Ana Camargo

Pinar Çelik

Martin Storme

Cultural self-efficacy increases creativity in bicultural dyads: Evidence from two dyadic divergent thinking tasks

Keywords: cultural self-efficacy, creativity, bicultural dyads, divergent thinking

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Interest in studying the effects of a group's cultural composition on collective creative performance is long-standing [START_REF] Gassmann | Multicultural teams: increasing creativity and innovation by diversity[END_REF]. In the context of globalization, individuals increasingly work with people from different cultures to solve complex problems, which requires collective creativity [START_REF] Cheng | Finding the right mix: How the composition of self-managing multicultural teams' cultural value orientation influences performance over time[END_REF]. For example, student populations around the globe are more and more culturally heterogenous and student interactions frequently involve multicultural group work [START_REF] Popov | Multicultural student group work in higher education: An explorative case study on challenges as perceived by students[END_REF]. Moreover, organizations are encouraged to set up multicultural working groups to facilitate creative performance following the suggestions of research showing that multicultural groups tend to be more creative than monocultural groups [START_REF] Mcleod | The effects of ethnic diversity on idea generation in small groups[END_REF][START_REF] Mcleod | Ethnic diversity and creativity in small groups[END_REF].

Multicultural groups are more and more common, but they also face specific challenges that can inhibit their cohesion, social integration and performance [START_REF] Watson | Differences in decision making regarding risk taking: A comparison of culturally diverse and culturally homogeneous task groups[END_REF]. Past research shows, for example, that multicultural groups are more prone to conflicts than monocultural groups [START_REF] Ayoko | Resolving the puzzle of productive and destructive conflict in culturally heterogeneous workgroups: A communication accommodation theory approach[END_REF][START_REF] Godfrey | Diversity in cultural diversity research: a scoping review[END_REF], which may, in some cases, hinder their creative potential [START_REF] Farh | Task conflict and team creativity: a question of how much and when[END_REF]. It is therefore important to investigate the factors that can facilitate creative performance in multicultural groups. The present research is based on Social Cognitive Theory [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF] and argues that cultural self-efficacy is one of the factors that can facilitate collective creative performance in intercultural settings.

Coping with intercultural challenges

Multicultural groups face many challenges that can sometimes hinder their performance [START_REF] Behfar | Managing challenges in multicultural teams[END_REF][START_REF] Watson | Cultural Diversity's Impact on Interaction Process and Performance: Comparing Homogeneous and Diverse Task Groups[END_REF]. These challenges are due to a series of factors that make it difficult to establish group norms and effective group processes [START_REF] Behfar | Managing challenges in multicultural teams[END_REF]. Communication difficulties are a good example of such factors. They can lead to suboptimal information sharing among group members and hinder collective performance. Findings from studies analyzing the effects of cultural diversity on the team performance of multicultural professional football teams, have shown that cultural diversity in teams can have a negative effect on the performance of teams' defense players [START_REF] Brandes | The effect from national diversity on team production-Empirical evidence from the sports industry[END_REF] and on team players' market value [START_REF] Maderer | Professional football squads as multicultural teams: Cultural diversity, intercultural experience, and team performance[END_REF]. The authors of the former study, stress that communication is a key component of the defense position and attribute the aforementioned effects to thwarted communication due to players' different first languages. In another example, [START_REF] Tenzer | The impact of language barriers on trust formation in multinational teams[END_REF] showed that the language barrier in a work team can jeopardize trust formation among team members. In addition, language differences, which may only be surface differences, compared to deep-level differences pertaining to attitudes and values, are sometimes interpreted by team members as being associated with deeper differences [START_REF] Tenzer | The impact of language barriers on trust formation in multinational teams[END_REF].

Even when communication is relatively fluent or group processes are well established, multicultural groups may be confronted with phenomena that can impact individual and, indirectly, collective performance. For example, the existence of intergroup stereotypes can lead to a stereotype threat phenomenon that can affect the performance of individual members (Robertson & Kulik, 2007). Past research suggests that anxiety generated by the anticipation of negative judgment can inhibit individual contributions within a group and, in turn, affect collective creative performance [START_REF] Diehl | Productivity loss in brainstorming groups: Toward the solution of a riddle[END_REF].

In the literature a variety of factors that can facilitate collective creativity in an intercultural context have been identified. For example, speaking multiple languages [START_REF] Lee | Can speaking more languages enhance your creativity? Relationship between bilingualism and creative potential among Korean American students with multicultural link[END_REF], having a multicultural social network [START_REF] Chua | Innovating at cultural crossroads: How multicultural social networks promote idea flow and creativity[END_REF], growing up in a bicultural family [START_REF] Chang | Multicultural families and creative children[END_REF], and having a bicultural identity [START_REF] Nguyen | Biculturalism unpacked: Components, measurement, individual differences, and outcomes[END_REF][START_REF] Saad | Multiculturalism and creativity: Effects of cultural context, bicultural identity, and ideational fluency[END_REF], are some of the factors that are positively associated with creativity in intercultural contexts. Other factors that have been identified in the literature are being open to new experiences [START_REF] Leung | Interactive effects of multicultural experiences and openness to experience on creative potential[END_REF][START_REF] Silvia | Assessing creativity with divergent thinking tasks: Exploring the reliability and validity of new subjective scoring methods[END_REF], being able to adapt to new cultures [START_REF] Maddux | Cultural borders and mental barriers: The relationship between living abroad and creativity[END_REF], and appraising diversifying experiences as challenges rather than threats [START_REF] Gocłowska | The Diversifying Experience Model: Taking a broader conceptual view of the multiculturalism-creativity link[END_REF]. Finally, creative personal identity has also been linked to collective creativity in intercultural contexts [START_REF] Puente | Creative potential and multicultural experiences: The mediating role of creative self-efficacy[END_REF], How do these variety of factors facilitate creativity in intercultural contexts? Various theoretical frameworks have identified self-efficacy as a crucial antecedent of intentions and behaviors (e.g., [START_REF] Ajzen | Predicting CQ development in the context of experiential cross-cultural training: The role of social dominance orientation and the propensity to change stereotypes[END_REF][START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF]. Self-efficacy is especially important in predicting behavioral intentions because individuals who feel confident enough to successfully perform a given task, express favorable behavioral intentions towards the latter and demonstrate behavior that matches their behavioral intentions. Perceived self-efficacy is firstly responsible for an individual's choice of situation and environment (compared to avoidance of situations where self-efficacy is low), followed by initiation of action, regulation of the amount of effort expended, and persistence of effort for a period of time [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF]. Based on [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF] Social Cognitive Theory, it is plausible to expect that an important predictor of creative performance in intercultural settings is therefore an individual's self-efficacy beliefs pertaining to intercultural settings, or cultural self-efficacy.

