Harry Halpin
email: harry.halpin@inria.fr

Decentralizing the Social Web Can Blockchains Solve Ten Years of Standardization Failure of the Social Web?

Keywords: standards, social web, decentralization, blockchain

For over a decade, standards bodies like the IETF and W3C have attempted to prevent the centralization of the Web via the use of open standards for 'permission-less innovation.' Yet today, these standards, from OAuth to RSS, seem to have failed to prevent the massive centralization of the Web at the hands of a few major corporations like Google and Facebook. We'll delve deep into the lessons of failed attempts to replace DNS like XRIs, identity systems like OpenID, and metadata formats like the Semantic Web, all of which were re-cuperated by centralized platforms like Facebook as Facebook Connect and the "Like" Button. Learning from the past, a new generation of blockchain standards and governance mechanisms may be our last, best chance to save the Web.

Introduction

Far from being a mere technical concern, the promise and failures of decentralization via open standards in terms of Internet governance are a matter of pressing public concern. The fate of the Internet as a common socio-technical infrastructure for our personal data is one of the most intimate yet political questions of future generations. Due to controversies around the selling of personal data by companies like Cambridge Analytica and the passage of laws like the General Data Protection Regulation in the European Union, the general public is waking up to the world-historical danger posed by the system of control created by the rise of a few centralized platforms such as Google and Facebook.

Interestingly enough, ordinary software engineers were aware of the dangers of centralization at the very advent of social networking [START_REF] Berners-Lee | The Semantic Web[END_REF] and have long been attempting to build practical decentralized systems to counter these threats to human freedom. Given that the original World Wide Web itself was created via open standards like TCP/IP, HTTP, and URIs, it should come as no surprise that the strategy deployed by these grassroots computer programmers to counter the control of Google, Facebook, and other centralized platforms was primarily based on creating new open standards for decentralizing social data and protecting personal data.

Social data is data about the relationships between people and their environment, and so can be considered a commons in terms of ownership and possibly governance [11]. Social data would clearly include data like maps and public government or scientific data. On the other hand, personal data is considered data that reveals information about an individual, and thus the ownership and governance of this data can be considered a matter of self-determination of the individual [12]. Personal data would include personal names, addresses, identity card numbers, and so on. Of course, this division relies on inscribing a number of ontological categories that ultimately may not actually hold true. All data is social as it is dependent on a complex web of social relationships that characterize a process of collective individuation (as put by Stiegler), where -at any given moment -the individual is considered a result of continual co-evolution with their socio-technical infrastructure [7]. However, what is clearly self-evident is that regardless of the dialectic between social collectivity and individual autonomy, data itself is not as simple as individual or even collective property rights: One does not "own" data in the same manner one owns a coat or a house. Data around "friends" is neither clearly social nor personal: To which "friend" does the link of friendship belong? However, this does not mean that individuals have no rights over their data and so social data should automatically belong to whichever platform, such as Facebook, harvests this data. Instead, data literally co-creates the individual and society, and so their digital data is part of their very self. This viewpoint towards personal data brings it into the realm of fundamental rights, where the harvesting of personal data is more akin to a new kind of cognitive slavery, and just as everyone has the right to both selfdetermination in terms of their body and thought, and via mutual association vis-á-vis larger society, social data should also be controlled ultimately by the people who co-create this data. In terms of decentralization, no trusted third party should be given control of data, but instead individuals and groups should maintain control over their own data [13].

Although there have been attempts to inscribe the autonomy of data via legal means such as the General Data Protection Regulation, it is an entirely another question whether there can be decentralization of our social data via technological means like open standards. The history of this engineer-based movement for decentralization is far older than the advent of "blockchain" technology, although the advent of blockchain-based systems offer something new: An approach of guaranteeing the integrity of global common knowledge, albeit at the cost of privacy. While there is a frenzy of activity around Ethereum, Ethereum has yet to prove itself as a working technical alternative to Silicon Valley's centralization of the Web, as Ethereum's initial design ignored many of the lessons learned from computer science research into distributed systems and programming language theory. More dangerously, technically the approach to simply decentralize existing social systems may inadvertently lead honest yet naïve programmers to create a new and even more dangerous form a control society masquerading as a liberatory future: For example, a version of the Chinese 'social credit' system could easily be built in a decentralized manner using blockchain-based smart contracts. [START_REF] Cantwell | On the origin of objects[END_REF] While it is possible Ethereum or another as yet unnamed technology will usurp the Web, at this point the issues of governance and standards for blockchain technologies are still in their early stages. Given that the future of human autonomy itself now is intertwined with technologies, we must revisit the tangled history of failed attempts to decentralize the Web 1.0 that was recuperated into the Web 2.0, so that those that creators of the next Web do not repeat the tragedy of the Web 2.0 as a farce.

