[END_REF][START_REF] Castelle | La participation des parents dans une classe passerelle de Roubaix[END_REF]Torterat and Soulé, forthcoming). What these early childhood education systems teach us is that linguistic socialization in a group of peers exerts a triple influence on language acquisition: an increase of inter-individual stimuli, the emergence of spontaneous dialogues, and the ability to remake and reformulate, along with the capability to take into account interactions with others (cf. Coletta, 2004;[START_REF] Hudelot | Conduites langagières chez le jeune enfant[END_REF][START_REF] Plana | Habilidades discursivas y representaciones mentales en niños pequeños[END_REF][START_REF] Canut | Corpus et prise de conscience des processus interactionnels d'apprentissage du langage pour repenser les pratiques enseignantes en maternelle[END_REF]. At the same time, the necessity to support such criteria reinforces the need to guarantee the same educational standards for children from at-risk communities as well as those from more privileged backgrounds. This calls for maintaining the quality of learning, and above all against a lowering of the "prerequisites" for a more unequal "educational adaptation" that might appear to be a solution at first glance (cf. Joignaux, 2013;[START_REF] Wright | Paucity, disparity in kindergarten oral vocabulary instruction[END_REF] Grounded in evidence-based practices, the present empirical and in-depth study took place at École Maternelle (ÉM) Perrault in Pézenas (Hérault). As of January 2021, the study was composed of 102 pupils divided into four multi-level classes (from 25 to 73 months), and the "passerelle" class itself (from 21 to 42 months). The "passerelle" program in this town has existed since 2000, and has made it possible to welcome children to school alongside their parents, with the aim of working collaboratively with the other social stakeholders involved in early childhood development. In particular, this includes the services of "PMI" (a maternal and child welfare office) and the municipal daycare center. Citing an IGEN-IGAS report of November 2000 [START_REF] Villain | Rapport sur les dispositifs Passerelle. De la famille et du lieu de garde à l'école maternelle[END_REF], underlined that these initiatives must above all benefit vulnerable populations ("particularly in certain underprivileged neighborhoods", p. 6). This educational initiative of "passerelle" programs makes it possible to "create the conditions necessary for young children's successful socialization, to promote a gentle and progressive separation from the family [during the school day] and to support the parents in their duties and responsibilities [of educating their children]" (Ibid.,p. 6,our translation). As far as this study's research is concerned since 2000, the numbers recorded at École Perrault school have been fairly regular. In 2003, for example, out of 221 students enrolled at the school, 75 had benefited from enrolling in a "Passerelle" class (i.e. 33.93%). "Passerelle" classes can be viewed as a proactive form of early intervention that allow for an individual and graduated approach to the first introduction to formal education. Changes in the numbers of the "Passerelle" enrollment at Perrault for the years 2015-2022 are cited below in the Regarding the teaching formats used in the "Passerelle" program, see [START_REF] Torterat | Apports et mise en pratique de démarches coopératives en classe Passerelle[END_REF], in particular with regards to language. However, the main point of interest here is that a significant number of pupils from 2017 enrolled during 2020-2021 in CP classes (first year of primary school starting at age 6), where national assessments, standardized for all classes in the country, were carried out. The following section presents the main results for the 2017 numbers. The 2018 and 2019 numbers will normally become available in 2024.

Discussion of results and initial conclusions

The sample below corresponds to the number of pupils in CP during the 2020-2021 school year (sample group of two classes subdivided into four cohorts). The national assessments were organized on the basis of fully standardized questions 25 . For the present study, the corresponding results were encoded according to three levels established by the scores of the pupils, through sets noted as "satisfactory", "below satisfactory" and "at-risk", on 8 questions of which the first 5 appear below. The other three relate to children's ability to understand the concepts of "words", "short utterances" and "long utterances". Pupils who did not respond to at least 6 out of 8 questions during the exam period, were not taken into account in the sample group (here 1E and 1C in class A, and 1C in class B). In the case of only one to two non-responses, the data was encoded on the basis of an accommodating variable (here the median over all the questions, 15 in all). The results are indicated below in green in the event of equivalent scores between the experimental group and the control group. The results in blue show the event of scores exceeding the coeff. > 1.1 (in bold if coeff. > 1.2) for the experimental group, and plain font in the case of poor scores for cohort E.

→ The results between the two cohorts show some similarities, which are corroborated by the overall relative percentages: However, it can be seen that the scores obtained by the students from the "Passerelle" program exceed the other cohort, with percentage differences ranging from 3.4% to 31.3%. It is important to note that the best scores concern aspects of phonoprosodic development and the links between prosody and letter recognition.

It should be noted that these are the first results of an exploratory study conducted with a limited sample (54 pupils) and from two cohorts of CP (first elementary school level). The possible methodological biases concern the differences between the two cohorts. Namely, the central issue is if these differences according to classes A and B are significant for questions 1 and 5, and to a lesser extent 3 and 4, then they would be contradictory to question 2. This then raises the question of the impact of previous and subsequent background information on the overall representativeness of the data. It would also be appropriate to measure the influence of the conditions under which questions were administered, accounting for variations among evaluators. Even if the exams are standardized and overseen by administrators, variations can occur. However, the conclusion that we can draw at this time is that the collaboration with families and other early childhood education stakeholders, on the socialized learning of language, seems to contribute to significantly re-ducing inequalities among children enrolled in a "Passerelle" program. It is of further significant interest that all of these students come from vulnerable backgrounds.

Our hypotheses, partly announced in [START_REF] Torterat | Apports et mise en pratique de démarches coopératives en classe Passerelle[END_REF], are that the benefits for children are numerous when a school system develops targeted programs that allow multiple stakeholders in early childhood education to work together, with the possibility for parents to participate. Parents regularly participating in early learning activities have a lasting impact on children's language acquisition abilities, at least up to the first year of primary school. The fact that the learning most concerned relates to procedural skills and phono-prosodic awareness constitutes, here too, an interesting aspect, given the prerequisite relationship between language acquisition and learning to write (for example, the case of letter recognition: see [START_REF] Negro | Les prédicteurs en grande section maternelle de la réussite en lecture en fin de première année d'école élémentaire: l'impact du nom des lettres[END_REF]. Nevertheless, it is necessary to verify these hypotheses over a minimum of three evaluation sessions, with an overall sample of 160 to 180 pupils, before drawing more universal conclusions. On the other hand, we are of the opinion that collecting more data until the time of the French national evaluations at the level of CE2 (8 years old), would involve too many variables and would in fact impede understanding the nuanced impact of "Passerelle" programs on language acquisition.

On Action Research

The article analyses the practice experience of future primary school teachers, i.e. student teachers of a Lithuanian university. During these placements, the student teachers, in consultation with highly experienced master teachers working in primary school, planned, organised and carried out action research in their work with primary school pupils. Research-based pedagogical activity has been a priority of Lithuanian educational policy for many years, emphasised in various educational documents and strategies. Through this action research-based practice is student teachers desire to have highly reflective, but also about their pedagogical activities based on the development of reflective skills, i.e. enabling primary school pupils to rethink what they have done, how and why they have done it, the result they have achieved. We recognise that the priorities identified are of great importance for the science and practice of education in Lithuania. However, we increasingly hear concerns from practitioners that there is a lack of research research to justify how these activities can be organised in a qualitative way. Many countries are adopting inquiry-based activities in the classroom: for example, the French Scientific Council of National Education identifies as educational priorities the strengthening of inquiry-based practices, the development of a plan for problemsolving strategies and the implementation of inquiry-based strategies in educational realities [START_REF] Algan | Quels professeurs au XXI e siècle ? Rapport de synthèse[END_REF]. The relevance of Action Research and its application in updating pedagogical practices is highlighted by [START_REF] Lafontaine | Recherche-action-formation au préscolaire et au 1 er cycle du primaire: pistes méthodologiques[END_REF], who argues that these practices are meaningful and useful, but rarely based on research literature.

The researcher presented a study on how she trained primary school teachers to use Action Research methodology in small schools in socially disadvantaged settings. In general, Action Research is defined as the systematic exploration of how to change the current state of educational practice, to find new ways of doing things that will bring about positive change for all those involved in the educational process, i.e. to improve pupils' learning and attainment (Anderson, Herr & Nihlen, 2007;[START_REF] Menter | A guide to practitioner research in education[END_REF][START_REF] Efron | Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide[END_REF]The Education and Training Foundation, 2021). This activity enables the planning of a strategy for action, which is then implemented, systematically monitored, reflexively reflected upon and modified [START_REF] Clark | Formative Assessment: A Systematic and Artistic Process of Instruction for Supporting School and Lifelong Learning[END_REF][START_REF] Lafontaine | Recherche-action-formation au préscolaire et au 1 er cycle du primaire: pistes méthodologiques[END_REF][START_REF] Carignan | La recherche-action et la recherchedéveloppement au service de la littératie[END_REF]Eden & Ackermann, 2018). Action research engages the teacher as a researcher to take ownership of a particular learning problem [START_REF] Macaire | Didactique des langues et recherche-action. Recherches en Didactique des Langues et Cultures[END_REF], as well as increasing teachers' capacity for professional development, autonomy, and the ability to evaluate and take responsibility for educational practice and its improvement [START_REF] Efron | Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide[END_REF][START_REF] Messikh | A Systematic Review of the Outcomes of Using Action Research in Education[END_REF]. In the current study, the action research has contributed to improving students' linguistic reasoning skills in relevant subjects. The educational practices were changed in the presence of different social partners, i.e. student teachers, a master primary school teacher and a university researcher. All partners were able to find solutions for changing the educational practices in the context of developing students' linguistic skills in argumentation through collaborative inquiry.

General criteria

The OECD ( 2011) identifies a number of criteria related to the quality of education: the quality of the learning processes, the quality of the structured content of education, which constitutes the basis of the experience and the quality of the impact on the child. All of these components take place in a specific situation and can therefore be explored and improved through action research. Action research has been identified by the European Commission as a valuable educational intervention, taking into account the needs of children, especially in the early years, as a very favourable way to address educational situations in socially vulnerable contexts (according to [START_REF] Eurydice | L'éducation et l'accueil des jeunes enfants en Europe: réduire les inégalités sociales et culturelles[END_REF]. Action research-based pedagogical practice is one of the most realistic ways of implementing a teacher's deep understanding and reflection on their own practice, which involves getting to know the pupils, planning the activity in the light of the pupils' experiences and contexts, setting and implementing specific expectations and outcomes, and reflecting on the process and the outcome. It should be emphasised that it is not only the teacher who needs to do this, but also the students who need to be aware of all the steps. [START_REF] Miehakanda | L'encadrement éducatif à l'école: Vers une implication de l'apprenant[END_REF] emphasises the organisation of education in the context of different cultures, and also points out that students still have limited participation in the educational process, and that educators rarely choose pedagogical methods that take into account the individuality of students. Furthermore, education is seen as the construction of knowledge through active engagement, to which each student brings his/her own attitudes and values. For these reasons, it is necessary to take the pupil into account and provide him or her with the necessary support or activities in at the right time.

According to [START_REF] Miehakanda | L'encadrement éducatif à l'école: Vers une implication de l'apprenant[END_REF], the teacher must carry out continuous action research in relation to pupils' achievements, which includes three key interrelated areas: selection of curriculum content and activities/methods, facilitation of interactive tasks, and dynamic inductive knowledge building/skill development.

An important role is played by the 'permeation' of the whole educational process with reflective procedures, i.e. inductive and deductive reasoning, whereby there is continuous empirical monitoring of activities, breaking them down into detail, grouping them and synthesising them. These reasoning operations enable the educator to make informed and reasoned decisions about the education of students.

The goal of education is the progression of each learner, and it is therefore essential to tailor teaching materials and methods to the pupils. Action research is the way forward organising a progressive educational process, as the pedagogical approach involves both pupils and teachers. Choosing the right methods is important to ensure that every pupil can learn in a way that suits them. An inductive posture allows the teacher to continuously analyse the situation and evaluate the meaning of the chosen learning tools, which helps to develop the pupils' logical and critical thinking. Action research leads learners to take responsibility not only for their own learning, but also for that of their classmates in the cooperative group (after [START_REF] Ys | Action Research on the Implementation of Active Learning at an Elementary School in Aceh[END_REF]. This strategy a systemic approach to enquiry that enables people to find effective solutions to problems encountered in the implementation of educational content and to deal with them appropriately. This research allows teachers to focus on a specific situation and address it qualitatively. If the right tools are chosen, the effectiveness of their teaching can be increased. Action research is particularly useful in classrooms, where teachers act as researchers, making decisions and changes to improve the quality of their own teaching. Unfortunately, if the methods chosen are not very advanced or appropriate, the pupils suffers because their reflective procedures are not developed [START_REF] Miehakanda | L'encadrement éducatif à l'école: Vers une implication de l'apprenant[END_REF]. In Lithuania, the priority for future student teachers is actively involved in the organisation of action research, increasing the quality of practice (The Regulation on Teacher Education, 2018). If the goal is to achieve educational practice based on action research, school teachers should be willing, to show each other successful cases, to analyse them and to support each other in this process, and then is likely that change could occur (after [START_REF] Ys | Action Research on the Implementation of Active Learning at an Elementary School in Aceh[END_REF]. In order for the pupil to develop, he/she should be offered different strategies from which the child, after activating his/her thinking and attention, can choose and give reasons for his/her choice. The arguments presented allow the pupil to develop and summarise his/her point of view on various issues.

Empirical principles

Inquiry-based education goes hand in hand with active pupil engagement and participation. The key features of this type of education are the following:

1) Pupils must be active participants in activities rather than passive listeners;

2) The focus is on developing and improving skills rather than anly knowledge, and listening to information;

3) Pupils are engaged in a wide range of activities; 4) They learn to reflect on how they learn (from [START_REF] Ys | Action Research on the Implementation of Active Learning at an Elementary School in Aceh[END_REF].