Cultural self-efficacy: A forgotten coping resource?

Cultural self-efficacy can be defined as an individual's confidence and perceived ability to successfully manage intercultural situations [START_REF] Ang | Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance[END_REF]. Like any other form of self-efficacy, cultural self-efficacy can be conceptualized as gradually developing from an early age through a variety of experiences and psychological processes, such as performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences (modelling), verbal persuasion and emotional arousal given the presence of ample intercultural opportunities [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF]. Factors including having a multicultural social network, growing up in a bicultural family, or being open to new experiences and appraising diversifying experiences as challenges rather than threats, arguably all facilitate the development of high cultural self-efficacy beliefs.

High cultural self-efficacy beliefs could in turn facilitate individual and collective creative performance when individuals of different cultural backgrounds work together. This is because individuals with higher self-efficacy levels tend to set higher goals and they tend to persist more to attain goals [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF], which ultimately could benefit creative performance as well. Surprisingly, no study has directly investigated the effect of cultural self-efficacy on individual and collective creative performance when culturally diverse individuals work together.

Several scales that measure cultural self-efficacy exist, such as the Cultural Self-Efficacy Scale (CSES, [START_REF] Bernal | Influences on the cultural self-efficacy of community health nurses[END_REF] developed for the nursing context, or, more recently, the Extended Cultural Intelligence Scale (E-CQS, [START_REF] Van Dyne | Subdimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence[END_REF], that includes a more general cultural self-efficacy subscale. An interesting property of selfefficacy beliefs is the existence of several methods to experimentally manipulate them; including anchoring [START_REF] Cervone | Anchoring, efficacy, and action: The influence of judgmental heuristics on self-efficacy judgments and behavior[END_REF], social comparison [START_REF] Weinberg | The effect of preexisting and manipulated self-efficacy on a competitive muscular endurance task[END_REF], and bogus performance feedback [START_REF] Vancouver | Two studies examining the negative effect of self-efficacy on performance[END_REF]. Such methods can easily be adapted to manipulate cultural selfefficacy and investigate its causal effect on creative performance in an intercultural context.

Overview of studies

In the present research, we investigated the relationship between bicultural dyads' cultural self-efficacy and bicultural dyads' creativity through two empirical studies. Our studies focus on dyads for two reasons. First, dyadic collaborations involving individuals from different cultures are frequent, occurring in business negotiations and transactions, as well as in friendships and in romantic relationships. Thus, dyadic creativity can make a positive difference in many domains, including economic growth through innovation in business. Second, dyadic interactions occur from the onset of life between parents and children, between siblings, and between educators and students, and represent the smallest and most fundamental unit of human interactions. Therefore, investigating dyadic creativity represents an opportunity to witness the fundamental relational component of creative performance [START_REF] Glăveanu | Advancing creativity theory and research: A socio-cultural manifesto[END_REF].

Our general hypothesis for both studies is that cultural self-efficacy leads to higher joint creative performance in bicultural dyads. The aim of Study 1 was to estimate the correlation between the cultural self-efficacy of dyad members on the one hand, and their joint creative output, on the other hand. The aim of Study 2 was to replicate and extend findings from the first study by 1) providing evidence for a causal relationship between cultural self-efficacy and creative output in bicultural dyads, by experimentally manipulating cultural self-efficacy, and 2) verifying that the effect of cultural self-efficacy is specific to bicultural dyads, by also manipulating the cultural backgrounds of dyad partners. We specifically hypothesized that cultural self-efficacy is a construct that is relevant for bicultural dyads only (and not for monocultural dyads), and therefore has the potential of being conceptually different from other forms of self-efficacy, for example, creative self-efficacy, which are also known to affect collective performance in general [START_REF] Richter | Creative self-efficacy and individual creativity in team contexts: Cross-level interactions with team informational resources[END_REF].

Study 1

The main aim of Study 1 was to test whether dyad members' cultural self-efficacy is positively associated with joint creative performance in bicultural dyads. In addition, with a more exploratory approach, we also investigated which dyad member had the greatest impact on joint dyadic creativity. Specifically, we explored three possible results: Creative performance is mostly dependent on the members with the lower creative self-efficacy within their dyad (later referred to as 'weaker' dyad members), creative performance is mostly dependent on members with the higher creative self-efficacy within their dyad (later referred to as 'stronger' dyad members), or both dyad members contribute equally to joint dyadic creative performance.

Method Participants

The study sample consisted of 55 dyads composed of 110 English-speaking undergraduate business school students (ranging from 21 to 23 years of age). In the study sample, 46% of the participants were male (n = 51) and 54% were female (n = 59).

Participants from a range of countries including Algeria, Brazil, Colombia, Egypt, France, Greece, Iran, India, Italy, Ivory Coast, Lebanon, Madagascar, Mexico, Portugal, Poland, South Korea, Spain and the United States, were invited to take part in the study in exchange for course credit.

Measures

Cultural Self-Efficacy. Cultural self-efficacy was measured using the three-item cultural self-efficacy subscale of the Cultural Intelligence Scale (CQS; [START_REF] Ang | Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance[END_REF][START_REF] Van Dyne | Subdimensions of the four factor model of cultural intelligence: Expanding the conceptualization and measurement of cultural intelligence[END_REF]. A five-point Likert type response scale was used, ranging from Strongly disagree (1) to Strongly agree (5). In our study sample, the cultural self-efficacy scale exhibited satisfactory scale-score reliability, with a Cronbach's α of 0.74.

