Arie Purwanto
email: a.purwanto@tudelft.nl

Anneke M G Zuiderwijk

Marijn Janssen
email: a.janssen@tudelft.nl

Anneke Zuiderwijk-Van Eijk

Group Development Stages in Open Government Data Engagement Initiatives: A Comparative Case Studies Analysis

Keywords: open government data, citizen engagement, comparative case study, group development, self-organized, government-induced, hackathon

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Governments at different administrative levels (e.g., national, regional, local) are progressively opening up data to the public in the hope that citizens will use it [START_REF] Safarov | Utilization of open government data: A systematic literature review of types, conditions, effects and users[END_REF]. Indeed, successful and sustainable use of Open Government Data (OGD) that contributes to solving societal problems hinges on citizens engagement [START_REF] Dietrich | The Role of Civic Tech Communities in PSI Reuse and Open Data Policies[END_REF]. We argue that citizen engagement is one move further than OGD use. Such engagement requires not only OGD use, e.g., locating, downloading, distilling, scrutinizing, and refining data [START_REF] Cornford | Local governance in the new information ecology: the challenge of building interpretative communities[END_REF], but also designing and developing OGD-based applications. The development of applications by citizens based on OGD is often done by groups of people who collaborate [START_REF] Susha | Data collaboratives as "bazaars"? A review of coordination problems and mechanisms to match demand for data with supply[END_REF]. Such groups can be self-organized, where the content and processes of engagement are determined by citizens who organize themselves and engage in forms of collective action [START_REF] Edelenbos | The Evolution of Community Self-Organization in Interaction With Government Institutions: Cross-Case Insights From Three Countries[END_REF]. Examples of self-organized engagement include the Dutch's Open Spending [START_REF] Hartog | Accountable and Responsible Disclosure of Financial Open Government Data: Open Spending Initiatives enhancing Civic Engagement[END_REF] and the Indonesian's Kawal Pemilu [START_REF] Brajawidagda | Roles of Social Media in Open Data Environments: A Case Study of the 2014 Indonesian Presidential Election Voting Results[END_REF] initiatives. In contrast, citizen engagement in OGD can also be governmentinduced. An example of such a government-induced initiative is a hackathon. In a hackathon initiative, governments determine when and where engagement takes place, and under which conditions citizens can engage [START_REF] Sieber | Civic open data at a crossroads: Dominant models and current challenges[END_REF].

In the open data literature, research in the socio-technical conditions of OGD utilization, both enabling and disabling factors, has widely been provided [START_REF] Safarov | Utilization of open government data: A systematic literature review of types, conditions, effects and users[END_REF]. However, studies in the area of OGD engagement are lacking [START_REF] Safarov | Utilization of open government data: A systematic literature review of types, conditions, effects and users[END_REF], especially regarding the development of groups of citizens who engage in these initiatives. Although individual citizens engaged in a group are motivated by different drivers [START_REF] Juell-Skielse | Is the Public Motivated to Engage in Open Data[END_REF], they strive to be successful in achieving the group's shared objectives. For example, in a hackathon, groups may not only attempt to win a competition and earn a prize but also indirectly contribute to solving problems raised by the hackathon organizers. Whereas in a selforganized OGD engagement initiative, groups may aim to contribute to solving a reallife problem they may face in daily life. However, there is scant knowledge of the group development and underlying factors that contribute to a group's success in the OGD engagement literature.

This study aims at exploring and understanding the development stages of citizen groups in OGD engagement. To attain this objective, we formulate the following research questions: "How do citizen groups develop in open government data engagement initiatives?" We conduct a comparative case study that involves two cases of OGD engagement in different settings. This study is among the first to apply group development stages model in comprehending citizen engagement in OGD initiatives. The results of our study advance the understanding of how policymakers should prepare and precondition the engagement initiative to stimulate more engagement groups.

Background

Open Government Data Engagement

Open data researchers usually define citizen engagement as open data use by citizens [START_REF] Susha | Organizational measures to stimulate user engagement with open data[END_REF] that concerns various processes carried out to convert data to other outputs such as fact, information, data, interface, and service [START_REF] Davies | Open data, democracy and public sector reform: A look at open government data use from data[END_REF]. However, we argue that citizen engagement is one step ahead, involving not only OGD use, but also designing and developing OGD-based applications.

In public administration studies, researchers distinguish initiatives of citizen engagement with government policy between those that are self-organized and government-induced [START_REF] Edelenbos | The Evolution of Community Self-Organization in Interaction With Government Institutions: Cross-Case Insights From Three Countries[END_REF]. We argue that this distinction also applies to open data engagement because governments may operate using different models of data provision [START_REF] Sieber | Civic open data at a crossroads: Dominant models and current challenges[END_REF]. In the government as a platform model, the government limits its role only to the provider of open data infrastructure comprised of a web or portal offering access to data and tools for previewing, visualizing, or downloading data [START_REF] Sieber | Civic open data at a crossroads: Dominant models and current challenges[END_REF]. The government acts passively in this mode and presumes that others will use OGD, create applications on top of it and generate value [START_REF] Linders | From e-government to we-government: Defining a typology for citizen coproduction in the age of social media[END_REF]. This government mode seems to breed self-organized OGD engagement initiatives. On the other hand, government-induced OGD engagement concerns the government as open data activist model in which the government not only provides the open data infrastructure but also promotes its use to citizens, the private sector, or the government itself [START_REF] Sieber | Civic open data at a crossroads: Dominant models and current challenges[END_REF]. In promoting open data use, such governments frequently organize supportive activities framed as a hackathon contest where citizens and businesses compete with each other to pitch an idea or the design of an application or an application prototype.

Self-organized open data initiatives.

Current open data literature is substantially lacking an overview of self-organized initiatives, and only little is known about this type of engagement. Self-organized engagement is somewhat a reaction to government-led processes or structures but utilizes the states' instruments (e.g., OGD portals and services) to attain citizens' objectives [START_REF] Edelenbos | The Evolution of Community Self-Organization in Interaction With Government Institutions: Cross-Case Insights From Three Countries[END_REF]. Organizing and sustaining such engagement requires the availability of two primary resources, time and money [START_REF] Brady | Beyond Ses: A Resource Model of Political Participation The[END_REF]. Therefore, only organized civil society that has access to sponsorships or donations can initiate and maintain self-organized engagement. Citizens initiated engagement such as Kawal Pemilu moved forward successfully because the initiators could radically minimize the costs incurred by using free open source software/platforms, utilizing social media platforms and applying crowdsourcing strategy [START_REF] Brajawidagda | Roles of Social Media in Open Data Environments: A Case Study of the 2014 Indonesian Presidential Election Voting Results[END_REF][START_REF] Purwanto | Towards an Open Government Data Success Model: A Case Study from Indonesia[END_REF].