Identity: The Foundation of the Social Web

In a simplistic abstract sense, identity is the capability to distinguish one object from another. [START_REF] Fensel | Semantic web services[END_REF] This capability typically results in socially embedding discrete names on the level of an individual, such as a personal names and uniquely identifying national identity numbers. The first article that imagined the potential political promise of decentralized identity standards was The Augmented Social Network: Building Identity and Trust into the next-generation Internet [8], which began with a statement that seemed to be naïve, but also prefigured many of the fundamentally political questions at the heart of social networks: "Might a 'next generation Internet' help to reinvigorate democracy by providing a platform that makes it easier for citizens to inform themselves about public policy debates, selforganize, and participate in the process of governance?" The primary claim was that the main missing technical component was "a form of persistent identity that serves civil society" for the Web that would "cross traditional borders," and so create an "augmented social network," doing for the social collectivity that which Engelbarts project to augment the human intellect had done for the individual with the invention of the personal digital computer [8]. The vision of persistent identity was that "each time we go from one social network to another we do not need to restate who we are, what our interests are, or who we know" so that people would be able to re-engineer a new kind of social network, as "the design of the technical infrastructure underlying online communication is increasingly determined by for-profit entities that seek to monetize every aspect of our discourse" rather than realize the global democratic potential of the Internet [8]. Note this article on the dangers of the possible commercial centralization of identity was written before Facebook was even founded. Ironically, the authors proposing a persistent identity for decentralized social networking seemed to think the technical problems were trivial.

The Web does not include any notion of personal identity by design as the same web-page was meant to be displayed to every user in order to enable scalability via the REST architecture [4]. While web-sites were designed to have persistent identities such as www.example.org via the Domain Name System (DNS), users had no identifiers or personal data associated with them, although this led to the creation of invisible, ad-hoc techniques for associating personal data with offline identities via third-party "tracking" cookies. Instead of a single cross-Web identity, users had to create a new identity -a set of attributes containing personal data -across every website such as a new name, a new profile photo, and a new password. In contrast, DNS was invented at nearly the beginning of the Internet itself and pre-dated the Web, and has long been a centralized registry for the identity that mapped human-readable domain names for web-sites to IP addresses. [START_REF] Roy | Principled design of the modern web architecture[END_REF] Originally this first internet identity infrastructure for names created and ran by a single IETF member, Jon Postel on a voluntary basis. When Postel managed to reconfigure eight of the twelve 'root' DNS servers via a simple email (against the wishes of the US government), there was a crisis of formal decision-making inside the IETF. In response, the US government approved the creation and transfer of DNS to a California non-profit called ICANN (Internet Corporation for Assigned Names and Numbers), given a limited duration license by the US Department of Commerce, and ICANN took over the running of DNS in 1998 (shortly after Jon Postel died). [START_REF] Halpin | The crisis of standardizing DRM: The case of W3C encrypted media extensions[END_REF] ICANN was given a nominally democratic structure and eventually in 2014 the United States government handed over power over DNS indefinitely to ICANN. The sheer centralization of naming authority in the hands of ICANN was viewed by many advocates of decentralization with suspicion. There were also concerns of its financial monopoly on domain names, where in a form of "digital feudalism," ICANN enables domain registrars to charge web-site owners rent for simply having a name on the Web, and it handed over the selling of top-level domains like .com to registrars like Verisign or to nation-states such as .fr for France. Nevertheless, the system remained fairly functional for decades, but ICANN never assumed power of giving digital identities to end-users.