For each of the fifty-five dyads we retained three cultural self-efficacy scores: A mean score of both participants' cultural self-efficacy (i.e., the average dyad score), the score of the member with the highest level of self-efficacy (i.e., the score of the stronger member), and the score of the member with the lowest level of cultural self-efficacy (i.e., the score of the weaker member).

Creativity task.

Dyad's divergent thinking potential was assessed using a collective brainstorming task. In pairs, participants were given five minutes to generate as many ideas as possible on ways to improve teaching methods at their university. Two business school professors blind to the cultural self-efficacy scores of the dyad members rated the creativity of ideas independently, using a Likert type scale ranging from Not at all creative (1) to Very creative (5). The two ratings were consistent (Cronbach's α was 0.78) and were therefore averaged.

Each dyad was assigned three creativity scores. The first was an average dyad creativity score of all the ideas generated by the dyad. The second score represented the score of the single most creative idea generated by the dyad. The third score, was a fluency score representing the total number of ideas generated by the dyad.

Acquaintance. We measured the degree of acquaintance between dyad members with two items: "I know my partner" and "I am close to my partner" using a Likert type scale ranging from Not at all (1) to Very much (4). The two items were consistent both within individuals (Cronbach's α was 0.72), and within dyads (Cronbach's α was 0.79).

Procedure

Students participated in this study, face-to-face, as an extra credit opportunity. It was explained that the study consisted of two parts, and that all data would be collected via an online survey platform. Participants began by completing the cultural self-efficacy scale individually on their personal laptops. Next, they were divided into pairs and matched with a student with a different national origin, forming bicultural dyads. Participants were then told that for the second part of the study they had to work together on a single laptop. Next, dyads received the instructions for the creativity task via a second online survey platform. Specifically, dyads read that their task was to brainstorm and come up with as many ideas as possible on ways to improve teaching at their university. Once dyads were ready to start, a timer appeared on their screen indicating that they had 5 minutes to complete the brainstorming task. Dyad members could talk and exchange ideas, while one of the members typed their ideas in the survey. After the creativity task, participants completed a demographic questionnaire, were debriefed, thanked for their participation, and given course extra credit.

The study took place in several rooms, with four to five dyads in each room.

Results

Main analyses

Descriptive statistics for the fifty-five dyads are reported in Table 1 (p-values are twotailed). Note that controlling for gender composition, age, or the level of acquaintance did not change any of the main results. We therefore interpret bivariate correlations.

In accordance with our main study hypothesis, results showed that average dyad cultural self-efficacy was marginally positively correlated with the score of the most creative idea generated by the dyad (r = 0.25, p = 0.07), and positively correlated with the average dyad creativity score of all of the ideas generated by the dyad (r = 0.31, p = 0.02).

Insert Table 1 here

Exploratory analyses

Analyses revealed that dyads' creative fluency was significantly correlated with dyads' average cultural self-efficacy (r = 0.35, p = 0.008), with the lowest level of cultural self-efficacy present in dyads (r = 0.37, p = 0.005) and with dyads' most creative idea (r = 0.41, p = 0.002).

We investigated the extent to which dyadic creativity depended on the dyad members with the lowest and highest level of cultural self-efficacy within their respective dyad. Results indicated that the cultural self-efficacy of weaker dyad members was positively correlated with the dyad's most creative idea (r = 0.29, p = 0.03), and with the dyad's average creativity score (r = 0.31, p = 0.02). The cultural self-efficacy of 'stronger' dyad members, on the other hand, was not correlated with the dyad's most creative idea (r = 0.15, p = 0.27), and only marginally correlated with the dyad's average creativity score (r = 0.23, p = 0.09). These findings are consistent with the idea that dyadic creativity is most strongly influenced by dyadic members who are relatively weaker within their dyad in terms of their cultural selfefficacy.

Discussion

The main objective of Study 1 was to determine whether there is a positive relationship between cultural self-efficacy and creative performance in bicultural dyads. Our findings show that cultural self-efficacy is indeed associated with dyadic creativity. Dyads' average cultural self-efficacy and weaker member cultural self-efficacy were positively correlated with dyads' fluency scores. Dyads' average cultural self-efficacy was not only positively linked to the most creative idea generated by the dyad, it was also positively linked to the average creativity of all the ideas generated by the dyad.

Our exploratory analyses further revealed that dyadic creativity was most strongly influenced by dyadic members who are relatively weaker within their dyad in terms of cultural self-efficacy. This effect of weaker dyad members' cultural self-efficacy on joint creative performance, in the absence of an effect of stronger dyad members' cultural selfefficacy, could be taken as an inhibitory effect on the creative potential of stronger members (see [START_REF] Imai | The culturally intelligent negotiator: The impact of cultural intelligence (CQ) on negotiation sequences and outcomes[END_REF] for a similar investigation in the context of negotiation research).

Altogether, results from this first study indicate that there is a positive relationship between dyad members' cultural self-efficacy and joint dyadic creativity in bicultural dyads.

Nevertheless, this first study has several limitations. Our sample size was relatively small, and some of the correlations that we found were only marginally significant. Furthermore, the correlational nature of the study design does not determine whether cultural self-efficacy causally affects creative performance. Finally, we only had bicultural dyads in this study, making it impossible to demonstrate that it is cultural self-efficacy that facilitates creativity, and not a more general form of self-efficacy. To address these shortcomings, in Study 2 we manipulated both cultural self-efficacy and the cultural background of dyad members, so that half of the dyads were bicultural and the other half were monocultural.

Study 2

Study 2 sought to test the causality of the relationship between cultural self-efficacy and creative performance through experimental manipulation of cultural self-efficacy. In this study we also created monocultural dyads which allowed us to investigate the effect of cultural self-efficacy in both bicultural and monocultural dyads. Indeed, since it is possible that the cultural self-efficacy scale that we used partly taps into other forms of self-efficacy as well, it was essential to show that cultural self-efficacy increases creative output in bicultural dyads only, and not in monocultural dyads. This provides evidence that cultural self-efficacy has added value over and above general self-efficacy in explaining dyadic creativity.

In this study, participants were led to anticipate an interaction with an ostensible same culture or different culture partner. However, no real interaction took place between participants. Although in this study we do not measure joint creative performance, we can assume that individual performance is an important predictor of joint performance. But more importantly, this method allowed us full control over the manipulation of the dyad members' cultural background, which was one of our prime objectives with this study.

