Fiona Schweitzer
email: fiona.schweitzer@grenoble-em.com

Tobias Roeth
email: tobias.roeth@uni-kassel.de

Thomas Gillier
email: thomas.gillier@grenoble-em.com

The Eye of the Beholder: The Influence of Intuition, Rationality, and Leeway on the Assessment of an Idea's Market-Creation Potential

Keywords: cognitive styles, intuition, rationality, information processing, new product development, market

The Eye of the Beholder: The Influence of Intuition, Rationality, and Leeway on the Assessment of an Idea's Market-Creation Potential

Introduction

Since competition tends to become increasingly cut-throat in mature markets, firms respond by introducing new products designed to attract new markets [START_REF] Kim | Blue Ocean Strategy: From Theory to Practice[END_REF][START_REF] O'connor | New Market Creation for Breakthrough Innovations: Enabling and Constraining Mechanisms[END_REF]. For example, Amazon was originally an online bookseller, quickly turned into an e-retailer and e-platform provider, and then expanded into developing technical devices (e.g., Alexa and Kindle). It also created products under the private label AmazonBasics, and offered home entertainment through Amazon Prime. These market-creating innovations increased its share of wallet, enabled it to add new consumer groups, and created new growth for the firm. We define market-creating innovations as innovations that do not cater to the mature market segment in which the firm is currently active. Such innovations open up a firm's new product development (NPD) to new target groups by enabling the firm to enter an industry, product category, or market segment in which it has not yet been active, or that do not as yet exist [START_REF] Kim | Blue Ocean Strategy: From Theory to Practice[END_REF][START_REF] Molner | Lost in a Universe of Markets: Toward a Theory of Market Scoping for Early-Stage Technologies[END_REF][START_REF] Sethi | Developing New-to-the-Firm Products: The Role of Micropolitical Strategies[END_REF].

Given these enticing opportunities, one would expect that idea evaluators would favor market-creating ideas when deciding which ideas to pursue, but studies have shown that they often prefer more incremental ideas [START_REF] Levinthal | The Myopia of Learning[END_REF][START_REF] Piezunka | Distant Search, Narrow Attention: How Crowding Alters Organizations' Filtering of Suggestions in Crowdsourcing[END_REF][START_REF] Sandberg | What Makes It so Difficult? A Systematic Review on Barriers to Radical Innovation[END_REF]. Although researchers have investigated this phenomenon by focusing on formalization of idea selection [START_REF] Eling | Consistency Matters in Formally Selecting Incremental and Radical New Product Ideas for Advancement[END_REF][START_REF] Martinsuo | Use of Evaluation Criteria and Innovation Performance in the Front End of Innovation[END_REF]Poskela & Martinsuo, 2009), the value of formalization for selecting the "right" idea has proved controversial [START_REF] Carlsson-Wall | Opening the black box of the role of accounting practices in the fuzzy front-end of product innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Focusing the Fuzzy Front-End in New Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Reid | Market Vision and the Front End of NPD for Radical Innovation: The Impact of Moderating Effects[END_REF]. Interestingly, studies that investigate formalization of idea evaluation have largely ignored the human side of idea evaluation in terms of idea evaluators' informationprocessing styles [START_REF] Eling | Using Intuition in Fuzzy Front-End Decision-Making: A Conceptual Framework[END_REF][START_REF] Eling | Managing the Front End of Innovation-Less Fuzzy, Yet Still Not Fully Understood[END_REF]. This is surprising because prior research shows that information-processing styles have a considerable impact on NPD outcomes [START_REF] Dayan | Team Intuition as a Continuum Construct and New Product Creativity: The Role of Environmental Turbulence, Team Experience, and Stress[END_REF][START_REF] Eliëns | Rational Versus Intuitive Gatekeeping: Escalation of Commitment in the Front End of NPD[END_REF]). An information-processing style describes an individual's inclination to process information either rationally or intuitively [START_REF] Taggart | Assessing Rational and Intuitive Styles: A Human Information Processing Metaphor[END_REF]. Individuals with a rational processing style process information using an analytical, rules-based, systematic, step-by-step approach. By contrast, those with an intuitive style take a more experiential and holistic approach [START_REF] Evans | Dual Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment and Social Cognition[END_REF][START_REF] Hayes | Cognitive Style and the Theory and Practice of Individual and Collective Learning in Organizations[END_REF]. Research has shown that a rational style limits idea generation while an intuitive style stimulates it [START_REF] Dayan | Team Intuition as a Continuum Construct and New Product Creativity: The Role of Environmental Turbulence, Team Experience, and Stress[END_REF][START_REF] Garfield | Research Report: Modifying Paradigms-Individual Differences, Creativity Techniques, and Exposure to Ideas in Group Idea Generation[END_REF][START_REF] Zhu | Creativity: Intuitive Processing Outperforms Deliberative Processing in Creative Idea Selection[END_REF]. Previous studies have also found that an intuitive style is not superior to a rational one for all fuzzy front-end activities. In particular, [START_REF] Eliëns | Rational Versus Intuitive Gatekeeping: Escalation of Commitment in the Front End of NPD[END_REF] show that gate keepers with an intuitive style are more susceptible to escalated commitment when evaluating new product ideas. In fact, the role played by a rational or intuitive information-processing style might vary not only for different fuzzy front-end activities but might also be affected by the degree of formalization involved. Formalization represents the particular organizational context in which the idea evaluation takes place. However, we know little about the impact of information-processing style and its relationship to formalization in idea evaluation activities. This gap in our knowledge is unsatisfactory, because idea evaluation is a key activity in the fuzzy front end [START_REF] Khurana | Integrating the Fuzzy Front End of New Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Focusing the Fuzzy Front-End in New Product Development[END_REF]. Since idea evaluators decide which ideas are to be selected or eliminated, their choices have a decisive impact on NPD effectiveness [START_REF] Goldenberg | The Idea Itself and the Circumstances of its Emergence as Predictors of New Product Success[END_REF][START_REF] Martinsuo | Use of Evaluation Criteria and Innovation Performance in the Front End of Innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Schmidt | Exploring New Product Development Project Review Practices[END_REF]. Furthermore, their judgment is embedded in an organizational context. Looking at both the human side and the organizational context in which idea evaluation takes place could help to demystify why some companies experience difficulties when seeking to create innovations with the potential to create new markets. With regard to context, we examine leeway in the idea evaluation process, which is the degree of freedom to act or discretional choice that an organizational context offers to those evaluating the ideas [START_REF] Finkelstein | Top-Management-Team Tenure and Organizational Outcomes: The Moderating Role of Managerial Discretion[END_REF][START_REF] Hutzschenreuter | The Role of Path Dependency and Managerial Intentionality: A Perspective on International Business Research[END_REF]. In idea evaluation, this leeway is about the degree to which organizational formalization requires specific evaluation principles to be applied, through the use of elaborate grid analysis techniques, for example, and weighted point-rating evaluation matrices (Gassmann & Schweitzer, 2014;[START_REF] Martinsuo | Use of Evaluation Criteria and Innovation Performance in the Front End of Innovation[END_REF].

We investigate the effect of idea evaluators' cognitive predisposition to intuitive or rational information processing and how this is affected by the degree of leeway offered by the organizational NPD context. The present study addresses two research questions: (1) Do idea evaluators with a rational versus an intuitive information-processing style differ differ in terms of whether they consider an NPD idea's potential to create new markets? (2) Does the degree of leeway afforded to evaluators during the idea evaluation process influence this consideration? We theorize that rational evaluators (i.e., those with a rational information-processing style) tend to emphasize fit to the current market when evaluating ideas, as this is in line with their analytic and step-bystep approach to processing [START_REF] Roeth | The Interaction of Intuition and Rationality during Escalated NPD Decisions: An Investigation of Decision-makers' Affective States[END_REF][START_REF] Taggart | Assessing Rational and Intuitive Styles: A Human Information Processing Metaphor[END_REF]. However, because intuitive evaluators (i.e., those with an intuitive information-processing style) tend to process information more holistically [START_REF] Evans | Dual Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment and Social Cognition[END_REF][START_REF] Hayes | Cognitive Style and the Theory and Practice of Individual and Collective Learning in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Taggart | Assessing Rational and Intuitive Styles: A Human Information Processing Metaphor[END_REF], our assumption is that they may be better at sensing whether an idea offers scope to expand into new markets.