Government-induced open data events. This type of engagement typically takes form as hackathon events and aims to deliver economic value [START_REF] Johnson | Civic Hackathons: Innovation, Procurement, or Civic Engagement?[END_REF]. Since there is no agreement on the definition of an open data hackathon, we synthesize it based on selected literature [START_REF] Concilio | Empowering Citizens with Open Data by Urban Hackathons[END_REF][START_REF] Hartmann | Opportunities and Challenges for Civic Engagement: A Global Investigation of Innovation Competitions[END_REF][START_REF] Lara | Hackathons as Community-Based Learning: a Case Study[END_REF][START_REF] Soltani | Hackathon -A Method for Digital Innovative Success: A Comparative Descriptive Study[END_REF] as follows. An open data hackathon refers to offline/faceto-face ideation competition sponsored by government agencies in a centralized location that brings together citizens with different backgrounds (e.g., programmers, designers, others) to intensively work collaboratively in small teams for a short amount of time (e.g., 12 hours, 24 hours, 2 days) to create artifacts (e.g., mockups, design, prototypes, applications) using OGD. Typically, at the end of the contest, each team presents/pitches the final idea in front of juries and sponsors, and a winning team earns a prize (e.g., money, investment).

In an open data hackathon, organizers and sponsors provide nearly all resources and support needed by the teams to work efficiently [START_REF] Concilio | Empowering Citizens with Open Data by Urban Hackathons[END_REF][START_REF] Soltani | Hackathon -A Method for Digital Innovative Success: A Comparative Descriptive Study[END_REF][START_REF] Briscoe | Digital Innovation: The Hackathon Phenomenon[END_REF], including catering services, sleeping bags/area, comfortable facilities (gaming device, sports hall), internet connection, electricity (cables), and stationaries. Provision of technical support from open data providers or event organizers or sponsors is also common. These amenities are intentionally provided to support group development in the hackathon event.

Group Development Stages

Either in self-organized initiatives or hackathon events, the development processes of a citizen group/team would determine how they conceptualize a problem, brainstorm potential solutions, develop the preferred solution collaboratively and ultimately deliver it at the end. Self-organized initiatives might produce a ready-to-use application for society, whereas hackathons might offer various outputs based on the event's objectives (e.g., mockup, design, prototype, application, visualization). While current literature does not signal cue for group development in self-organized initiatives, on the contrary, a small number of hackathon studies has started discussing the theme [START_REF] Richterich | Hacking events: Project development practices and technology use at hackathons[END_REF][START_REF] Trainer | How to Hackathon: Socio-technical Tradeoffs in Brief, Intensive Collocation[END_REF]. However, both works do not specifically focus on how teams progress throughout the hackathon.

Studies on group development incorporate the investigation of group activities and how these activities evolve over the life of a group [START_REF] Miller | The Stages of Group Development: A Retrospective Study of Dynamic Team Processes[END_REF]. Stages or phases of group development are defined as the categorization of "the periods of time during which an identifiable set of activities occurs" [23, p. 122]. Although numerous models of group development have been proposed, Tuckman's [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF] classical sequential stages is one of the most influential models recognized in the human resource development studies [START_REF] Bonebright | 40 years of storming: a historical review of Tuckman's model of small group development[END_REF]. In this model, Tuckman [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF], focusing on interpersonal relationships and task activity, postulated a four stage of group development namely forming, storming, norming, and performing (see Figure 1). Tuckman [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF] further posited that effective group functioning requires successful formation of each stage and transformation from one stage to another. Forming. Tuckman [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF] described the first stage as testing and dependence of interpersonal relationships (group structure) among group members and orientation to the task activity. Group members attempt to discover acceptable behaviors based on the reactions of the group leader and other members. Once the boundaries are discovered, a member becomes dependent on the guidance and support from the leader(s) and preexisting norms. Group members attempt to identify relevant tasks and ways to accomplish the tasks by determining information required to deal with the tasks and how the information can be acquired.

Storming.

The second stage is characterized by intragroup conflict related to group structure and emotional response to task demands that lead to the lack of unity. Group members express their individuality and oppose the formation of group structure by becoming resistant toward one another and group leader(s). The discrepancy between individual's interest and orientation demanded by the tasks leads to emotional reactions and resistance to the tasks. However, Tuckman [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF] considers that this stage would be less visible in groups working on intellectual tasks.

Norming. The third group structure stage is identified as the development of group cohesion, and the task activity development is characterized as the open exchange of relevant interpretations. A member accepts group structure and the individuality of fellow members. New group-generated norms endorsing harmony to ensure the group's existence are the results of the acceptance. Group members are open to discussing themselves and others' and their opinions to generate an alternative interpretation of tasks.

Performing. In the fourth stage, the development of group structure is labelled as functional role-relatedness, and the development of task-activity is identified as the emergence of solutions. Members adopt and play roles after learning from one another socially in the preceding stage. Role structure becomes an instrument that can direct the group as a problem-solving entity. Constructive actions that lead to successful tasks accomplishment (solutions) are seen in this stage.

3

Research Methodology

Case Study Design

The research aims at understanding and exploring the citizen's group developmental stages which are presently little understood in contemporary open data engagement context. As a result, the aim might be attained using qualitative approaches and cannot be achieved using quantitative inquiries such as a survey. Although the study was informed by a prior model of group development stages [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF], it is unclear whether the seminal model applies to different types of OGD engagement. Therefore, the case selection aimed at finding cases that concern the citizen's group developed in OGD engagement initiatives and providing variation in contextual factors (self-organized and government-induced) that enable polar cases. Case studies are appropriate for research trying to answer "how" or "why" questions about contemporary events over which the researcher has little or no control [START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research: Design and Methods[END_REF].

We selected cases that concern OGD and groups of citizens engaging in the OGD initiatives. The cases must involve groups representing different types of OGD engagement. The cases should also include groups that accomplish a set of contextual objectives. To enable comparison and contrast between cases, we selected two cases that are varying contextually: the Kawal Pemilu group that exemplifies the selforganized engagement and the PacMan team that epitomizes the OGD governmentinduced engagement (hackathon).

The first case involves a group of citizens who voluntarily developed an OGDbased application and used it to digitize the results of Indonesian's 2014 presidential election. The group comprises two teams, a developer team of five technologists who built the application and a volunteer team of 700 persons who used the application. The successful digitization of election results, covering 97.91% of 478,829 votes, in only six days made Kawal Pemilu a prominent example of citizen engagement [START_REF] Brajawidagda | Roles of Social Media in Open Data Environments: A Case Study of the 2014 Indonesian Presidential Election Voting Results[END_REF].

The second case concerns a team of citizens who participated in a Dutch's open education data hackathon, Hack de Valse Start, held on 3 March 2018 for twelve hours (from 8 AM until 8 PM). PacMan comprises five persons with diverse back-grounds and capabilities who worked in a collocated room of a high school building situated in the outskirt of the Amsterdam city. The group, competing with six other teams, won the second prize for visualizing averaged national exam scores data against averaged teacher advice data at the school level and providing an analysis of the visualization.