Lafontaine ( 2016) points out that primary school teachers tend to support students by organising activities according to the individual needs of pupil. Teachers are looking for ways to reach pupils who live in low socio-economic environments, but they are often reluctant to find these ways themselves, and are therefore willing to collaborate with researchers. It is not only a question of finding ways to develop academic skills, but also of stimulating and supporting pupils' motivation. Most researchers provide the elements of action research such as preparation, implementation and integration [START_REF] Gauthier | Proposition de composantes d'une situation d'apprentissage et d'évaluation (SAÉ) modèle en français écrit à la première année du deuxième cycle du secondaire[END_REF][START_REF] Riente | Activités d'apprentissage, SAÉ et SÉ. Quelques précisions[END_REF][START_REF] Lafontaine | Recherche-action-formation au préscolaire et au 1 er cycle du primaire: pistes méthodologiques[END_REF]. Before carrying out a complex task or activity, the future primary school teachers must think about the three phases which consist of learning and evaluation activities.

In term of approaches

The preparation phase provides a scenario describing how, what and why the learning will take place. All this allows students to activate their prior knowledge of the subject and to reflect on the objectives on the objectives of the proposed activity, the expected product, outcome and the implementation instructions provided.

The implementation phase is more oriented towards learning activities, with active participation of pupils in relation to the learning and assessment objectives. In this phase, support is provided, which can be provided by the teacher or by the students. In addition, feedback is rendered and one or more interim assessments may be carried out after each learning activity. These assessments give an indication of how the child is progressing towards the desired outcome.

The integration phase delivers activities that allow pupils to summarise their learning and show the final outcome, which should also be assessed. Time for celebration and reflection on the activities carried out by the pupils is very important in this phase. It is useful for both the researcher and the teacher to be involved in the action research [START_REF] Lafontaine | Recherche-action-formation au préscolaire et au 1 er cycle du primaire: pistes méthodologiques[END_REF]. The discussions can take many forms, including classroom observations, video analysis of students' activities and remote consultations between teachers. The actions and activities are the key elements and the link between research, teaching and learning. During the activity, there is interaction between the primary school teacher, the student teachers and the university researcher. Of course, an educator can occupy two roles at the same time, both teacher and researcher. The teaching component and the data collected during learning allow research to inform and improve educational practice. Let's note that [START_REF] Lafontaine | Recherche-action-formation au préscolaire et au 1 er cycle du primaire: pistes méthodologiques[END_REF], [START_REF] Wennergren | Teachers as Learners -With a Little Help from a Critical Friend[END_REF], [START_REF] Wenger | A Social Theory of Learning[END_REF] and [START_REF] Johannesson | Development of professional learning communities through action research: understanding professional learning in practice[END_REF] respectively emphasise that during professional development events, educators should reflect on their own practice, analyse and discuss what is going well, and look for ways to overcome what is problematic. Indeed, such activities, where participants reflect on their practice, adopt and experiment with new ways of working in their classrooms, bring about lasting change. For this to happen, the learning needs to take place over a sufficiently long period of time, and educators need to come together systematically to reflect on their experiences, discuss what they are doing and what has improved.

In the context of action research, researchers such as [START_REF] Charlier | Parcours de recherche-action-formation[END_REF], [START_REF] Lafortune | Accompagnement-recherche-formation d'un changement en éducation : un processus exigeant une démarche de pratique réflexive[END_REF][START_REF] Prud'homme | La recherche-action[END_REF], [START_REF] Miehakanda | L'encadrement éducatif à l'école: Vers une implication de l'apprenant[END_REF], and again [START_REF] Lafontaine | Recherche-action-formation au préscolaire et au 1 er cycle du primaire: pistes méthodologiques[END_REF] suggest that young teachers who have chosen to study pedagogy should also be trained in action research. This way of working allows them to reflect and build social relationships, to go back and reflect, and at the same time to deepen their knowledge. Through deep reflection, teachers will have a better understanding of their daily activities and make more informed and reasoned decisions. This research combines academic research, reflective practice, pedagogical innovation and teacher education. However, we find that according to [START_REF] Wennergren | Teachers as Learners -With a Little Help from a Critical Friend[END_REF] and [START_REF] Davis | Thinking like Researchers: Action Research and Its Impact on Novice Teachers' Thinking[END_REF] that conducting action research in educational practice is difficult for student teachers, given it requires a lot of time and professional skills to conduct action research. Therefore, school communities themselves should be involved in conducting action research in the classroom, especially when the aim is to improve pupils learning [START_REF] Dimmock | Conceptualising the Research-practice-professional Development Nexus: Mobilising Schools as 'Research-engaged' Professional Learning Communities[END_REF][START_REF] Johannesson | Development of professional learning communities through action research: understanding professional learning in practice[END_REF]. Teachers need to have a good understanding of the conceptual foundations of student learning. It is recommended that teachers have a colleague in the school with whom they can consult, they can engage in deep critical reflection and discussion about classroom activities. In this case, both educators can expect pedagogical growth if they not only consult each other but also try out new practices that they reflect on (according to [START_REF] Wennergren | Teachers as Learners -With a Little Help from a Critical Friend[END_REF]. Otherwise, teachers tend to opt for a comfortable presence, which does not lead to qualitative change in the educational process. On the other hand, it has been found that if teachers spend too much time reflecting, the planning and quality of the activities they lead may also suffer (according to [START_REF] Johannesson | Development of professional learning communities through action research: understanding professional learning in practice[END_REF], as well as changes in the assessment system, where the criteria are oriented towards improving the results of each student rather than their ranking [START_REF] Rey | Le défi de l'évaluation des compétences[END_REF][START_REF] Rey | Évaluer pour (mieux) faire apprendre[END_REF]Béduchaud, 2021).

Methodology of empirical studies in Lithuania

We have analyzed 40 undergraduate theses that were submitted by student teachers to obtain a B.A. in Primary Education at Vytautas Magnus University. These theses were all on the subject of action research. We analysed the work for common themes to understand how student teachers implement action research in student teaching tasks. The study was conducted using a thematic analysis strategy. The analysis of the works was carried out by selecting them according to their connecting themes and the educational problems they analyse. The data was analysed by discussing the themes of the action research, the research questions/problems to be solved, the chosen approach to problem solving (method), and the identified benefits and difficulties of action research. The development of teacher research competence is linked to the ability to choose in educational practice: the educational strategy, the structure, the appropriate research methods and the organisation of professional research (Description of Teacher Professional Competence, 2007).

Performance review flowchart covering all phases of the activity (by Mertler, 2009, p. 31) The practice of a future primary school teacher in the preparation of his/her bachelor's thesis is a practice that focuses on the performance of pupils in solving specific learning problems, i.e. on optimising this performance (Sensevy, Toullec-Théry & Nédélec-Trohel, 2006). The first step in the planning phase of an action research study is to define the research question or identify the problem the student teacher wants to investigate. Then you need to gather information, review the relevant literature and look at similar studies that have already been carried out on a similar problem. Once the information is available, it is possible to plan specifically the methods of conducting the research, i.e. how the pupils will be taught how to solve the problem, and the methods of collecting the data, i.e. how the researcher will record the data. In the operational phase, both the educational process and the data collection take place. In the observation phase, the researcher analyses and interprets the data, the information available on the educational process and the outcome(s). In the reflection phase, conclusions are drawn, shared, but also changes in activities are envisaged; new problems may be identified, and the same process is repeated in a cyclical way (according to [START_REF] Efron | Action Research in Education: A Practical Guide[END_REF]. In order to carry out the research activity (action research) and solve the identified problem, each student teacher, author of the bachelor's thesis, collaborated with the supervisor of the bachelor's thesis (university researcher) and a master teacher:

Collaboration scheme for action research (for a bachelor thesis)

Analysis of descriptions of student teachers' interactions (behaviours, actions, intentions, emotional reactions), facts, events, their reflections and reasoning recorded in the action research reports took into account the implicit alignment of the roles of the student teachers and the master teacher, and probably provided a higher level of data reliability (Bitinas, Rupšienė and Žydžiūnaitė, 2008;[START_REF] Norton | Action research in Teaching and Learning: a practical guide to conducting pedagogical research in universities[END_REF]. Qualitative content analysis (Žydžiūnaitė, Sabaliauskas, 2017;[START_REF] Weber | Basic Content Analysis[END_REF] identified significant thematic categories/units: topic, research question-problem to be solved, method(s) of problem solving, evaluation/reflection of the activity (benefits, difficulties), anticipation of changes in the activity. These thematic categories allow for a systematic evaluation of the phenomenon under study.

We present below only a small part of the study in order to illustrate the problems that were addressed by applying action research in primary teaching practice: The development of critical thinking through argumentation can be developed in different subjects by allowing pupils to formulate theses and arguments based on the content they analyse, for example by referring to texts they have read, historical sources or by studying an aquarium. The study showed that primary school pupils are able to formulate a thesis and arguments on the basis of the analysed material, and are able to justify their opinions. It is recommended that similar activities be carried out more frequently and systematically so that pupils can learn to use arguments to justify different aspects of the subject content. The right conditions must be set up for such an educational process: creating a safe, attractive classroom environment, linking the development of language skills to other subjects, learning about cultures, and developing critical thinking skills. It is important to base the educational process on the concept of the dialogical space (pair or small group discussions : Pitsia, Karakolidis & Lehane, 2021). It is useful to use technology in a targeted way: to record pupils' reflections, conversations, presentations and to analyse this content by listening to audio recordings or watching video recordings [START_REF] Wagner | Literacy practices in co-taught early years classrooms. Study protocol: The Seaside case[END_REF]Monteiro, Mata & Nóbrega Santos, 2021).

Objective-based problem solving in learning to argue in the context of different subjects

Some conclusions

Putting action research into practice, with the right approach and tools, tends to improve pupils' learning outcomes and their motivation to learn. The use of active learning methods (debates, discussions, analysis of historical sources, comparison of several objects over time, experimental practice, learning in green spaces, nature, etc.) was clearly appreciated by the pupils. Learning together, working in pairs or small groups are activities that pupils enjoy because they can interact, discuss and be left alone. They learn to express their opinions in a reasoned way, supported by facts, verified by reliable sources. Pupils feel that the support of their classmates is important and they feel and receive respect.

Master teachers usually advise student teachers doing action research to help them get to know the classroom. Student teachers can choose their own active learning methods that increase pupil motivation and achievement. They also benefit from training courses, as the attendees can learn from student teachers who base their practice on active learning methods and learn from each other.

In conclusion, the use of action research in the training of future primary school teachers in Lithuania has proved to be successful. Student teachers learn to identify and solve problems that enable them to improve the quality of the educational process and pupils' learning achievements. To further change educational practice, teachers with extensive experience should also be trained in action research methodology. This issue is also related to the changing practice of teacher education in Lithuania. Twenty years ago, teachers were trained in content, i.e. they analysed what topics to teach, but mostly they did not learn how to teach, i.e. what advanced methods to use to make pupils learn. The biggest change in contemporary educational practice is in the way future student teachers learn how to teach, i.e. thinking about choosing the right methods and adapting them to each pupil in primary school.

Introduction

Acting from Early Childhood (defined here as the developmental period from 0 to 6 years) is a very effective way to reduce sociocultural and economic inequalities in the long term [START_REF] De Bodman | Investissons dans la petite enfance. L'égalité des chances se joue avant la maternelle[END_REF]. In response, many childcare intervention programmes have been implemented around the world. Some of these programmes have been scientifically evaluated using the "Randomised Controlled Trial" (RCT) method. In France, two of them have been evaluated using RCT by the J-PAL26 (Abdul Latif Jameel Poverty Action Lab): Parler Bambin27 conducted in 94 nurseries over a period of 5 years and 1001 mots 28 tested with 200 families. These programmes show positive effects on the educational practices of families and childcare professionals [START_REF] De Chaisemartin | Inégaux dès le berceau : Des SMS pour améliorer les interactions langagières entre parents et enfants de familles défavorisées?[END_REF]2021). However, these initiatives have not always been accepted by their primary stakeholders, i.e., childcare professionals. We can assume that their "top-down" approach -i.e., recommendations made by a small number of actors to be implemented by the majoritymay have contributed to their negative image. One example is the controversy caused by the nationwide roll-out of the Parler Bambin programme (Ben Soussan & Rayna, 2019).

In addition to a lack of acceptability by the target audience, "top-down" approaches may suffer from (1) insufficient attention paid to the expertise of the practitioners when developing the guidelines, making the guidelines less rich than they could have been, and (2) a lack of recognition of childcare professionals, reducing them to implementers rather than stakeholders in Early Childhood Education. Thus, there is a need to think about other types of intervention devices that could be complementary to the above-mentioned ones. To this end, we can draw inspiration from the action-research projects carried out in France by researchers such as Sylvie Rayna, Pierre Moisset and Marie-Paule Thollon-Behar (see e.g., [START_REF] Moisset | Accueillir la petite enfance : le vécu des professionnels[END_REF][START_REF] Thollon-Behar | Dynamiser les pratiques professionnelles de la petite enfance. La recherche-action, un outil[END_REF]. These action-research projects bring together researchers and childcare professionals around subjects related to field issues (e.g., [START_REF] Rayna | Avec les familles dans les crèches: Expériences en Seine-Saint-Denis[END_REF][START_REF] Tcherkassof | Le masque en crèche, une gêne pour la socialisation des tout-petits ? The Conversation[END_REF]. Inspiration can also be found in medical research regarding the use of participatory approaches [START_REF] Cornwall | What is participatory research?[END_REF]. These approaches are based on the experiential knowledge of patients [START_REF] Blume | In search of experiential knowledge[END_REF] and include them in the various stages of the research process. Finally, another relevant source of inspiration can be found in social design studies (Vial, 2005). Conducted in the fields of health and education, they place users at the heart of the research process and provide results that are directly applicable in the field. As a response to the above-mentioned issues, and drawing on these various sources of inspiration, PREMIERS CRIS, a research collaboratory 29 hosted at the CRI (Université Paris Cité), has developed a Collaborative Action-Research (RAC, in French) methodology, combining research methods in Science and Design.