Method

Participants and design

Our study sample consisted of 104 English-speaking adults living in the United States (57 women and 47 men, Mage = 35.24, SDage = 11.83). Participants were recruited online via a Microworkers campaign. Microworkers is an international marketplace for online work where individuals can be hired to participate in surveys [START_REF] Crone | Crowdsourcing participants for psychological research in Australia: A test of microworkers[END_REF]. Our survey guaranteed anonymity and confidentiality and required participants to answer all items before submitting their answers. This resulted in no missing data from participants. Study participants were randomly assigned to one of four experimental conditions: Cultural background of dyad partner (Same culture vs. Different culture) and Cultural self-efficacy (Low vs. High).

Materials

Manipulation of dyad partner cultural background.

To manipulate anticipations of working in a mono-or bicultural dyad, participants were told that they would be randomly assigned to engage in a brainstorming task, either with another American participant, or with an individual from the Kanak culture. The Kanaks were described to study participants as individuals living on islands located in the Pacific Ocean, and overall, as having a culture that is very different from the American culture. We chose the Kanak culture because the Kanak people live in relative isolation, making it unlikely that our study participants would have Kanak origins. Study participants were then randomly assigned to one of two experimental conditions. In one condition, information provided to participants indicated that they would work with someone from the same culture (an American), while in the other condition information indicated that they would work with someone from the Kanak culture.

Manipulation check dyad partner cultural background.

A single item administered at the end of the survey --"My assigned brainstorming partner had a cultural background that was: Very similar to my cultural background (1) to Very different from my cultural background (5) --verified that our dyad manipulation was effective.

Manipulation of cultural self-efficacy.

To manipulate cultural self-efficacy, we provided study participants with bogus feedback on their performance on an intercultural competence task. We used five cultural assimilators [START_REF] Cushner | Intercultural interactions: A practical guide[END_REF]. Cultural assimilators are short scenarios based on critical incidents and are typically used as a crosscultural training tool [START_REF] Cushner | Intercultural interactions: A practical guide[END_REF]. The scenarios introduce different culturerelated misunderstandings between individuals of various cultural backgrounds. Study participants read each scenario carefully and provided their best explanation of the cause of the miscommunication by choosing from four possible answer options i . We manipulated cultural self-efficacy by providing participants with bogus feedback on their performance directly after providing their answers. Specifically, regardless of participants' true score on the test, half of the participants received negative feedback: "Your answers indicate that you do not have a very strong knowledge of different cultures (4 out of your 5 answers are wrong)", while the other half received positive feedback: "Your answers indicate that you have a very strong knowledge of different cultures (4 out of your 5 answers are correct)".

Manipulation check cultural self-efficacy. Directly after the cultural self-efficacy manipulation we used the same three item self-efficacy subscale as in Study 1 [START_REF] Ang | Cultural Intelligence: Its Measurement and Effects on Cultural Judgment and Decision Making, Cultural Adaptation and Task Performance[END_REF] to assess participants' confidence in their ability to successfully function in intercultural settings. Cronbach's α was 0.85.

Creativity task.

The task chosen to evaluate participants' divergent thinking potential is a divergent thinking task called the Alternate Uses Task (AUT) originally developed by Guilford in 1967. Concretely, participants were told that they would be presented with a common object (a paperclip) and that they would have two minutes to brainstorm together and to come up with as many ideas for different uses for the object. Importantly, study participants were informed that they would first have to generate ideas separately, and that afterwards they would work with the other participant to elaborate on their best ideas. We emphasized that participants should write their ideas clearly, as their supposed brainstorming partner would later read their ideas. After completing the AUT, all participants were told that due to a technical problem they could not interact with the other participant, but that they would be rewarded anyway if they continued filling in additional questionnaires. All participants decided to continue.

All the ideas generated were rated independently by two judges blind to experimental conditions, on a scale from Not very creative (1) to Very creative (5). Ratings from both judges were then averaged (Cronbach's alpha was 0.85). We calculated two indicators of participants' divergent thinking performance. Each participant was assigned an average creativity score of all the ideas generated by the participant. The second score represented the score of the single most creative idea generated by the participant. In addition, a fluency score representing the total number of ideas generated per study participant, was assigned to each individual.

Big Five Personality Traits. We controlled for the Big Five personality traits using the Ten Item Personality Inventory (TIPI, [START_REF] Gosling | A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains[END_REF]. This questionnaire measures extroversion, agreeableness, conscientiousness, emotional stability, and openness to experience. The TIPI was built as a short scale with large content coverage to maximize content validity. Consequently, the measurement model of the TIPI is more formative than reflective in nature, as is evidenced by empirical research [START_REF] Myszkowski | Are reflective models appropriate for very short scales? Proofs of concept of formative models using the Ten-Item Personality Inventory[END_REF]. The Cronbach's α is therefore not a relevant indicator to assess the quality of the scale [START_REF] Gosling | A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains[END_REF][START_REF] Storme | Psychometric properties of the French ten-item personality inventory (tipi)[END_REF]. The reliability of the TIPI is better assessed by test-retest reliability indicators, which have been shown to be satisfactory [START_REF] Gosling | A very brief measure of the Big-Five personality domains[END_REF][START_REF] Storme | Psychometric properties of the French ten-item personality inventory (tipi)[END_REF].

Procedure

We targeted our recruitment campaign specifically towards proficient Englishspeaking U.S. participants, and we presented our experiment as a study on brainstorming in bicultural dyads. Participants were explicitly informed that they would work with an (ostensible) other participant on the platform who would either have the same, or a different cultural background as the study participant. Immediately after these general instructions the manipulation of dyad partner's cultural background took place. Participants were informed that they had been randomly matched with a partner and they received information about the cultural background of their partner. Then, after the manipulation check of the dyad partner culture manipulation, participants took the supposed cultural competence test, constituting the manipulation of participants' cultural self-efficacy. After the self-efficacy manipulation check, we assessed the main dependent variable individual creativity using a divergent thinking potential task, the AUT [START_REF] Guilford | Creativity: yesterday, today and tomorrow[END_REF]. An attention check question right after the measure of the dependent variable indicated that all participants were paying attention.