Data Collection and Analysis

We collected various types of qualitative data from multiple sources of evidence at several points in time, to enhance construct validity as much as possible [START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research: Design and Methods[END_REF]. In both groups, the first author conducted participant-observations by actually participating in the engagement: as a volunteer in the Kawal Pemilu group and as a member of the PacMan team. Gaining actual access to these teams provide a distinctive opportunity to understand the group development from the perspective of an insider since postfactum comprehension of interpersonal relationships and task activities is non-trivial [START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research: Design and Methods[END_REF]. The researcher used online observation through the Facebook (FB) platform because the Kawal Pemilu group was developed entirely using the platform. Table 2 provides an overview of the case information sources, including documents, interviews, participant observations and tangible artifacts. Fifteen semistructured interviews were conducted with the Kawal Pemilu group members from October 2017 until February 2018. All interview sessions were recorded as agreed by the interviewees and transcribed. The author also conducted four unstructured, informal interviews with the PacMan team members during the hackathon. Since the data collected include personal data from both groups concerning privacy and confidentiality, the first author was only approved by group leaders to disclose their data. We divided our analysis into two phases. First, we analyze the data using provisional manual coding to capture the development process of both groups based on Tuckman's [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF] stages. Finally, we categorized the codes into two groups: 1) interpersonal relationships and 2) task activities associated with the developmental stages as indicated by the model.

Results

The Development of the Kawal Pemilu Group

The Kawal Pemilu group was invented by Ainun; an Indonesian-national data scientist lived in Singapore on 9 July 2014 immediately few hours after competing presidential candidates declared their victories. Ainun recruited four Indonesian developers living in different countries (i.e., Australia, the Netherlands, and United States) to build the digitization application and 700 Indonesian volunteers around the world to digitize election results using the application. Since two teams were involved in the Kawal Pemilu, we presented the results as separated but connected processes of both teams. Pre-existing norms were still in place.

Performing

Roles were established and adopted.

Efforts based on roles were taken to develop, sustain and maintain the application until most ballots were digitized.

Two roles (inputter and verifier) were established and adopted.

Volunteers strived to digitize all ballots and verifiers validate the digitization results and report errors.

Two of the developers were Ainun's close friends, and both trusted Ainun's integrity. The other two developers were invited by one of Ainun's friends. Social relationships were well developed among members of this group. Contrary, a volunteer might know several other volunteers but rarely knew all of them due to a large number of persons involved. No guidance was determined other than the due date, 22 July 2014, set by the Election Commission of Indonesia to officially announce the election victors.

Conflicts among volunteers arose as a form of distrust towards each other's political stance and interests. Some volunteers, siding with one of the election candidates, suspected that other volunteers, supporters of the opposed candidate, would damage the digitization initiative by deliberately inputting an incorrect number of ballots. Volunteers resisted the tasks distribution due to two issues as follows. First, some volunteers prioritized inputting the results from the regional area where they or their families or friends were living in. Second, the number of voting booth varied across regional areas and might lead to imbalance tasks distribution. The densely populated area was likely to have more booths and thus more ballots to be digitized.

On 9 July 2014, the developer team started brainstorming and discussing the idea and design of the application, using an online collaboration tool. An external expert was invited to the discussion sessions. The discussions occurred until 14 July 2014 and were entirely positive and technical towards choosing the right algorithms for verifying errors, incentivizing volunteers, and preventing incorrect data service invocation. Although at some point members disagreed with other's opinions, the disagreements were seen as intellectual dialogs, not interpersonal conflicts. The preexisting norms evolved into new norms as a result of the discussions: the due date was relaxed, and new technological decisions were made. New role, verifier, was established and followed up by recruitment among volunteers. Verifiers were grouped into small teams and tasked to examine input made by volunteers and correct erroneous inputs. A verifier team's results were further re-examined by another team to improve data reliability.

Team (developer, volunteer, and verifier) members quickly understood their respective roles and performed tasks accordingly. All efforts were made to sustain the Kawal Pemilu's website until the digitization of election results finished on 18 July 2014.

4.2

The Development of the PacMan Team

The PacMan team was initiated by Johannes, an educational journalist working for De Correspondent, a Dutch news website. Johannes randomly asked nearby participants to join his team and further asked interested participants to get to know each other's strength by explaining their background and specialization. Four participants including the first author agreed to form a team with Johannes. The first member was a data scientist from Russia, working for a Dutch travel aggregator company, who has participated in numerous hackathon events. Another member was a Dutch and an employee of a municipality in the Netherlands who worked in the education field. The third member was a workshop organizer from Romania, working for promoting open data use through "maker" arts. Johannes, henceforth the team leader, initiated the brainstorming of interesting societal problems that can be explored and exploited as the team's final product. Although three members were not Dutch persons, they contributed to the discussions. The data scientist viewed the topic proposal from technical viewpoints and sometimes disagreed with the leader since the topics were not supported by available data. The first author clarified the current government's educational policy and the data visualization that will be pitched. The municipality employee added several local social issues to consider in the visualization. At the end of the discussion sessions, new team norms were added: a visualization to compare national exam scores against school advice and to provide a preliminary indication of the causes of deviation between scores and advice.

Stages

Interpersonal relationships Tasks activity Forming An initiator, henceforth the leader, formed the team through an introduction session among interested candidates.

Members tried to understand the team goal informed by the scheduled pitch session at the due time.

Norming Members expressed their opinions in intellective discussions guided by the leader.

New norms were agreed.

Performing

Members understood their and others' respective roles.

Members acted according to their roles to meet the deadline.

Roles were understood and performed accordingly. Johannes searched for relevant data and handed over the first author. The first author examined the data and supplied relevant data (e.g., statistical socioeconomic data) to the data scientist who coded the visualization. The municipality employee helped translate the metadata written in the Dutch language to English and explain the meaning to the data scientist. The workshop organizer prepared online collaboration tools and design the presentation for the pitch session. Fifteen minutes before the pitch started, the final presentation file was completed and submitted to the hackathon organizers. The leader delivered the final presentation in Dutch to provide contextual meaning to the team's output.

Discussion and Conclusion

As indicated by Tuckman [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF], the Kawal Pemilu developer and PacMan teams, working on intellective tasks namely developing an application and designing a visualization, progressed through forming, norming and performing stages. In contrast, the Kawal Pemilu volunteer teams evolved around four stages including the storming stage. Digitizing election results seemed to be personal tasks because some volunteers preferred to digitize specific regions and tended to take sides in the election. Despite different time duration of the engagements under study, these results signal the relevance of the stages in both virtual and face-to-face groups development.

Different interaction factors appeared in both cases. While the impact of duration on these interactions needs to be studied further, the verbal and tangible presence of nonverbal cues in the PacMan team seemed to enhance the communication among its members. In addition to the conflicts of personal interests seen in the storming stage, communicating virtually with strangers could hamper the interactions of the Kawal Pemilu group members. The use of emoticons in FB platform might help improve participants' perceptions towards others' emotion, attitude, and attention intention [START_REF] Lo | The Nonverbal Communication Functions of Emoticons in Computer-Mediated Communication[END_REF], thus decreasing the communication barrier. Nevertheless, further studies are needed to test these propositions since literature suggest that computer-mediated interaction lacks cues to reduce the communication perception problems [START_REF] Lo | The Nonverbal Communication Functions of Emoticons in Computer-Mediated Communication[END_REF].