It struck a few enterprising individuals that one possible business model would be to create a new kind of centralized DNS for the personal identity of individuals and organizations, and ordinary people would have to buy their identity from their start-up. In other words, their startup could be a for-profit self-anointed ICANN for individual identity. Although replacing ICANN seems to be progressive, these start-ups would replace a nominally democratic nonprofit with a startup that would have a for-profit governance structure. The first to try this business model was Drummond Reed, whose startup Cordance cre-ated their own system of "eXtensible Resource Identifiers" (XRIs). With the new centralized XRI scheme, individuals would be given new names such as +drummond. [START_REF] Halpin | Semantic Insecurity: Security and the Semantic Web[END_REF] XRIs could be resolved by XDI (XRI Data Interchange), an equivalent to the DNS system for XRIs, which would in turn retrieve an XRDS (Extensible Resource Descriptor Sequence) that then describes the person's attributes such as age and photo. However, XDI was ran by a single organization called XDI.org that held a license to patents from Reed's Cordance company [9]. Perhaps XRIs were standardized at OASIS because, unlike W3C or IETF, OASIS allowed its standards to contain patents and for the license-holders to demand licensing fees. In fact, Reed's Intermind startup even brought up the patents to the W3C, forcing the W3C to create a royalty-free patent licensing scheme. [START_REF] Hui | Collective individuation: The future of the social web[END_REF] Although Reed claimed to give the patents to the non-profit XDI.org, others at OASIS such as Verisign, believed they had been re-licensed and the entire scheme was a get-richquick scheme by a patent troll. Regardless, while XRIs was under development, Reed tried to insert XRIs in as many other standards as possible. Their strategy for deployment of XRIs seemed to include getting adoption via new standards that companies would implement by default, including a newly minted OpenID standard. Eventually the W3C stepped in and OASIS closed the standardization process, effectively ending XRIs. [START_REF] Jordan | The augmented social network: Building identity and trust into the next-generation internet[END_REF] Attempting to force a get-rich-quick scheme business model into an "open standard" was rejected by the governance of the more authoritative standards bodies like the W3C, which although there is no formal governance relationship between W3C and OASIS.

The developer Brad Fitzpatrick, creator of LiveJournal, in 2005 wrote (with the help of David Recordon at SixApart) a blog post called "Thoughts on the Social Graph" where he stated "there doesn't exist a single social graph (or even multiple which interoperate) that's comprehensive and decentralized. Rather, there exists hundreds of disperse social graphs, most of dubious quality and many of them walled gardens." [START_REF] Lim | Patent misuse and antitrust law: Empirical, doctrinal and policy perspectives[END_REF] In response, Fitzpatrick and Recordon created OpenID. [START_REF] Mühleisen | Web data commons-extracting structured data from two large web corpora[END_REF] The vision of OpenID was originally that an OpenID would be a "Single Sign-On" client, allowing a user to login into many different web-sites. The main issue is that they envisioned that a user would become their persistent OpenID identifier across all digital services. This OpenID identifier could be an XRI, or perhaps something more mundane like a URL. If a website supported OpenID, a user could simply sign-in once into their "identity provider" and then other websites could import their identity and related personal data into a website without even using their password. Sadly, OpenID made a crucial mistake: People don't confuse their own personal identity with their credit card number, and so they are equally unlikely to confuse their personal identity with a text string like a URI or OpenID. By identifying users by things they didn't understand, such as XRIs and URIs, OpenID was expecting to create an entire new mode of social interaction. Rather than try to force new modes of social identity (where users created new identifiers or cut-and-paste URIs into forms to identify themselves), decentralized social systems should build on existing social patterns such as e-mail and telephone numbers that users already understand and use on a daily basis. The fundamental mistakes made around user experience and an overly-complicated standard led to virtually no uptake, so most major sites like Facebook and Google eventually gave up on OpenID 1.0 (and 1.1) by 2015. The real value of open standards comes from patent commitments and the building of an actual community of developers around these standards, yet this community assumes users actually want these standards to begin with and can use them in their everyday lives.

