Marjan Krasna
email: marjan.krasna@uni-mb.si

Tomaz Bratina
email: tomaz.bratina@uni-mb.si

Ph.D Branko Kaucic
email: branko.kaucic@pef.uni-lj.si

Marjan

Ph.D Krasna

Designing and application of E-portfolio for teacher training

Keywords: Portfolio, distance education, learning management system, teacher training

Portfolio is not just a magic word but it is mandatory for everyone in today's free market. Some companies started their own portfolios for employee assessment. Other has them for optimization purposes or even education. Each of us first encounter portfolio in schools. Big books with grades and other useful data were in them. In the teacher education we also have portfolios and the most important is teacher training portfolio. Based on this portfolios employees decide who to hire or not. With the introduction of Learning management systems and their application in the teacher training we find that we need them for e-portfolios for teacher training. In the article we will explain how we have managed to upgrade existing LMS (Moodle) with the eportfolio module and our experiences using this software module in practice.

Introduction

Educational institutions have different kinds of portfolios for students' evaluation. In the area of the teachers' education we need more elaborate portfolios. These portfolios have to incorporate the teachers' training. The theory itself is not enough for students to become teachers. Therefore an elaborate system of training was developed in the past. The main principles are the same all around the World. But now we are in the new development of educational system -Bologna declaration [START_REF] Bilbao | Engineering in Europe in the way to Bologna[END_REF]. The benefits or drawbacks of the changes in the educational processes will be shown in the future [START_REF] Skorulskien÷ | Why Good Ideas Are Not Followed By Good Results[END_REF]. The teacher training inevitably requires a support system [START_REF] Ratcheva | A Virtual Teacher Community to Facilitate Professional Development[END_REF] [START_REF] Vitukhnovskaya | System of Elementary School (1st-6th Grades) Teacher Training Informatics and Information Technologies: From Project to Implementation[END_REF]. Each student has portfolio filled with the documents until the training is complete. Traditionally this was done just on paper and was subjected to the logistical problems. This was one reason that we started the project to develop the web application -e-portfolio. We need to develop the system specifications; and organizational and normative changes in the teaching practice according to new specifications. The e-portfolio was not meant to be stand alone application but incorporated into LMS (Learning Management System) as module [START_REF] D÷menien÷ | Applying Information Technologies to Selection of Profession: Development of Testing Portal[END_REF]. This enables us broader functionality and better incorporation into other type of TSL (Teaching Study Learning) processes. • Broadening the quality of computer assisted education processes and elevating the computer literacy level of the pedagogical workers.

In our case we use LMS Moodle and we use Moodle's user authentication and additional tables in Moodle's database. This approach enables us to upgrade Moodle without the fear of loosing our data. Since mentors also have access to the learning materials we prepare this builds a horizontal virtual community and strengthen the bond between different levels of education [START_REF] Kim | Community Building on the Web: Secret Strategies for successful online communities[END_REF].

Requirement specifications

In our specific task we need to prepare the requirement specification for web application.

With the team of didactics specialist from different scientific areas we manage to prepare the consensus and unify the procedures for teachers training. In this small scale test we tried three different types of teachers training. Therefore we cover computer science, geography, German language and we also have observation practice work for general pedagogy. In the beginning we find out that our work has slight differences but we could manage to make a common ground in our training procedures.

Teacher training in our country begins in third year of study. This is done in special didactics which present the students' learning specialty. Despite the differences in the preparation of the training and amount of ICT used in the training the general idea is the same. Students work under supervision of special didactics in schools where they start with the observation of the mentor. Mentor prepares the lecture for their pupils and our students observe how mentor carries out the lecture process. Later students prepare their lectures and have to present their work in the classroom full of pupils. Other students observe their schoolmates and in the end special didactics conduct a didactical analysis of the students' performance. Didactical analysis is done in tree steps:

1. The first is the student who performs the lecture. He presents his observation of his work. What he thinks it was good, what was not good and what he would do if he needs to do the same lecture again. 2. The second is the student who was assigned to log the lecture and present his view about the performance of the teaching student and also present the topics he would do if he would be in the same situation. 3. The last one is the didactics specialist that makes the final assessment of student's performance and highlight the attending students what they might miss during the observation. He also encourages students to make creative solution about unforeseen situation that occurs in the classroom during the lecture. Each student needs to be present on tree observation and prepare one lectures. Students can insert data about the observation of the lectures performed by mentor or his fellow student. But when student present the lecture special didactics specialist is the one who enters data to the web application because he is the one which assess the student's performance. The second stage in student training program is practical work for two week per year. Students are assigned to different school and they work with the mentors. Because students have two subjects they have two week practice. One week for each studying subject of their specialty.

During the second stage didactics specialist's role is only observing the process of training. Only students and mentors are active in the second stage. Mentor assigns students different tasks and student needs to perform these tasks if he wants to get positive grade of the training. Student therefore needs to do observations, lectures and other educational activities. At the end mentor prepare the final assessment of student's performance in the practical training. Training is concluded when didactics specialist provide the combined assessment of student. The report of the training is signed by mentor and didactics specialist and deposit in the student's portfolio. This was a short description of the procedures that needs to be followed in the teachers training. In the third year students have practice in primary schools and in the fourth year they have practice in the secondary schools. Description of these procedures was the basics for our software development. But the real aim of the software development was the ease of communication between students, mentors and didactics specialist. Until this project has shown some results all procedures were done in paper form. Forms were sending by the Post or students carried them in their portfolios. Sometimes (even not rarely) some documents can get lost and additional resending is needed.

System analysis

The description we receive was good for start. We could identify all involving objects in the process. There are three types of users involved in the process: didactics specialists, mentors and students. We have identified the attributes we need for each of them and then prepare the UML diagram (Fig. 1).

Fig 1: UML diagram -participants

As we can see in the Fig. 1 there are some reasonable constraints. The didactics specialists can cover only one studying subject. The same applies to the mentor but students can have two different studying subjects. How to deal with the exceptions? If a didactics specialist is for two studying subject then he will be treated as two different didactics specialists with one studying subject. This principle can be applied in mentor and student as well.