We propose three non-exhaustive underlying factors that appear to contribute to the success of group development stages. Leadership roles, naturally played by Ainun and Johannes who actively sought for personnel that might help them achieve the group's objectives, contribute to quicken the group formation. Beforehand interaction of participants may help reduce communication issues in forming the group and identify roles needed to perform tasks. Diverse capabilities, technical (e.g., programming) and domain-related (e.g., election, education systems) skills and knowledge, enhance progress in tasks performance of OGD engagement and its context.

Policymakers should consider the above factors in promoting OGD engagement. Although locating a leader is non-trivial since open data users are commonly unknown to policymakers [START_REF] Susha | Organizational measures to stimulate user engagement with open data[END_REF], surveying open data communities may lead to potential champions and enable informing them early about OGD initiatives. Providing an online platform that connects open data user groups and enables them to interact with each other may facilitate interactions and help them know other's profiles before OGD engagement is actually carried out.

In addition to the discussion above, we are aware of the limitations of this study concerning the use of a participant-observation strategy. In the Kawal Pemilu case, the first author was able to be an external observer since nearly all activities were performed virtually and involved a large number of participants. Contrary, the author's participation in the PacMan case might lead to advocacy roles that contradict the practice of good social science [START_REF] Yin | Case Study Research: Design and Methods[END_REF]. However, the researcher was able to play observer role until the performing stage that requires more technical activities than social relationships.

This study is an initial step in understanding how citizens engage in OGD initiatives from a linear group development stages perspective. Although Gersick [START_REF] Gersick | Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development[END_REF] proposes a more complex rivalry model, incorporating temporal aspects of group development, she confirms its similarity with Tuckman's [START_REF] Tuckman | Developmental Sequence in Small Groups[END_REF] stages. Therefore, future research should consider Gersick's [START_REF] Gersick | Time and Transition in Work Teams: Toward a New Model of Group Development[END_REF] model on the transitions of citizen OGD engagement groups. Another path for future research concerns the inclusion of more, similar and polar, cases to test theories or models and the validation of the developmental stages model using quantitative approach.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Tuckman [24] model (adapted from Bonebright [25])

Table 1 .

 1 A brief overview of cases.

	Characteristics Kawal Pemilu	PacMan
	Engagement type	Self-organized	Government-induced (hackathon)
	Country loca-tion	Indonesia	The Netherlands
	Number of citizens	705	5
	Proximity	Virtual (geographically dispersed)	Face-to-face (collocated)
	Period	14 days (9 -22 July 2014)	12 hours (3 March 2018)
	Background	Indonesian	Dutch, Russian, Romanian, and Indone-sian
	Output	OGD-based application	OGD visualization and analysis
	Objectives	Digitizing all election results	Winning the competition
	Open data domain	Election results provided by the Election Commission of Indonesia	Education data provided by the Dutch Education Inspectorate and Central Bureau of Statistics

Table 2 .

 2 Data collection strategy.

	Data Source	Kawal Pemilu	PacMan
		Email correspondence, records from
	Documents	question-and-answer site, news, personal blogs, documents from the online collab-	Notes, news, documents from the online collaboration platform
		oration platform
	Interviews	Fifteen individuals (two developers and thirteen volunteers) semi-structured inter-views	Four individuals (one leader, one data scientist, one translator, one supporting) unstructured, informal interviews
	Participant-observations	FB secret group	Twelve hours face-to-face meet-ing
	Tangible artifacts	Election outcome website	Presentation file

Table 3 .

 3 The Kawal Pemilu group development.

	Stages	Developer team		Volunteer team
		Interpersonal	Tasks activity	Interpersonal	Tasks activity
		relationships		relationships
	Forming	Members were	The norm was the	Members were	The norm was the
		friends who trust	due date of the offi-	mostly un-	due date of the offi-
		each other's	cial election victor	known to others.	cial election victor
		integrity.	announcement.		announcement.
	Storming			Conflicts arose	Members resisted
				among members	imbalance tasks and

Table 4 .

 4 The PacMan team development.


Fredrik Söderström
email: fredrik.soderstrom@liu.se

Ulf Melin
email: ulf.melin@liu.se

Ida Lindgren
email: ida.lindgren@liu.se

Zara Galzie
email: zara.galzie@liu.se

Coordinating public e-services -investigating mechanisms and practices in a government agency

Keywords: Coordination, Coordination Mechanisms, E-government, E-services, Digital Services, Public Sector ICT, Public Sector Digitalization

Coordination is a critical enabler when creating and managing coherent, integrated, secure and smart public electronic services (e-services) as a part of digitalization. With an increased demand for such services, coordination as an internal organizational phenomenon is becoming increasingly important. Based on a qualitative case study, and informed by coordination theory, this paper investigates two different theoretical views applied on internal e-service coordination within a government agency in Sweden. At the outset, the agency is seeking one generic way to coordinate the current heterogeneous and fragmented internal e-service landscape in a more efficient way. Hence, our aim also includes investigating the prerequisites and potential for this type of coordination. We conduct this study in two stages. First, we apply a well-established theoretical lens from organizational theory on a set of coordination efforts, thereby perceiving coordination as a planned and anticipated activity based on a fixed set of mechanisms. Second, we apply a lens of coordinating as emergent practice, which allows for an in-depth investigation of more flexible and dynamic aspects of coordinating activities in daily work. By combining these two views, we argue that this approach can facilitate and increase understanding of the dynamics and flexibility needed to understand the type of coordination needed in public e-service contexts. This can also imply that there is no single best practice or 'one-size-fitsall' approach to internal e-service coordination. Instead, organizations need to acknowledge the need for multi-dimensional views revealing the inherent complexity of coordination; as planned as well as emerging activities.

Introduction

This paper elaborates on the formal mechanisms and emerging practices of coordination of electronic services (e-services) in a government agency. Coordinating activities are recognized as vital parts of organizing and refer to the actions taken by humans in organizations or other social settings to generate anticipated and appropriate outcomes: "To organize is to assemble ongoing interdependent actions into sensible sequences that generate sensible outcomes." [1, p. 3]. Coordination is an essential subset of organizing with fundamental characteristics of formalizing actions and reducing undesired variation by increased control and the ability to anticipate actions [START_REF] March | Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Mintzberg | Structure in fives: designing effective organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Thompson | Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory[END_REF]. Coordination also minimizes the risk of overlapping and even conflicting actions among stakeholders [START_REF] Thomas | Understanding the problem of coordination in a large scale distributed environment from a service lens view -Towards the South African public sector e-Administration criteria for coordination support[END_REF]. Organizational relationships enacted via informal, dynamic activities need to be aligned [START_REF] Jarzabkowski | Toward a theory of coordinating: Creating coordinating mechanisms in practice[END_REF] in turn creating a tension between anticipated and spontaneous activities of coordination; described as the organizational paradox [START_REF] Thompson | Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory[END_REF][START_REF] Melin | The enterprise system as a part of an organization's administrative paradox[END_REF]. Achieving a balance between reductions of variation and the need for flexibility therefore becomes critical.