OAuth is currently the most successful standard for transferring personal data between sites, but OAuth does not specify a name for an identity like XRIs or OpenID. Before OAuth, if a web application wanted to retrieve a user's personal data from a website on a social networking platform like Facebook or a large platform like Google, the password for a user's Google or Facebook account had to be transmitted to the web application, which posed a security threat as it allowed third-party applications unrestricted access to personal data, like all of a user's email. Twitter engineer Blaine Cook didn't want to have the responsibility for the passwords of his users, and realized that the OpenID architecture had the aforementioned usability concerns. Therefore, in 2006 Blaine Cook started the OAuth standard to enable the secure authorization of the transfer of information from one site to another. [START_REF] Ostrom | Governing the commons[END_REF] In essence, OAuth creates a time and scope delimited token, and allows one website to request user information, and then redirects the user back to the site to authorize this access. If the user agrees, the user is redirected back to their originating website, which then gains the ability to get a scoped and permissioned access to the user's personal data via a shared secret the user has explicitly authorized. The protocol did not specify the kinds of data that could be transferred or the user experience. OAuth went through standardization at IETF (Internet Engineering Task Force), the oldest and largest multi-stakeholder standards bodies on the Internet. The IETF fixed a number of security holes, although it increased in complexity through different versions. Regardless, OAuth was by far the most successful of all the standards to decentralize social data, as Google, Facebook, and other large identity providers took up OAuth and many smaller sites enabled OAuth-backed login protocols. There are today perhaps more OAuth transactions than Visa transactions. However, OAuth identity providers became centralized due to the "NASCAR problem," namely that users could not either run their own identity provider or cognitively manage to chose from a large list of identity providers, leading personal identity to be recentralized in Google and Facebook Connect. Ironically, Google, Facebook, and Twitter all deploy a profile of OAuth called OpenID Connect. [START_REF] Paul | Property, privacy, and personal data[END_REF] 3 Metadata: The Semantic Web Revisited Metadata can be thought of as how to categorize everything that we may want to identify, including the attributes of the identified objects. These attributes may include data such as the favorite color and city of birth of an individual, but may also include links to other objects (such as a list of friends) or categories (such as nationality and profession). Therefore, it seems that either a tightly defined list of categories and data needs to be defined (as done by OpenID

Connect or an open-ended standard way of describing all possible metadata could be used, as put forward by Tim Berners-Lee's Semantic Web standards [1], a set of standards for metadata developed by the W3C. At the time in 1999, the most widely used standard for data formats was W3C's XML (eXtensible Markup Language), [START_REF] Troncoso | Systematizing decentralization and privacy: Lessons from 15 years of research and deployments[END_REF] a generalization and simplification of SGML (Standard Generalized Markup Language). [START_REF] Vrandečić | Wikidata: a free collaborative knowledgebase[END_REF] This was not accidental, as SGML was a structured language for books that was the inspiration for HTML (HyperText Markup Language). However, while XML was suitable for hierarchical data, and although HTML did manage to add links (as did XML with the confusing W3C XLink standard 15 ), such a language was not suitable for graph-based data. The social media revolution was conceived when the link in HTML was generalized to be more than a link that took a user between web-pages, but a link that represents friendship. In this way, the concept of a network of friends became transformed into a social graph.

As there was at the time no standard for graph-based data, the W3C decided to invent RDF (Resource Description Framework) in 1999. 16 RDF was an attempt to create a standard for decentralized information sharing, which Tim Berners-Lee assumed would more naturally fit on top of the link-based Web than the tree-based XML standard. Just as Bitcoin came into prominence as a technique to get around the financial blockade of Wikileaks, the Semantic Web's utility for describing social relationships had a real use-case due to repression and censorship on the Internet. The earliest known decentralized social network, the Friend-of-a-Friend (FOAF) network, came into being as an attempt to build a social network that could not be censored by the Iranian government, who at the time in 2005 had cut Iranian users off from the Internet. 17 FOAF was not only the first vocabulary for a decentralized social network, but came to be in 2000 before centralized social networks such as Facebook (2004) and Myspace (2003) and even Friendster (2002) were even founded. The W3C Semantic Web arrived stillborn as RDF made a number of design errors. First, although a more user-friendly syntax called N319 that appeared similar to JSON was proposed by Tim Berners-Lee, instead the W3C standardized a very difficult syntax, RDF/XML, that attempted to squeeze the RDF graph model into an XML tree-based serialization (as explained in Section 4). 20 The W3C justified the impossible-to-read syntax of RDF/XML by asserting that only machines would read RDF via parsers and programmers would use some more advanced visualization tools, but twenty years later these tools have not appeared. The second mistake made by RDF was its believe that simplistic logicbased inference was necessary to build into the syntax so that RDF could detect, for example, that a "friend" was a type of "social connection" and the inverse of "enemy." The lead semanticist of knowledge representation-based artificial intelligence, Patrick Hayes, did manage to make a fairly straightforward formal semantics to enable these kinds of inferences.21 Still, the very term "semantics" caused much confusion but very little in the way of working applications. Indeed, academics took over the W3Cs standardization of the Semantic Web. With a plethora of Semantic Web standards ranging from the RDF query language SPARQL, to more than half-a-dozen mostly incompatible versions of the Web Ontology Language OWL, and even attempts to interoperate with XML via GRDDL, chaos reigned. The entire Semantic Web stack of technologies to this day are difficult to use and inefficient for real-world deployment compared to traditional databases, and attempts to add "Web Services" to the Semantic Web failed. 22 Attempting to force adoption of a technology via premature standardization is a recipe for failure.