In this article, we will present the RAC methodology developed by Premiers Cris and illustrate it through a case study. Then, we will share some initial personal thoughts on the key elements of our methodology that we believe could promote the success of RAC intervention programs in childcare contexts.

The PREMIERS CRIS collaborative action-research methodology

A Science & Design alliance…

Our RAC methodology combines research methods from two disciplinary fields, Science and Design (Fig. 1).

Figure 1: Science ≠ Design

The SCIENTIFIC METHOD is evidence-based. Based on a large body of scientific literature, this method is aimed at defining a precise question and providing methodological tools (experimentation, data collection, etc.) to address it. In an action-research approach, it supports a rigorous evaluation of the actions implemented in the field [START_REF] Pring | Evidence-based practice in education[END_REF].

The DESIGN RESEARCH METHOD focuses on the user's experience. It is based on a review of existing projects, observations and field surveys, as well as individual or

29

We define a research collaboratory as an inclusive space in which people from different backgrounds collaborate through a research process to address complex challenges. More specifically about PREMIERS CRIS: https://www.premierscris.cri-paris.net/ group interviews with users. As a result, new devices (material or not) are proposed, rapidly prototyped and implemented in the field, in order to be modified and adapted according to users' feedback and practices [START_REF] Findeli | La recherche-projet en design et la question de la question de recherche: essai de clarification conceptuelle[END_REF]. The alliance of research methods in Science and Design provides a response to specific issues through actions adapted to users and their environment. These actions are then rigorously evaluated using both qualitative and quantitative data (mixed method), providing an objective point of view that takes into account the subjectivity of the people conducting the research.

… embodied in collaborative action research projects

Our RAC methodology is embodied in RAC projects, implemented in places welcoming children aged 0 to 6, such as nurseries, preschools or cultural centres 30 . Each RAC project is conducted by a collective of co-researchers including scientists, designers and childcare professionals. There are 8 stages in the development of a RAC project, as shown in Fig. 2.

Figure 2: The 8 steps to carrying out a Collaborative Action-Research project

Throughout these 8 stages, five research meetings gathered all the co-researchers (scientists, designers and childcare professionals). During these meetings, the childcare professionals of each establishment involved in the project are represented by two referees (excluding management staff) democratically designated among the members of the establishment. It is worth noting that the research meetings take place during the paid working time of all the co-researchers.

The implementation of a RAC project results in the production of:

(g) specific knowledge to each typology of co-researchers (science, design, practice), that will be valued, respectively through scientific communications, conception of experiential devices or implementation of new practices; (h) a common and unique knowledge shared by all the co-researchers, based on the collaborative process put in place throughout the project (Fig. 3).

30

Note that an agreement from the Research Ethics Committee of the Université Paris Cité has been obtained for the implementation of RAC projects by the PREMIERS CRIS team.

Impact assessment

We hypothesise that the participation of childcare professionals in a RAC project will have an impact on their well-being at work as well as their professional practices. To this end, we evaluate this impact using a mixed method, based on a Likert scale questionnaire (quantitative) and semi-structured interviews (qualitative). The questionnaire was developed by our team in partnership with Cog'X, and then validated among 2,724 respondents working in nurseries or preschools [START_REF] Dettling | Validation of a new questionnaire in French evaluating the well-being at work of early childhood professionals in daycare centers and preschools[END_REF]. The questionnaire measures well-being at work along 4 dimensions: → General satisfaction; → Valuation of professional practices (decision making, autonomy and feeling of competence); → Perceived work recognition (internal and external); → Closeness of relationships within the institution (with management staff and between teams).

The questionnaire is administered to all the childcare professionals at three key times: on the project kick-off meeting (pre-test), on the project wrap-up meeting (post-test) and 6 months after the project wrap-up meeting (post-test + 6 months). This administration schedule ensures that declared well-being can be compared between these different moments. Semi-structured interviews of childcare professionals are carried out following the RAC project. They are based on the data collected in the questionnaires, according to a qualitative research approach that focuses on the respondents' experience (Dumez, 2013). The aim of these interviews is to identify the key elements of the methodology affecting well-being at work and professional practices, either positively or negatively.

Case study

The methodology developed by PREMIERS CRIS has been implemented in two RAC projects: a first project conducted in Early Childhood Education Centres (ECECs) 31 and a second one carried out at Mille formes, an art initiation centre for 0-6-yearolds 32 . The first of these two RAC projects is presented in the following paragraphs. The project was launched in September 2021 and will end in June 2022. It gathers

31

In France, the CAF (Caisse d'Allocation Familiale) defines the ECECs as establishments "intended for children under the age of 6. The ECECs include day care centres, micro-nurseries, drop-in centres, kindergartens and establishments providing multi-care facilities".

the following co-researchers: Zoé Aegerter (designer), Emmanuel Devouche (lecturer in developmental psychology at the Université Paris Cité) and 5 ECECs in the Ile-de-France region (Rachel Lempereur and Les Bergerons in Pantin, Ménilmontant in Paris, Babilou Chancé Milly in Clichy and Babilou Berlioz in Bobigny -85 staff members involved, including 2 referees per establishment). The general theme of this project, "Communication within ECEC", was chosen by the PREMIERS CRIS team beforehand in order to facilitate the emergence of the research group. During the first two research meetings, the co-researchers specified this thematic: first by choosing to focus on "Communication between professionals within ECEC" (meeting 1), then more precisely on "Facilitating the transmission of formal and informal information between childcare professionals during work time" (meeting 2). The project is still in progress. The co-researchers are currently working on finalising the fourth step, setting up the experimental scenario. This scenario was tested in a prototypical version starting in March 2022.

Reflecting on new research practices

Based on the first two RAC projects conducted, we can now hypothesise about the key elements of our methodology that support successful collaborative actionresearch intervention programs in Early Childhood. Beforehand, it is worth clarifying the methodology that allowed these thoughts to emerge: they are the result of the author's critical and reflexive analysis of the first two RAC projects as they were being conducted. This analysis is based on the observations and subjective experiences of the two authors, as well as on feedback from all the actors who have taken part in a RAC project -other permanent members of the Premiers Cris team, facilitators, scientists, designers and early childhood professionals -and on discussions with colleagues working in the field of early childhood.

Key elements to consider beforehand

. A COLLECTIVE OF CO-RESEARCHERS: our methodology involves all co-researchers (scientists and non-scientists) at each stage of the project, from the choice of the precise theme to the dissemination of results (co-authorship of communications, whether scientific or not). A horizontality of knowledge and a mutual recognition of practices is introduced by the PREMIERS CRIS team throughout the project, as we will explain below. . A PROJECT-BASED APPROACH: the team of co-researchers is involved in a specific project with predefined stages. This allows the stakeholders to be fully involved in specific activities. Throughout the project, the PREMIERS CRIS team ensures that the project remains achievable within the given time and energy. . AN APPROPRIATE TIME FRAME: the schedule of our methodology is adapted to the field schedule, while maintaining sufficient time for research. The methodology was designed to be carried out over a French school year, from September to June. This schedule is used in most places that welcome young children, in terms of both pedagogical project and employment contract duration. The purpose of this oneyear schedule is to avoid a change of team in the nurseries or of class in the schools. Nevertheless, the timeline of our methodology is adaptable to each RAC project. This was the case for the project carried out in collaboration with mille formes, which was conducted over 5 months. The duration of each stage was shortened, while ensuring the necessary time for discussion, data collection and analysis. . A COMMON LANGUAGE: The RAC methodology developed by PREMIERS CRIS proposes a terminology that is new for all co-researchers. Indeed, the vocabulary used is not exactly that of the scientific method, nor that of design research. In this way, this lexicon specific to our methodology is common to all the co-researchers.

This seems to have a threefold impact:

(i) First, it ensures that everyone agrees on what they are talking about. By jointly discovering each stage of the methodology, the co-researchers take time to define it, thereby guaranteeing mutual agreement. The PREMIERS CRIS team ensures that this step of vocabulary appropriation is smooth and effective for each co-researcher. (j) Secondly, avoiding the use of certain words from the scientific vocabulary (research question, experimental procedure) allows scientists not to call upon pre-established concepts, which would lead them to apply a scientific research method to the project. The use of a new vocabulary helps everyone -and especially scientists for whom academic research is their job -to empower themselves to do research differently. (k) Thirdly, the creation of a common and new lexicon ensures equality between the co-researchers, where the use of a vocabulary specific to science or design would have given the ascendancy to a part of the co-researchers. Indeed, the one who possesses the knowledge also possesses, to a certain extent, the power (see below). If (lexical) knowledge is shared then power is more likely to be shared, which is precisely what we are hoping for when implementing our methodology.

Key elements applied throughout the RAC projects

In order to implement a real collaboration 33 between the co-researchers within the RAC projects, it was essential to think of the conditions that would facilitate the emergence of this collaboration. To this end, we worked with the philosopher Théo Samain-Rimbaud to produce a report entitled The horizontality of knowledge and the recognition of practices during the collaborative action-research projects of Premiers Cris (Samain-Rimbaud & PREMIERS CRIS, 2021). The main outcomes of this report are presented in the following paragraphs. (l) A CONSTRUCTIVIST APPROACH: the epistemology adopted in our methodology is a constructivist approach to research (neither deductive nor inductive) [START_REF] Lyet | Les finalités hybrides des recherches sur les problèmes des acteurs sociaux[END_REF]. The specificity of the constructivist approach is to consider subjective moments (and more particularly those of childcare professionals), to make them explicit and to include them in a process of objectification. The constructivist approach calls for strengthening, confronting and accommodating points of view. This approach encourages the emergence of a "shared interpretative zone", the actual output of the collaboration between all the co-researchers. (M) DESIGNERS' INVOLVEMENT: according to our analysis, one strength of our methodology is the specificity of involving designers. This is specific because the majority of previous action-research projects in Early Childhood have only involved scientists and practitioners. What is the contribution of design to our methodology? The designers' function is to embody the "shared interpretative zone" between the coresearchers through the concretisation of a device (material or not). This device is then experienced, criticised and above all appropriated by each one. Practices stimulated by this device are questioned by the designers in a dynamic and continuous way. As such, the designers' involvement is intended to ensure that both the research process and its outcomes are an enjoyable, useful and enriching experience for the first users, the childcare professionals. (N) ADDRESSING THE "KNOWLEDGE-POWER" RELATIONSHIP: the involvement of actors with different social status (scientists, designers and childcare professionals in our case) brings into play the "knowledge-power" relationship described by [START_REF] Foucault | Surveiller et punir[END_REF], which could be detrimental to the emergence of collaboration within the project. In order to address this issue, we propose not to deny these "knowledge-power" relationships but to make them explicit and to develop a collective awareness of them. Above all, it is a question of recognising and considering the status of each one. For example, when it comes to allocating speaking time and making decisions, we have to consider the less privileged social status of childcare professionals and their reduced practice of arguing (compared to scientists and designers). (O) DISTINCTION BETWEEN STATUS, ROLE AND RESPONSIBILITIES (Fig. 4): we encourage the distinction between the social status (childcare educator, designer or lecturer) and the role within the RAC, which includes several responsibilities (e.g., to be responsible for data collection or data analysis). This distinction is intended to leverage the knowledge and practices of each one. At each stage of the research process, the PREMIERS CRIS team reminds the co-researchers of their roles and responsibilities:

Overall key element: a supportive team

The supporting role of our team is essential to underpin the above-mentioned elements. It is worth noting that no member of our team is involved as a scientist or designer of the project. Nevertheless, our team has (and uses) the required skills to support the co-researchers in their work. This support is enhanced for childcare professionals during the experimental stage: "facilitators", trained by PREMIERS CRIS, are present on a weekly basis in the establishments, in order to help the professionals to adopt a reflective approach to their practices.

Our team provides a safe space for the co-researchers to exchange ideas. First, we welcome co-researchers in a comfortable space, which is located in a neutral place (our Research Institute) and not in the institution of one of the parties involved.

Secondly, we provide a space for meaningful discussion: our team ensures that speaking time is fairly distributed during meetings, that everyone's point of view is listened to, that comments or opinions are tempered, and that the project corresponds as closely as possible to everyone's expectations.

In addition, we take care of the organisation and implementation of the RAC project: we ensure the recruitment of the project's stakeholders, the approval of the experiments by a Research Ethics Committee, the organisation of collective meetings and their moderation to facilitate discussion. Finally, our team supports the continued involvement of the co-researchers through the moderation of an online discussion group and the presence of "facilitators" in the institutions during experimental stages.

Discussion and Perspectives

The methodology developed by PREMIERS CRIS, combining action and collaboration, aims to address a twofold challenge currently faced by early childhood education policies (Fig. 5): → A scientific challenge on the one hand: to produce new knowledge enriched by the point of view of the main stakeholders and to develop professional practices that are adapted to their environment and whose relevance has been scientifically evaluated; → A societal challenge on the other hand: to improve the well-being of childcare professionals by encouraging collective decision-making and the renewal of practices within a logic of empowerment, and by enhancing these professions through the recognition of their expertise and skills.

The question now is to evaluate the extent to which our methodology addresses this twofold challenge. Such an evaluation is underway, and its results will support (or not) the interest of rolling out this new methodology.

Figure 5: Two-fold impact of PREMIERS CRIS' RAC projects

Assuming that the RAC methodology of PREMIERS CRIS meets both these scientific and societal challenges, the question of scaling up must be addressed. A first answer is provided by the accessibility of this methodology on the PREMIERS CRIS website. We hope that it can be adopted by other organisations: scientific laboratories, design studios or professional associations. In this dynamic of open access, we wish to create and disseminate an online training course offering everyone the opportunity to easily appropriate our methodology.