Student training consist of two stages. The first stage is general observation under supervision of the didactics specialist and the second is practical training in schools (Fig. 2). In the Fig. 3 we can see two types of observations. Observing the diagram we can see that the observations consist of observations and lectures. Why are the lectures included into observation? This was something that was very confusing in the first place for us to. But when didactics specialist explains us that student observe lectures either performed by mentor or by their fellow students this seems reasonable enough. Confirmation in the object "Observation" means didactics specialist's confirmation that students actually participate in observation.

When student perform the lecture he is also graded (using three grade level insufficient, good, very good).

During the practical training in the schools under supervision of mentors students need to perform different tasks (Fig 4). With the interviews we reach the agreement that practical training starts with the initial meeting where mentor prepare the plan for student. From our perspective we need only the date. Didactics specialists suggested that they do not need additional information. Mentors only task is therefore to select a student and confirm that he did have meeting with the student. Student's training is completed on the date when he has the final meeting with the mentor. At that time the mentor confirms the event and prepares the analysis. The dynamic of the application can be best shown with the sequence diagram. For the purpose of this article we will not prepare sequence diagrams for all application but only for those that are in the mainstream of the application. We will omit in our diagrams actors which can only review data. In the Fig. 6 a sequence diagram for observation is presented. The sequence diagram for lecture is even simpler as shown in Fig. 7. The same procedures are true for the lectures, other student's activities and student's analysis.

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Results

When the application becomes functional and successfully passed series of tests we prepare workshop for involved mentors and students. In one day workshop all grasp the concept of the application and acquire knowledge to work with it. In the pilot project 6 university lectures and assistants were involved, 13 mentors in primary and secondary schools, and 24 students from 3 rd and 4 th year of study.

At the end we send the questionnaire to all involved students and mentors. We received response from 15 students and 10 mentors. We present only those questions that are addressed to the e-portfolio. All participants agree that this approach is very economical and should be used in the future. Some mentors who cover two teaching subjects but were involved in the project with just one express a disappointment because they wanted this approach in both of their teaching areas. One mentor said that the e-portfolio have a major flaw because it does not allow to enter multiple activities at once. He stress that three mouse clicks is not practical in entering one activity. We were aware of this problem which should not be a problem if mentor would enter data regularly. But if he enters data at the end of the training period then this is a problem. We change the behaviour of the program and now only two clicks are needed for entering additional activity. We also got suggestion how to change the e-portfolio. One mentor suggested extending additional activities with projects where the schools participate. Second mentor suggested that mentors should enter comment only once. These two suggestions are taken in the consideration but we are relented to make changes. Not all schools participate in the projects and the other comment of the mentor is the final comment of the teacher training. We have also found that most problems were caused by the fact that users were allowed to enter the data only once. But they could always report mistake and administrator would enable them to reenter data. But in one single case we have mentor who said that she won't participate any more. This seems to her as huge additional work and she did not have time for such work. We did not expect this but it happens. We have also gain good lecture from this example and could be summarized in one sentence: "Never use 'old' teachers in pilot project".

Conclusion

Development of software modules for open source LMS is sometimes needed if LMS does not support educational needs. Teachers training e-portfolio module was very useful in many ways:

• It provides better understanding between involved parties.

• It speeds up the communication.

• It provides a good example for computer science teachers. At the end of pilot test project we find out that it was very good accepted between ICT aware teachers -mentors and in all participating students. The initial response shows us that we need to continue our development. We expect that more functions of the e-portfolio module would be needed when we put the application into the wider use. Nice side-effect of this module is the creation of the awareness that information technology is important and should be used in all topics of educational process.

Fig 2 :

 2 Fig 2: UML -Student training Fig 3: UML -General observations

Fig 4 :

 4 Fig 4: UML -Pedagogical practice Fig. 5: UML -Reports

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Sequence diagram for student observation

  Enhancement of pedagogical practical training model in the new Bologna study programs. • Improvement of communication between students, didactics specialists and mentors in the area of pedagogical training.

The aims of the e-portfolio are: [] • Elevation of the effectiveness and quality of practical pedagogical training; and achieving better students' competences. • Improvement of computer supported document infrastructure for designing, monitoring and evaluating practical pedagogical training. • Upgrading of current portfolios.

•

September 26 -28, 2007 Villach, Austria 4(8)

September 26 -28, 2007 Villach, Austria

September 26 -28, 2007 Villach, Austria 7(8)


Marco Kalz

Hendrik Drachsler

Jan Van Bruggen

Hans Hummel

Rob Koper

Positioning and Navigation: Services for open educational practices

Keywords: positioning, navigation, open educational resources, learning networks

To choose suitable resources for personal competence development in the vast amount of open educational resources is a challenging task for a learner. Starting with a needs analysis of lifelong learners and learning designers we introduce two wayfinding services that are currently researched and developed in the framework of the Integrated Project TENCompetence. Then we discuss the role of these services to support learners in finding and selecting open educational resources and finally we give an outlook on future research.