Another attempt to maintain the spirit of the decentralized Web was microformats, an initiative founded by a group of developers around Tantek C ¸elik. 23 Microformats was created purposefully outside of the W3C as it was felt that the W3C would both bureaucratically slow down development and also attempt to force the use of RDF. The idea was quite simple, that interoperable "microformats" would be embedded in HTML that would allow the uniform sharing of data across web-sites. Technically, if the right semantic tags (i.e. tags with a meaning, not for presentation) were embedded into HTML markup using the span and div tags, then automated web-scrapers could extract metadata from the website's HTML itself. Microformats was a design argument against RDF and RSS, which wanted websites to host their metadata in separate files from the HTML itself. The argument used by microformat supporters was that websites were incentivized to keep their HTML up-to-date, but not serve separate files for metadata. As it was easy to add microformats to existing HTML, microfor-mats did indeed spread like wildfire across the Web in 2007, with adoption by Web 2.0 sites such as Flickr. However, ironically as search engines such as Yahoo! SearchMonkey and Googles RichSnippets started consuming large amount of microformats, it became increasingly obvious that web-developers were very error-prone when adding microformats to their websites [10].

Despite the large amount of developer interest in microformats and academic interest in the Semantic Web, ultimately both of these initiatives were recuperated by the Facebook and Google platforms. While the W3C tried to catch up to make microformats compatible with the Semantic Web via the awkwardly-named GRDDL standard to convert microformats to RDF24 and the RDFa standard25 to allow RDF to be embedded directly into web-pages, Facebook had its own plan to embed metadata into the Web for its own purposes. David Recordon, known for being the co-editor of "Thoughts on the Social Graph" and designer of OpenID Connect, joined Facebook. At Facebook, Recordon made a new specification, the Open Graph Protocol, to embed a limited number of vocabulary items in web-pages. 26 This Open Graph Protocol could describe strictly delimited types of books, movies, food, and other items of interest, so the Open Graph Protocol was neither "open" nor a RDF "graph" nor even a "protocol." In a selfserving clever twist by Facebook, it also came with cut-and-paste Javascript that would allow any web-page to embed a "Like" Button that would harvest this metadata and send it back to Facebook. This effort took off, and as of 2017 over 6% of the top 10,000 sites on the Web features a "Like" Button. 27 Ironically, the Semantic Web's largest deployment to date is Facebook's "Like" button [10], allowing Facebook to collect metadata on user likes across the entire Web in a privacy-invasive manner.

Google was not to be left out of the proprietary metadata game. While the W3C believed that RDF would enable the creation of hand-crafted decentralized ontologies describing domain-specific metadata formats, in reality Google ended up centralizing the creation of metadata. 28 An evolution from the parsing of microformats by Google Search and Google's own competitor to RDF, microdata, that they put into HTML,29 schema.org systematized the kinds of domains that Google users were trying to discover, ranging from shopping to recipes. Google refused to work with the W3C, instead opting to standardize schemas with other browser vendors such as Microsoft and Yandex, and eventually letting the community provide input via a non-binding W3C Schema.org Community Group. In the end, Google incorporated metadata from Wikipedia's Wikidata effort [14], creating the Google Knowledge Graph. The Google Knowledge Graph is a closed and proprietary version of the Semantic Web that serves as the backbone of Google's massive data collection efforts and powers their machine-learning algorithms. Rather than open standards for the decentralized social data, each Silicon Valley company has their own knowledge graph, a closed proprietary metadata collection. RDF currently is used for open public data and some other fields like library science, today we still do not have the ability to specify in a standardized way social metadata. The problem may ultimately itself may not be technical: The ability to describe and represent the objects in our world in a digital space without falling into the trap of pre-inscribing all possible categories remains one of the greatest unsolved problems in the terms of metaphysics itself.