In the future, we hope that the specific features of the RAC methodology developed by PREMIERS CRIS (e.g. Science & Design alliance, collective of co-researchers, supportive team) and its accessibility will pave the way for its application in various fields of research, and more particularly in other areas of care (e.g., in the field of disability or the care of the elderly). Le bébé n'est plus considéré comme un être immature -un nourrisson -que l'on se contente de nourrir, mais comme un être compétent qui observe, imite, communique, préfère la langue maternelle… En moins de dix ans, l'enjeu de l'éducation a pivoté de manière brutale : on n'éduque plus un enfant pour qu'il réponde aux exigences de la société, soit « bien élevé », mais pour qu'il déploie au mieux ses compétences et son potentiel. Et des besoins développementaux nouveaux ont été décrits. (p. 13) Cela rejoint un rôle préventif important : une grande part des difficultés, à la jonction du développement ordinaire d'un enfant et des petits ennuis développementaux, se résout d'une manière souple dans l'échange entre parents. Et si les professionnels repèrent des distorsions plus graves, des facteurs de risque accrus se présente, ils peuvent amener une proposition individualisée vers une structure plus appropriée.

Utilité sociale des Café des parents ®

Le mieux-être et le partage

La parentalité est une identité à la fois singulière et partagée. De ce fait, deux premiers aspects de l'utilité sociale apparaissent : → au niveau individuel : favoriser le mieux-être consiste à fournir un lieu de libération de la parolequi permet de distancier et de prendre conscience et un lieu d'écoute sans jugement, permis par l'anonymat et la confidentialité ; → au niveau collectif : instaurer une économie de partage, valeur anthropologique fondamentale et valeur non marchande, implique une gratuité de principe. Si l'on suit Briand (2019) :

Ici, contrairement à ce qui se passe dans un échange matériel, rien n'est perdu dans l'implication réciproque des interlocuteurs. Parler et écouter sont des actes simultanés, qui se posent comme une forme de don, un donné-recevoir instantané, que Fred Poché appelle la « duplication donative ». (p. 82)

L'envie de comprendre

Du côté des parents, exprimer ses difficultés (de nombreuses dépassent la question de parentalité) revient à comprendre qu'elles peuvent être pensées et dépassées. C'est aussi affirmer et préciser SON IDENTITÉ DE PARENT qui n'est peut-être pas encore reconnue par les institutions. La posture des professionnels est essentielle : eux aussi cherchent à comprendre, sont aussi parents, veulent aussi faire évoluer leur propre pratique. La dynamique de groupe va ainsi être un outil puissant pour « se libérer » ensemble. L'on peut donc résumer l'utilité sociale du dispositif à travers le processus qu'elle met en oeuvre :

-échanges dons, libèrent les potentialités de chacun, -égalité des co-chercheurs augmente la confiance en soi -interdépendance consentie améliore les capacités d'adaptation Nous sommes ici à la base du développement humain économique et sociétal permettant d'être Auteur et Acteur de sa vie.

Création de commun et de lien social, d'un tiers lieu

Les CdP mettent en valeur un mouvement symbolique, celui de l'intime vers l'universel. Dans ces termes, chaque parent délivre et partage des éléments de sa vie personnelle et a priori pense à son propre enfant puis découvre que ses aspirations secrètes, ses inquiétudes, ses sentiments et ses questionnements rejoignent ceux des autres participants, et au-delà, de tous les parents. La parentalité est une condition universelle où il s'agit d'accompagner des petits d'homme pour qu'ils deviennent des petits hommes.

Faire société en se reliant, en créant des ponts, en s'alliant, c'est aussi se réinscrire dans la perspective de cette universalité. Telle est l'ambition sociale des CdP : permettre de lutter contre la solitude, de rencontrer des personnes parfois improbables et ainsi de créer un nouveau réseau relationnel qui peut constituer une première étape vers un investissement plus large dans l'espace social. Lieu intermédiaire, le CdP permet aussi de créer des traits d'union avec les institutions (école, crèches, MJC, Maisons pour tous, prisons…) où les représentations des uns et des autres sont mises en travail, de sorte à ouvrir des réconciliations ou tout au moins à fluidifier les relations sociales.

Et l'École ?

C'est sans doute dans le cadre de la scolarisation que les initiatives CdP sont les plus fréquentes. En effet l'École, qui historiquement s'est construite en opposition aux logiques des milieux populaires, a beaucoup à gagner à renouer avec les parents. L'École de Jules Ferry s'est construite contre les cultures locales rurales, contre les langues régionales puisque l'époque imposait de renforcer le sentiment national et de développer le monde industriel, donc la formation de la main d'oeuvre des premières industries. L'Éducation Nationale parle souvent des « parents éloignés de l'école » pour justifier des actions bienveillantes en direction des parents. Les CdP sont effectivement des lieux qui permettent aux parents de travailler sur les représentations de l'école et sur le sens de l'enseignement. Prenons l'exemple d'un CdP dans tel quartier sensible, couplé à une scolarisation précoce : celui-ci se tient pendant que les enfants sont gardés une demijournée par semaine par la crèche voisine. De manière plus générale, les CdP montés dans les écoles constituent davantage des injonctions que dans d'autres institutions : on tient un CdP avec des parents arrivés de l'étranger, non francophones.

Limites du dispositif

Le cadre d'écoles de quartiers prioritaires pose de manière plus générale la question aux CdP, de savoir « comment s'adresser au plus grand nombre et prioritairement, à ceux qui en auraient le plus besoin » (Périer, 2019, p. 99). N'oublions pas que le rapport à la parole peut être un obstacle majeur pour beaucoup. Et Périer propose d'aborder certains parents comme auteurs de projets et d'activités dans lesquels ils pourraient s'engager plus avant, en ce qu'ils mobilisent leurs compétences ou leurs connaissances. Suivant ces principes, les parents peuvent ainsi co-construire le projet à partir de bases qui leur sont familières. Des échanges entre enseignants et parents d'un quartier de Montpellier ont ainsi pu se concrétiser au fil du temps à partir non d'un CdP mais d'un « couscous » mensuel que plusieurs mères de famille ont organisé, invitant familles et professionnels de l'école dans la cour centrale des HLM. Quelques limites ont cependant été observées : d'une part, l'absence massive des pères aux CdP ; d'autre part, il apparaît que certains parents pensent qu'ils ont de « mauvaises pratiques parentales », ou se disent qu'ils ne peuvent rien changer (ils ne se rendent alors pas aux CdP, à l'instar d'une mère célibataire qui utilise beaucoup les écrans avec ses enfants pour pouvoir pendant ce temps réaliser les taches matérielles). Notons en outre que d'autres ne disposent pas du temps nécessaire pour aller à ces réunions, ou que dès lors que les attentes des institutions s'expriment trop fortement dans un CdP, les parents y perdent leur position d'acteurs. Une dernière limite tient dans les distances culturelles existant entre professionnels et parents, lesquelles peuvent constituer un obstacle redoutable à travers la place du langage, les places respectives de l'enfant et des parents dans la famille, le niveau d'importance attribué à tel ou tel comportement d'enfant (la politesse, l'obéissance, le regard, le contact physique…).

Le rôle des animateurs

Même l'animation est prise en charge par un psychologue, la posture strictement professionnelle n'est pas adaptée : dans un CdP, il n'y a personne qui « sait » plus que les autres. Dans cette situation le dispositif tourne en mode questions/réponses, ce qui désamorce la dynamique du groupe. L'animateur recentre le débat, reformule, donne du rythme, assure chacun de la confidentialité des propos échangés, tâche d'espacer ses interventions, s'assure que chacun est libre de parler, éventuellement interroge individuellement une personne sentie comme impliquée mais qui ne s'exprime pas. Une information de type scientifique ou plus professionnelle peut être donnée pour relancer la dynamique. L'animateur exprime aussi ses ressentis, son expérience, tout en s'effaçant dès que possible. À cet égard, la co-animation donne de meilleurs résultats avec un enseignant, un animateur, un travailleur social, à savoir que, selon un document interne non publié, 18 % des CdP sont actuellement co-animés par des parents. En résumé la qualité des CdP repose sur le savoir-faire et le savoir-être de l'animateur [START_REF] Mariller | Les Cafés des parents[END_REF] qui doit être à la fois : -garant du respect et de la fluidité des échanges ; -co-chercheur insufflant une dynamique du « faire avec », où l'expertise et la compétence de chacun -parent et professionnel -sont prises en compte et valorisées. Cela équivaut à s'en tenir à une horizontalité où l'on n'attend pas la parole d'un savoir « professionnel » comme réponse première, mais une co-construction, une intelligence collective. Comme en témoignent sur ce point les animatrices du CdP de l'EPE de Metz, « nous parlons de notre relation à nos usagers comme d'une danse de salon, où il faut être à l'écoute de son partenaire, puis épouser son rythme : il nous emporte et nous lions nos mouvements aux siens pour cette création commune » (document non publié).

Annexe : quelques indications (sources : documents internes 2022)

→ création des CdP : en majorité, des professionnels de la Psychologie et de l'Éducation Spécialisée ou Populaire, mais 39 % par des parents associés aux professionnels ; → les contenus : 83 % proposent un accueil et des échanges autour d'un thème prédéfini, 44 % proposent des rencontres informelles ; → les thématiques : si l'on prend l'exemple du CdP de Metz, qui a 13 années d'existence, celles-ci concernent prioritairement l'allaitement/sevrage du nourrisson et l'adolescence (réseaux sociaux, addictions, fréquentation, autonomie…) ; → les financements : 64 % des budgets viennent de la CNAF (Budget des Réseaux d'Écoute, d'Appui et d'Accompagnement des Parents [REAAP]), 11 % par autofinancement.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Suite de gestes coverbauxÀ noter que les gestes sont réalisés en synchronie avec les termes qu'ils représentent, ce qui permet l'association geste/mot, d'autant que les gestes ne semblent pas spécifiques à la langue espagnole. Ces résultats sont en cohérence avec les travaux dans le domaine des études gestuelles auprès d'enfants de 3 ans : la place de la prosodie, du corps, de l'environnement matériel est prépondérante dans la construction du sens des échanges entre l'adulte et l'enfant, et contribuent ainsi au développement langagier du tout jeune enfant (voir notamment[START_REF] Volterra | Gesture and the emergence and development of language[END_REF][START_REF] Batista | Rôle et évolution des combinaisons bimodales au cours de l'acquisition du langage. Données chez l'enfant francophone âgé de 18 à 42 mois[END_REF][START_REF] Morgenstern | Le développement multimodal du langage de l'enfant : des premiers bourgeons aux constructions multimodales[END_REF]. Le principe éducatif retenu par la crèche a permis d'observer et documenter l'usage du langage des signes pour bébé. Les rares travaux que nous rencontrons sur ce langage sont pour l'essentiel en faveur de son usage tant il aurait des effets positifs sur le plan linguistique et développemental(Acredolo & Goodwin, 2009) ou de la socialisation langagière(Pizer, 2004). Notre analyse montre tout au moins que l'utilisation de ce code, qui se rapproche selon nous des gestes emblématiques dans le sens où ils répondent à une certaine convention spécifique à chaque langue 7 , contribue à la réalisation de l'interaction. Ils sont produits et compris aussi bien par les

Frédéric

  TORTERAT, Brahim AZAOUI, Katherine RUPRECHT (2022). Proceedings of the Collaborative Initiatives for Early Childhood Conference, Numerev LIRDEF Des cahiers au service de la collaboration entre École maternelle et familles : une littératie scolaire renégociée Marie-Noëlle DABESTANI CIRCEFT-ESCOL, Université Paris 8 (Vincennes-St Denis)

  les rubriques suggèrent ainsi aux professionnel•le•s de montrer plus régulièrement aux parents des productions enfantines valorisant leurs dimensions psychologiques (comme les dessins), créatives (objets fabriqués, fresques, peinture) et leurs visées socialisatrices (projet collectif de réalisation d'une oeuvre collective par exemple). Les questions de la relation entre école et familles tendent même à être subsumées dans les pratiques pédagogiques présentées aux enseignant•e•s. La rubrique dédiée aux parents disparait ainsi définitivement après septembre 1980 et les questions de la relation de l'école avec les parents sont dès lors intégrées dans les fiches 11 Elle est considérée comme une revue de référence pour les professionnel•le•s de l'école maternelle. De 1903 à 1970, deux années de publications ont été dépouillées par livraisons de dix ans. De 1970 à 2002, elles l'ont été systématiquement. L'abréviation ÉE est utilisée pour mentionner un numéro spécifique de la revue. 12 ÉE n°2, octobre 1959 13 ÉE n°3, novembre 1959 pédagogiques proposées aux enseignants. Il leur est par exemple suggéré de demander aux parents des photographies des différents membres qui la composent comme prolongement possible d'une séquence d'enseignement sur la connaissance des adultes et des autres enfants de la classe. Les photographies familiales sont décrites comme des « supports de langage » engageant chaque enfant à recontextualiser en classe des apprentissages langagiers scolaires. Le médiateur et son cahier : un jouet scolaire introduit au domicile des parents C'est dans ce contexte de redéfinitions sociales de l'enfance et de la relation entre école et familles (Chamboredon & Prévot, 1973) que la revue n°4 (décembre 1987) consacre pour la première fois un dossier à la mise en scène scolaire d'un jouet (une poupée), dit « le médiateur », d'abord à titre expérimental (figure 1).