We also investigate how leeway may act as a moderator. Our assumption is that, for rational evaluators, having limited leeway will increase their emphasis on an idea's potential to serve existing markets as this fits with their rational processing style, while having more leeway will reduce this emphasis. For intuitive evaluators, on the other hand, having greater leeway in the evaluation process will increase their emphasis on an idea's potential to create new markets, but when they are offered more limited leeway, this will not be in keeping with their holistic processing routines and their emphasis on new markets will thus be reduced In a survey of 138 idea evaluators, we find that intuitive evaluators favor ideas with greater market-creation potential while rational evaluators are drawn to ideas that fit better to the current market. Our study also indicates that if idea evaluators have more limited leeway, as will be the case with highly formalized NPD, this inhibits the inclination of intuitive evaluators to favor new market-creating ideas but does not increase rational evaluators' focus on current market fit.

This study contributes to the literature in two ways. First, we complement prior research on information-processing styles in NPD by showing how rational and intuitive styles have differing effects on idea evaluation at the fuzzy front end.

Second, we offer an information-processing-based explanation for why the value of NPD formalization has proved contentious [START_REF] Carlsson-Wall | Opening the black box of the role of accounting practices in the fuzzy front-end of product innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Kim | Focusing the Fuzzy Front-End in New Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Reid | Market Vision and the Front End of NPD for Radical Innovation: The Impact of Moderating Effects[END_REF]. We show that the mismatch between the processing style of intuitive evaluators and the limited leeway granted to them compromises their ability to sense an idea's market-creation potential.

In the remainder of this section, we present our theoretical model and develop our hypotheses. We then describe our empirical method and outline our results. Finally, we discuss our findings and the support they provide for our hypotheses, and we also suggest avenues for future research.

Conceptual Framework and Development of Hypotheses

Relevance of Cognitive Styles

Previous NPD research has identified two fundamentally different cognitive styles in individuals' information processing: rational and intuitive [START_REF] Eling | Using Intuition in Fuzzy Front-End Decision-Making: A Conceptual Framework[END_REF]Roeth et al., 2019;[START_REF] Zhu | Creativity: Intuitive Processing Outperforms Deliberative Processing in Creative Idea Selection[END_REF]. Rational individuals take an analytical, rules-based, and systematic approach to information processing, and tend to disaggregate information, processing the parts individually, while intuitive individuals, being driven more by gut feeling, follow fairly impulsive, experiential, and holistic information-processing routines [START_REF] Evans | Dual Processing Accounts of Reasoning, Judgment and Social Cognition[END_REF][START_REF] Hayes | Cognitive Style and the Theory and Practice of Individual and Collective Learning in Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Taggart | Assessing Rational and Intuitive Styles: A Human Information Processing Metaphor[END_REF]).

In the context of NPD, these cognitive styles have been found to influence idea generation activities [START_REF] Dane | Exploring Intuition and its Role in Managerial Decision-Making[END_REF]Taggar, 2002;[START_REF] Zhu | Creativity: Intuitive Processing Outperforms Deliberative Processing in Creative Idea Selection[END_REF] and the performance of innovation projects [START_REF] Carnabuci | Social Networks, Cognitive Styles, and Innovative Performance: A Contingency Perspective[END_REF]. With respect to idea generation activities, intuitive individuals apply more holistic information processing and build on their holistic and spontaneous exploration of possible solutions, which help them produce more creative ideas [START_REF] Dane | Exploring Intuition and its Role in Managerial Decision-Making[END_REF][START_REF] O'hara | It Doesn't Hurt to Ask: Effects of Instructions to be Creative, Practical, or Analytical on Essay-Writing Performance and their Interaction with Students' Thinking Styles[END_REF]. Research on NPD teams indicates that having a high proportion of team members with a rational style decreases a team's ability to create highly innovative new products, because these members' key emphasis is on following specifications and avoiding approaches that involve risk [START_REF] Miron-Spektor | The Effect of Conformist and Attentive-to-detail Members on Team Innovation: Reconciling the Innovation Paradox[END_REF]. Conversely, during the later stages of NPD, performance will be diminished if a team has a high proportion of intuitive team members, but will be better if it has a high proportion of rational members [START_REF] Visser | The Impact of Team Cognitive Styles on Performance of Radical and Incremental NPD Projects[END_REF]. Consequently, the appropriateness of these two cognitive styles varies according to the activities required during the different stages of the NPD process.

Extrapolating from these findings, it is reasonable to expect that differences in cognitive style will also matter with regard to idea evaluation tasks, for which intuitive and rational information processing could be of value. On the one hand, rational evaluators engage in a detailed, accurate, and comprehensive assessment of new product ideas, which is beneficial in terms of the conscientiousness, rigor, and logic of the judgments made [START_REF] Kirton | Adaptors and Innovators: A Description and a Measure[END_REF][START_REF] Miron-Spektor | The Effect of Conformist and Attentive-to-detail Members on Team Innovation: Reconciling the Innovation Paradox[END_REF]. Intuitive evaluators, on the other hand, are more receptive to ambiguous information [START_REF] Armstrong | Individual Differences in Cognitive Style and their Effects on Task and Social Orientations of Self-Managed Work Teams[END_REF], which could be beneficial for idea evaluation, as new product ideas are typically vague and elusive concepts of future products. The resulting uncertainty and ambiguity require idea evaluators to explore the NPD idea's potential creatively and to imagine the contexts in which it might be used [START_REF] Berg | When Silver is Gold: Forecasting the Potential Creativity of Initial Ideas[END_REF] which suits intuitive evaluators' repertoire of thinking skills. Consequently, we argue that these aspects of idea evaluators' cognitive styles could influence their idea evaluation.

Cognitive Style and Evaluation of the Market-Creation Potential of NPD Ideas

Developing new products with high market-creation potential is different from many other organizational activities. Evaluating whether ideas have the potential to become market-creating innovations involves ambiguities and gaps in market information [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Coming in from the cold: The psychological foundations of radical innovation revisited[END_REF][START_REF] Reid | Market Vision and the Front End of NPD for Radical Innovation: The Impact of Moderating Effects[END_REF]. For example, it is difficult to identify what the target groups will be, to gauge the market size and growth, and to assess how much value the idea has for market segments that the company does not currently cater to [START_REF] Gassmann | Managing the Unmanageable: The Fuzzy Front End of Innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Molner | Lost in a Universe of Markets: Toward a Theory of Market Scoping for Early-Stage Technologies[END_REF]. In this situation, the idea evaluators do not have ready access to market knowledge, as would be the case when evaluating ideas that are closely linked to the firm's existing markets [START_REF] Rohrbeck | Forward-Looking Search during Innovation Projects: Under which Conditions it Impacts Innovativeness[END_REF].

In intuitive information processing, information is synthesized holistically, which allows evaluators to deal with ambiguous [START_REF] Armstrong | Individual Differences in Cognitive Style and their Effects on Task and Social Orientations of Self-Managed Work Teams[END_REF] and uncertain information [START_REF] Khatri | The Role of Intuition in Strategic Decision Making[END_REF]. Not surprisingly, this type of processing has been found to be beneficial for sensing new market opportunities [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Coming in from the cold: The psychological foundations of radical innovation revisited[END_REF][START_REF] Kickul | Intuition Versus Analysis? Testing Differential Models of Cognitive Style on Entrepreneurial Self-Efficacy and the New Venture Creation Process[END_REF]. Intuitive evaluators are likely to be excited by ideas that offer great potential for creating new markets, and are not intimidated by their vagueness or the risk involved.