4 Transport: The Bits on the Wire Transport is the application-level format used to actually transfer data (and metadata) from one identity to another over a network protocol (such as TCP/IP). Traditionally on the Web the transport mechanism was given by HTTP. In terms of decentralization, RSS was one of the most successful open standards that nearly -but ultimately failed -to decentralize the Web. RSS originally was an abbreviation for RDF Site Summary in 1999, created by R.V. Guha, co-designer of the RDF standard and AI expert. However, the original version of RSS was difficult for developers to understand and even parse, due to the use of the syntax of RDF in XML, although the RSS-dev Working Group continued to evolve the design into RSS 1.0, but RSS 1.0 remained virtually unusable (which was the version of RSS championed by Aaron Swartz). 30 Therefore, a new version of RSS was created by David Winer, which succeeded insofar as he removed any traces of RDF, and stuck to a simple XML-based syntax. This version of RSS was rebranded "Really Simple Syndication" in RSS .91 and .92 to prevent confusion with the RDF version of RSS. 31 The RDF version of RSS was a failure despite the informal Working Group continuing to work till 2008. The simplified XML version of RSS allowed blog rolls, audio files, and other data to be syndicated across web-sites, exploding in usage from 2002 onwards. Winer's RSS played a crucial, if mostly hidden, role in the infrastructure of what was called "the Web 2.0." The spread of RSS was eventually stopped by the splintering of the standard itself, as developers and users were stymied by incompatible versions. The W3C kept attempting to press adoption an RDF-based version of RSS 1.0 due to Tim Berners-Lees desire to keep pushing the adoption of the Semantic Web via open standards. Likewise, David Winer placed the stewardship of his competing XML version of RSS, now re-branded RSS 2.0 (in order to leap-frog across RSS 1.0) in the Berkman Center at Harvard rather than W3C/MIT, as Harvard did not push for the support of RDF like the W3C. 32 Therefore, developers could not sensibly determine how to support the RSS-based decentralized web with multiple versions of distinct incompatible standards with competing 30 RSS-dev Working Group RDF Site Summary (RSS) 1.0 2000. http://web.resource.org/rss/1.0/spec 31 RSS 0.2 (2002) http://backend.userland.com/rss092 32 RSS 2.0 (2003) https://cyber.harvard.edu/rss/rss.html version numbering schemes. Due to this ego-driven standardization failure, the decentralized RSS-based Web 2.0 was cripplied at birth. The IETF finally managed to fix the wreckage of the three different incompatible versions of RSS by creating the XML-based Atom, but by then it was too little, too late. 33 In the wild, RSS usage was split between the different incompatible formats. 34 Facebook and Twitter dropped RSS support, and eventually in 2013 Google canceled support of their popular RSS reader. The hope of decentralizing the Web 2.0 via decentralized status feeds was dead.

The Extensible Messaging and Presence Protocol (XMPP) was a standard meant to enable real-time XML-based messaging. 35 Unlike the HTTP-based Web that users to "pull" web-pages to their browsers, XMPP was built on a "push" model that let new content be sent to users. In addition to its core architecture, XMPP also had its own persistent and federated identity system for users, and so was a complete system for instant messaging. Therefore, XMPP had a moment of surprising success, with many chat clients adopting XMPP as a foundation of decentralized interoperability, including Google Talk. However, XMPP failed to evolve into a decentralized real-time alternative to the Web. At first this may be surprising, as new functionality, such as that needed to replicate the features of Facebook, could be added to XMPP as it was an extensible standard. Extensibility was both a blessing and a curse, as it also led to overwhelming complexity: XMPP spawned its own mini-standards body, the XMPP Foundation, wherein hundreds of extra features were added. The XMPP core became more and more unwieldy itself, eventually reaching over 200 pages; the ability of developers to implement these standards, much less make them interoperate, became non-existent. As it became more and more difficult to gain interoperability, the XMPP standards became more of an hindrance than a boon for the creation of a decentralized social web, with the lack of interoperability holding back development. One by one, client support for XMPP dwindled. In 2015, Google Chat finally completely dropped XMPP, and chat clients such as Signal and WhatsApp came about that didn't support XMPP. Indeed, attempting to replicate the organic functionality of centralized silos using a single standards-based framework led to complexity, which created a lack of interoperable implementations, causing the decline of the XMPP eco-system. What appeared to be one foundation of a decentralized Webs transport layer ended up being abandoned in 2018, 36 although it maintains some usage amongst developers and activists due to support of the OTR 37 and OMEMO encrypted chat applications. 38 Pubsubhubbub was an invention of decentralized web pioneer Brad Fitzpatrick, who left Livejournal to work at Google and who had authored earlier the "Thoughts on the Social Graph." Pubsubhubbub standardized the "publishsubscribe" push model over HTTP, so that HTTP replace XMPP. 39 Pubsubhubbub allowed RSS-based sites to be pushed dynamic real-time content, and could have -at least in theory -enabled the real-time updates needed for a decentralized Facebook and Twitter without relying on a clunky XMPP-based architecture. The various parts were knitted together into OStatus, 40 including a new Atom-based ActivityStreams format41 that was meant to provide social updates such as "friend requests" adds in a decentralized manner, using Pubsubhubbub to communicate. OStatus was incarnated as a federated free software alternative to Twitter, status.net, eventually being given over to the Free Software Foundation as GNU Social. Yet by the time the federated social web was ready to be used, it was too late: Facebook and Twitter were entrenched, and Google had given up on attempting to produce an open social web, instead centralizing in Google Plus and shutting down their RSS reader.