Transdisciplinary coordination studies describe organizational actions as mutually dependent hence, balanced handling is required [START_REF] Thompson | Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory[END_REF][START_REF] Malone | The interdisciplinary study of coordination[END_REF]. Acknowledging this need for balance, we use different streams of coordination theory as our basis for formulating two different theoretical lenses; viewing coordination as formal mechanisms [e.g. 3] and coordinating as emerging practices [e.g. 6].

In a public e-service context, we agree with researchers putting forth the need for fixed as well as emergent views of coordination, i.e. formal mechanisms and informal practices [e.g. 6]. As artefacts, e-services are intertwined with policies and practices of coordinating such services [START_REF] Malone | The interdisciplinary study of coordination[END_REF][START_REF] Orlikowski | 10 Sociomateriality: Challenging the Separation of Technology, Work and Organization[END_REF]. This creates a need to investigate and understand the characteristics, complexity and coordination of public e-services, in policy, as formal mechanisms, as well as in emergent practice. Benefits and expectations such as increased internal efficiency and external availability [e.g. [START_REF] Axelsson | Public e-services for agency efficiency and citizen benefit-Findings from a stakeholder centered analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Bertot | Universal and contextualized public services: Digital public service innovation framework[END_REF] make the ability to provide e-services a necessity for a majority of public organizations. Due to Sweden's governance model, citizens communicate with several government agencies on a regular basis. However, due to public organizations' independence, the level of digitalization, e.g. regarding e-services, varies considerably across the public sector. As exemplified by the case study, complexity and fragmentation are significant challenges to be handled in a digitalization context, and these challenges can also be related to coordination efforts [START_REF] Klievink | Coordinating e-government service delivery[END_REF].

Investigating e-service coordination challenges is thereby still of importance to government digitalization practice, as well as e-government research. This paper highlights different shapes and roles of coordination in an e-service context by investigating its formal and informal dimensions and expressions. This paper addresses the following research questions (RQ): 1) How are e-services coordinated in a public agency? 2) How can this coordination be described using two different theoretical lenses of coordination? 3) What can we learn from combining these lenses to develop a more dynamic and flexible view of e-service coordination? To address these questions, we must first investigate how e-services are coordinated at the agency (RQ1), then review how the two different theoretical lenses can be applied (RQ2) and finally, how these lenses can be combined and applied for interesting insights (RQ3). Therefore, the aim of this paper is to present an approach in which formal as well as informal acts of coordination are taken into consideration. This paper is organized as follows; the second section covers related research such as coordination as mechanisms, coordinating as practice and e-service coordination. In the third section, the research approach and case study are presented. The analysis and findings are outlined in the fourth section followed by a discussion in section five. The paper is concluded with some concluding remarks and suggestions for future research.

2

Related research

Coordination as mechanisms

As introduced above, well-known views on coordination and related mechanisms are presented by scholars such as March and Simon [START_REF] March | Organizations[END_REF] and Mintzberg [START_REF] Mintzberg | Structure in fives: designing effective organizations[END_REF]; Mintzberg [START_REF] Mintzberg | Five Ps for Strategy[END_REF].

Three activities are described as central: coordination through standardization, coordination through planning, and coordination through feedback [START_REF] March | Organizations[END_REF]. Similarly, Van de Ven et al. [START_REF] Van De Ven | Determinants of coordination modes within organizations[END_REF] 5) results [START_REF] Mintzberg | Structure in fives: designing effective organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Mintzberg | Five Ps for Strategy[END_REF].

Fig. 1. Coordination mechanisms [3 revised by Melin & Axelsson 2005]

Mutual adjustment (1) achieves coordination of activities by the process of informal coordination. The control of the activities rests mostly in "the hands of the doers" on an operative level ("O" in Figure 1). Direct supervision (2) expresses a more hierarchical model where coordination is achieved by assigning one actor to a role responsible for the work of others ("M" in Figure 1). In this role, managers typically issue instructions to actors on the operative level thus monitoring these actions becomes important. An analyst role ("A" in Figure 1) can coordinate organizational activities with different types of standardization (3, 4, and 5) indicating a specification or programming of the contents of work processes [START_REF] Thompson | Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory[END_REF]. Outputs can be standardized by specifying the results of the work [START_REF] Thomas | Understanding the problem of coordination in a large scale distributed environment from a service lens view -Towards the South African public sector e-Administration criteria for coordination support[END_REF], for example, the dimensions of an e-service or the output of coordinating it. Skills (3) are standardized when the expertise required to perform work is specified beforehand [START_REF] Mintzberg | Structure in fives: designing effective organizations[END_REF]. Norms (3) are standardized to influence human action; as an indirect, or even subtle, form of coordination [START_REF] Mintzberg | Five Ps for Strategy[END_REF] (cf. organizational culture). In addition to the described hierarchical or vertical coordination in the form of direct supervision and standardization, horizontal or non-hierarchical coordination is often performed by a coordinator role reporting to top-management but with no formal authority in the areas of coordination [START_REF] Lawrence | Differentiation and Integration in Complex Organizations[END_REF].

We acknowledge some of the criticisms concerning coordination as expressed above, put forward by, e.g. Larsson [START_REF] Larsson | Coordination of Action in Mergers and Acquisitions -Interpretive and Systems Approaches towards Synergy[END_REF] and Melin and Axelsson [START_REF] Melin | Understanding Organizational Coordination and Information Systems-Mintzberg's Coordination Mechanisms Revisited and Evaluated[END_REF] implying coordination being too focused on planned activities, designed elements of organizing and material flow in organizations. Further, Adler [START_REF] Adler | Interdepartmental interdependence and coordination: The case of the design/manufacturing interface[END_REF] describes the importance of the temporal dimension of coordination since its mechanisms and organizational dependencies need to change over time. In response, to achieve a dynamic and flexible view of coordination, we combine the lens of coordination as mechanisms with the view of coordinating as practice described below.