Rational information processing is associated with meticulous examination of ideas, intolerance of mistakes, and uneasiness when there is missing information and uncertainty [START_REF] Miron-Spektor | The Effect of Conformist and Attentive-to-detail Members on Team Innovation: Reconciling the Innovation Paradox[END_REF][START_REF] Rietzschel | Personal Need for Structure and Creative Performance: The Moderating Influence of Fear of Invalidity[END_REF]. Rational evaluators favor calculable results, accuracy, thoroughness, and precision rather than situations that are fraught with uncertainty [START_REF] Mueller | Reframing the Decision-Makers' Dilemma: Towards a Social Context Model of Creative Idea Recognition[END_REF], even if this comes at the expense of exploring new opportunities [START_REF] Oldham | Employee Creativity: Personal and Contextual Factors at Work[END_REF]. High uncertainty elicits feelings of loss of control, which rational individuals tend to shy away from [START_REF] Leotti | Born to Choose: The Origins and Value of the Need for Control[END_REF]. Rational evaluators are therefore likely to find it harder to deal with ideas that have great potential to create new markets and to consider them worth pursuing. Instead, they are more comfortable with ideas with which they are already very familiar, in terms of, for example, how they might satisfy existing customer needs, and are inclined to assess NPD ideas on the basis of their fit to current markets.

In short, rational evaluators' information-processing style makes them receptive to criteria that are calculable and easy to verify, while that of intuitive evaluators makes them prone to consider the ideas' potential for new market-creation and to favor those that offer greater promise or more opportunities. More formally, we postulate: H1a: The more rational an idea evaluator is, the more the evaluator emphasizes an idea that fits with the existing market.

H1b: The more intuitive an idea evaluator is, the more the evaluator emphasizes an idea that offers potential for new market creation.

Cognitive Style and Leeway Given to Idea Evaluators

Although formalized NPD processes are widely used to manage innovation activities [START_REF] Cooper | Winning Businesses in Product Development: The Critical Success Factors[END_REF], evidence suggests that their effectiveness can vary. Some studies show that formalization helps firms coordinate activities and focus their resources on worthwhile opportunities [START_REF] Carlsson-Wall | Opening the black box of the role of accounting practices in the fuzzy front-end of product innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Holahan | Product Development as Core Competence: How Formal Product Development Practices Differ for Radical, More Innovative, and Incremental Product Innovations[END_REF]. Others have suggested that formal structures create problems by reducing employees' openness to products that are very novel [START_REF] Sorescu | Sources and Financial Consequences of Radical Innovation: Insights from Pharmaceuticals[END_REF]. Studies that highlight the disadvantages of formalization in NPD argue that it reduces adaptability [START_REF] Lenfle | Lost Roots: How Project Management Came to Emphasize Control over Flexibility and Novelty[END_REF][START_REF] Verganti | Planned Flexibility: Linking Anticipation and Reaction in Product Development Projects[END_REF], informal cross-functional collaboration [START_REF] Lenfle | Lost Roots: How Project Management Came to Emphasize Control over Flexibility and Novelty[END_REF][START_REF] Sethi | Stage-Gate Controls, Learning Failure, and Adverse Effect on Novel New Products[END_REF], and generation of creative ideas [START_REF] Amabile | Assessing the Work Environment for Creativity[END_REF][START_REF] Hirst | How Does Bureaucracy Impact Individual Creativity? A Cross-Level Investigation of Team Contextual Influences on Goal Orientation-Creativity Relationships[END_REF]. Consequently, we argue that formalization creates the context in which idea evaluators are applying their intuitive and rational information processing styles.

Table 1 shows how the leeway construct used in our study relates to terms used elsewhere in the literature. Studies on managerial discretion have examined the effects of leeway at the firm level, as manifested in top managers' discretion and freedom to follow their own preferences when shaping the firm strategy [START_REF] Gupta | Entrepreneurial Orientation and Firm Value: Does Managerial Discretion Play a Role?[END_REF][START_REF] Haleblian | Top Management Team Size, CEO Dominance, and Firm Performance: The Moderating Roles of Environmental Turbulence and Discretion[END_REF].

When new product ideas are being evaluated as part of the NPD process, the degree of formalization determines how much leeway evaluators have when assessing ideas. In a situation in which idea evaluators have limited leeway, a firm sets out explicit, objective, and fixed criteria against which they are supposed to rate each idea. In other words, the idea evaluation process is highly formalized and provides clear criteria that evaluators have to follow rigidly [START_REF] Martinsuo | Use of Evaluation Criteria and Innovation Performance in the Front End of Innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Soukhoroukova | Sourcing, Filtering, and Evaluating New Product Ideas: An Empirical Exploration of the Performance of Idea Markets[END_REF]. Typically there will be a list setting out the criteria and the weightings attached, and idea evaluators are required to evaluate ideas in a systematic fashion. By formalizing the evaluation process in this way, the firm seeks to ensure that no critical information is overlooked and that individual behavior is aligned with the organizational goals [START_REF] Cooper | The Drivers of Success in New-Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Eling | Consistency Matters in Formally Selecting Incremental and Radical New Product Ideas for Advancement[END_REF]. However, in a situation in which there is much greater leeway, the firm only offers vague, general propositions on how to evaluate ideas. Idea evaluators then have more freedom to negotiate, reflect on, and make their own interpretations of the evaluation criteria [START_REF] Hammedi | Antecedents and Consequences of Reflexivity in New Product Idea Screening[END_REF].

______________________

Please insert Table 1 here ______________________ We incorporate these insights on leeway into our context of idea evaluation. In particular, we argue that leeway influences the relationship between the evaluator's information-processing style and the idea evaluation.

First, rational evaluators thrive in structured, unambiguous work environments with welldefined formal boundaries; in addition, they also like procedures that have a clear underlying logic and involve a series of steps [START_REF] Armstrong | Individual Differences in Cognitive Style and their Effects on Task and Social Orientations of Self-Managed Work Teams[END_REF][START_REF] Hammond | Human Judgment and Social Policy: Irreducible Uncertainty, Inevitable Error, Unavoidable Injustice[END_REF]. Limited leeway provides a clear framework and basis [START_REF] Sagiv | Not All Great Minds Think Alike: Systematic and Intuitive Cognitive Styles[END_REF]. This rule-bound approach suits rational evaluators' information-processing style. The cognitive style fits the context [START_REF] Novak | The Fit of Thinking Style and Situation: New Measures of Situation-Specific Experiential and Rational Cognition[END_REF], thereby reinforcing rational evaluators' tendency to prefer ideas that serve existing markets. If they are given greater leeway, this could potentially be at odds with their strong need for structure [START_REF] Rietzschel | Personal Need for Structure and Creative Performance: The Moderating Influence of Fear of Invalidity[END_REF]; it creates an ambiguous and uncertain situation, in which they are unclear which procedures they should follow when making their evaluation. This is likely to result in a mismatch between their cognitive style and the idea evaluation process and will diminish their ability to judge an idea's fit to current market needs.

Second, the reverse might be expected when intuitive evaluators are burdened with formal analysis processes. The step-by-step procedure imposed on them impedes their holistic processing routines and makes them less able to trust and build on their intuition [START_REF] Kleindorfer | Reflections on Decision-Making Under Uncertainty[END_REF]. Such a mismatch between individuals' cognitive style and the style demanded by the situation frustrates them, threatens to deplete their cognitive resources, reduces their motivation and commitment, and leads them to perform less well [START_REF] Chan | Cognitive Misfit of Problem-Solving Style at Work: A Facet of Person-Organization Fit[END_REF]. Greater leeway is, however, in keeping with the inclination of these evaluators to process ideas holistically [START_REF] Eling | Using Intuition in Fuzzy Front-End Decision-Making: A Conceptual Framework[END_REF]. Following this line of argument, having a great degree of leeway in the idea evaluation process reinforces intuitive evaluators' tendency to make holistic judgments on an idea's market-creation potential. Having limited leeway, on the other hand, results in a misfit between between the intuitive evaluators' processing style and the context in which they are working, and this in turn diminishes the relationship between an intuitive processing style and an idea's market-creation potential.

In short, we hypothesize that idea evaluators can express their cognitive style better in an idea evaluation situation that suits their disposition. We therefore suggest that: H2a: Leeway in the idea evaluation process moderates the relationship between a rational evaluator and a new idea's potential to serve existing markets such that the relationship is more positive under low as compared to high levels of the moderator. H2b: Leeway in the idea evaluation process moderates the relationship between an intuitive evaluator and a new idea's potential to create markets such that the relationship is more positive under high as compared to low levels of the moderator.