Lessons Learned

Far from naïvely programming a dystopia of centralized personal collection, ordinary programmers were the first to take seriously the threats posed by Facebook, Google, and the like to our digital social lives. Before even the advent of Facebook and competing platforms like Google Plus and Twitter, programmers started building protocols to help citizens re-seize control over their personal data in order to build a decentralized and democratic social web. Yet this task ended in failure, and as of 2018 the consolidation of power and control over the social web by a few large corporations seems unparalleled. The difference is today that ordinary people are now aware of the dangers of a centralized social web due to increasing hacking attacks on these irresistible honey-pots and the abuse of personal data for political purposes. Yet given programmers had over ten years to address the centralization of social data, why did these efforts fail? To a large extent, the key failing is that the programmers tried to solve the problem of centralization via the purely technical means of standards rather than taking into account the larger social, economic, and political world into which their code was embedded.

Given a technical standards-based approach, a mundane reason for the failure of the decentralization of the Web was a failure of a unified strategy pushed by responsible standards body, due to a lack of intellectual clarity over the necessary minimal components to standardize and a simple way for programmers to implement them. This would normally be the job of a standards body such as W3C or IETF to plan, but it seemed that these standards bodies developed a strategy far too late. Up until W3C formulated a (failed) plan in 2013, [START_REF]W3C Social Web Working Group charter[END_REF] decentralized social standards were often ran by a small group or even a lone coder, such as David Winer's version of RSS hosted at Harvard Berkman (apparently put there to spite W3C at MIT, who would have attempted to force the usage of RDF in RSS). There even worse iterations of this, such as the attempt to create "standards" such as XRIs by rather questionable entrepreneurs or via "one shot" standards bodies such as the OpenID Foundation. Early on, large projects such as Project Higgins of the Berkman Harvard Center and XRI-based startups like Cordance also all ended in failure, defeated by their own needlessly complex architectures. Of the plethora of standards for a decentralized social web, in terms of real-world deployment what happened (again and again) is that a few of the larger companies such as Google or IBM would adopt components as suited their business strategy (and killed, like RSS or XMPP by Google, as soon as convenient), while the rest of the components were relegated to small open source projects.

Rather than blame Silicon Valley entirely for the failure of a decentralized web, history shows that hackers are their own worst enemy. Rather than traditional multi-stakeholder standards bodies taking responsibility for developing a single suite of decentralized standards that would serve the needs of stakeholders like the general public and entrepreneurs, standards bodies transformed into strange religions around data formats. The example par excellance is the Semantic Web effort of Tim Berners-Lee and the W3C. For example, the use of RDF needlessly fractured the RSS standard and for years forced development of social standards outside the W3C. When the Social Web community decided to develop a W3C Social Web Working Group in 2014, the group failed to produce a unified standard. [START_REF]C Working Group[END_REF] Under the incompetent leadership of chair Arnaud LeHors of IBM, 44 the W3C Social Web Working Group produced three incompatible versions of the same standards for transport and metadata: The Semantic Web-centric Linked Data Notifications, 45 the microformat-enabled (rebranded "IndieWeb") WebMention, 46 and a JSON-format for ActivityStreams 2.0. 47 The reason for this train wreck of a standards Working Group was because a small fanatical cult around Berners-Lee and his Social Linked Data 48 project pushed the use of RDF, although Berners-Lee himself did not directly interact with the standards process. Afraid of offending RDF developers, the W3C pushed through RDF and IBM sent ActivityStreams 2.0 off the rails via starting the absurd task of creating a meta-model for all possible social ac-tions, 49 C ¸elik's group of microformat developers created Micropub, 50 and the entire situation became so confused that the W3C had to publish a guide to their non-interoperable protocols. 51 Although a next-generation Pubsubhubbub simplified as WebSub 52 and ActivityPub 53 show promise (being used on decentralized Twitter clone Mastodon), in retrospect rather than co-operate in order to bring decentralization forward, engineers preferred to engage in ideological debates over data formats whose only real-world impact was preventing a decentralized Social Web from ever being launched.