Hereafter, participants were informed about a supposed technical malfunction preventing them from interacting with their dyad partner, and all participants proceeded with completing the short Big Five personality inventory and providing their demographic information.

Afterwards, participants were debriefed about the true nature of the study: participants were told that they had been randomly assigned to a low or high cultural competence feedback experimental condition regardless of their answers to the intercultural competence questions (represented by the cultural assimilators). Participants were also told that in order to analyze the effects that working with a culturally different other can have, they had been randomly assigned to a cultural context condition which involved working with an "imaginary" partner from either their own cultural background or a very different cultural background such as the Kanak culture. After being debriefed, participants were thanked and payed $2.20 for their time.

Results

Manipulation checks

We first checked that both experimental manipulations were effective. We found that the manipulation of the cultural background of the brainstorming partner was effective.

Participants who were told that they would brainstorm ideas with a Kanak partner reported a higher level of cultural distance with their partner, than participants who were told that they would brainstorm ideas with an American participant, F(1,102) = 7.16, p < 0.01, ηp 2 = 0.07.

We found that the manipulation of cultural self-efficacy was also effective. Indeed, participants who received a negative feedback on their cultural competence reported significantly lower levels of cultural self-efficacy, than participants who received a positive feedback, F(1,102) = 15.59, p < 0.001, ηp 2 = 0.13.

Main analyses

We used multiple regression to control for participants' personality traits, gender and age. We found that none of the control variables significantly affected the results of the main analyses. In what follows, we therefore report the results of analyses without control variables.

Statistical analyses revealed that participants' fluency scores were statistically unaffected by experimental manipulations. Results using a 2 Cultural self-efficacy (Low vs. High) x 2 Cultural background of dyad partner (Same culture vs. Different culture) ANOVA with participants' fluency score as the dependent variable revealed an interaction effect that did not reach statistical significance, F(1,100) = 1.59, p = 0.21, ηp 2 = 0.01. In addition, neither manipulation of cultural self-efficacy, F(1,100) = 0.004, p = 0.94, nor the cultural background of partner, F(1,96) = 1.87, p = 0.17, had an impact on participants' fluency scores.

We first ran a 2 x 2 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) with the average creativity scores as the dependent variable (i.e., the average creativity of all ideas produced by study participants). The two independent variables were cultural self-efficacy (Low vs. High) and the cultural background of dyad partner (Same vs. Different). Contrary to our expectations, the interaction effect was not significant, F(1,96) = 0.17, p = 0.68, ηp 2 < 0.001. Neither the level of cultural self-efficacy, F(1,96) = 2.95, p = 0.09, nor the cultural background of the partner, F(1,96) = 0.06, p = 0.81, had an impact on the average creativity score of participants.

Next, we ran the same 2 x 2 ANOVA this time with the score of the single most creative idea generated by the participant as the dependent variable. A significant interaction effect emerged, F(1,91) = 7.30, p < 0.01, ηp 2 = 0.07. The interaction effect is depicted in Figure 1.

Insert Figure 1 here We ran a series of additional analyses to better understand the interaction effect. In line with our hypotheses, cultural self-efficacy only had a positive effect on the score of the most creative idea among participants who anticipated to brainstorm with a partner from a different culture, F(1,91) = 4.95, p < 0.05, ηp 2 = 0.05. Cultural self-efficacy had no such effect among participants who anticipated to brainstorm with a partner from their own culture, F(1,91) = 2.54, p = 0.11, ηp 2 = 0.03.

Discussion

Our aim with Study 2 was twofold. First, we sought to test the causality of the relationship between cultural self-efficacy and creativity through experimental manipulation of cultural self-efficacy. Second, we wanted to provide evidence that cultural self-efficacy has added value over and beyond other forms of self-efficacy by showing that cultural selfefficacy predicts creativity only in bicultural dyads, and not in monocultural dyads. Analyses revealed that participants' fluency scores were not statistically affected by experimental manipulations. They also showed, that in line with our hypotheses, cultural self-efficacy had a positive effect on the single most creative idea generated by study participants, but only among participants who were anticipating to brainstorm ideas with someone from a different culture. Cultural self-efficacy had no such effect among participants who were anticipating to brainstorm ideas with a partner from the same culture.

In sum, the results of Study 2 suggest that the relationship between cultural selfefficacy and creativity in intercultural settings is causal. Additionally, the results suggest that the effect of cultural self-efficacy on creativity in intercultural settings cannot be attributed to other forms of self-efficacy given that the effect of our cultural self-efficacy manipulation was unique to participants anticipating an interaction with someone from a different culture than their own.

General Discussion

Our aim was to investigate whether cultural self-efficacy facilitates creativity in bicultural dyads. In Study 1, we found that cultural self-efficacy is positively associated with the creativity of ideas generated by bicultural dyads. With Study 2 we extended the findings of Study 1 in two ways. First, we provided evidence for the causal effect of cultural selfefficacy on creativity. Second, we showed that the observed effect is specific to cultural selfefficacy. In other words, because we observed the effect only among participants supposedly part of a bicultural dyad, and not among participants supposedly part of a monocultural dyad, it seems that cultural self-efficacy is indeed a predictor of creativity in bicultural dyads specifically, and not in any other type of dyad.

Theoretical and practical implications

Our findings have theoretical and practical implications. From a theoretical standpoint, our findings support Bandura's Social Cognitive Theory (SCT) by showing in a new context that self-efficacy beliefs affect behaviors. More specifically, we found positive effects of cultural self-efficacy on creative performance in bicultural dyads. Although we did not test the underlying mechanisms of the effect, we can assume that self-efficacy beliefs lead individuals to set higher goals and to persist longer in attaining them, which, in turn, lead to higher creative performance. Our findings also suggest that cultural self-efficacy is a domain specific form of self-efficacy. Indeed, cultural self-efficacy appears to be specifically relevant in multicultural contexts and not in monocultural contexts. This is in line with SCT, which mainly regards self-efficacy as being contextualized [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF]. Nevertheless, SCT also acknowledges that self-efficacy beliefs pertaining to one specific domain can generalize to related domains as well. For example, if cultural self-efficacy is consistently associated with increased performance in the creative domain, it may end up influencing creative self-efficacy as well, which could, in turn, further reinforce the effects of cultural self-efficacy on creative performance. Our work may have uncovered one effect in a complex chain of events that reinforce themselves through a feedback loop. This means that long-term benefits of cultural self-efficacy may be even greater than our studies suggest. More research is needed to investigate the potential virtuous circle of the relationship between cultural self-efficacy and creativity in intercultural settings.