Introduction

The role of content for technology-enhanced learning has been attributed a lower priority from several recently stressed theories and models of learning like socio-constructivist theories [START_REF] Duffy | Constructivism and the Technology of Instruction: A Conversation[END_REF], situated cognition [START_REF]Situated Learning: Legitimate peripheral participation[END_REF] or constructionism [START_REF] Gergen | An Invitation to Social Construction[END_REF]. In addition the role of usergenerated content is currently intensively discussed with its impact and importance on learning and competence development [START_REF]The 2007 Horizon Report[END_REF]. Nonetheless, learning content is still an important factor for technology-advanced learning and a huge amount of learning content is critical to allow a wide-scale diffusion of self-directed lifelong-learning for the individual. In the past several initiatives have been started to offer learning resources on a wide-scale on the internet for free. One of the first and most successful initiatives was the Opencourseware project from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology in which the content from 1550 courses has been made publicly available. Several initiatives followed and initiated a new discussion about openness and access to learning resources in education. The UNESCO summarizes these new development 2002 in their Forum on the Impact of Open Courseware for Higher Education in Developing Countries as "the open provision of educational resources, enabled by information and communication technologies, for consultation, use and adaptation by a community of users for non-commercial purposes" [START_REF]Forum on the impact of Open Courseware for higher education in developing countries[END_REF]. Although the availability of open educational resources is currently increasing there is a lack between the mere availability of these resources and the educational use of the available material. To fill this gap it is important "how educational repositories of Open Educational Resources, which often want to grow based on user contributions and sharing among users, will manage to become more useful for communities of practice" [START_REF] Geser | Open Educational Practices and Resources[END_REF]. The increase of open access and the publication of open educational resources do not imply the creative use of these resources for learning. This paper presents two services that are currently developed in the framework of the European Integrated project TENCompetence. These services deal with a similar problem that user of open educational resources are faced with. The next part of the paper deals with user requirements and existing technological solutions to improve the competence and learning related search and use of open educational resources. Then we present positioning and navigation as two independent but connected services that can help learners to decide about which learning activity or resource to choose as next step in their personal competence development. Finally, we discuss the (dis)advantages and give an outlook about future research.

Supporting learners and learning designers to find suitable OER

The main users for open educational resources are self-directed learners on the one hand and learning designers on the other hand. Both groups have specific requirements for using open educational resources for learning or designing learning opportunities. First of all, learners need to have orientation to choose the best suited learning activities from the vast amount of available resources. The label "best-suited" implies several options regarding the choice of material. In general the best suited resources for learners are the ones that help them to reach the "zone of proximal development" [START_REF] Vygotsky | Mind and society: The development of higher psychological processes[END_REF] regarding their competence development goals. This zone can be identified through an analysis of the learners' prior knowledge, his topical interest and/or a comparison to the next steps similar learners have taken.

For learning designers it is important to know which resources can be combined to produce a sound competence development program for learners. Again, there are several aspects for learning designers to decide about the appropriateness of open educational resources for constructing learning activities and courses. They have to address their target group based on specific characteristics like 1. prior knowledge, 2. learning goal, 3. study time, 4. preferred study style 5. demographic information like age and sex. Therefore, the most important problem for both user groups is an individualized search facility tailored to their needs and competence development targets. This search-and-find problem can be addressed on several levels: On the level of the learning objects, on the level of the technology for storing the objects (the repository level) and on the user level:

• Learning Objects Level: To unify the description of learning resources the IEEE LOM standard has been used in many repositories to describe the contained resources [START_REF][END_REF]. But the IEEE LOM standard has been criticized because of its limited possibilities to enrich learning objects with educational meaningful information [START_REF] Foroughi | Proposing New Elements for Pedagogical Descriptions in LOM[END_REF]. In addition, research has shown that it is not recommendable to let authors enrich learning objects with metadata because this does not lead to sufficient quality of the metadata [START_REF] Barton | Building quality assurance into metadata creation: an analysis based on the learning objects and e-prints communities of practice[END_REF]. To ensure high qualitative metadata domain experts are needed who tag the resources with an agreed upon taxonomy of keywords. As an alternative to IEEE LOM several repositories use an extended set of the Dublin Core Standard [START_REF] Mason | Dublin Core Metadata Initiative Education Working Group[END_REF]. This extended set offers more flexibility to enrich learning resources with educational and competence development related information but in essence the expert problem remains.

• Repository Level: On the level of the learning object repositories the Open Archive Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting (OAI PMH) was a first step towards pooling of resources from different origins [START_REF]The Open Archives Initiative Protocol for Metadata Harvesting[END_REF]. Currently, the work on the Simple Query Interface (SQI) has enabled interoperability for search between repositories [START_REF] Van Assche | Spinning Interoperable Applications for Teaching & Learning using the Simple Query Interface[END_REF]. This intra-repository specification allows users to find learning objects in several distributed repositories.

But solutions on the level of the object and the repository do not address the problem that the success of the search is still dependent to a large extent on the quality of the metadata attached to the learning objects. Additional approaches on the user layer are needed to address the above described problem description for users of open educational resources. Especially when the search functions should address and support competence development user contribution is needed to add this information to the learning resources in open content repositories. These distributed resources are not only used in "formal learning environments" but also used by distributed self-directed learners who use them in a more informal way.

In the European Integrated Project TENCompetence we are currently researching ways to personalize distributed learning resources, units of learning and competence development programs in learning networks [START_REF] Koper | TenCompetence: Lifelong Competence Development and Learning[END_REF]. Two wayfinding services on the user level are responsible to offer individualized competence development programs in learning networks. The positioning service analyzes the prior learning of learners through a content analysis method while the navigation service recommends the next best learning activity for a student.

In this contribution we introduce these services and discuss their potential as a bridge from distributed open educational resources to open educational practices.

TENCompetence wayfinding approach

To provide learners with orientation for their competence development our research focus is to answer the following questions: Where do I stand in the "curriculum" and which step should be next? To answer this question we have conducted research how to support this orientation process with technology. Two services haven been recently implemented and tested in the framework of the TENCompetence project: A positioning service uses language technology for prior learning assessment while a navigation service applies research from recommender systems to help learners to find orientation.

Positioning

Especially from the perspective on lifelong learning it is an important question for learners where they should start their competence development on the basis of what they already know and what they want to achieve as competence development goal. In traditional educational settings this problem is addressed through the Accreditation of prior learning (APL) [START_REF] Merrifield | Mapping APEL: Accreditation of Prior Experiential Learning in English Higher Education[END_REF]. This process -which is most of the times carried out the submission phase of study programs in Higher Education -relies on domain experts who study the portfolios of learners and decide about exemptions for them. Due to the fact that this is impossible to follow this approach when people change their domains and institutions quite often during their life, we use language technology to support this process.