Coordination as practice

Okhuysen and Bechky [START_REF] Okhuysen | Coordination in organizations: An integrative perspective[END_REF] describe the interdisciplinary field of coordination research as increasingly interested in the processes and practices of coordination. This enables more in-depth investigations of coordinating as an ongoing dynamic aspect of organizational activities [START_REF] Feldman | Theorizing practice and practicing theory[END_REF]. Faraj and Xiao [START_REF] Faraj | Coordination in fast-response organizations[END_REF] emphasize the areas of expertise and dialogic coordination hence aspects such as the community of practice and knowledge sharing become critical to the distributed expertise needed for coordinating. Thus, coordinating as practice refers to enactment in accordance with formal mechanisms as well as an activity emerging in the absence of such mechanisms. This implies that there is not one optimal way of coordination since coordinating activities are focused on managing dependencies in organizational settings [START_REF] Malone | The interdisciplinary study of coordination[END_REF]. Dynamic coordination often takes place during problem-solving tasks among organizational participants [START_REF] Ching | Reputation, learning, and coordination in distributed decision-making contexts[END_REF]. In this paper, we apply the conceptual model of Jarzabkowski et al. [START_REF] Jarzabkowski | Toward a theory of coordinating: Creating coordinating mechanisms in practice[END_REF] consisting of the five overlapping stages or cycles of coordinating as practice (Figure 2). Enacting disruption (1) focuses on any obstacles or disruptions of barriers forced upon coordinating activities caused by formal organizational policies and structures and orienting to absence [START_REF] March | Organizations[END_REF] represents the attempts to organize or re-organize any coordinating activities needed by employees to be able to perform their operational work. Creating elements (3) starts when actors initiate the formation activities to facilitate the needed coordination. Elements that are further developed and refined during forming patterns [START_REF] Thompson | Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory[END_REF]. Stabilizing patterns [START_REF] Thomas | Understanding the problem of coordination in a large scale distributed environment from a service lens view -Towards the South African public sector e-Administration criteria for coordination support[END_REF] occurs when elements and patterns stabilize as an acknowledged practice.

Fig. 2. Cycles of coordinating as practice [adapted from 6, p. 919]

Accepting and acknowledging these elements and patterns of coordination as appropriate ways of performing tasks occurs during the final stage of this cycle. Unlike the described formal mechanisms, this five-cycle model emphasizes aspects such as disruptions of work processes and the absence of coordination enabling us to seek relationships between the formal and informal dimensions of coordination. In previous research, we identify a lack of application of the view of coordination as practice; hence, this is the theoretical gap we address in this paper.

Public e-services and coordination

Using public e-services as a communication channel between citizens and government is perceived and promoted as a way of improving the efficiency and effectiveness of public sector organizations [START_REF] Bertot | Universal and contextualized public services: Digital public service innovation framework[END_REF]. Public e-services are electronically mediated services, provided by public organizations, through which the users and the supplying organization co-create some value through the users' consumption of the service [START_REF] Lindgren | Electronic services in the public sector: A conceptual framework[END_REF]. Policies, as well as citizens' needs and expectations, govern these services. There are persisting challenges associated with public e-service development such as the provision and use; service quality [START_REF] Jacobsen | Adopting and Refining e-services-the Role of Organization Size[END_REF], service design [START_REF] Goldkuhl | What does it mean to serve the citizen in e-services?-Towards a practical theory founded in socio-instrumental pragmatism[END_REF], and uptake and use [START_REF] Angelopoulos | Emerging barriers in egovernment implementation[END_REF]. Significant challenges stem from the inherent complexity of this phenomenon. E-services refer to a process as well as an IT-artefact [START_REF] Lindgren | Electronic services in the public sector: A conceptual framework[END_REF] which in turn challenges how we can understand and organize related work. Moreover, public e-services vary in complexity and type [START_REF] Jansen | The nature of public e-services and their quality dimensions[END_REF][START_REF] Lindgren | Time to Refuel the Conceptual Discussion on Public e-Services-Revisiting How e-Services Are Manifested in Practice[END_REF] with different types of services putting different demands on the organization providing them. We thereby stress the need to take this complexity as well as coordination of eservices into account. Furthermore, coordination and control facilitate and increase the efficiency of delivery of services in public bureaucratic organizations [START_REF] Cordella | E-government and organizational change: Reappraising the role of ICT and bureaucracy in public service delivery[END_REF]. Public sec-tor digitalization also increases the need for coordination due to higher levels of technical complexity, service complexity as well as organizational inter-and intra-dependencies. Coordination of services is therefore required to maintain high levels of quality due to the increasing number of dependencies related to areas such as services, channels, and systems [START_REF] Klievink | Coordinating e-government service delivery[END_REF]. There are studies in e-government inspired by formal coordination (above) for example that focused on inter-organizational e-service integration [e.g. 30]. However, the research related to e-service coordination seems to be limited with exceptions such as coordination of integrated service delivery across public organizations [START_REF] Os | The challenge of coordination: Coordinating integrated electronic service delivery in Denmark and the Netherlands[END_REF] and dependencies in multi-channel service delivery [START_REF] Klievink | Coordinating e-government service delivery[END_REF].

Research approach and case study

The presented research is based on a qualitative and interpretive case study [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative Research in Business & Management[END_REF][START_REF] Walsham | Interpretive case studies in IS research: nature and method[END_REF] conducted at the Swedish Transport Administration (STA) as part of a research project investigating the development and use of e-services within this agency. Conducted during 2016-2017, the overall project aimed to gain a deeper understanding of how public organizations can organize e-service development and implementation ensuring value for internal as well as external stakeholders. The STA is responsible for the long-term planning of the national transport system covering all types of traffic, as well as building, operating, and maintaining public roads and railways. The agency is located in several geographic regions in Sweden and divided into departments each responsible for development and provision of its own e-services. At the outset of this study, the STA called for one generic way to coordinate their heterogeneous and fragmented eservice landscape. We interpret this fragmentation as the result of historically weak coordination and control in this area, in combination with high levels of independence among departments within the agency. Our qualitative data collection included two different sources. First, nine semi-structured interviews [START_REF] Myers | The qualitative interview in IS research: Examining the craft[END_REF] were conducted from October to December 2017 with respondents from different departments. Two interviews were conducted face-to-face, with the rest conducted via telephone. Open-ended questions guided the interviews and focused on different shapes and roles of coordination. Since this study aims to investigate existing as well as emergent or even lack of coordination of public e-services, this approach enabled all performed interviews to contribute positively to the study. For reasons of space, only a selection of empirical findings are presented and analysed in this paper. Second, a hermeneutic literature review [START_REF] Boell | A hermeneutic approach for conducting literature reviews and literature searches[END_REF] was performed to increase our understanding of coordination in the form of mechanisms and emerging practices as well as coordination in a public e-service context. Therefore, during this study, the process of identifying and interpreting relevant literature was a continuous process affected by our developing knowledge of the focused research field. This study is thereby based on empirical data while using theory as a guide [START_REF] Walsham | Interpretive case studies in IS research: nature and method[END_REF]. Data analysis was conducted iteratively during data generation, and responses were categorized, as a part of a content analysis approach [START_REF] Krippendorff | Content analysis: An introduction to its methodology[END_REF]. Emerging categories were identified in previous research as an example of a reflexive research process [START_REF] Alvesson | Reflexive methodology: New vistas for qualitative research[END_REF]. To be able to model mechanisms and practices of coordination based on respondents' statements, the organizational and operational contexts were analysed in detail. This enabled the identification of formal as well as informal structures and activities of coordination and the lack thereof.

4

Coordinating e-services at the STA Below we present the analysis of e-services within the STA, based on the two selected theoretical lenses of coordination. The aim of the first stage of analysis (section 4.1) is twofold. First, we want to categorize the area of e-service coordination through the lens of coordination as mechanisms. Second, this stage serves as a stepping-stone providing us with crucial findings to perform the next stage of analysis. The aim of the second stage of the analysis (section 4.2) is to investigate the coordinating practice indicated by areas of mutual adjustment identified during the previous stage. For the second stage, we use an excerpt of empirical data collected at the Customer Service department.