From a practical standpoint, our findings suggest that individuals, schools, universities, human resource specialists, and organizations that wish to improve their creativity can capitalize on cultural self-efficacy. Investing on developing cultural selfefficacy could indeed lead to enhanced individual and collective creativity in intercultural contexts. The content of training modules aimed at fostering cultural self-efficacy could be based on the sources of self-efficacy described by SCT, such as performance accomplishments, vicarious experiences, verbal persuasion and emotional arousal [START_REF] Bandura | Social foundations of thought and action[END_REF]. Previous research suggests that cultural self-efficacy can be developed indirectly via cultural intelligence development through travel abroad [START_REF] Rehg | Examining the influence of crosscultural training on cultural intelligence and specific self-efficacy[END_REF], international experience [START_REF] Petersdotter | International experience makes a difference: Effects of studying abroad on students' self-efficacy[END_REF], learning and engagement in significant culture-related events known as cultural trigger events [START_REF] Reichard | Engagement in cultural trigger events in the development of cultural competence[END_REF], intercultural training [START_REF] Cushner | Intercultural interactions: A practical guide[END_REF] and more specifically intercultural contact-based training and attribution training [START_REF] Macnab | Experiential cultural intelligence development: Context and individual attributes[END_REF]. Another research avenue that may contribute to the development of cultural self-efficacy in a more direct manner concerns methods that have been shown to target and specifically enhance the motivational dimension of cultural intelligence; including experiential training and learning [START_REF] Ajzen | Predicting CQ development in the context of experiential cross-cultural training: The role of social dominance orientation and the propensity to change stereotypes[END_REF][START_REF] Macnab | Experiential cultural intelligence development: Context and individual attributes[END_REF][START_REF] Taras | A global classroom? Evaluating the effectiveness of global virtual collaboration as a teaching tool in management education[END_REF] and interactive and role play simulation exercises [START_REF] Ozcelik | Developing emotional awareness in cross-cultural communication: A videoconferencing approach[END_REF]. Altogether, training exercises in which students would engage in intercultural interactions, observe intercultural interactions, remember successful intercultural interactions, or associate positive emotions with intercultural interactions could be expected to facilitate cultural self-efficacy beliefs and ultimately creativity in intercultural settings.

Limitations and future research

Our studies also have limitations that should be addressed in future research. Although preliminary, findings of Study 1 suggest that dyadic creativity may only be as high as the creative self-efficacy of the weaker dyad member allows it to be. As already mentioned before, this could indicate a possible inhibitory effect of the weaker dyad member on the creative potential of the stronger dyad member. However, our study design does not allow to draw definitive conclusions here. Future research could use population scores of cultural selfefficacy as an anchor, and compare high-low dyads (i.e., dyads in which one member has a relatively high cultural self-efficacy, and the other member a relatively low cultural selfefficacy), with dyads in which both members are relatively high on cultural self-efficacy. Such a design would allow testing whether high-low dyads have a lower joint creative performance than high-high dyads. Moreover, if there is an inhibitory effect of the weaker dyad members, it would be interesting to investigate the mechanism: Do stronger dyad members for example actively dial down their creative potential, or are they perhaps less stimulated by their partner at a cognitive and/or psycho-social level? Future research could also investigate the conditions under which stronger dyad members 'lift' the creative potential of the weaker dyad members.

In Study 2, we did not measure trait levels of cultural self-efficacy. It may be possible that our self-efficacy manipulation mostly benefitted individuals with relatively low levels of self-efficacy, and that participants with relatively high trait levels of cultural self-efficacy were less affected by the experimental manipulation. This would be consistent with previous studies that found that self-efficacy manipulations do not easily affect participants with higher trait levels of self-efficacy [START_REF] Eden | Self-efficacy training to speed reemployment: Helping people to help themselves[END_REF]. Faced with obstacles or negative feedback, individuals with high trait levels of self-efficacy appear to rely on psychological resources to cope with negative experiences. The fact that we do not have information on the trait levels of cultural self-efficacy in our sample makes it therefore difficult to know the true size of the effect of manipulating cultural self-efficacy on creativity. Indeed, the effect size that we found may be an under-or overestimation of the true effect size. Future research should therefore measure trait levels of cultural self-efficacy as well.

Finally, we encourage researchers to investigate the boundary conditions of the relationship between cultural self-efficacy and creativity in intercultural contexts. An interesting moderator could be the level of cultural distance between dyadic partners. Cultural distance can be defined as the level of differences between two cultures regarding values, communication styles, lifestyles, etc. [START_REF] Shenkar | Cultural distance revisited: Towards a more rigorous conceptualization and measurement of cultural differences[END_REF][START_REF] Sousa | Cultural distance and psychic distance: refinements in conceptualisation and measurement[END_REF]. In general, the greater the cultural distance between two individuals, the more difficult social interactions are [START_REF] Shenkar | Cultural distance revisited: Towards a more rigorous conceptualization and measurement of cultural differences[END_REF][START_REF] Sousa | Cultural distance and psychic distance: refinements in conceptualisation and measurement[END_REF]. It is therefore possible that there could be a threshold in the positive relationship between cultural self-efficacy and joint creativity, that we were not able to observe with our studies. The two studies described in our paper could be adapted to test this hypothesis. One option would be to replicate our studies by varying the level of cultural distance between participants. This would make it possible to observe at which levels of cultural difference the association between cultural self-efficacy and creativity emerges. Uncovering boundary conditions of the effect could contribute to a better understanding of the relationship between cultural self-efficacy and creativity in intercultural contexts, and it could have important theoretical and practical implications. On a more general note, throughout our studies creativity was assessed via tasks that actually measure participants' divergent thinking potential. It is important to highlight that creativity is not limited to divergent thinking. Future studies should replicate the presented studies using a variety of tasks that adequately and extensively measure participants' creative potential.