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1 : Première page de la revue ÉE (n°4, décembre 1987) Le « médiateur » est avant tout présenté dans la revue comme un objet favorisant la séparation quotidienne de l'enfant avec ses parents et sa socialisation dans le groupe social que constitue la classe : « Nous partageons [avec Poupette] des émotions collectives sans ressentir un sentiment de lassitude » (ÉE, 1987, n°4, p. 8). Son usage dépasse cependant son seul rôle d'objet transitionnel. De multiples situations pédagogiques du jouet scolaire sont en effet détaillées telles que « Marjolaine est malade », « Natacha a mal à son oeil ». La poupée est alors pensée comme un « médiateur intellectuel » enrôlant les enfants dans des apprentissages langagiers, cognitifs par le détour d'une relation supposée affective à son égard : « Une mise en scène originale, dans laquelle ce personnage est valorisé, stimule l'intérêt des enfants et favorise leur attitude d'analyse » (ÉE, 1987, n°4, p. 8). En prolongement de cet usage scolaire, la revue propose d'en garder une trace (photographies, transcription des productions orales des enfants entre autres) dans un cahier dédié pour que les enfants puissent s'en ressaisir comme supports de langage entre eux. La revue suggère en outre de valoriser cette expertise pédagogique scolaire auprès des familles en mettant la poupée 14 et son

Figure 2 :

 2 Figure 2 : Premières pages du cahier de vie de Félix (1995-1996) MUNAÉ, n° d'inventaire 2016.40.2. Le cahier de Félix ne permet cependant pas de rendre compte de la variété possible des pratiques à cette période 15 d'autant que le cadrage proposé dans la revue reste souple et engage notamment les professionnel•le•s à moduler leurs usages selon le contexte social de leur lieu d'exercice professionnel :

  Figure3: Fiches illustratives du cahier de viede Félix (1995de Félix ( -1996) ) MUNAÉ, n° d'inventaire 2016.40.2.

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4 : Fiche illustrative du cahierde vie d'Hamina (2018de vie d'Hamina ( -2019)), PSM, REP Les liens entre les différents éléments constitutifs de cette fiche illustrative ne relèvent cependant pas de l'évidence. D'abord, la première photographie (en haut à gauche) est à reconnaitre comme la première page d'un album de la littérature enfantine « Que font les animaux quand il pleut ? » et à appréhender pour ses illustrations (trait oblique) et non pour son récit. La photographie des allumettes est pour sa part à mettre en lien avec l'expérience haptique de tracés obliques (la pluie) et avec les photographies des supports de peinture que préparent les élèves pour réaliser des tracés (non figurées). Ensuite, la désignation des savoirs et des savoirs-faire exercés s'appuie sur leur codification selon une approche par compétences. Les enseignantes disent en effet être vigilantes à rester au plus près des textes officiels en mobilisant un discours associant les différentes facettes de l'approche par compétences : 1/ des grands domaines d'apprentissage « Agir, s'exprimer, comprendre à travers les activités artistiques » ; 2/ des expériences de la vie non scolaire « en cette période de mauvais temps[…] en représentant la pluie » ; 3/ la transversalité des apprentissages imbriquant dans leur message une visée socialisatrice« une composition collective « , une pratique artistique, la maitrise d'un geste graphique et la fréquentation d'un album de la littérature enfantine « des coulures en peinture représentant la pluie en étant fidèle à un modèle et en lien avec un album ». Comme pour les cahiers de la mascotte, les cahiers de vie semblent maintenant engager les parents dans un rôle à tenir au service de l'école ; à charge cependant pour eux d'identifier et de recomposer le message scolaire

24 RAM:

 24 Réseau d'Assistantes Maternelles (network of caregivers) 25According to the French National Minister of Education (2022), "the situations proposed relate to the transition from oral to written, letter recognition, phonology, oral and written comprehension, and reading aloud. The assessment takes place in 3 sequences with collective and individual methods. Reading skills assessment activities require individual time. The effective working time of the student is estimated at 8 min for the first sequence and 10 min for the second sequence. The third sequence corresponds to the two individual tests whose duration is fixed at 2 min. Additional time for explanations and examples is to be expected" (our translation).

Figure 3 :

 3 Figure 3: Specific knowledge and common knowledge

Figure 4 :

 4 Figure 4: The distinction "Responsibilities > Role > Status", in the Collaborative Action-Research methodology developed by PREMIERS CRIS

1.

  Historique et missions des EPE Créés par La Fédération Nationale de l'École des Parents et des Éducateurs (FNEPE) en 1999, les Cafés des Parents ® , outil emblématique des Écoles des Parents (EPE) dont la marque a été déposée en 2010, proposent un espace et un temps d'échanges permettant aux parents de renforcer mutuellement leurs capacités éducatives. Ils sont animés par les EPE dans 30 départements, majoritairement au siège des structures, dans les centres sociaux de quartiers et des écoles (en particulier maternelles et primaires des Réseaux Éducation Prioritaire), mais aussi en crèches ou Foyers ruraux. 1929 Première « École des Parents » créée à Paris par Marguerite Vérine-Lebrun, dont le postulat est qu'aucun éducateur ne peut remplacer les parents et qu'il faut leur apprendre à mieux comprendre leurs enfants en s'appuyant sur les recherches du moment (Montessori, Adler, Anna Freud) vise « à rendre chacun acteur de ses apprentissages, qu'il partage avec d'autres » (Verrier, 2019, p. 466). 1949 Création de la Revue L'École des Parents 2016 Convention-cadre interministérielle : acteur majeur de la prévention et de la radicalisation 2018 Convention-cadre Éducation Nationale et Jeunesse : renforcement de la relation de confiance école -famille, prévention dans les domaines de la santé, de la sécurité et lutte contre les inégalités sociales 2020 « Allô, Parents en crise », numéro Vert Reconnue d'utilité publique, la FNEPE compte actuellement 34 EPE et 5 labellisées en France métropolitaine et Outre-mer. Les EPE animent et soutiennent la relation éducative en prenant en compte les questions propres à l'adulte dans son rôle éducatif et les questions propres à l'enfant en tant que sujet d'une éducation. Les actions 2020 de l'EPE de l'Hérault sont les suivantes : 2. Les Cafés des parents ® D'abord « Cercles de parents », puis « groupes de parole de parents », l'initiative devient en 1999 les « Cafés des Parents », labellisés en 2010. Il s'agit pour chacun d'un « lieu de rencontre des expériences de chacun, d'échanges et de partage de savoirs entre parents, entre parents et professionnels et entre professionnels » (Briand, 2019, p. 31). Les Cafés des Parents suivent trois principaux objectifs : → dire et se dire dans l'anonymat et la confidentialité et écouter les autres ; → permettre aux parents de renforcer mutuellement leurs compétences éducatives grâce à la complémentarité de leurs expériences et de leurs cultures (identification et confrontation à l'altérité), faire vivre la « pairéducation » ; → permettre aux parents d'exprimer l'imbroglio désirs de parents/besoins de l'enfant. En l'occurrence, les Cafés des Parents ® (CdP) participent au « soutien à la parentalité » tel que défini par l'Ordonnance du 19 mai 2021 (à laquelle a participé la FNEPE), contribuent à considérer la parentalité comme un ensemble de « compétences qui permettent à un adulte de répondre aux besoins d'un enfant » (Marcelli, 2019, p. 12). Ainsi, si la parenté va de soi, il n'en est pas de même pour la parentalité : serai-je capable d'élever mon bébé, mon enfant ? Comment accompagner au mieux mon enfant dans son épanouissement et ne pas passer à côté de quelque chose d'important ? Comment devenir ce « bon parent » prôné par les magazines et les institutions ? Ces questions et préoccupations rejoignent concrètement la complexité qui prévaut désormais dans l'art d'élever les enfants depuis les années 1975-1980. Ainsi que le soulignent Marcelli et Lanchon (2019) :

Table 2

 2 Children's characteristic and Means, Standard Deviations, and Group Comparison of Mean * p < .05, FR, family risk; FR children, children who had one parent with RD; Non-FR children, children with no parents reporting RD; HLE, home literacy environment.

	Non-FR	FR
	n = 159	n = 49	d
	M (SD) or %	M (SD) or %

* p < .001 *a Parents' level of education: high, university/college.

Table 4

 4 Correlation among FR-status, and other variables in the whole sample(N = 208)

* p < .001, ** p < .05. FR, family risk; Parental level of education: high, university/college; HLE, home literacy environment.

Table 1 :

 1

Audiovideo data available, in hours and minutes

As Table

1

indicates, a total of 187 hours of video were recorded for the videoethnographic phase of the project, of which 80 hours focused on drop-offs, 98 hours looked at pick-ups and 8 hours showed yearly meetings. The project's entire training phase was also video-recorded, with almost 40 hours of data from the different steps of training design, including 7 hours of content-based training on interaction analysis, 7 hours of video sequence selection by participants, 13 hours of collective video-data analysis by the groups and 11 hours about the preparation of dissemination activities within larger institutions. Video recordings were organised in a database, transcribed and coded using Transana Multi-User qualitative analysis software.

. Contexte et méthodologie de la recherche

	. Rezzoug et Moro (2011) soutiennent la nécessité d'« oser la transmission des langues maternelles » dans le champ du soin en situation transculturelle ; Hélot (2018) défend quant à elle l'idée que l'accueil de la diversité linguistique et culturelle en crèche relève de la justice sociale. Lorsque ce ne sont pas les parents qui interagissent dans les langues de la famille à la langue de la famille, ni à celle du pays d'accueil ? Qu'en est-il lorsque l'ouverture à la diversité linguistique ne correspond ni à promouvoir ou entretenir les langues des familles ou du pays d'accueil. des langues est principalement motivée par la question migratoire : Comme nous le voyons dans les exemples de travaux mentionnés, la place contradiction avec leur réalité linguistique. imposer une règle telle que « une personne, une langue » est en surtout qu'elle fait partie du quotidien des personnes bilingues. Dès lors, aussi bien des interlocuteurs que des situations interactionnelles, mais bilinguisme est une réalité dynamique et fluide, que cette pratique dépend langues ou d'acquisition bilingue. Ces tempsrappellent d'une part que le langues, souvent de façon simultanée, dans un contexte d'enseignement des translanguaging (Garcia & Wei, 2014), qui réfère au fait d'utiliser plusieurs communication en général. Caporal-Ebersold observent des moments de qu'elle soit outrepassée pour s'assurer de la sécurité des enfants et de la « un parent, une langue », Ronjat, 1913 ; Escudé, 2014) est respectée, il arrive personne » (désigné initialement comme le principe de Grammont-Ronjat, langue principale. Si, pour l'essentiel, la règle de la crèche « une langue une langues à la maison dont souvent l'anglais et/ou le français, selon leur avec les enfants, biculturels. Ces derniers sont en contact avec plusieurs organisent les interventions dans la langue qu'ils sont supposés employer façon dont les professionnels d'une crèche bilingue français-anglais Le travail doctoral réalisé par Caporal-Ebersold (2018) a permis d'étudier la dans les interactions et les apprentissages langagiers. professionnels s'emparent de cette pratique et quels effets sont observables l'arrivée dans la crèche, la question se pose de savoir comment les La recherche peut être désignée comme ethnographique dans le sens où une observation filmée ou non s'est effectuée sur place de manière régulière entre janvier et décembre 2020 ; des entretiens ont par ailleurs été réalisés avec tous les professionnels de la crèche ainsi qu'avec certains parents volontaires. L'ensemble de ces données (25h d'interactions filmées et 11 enregistrements d'entretiens semi-dirigés) a été complété par des photos de l'espace crèche, de certains supports éducatifs et professionnels (cahier de liaison crèche-famille, notamment). La présente contribution se limite à l'étude d'interactions entre les enfants et la puéricultrice hispanophone. L'analyse s'est effectuée en considérant les interactions multimodales 5
	2La micro-crèche BGT, créée en 2015, est située dans une ville de l'agglomération de Montpellier composée d'une population appartenant à une catégorie socio-professionnelle supérieure. Au moment de la recherche, l'équipe comptait en plus d'une responsable plurilingue (français, anglais, russe), une référente technique et trois auxiliaires de puériculture qualifiés 4 , dont une hispanophone. Seule cette dernière interagissait avec les enfants en espagnol. Cela dit, la crèche disposait d'une panoplie de livres en espagnol et en anglais, et des CD de comptines dans différentes langues.