E-service coordination mechanisms

The E-service Catalogue is located at the external website and provides a single point of access to the majority of the e-services provided by the agency. Services range from simple web-forms to advanced forms of e-services. Without any explicit direct supervision, the Communications department was responsible for bringing together all eservices as owned and provided by different departments into a central e-service catalogue. Hence, this created a need for interdepartmental coordination across the organization. As an example of mutual adjustment, the Communications department investigated and assessed the status of all e-services as well as located responsible departments and contact persons. Another example is the Customer Service department with caseworkers assigned to the tasks of handling incoming client cases via channels such as telephone and email. We perceive caseworkers as forced to take the responsibility of forming coordination elements and patterns of their own to be able to solve the cases at hand. Public agencies, as well as other government bodies, are requested to have a precisely formulated strategy on how to transpose the benefits of modern technology into government business, i.e. public sector digitalization. We, therefore, interpret the agency's Digitalization strategy as an example of direct supervision as driven by central strategies and policies on national as well as organizational level. However, we identify a gap between policy and operational level due to challenges of translating the aims of the policy into actual benefits for local operations. The mechanism of standardization is identified in current efforts regarding service design, the Service Forum, aimed at applying a standardized and aligned perspective and organization to assess and develop different kinds of services across the organization. The Service Forum is also identified as an example of direct supervision since we interpret this forum as an arena for increased coordination and operationalization of a service design model across the organization. However, with this forum potentially affecting processes as well as results across the organization, we have not seen any convergence between this coordination mechanism and structures and processes related to the internal handling of e-services within the agency. The Case Management Project is another example of an effort with distinct aims of providing coherent technical infrastructure for case handling across the organization hence, this project relates to technical standardization. Still, in its early stages, the project will require extensive and explicit coordination during its phases of design and implementation to provide the anticipated high level of standardized and automated coordination of cases. Moreover, this project will most likely have a significant impact on the internal handling of cases in turn linked to external e-services towards citizens.

E-service coordinating practices

We begin by expanding the scope of enacting disruption to include organizational contexts not covered by any formal mechanisms of coordination. Our interpretation of disruption marks a need for informal coordinating practices to solve the challenges at hand. The following statement describing the e-service landscape at the STA identifies this type of disruption. "From our perspective, it's very messy and complex. We wish to have a complete picture; that it should work in the same way everywhere." (Customer Service, interview). Caseworkers at the Customer Service department are struggling to handle the challenges of supporting a large number of different e-services, and the external e-service catalogue has had a rather unanticipated impact on this department regarding how client cases are forwarded internally. "Today it probably ends up at Customer Service. It's our contact number showing on the website and e-service forms, but it's just a service catalogue, really. When we receive the case, we handle it to be best of our ability." (Customer Service, interview). The e-service catalogue serves as a single point of access and therefore, from the client's view, creates an expectation of Customer Service being a similar single point of contact. Orienting to absence frequently occurs since caseworkers regularly face challenges needing the expertise of other employees across the organization. Caseworkers start orienting by trying to locate appropriate contact points across the organization; interpreted as an investigative and time-consuming effort.

A result of being an informal act of coordination, the lack of formal support, routines and procedures also results in new challenges. "Sometimes we detect problems in eservices, so we contact the Communications department, but they do not feel they want to act on the matter and the IT department feels they do not own this case since this is a form that goes to someone else. Therefore, we end up being caught in the middle. We identify problems that arise, but nobody wants to take responsibility." (Customer Service, interview). Instead of finding the appropriate contact point to report and solve these problems, different departments are engaged in negotiations about what party is responsible for a particular e-service. One assumption is that it would be in the Customer Service's self-interest to try to develop a higher level and more formal way of coordinating practice shared among caseworkers. However, findings point out the challenges of creating these more structured elements.

"So the biggest challenge is to keep track of what e-services are available and which one you should refer to and what to do with the different types of questions we receive" (Customer Service, interview).

Thereby, at Customer Service, we identify the cycle of creating elements as caseworkers establish the needed forms of coordination but so far, we have not been able to find any indications of these practices reaching beyond this particular cycle of creating elements. The cycles of forming and stabilizing patterns do not seem to apply in this empirical context. Instead, existing patterns seem to prescribe that the coordinating practice needs to be formed and re-formed on a case-by-case basis. "We have no list at the office showing contact persons for each e-service. We simply make contact with someone within the organization and investigate further. A lot of our work is done in this manner." (Customer Service, interview).

Discussion

Our study shows the presence of the two suggested forms of coordination from previous research within the STA; as planned mechanisms and as emerging practices in daily work. The agency applies different types of direct supervision and standardization in their efforts to formalize and anticipate actions [START_REF] March | Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Mintzberg | Structure in fives: designing effective organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Thompson | Organizations in action: Social science bases of administrative theory[END_REF]. We motivate this by how eservices are presented on the external website (E-Service Catalogue) and how cases are internally managed with the support from the new technical infrastructure (Case Management Project) potentially increasing internal efficiency as well as the external availability [e.g. [START_REF] Axelsson | Public e-services for agency efficiency and citizen benefit-Findings from a stakeholder centered analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Bertot | Universal and contextualized public services: Digital public service innovation framework[END_REF]. During the first stage of analysis, we identify mutual adjustment existing on the operative level [START_REF] Mintzberg | Structure in fives: designing effective organizations[END_REF] in contexts such as the E-service Catalogue and the caseworkers' handling of client cases in the Customer Service department. This coordination takes place in areas with very limited, or total absence of, direct supervision and standardization with a clear aim of problem-solving [START_REF] Ching | Reputation, learning, and coordination in distributed decision-making contexts[END_REF]. Coordinating activities thereby include characterizing dependencies and identifying potential coordination activities [START_REF] Malone | The interdisciplinary study of coordination[END_REF] as well as locating the needed expertise [START_REF] Faraj | Coordination in fast-response organizations[END_REF] across the organization. In contrast to the previously described analyst role in formal mechanisms acting upon coordination in the form of standardization, we perceive caseworkers as operative level coordination analysts or informal coordinators supporting activities based on mutual agreements [c.f. 3]. These activities are efforts to mitigate the effects of the absence or lack of formal coordination mechanisms.

To develop a better understanding of these mutual adjustments as areas of emerging coordinating practices, we use an empirical subset of data as the basis of stage two of the analysis. During the first cycle of enacting disruption, caseworkers describe the fragmented and heterogeneous e-service landscape as having a significant impact on their daily work preventing them from having a clear picture of the internal e-services linked to the external e-service catalogue. To solve client cases, caseworkers need the distributed knowledge from different departments across the organization such as Communications and IT, as well as specific departments in their roles as e-service providers. However, there is a lack of an internal overview of structures and dependencies such as internal case handling systems linked to external e-services. This indicates a lack of understanding of the different roles of e-services; as artefacts, as well as interlinked processes [START_REF] Lindgren | Electronic services in the public sector: A conceptual framework[END_REF]. We also interpret this as a result of the complexity and fragmentation in the organization [START_REF] Klievink | Coordinating e-government service delivery[END_REF] combined with a lack of knowledge and support regarding organizational interdependencies behind these e-services. Thereby, caseworkers need to bridge this gap on a daily and operational basis, a gap to which we, in this context, assign the concept of disruption.