Although political and social forces have been arrayed against the hackers working on creating a decentralized social web, it is the hackers that have defeated themselves so far. Therefore, ironically the attempts to create a decentralized Social Web have almost entirely been recuperated. The Semantic Web fueled proprietary knowledge graphs, and Berners-Lee's vision of the web as a database of open knowledge based on RDF failed to materialize. By the time OpenID had matured into OAuth 2.0, it was extensively deployed by both Google and Facebook as identity providers -as well as most web-sites and mobile apps as relying parties -to centralize control of the authentication and authorization process in the hands of a few Silicon Valley companies. The largest user of RDF and metadata ended up being the Facebook "Like" Button. Will the blockchain revolution bring a new decentralized web into existence, or simply become the technical infrastructure of further control and centralization? Only time will tell, but the future of decentralization is at stake, and so human freedom in an increasingly digital world depends on the new ways of governance -or perhaps better phrased, ungovernance -that are being developed by the next generation of "digital native" blockchain hackers.

  18 13 https://www.w3.org/TR/xml/ 14 https://www.iso.org/committee/45374.html 15 https://www.w3.org/TR/xlink/ 16 https://www.w3.org/TR/1999/REC-rdf-syntax-19990222/ 17 http://xmlns.com/foaf/spec/. Also see the article Open Social Networks: Bring Back Iran by Dan Brickley, inventor of FOAF: http://danbri.org/words/2008/01/07/249 18 It should be noted that the first social networking sites can be considered AOL Messenger and SixDegrees, which were founded in 1996, before FOAF but also before well-known social networking sites like Myspace and Facebook.

Let us not forget that the first versions of Twitter actually offered the support of decentralized XMPP, and this decentralized Twitter was turned off not by the programmers, but by the management who could see no demand to support decentralization. At the time, users didnt understand decentralization, much less want it (personal communications with Blaine Cook, founding engineer at Twitter).

https://www.wired.co.uk/article/chinese-government-social-credit-score-privacyinvasion

[START_REF] Fensel | Semantic web services[END_REF] For a detailed metaphysical and cognitive treatment of identity, Brian Cantwell Smith's On the Origin of Objects presents a metaphysics where objects are "carved" via registration from the underlying metaphysical flux[START_REF] Cantwell | On the origin of objects[END_REF]

https://datatracker.ietf.org/doc/rfc1591/

https://www.wired.com/2012/10/joe-postel/

https://www.oasis-open.org/committees/download.php/15376/xri-syntax-V2.0cs.html

[START_REF] Hui | Collective individuation: The future of the social web[END_REF] https://www.w3.org/1999/04/P3P-PatentBackground.

html 8 https://lists.w3.org/Archives/Public/www-tag/2008May/

0078.html 9 http://bradfitz.com/social-

graph-problem/ 10 https://openid.net/specs/openid-authentication-2 0.html

https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc6749

https://openid.net/connect/

https://www.w3.org/DesignIssues/Notation3.html

https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-syntax-grammar/

https://www.w3.org/TR/rdf-mt/

While there were entire books published and billions of euros spent in European Commission project grants, there is to date no working Semantic Web Services. For the details of perhaps the largest failed research attempt of the Web, see Dieter Fensel et al.[START_REF] Fensel | Semantic web services[END_REF].

http://microformats.org/

https://www.w3.org/TR/2007/REC-grddl-20070911/

https://www.w3.org/TR/2015/REC-rdfa-core-20150317/

http://opengraphprotocol.org/

https://trends.builtwith.com/cdn/Facebook-CDN

https://schema.org

https://www.w3.org/TR/microdata/

https://tools.ietf.org/html/rfc5023

The vast majority using RSS 2.0, followed by Atom, and then previous RSS versions in 2018.

http://pubsubhubbub.github.io/PubSubHubbub/pubsubhubbub-core-0.3.html

https://www.w3.org/community/ostatus/wiki/images/9/93/OStatus 1.0 Draft 2.pdf

http://activitystrea.ms/specs/atom/1.0/