Our current project uses Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA) to support the APL process for technology enhanced learning. Latent Semantic Analysis (LSA), in the past sometimes referred to as Latent Semantic Indexing (LSI), is used to calculate a similarity between the learner documents and the learning resources. LSA is a theory and method for extracting and representing the contextual-usage meaning of words by statistical computations [START_REF] Landauer | Introduction to Latent Semantic Analysis[END_REF]. The whole process of this analysis consists of several steps like the pre-processing of the text, some weighting and normalizing mechanisms, the construction of a term-document matrix and a mathematical function called singular-value decomposition (SVD), which is similar to factor-analysis. The end result of this process is a latent semantic space, in which the main concepts (or types) of the input are represented as vectors. Concepts in this space are similar if they appeared in the same context and so their vectors are close together in the space providing a measurement for the similarity of text. LSA is applied in several research fields like informatics, psychology or medicine.

The most prominent example for the use of LSA in an educational environment is the assessment and feedback of free text in intelligent tutoring systems. Some examples of these applications are the Intelligent Essay Assessor (17), Summary Street [START_REF] Steinhart | Summary Street: An intelligent tutoring system for improving student writing through the use of latent semantic analysis[END_REF] and Select-a-Kibitzer [START_REF] Wiemer-Hastings | Supporting composition feedback with LSA in Select-a-Kibitzer[END_REF] to mention only a few. Some researchers have used LSA to provide students with appropriate texts that fit to their current knowledge [START_REF] Wolfe | Learning from text: Matching readers and texts by Latent Semantic Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Dessus | Simulating Student Comprehension with Latent Semantic Analysis To Deliver Course Readings from the Web[END_REF].

Our application of LSA is similar but has a different motivation and context. We are using LSA to assess prior knowledge of learners for placement or positioning decisions and finally the construction of personalized learning paths through a learning network. A high correlation between documents in the portfolio and learning resources leads to an exemption of this specific learning activity. The result of these analyses should be taken into account for the creation of a personalized learning path. Some learning activities on the way to the target competencies a learner wants to achieve may be exempted because of the results of this prior learning analysis. We conducted an expert validation of the positioning service and compared the results of LSA to results that experts have given. The first results of the service look promising.

Navigation

Navigational support is necessary for providing learners with appropriate learning resources when there is not a clear curriculum. We have recently designed a navigation service as a personal recommender system (PRS) for learning resources. The general concept of the PRS is in line with hybrid recommender systems in other domains. Hybrid recommender systems combine different kind of recommendation techniques to achieve a higher accuracy in their recommendation [START_REF] Good | Combining collaborative filtering with personal agents for better recommendations[END_REF][START_REF] Melville | Content-boosted collaborative filtering for improved recommendations[END_REF][START_REF] Soboro | Combining content and collaboration in text filtering[END_REF]. Every single recommendation technique has its own advantages and disadvantages. The following recommendation techniques are promising for recommendations in OER: 1. Attribute-based recommendation, 2. User-based collaborative filtering and 3. Item-based recommendations.

1. Attribute recommendation techniques only take user-and item attributes into account for their recommendation. Attribute-based techniques are sensitive to changes in the profiles of the learners. They can always control the PRS by changing their profile or the relative weight of the attributes. A description of needs in their profile is mapped directly to available learning resources. A serious disadvantage is that an attributebased recommendation is static and not able to learn form the network behaviour of the learners. That is the reason why highly personalized recommendation can not be achieved. Attribute-based techniques work only with information that can be described in categories. Attribute-based techniques can directly map characteristics of lifelong learners (like learning goal, prior knowledge, available study time) to characteristics of learning activities when these metadata are given.

Collaborative filtering techniques (or social-based approaches) use the collective

behaviour of all learners or learning resources. Both user-and item-based techniques use the same mechanism of correlation for different objects. To underline the differences between these two techniques we now describe them together. User-based techniques correlate users by mining their (similar) ratings, and then recommend new items that were preferred by similar users. 3. Item-based techniques correlate items by mining (similar) ratings, and then recommend new, similar items. Main advantages of both techniques are that they use information provided bottom-up by user rating, that they are domain independent and require no content analysis, and that the quality of the recommendation increases over time [START_REF] Herlocker | Evaluating Collaborative Filtering Recommender Systems[END_REF].

User-and item-based techniques are useful for networks which are dealing with different topics (domains). They do not have to be adjusted for specific topics, which is important because we expect many LN for different topics. CF techniques can identify learning resources with high quality, allow learners to benefit from experiences of other, successful learners. CF techniques can be based on pedagogic rules that are part of the recommendation strategy. Characteristics of the current learner could be taken into account to allocate learners to groups (e.g., based on similar ratings) and to identify most suitable learning activities. For instance, suitable learning activities can be filtered by the entrance level that is required to study the learning activity. The prior knowledge level of the current learner would than be taken into account to identify the most suitable learning activity. To solve the cold-start problem, user-and item-based CF have to be combined with other CF techniques, like Atttribute based techniques, in a hybrid recommender system. There is a need to combine techniques to increase the accuracy of recommendations. Using a combination of recommendation techniques is called a recommendation strategy [START_REF] Drachsler | Recommendations for learners are different: Applying memory-based recommender system techniques to lifelong learning[END_REF].

Recommendation strategies use domain specific or history information about users or items to decide which specific recommendation technique provides the highest accuracy for the current user. For PRS in lifelong learning context it is not possible to simply take or adjust an existing PRS for consumer products (like in amazon.com). PRS for lifelong learning should support the efficient use of available resources to improve the competence development, taking into account the specific characteristics of learning. PRS have to be driven by pedagogical rules, which could be part of the recommendation strategy. The recommendation strategy looks for available data to decide on which technique(s) to select for which situation. The same situation is given when users are dealing with open educational resources for their competence development. In a first pilot of the navigation service the ISIS recommender system has been implemented. This recommender system used an attribute-based recommendation technique in combination wit an ontology based recommendation technique in a hybrid recommender system. The recommender system recommended the next best learning step to the learners from a pool of 17 learning resources.