Disentangling bilingualism and language impairment in Italian L2 children: good practices

  , mais aussi un support scolarisable. Le dispositif du médiateur continue à être mis en oeuvre 18 même si des maitres et maitresses expliquent l'avoir abandonné au cours des dernières années ou envisager de le faire par manque d'adhésion des familles. Les variations de sens donné aux cahiers sont en effet prégnantes pour les mères enquêtées. Elles identifient la mascotte et son cahier soit comme une occasion de poursuivre leurs pratiques familiales en continuité avec l'école, soit comme celle de rendre compte à l'école de leur adhésion et leur « bonne » mobilisation dans la scolarité de leurs enfants. contenus des cahiers contemporains « de la mascotte », « de vie » distribuent encore ce discours consensuel, bien que le poids et l'expertise du rôle pédagogique parental à tenir soit accentué à l'intérieur même de ce discours consensuel. Le mode contemporain de relation entre école et familles semble ainsi revêtir dès la maternelle des caractéristiques d'une « école qui complète l'éducation familiale avec une quasi-inversion des points de vue »(Poucet, 2017, p. 8). Proceedings of the Collaborative Initiatives for Early Childhood Conference, Numerev LIRDEF

	Conclusion Le mode scriptural de communication entre enseignant•e•s et parents Chiara MELLONI University of Verona chiara.melloni@univr.it s'impose ainsi au tournant du XX e et du XXI Frédéric TORTERAT, Brahim AZAOUI, Katherine RUPRECHT (2022). Maria VENDER University of Verona maria.vender@univr.it

D'autres mères sont quant à elles peu enclines à emmener la mascotte à leur domicile. Le recours à un « doudou » n'est, à leurs yeux, pas nécessaire pour leurs enfants déjà prêts selon elles à appréhender le travail dit sérieux de l'école, scandant ainsi temporellement la rupture avec les premiers âges de l'enfance dédiés aux besoins physiologiques et psychoaffectifs

[START_REF] Chamboredon | Le "métier d'enfant". Définition sociale de la prime enfance et fonctions différentielles de l'école maternelle[END_REF]

. Des mères préfèrent ainsi rester en retrait, d'autant qu'elles expriment leurs inquiétudes à déposer des traces de leur vie familiale dans un cahier scolaire. Au cours des trente dernières années, les cahiers de vie semblent de même avoir été de plus en plus appréhendés comme des objets matérialisant la relation renforcée entre école et familles, d'autant que les fiches illustratives sont essentiellement réalisées par les enseignantes elles-mêmes, à distance des enfants. Nos observations en classe montrent en effet que les élèves n'en prennent généralement connaissance qu'à la fin de chaque période scolaire, avant de les coller dans les cahiers et de les rapporter à leur domicile. Pour les cahiers de vie, l'expertise requise pour décoder les fiches illustratives dans la continuité de l'école s'adosse là encore à une familiarité « déjà là » des parents aux manières de faire de l'école maternelle. Elles livrent en effet peu de repères sur les savoirs enseignés et les modalités d'interactions langagières

[START_REF] Bruner | Le développement de l'enfant. Savoir faire[END_REF]

mobilisés en classe et requises des parents à leurs domiciles. e siècle dès les premiers âges scolaires. Il officialise et symbolise la représentation d'un enfant mis au centre de la préoccupation des acteurs éducatifs. Renégociés au fil du temps, Parmi 247 répondants déclarant faire usage d'au moins un cahier collectif, 19,8% (49) des enseignant•e•s précisent utiliser une mascotte et son cahier éponyme.

les

table : 23

 : Our translation.

	year of birth	year of admis-sion	number of children in Passerelle (over the year)	numbers of children in first class of preschool	before preschool (caregiving, day-nursery, daycare, other services)
	2013	2015	28	from P	non P	crèches mandatory) ten, non (kindergar-	RAM 24
				12	23	21	4
	2014	2016	24	12	13	13	4
	2015	2017	23	15	18	9	5
	2016	2018	30	19	11	7	1
	2017	2019	23	18	5	7	3
	2018	2020	24	10	14	5	4
	2019	2021	18 au 10-02 2022 (projections 2022 : 25)	9	13	4	data non consolidated

Subject of the action research study Method used in the activity Solutions/outcomes of educational problems

	Bachelor's thesis based on action research Master teacher practitioner University researcher (bachelor thesis supervisor) Author of bachelor thesis (student teacher) supporting arguments with evidence (primary sources), assessing the credibility of a source and selecting a credible primary source. Getting to know the area according to the plan (n=1) Pupils use different signs to represent the route, sometimes drawing what was in the environment. Pupils are able to justify their opinions and give different arguments; they understand and can represent the directions of countries around the world; they are able to compare maps and plans and explain how a plan differs from a drawing. Pupils find it difficult to determine distance by eye. Exploration of the aquarium (n=1) Pupils can only argue if they are talking about content that they have experienced themselves. They should be taught to argue systematically, analysing the different contents of the natural sciences.
	Developing critical thinking through argumentation	Debates based on the analysis of a literary work (n=1) Discussion on reading the works (n=1) Written argumentation skills in the context of integrated teaching (n=1) Analysis of historical sources (n=3)	Debates encourage pupils to think, listen, express themselves and argue. Pupils learn to formulate a thesis and to argue it. Pupils are able to express an opinion in a sentence and support it with arguments. Pupils are better at oral argumentation than at written argumentation. Pupils are able to evaluate their own and each other's performance in a discussion. Pupils are able to express an opinion in a proposition and support it with at least one logical argument, but they have difficulty explaining the concept of argumentation and recognizing an argument. Pupils are able to identify an appropriate source to support a claim and correctly identify the arguments given in the source; argue for the evaluation of past events; and present credible arguments. Challenges include using sources to make a valid claim,

Présentation du contexte et des dispositifs associatifs

  Force est de constater que le système éducatif en France habitué à un prisme d'idéologies monolingues et de hiérarchisation des langues-cultures[START_REF] Châteaureynaud | Exclure ou Inclure : l'enjeu des langues à l'école[END_REF][START_REF] Blanchet | Passer de l'exclusion à l'inclusion : des expériences réussies d'éducation à et par la diversité linguistique à l'école[END_REF] peine à reconnaitre le plurilinguisme des élèves, et mettre en place de façon régulière des démarches prenant en compte la diversité des langues des élèves. Les résultats de la recherche soulignent pourtant l'importance de la reconnaissance et du travail à l'école sur/avec la diversité linguistique et culturelle des élèves[START_REF] Auger | Inclusive Education for Non-French-Speaking Schoolchildren (in Metropolitan France): Obstacles, institutional Opportunities and Present-Day Teaching Practices[END_REF]. Amour, 1999), nous retenons que l'action collective, pour être efficace, doit faire preuve d'une interdépendance forte entre les acteurs impliqués, basée notamment sur l'engagement individuel et les notions de partage (de l'expérience, de l'expertise) et de respect réciproque. L'enjeu est alors d'identifier les acteurs, parmi lesquels la famille, ainsi que les conditions et moyens d'accompagner, au niveau local, ces acteurs à (se) décentrer de façon collective et à développer des pratiques collaboratives en équipe élargie. Cette transformation des regards et des gestes professionnels[START_REF] Bucheton | Les gestes professionnels et le jeu des postures de l'enseignant dans la classe : un multi-agenda de préoccupations enchâssées[END_REF] pose la question des espaces, modalités et outils de médiation, comme conditions pour (re)donner place aux familles et permettre aux élèves de mobiliser leurs ressources. L'action collective ayant un effet de structuration, les situations éducatives fortement complexes peuvent trouver par le jeu des acteurs (cf. supra) une organisation locale, dans laquelle la dissymétrie initiale des rôles peut se rejouer. Nous cherchons à explorer ici les différents niveaux d'effets de médiation d'actions éducatives ainsi menées, au niveau des apprentissages et de celui d'une dynamique collective.[START_REF] Doucet | La recherche-action collaborative, une activité dialogique pour produire des connaissances[END_REF]. Le terme pluridisciplinaire de « médiations » a été défini par Michèle Guillaume-Hofnung. Cette auteure l'envisage à travers un « processus de création et de réparation du lien social et de règlement des conflits de la vie quotidienne, dans lequel un tiers impartial et indépendant tente, à travers l'organisation d'échanges entre les personnes ou les institutions, de les aider à améliorer une relation ou de régler un conflit qui les oppose » (Guillaume-Hofnung, 2012, p. 26-27). Pour autant, l'instauration d'une médiation ne s'opère pas uniquement en situation de conflit. Dans le cadre des médiations plurilingues dont cet article fait l'objet, il s'agit davantage d'une fonction anticipatrice : (re)créer du lien entre les familles et l'institution scolaire, modifier les représentations de chacune des parties, construire un sens partagé. La définition apportée par le Dictionnaire de l'Ainsi, ces processus induisent la transformation des repères et des regards. Assurant l'égalité de statut entre les protagonistes, les médiations en question se définissent comme un processus créatif conduisant progressivement à l'écoute mutuelle et aux changements des points de vue. Le langage et les langues apparaissent alors comme médiateurs du changement et de la construction sociale. Dans le cas des médiations plurilingues, ils sont à la fois médiateurs et objet de la médiation. Dans cette contribution, nous observons et analysons ce processus créatif des médiations interculturelles proposées aux enfants et familles par le point de vue des acteurs éducatifs concernés, et en interrogeons lors d'échanges réflexifs les effets en miroir sur les acteurs eux-mêmes.Le système éducatif français est régi par un service public d'État. Mais représentant•e•s de l'Éducation Nationale et des collectivités territoriales aux niveaux régional et départemental travaillent en partenariat et responsabilité partagée.Pour faire face aux disparités entre collectivités locales, la Loi de refondation de l'école (2013) pose le local comme « central » et source de ressources pour réduire les inégalités scolaires et sociales. Le principe d'un « projet éducatif territorial » au sein duquel familles, écoles, collectivités territoriales (dont associations) peuvent collaborer pose la co-éducation comme levier potentiel pour faire accepter la diversité et agir dans/pour une société inclusive. ELAL, tel qu'il a été pensé, et utilisé ici, ne constitue pas une évaluation : il permet de rendre compte, et donc de valoriser les compétences de l'enfant dans sa langue maternelle, compétences souvent inconnues des enseignants. Kattie et Vincianne). Le corpus recueilli fait partie d'une recherche visant à mesurer les effets de pratiques plurilingues collaboratives sur les parcours (professionnels, de formation) ; pour cet article, il est constitué d'un entretien collectif croisant les regards des médiatrices et de l'enseignante (d'une part les passations ELAL, d'autre part les médiations engagées dans le cadre du PRE). L'entretien permet à chacune de tisser un regard réflexif sur son vécu de l'action, ses propres pratiques et de prendre conscience de son rôle et du sens que chacune donne : d'une part dans le face à face avec l'élève / avec la famille, et d'autre part, de façon élargie en lien avec l'action de l'autre / des autres, dans l'action collective à laquelle chacune contribue. À travers cet entretien, nous nous interrogeons sur les effets du partenariat AFaLaC -École (Ville) sur les apprentissages scolaires, au moment clé de la maternelle, et plus largement sur le rôle de pratiques collaboratives ouvertes à la diversité dans l'évolution des représentations et l'accompagnement à un autre modèle éducatif. Marie a une expérience de plus de 15 ans d'enseignement en maternelle notamment, auprès de différents publics et contextes ; au moment de l'entretien, elle travaille en maternelle (moyenne section, âge des élèves entre 4 et 5 ans) dans un quartier classé Rep+ et est en collaboration avec AFaLaC depuis 3 ans. Dihya est enseignante de français et français langue étrangère/seconde, traductrice-médiatrice en arabe, arabe algérien et kabyle ; elle est également engagée dans des actions de recherche en lien avec l'association. Kattie est docteure en didactique des langues, enseignante de français langue étrangère/seconde et traductrice-médiatrice en farsi. Vincianne est médiatrice, ex-directrice pédagogique d' AFaLaC, engagée dans un travail de doctorat sur les médiations plurilingues, les représentations des parents et le développement langagier bilingue de leurs enfants.

	Introduction La présente contribution s'intéresse aux enjeux éducatifs des situations de classe en contexte de contacts de langues en maternelle et interrogent, pour y faire face, les modalités et effets d'actions éducatives collaboratives entre enseignant•es d'une part et acteur/trices du monde éducatif et de la médiation interculturelle d'autre part. Nous nous inscrivons dans la continuité des recherches sur les approches éducatives qui visent à diminuer les inégalités scolaires, en particulier à l'École maternelle, en mobilisant, dans culture(s) des élèves sont éloignées de celle(s) de l'école (Thamin, 2015). La (langagières, culturelles, affectives…) notamment lorsque la/les langue(s)-les situations d'apprentissage, les ressources personnelles des élèves recherche présentée ici porte sur une partie d'une action éducative menée depuis plusieurs années dans le cadre d'un partenariat école (ville)-association et vise à en éclairer un moment, celui de la rencontre d'une partie des acteurs de ce partenariat croisant leur regard sur certaines de leurs actions. À travers un entretien rassemblant une enseignante et trois médiatrices, l'article explore les effets de médiation des pratiques collaboratives menées 3. Questionnement et méthodologie tant au niveau des élèves, de leurs familles que de l'équipe éducative ainsi élargie, en termes de gains pour les apprentissages, d'accompagnement aux pratiques et d'évolution des représentations liées à la diversité. 1. Ancrage théorique En mobilisant les compétences langagières des élèves dans d'autres langues de leur répertoire que celle(s) de l'école, ces démarches soutiennent le développement de compétences métalinguistiques propres aux apprentissages langagiers et permettent ainsi de lever des freins aux apprentissages en langues. Ces démarches plurilingues qui tendent de cette façon vers plus d'équité en éducation (Coste 2013) sont d'autant plus importantes à mettre en place en maternelle, lieu où peuvent s'accentuer ces inégalités sociales, notamment chez les élèves dont les ressources culturelles de leur environnement familial sont les plus éloignées des attentes (implicites) de l'école en termes d'appropriation langagière. Pour ces élèves (et ces familles), une action éducative qui (r)établisse le lien entre école et familles est nécessaire (Simonin 2021). Mais des freins majeurs demeurent dans la formation et l'accompagnement aux pratiques, ainsi que des moyens et modalités y attenant (Cadet et al. 2022) . Définie par l'Unesco comme « un processus de renforcement de la capacité d'un système éducatif donné à s'adresser à tous les apprenants » (Unesco, 2017), l'éducation inclusive (Socle commun des droits sociaux de la Commission européenne en 2017 ; en France, loi de Refondation de l'école en 2013, rehaussée par « l'École de la confiance » en 2019), suppose la mise en place d'un modèle collectif d'éducation, à la « responsabilité pédagogique commune et partagée » (Fernandez Iglesias et Iglesias Caldo, 2019). Ce modèle collaboratif est basé sur la coopération des et entre acteurs (élèves, familles, enseignants, acteurs éducatifs) constitués par des pratiques collaboratives en communautés d'apprentissage (Le Boterf, 2004 ; Auger, 2018). À partir des travaux sur l'organisation et la collaboration interprofessionnelle (D' Académie Française de 1935 34 va ainsi dans la recherche d'une unité plus haute : la médiation vise la construction d'une relation médiate qui est profitable à chaque médié, qui est bénéfique à leur relation et dans un objectif d'évolution mutuelle. En conséquence, la médiation est à la fois intra-et interpersonnelle : elle vise autant le rapprochement des deux parties, l'école et les familles,que le changement de chacune des parties, dans une relation d'apport mutuel. La médiation a, dans ces termes, une fonction émancipatrice et favorise le développement de l'agentivité. L'indépendance du médiateur, sa neutralité et son impartialité sont requises : il suscite la communication pour l'élaboration d'une passerelle, d'une relation nouvelle, mettant fin aux conflits ou à l'absence de liens. Dans les médiations interculturelles, il se pose entre, il délie pour permettre l'identification : pour nommer et décrire les deux parties en présence, leurs richesses plurilingues et pluriculturelles redonnant aux parties leur identité propre. La particularité des médiations pluriculturelles et plurilingues réside dans le fait qu'elles prennent forme dans le domaine spécifique d'une distance à combler entre des univers mentaux et culturels différents (Cohen-Emerique, 2015, p. 401). 2. éducatives, complémentaires aux enseignements dans le respect des projets d'école et d'établissement. AFaLaC propose ainsi des ateliers plurilingues et pluriculturels, temps de médiations en milieu scolaire, régulières, et des médiations sollicitées par le PRE (Programme de Réussite Educative), dans un partenariat Ville-Éducation Nationale. En milieu scolaire, un animateur-médiateur de l'association intervient chaque semaine dans une classe, et co-anime avec un parent des ateliers dont l'objectif est d'ouvrir l'ensemble des élèves de la classe à la diversité linguistique et culturelle. Quant aux médiations sollicitées par le PRE, elles s'inscrivent dans une offre de parcours éducatif individualisé pour répondre de manière adaptée aux besoins repérés pour chaque enfant : un médiateur transculturel de l'association intervient ponctuellement, en présence de l'équipe éducative et de la famille, pour faciliter la compréhension mutuelle, la création de lien et la coopération école-famille. Suivant les situations, le médiateur pourra être sollicité pour la passation de l'ELAL d' Avicenne. Cette Evaluation Langagière pour ALlophones et primo-arrivants, développée par l'équipe de Marie-Rose notamment en maternelle comme ici -une étape importante dans le compréhension de ce qui est perçu comme difficultés par l'école, et du soin et du social. Le choix de la passation de l'ELAL vise à une meilleure Moro, est un outil transculturel à destination des professionnels de l'Ecole, Nous partons d'une démarche de recherche compréhensive portant sur les effets des interventions AFaLaC sur les acteurs concernés : élèves, familles, une enseignante (Marie 35 ) et trois médiatrices dont une médiatrice-chercheure (Dihya, 4. Analyses :