Research Method

Data Collection and Sample

To gather data we contacted business-to-business manufacturing companies in one of Austria's most productive industrial regions. We focused on the electronics and machine manufacturing industries (NACE codes C25 to C32,), since these are among the most R&D-intensive in the region and are commonly regarded as appropriate industries for high-tech innovation research [START_REF] Nijssen | Strategic Value Assessment and Explorative Learning Opportunities with Customers[END_REF]. This study explores the effect of idea evaluators' cognitive style on their judgment of NPD ideas and how this is influenced by the degree leeway afforded to them. Since there are fundamental differences in NPD between types of industries [START_REF] Alexiev | Interorganizational Collaboration and Firm Innovativeness: Unpacking the Role of the organizational environment[END_REF], as well as between countries and regions [START_REF] Subramaniam | Determinants of Transnational New Product Development Capability: Testing the Influence of Transferring and Deploying Tacit Overseas Knowledge[END_REF], we decided to exclude such contingencies to enhance the reliability of our results. Our industry and country focus also reduces potential endogeneity issues, because we omit environmental and industry-specific influence factors [START_REF] Abdallah | Endogeneity: How Failure to Correct for it can Cause Wrong Inferences and Some Remedies[END_REF]. From a commercial database of companies with more than ten employees (CMD database), we drew up a random sample of 300 companies. We then telephoned 295 companies (five were unreachable) to identify and talk to our chosen key informants, who were decision-makers in the firm's NPD idea evaluation processes. Firms with no NPD unit in Austria, and therefore no individual with responsibility for R&D/innovation, were excluded. We asked these people whether they normally had to make stop/go decisions on NPD ideas, and, if not, to name those who were involved. Subsequently, we received contact details for 220 key informants at 103 companies and sent them an electronic questionnaire, resulting in 138 completed questionnaires.

The key respondents in the final sample were part of the top management team (15.8%), or came from R&D (37.6%), innovation management (12.0%), a business unit or product management (23.3%), or new business development (11.3%). With regard to the firm size (the number of employees), 39.1% of the respondents worked in very large companies (> 1,000 employees), 22.5% in large companies (250 to 1,000 employees), and the remainder in medium-sized companies (50 to 249 employees). Most respondents were in a leadership role (73%) and were men (89.1%); in terms of age, 29.2% were 30 or younger, 39.4% were between 30 and 49, and 31.4% were 50 or older. On average, respondents had nine years' experience of evaluating ideas for their companies (M = 9.07; SD = 7.83).

Measures

Each of our model's key constructs was measured using multiple items and Likert-type scales (1 = strongly disagree, 7 = strongly agree). With the exception of leeway and marketcreation potential, we adopted existing validated scales (see Table 2). We slightly adapted existing scales for leeway and market-creation potential to fit the study context, which we discuss below.

The independent variables in our model were intuitive cognitive style and rational cognitive style. While some researchers consider these two thinking styles to be poles on a one-dimensional scale [START_REF] Allinson | The Cognitive Style Index: A Measure of Intuition-Analysis for Organisational Research[END_REF], others understand them to be two separate dimensions [START_REF] Norris | An Experiential Thinking Style: Its Facets and Relations with Objective and Subjective Criterion Measures[END_REF][START_REF] Sagiv | Not All Great Minds Think Alike: Systematic and Intuitive Cognitive Styles[END_REF]. We take this second perspective and measure the two thinking styles separately to scrutinize their impact on idea evaluation decisions. We adopted the original intuitive cognitive scale devised by [START_REF] Visser | The Impact of Team Cognitive Styles on Performance of Radical and Incremental NPD Projects[END_REF] and the rational cognitive style scale used by Miron and colleagues [START_REF] Miron-Spektor | The Effect of Conformist and Attentive-to-detail Members on Team Innovation: Reconciling the Innovation Paradox[END_REF][START_REF] Miron | Do Personal Characteristics and Cultural Values That Promote Innovation, Quality, and Efficiency Compete or Complement Each Other?[END_REF].

The dependent variable current market fit measured whether fit to the current market is considered when evaluating an idea's value. We operationalized the construct, using previous studies' market fit scales [START_REF] Bharadwaj | Explicating Hearing the Voice of the Customer as a Manifestation of Customer Focus and Assessing its Consequences[END_REF][START_REF] Hart | Industrial Companies' Evaluation Criteria in New Product Development Gates[END_REF][START_REF] Verworn | A Structural Equation Model of the Impact of the "Fuzzy Front End" on the Success of New Product Development[END_REF].

Market-creation potential of NPD ideas captures whether the focus within the evaluation of an idea is on its opportunity to open new markets, despite the ambiguities and uncertainties involved. We used established scale items [START_REF] Carbonell-Foulquié | Criteria Employed for Go/No-Go Decisions When Developing Successful Highly Innovative Products[END_REF][START_REF] Reid | Market Vision and the Front End of NPD for Radical Innovation: The Impact of Moderating Effects[END_REF]) that measure whether there is a focus on new market creation when selecting ideas. Following established procedures [START_REF] Spieth | Reinventing a business model in industrial net-works: Implications for customers' brand perceptions[END_REF], we adapted existing scales after discussing their items with researchers and practitioners.

When the respondents felt that a variable was ambiguous or unclear, we reframed and reworded it slightly to better fit their work reality. For example, they said that just using market attractiveness was not very helpful; it could easily be misinterpreted, because some evaluators focus only on existing markets whose size and growth data they know. This led us to reframe one criterion used in previous studies to "I evaluate an idea as worth realizing, if the market size and growth cannot be clearly estimated, but are potentially attractive." We did formal survey pre-tests to ensure the validity. Since we conceptualized market-creation potential as a firm-centric construct (e.g., new markets for the firm), we briefed the respondents accordingly.

Leeway was the moderating variable. To align it better to our research focus, we slightly adapted [START_REF] Sethi | Stage-Gate Controls, Learning Failure, and Adverse Effect on Novel New Products[END_REF] scale for measuring the objectivity of stage-gate criteria. For example, we adapted the original item "the criteria for gate reviews are open to interpretation" to "the idea evaluation criteria are open to interpretation."

We also controlled for measures that have proven relevant in previous studies for understanding a tendency towards innovative projects. Since risk-taking is associated with entrepre-neurial business acumen [START_REF] Karimi | Corporate Entrepreneurship, Disruptive Business Model Innova-tion Adoption, and its Performance: The Case of the Newspaper Industry[END_REF], innovative achievement (García-Granero, Llopis, Fernández-Mesa, & Alegre, 2015), and a firm's commitment to seizing new business opportunities [START_REF] Joshi | Antecedents of Innovativeness in Technology-Based Services (TBS): Peering into the Black Box of Entrepreneurial Orientation[END_REF], we tested this as a control in our model. We included risk-taking, as measured by [START_REF] Covin | A Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship as Firm Behavior[END_REF] entrepreneurial attitude. Gender, age, and function served as further control variables for the idea evaluators' background. We measured function using a leadership dummy (0 if no leadership role) and a department dummy (0 if the evaluator did not work in the R&D department).

To control for the context in which an evaluator makes an idea evaluation decision, we included turbulence, firm size, and industry in the model. Environmental turbulence has also been found to force individuals to deal with incomplete or imperfect data [START_REF] Patton | Intuition in decisions[END_REF], and it makes them more willing to act intuitively [START_REF] Dayan | Team Intuition as a Continuum Construct and New Product Creativity: The Role of Environmental Turbulence, Team Experience, and Stress[END_REF]. This could increase the likelihood that an idea evaluator will embrace an NPD idea's market-creation potential, which therefore warrants turbulence being included as a control variable [START_REF] Narver | Responsive and Proactive Market Orientation and New-Product Success[END_REF]. Furthermore, decision-making styles differ depending on the size of the company. For instance, smaller companies have been found to follow incremental innovation strategies, because they see their limited resources and the high failure rates associated with new market-creating innovations as a constraint [START_REF] Pelham | A Longitudinal Study of the Impact of Market Structure, Firm Structure, Strategy, and Market Orientation Culture on Dimensions of Business Performance[END_REF], which makes leveraging successful innovations on a large scale less feasible [START_REF] Abernathy | Innovation: Mapping the Winds of Creative Destruc-tion[END_REF]. We entered firm size in the model as a grouped variable based on the number of employees (< 50, 50-249, 250-499, 500-1,000, >1000). To control for the industry, we created an industry dummy (0 if not from the machinery industry; we used this industry as a reference point, as it was the largest respondent group in our sample). We also included technological innovativeness and production resources as controls for the firm's knowledge base. Technological innovativeness is used to describe the degree to which the portfolio of new products currently being developed are derived from the firm's existing technology base (Kock, Gemünden, Salomo, & Schultz, 2011;Schultz, Salomo, & Talke, 2013).