Services for open educational practices

In the TENCompetence project we are developing a Personal Competence Manager (PCM) that will support individuals in building competencies. One important feature of this application is the underlying theoretical approach of learning networks. Learning networks should enable learners to develop their competencies together with peer-learners who have a similar competence development goal. Learners in learning networks are able to develop their own learning paths including the use of openly available resources and learning activities. Since all users in the TENCompetence environment will be able to share their learning paths and activities and resources they have used for competence building the environment should enable users to collect competence related information about open educational resources and educational/contextual metadata. In addition the above described services can give a valuable contribution to help learners finding their way through open educational resources. Instead of using this service only for exemptions the similarity rate between a learner's portfolio and documents in repositories can provide an individual "interestingness factor" for open educational resources. A high correlation between these resources and a portfolio can show that the learner already knows most of the concepts represented in these resources while a very low correlation would mean that these resources are completely out of the learners' context. While the positioning service takes only into account individual information of learners the navigation services uses also information by other learners to provide a recommendation.

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For OER several situations would lead to different recommendation strategies. If a network of learners who use the content can be established the user behaviour can be taken into account to recommend best suited resources based on the items and the behaviour of the peer group of learners. If no user group information is available an item-based recommendation could be the best solution to recommend objects in distributed repositories although it might be computationally "expensive" to use an item-based recommendation with such a high number of objects. Since the learner groups of open educational resources are already available there is a need for a technology that connects these distributed learners and helps them with their competence development.

Discussion and Outlook

This paper has introduced positioning and navigation as two wayfinding services that haven been built in the framework of the TENCompetence project. We believe that the combination of prior knowledge analysis and a personal recommender system has a high potential to bridge the gap between the distributed resources and distributed self-directed learners who have the burden to choose suited learning activities and resources. Both services haven been recently analyzed in user studies and first results of these studies are promising. But this approach has also some issues: The use of Latent Semantic Analysis is limited to highly textual domains. In addition LSA can only find a similarity when the concepts used by the learners are represented in the semantic space. But there are several special presentation types (forms, descriptions of experimental designs etc.) that show an inherent higher prior learning than the purely textual content can show. In this case domain experts can deduct this but LSA cannot.

For the navigation service the use social based approaches like collaborative filtering techniques is limited by a number of disadvantages. New users first will have to give a sufficient amount of ratings to items in order to get accurate recommendations based on userbased CF (new user problem). New items have to be rated from a sufficient amount of users to be recommended (new item problem). Another disadvantage for CF techniques is the sparsity of past user actions in a network. Since these techniques are dealing with community driven information, they support popular taste stronger than unpopular. Learners with unusual taste may get less qualitative recommendations, and others are unlikely to be recommended unpopular items (of high quality).

In the future we will implement and test our services in several settings where open educational resources are used for competence development, specifically in the OpenER project of the Open University of the Netherlands where learning resources from the Open University are published under an open content license.

Author(s):

Marco Kalz


Co- Sophie Clot
email: s.clot@reading.ac.uk

Gilles Grolleau

Lisette Ibanez
email: lisette.ibanez@inra.fr

What did you do before? Moral (in)consistency in pro-environmental choice

Keywords: cleansing, dictator game, licensing, moral in(consistency), taking game. JEL codes: C91, D03

Rather than just examining moral licensing and cleansing at an aggregate level, we investigate experimentally the moral dynamics at an individual level. We also propose a formal definition of moral consistency or inconsistency (i.e., moral licensing and/or moral cleansing). We found that half our sample present inconsistent pro-environmental behaviour, independently of the way behavior is elicited (positive or negative framing). Men seem to behave more consistently over time, but when they compensate, they license (respectively cleanse) in a higher (respectively lesser) extent than women. We suggest that policies can improve their performances by avoiding a 'one size fits all approach' and take into account this heterogeneity of moral dynamics.

Introduction

Traditionally, moral behavior and social preferences have been considered as exogenous and consistent over time (Narloch et al, 2012, Carpenter and[START_REF] Carpenter | Do social preferences increase productivity? Field experimental evidence from fishermen in Toyama bay[END_REF]. Despite some limits, this working assumption allowed valuable advances in economic science. Nevertheless, an increasing literature supports that significant portions of people at the aggregate level exhibit moral inconsistency, implying that their moral behavior and social preferences are influenced by past behavior (e.g., [START_REF] Khan | Licensing Effect in Consumer Choice[END_REF][START_REF] Mazar | Do Green Products Make Us Better People[END_REF]Clot et al., 2016; see [START_REF] Blanken | A meta-analytic review of moral licensing[END_REF] for a meta study and [START_REF] Mullen | Rewards: Experimental Insights from Andean Farming Communities[END_REF] for a comprehensive review). For instance, anecdotal evidence (e.g., [START_REF] Woodyard | Hybrid car owners drive more and get more traffic tickets[END_REF] and several experimental studies [START_REF] Blanken | A meta-analytic review of moral licensing[END_REF] found that ceteris paribus performing or even imagining a good (bad) deed makes participants more likely to perform a bad (good) deed thereafter, frequently described as moral licensing (cleansing). Defining and understanding whether people are morally consistent or inconsistent over time is valuable, notably because it allows to understand some puzzling behavioral results (e.g., backfiring policies), avoid a 'one size fits all' approach and design more effective policies.

Rather than just examining whether people are morally consistent or inconsistent at the aggregate level [START_REF] Brañas-Garza | Moral cleansing and moral licenses: experimental evidence[END_REF], we use well-crafted combinations of two symmetric games (i.e. dictator and taking games) with an environmental non-governmental organization to investigate the individual moral profiles of participants. We also introduce a formal definition of moral consistency and moral inconsistency. Unlike previous studies (e.g., [START_REF] Brosig-Koch | The dynamics of behavior in modified diactator games[END_REF], we consider individual data within a restricted time frame in order to detect the dynamics of moral (in)consistency and also control for opportunity cost by incentivizing randomly only one decision among the two requested decisions. Interestingly, we found that aggregate data can occult a significant level of individual heterogeneity where some individuals behave in a morally consistent way over time while others behave in a morally inconsistent way.