During the cycle of orienting to absences, caseworkers start to assess and investigate further the situation in their efforts to deconstruct the problem at hand into manageable elements. Since cases regarding e-services do not follow any organizational structures or boundaries [START_REF] Klievink | Coordinating e-government service delivery[END_REF], caseworkers try to identify dependencies to be able to perform activities of horizontal coordination in each case. Since there is no clear picture of the eservice landscape, they usually approach an actor deemed suitable as the first contact for the continued investigation. When clients report problems of a more general nature on the website, caseworkers approach internal support functions such as Communications and IT departments. It is therefore interesting to learn that these support functions seem to avoid taking any responsibility and act upon such cases. This can be interpreted as another indication of a lack of knowledge and understanding of the eservice landscape as well as a consequence of the caseworkers' lack of authority in their roles as coordinators [START_REF] Lawrence | Differentiation and Integration in Complex Organizations[END_REF].

When creating elements, caseworkers depend on their individual experiences and tacit knowledge of dependencies linking the external e-service to internal department functions to facilitate the creation of the needed coordination in each case. This is also an example of the agency's lack of acknowledgment and support of caseworkers at Customer Service in their roles as informal coordinators. Acting without any support of formal coordination, such as direct supervision [START_REF] Mintzberg | Structure in fives: designing effective organizations[END_REF], this prevents the development of any stabilized and formalized patterns to support further coordinating activities. Without any formal acknowledgment and support, coordinating practices take place, but in a significantly un-coordinated way. From our point of view, caseworkers at Customer Service have a vital role as informal coordinators; a role that needs be both formally acknowledged and supported by the organization.

The main findings of this study are the following three: First, by addressing RQ1, we confirm that activities related to internal structures and processes related to e-services are coordinated in several ways ranging from direct supervision and standardization to mutual adjustment and emerging coordinating practices. Findings show several informal coordination activities performed without the informal coordinator, e.g. caseworkers at Customer Service department, being aware of underlying interdependencies between different structures and processes. This results in a disability to support other coordinating activities, as well preventing any forming and stabilizing patterns of recurring coordinating activities [START_REF] Jarzabkowski | Toward a theory of coordinating: Creating coordinating mechanisms in practice[END_REF]. Second, by answering RQ2, we describe and analyse the identified contexts and occurrences of coordination where the first analytical stage focuses on coordination mechanisms thus guiding the second stage where a deeper understanding of coordinating as practice is developed. Hence, this approach enables us to uncover and investigate the complexity and interdependencies of coordinating mechanisms as well as coordinating practice in daily activities. Third, as a result of this study, we put forth the need to expand existing formal oriented views of coordination, such as fixed sets of coordination mechanisms, with perspectives that can potentially identify and capture emerging informal dimensions of coordinating. By addressing RQ3, we thereby agree with scholars such as Malone and Crowston [START_REF] Malone | The interdisciplinary study of coordination[END_REF] and Jarzabkowski et al. [START_REF] Jarzabkowski | Toward a theory of coordinating: Creating coordinating mechanisms in practice[END_REF] emphasizing a balanced handling of organizational actions and a need to consider and understand coordination as mechanisms as well as practice.

6

Concluding remarks and future research

In this study, we apply two views on coordination to empirical data to further investigate and analyse formal and informal dimensions of coordination in a fragmented and heterogeneous public agency e-service context. Although the agency was seeking one generic way or a 'one-size-fits-all' approach, e.g. a framework or best practice, to coordinate internal e-services, our findings point towards the need of also considering more balanced, dynamic and flexible views of coordination in this area. By applying an emergent view on coordination, we also agree with Okhuysen and Bechky [START_REF] Okhuysen | Coordination in organizations: An integrative perspective[END_REF] stating that "coordination is an ongoing accomplishment in organizations." (p. 493). In this paper we, therefore, conclude that the e-services to be coordinated do not depend on technical dimensions of the artefacts, formal structures and mechanisms alone; they are also intertwined with organizational and social constructs inherent to the accepted working practices and informal relationships and dependencies among participating actors [c.f. 8, 9]. The implications of this study assumes a need to look beyond pre-formulated fixed-set view and instead increase our sensitivity to the emerging dynamics of coordination in public sector digitalization. As our final conclusion in this paper, we argue that being too focused on a single or formal views of coordination will delimit the organization from a broader in-depth understanding of the informal dimensions of coordinating as emerging activities.

We put forth the added value of combining approaches of coordination that cover planned as well as emerging forms of coordination, in research as well as in practice. This combination of views is in agreement with Jarzabkowski et al. [START_REF] Jarzabkowski | Toward a theory of coordinating: Creating coordinating mechanisms in practice[END_REF] emphasizing the need for looking beyond fixed and ready to be used views of coordination. We are fully aware that various governance approaches, such as IT-governance frameworks, can address challenges of internal coordination of public e-services. However, such frameworks focus on formal management in terms coordination and direction of ITrelated decisions. As a contrast, we stress the importance of understanding the informal dimension of coordinating as practice on the organizational level. We argue that this will improve the understanding of the objects of coordination (e-services), as well as its organizational context. However, emergent coordinating activities can be challenging to identify while placing formal coordination in the foreground. There is also an inherent risk of bias towards the anticipated outcome of coordination as known a priori.

Regarding the limitations of this study, it could be argued that it was performed during a limited timeframe with a rather small sample size in one single organization hence, the level of generalizability should be considered low. However, as stated in the introduction, given our study's qualitative and interpretive character, our aim is not to provide any statistically generalizable results, but rather put forward the need of a better understanding of different shapes and roles of coordination by presenting and applying one potential approach where formal mechanisms as well as informal practices of coordination can be potentially integrated, an provide an illustrative case with analytical generalizability. Since this is our first attempt bringing these two theoretical lenses of coordination mechanisms and coordinating practices together, we seek to further develop our understanding of the complexity and interwoven character of technical, organizational and social dimensions of internal coordination, in an e-government context in general and in an e-service context in particular. A particular area of interest in future research is to further develop the suggested approach of combining and mutually adjusting or coordinating, formal coordination and informal coordinating activities for an increased understanding of the different shapes and forms of coordination.

  describe three predominant modes of coordination as impersonal by plans or programming, personal by mutual adjustments or feedback and group-based by unscheduled or scheduled activities. Partly based on March and Simon [2], Mintzberg develops the following set of coordination mechanisms: (1) mutual adjustment, (2) direct supervision, (3) standardization of skills and norms, (4) work processes, and (

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the Swedish Transport Administration.