Because it captures the technological newness of the firm's portfolio of potential new products using three variables, taken from Schultz, Salomo, and Talke (2013), this control functions as a proxy for the firm's knowledge base, measuring the degree to which the portfolio represents an advance on the firm's current technological status quo. Production resources refer to the extent of changes needed to the firm's production processes in order to realize the firm's portfolio of potential new products. Production facilities serve as an additional firm-centric control for whether an innovation idea fits with the firm's current knowledge base, because our sample consists of manufacturing firms, and realizing an innovation idea in the manufacturing industry typically requires significant investment in production processes. To measure production resources, we used the variable "Our current product portfolio requires significant changes in our production processes" (borrowed from Kock, Gemünden, Salomo, & Schultz, 2011). As we describe in more detail in the results section, we included further controls when performing robustness checks.

Results

Reliability and Validity Measures

We calculated certain indicators to test the constructs' validity and reliability. The factor loadings were larger than 0.7 for all but one factor, and item-to-total correlations ranged between 0.499 and 0.769 for all constructs, demonstrating good indicator reliability and convergent validity [START_REF] Netemeyer | Scaling Procedures: Issues and Applications[END_REF]. Composite reliability values above 0.7 and Cronbach's alphas above 0.7 provided further confirmation of the construct reliability. The average variance extracted (AVE) measured above 0.5 for all but one factor in our model, also indicating convergent validity [START_REF] Byrne | Structural Equation Modelling with AMOS: Basic Concepts, Applications, and Programming[END_REF]. Turbulence, a control variable, was the only factor with factor loadings slightly above 0.7 and an AVE of 0.44. In line with previous empirical studies, we regard AVEs above 0.40 as acceptable thresholds to suggest the shared variance of items used to measure reflective constructs [START_REF] Bao | Network-Based Market Knowledge and Product Innovativeness[END_REF]. We tested our hypotheses when we omitted the control variables and were still able to replicate the results. Since turbulence plays a key role in other innovation research, we decided to keep this factor in the model. Table 2 presents the constructs, measurement items, and reliability measures.

______________________

Please insert Table 2 here ______________________ Furthermore, the Fornell-Larcker criterion indicates the discriminant validity [START_REF] Fornell | Evaluating Structural Equation Models with Unobservable Variables and Measurement Error[END_REF] of all the measures, with off-diagonal elements in the correlation matrix in Table 3 below the square roots of the AVE shown in brackets in the diagonal elements. Table 3 also provides descriptive statistics for the constructs.

______________________

Please insert Table 3 here ______________________

Common Method Bias

We carried out a Harman's single-factor test [START_REF] Harman | Modern Factor Analysis (Second Edition)[END_REF], a marker variable test [START_REF] Lindell | Accounting for Common Method Variance in Cross-Sectional Research Designs[END_REF], and a common latent factor test [START_REF] Podsakoff | Sources of Method Bias in Social Science Research and Recommendations on how to Control it[END_REF] to check for possible common method bias. In the Harman's single-factor test, the first factor accounts for 12.63% of the 33 variables' variance. In addition, we compared the unconstrained model, with a marker variable (satisfaction with the idea evaluation process) as a common latent factor, to the zero-constrained model. The delta was not significant, and the corresponding bivariate correlation coefficients between intuition, rationality, leeway, and the depend-ent variables remained, in terms of the significance levels, statistically similar to the model without a marker variable. The three tests therefore substantiate the assumption that common method bias does not affect the variables in this study.

Overall Model Fit

We tested the hypothesized relationships with structural equation modeling (SEM) using the AMOS software. The model fits the data well (X²/df = 1.21; CFI = .962; IFI = 0.954; RMSEA = .039), with the fit indices being well within the recommended limits [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis (Seventh Edition)[END_REF].

Testing of Hypotheses

We performed a series of moderated regression analyses in order to test our hypotheses. We used regression analysis [START_REF] Cohen | Applied Multiple Regression/Correlation Analysis for the Behavioral Sciences[END_REF] with seemingly unrelated regression [START_REF] Zellner | An Efficient Method of Estimating Seemingly Unrelated Regression and Tests for Aggregation Bias[END_REF] to account for error terms of the theoretical equations related to the current market fit criteria and new market creation criteria [START_REF] Fang | Customer Participation and the Trade-Off Between New Product Innovativeness and Speed to Market[END_REF]. This analysis comprised separate models for current market fit and market-creation potential. The moderator and the independent variables were mean-centered for the construction of the interaction to avoid multicollinearity problems [START_REF] Aiken | Multiple Regression: Testing and Interpreting Interactions[END_REF].

Table 4 shows the results of this procedure. For the current market fit, Model 1 contains the controls only. Model 2 adds the cognitive styles and leeway. The standardized coefficient of β =.356 (p <.001) for the rational style supports H1a, in that it indicates that idea evaluators' propensity to consider fit to current markets as relevant depends on them having a rational information-processing style. Furthermore, the interaction terms of leeway and rational style are significant (β = -.262; p = .002). Model 3 is a robustness check, which we discuss later in this section.

______________________

Please insert Table 4 here ______________________ For new market creation, we calculated Models 4 to 6. Model 4 is the baseline model showing the controls. Model 5 adds the cognitive styles and leeway. Consistent with H1b, which posits that idea evaluators' intuitive style leads them to focus on ideas' potential to create new markets, the intuitive style has a significant and positive impact on new market creation (β = .255; p = .002). Again, the interaction effect with leeway is also significant (β = .230; p = .004). The R 2 results also demonstrate that including the interaction term accounts for roughly 6% additional variance in both models, which suggests that these interactions influence the individual's focus on new market creation in both models. Model 6 is another robustness check, which we describe later.

Next, we examined the interaction effect in greater detail. We employed the bootstrapping approach in PROCESS and calculated the effect of the cognitive style at various levels of leeway.

With regard to new market creation, PROCESS provided insignificant results one standard deviation below the mean (effect = . 078 ,p=.581;). However, it provided significant and positive conditional effects in terms of intuition at leeway values at the mean (effect = .355, p = .001, BCaCI = .144 to .567) and at one standard deviation above it (effect = . 632, p < .001, BCaCI = .361 to .902). With regard to the current market fit, PROCESS provided significant conditional effects in terms of a rational style at leeway values at the mean (effect = .573, p < .001, BCaCI = .344 to .802) and at one standard deviation below the mean (effect = .321, p < .001, BCaCI = .173 to .469); it also yielded insignificant results one standard deviation above the mean (effect = .0694 , p=.455; BCaCI = -.133 to .272).

To further decompose the interactions, we conducted a floodlight analysis, using the Johnson-Neyman technique [START_REF] Spiller | Spotlights, Floodlights, and the Magic Number Zero: Simple Effects Tests in Moderated Regression[END_REF]. We plotted the results in Figures 1 and2 to provide a graphical visualization of the interactions. Figure 1 shows that when an evaluator with a not particularly rational processing style has relatively little leeway, there will be less focus on fit to the current market than when there is much greater leeway. We identified the Johnson-Neyman point at 4.70, below which the simple effects of a rational style are significant. This finding shows that leeway acts as a relevant moderator in this context. Contrary to H2a, these results suggest leeway does not have much influence on idea evaluators with a very rational style. In contrast, those with a much less rational style are more likely to focus on current market fit criteria when they have limited leeway but will ignore such criteria when they have much greater leeway.

______________________

Please insert Figure 1 here ______________________ Figure 2 depicts the interaction between an intuitive cognitive style and an evaluator's focus on new market creation, and shows the Johnson-Neyman point at 3.88, above which intuition's simple effects are significant. H2b posits that leeway leads intuitive evaluators to follow their preferred information-processing style, which increases their focus on new market creation.

The floodlight results support H2b, which posits that the effect of intuitive style on new market creation is stronger when there is a great degree of leeway. ______________________ Please insert Figure 2 here ______________________ Robustness Checks. We performed various tests to check the robustness of our findings.