C'est dans ce contexte que les actions (péri)-scolaires d' AFaLaC s'inscrivent. Fondée en 2013, agréée par l'Education Nationale, l'AFaLaC (Association Famille Langues Cultures) agit pour la reconnaissance et la valorisation de la diversité linguistique et culturelle, notamment en milieux scolaires. À travers différents volets, l'association met en place des activités (co-)développement langagier de l'élève -, et ainsi à aider les professionnel•le•s à répondre aux questions qu'ils/elles se posent sur, entre autres, les compétences langagières des enfants allophones. De plus, la passation peut permettre l'établissement d'un pont entre la langue première de l'enfant et la langue de scolarisation. L'

échanger sur son vécu dans les passations ELAL 4.1. Des pistes collaboratives pour soutenir les pratiques de l'enseignante

  Un des premiers éléments qui apparait dans l'entretien porte sur la plusvalue des passations ELAL pour l'enseignante. Ainsi, Marie explique comment son regard sur un élève a changé à partir du moment où elle a su, à la passation ELAL, que le problème de structuration de la phrase qu'il rencontrait en français n'apparaissait pas dans sa langue première : Marie : « [...] alors que je le croyais en grande difficulté, il était pas du tout en grande difficulté, c'était juste un apprentissage qu'il avait pas fait, quelque chose qu'il maitrisait dans sa langue maternelle, [il] a juste eu besoin de basculer sur le français et ça a été très rapide. » La suite de l'entretien montre que l'intérêt de la passation se situe non seulement dans les conclusions de l'évaluation, qui apportent une meilleure connaissance des besoins de l'élève à l'enseignante, mais également dans le processus d'évaluation. Celui-ci permet à l'élève d'être reconnu dans ses compétences et à l'évaluateur de prendre part à des pratiques éducatives qui prennent en compte la diversité des langues et cultures des élèves. En effet, la forme d'évaluation ELAL, non étalonnée, ne fige pas l'élève à un « niveau ». Elle laisse place, dans les conclusions, aux commentaires posés par l'évaluateur lors de la passation et qui en reflètent le processus. Celui-ci vise à « valoriser le déjà-là de l'enfant et non pas le sanctionner » (Vincianne). Ainsi, les conditions sont réunies pour que l'élève s'autorise à dire ce dont il est déjà capable. La connaissance de l'enfant résultant de la passation ELAL a un effet sur les pratiques de l'enseignante qui, en prenant connaissance des compétences de l'élève et en s'appuyant sur celles-ci dans ses pratiques, va assoir son expertise :

35

Les identités sont anonymisées. suite Marie : « on ne prend les choses de la même façon quand on a cette connaissance là […] quand on a un enfant qui est en difficulté et qui s'exprime dans une langue étrangère, on a besoin de savoir si ses difficultés sont aussi existantes dans sa langue maternelle […] Ça va lui permettre d'être valorisé, et il rentrera davantage dans ses apprentissages en français si on lui dit "t'inquiète pas ça va venir", que si on lui dit "oh la la, il y a rien qui va". C'est drôlement important de pouvoir valoriser ce qu'ils savent. » D'autre part grâce à la médiation de l'ELAL, l'enseignante va rendre visible, aux yeux de l'élève et sa famille, les compétences développées et transmises dans le cercle familial.

4.2. Construire des ponts entre les cultures éducatives…

  L'entretien montre également que la (re)connaissance (de la diversité) des compétences en langue première de l'enfant (par la médiatrice, par l'enseignante) permet aux parents de trouver leur/une place vis à vis des apprentissages scolaires et de faire évoluer leurs représentations sur leurs langues, leur rôle dans les apprentissages langagiers de leurs enfants : 'action collaborative initiée entre les médiatrices et l'enseignante, basée sur un apport mutuel et une interdépendance forte entre les acteurs, a des effets sur l'enseignante, sur les familles, et comme le suppose le travail de thèse de Vincianne, au sein du cercle familial sur les élèves en terme d'acception de soi / de l'autre, de la diversité et des différences, face à une institution encore trop habituée à considérer les élèves selon le « prisme monolingue » (Miguel Addisu 2020) :

	Marie : « Mais à la réunion de rentrée une maman m'a dit : "déjà on ne mange pas pareil, et puis même quand j'essaie de faire de la cuisine française, j'ai pas toujours les mots en français", je leur dis "parlez leur, parlez-leur dans votre langue, l'important c'est de leur parler, quelle que soit la langue, il faut leur parler". S'ils maitrisent leur langue maternelle, ils vont maitriser beaucoup plus facilement le français. Ce sont des compétences transférables, même si les langues sont très différentes. »
	4.3.
	Dihya : « pour un parent qui vient d'arriver, qui ne maitrise pas le français, c'est très compliqué. Comment il peut s'impliquer, c'est peut-être une question qu'il ne se pose même pas, ma place à l'école. Justement le fait d'inviter les parents à venir raconter une histoire ça peut délier les choses et petit à petit le parent prend une place, sa place »

Vincianne : « rien que le fait d'avoir fait le test avec les médiateurs et de l'avoir dit aux parents, les parents se sont rendus compte que leur enfant avait des compétences » L

…et agir au sein d'une action éducative ouverte à la diversité (des élèves, des acteurs)

  Mais prendre part à une action éducative en donnant son avis d'expert lors d'une passation ELAL ou d'une médiation, c'est aussi assumer et tenir son rôle de professionnel, au sein d'un collectif auquel le fait de se sentir « en lien » donne du sens et permet de renforcer son engagement. Dihya : « quand c'est collectif c'est mieux, quand on a plusieurs regards croisés [...] c'est vraiment cette notion de lien, se sentir comme un lien, deux mondes qui ne se comprennent pas et ce lien, le fait qu'il y ait ce lien, le courant passe après, tout est apaisé. »Ces premières analyses contribuent à montrer l'intérêt d'une action concertée association-école autour de la prise en compte de la diversité (des élèves, des parcours). Ce type de pratiques, venant en complément des gestes de l'enseignante et dans le cadre d'une prise en compte globale des besoins de l'élève, a des effets cumulatifs : elles favorisent les (changements de) rôles des acteurs impliqués (élèves, parents, enseignante/acteurs éducatifs) vers une situation éducative plus équitable : gains pour les apprentissages, meilleure connaissance et prise en compte des besoins des élèves, décloisonnement des sphères de socialisation, ouverture à l'altérité. Ces pratiques,aident à repenser, par la dynamique des échanges entre acteurs, la diversité dans une pratique éducative luttant contre les inégalités (sociales, culturelles, notamment) observées à l'entrée à l'école.

	Les liens ainsi explicités permettent à chacun•e d'agir à sa place, son niveau, dans une action dont la responsabilité et la finalité sont reconnues et partagées :
	Florence (Afalac et chercheure) : « ce que tu disais tout à l'heure sur les missions de

Dihya : « Mais arriver à rassurer les parents, dire "non, ne vous inquiétez pas il y a aucun souci, cet enfant il parle très très bien arabe, en kabyle ou autre" ou donner des clés à ces parents quand il y a réellement un souci pour ne pas attendre de mettre en place des séances d'orthophonie, rééducation, être cette personne c'est très valorisant et c'est un poids aussi sur les épaules. » Cette responsabilité dans l'expertise est assumée parce qu'elle est partagée, dans le cadre de la passation ELAL (forme d'évaluation) et dans la relation construite avec l'enfant et/ou la famille au moment de la médiation, dans la relation avec l'école / l'enseignante. L'entretien collectif souligne le rôle des échanges à chaque niveau d'action (face à face individuels, en groupe, puis en équipe).

Kattie : « c'est rassurant pour les parents et les enseignants, des deux côtés, parce qu'on fait un lien par la langue avec les familles, entre les familles et l'école. » l'école et ce qu'on avait à transmettre, ça m'a fait penser à la co-éducation, c'est-àdire ce que peut apporter réciproquement, des intervenants extérieurs, des associations ; voilà l'école ouverte sur le monde, et pas renfermée dans quelque chose, qui est de l'ordre de l'échange, pas de on arrive et on fait notre truc et on s'en va. »

5. En conclusion « Les

conseils de crèche » : mise en oeuvre d'instances de partages et d'échanges avec les parents en EAJE

  Les différentes politiques sur la Petite Enfance qui se sont succédées en France ont toujours inclus la notion de participation des familles, dans leurs intentions de mettre en avant ce qu'elles ont appelé successivement « l'accompagnement de la fonction parentale », « le soutien à la parentalité », « la coéducation », « l'éducation partagée » ou encore « le partenariat ». Tous ces termes, aussi honorables soient-ils, mettent en exergue une volonté d'impliquer les parents dans des lieux collectifs, pour une recherche de qualité améliorée de l'accueil. Force est de constater qu'aujourd'hui de nombreux projets sont mis en oeuvre pour répondre à cette commande politique[START_REF] Cyrulnik | Les 1000 Premiers jours[END_REF]. Mais qu'en est-il vraiment dans nos Etablissements d'Accueil du Jeune Enfant ? Concrètement ? Au travers de ces différents temps organisés par les professionnels de l'accueil en direction des familles, se construit la confiance bien sûr, mais ces dispositifs participent également à déconstruire des préjugés des uns envers les autres et à déculpabiliser les parents. Un autre intérêt consiste dans la mobilisation des équipes pour y parvenir, et le travail de réflexion pour exposer aux parents la complexité du travail d'accompagnement de leurs enfants au quotidien, démontrant ainsi leurs valeurs éducatives et leur technicité ; tout ceci dans une démarche de reconnaissance. Ainsi, dans ces conseils de crèche, ont pu être développés les thèmes du développement de l'enfant (les limites et interdits, l'importance du jeu, etc), la présentation d'une journée-type pour mieux comprendre le rythme d'une journée pour un enfant et ce que cela représente pour lui ou elle, la présentation des espaces dédiés à la vie en collectivité, les débats sur les questions de gestion, de travaux notamment. Plusieurs fois répétées au cours d'une année, ces instances nécessitent aussi un investissement de l'équipe dans son ensemble et demandent à chacun•e de motiver la présence de chaque parent, leur donner envie de partager un moment convivial et constructif. Les conseils de crèche peuvent prendre plusieurs formes, parfois originales, obligeant les équipes à se réinventer (jeux pédagogiques, itinérance ludique dans les locaux, diaporama vidéo…). Ellessont aussi l'occasion d'ouvrir les échanges sur l'extérieur avec la présence des gestionnaires, des politiques, des médecins référents ou des intervenants pédagogiques, permettant d'offrir aux parents de nouvelles perspectives. La collaboration entre les familles et les travailleurs sociaux peut alors s'inscrire dans une démarche de partenariat ou de « co-éducation »[START_REF] Sellenet | Vie Sociale. Érès[END_REF][START_REF] Jésu | Principes et enjeux démocratiques de la coéducation : l'exemple de l'accueil de la petite enfance et notamment des conseils de crèche[END_REF] : peu importe les termes, pourvu que l'intérêt de l'enfant en ressorte gagnant.Montpellier 36 ), répondant ainsi à mes questionnements et à mon besoin de me former aux pratiques éducatives. Après l'obtention du diplôme et ma première prise de poste, en associatif et crèche parentale, reprendre cette dynamique de travail en commun avec les parents a été comme une évidence. Responsable d'une crèche parentale de douze places puis d'une crèche collective de vingt places, je me suis évertué à organiser et à mener de nombreuses actions en collaboration avec les parents. Mais, la principale mise en oeuvre a été de construire, par un rythme régulier, des instances de rencontres et d'échanges, en dehors de l'accueil des enfants, en soirée donc. Ces conseils de crèche, nommés ainsi déjà à l'époque dans le règlement de fonctionnement de l'établissement, consistaient à mettre les parents en confiance vis-à-vis de l'équipe, mais aussi à mettre l'équipe en confiance vis-à-vis des parents : ainsi déconstruire les préjugés et travailler le non-jugement devenait plus simple. Concrètement, il s'agissait, dans ces instances, de se mettre au travail : écrire le projet éducatif, organiser des rencontres festives, présenter le déroulement d'une journée en crèche ou encore préciser les méthodes de travail d'équipe et, surtout, proposer des apports pédagogiques afin d'amener le parent à réfléchir et à l'aider à prendre sa place d'éducateur et ainsi se mettre en lien avec les professionnels, etc.