Considering the effects of globalization and the rise of intercultural interactions, discovering ways to foster positive and creative intercultural exchanges is important. Our study findings suggest that proactive effort aimed to increase individuals' cultural selfefficacy may result in visible changes in creativity. i For the purpose of the current study the scenarios depicted intercultural interactions between: British and Middle Easterners, Americans and Venezuelans, Malaysians and Chinese-Malaysians, Americans and Hawaiians, and Swedes and Spaniards. The cultural scenarios were selected in order to represent a variety of cultures and countries that differ in regard to their cultural values including power distance, individualism vs. collectivism, masculinity vs. femininity, uncertainty avoidance, long vs. short-term orientation, and restraint vs. indulgence [START_REF] Cushner | Intercultural interactions: A practical guide[END_REF].

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1

Table 1

 1 Study 1. Descriptive Statistics Note. N = 55 dya ds; † p < .10; * p < .05; ** p < .01; *** p < .001.

		Mean	Standard Deviation	1	2	3	4	5
	1. Average dyad cultural self-efficacy	3.92	0.46	-
	2. Stronger member cultural self-efficacy 4.24	0.51	0.88***	-
	3. Weaker member cultural self-efficacy	3.59	0.53	0.89***	0.56***	-
	4. Dyad most creative idea	3.42	0.85	0.25 †	0.15	0.29*	-
	5. Average dyad creativity	2.33	0.49	0.31*	0.23	0.31*	0.79***	-
	6. Dyad Fluency	6.31	2.45	0.35**	0.25 †	0.37**	0.41**	0.14


Gautier Chene
email: chenegautier@yahoo.fr

Lionel Bouvet

Emanuele Cerruto

Erdogan Nohuz

Prof. Gautier Chene

How can we minimize the potential risk of viral contamination during laparoscopic procedures for suspected or infected COVID-19 patients ? running title: General protective measures, smoke evacuation and laparoscopy

Keywords: surgical smoke, aerosol, filter, laparoscopy, Covid-19

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Introduction:

The potential risk of viral transmission of SARS-Cov-2 has been raised by several international colleges and societies of surgery and gynecology during laparoscopic interventions in infected patients [1][START_REF]Joint RCOG BSGE Statement On Gynaecological Laparoscopic Procedures and Covid-19[END_REF][3][START_REF]Updated Intercollegiate General Surgery Guidance on COVID-19[END_REF][START_REF] Esge) | ESGE Recommendations on Gynaecological Laparoscopic Surgery during COVID-19 outbreak[END_REF]. No contamination during the extraction of surgical smoke during laparoscopic surgery has been reported. There is only one case-report about a colectomy in a 71 -year-old woman hospitalized for covid-19 pneumonia: the swab for SARS-Cov-2 was positive on the peritoneal fluid. There does not seem to have been any analysis of the surgical smoke [START_REF] Barberis | Sars-Cov-2 in peritoneal fluid: an important finding in the Covid-19 pandemic[END_REF]).

However, the presence of the hepatitis B virus was found in these aerosols (in 90% of the cases in the study by Kwak et al [START_REF] Kwak | Detecting hepatitis B virus in surgical smoke emitted during laparoscopic surgery[END_REF]). The HPV virus was also found in the surgical smoke linked to cervical resections (in 40% of cases in the study by Sood et al [START_REF] Sood | Human papillomavirus DNA in LEEP plume[END_REF]). Four cases of direct HPV contamination in healthcare professionals have been proven to date (two laryngeal papillomatoses in a 44-year-old gynaecologist and in a 28-year old nurse, one tonsillar squamous cell carcinoma in a 53-year-old gynaecologist and one cancer of the base of the tongue in a 62-year-old gynaecologist) [START_REF] Liu | Awareness of surgical smoke hazards and enhancement of surgical smoke prevention among the gynaecologists[END_REF].

As the size of HBV and HPV is smaller than that of SARS-Cov-2 (respectively, 0.04 µm for HBV, 0.05 µm for HPV and between 0.06 to 0.14 µm for SARS-Cov-2), there is therefore potentially a risk of contamination related to aerosols in a Covid + patient. Surgical smoke consists of 95% water vapor and 5% cellular debris: the latter can contain chemical particles (including compounds with a potentially carcinogenic risk such as benzene, formaldehyde, toluene, xylene, etc.), blood, tissue, viral or even bacterial material [START_REF] Liu | Awareness of surgical smoke hazards and enhancement of surgical smoke prevention among the gynaecologists[END_REF].

The first physical barrier to consider is the systematic use of specific personal protective equipment, especially high filtration masks during any laparoscopy [START_REF] Zheng | Minimally invasive surgery and the novel coronavirus outbreak: lessons learned in China and Italy[END_REF][START_REF] Nohuz | Technics to put on and remove personal protective equipment before surgical or obstetrical procedure in suspected or infected COVID-19 patients (with video)[END_REF] (see table 1).

Because of the risk of contamination by aerosolization, surgical smoke should also be removed using suitable filters.

Different companies have marketed filtration devices suitable for laparoscopy for the evacuation of smoke. None of them have been tested to know if they are effective to prevent the transmission of the COVID-19 Virus. However, these systems of filtration may capture a wide range of particle sizes above 0, 05 µm in experimental conditions (efficiency ranging between 99.9975% and 99.9999%) [1,[START_REF]Joint RCOG BSGE Statement On Gynaecological Laparoscopic Procedures and Covid-19[END_REF].