The remainder of the paper is organized as follows. The next section proposes an economic model of decision making considering the paradox of moral self-regulation. This model allows to reach formal definitions of moral consistency and inconsistency. Section 3 describes the experimental strategy and Section 4 provides the main results and discusses them. Section 5 suggests some policy implications and concludes.

Theoretical framework

We present an economic model of decision making considering the paradox of moral selfregulation [START_REF] Sachdeva | Sinning Saints and Saintly Sinners: The paradox of Moral Self-Regulation[END_REF]). The model investigates on the consistency of prosocial behavior of individuals who choose their participation level in a prosocial project (in our experiment, it represents a donation to an environmental non-governmental organization (ENGO), but the model might have broader interpretations). Each participant has to decide the amount x s/he wants to dedicate to the concerned project. The choice set X, can be discrete or continuous. We suppose that individuals might be motivated to contribute to the public project for the sake of the environment or warm-glow motives1 (Andreoni, 1990). A contribution of x to the prosocial project entails a monetary cost c(x), with c'>0 and c''=0, and a (moral) benefit v(x), with v'(x)>0 and v''(x)<0.

Then individual i's utility function can be written:

And individual i's optimal decision equals * such that ′ ′ . This means that the marginal benefit of donating equals its marginal cost, knowing that the marginal cost is supposed to be constant, whereas the marginal benefit is decreasing (see Figure 1).

This set-up supposes that people value the action of giving consistently over time. However, prosocial preferences might depend on a previous prosocial orientated decision. Branas-Garza et al. (2013) show that "self-regulation is not a long memory process, since only the previous period matters". In other words, moral motivations depend on social actions performed previously. We formalize this point by supposing that v is function of , ,

. We assume, for simplicity, that a single decision is made at each period, and that there is no anticipation of the impact of decisions at time t may have on intrinsic motivations at time t+1. Indeed, [START_REF] Khan | Licensing Effect in Consumer Choice[END_REF] define moral licensing as a "nonconscious effect that operates by providing a moral boost in the self-concept, which increases the preference for a relative immoral action subsequently by dampening the negative selfattributions associated with such behaviour".

Under these assumptions, the optimal decision of individual i is determined as follows, ,

′

Intrinsic motivations are dependent of previous pro-sociality and, thus moral self -esteem (Branas-Garza et al. 2013). We suppose that , , is decreasing with . This means that intrinsic motivations of individual i are reduced at period t when he has contributed a large amount to the public project at period t-1. And inversely, intrinsic motivations are amplified at period t for small contributions at period t-1. Under these assumptions, each individual self-regulates its pro-social behaviour in order to optimize his/her utility. We distinguish three possible patterns (represented graphically in In our experiment, we study the existence of these three specific patterns when individuals have to make sequential pro-social decisions, and whether we observe heterogeneity in prosocial compensation.

Experimental design

Our experiment consists of a repeated modified dictator game. In the modified dictator game, the recipient is a previously chosen environmental non-governmental organization (ENGO).

All subjects play the role of the dictator and have to decide the allocation of 10€ between themselves and the recipient (i.e. ENGO). This charity game has been implemented in Clot et al. (2016) to elicit pro-environmental behavior. In our experiment, the charity game is played twice, but the participant is only informed of the reiteration once the first round finished. In this set up, we exclude all anticipations of future pro-environmental behavior, when deciding to donate to an Environmental NGO. Any donation above zero implies intrinsic valuation of giving, and is interpreted as an adequate proxy for pro-environmental preferences.

We consider two symmetric variations of the charity game: the giving game and the taking game. In the giving game the participant is endowed with 10 euros and given the opportunity to donate any amount (integer between zero and ten) to the ENGO. In the taking game, the endowment of 10 euros is allocated to the ENGO, and the dictator is given the opportunity to take any amount (integer between zero and ten) from the ENGO.

The experiment consists of eight sessions (2 for each treatment, see Table 1) conducted at the Laboratoire d'Economie Expérimentale de Montpellier (LEEM) in Montpellier, France between January and March 2016. Twenty subjects were randomly distributed to each session (with a session including only 16 participants), for a total of 156, invited via the ORSEE software. Most subjects (79%) were students, and 74% have already participated in an economic experiment. We ensured, however, that none had previously participated in an experiment with similar parameters. The sessions lasted less than an hour, including reading instructions and payment. Subjects earned an average of 13 euros2 .

Each session is composed of three parts. In the first part, participants chose the ENGO they want to be paired with, without benefiting from any information about the rest of the experiment. Four options corresponding to the most important and well-known environmental associations in France were given: World Wildlife Fund 3 (WWF), la Fondation Nicolas Hulot 4 , Greenpeace 5 and France Nature Environnement 6 . In the second part, participants play one of the variations of the charity game. Participants receive the instructions regarding the third part, only once the second part was ended. The third part consists also of one of the variations of the charity game. At the end of the experiment, only one part of the experiment (either the second or third part) is randomly chosen for payment. This design allows us to avoid the problem whether subjects are influenced by the endowment effect [START_REF] Cubitt | On the validity of the random lottery incentive system[END_REF]. Socio-economic and demographic variables are also collected at the end of the experiment.

Moreover, in order to apprehend intrinsic motivations related to environmental behavior, participants filled in the 15-item questionnaire based on the New Ecological Paradigm (NEP) scale [START_REF] Dunlap | Measuring endorsement of the New Ecological Paradigm: a revised NEP scale[END_REF]. The NEP scale describes an individual's environmental concern based on the extent to which he agrees or disagrees with various statements on environmental issues, which have been grouped under different categories 1 , such as: reality of limits to growth (questions 1, 6, 11 -lim_growth), anti-anthropocentrism (2, 7,12 -antianthropo), fragility of nature's balance (3, 8, 13 -frag_nat_bal), rejection of the idea that humans are exempt from the constraints of nature (4, 9, 14 -rej_exemptio), and possibility of an ecocrisis

(5, 10, 15 -poss_ecocrisis).

Results

We collected 156 observations. Participants' characteristics are provided in Table 2. The sample is well balanced across the 4 treatment groups. Dictator game (where the recipient is an anonymous player) 7 .