	Déconstruire les préjugés
	Fabien CATHERINE Educateur de Jeunes Enfants et Coordinateur Petite Enfance de la Communauté de Communes Rhôny-Vistre-Vidourle fcatherine@ccrvv.fr
	Préambule
	Mettre
	Un outil essentiel en « crèche »… En termes de parcours Plutôt que de projet, nous parlons d'actions à mener par les professionnels de la Petite Enfance, et plus précisément d'un outil essentiel à la mise en oeuvre de tous ces concepts liés à l'accueil des parents : « le conseil de crèche ». Gardons cette expression qui peut encore paraître désuète, mais lorsque l'on y regarde bien, dans ce titre « conseil de crèche », aucun participant n'est nommé (ni professionnel, ni parent, ni tout autre partenaire), ce qui laisse une liberté de choix dans la forme et dans le fond. Le simple mot « crèche » est encore, au temps des grandes réformes (Décret du 30-08-2021), mieux perçu par le grand public que le mot « multi-accueil » réservé aux seuls initiés du microcosme de la Petite Enfance. D'ailleurs, les tous nouveaux textes de loi réaffirment ce mot « crèche » à tout bout de champ et sous toutes les coutures. La définition même de « conseil de crèche » s'apparente donc aux objectifs recherchés. Ces conseils ont été créés, historiquement, par les structures d'accueil associatives qui se voulaient parentales, à la fois par leur statut, mais aussi par leur démarche collaborative. M'appuyant sur mon propre parcours de professionnel au sein de plusieurs Etablissements d'Accueil du Jeune Enfant, je montrerai l'intérêt de mener des conseils de crèche, toujours dans une perspective collaborative parents/professionnels. J'ai tout d'abord commencé à travailler en crèche parentale où j'ai découvert les instances de réunion entre parents / gestionnaires ou tout simplement parents impliqués ou investis pour l'accueil de leur enfant. Ces réunions étaient toujours menées par les professionnelles responsables de la crèche, car ce sont elles qui avaient « les clefs » : les besoins en termes d'accueil collectif, la maîtrise des finances, en lien avec la Caisse d'Allocation Familiale (CAF) notamment, et en matière de règlementation, en collaboration avec les services de la Protection Maternelle et Infantile (PMI). Bref, de conseils d'administration en assemblées générales ou encore en commissions de toutes sortes, j'ai pu prendre la mesure du lien indissociable entre parents et professionnels.

… pour des espace-temps constructifs pour l'éducation des enfants

Véritable outil pédagogique, ce temps d'échanges entre parents et professionnels permet de renforcer le lien

[START_REF] Cyrulnik | L'action collective au sein d'équipes interprofessionnelles dans les services de santé[END_REF]

. C'est seulement après ces expériences de pratiques associatives, toujours dans des intentions bienveillantes envers les enfants, par des préoccupations d'organisation, d'équilibre financier, de recherche de participation à la vie locale, que j'ai suivi la formation d'Educateur de Jeunes Enfants (à l'IRTS de

en avant l'intérêt de l'enfant au-delà des problématiques institutionnelles

  Lorsqu'en 2005, je suis recruté en tant que Coordinateur Petite Enfance en même temps qu'une autre professionnelle venant également du milieu associatif, c'est pour construire le service fraichement transféré par une Communauté de Communes de 25000 habitants et qui comporte, entre autres, 7 crèches (multi-accueils) entre 17 et 30 places. Les « clefs » nous sont données pour créer un service Petite Enfance communautaire efficient et qualitatif. Cependant, nous faisons face d'emblée à la réticence de beaucoup de parents venant des crèches associatives et municipales, bâtiments et services rachetés dans leur ensemble du jour au lendemain par la collectivité communautaire ; un public déjà en place avec une impression négative car la situation était subie et… subite. Les réticences étaient bien présentes et légitimes, de peur -toujours -de l'inconnu. Outre le travail intense de management pour bâtir les équipes, c'est audevant des parents que nous irons créer et défendre une démarche dynamique et novatrice se voulant faire systématiquement de l'intérêt de l'enfant une priorité. Pour cela, nous créerons entre autres… les conseils de crèche ! Et dans une démarche collaborative et participative, l'intégration des équipes dans les idées et les actions.Avant tout, il s'agit de convaincre et d'accompagner les directeurs de crèches, eux-mêmes « en première ligne » , en leur faisant partager notre conviction à impliquer les familles en toute transparence du travail éducatif entrepris, et notre exigence de faire de la qualité d'accueil notre point d'ancrage. Pour cela : → fixer des dates, des horaires, de sorte à poser le rythme de ces réunions sur une année scolaire entière, à savoir, trois conseils de crèche dans l'année, le premier à la rentrée scolaire (septembre/octobre), le deuxième en plein hiver avec un intervenant extérieur pour développer les apports théoriques (médecin, psychologue, conteur…) et enfin un troisième et dernier en avril/mai, plus ludique (très rapidement, nous avons demandé aux directeurs un rétroplanning annuel dès la rentrée du mois d'août afin d'institutionnaliser ces temps éducatifs). → préparer l'ordre du jour, le thème, ce qui allait être dit, et tout ceci… en équipe. Il n'était pas question, en effet, de laisser le directeur de l'établissement imposer un discours et simplement être dans un monologue. Non, l'important était d'impliquer l'équipe pour faire adhérer l'ensemble des parents, car l'idée première est de permettre aux familles d'interroger les pratiques professionnelles sur le quotidien de leurs enfants dans un espace/temps réduit (deux heures de réunion, c'est court) et qui mieux que les aides éducatrices, les auxiliaires, les infirmières, les cuisinières pour en parler -sous le couvert, bien sûr, des éducateurs de jeunes enfants -? → inventer donc, innover, proposer des supports (jeux pédagogiques, appui sur des méthodes de communication, diaporama, films), tout cela faisant partie du travail élaboré lors des réunions d'équipe mensuelles du soir (l'équipe devait réfléchir ensemble et trouver des idées ; ici encore, le partage professionnel était de mise). → inviter les partenaires privilégiés : les élus (Mairie, Communauté), les coordinateurs (Petite Enfance, Enfance), les intervenants pédagogiques acteurs tout au long de l'année, le médecin référent, les enseignants dans le cadre des passerelles avec l'école maternelle pour les plus grands de la crèche[START_REF] Péralès | Les passerelles, tout un art ! Erès[END_REF], le directeur de l'ALSH (Accueil de Loisirs Sans Hébergement) et du périscolaire, le responsable du restaurant scolaire… C'est-à-dire, donner aux parents la possibilité d'ouvrir le champ des questions dans un environnement pluridisciplinaire repéré et assumé. Puis, il s'agissait de motiver les parents (invitations, rappels, affichages), car cette démarche nécessite toujours autant d'énergie à mobiliser l'ensemble des partenaires éducatifs, mais force est de constater que lorsque l'on sollicite les parents sur des moments de réflexion, sur ce qui se passe vraiment pour leur enfant, ils répondent majoritairement présents, pour peu que la démarche soit sincère et dans une envie de réciprocité. → enfin, élaborer un compte-rendu sur les sujets abordés, les questions posées et les réponses données est indispensable pour « rendre compte » de ce travail collaboratif et diffuser à l'ensemble des parents utilisateurs de ce service d'accueil, autant pour ceux qui étaient présents, mais également ceux qui en étaient absents.Il n'est pas question en effet de mettre de côté une partie de la population « soi-disant » accueillie. Ici encore, s'arrêter un instant avec les familles non investies, ou tout simplement juste absente à cette instance, fait partie de l'accompagnement sans jugement et sans discrimination, de toutes les familles par l'Educateur.Après quinze ans d'expérience et à la suite d'une crise sanitaire qui met en stand-by ces instances d'échanges et de partage, la reprise de ces conseils est comme un besoin vital : retrouver le lien indispensable au travail de coéducation. À ce jour, les équipes et les parents réclament ces temps malgré la disponibilité que cela demande aux deux parties et la réticence aux rassemblements dans le contexte sanitaire des années 2021-2022. Ces conseils sont de véritables « portes d'entrée » communes aux parents et aux professionnels : aux parents qui ont l'opportunité de se questionner, de prendre ce temps -si précieux -du questionnement sur ce qui se passe, sur ce qui se joue, pour leur enfant ; aux professionnels qui ont l'opportunité de dépasser la simple transmission d'information pour oser le dialogue éducatif avec du public non professionnel, exercice parfois difficile car cela nécessite une adaptabilité réfléchie du discours. Ces instances répondent donc en partie à la Charte nationale créée pour l'accueil du jeune enfant (Arrêté du 23-09-2021) ; ainsi nous pouvons en citer un extrait pour illustrer ces quelques lignes expérimentales : « les familles et les professionnels s'enrichissent réciproquement en partageant leurs connaissances et leurs idées. L'accompagnement à la parentalité respecte les valeurs de chaque famille, leur diversité[…]. Ce partenariat nécessite des lieux et des temps de disponibilité pour les échanges entre professionnels et parents. Le dialogue et des actions communes permettent de tisser une relation confiante, sur laquelle les enfants structurent et élargissent leurs repères d'identité. Dans un esprit de participation, qui exclut les logiques de consommateurs et de clients, les parents doivent trouver leur place dans les instances décisionnelles des modes d'accueil, notamment en participant aux conseils de crèches ».

	Vers une démarche qualitative reconnue

36

IRTS : Institut Régional du Travail Social

Une approche pragmatique

Ce projet de recherche a reçu le soutien financier de la Délégation générale à la langue française et aux langues de France (DGLFLF).

Selon[START_REF] Bruner | Le développement de l'enfant. Savoir faire[END_REF], l'interaction de tutelle correspond à une relation où l'adulte va aider l'enfant à résoudre un problème qu'il ne saurait résoudre seul.

Deux femmes et un homme.

Nous retiendrons ici l'expression « langage des signes pour bébé », utilisée communément pour traduire le terme « baby-sign ». Il est toutefois essentiel de distinguer ce langage, qui est une sorte de code gestuel développé pour communiquer avec les bébés, de la langue des signes.

https://mallettedesparents.education.gouv.fr/ (consulté le 23 août 2022).

https://eduscol.education.fr/2187/ouvrir-l-ecole-aux-parents-pour-la-reussite-desenfants (consulté le 23 août 2022).

Le musée national de l'Éducation de Rouen sera désigné sous sa forme abrégée MUNAÉ dans la suite de l'article.

Le « médiateur » est aussi désignée « la mascotte ».

Je [la mascotte Loup] serai votre mascotte. Je vais vivre avec vous, partager vos moments d'aventure, de joie, de repos… et participer à toutes vos activités… J'adore découvrir de nouvelles choses et de nouveaux endroits alors n'hésitez pas à prendre des notes, faire un joli dessin et mettre des photos dans mon carnet. Nous en parlerons en classe. (Extrait du Cahier de Loup, classe de PSM/GSM,[2018][2019]

An optimal solution would be that of testing (balanced) bilingual children for language impairments in both their languages, as suggested for English-Spanish bilinguals by Peña,Bedore and Koster (2016). However, this is often an unfeasible option when the L1 of bilingual children is a minority language not widely spoken in a given territory, or if it lacks diagnostic tools for language impairments.

In the literature, it is commonly recognized that nonword repetition allows for the appropriate identification of children with DLD, especially at preschool age[START_REF] Archibald | On the sensitivity and specificity of non-word repetition and sentence recall to language and memory impairments in children[END_REF][START_REF] Conti-Ramsden | Processing and linguistic markers in young children with specific language impairment (SLI)[END_REF][START_REF] Conti-Ramsden | Risk markers for SLI: A study of young languagelearning children[END_REF][START_REF] Deevy | Extending the use of the NRT to preschool-age children with and without specific language impairment[END_REF][START_REF] Gray | Word learning by preschoolers with specific language impairment: Predictors and poor learners[END_REF]. Nonword repetition also allows differentiating the profile of children with DLD from that of children from minority or culturally deprived backgrounds[START_REF] Oetting | The clinical utility of nonword repetition for children living in the rural south of the US[END_REF]) and of children with ADHD, Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder[START_REF] Redmond | Psycholinguistic profiling differentiates specific language impairment from typical development and from attentiondeficit/hyperactivity disorder[END_REF]. Interestingly similar results have been reported for developmental dyslexia, since nonword repetition is also a critical tool for the identification of this learning disability, and it may be effectively deployed to identify dyslexia in the bilingual population[START_REF] Vender | How do bilingual dyslexic and typically developing children perform in nonword repetition? Evidence from a study on Italian L2 children[END_REF].

Research has shown that some DLD children may exhibit specific difficulties in language areas such as pragmatics and vocabulary while maintaining good syntactic skills (see among others,[START_REF] Friedmann | Subtypes of SLI: SySLI, PhoSLI, LeSLI, and PraSLI[END_REF].

https://www.povertyactionlab.org/

http://www.parlerbambin.fr/

https://1001mots.org/

https://clermont-ferrand.fr/mille-formes

Here defined as "the action of participating in a work with others", according to the definition of the Larousse French dictionary.

https://www.dictionnaire-academie.fr/article/A8M0722