Due to the cost of this equipment and the need to be trained (current restriction of training), several surgical teams have developed their own filtration system. Most of them are based on the use of filters of the anaesthesiologist's intubation systems (open system with evacuation of surgical smoke in the operating room [START_REF] Mintz | the Technology Committee of the European Association for Endoscopic Surgery. Low Cost, Safe and Effective Method for Smoke Evacuation in Laparoscopic Surgery for Suspected Coronavirus Patients[END_REF] or closed system with evacuation of surgical smoke in containers, in washing containers or in thoracic drainage systems Pleur-Evac® or in redon bottles [START_REF]How to Manage Smoke Evacuation and Filter Pneumoperitoneum During Laparoscopy to Minimize Potential Viral Spread: Different Methods From SoMe -a video vignette[END_REF]). Even if there are no data about the efficacy of breathing circuit filters for preventing transmission COVID-19, the

Table 1 :

 1 Multi-modal requirements for a safe laparoscopy : tips and tricks[1-5, 10-12, 18, 19] *FFP3 masks may filter 99% of all particles above 0.3 µm. FFP2 masks (European classification) or N95 masks (American classification) ensure the filtration of at least 95% of the particles in suspension measuring more than 0.3 µm. **Ultrasonic energy could theoretically be more dangerous than bipolar energy because it leads to a low temperature aerosol which does not allow the cellular components of the virus to be destroyed. *** In order to avoid the possible incarceration of an intestinal loop or the omentum, we introduce a blunt-tipped probe (type aspiration probe) to repel the intestinal handles and at the same time remove the trocar. The optical trocar is removed under visual control. Preparation of the material before the intervention in order to keep the operating room closed during the intervention Specific Personal Protective Equipment (FFP3/ FFP2 / N95 masks*, goggles and appropriate clothing) Closer collaboration necessary with the anaesthesiologist (rapid sequence intubation, curarization, pneumoperitoneum pressure) Small skin incisions and use of balloon trocars (better sealing) to avoid untimely removal of the trocars and the occurrence of CO2 leaks during the procedure Reduction of the pressure of the pneumoperitoneum (10 to 8 mm Hg) and reduction of the Trendelenburg position (10 to 15°) in order to limit the ventilatory and circulatory constraints Limitation of instrument changes to avoid leaks Promotion of bipolar energy (with the lower power) rather than ultrasonic energy ** Use of smoke filtration systems (see figures 1A, 1B, 1C). Preference for intra-corporeal nodes (gas leak in case of extra-corporeal nodes) Removing the operator trocars once the pneumoperitoneum is completely evacuated*** Port-site closure once the pneumoperitoneum is completely evacuated

American Society of Anesthesiologists stated that all breathing circuit filters are rated with a viral filtration efficiency of at least 99.99% and are currently used for anesthesia management during the COVID-19 pandemic [14]. Moreover since the viability of virus particles once caught in filters is unknown, closed ventilation system should be better.

Other systems are based on the simple evacuation with a tube without filter in a washing solution [START_REF]Joint RCOG BSGE Statement On Gynaecological Laparoscopic Procedures and Covid-19[END_REF][START_REF] Yeo | Clearing the air: an accessible system for suction and safe evacuation of pneumoperitoneum during laparoscopy in patients with COVID-19[END_REF][START_REF] Hanbali | A safe method to evacuate pneumoperitoneum during laparoscopic surgery in suspected COVID-19 patients[END_REF][START_REF] Hamed | Underwater-seal evacuation of surgical smoke in laparoscopy during the COVID-19 pandemic: a feasibility report of a simple technique[END_REF]. In our opinion, it seems not very appropriate because of the potential risk of leakage due to the connection of several pipes and contamination when disposing of the container containing smoke and washing solution.

Here is the description of our homemade closed filtration system which uses the filtration principle with a variant on the connection and the device for collecting the smoke (see figures 1 and 2): the filter is connected in series between an operating trocar fitted with a tap and the suction system. This very simple system allows the clarification of the operating field when the use of monopolar or bipolar energies induces the generation of surgical smoke hindering the visualization of the operating field. The fine gauge of the tube thus allows, in addition to the almost immediate and gentle clarification of visibility, to preserve the pressure of the pneumoperitoneum. The main point lies in the fact that our assembly works in a vacuum. In other words, not using conventional suction (which sucks the gas without being able to filter the aerosols), our system purifies the pneumoperitoneum evacuated from potentially contaminating surgical smoke. In addition, at the end of the intervention, this gentle aspiration allows practically complete evacuation of the pneumoperitoneum without the risk of aspirating an intestinal loop or the omentum. The gas is collected in the suction container and then eliminated in a container provided for this purpose with the filter and the tubing. We take care to keep the tap on the trocar closed in order to avoid any gas leaks during disposal.

Conclusion:

It would be a mistake to replace the laparoscopic approach (and the numerous proven advantages of minimally invasive surgery) with systematic laparotomies [1][START_REF]Joint RCOG BSGE Statement On Gynaecological Laparoscopic Procedures and Covid-19[END_REF][3][START_REF]Updated Intercollegiate General Surgery Guidance on COVID-19[END_REF][START_REF] Esge) | ESGE Recommendations on Gynaecological Laparoscopic Surgery during COVID-19 outbreak[END_REF]. In a recent review of literature, Mintz et al [START_REF] Mintz | The risk of COVID-19 transmission by laparoscopic smoke may be lower than for laparotomy: a narrative[END_REF] stated that the risk of COVID-19 transmission by laparoscopic smoke could be lower than for laparotomy (See table 1).

The use of homemade smoke filtration system, when access to expensive filtration devices does not seem possible, may limit the impact of smoke and aerosol on environmental contamination and thus preserve both the healthcare teams and surfaces. It's certainly necessary to re-invent part of our surgery and to imagine new tips and tricks to continue operating safely [START_REF] Nohuz | Gynecological surgery during the COVID-19 pandemic : take home messages[END_REF][START_REF] Chene | The comeback of vaginal surgery during and after the COVID-19 pandemic : a new paradigm[END_REF].

Legend:

Figures 1and 2:

We developed two closed systems depending of the type of available filter. The principle of the filtering system is the same: a male-to-male connector is connected between the trocar and the filter. The filter is then connected to the suction container via a vacuum rubber tube. We can easily evacuate the surgical smoke in this closed system by opening the flow stopcock of the trocar.

1A: materials of our homemade smoke filtration system 1B: connection between the filter, the operating trocar and the suction system. 1C: Here is our homemade smoke filtration system assembled in clinical use.

2A: materials of our homemade smoke filtration system 2B: connection between the filter, the operating trocar and the suction system. 2C: Here is our homemade smoke filtration system assembled in clinical use.