Also, valence (i.e. whether charity game is framed as a giving or a taking game) does not significantly impact generosity (as in Gartner and Sandberg, 2017). We show that donations in the first round do not differ significantly (t=-0.4247, p=0.67) whether the game is framed as 1 There is a broad consensus within the environmental psychology literature regarding the use of the NEP as a valid and reliable scale for measuring levels of ecological beliefs and behaviours (Cordano et al., 2003), as long as the 15-item version of the scale is used (Harcroft and Milfont, 2010). 7 We compare donations to the charity (giving game) in the first round with donations to anonymous recipients (standard dictator game) [START_REF] Clot | Shall we pay all? An experimental test of Random Incentivized Systems[END_REF]. We observe that participants are more generous in dictator games when the recipient is a charity (3.7€) than when the recipient is an anonymous player (2.625€) At the agregate level and without reaching statistical significance, donations decrease from round 1 to round 2, except for treatment 2 (Give/Take scenario) where donations increase.

The average donation in the second round in treatment 1 ( Give/Give scenario) differs significantly from the average donation in treatment 2 (Give/Take scenario), i.e. 2.92€ vs 4.22€ (with z=-1.776, pvalue=0.0757). This result suggests that one may be less likely to be actively selfish (select a positive amount in the taking scenario) after having been passively selfish (select a null amount in the giving scenario). One possible interpretation comes from the cognitive dissonance theory, which suggests that taking after giving could be more difficult than taking after taking, because the two succeeding actions are either dissonant or consonant. If we consider only treatments for which we observe a decrease in donations (Treatments 1, 3 and 4), the average donation in round 2 is significantly lower than average donation in round 1 i.e. 3.12€ vs. 3.91€ (with z=1.901, p-value=0.0573).

One of the main issues of this research is to investigate on the dynamics of pro-environmental behaviour at the individual level.

Comparing donations in round 1 and 2 at the individual level, we find that 50% of the sample express consistent preferences (see Table 4). Interestingly, this pattern is robust for the 4 treatments. The other half is spread across negative inconsistency (moral licensing) and positive inconsistency (moral cleansing). The framing of the charity game does not impact moral consistency (i.e. the percentage of participants exhibiting consistency is the same across the 4 treatments), but it does impact the type of inconsistency (licensing versus cleansing).

More individuals engage in moral licensing in the Give/Give scenario than in the Give/Take one (37.5% vs 20%; z=2.438, p-value=0.0148). In other words, framing the charity as a taking game, when following the giving game, may act as a moderator of the licensing effect.

A possible explanation is that this specific combination (Give/Take) is more likely to be associated to cognitive dissonance, by combining two opposite actions. Moreover, cognitive dissonance can play differently according to the departure point, i.e. a giving frame or a taking frame. Participants might feel a higher "degree of commitment" when the game is framed as a taking game: "more commitment arouses more dissonance" [START_REF] Ruiz | The relationship between cognitive dissonance and helping behavior[END_REF].

Moreover, the degree of compensation is more pronounced in the case where the two charity games are framed in a opposite way (i.e Give/Take and Take/Give scenarios).. Another interesting result of our research concerns the gender effect.

In line with existing literature on pro social behaviour (Eckel and Grossman, 1998; Engel, 2011 8 ), we observe that women behave more pro-environmentally than men (see Table 5). All together, women give significantly more than men in the first round (4.3€ vs 3.27€) as well as in the second round (4.10€ vs 2.62€).

8 The meta-regression run in Engel study indicates a 0.212 coefficient for gender, significant at the 1% level. Also, women give significantly more than men in the giving scenario (4.24€ vs 2.53€). For the taking scenario, the difference is not significant. Even if there is no statistical evidence, Table 5 also suggests that men are sensitive to framing (higher generosity in the Taking game), and, in total, license from round 1 to round 2. Also framing the charity in a negative way (i.e. Taking game) mitigates the gender difference in pro-environmental behaviour. Looking in more detail at the compensation behaviour, we observe that men are more consistent over time than women. Women are more likely to license than men but the degree of compensation is more important for men. These results explain the fact that, in total, men license and contribute less in Round 2 than Round 1.

An econometric analysis corroborates earlier findings but also highlights determining factors of inconsistency in proenvironmental behaviour.

high with this aggregate increased significantly their donations between round 1 and round 2.

Oppositely, individuals scoring high with the NEP agregate 'Anti-anthropocentrism' decreased signifantly their donations between round 1 and round 2. Altogether, these NEP indicators differ in the way humans and nature relation is perceived, which could in turn translate into a different mechanism of moral compensation. However, interpretation at this stage remains very speculative and more research would be needed to explore the underlying mecanism.

Policy implications

Rather than just examining moral licensing and cleansing at a group level, we investigated experimentally the moral dynamics at an individual level and suggested the relative proportions of consistent and inconsistent participants in an experimental sample. We proposed a formal definition of moral consistency and inconsistency (i.e., moral licensing and moral cleansing). Our findings suggest that aggregate results can occult heterogeneity at the individual level. We find evidence of consistent pro-environmental behaviour for half of our sample (robust across the 4 treatments), which suggests that the other half does not behave in a consistent way and deserves further consideration. Furthermore, we highlight a gender effect: men, being globally less pro-environmentally orientated than women, behave more often in a more consistent way. However, when men behave inconsistently, they compensate in a different way as women: in the case of licensing, they compensate far more than women, and inversely, in the case of cleansing, they compensate far less. Overall, this leads to a lower global donation in Round 2 compared to the global donation level in Round 1 for men.

Investigating this heterogeneity can inform policy makers to design policies adapted to each subgroup rather than adopting a one-size-fits-all approach. For instance, it can make sense for some individuals to remind them of their previous actions whereas for others it can be more effective to avoid such a reminder. At the same time, tailored policies can raise discrimination issues.