First, we ran the model without controls and with alternative controls (the number of years idea evaluators had worked for the firm, the number of years they had evaluated new product ideas, and department dummies), and we found that the results for our key constructs remained qualitatively similar.

We also calculated a style ambidexterity variable. The way we operationalized the intuitive and rational styles allowed respondents to simultaneously rate their own style as being high or low on both dimensions: rationality and intuitionOur style ambidexterity measure multiplied the intuitive and rational styles to take these respondents into account. Whereas previous research has mostly compared rationality with intuition, more recent work has shown that having a combination of rational and intuitive thinking leads to greater new product creativity than using either intuitive or rational assessment alone [START_REF] Dayan | Team Intuition as a Continuum Construct and New Product Creativity: The Role of Environmental Turbulence, Team Experience, and Stress[END_REF]. We therefore ran separate models (Models 3 and 6, shown in Table 3) to see whether ambidextrous individuals drive the effect. Our models show that ambidextrous cognitive styles have an insignificant effect on current market fit (β = .073, ns) and new market creation (β = .060; ns). This result strengthens our earlier argument that individuals have a tendency to one particular cognitive style, and that this influences their focus on either new market creation or fit to the current market. We nevertheless included in the theoretical models cognitive styles that we had not hypothesized: the rational style in the new market creation model and the intuitive style in the current market fit model. In other words, we regressed rational style on new market creation (β = -.020, ns) and intuitive style on current market fit (β = -.141, ns). The full model did not change the significance or meaning compared with the originally hypothesized one, and this added to the robustness of the model.

Finally, we calculated an index-dependent variable in which we summarized the reversecoded current market fit and new market creation, and we then reran the analysis. What we found was that this index shows high values when respondents have a low current market focus and a high new market focus. Model 7 shows the role of intuitive style to be positively significant (β = .270; p = .001) and that of rational style to be negatively significant (β = -.194; p = .015), which further corroborates our hypotheses and the significant interaction terms (for intuitive style x leeway, β = .214; p = .007, and for rational style x leeway, β = .158; p = .044).

Discussion

Understanding the role of idea evaluators' intuitive or rational cognitive style with respect to the organizational context is a crucial topic for NPD research and practice [START_REF] Hodgkinson | Coming in from the cold: The psychological foundations of radical innovation revisited[END_REF][START_REF] Tuncdogan | Guest Editorial: Psychological Micro-Foundations of Business-to-Business Decision Making[END_REF]. This study emphasizes the importance of idea evaluators' intuition when assessing an NPD idea's market-creation potential and the context-sensitive nature of the evaluation process. More precisely, in situations where there is considerable leeway, intuitive evaluators will strengthen their focus on the ideas' market-creation potential.

Theoretical implications

This study shows that intuitive evaluators take the market-creation potential of NPD ideas into account more than rational evaluators, who focus instead on the ideas' impact on existing markets. We therefore contribute in two ways to the rapidly growing literature on decisionmaking in NPD.

First, we extend research on the effects of information-processing styles at different stages of NPD [START_REF] Dayan | Team Intuition as a Continuum Construct and New Product Creativity: The Role of Environmental Turbulence, Team Experience, and Stress[END_REF][START_REF] Visser | The Impact of Team Cognitive Styles on Performance of Radical and Incremental NPD Projects[END_REF] by focusing on the role of cognitive styles at the fuzzy front end, when ideas are evaluated. While a rational style is theorized to be more relevant during later stages of NPD, when accurate evaluation and refinement are needed, the creative tasks at the fuzzy front end have been found to require an intuitive style [START_REF] Dayan | Team Intuition as a Continuum Construct and New Product Creativity: The Role of Environmental Turbulence, Team Experience, and Stress[END_REF][START_REF] Miron-Spektor | The Effect of Conformist and Attentive-to-detail Members on Team Innovation: Reconciling the Innovation Paradox[END_REF]. This stage of the process, however, also includes idea evaluation tasks [START_REF] Eling | Using Intuition in Fuzzy Front-End Decision-Making: A Conceptual Framework[END_REF] for which prior research has provided little guidance regarding whether a more rational or a more intuitive style is preferable. The ambiguity and uncertainties of this stage could signify that an intuitive style might help. At the same time, the the evaluative nature of the task might indicate that a more rational style would be good. Our study shows that, depending on whether the firm is aiming to address new markets or current ones, both cognitive styles can be beneficial. Consequently, we respond to ongoing calls for research that explores the functionality or dysfunctionality of rationality and intuition in NPD [START_REF] Eliëns | Rational Versus Intuitive Gatekeeping: Escalation of Commitment in the Front End of NPD[END_REF][START_REF] Joachim | What Does Front-End Research Build on? A Cocitation Analysis of the Intellectual Background and Potential Future Research Avenues[END_REF].

Second, by focusing on the degree of leeway afforded to evaluators when assessing new product ideas, which we use as a reflector of the degree of formalization in an organization's NPD, we answer calls to look more closely at the micro-foundations of decision-making in respect to the organizational context of NPD [START_REF] Tuncdogan | Guest Editorial: Psychological Micro-Foundations of Business-to-Business Decision Making[END_REF]. Studies typically investigate how formalization affects various outcomes of processes at the fuzzy front end, without researching how it directly impacts individual decision-making [START_REF] Joachim | What Does Front-End Research Build on? A Cocitation Analysis of the Intellectual Background and Potential Future Research Avenues[END_REF]. We, however, explore the interaction between leeway and the decision-making behavior of idea evaluators. Our research shows explicitly that having a great degree of leeway is beneficial for intuitive evaluators, as it strengthens their focus on the market-creation potential of NPD ideas. Situations that offer this degree of leeway could strengthen these evaluators' creative intuition capabilities, allowing them to access different types of knowledge and thus to make use of their expertise. This study extends research on the role of formalized NPD [START_REF] Carlsson-Wall | Opening the black box of the role of accounting practices in the fuzzy front-end of product innovation[END_REF][START_REF] Cooper | The Drivers of Success in New-Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Cooper | Agile-Stage-Gate: New Idea-to-Launch Method for Manufactured New Products is Faster, More Responsive[END_REF], and indicates that formalization makes intuitive evaluators less likely to focus on the market-creation potential of ideas. We provide some individual-level evidence that explains why firms with formalized NPD favor less innovative NPD ideas, targeted at existing markets, rather than ones targeted at new markets [START_REF] Piezunka | Distant Search, Narrow Attention: How Crowding Alters Organizations' Filtering of Suggestions in Crowdsourcing[END_REF][START_REF] Sandberg | What Makes It so Difficult? A Systematic Review on Barriers to Radical Innovation[END_REF] offering a complementary explanation for why formaliza-tion has an inhibiting effect on the development of new market-creating innovations -namely that it has an impact on the information-processing style of intuitive evaluators.

Practical Implications

The key implication of our findings for practitioners is that cognitive styles are important for NPD idea evaluation. Based on our findings, those who select members of idea evaluation committees would be well advised to consider the cognitive style of potential idea evaluators. If idea evaluators have a rational cognitive style, they will consistently focus on the current market fit, irrespective of the leeway they are offered in a firm's NPD process. Conversely, when evaluators have an intuitive cognitive style, their evaluations will depend on the leeway given to them.

A formal process with clear guidelines and criteria for selecting ideas provides more limited leeway, and we show that a process of this kind prevents intuitive evaluators from giving sufficient consideration to new market-creating ideas. Potentially, firms could stimulate idea evaluators' intuition before asking them to assess the market-creation potential of NPD ideas. Alternatively, companies could divide the members of their idea evaluation committees into rational evaluators and intuitive evaluators and use the first group when looking for market-creating ideas and the second when they require incremental improvements to existing market offerings. This suggestion is in line with previous arguments that different types of innovation require different decision-making responsibilities and processes [START_REF] Robbins | Innovating the Innovation Process: An Organisational Experiment in Global Pharma Pursuing Radical Innovation[END_REF].

Future Research and Limitations

Finally, a number of limitations of this study need to be considered. The survey-based, cross-sectional nature of the study opens the door to reverse causality, since the proposed relationships cannot be proven. However, personality traits such as cognitive styles are usually considered stable psychological predispositions that do not change with specific tasks and task environments [START_REF] Allinson | The Cognitive Style Index: A Measure of Intuition-Analysis for Organisational Research[END_REF], and this supports our hypothesized causality. In addition, the sampling focus on idea evaluators in mature high-tech companies in a single country limits the generalizability of the results to other contexts. Future longitudinal research should focus on different industries and countries, as well as on the differences in information-processing style between idea evaluators in start-ups and those in mature companies. This would also support the causality we have indicated. In addition, future researchers could choose an experimental design to study how intuition, rationality, and leeway affect the actual selection behavior of idea evaluation teams.

Finally, the study's dependent variables (the attention paid to an idea's potential to create markets or serve existing markets) do not link directly to innovation success, which therefore limits the scope of our conclusions. We cannot tell how well intuitive evaluators are able to distinguish between market-creating ideas with more value and those with less. Using idea evaluators with an intuitive style to increase an innovation portfolio's market-creation potential could backfire if they do not choose the 'right' market-creating ideas. Further studies could scrutinize whether intuitive evaluators also have the 'right hunch' regarding which ideas will create successful new markets and which will not, and whether having more or less leeway will help to filter out ideas that are less profitable. Such studies could investigate how an idea ultimately performs by using a longitudinal design that takes into account R&D intensity, sales from new products, and patent output to examine the extent to which an NPD idea performs in accordance with its initial evaluations. The effects of formalization on the efficiency and effectiveness with which (1) NPD teams and individual team members perform NPD activities and (2) a firm launches successful innovations [START_REF] Bonner | The Influence of Formal Controls on Customer Interactivity in New Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Cooper | Overhauling the New Product Process[END_REF][START_REF] Cooper | The Drivers of Success in New-Product Development[END_REF][START_REF] Eling | Consistency Matters in Formally Selecting Incremental and Radical New Product Ideas for Advancement[END_REF][START_REF] Sethi | Developing New-to-the-Firm Products: The Role of Micropolitical Strategies[END_REF] Idea evaluators' leeway … the degree of freedom to act or discretional choice given to an evaluator when evaluating ideas

Tables and Figures

The impact of leeway on individual evaluators and their ability to follow their own intuitive or rational information-processing style Builds on the literature on managerial discretion and NPD formalization

Table 2. Results of Exploratory and Confirmatory Factor Analysis of Constructs

Key Constructs and Indicators FL

Rational Style: [START_REF] Miron-Spektor | The Effect of Conformist and Attentive-to-detail Members on Team Innovation: Reconciling the Innovation Paradox[END_REF][START_REF] Miron | Do Personal Characteristics and Cultural Values That Promote Innovation, Quality, and Efficiency Compete or Complement Each Other?[END_REF]; α = .873; AVE = .642; CR = .877 In general, ... I am thorough when solving problems.

.843 I address small details needed to perform the task.

.888 I perform tasks precisely over a long time.

.744 I am good at tasks that require dealing with details.

.717 Intuitive Style [START_REF] Visser | The Impact of Team Cognitive Styles on Performance of Radical and Incremental NPD Projects[END_REF]; α = .855; AVE = .606; CR = .860 In general, … I like to rely on my intuitive impression.

.873 using my gut feeling works well for me when figuring out problems in my life.

.742 I believe in trusting my hunches.

.749 I often go by my instincts when deciding on a course of action.

.742 Current Market Fit Criteria [START_REF] Bharadwaj | Explicating Hearing the Voice of the Customer as a Manifestation of Customer Focus and Assessing its Consequences[END_REF][START_REF] Hart | Industrial Companies' Evaluation Criteria in New Product Development Gates[END_REF][START_REF] Verworn | A Structural Equation Model of the Impact of the "Fuzzy Front End" on the Success of New Product Development[END_REF]; α = .784; AVE = .581; CR = .801 I evaluate an idea as worth realizing if... it fits current customers' stated needs.

.686 it potentially attracts competitors' customers.

.937 it helps to increase sales in our existing markets.

.627 New Market Creation Criteria [START_REF] Carbonell-Foulquié | Criteria Employed for Go/No-Go Decisions When Developing Successful Highly Innovative Products[END_REF][START_REF] Reid | Building a Measurement Model for Market Visioning Competence and its Proposed Antecedents: Organizational Encouragement of Divergent Thinking, Divergent Thinking Attitudes, and Ideational Behavior[END_REF]) α = .817; AVE = .618; CR = .827 I evaluate an idea as worth realizing, if ... the market size and growth cannot be clearly estimated, but are potentially attractive.

.633 it caters to a market that doesn't yet exist and thus has the power to profoundly change the marketplace.

.855 I can see how the idea might be useful to potential future users in some way, even if potential markets, target groups, and value propositions are not well articulated.

.850

Leeway [START_REF] Sethi | Stage-Gate Controls, Learning Failure, and Adverse Effect on Novel New Products[END_REF]; α = .789; AVE = .603; CR = .816 In this company:

The idea evaluation criteria are open to interpretation.

.713 The idea evaluation criteria vary depending on who does the reviewing.

.639 The idea evaluation criteria are open to negotiation.

.945 Risk-Taking [START_REF] Covin | A Conceptual Model of Entrepreneurship as Firm Behavior[END_REF]; α = .783; AVE = .549; CR = .784 In general, I have a strong proclivity … for low-risk projects (with normal and certain rates of return)… for high-risk projects (with chances of very high returns).

.759

for exploring the environment gradually via cautious, incremental behavior… for exploring the environment with bold, wide-ranging acts.

.777

for a cautious, wait-and-see attitude to minimize the likelihood of making costly decisions… for a bold, aggressive stance to maximize the likelihood of exploiting potential opportunities.

.683

Environmental Turbulence [START_REF] Narver | Responsive and Proactive Market Orientation and New-Product Success[END_REF] .711 A large number of new products in our market(s) have been made possible by technological breakthroughs.

.626

Technological Innovativeness (Schultz, Salomo, & Talke, 2013); α = .895; AVE = .745; CR = .898 Our new products are based on new technological principles.

.871 The technology we use allows significant performance enhancements.

.872 Our new products can be characterized as being based on very new technological components.

.847

Notes: α = Cronbach's Alpha; AVE = Average Variance Extracted; CR = Construct Reliability; FL= factor loadings; * = reverse-coded

  ; α = .70; AVE = .436; CR = .70 To what extent do the following statements describe the environment in which of this company's new products are launched: Technological developments in our market(s) are fairly minor.*.641 Technological changes provide big opportunities in our market(s).

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Moderating Effects of Leeway on the Impact of a Rational Style on Accepting Current

Table 1 .

 1 Leeway and its relationship to organizational context in previous research

	Construct	Definition	Research interest	Selected literature
		… top managers' latitude in us-	Conditions that restrict managers	Finkelstein & Hambrick, 1990;
	Managerial	ing measures, activities, and	freedom to use their discretion to	Flier, Bosch, & Volberda, 2003;
	discretion	strategies to affect organizational	shape organizational outcomes.	Gupta	et	al.,	2018;
		outcome		Hutzschenreuter et al., 2007
	NPD formali-	… specific and pre-defined crite-
	zation	ria, task descriptions, processes
		and procedures aimed at structur-
		ing, coordinating, and controlling
		a firm's NPD activities


M.D Clémence David

M.D Marie Jachiet

M.D Marc Pineton De Chambrun

Anne Sophie Gamez

M.D Anas Mehdaoui

M.D Thierry Zenone

M.D Delphine Gobert

M.D Achille Aouba

M.D Anne Peterschmitt

Sylvain Palat

M.D Anne Sophie Gamez

Sylvain 10

M.D Palat

François 11

M.D Lifermann

Daniel 12

M.D Blockmans

Ph.D Séverine 13

M.D Feuillet-Soummer

Luc 14

M.D Mouthon

M.D Benjamin Terrier
email: benjamin.terrier@aphp.fr.