Our results constitute a first stepping stone. Further research is needed to test the robustness of our results expanding our analysis to other various settings such as using other games, other samples, different behaviours and other countries. Are some domains (e.g., health versus environment) more subject to moral consistency than others? Does cross-contamination across domains constitute an issue, which can make the investigation much more complicated? Moreover, a natural issue concerns whether entities like companies, cities, associations exhibit the same kind of (in)consistent behaviours, which can ultimately decrease or increase the expected consequences of policy interventions.

CEE-M Working Papers

Figure

  Figure 1. Moral compensation in public good provision

Figure

  Figure 1):

Figure 1

 1 Figure 1 illustrates this individual compensation in pro social behaviour. Circle's size varies with the number of observations. The red line represents consistency: obervations along this line represent individuals giving the same amount in round 1 and 2. Moral licensing is characterised by observations in the upper-left part of the graph, while moral cleansing is visible in the opposite side of the graph. For the give/give and the take/take scenarios

Figure 1 -

 1 Figure 1 -Scatter plot of individual donations in round 1 and round 2

Table 1 . Experimental treatments

 1

		T1	T2	T3	T4
	Part 1	Choice of ENGO Choice of ENGO Choice of ENGO Choice of ENGO
	Part 2	Giving Game	Giving Game	Taking Game	Taking Game
	Part 3	Giving Game	Taking Game	Giving Game	Taking Game

Table 2 . Sample descriptive data

 2

							Kruskal-
		T1	T2	T3	T4	Total	Wallis test
							(p)
	Number of observations	40	40	36	40	156
	Gender (% of male)	57.5	47.5	38.9	45	47	0.5596
	Age (average)	23.88	25.38	24.64	26.85	25.19	0.3533
	Student (%)	85	75	83	73	79	0.723

Data shows that, consistently with other findings

(Eckel and Grossman (1996)

,

[START_REF] Engel | Dictator games: a meta-study[END_REF]

), participants give more in the charity game (where the recipient is a ENGO) than in standard

Table 4 . Dynamics of pro-environmental behaviour at the individual level

 4

							Kruskal-
		T1	T2	T3	T4	Total	Wallis test
							(p)
	Consistency (% of sample)	50	47.5	52.5	50	50	0.9405
	Licensing (% of sample)	37.5	20	27.5	33.3	29.49	0.0867
	Cleansing (% of sample)	12.5	32.5	20	16.7	20.51	0.0127

Table 5 . Average donations by gender (in €)

 5

		Framing		Round
		Giving Taking	P-value	1	2	P-value
	Women	4.10	4.29	0.8243	4.30	4.10 0.4305
	Men	2.76	3.15	0.6558	3.27	2.62 0.2899
	P-Value	0.0031 0.0316		0.016	0.0083

Table 6 . Compensation of pro-environmental behaviour at the individual level

 6

		Part of sample		Average
		(in %)		compensation (in €)
		Men Women	P-value	Men	Women	P-value
	Consistent	60.8	40.2	0.0003	0	0	-
	Licensing	21.6	36.6	0.0019	5.31	3.3	0.0151
	Cleansing	17.6	23.2	0.2217	-2.85	-4.37	0.0145

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	WP 2018 -13:	Brice Magdalou	1 -2018
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	Contact : laurent.garnier@inra.fr/ 04 99 61 31 21

We focus on individual behavior and do not consider any strategic interaction, such as reciprocity, social comparison or other. Thus, we suppose x i to be independent of x j .

The total donations to ENGOs in this experiment are 984€, with the following breakdown: 196€ for la Fondation Nicolas Hulot, 297€ for Greenpeace,

399€ for WWF and 92€ for France Nature Environnement. 3 https://www.wwf.fr/ 4 http://www.fondation-nature-homme.org/ 5 https://www.greenpeace.fr/ 6 https://www.fne.asso.fr/

This NEP indicator[START_REF] Dunlap | Measuring endorsement of the New Ecological Paradigm: a revised NEP scale[END_REF] aggregates the 3 following NEP items -'Humans have the right to modify the natural environment to suit their needs'; 'Plants and animals have as much rights as humans to exist' and 'Humans were meant to rule over the rest of nature'.

This NEP indicator[START_REF] Dunlap | Measuring endorsement of the New Ecological Paradigm: a revised NEP scale[END_REF] aggregates the 3 following NEP items -'When humans interfere with nature, it often produces disastrous conséquences' ; 'The balance of nature is strong enough to cope with the impacts of modern industrial development'; 'The balance of nature is very delicate and easily upset'.

This research has been funded by the French National Research Agency (ANR-15-CE05-0008-01)

We first run a probit regression (see Table 7) on the probability to be consistent (keeping the same amount of donations between round 1 and round 2), while in a second model, we focus on the probability to license (decreasing donations between round 1 and round 2). The regression results support that men are more likely to be consistent. The probability to engage in moral licensing increases with the amount donated in the first round, and is amplified if the two charity games are framed in an opposite way. Interestingly, participants with higher attachment to religion and/or stronger anti-anthropocentrism 9 value, are more likely to adopt licensing behaviour. If these results remain robust in additional investigation, they can serve as a relevant basis to discriminate among people.

The degree of inconsistency is analyzed with Tobit regressions for absolute difference in donation (see Table 8). We distinguish those who adopt moral licensing (higher donation in Round 1 than Round 2) and those who adopt moral cleansing (higher donation in Round 2 than Round 1). The Tobit regression results indicate that men compensate differently than women. In the moral licensing situation, men compensate to a higher extent (i.e. the difference in donations between Round 1 and 2 being more important), whereas in the moral cleansing situation men compensate to a lower extent.

Moreover compensation behaviour is also influenced by other (socio-economic) factors. For example, the higher the level of donations in round 1 the higher the compensation in the licensing group. On the one hand, sporty participants, who engage in licensing behaviour, compensate in a lesser manner than other participants. On the other hand, the degree of cleansing is reninforced for older people, students, and participants that attach value to religion. Anti-anthropocentrism and Fragile Natural Balance 10 , the two agregates coming from NEP scale measures go in opposite directions. The NEP agregate 'Fragile Natural Balance' impacts positively the compensation amount in the moral cleansing case. Individuals scoring