Chronic obstructive pulmonary disease associated with hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis

Keywords: Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease, Hypocomplementemic Urticarial Vasculitis, COPD, HUV

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis (HUV) is a small vessel vasculitis characterized by chronic urticarial lesions, hypocomplementemia and systemic manifestations [START_REF] Jennette | revised International Chapel Hill Consensus Conference Nomenclature of Vasculitides[END_REF]. In 1982, Schwartz et al. proposed criteria to define it and reported an association with chronic pulmonary obstructive disease (COPD) [START_REF] Schwartz | Hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis: association with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease[END_REF]. Since this description, rare cohorts [START_REF] Wisnieski | Hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis syndrome. Clinical and serologic findings in 18 patients[END_REF][START_REF] Jachiet | The clinical spectrum and therapeutic management of hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis: data from a French nationwide study of fifty-seven patients[END_REF][START_REF] Sjöwall | Epidemiology of hypocomplementaemic urticarial vasculitis (anti-C1q vasculitis)[END_REF] and case reports [START_REF] Friskel | A 37-year-old man with severe COPD, rash, and conjunctivitis[END_REF][START_REF] Ataya | A 41-year-old woman with shortness of breath and history of rash and recurrent laryngeal edema[END_REF] have been published but data on these rare patients and their therapeutic management are lacking.

Therefore, we decided to focus on this uncommon complication of HUV by describing its clinical, immunological, functional and radiological features and its response to therapy. This retrospective multicenter study was conducted in 11 departments of Internal Medicine and Pulmonology. Inclusion criteria for the diagnosis of HUV were the presence of chronic urticarial lesions and low complement levels (C3 and/or C4), associated with at least two of the following criteria: leukocytoclastic vasculitis on skin biopsy, arthralgias or arthritis, ocular inflammation, glomerulonephritis, abdominal pain and/or presence of anti-C1q antibodies [START_REF] Schwartz | Hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis: association with chronic obstructive pulmonary disease[END_REF].

COPD was defined by a ratio of forced expiratory volume in one second (FEV1) on forced vital capacity (FVC) of less than 70% after bronchodilator [START_REF] Singh | Global Strategy for the Diagnosis, Management, and Prevention of Chronic Obstructive Lung Disease: the GOLD science committee report 2019[END_REF]. Characteristics of the patients were compared to those of 52 patients with HUV but without COPD previously reported (4). Data on clinical, immunological, functional and radiological features were collected as well as treatment characteristics and response to therapy. Data are presented as median (range) for continuous variables and number (%) for qualitative variables. Analyses were performed using Prism version 8 (GraphPad Software Inc.). The study was approved by the Institutional Review Board of Cochin Hospital.

We included 11 patients with HUV associated with COPD (9 females and 2 males), with a median age at diagnosis of HUV of 52 (38-68) years. Clinical and immunological characteristics of the HUV are described in Table 1. No obvious difference in these characteristics was noted between HUV patients with and without COPD, except for more frequent angioedema and lymph node enlargement.

All patients had pulmonary manifestations, including dyspnea in 10 (90.9%), wheezing in 8 (72.7%) and cough in 6 (54.5%) (Table 2). Nine (81.8%) patients were active or previous smokers, with a median consumption estimated of 20 ( 5 Median number of therapeutic lines received was 4 (2-6) (Figure E2). All patients received glucocorticoids (GCs). Adjunctive treatments included hydroxychloroquine in 9 (81.8%) patients, rituximab in 7 (63.6%), mycophenolate mofetil in 6 (54.5%), cyclophosphamide in 5 (45.5%), azathioprine in 5 (45.5%), colchicine in 2 (18.2%), dapsone in 2 (18.2%), and intravenous immunoglobulins and cyclosporin in one case each. Two patients did not receive immunosuppressive agents and were controlled with GCs and hydroxychloroquine or colchicine.

In comparison to HUV patients without COPD, patients with COPD were more refractory to treatments (9 of the 11 patients with COPD (81.8%) vs. 22 of 50 patients without (44.0%), p=0.04) emphasizing COPD dissociated response to therapy from other organs involvement.

All but one patient (90.9%) had severe adverse events during follow-up. Three (27.3%) patients died, 2 because of unfavorable outcome of COPD and one because of major cardiovascular event. Three (27.3%) patients are currently awaiting lung transplantation. Three (27.3%) patients required noninvasive ventilation and two (18.1%) long-term oxygen. Seven (63.6%) patients presented with exacerbations requiring several hospitalizations, in intensive care unit for 3 (27.3%) of them.

This study reports the largest descriptive analysis of HUV presenting with COPD. The prevalence of COPD in HUV varies from 10.5% to 61% [START_REF] Wisnieski | Hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis syndrome. Clinical and serologic findings in 18 patients[END_REF][START_REF] Jachiet | The clinical spectrum and therapeutic management of hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis: data from a French nationwide study of fifty-seven patients[END_REF][START_REF] Sjöwall | Epidemiology of hypocomplementaemic urticarial vasculitis (anti-C1q vasculitis)[END_REF]. This variation could be explained by different tobacco consumption ranging from 36% to 91% in these cohorts. The link between smoking and COPD development seems obvious but the severity of the COPD is disproportionate compared to tobacco exposure. Worsening of FEV1 was much faster in HUV patients with COPD than in COPD patients without HUV : we noted a decline of FEV1 of 225 ml per year for patient 3 which was an active smoker at 40 pack-years and 78 mL per year for patient 6 who only smoked 5 pack-years before stopping. These decline rates are noticeably higher than the reported ones in active or previous smokers without HUV, respectively 62 ml per year and 31 mL per year [START_REF] Scanlon | Smoking cessation and lung function in mild-to-moderate chronic obstructive pulmonary disease. The Lung Health Study[END_REF]. These observations highlight the potential synergistic role of tobacco use in the development of COPD in HUV, but smoking is not mandatory since some patients had never smoked [START_REF] Wisnieski | Hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis syndrome. Clinical and serologic findings in 18 patients[END_REF][START_REF] Sjöwall | Epidemiology of hypocomplementaemic urticarial vasculitis (anti-C1q vasculitis)[END_REF].

Thoracic CT scans were abnormal in 82%, showing mainly centrilobular emphysema, mosaic perfusion, and bronchiectasis. No correlation between radiological abnormalities and severity of the disease was noted.

COPD associated with HUV was remarkable for its severity and poor prognosis. In our study, 90.9% develop severe adverse events including 27.3% of deaths and 27.3% of respiratory failure requiring lung transplantation. This poor evolution was also noted in other studies [START_REF] Friskel | A 37-year-old man with severe COPD, rash, and conjunctivitis[END_REF][START_REF] Ataya | A 41-year-old woman with shortness of breath and history of rash and recurrent laryngeal edema[END_REF].

Although treatments were mainly effective on cutaneous, musculoskeletal and systemic involvements, COPD seemed to worsen on its own and no therapy appeared to control its progression.

The pathophysiology of the disease is still poorly understood. The main hypothesis is the synergistic association of pulmonary vasculitis, emphysema worsened by tobacco exposure, and a specific role of anti-C1q antibodies that could bind to collagen-like regions of the surfactant and contribute to alveoli destruction [START_REF] Friskel | A 37-year-old man with severe COPD, rash, and conjunctivitis[END_REF]. In our study, no patient had lung biopsies. In the literature, severe emphysema and direct or indirect evidence of small vessel vasculitis has been found in lung biopsies [START_REF] Wisnieski | Hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis syndrome. Clinical and serologic findings in 18 patients[END_REF].

In conclusion, our data support a specific obstructive pulmonary disease in HUV, affecting mainly young patients and leading to significant morbidity and mortality. A synergistic role of tobacco exposure and immunological mechanisms seems to contribute to the development of COPD. It is therefore essential to screen for COPD and obtain smoking cessation in all patients with HUV.

Patients

  -40) pack years. Median FEV1/FVC ratio at diagnosis of COPD was 58% (31-70) with median FEV1 of 42% (27-81) after bronchodilator. Evolution of FEV1 during follow-up in 8 patients is shown in Figure E1. Thoracic CT scan was abnormal in 9 (81.8%) patients at diagnosis, showing centrilobular emphysema in 4 patients (44.4%), mosaic perfusion in 3 (33.3%) and bronchiectasis in 3 (33.3%).

Table 1 . Baseline characteristics of HUV according to the presence or not of chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD).

 1 Results are expressed in n (%) unless indicated differently. CH50: total complement activity; COPD: chronic obstructive pulmonary disease; HUV: hypocomplementemic urticarial vasculitis; n: number. *Mediastinal for one patient, peripherical for the others

	with	Patients without
	COPD (n=11)	COPD (n=52)

Previous pulmonary history