Prince Kwame Senyo
email: pksenyo@ug.edu.gh

Kecheng Liu
email: k.liu@henley.ac.uk

John Effah
email: jeffah@ug.edu.gh

A Framework for Assessing the Social Impact of Interdependencies in Digital Business Ecosystems

Keywords: Digital Business Ecosystem (DBE), Interdependence Assessment, Social Impact Assessment, Organisational Semiotics, Framework

As digital technology continues to pervade many organisations, new collaborative models such as digital business ecosystems (DBEs) emerge. DBE is a socio-technical network of digital platforms, processes, individuals and organisations from different industries that collectively create value. In DBEs, participants interdepend on each other and technology platforms to develop individual capabilities required to deliver value to end-users. Notwithstanding the benefits of DBE, a key challenge for focal partners is how to assess the social impact of the various interdependencies. Social impact refers to the social effect of interdependencies on DBE participants. More often, the focus has been on assessing the operational impact of interdependencies while limited attention has been paid to the social perspective. However, we argue that the social impact of interdependencies is equally important since it can significantly affect value cocreation. In this study, we develop a framework to help focal partners assess the social impact of interdependencies in DBEs. An empirical case study of a port DBE is used to illustrate our framework.

Introduction

Organisations are forming strategic alliances beyond their traditional industry boundaries to collectively create greater value. As such, new collaborative value creation webs such as digital business ecosystems (DBEs) have emerged. DBE is a socio-technical network of digital platforms, processes, individuals and organisations from different industries that collectively create value [START_REF] Nachira | A network of digital business ecosystems for Europe: roots,processes and perspectives[END_REF]. DBE platforms offer participants opportunities to develop individual innovations that serve as inputs in value co-creation. At the core of DBE are complex interdependencies between entities such as technology platforms, processes, individuals and organisations.

Interdependence refers to an interaction between entities such as processes [START_REF] Crowston | Process as theory in information systems research[END_REF], organisations [START_REF] Tan | Towards a Self-Organizing Digital Business Ecosystem: Examining IT-Enabled Boundary Spanning Practice of China's LeEco[END_REF] and technologies [START_REF] Bailey | Minding the Gaps: Understanding Technology Interdependence and Coordination in Knowledge Work[END_REF]. These interactions create a network of interdependencies that influence value co-creation, effectiveness and resilience of DBEs. As a result, for focal DBE partners, it is extremely important to understand the impact of the various interdependencies. However, due to multiple DBE interdependencies, this ideal understanding is difficult to obtain [START_REF] Pentland | A thermometer for interdependence: Exploring patterns of interdependence using networks of affordances[END_REF]. Thus, there is a need for systematic approaches to assess the impact of DBE interdependencies, especially from the social perspective.

There have been some approaches to assess interdependencies such as interdependence pattern measurement [START_REF] Pentland | A thermometer for interdependence: Exploring patterns of interdependence using networks of affordances[END_REF], interdependence process assessment [START_REF] Crowston | Process as theory in information systems research[END_REF], technology interdependence measurement [START_REF] Bailey | Minding the Gaps: Understanding Technology Interdependence and Coordination in Knowledge Work[END_REF] and interdependence profitability assessment [START_REF] Lenox | Does interdependency affect firm and industry profitability? An empirical test[END_REF]. However, per our knowledge, no study has accounted for the social impact of interdependencies in DBEs. We define social impact as the social effect of interdependencies on DBE participants [START_REF] Hall | The silient language[END_REF][START_REF] Stamper | Information in business and administrative systems[END_REF]. For instance, the effect of a new interdependence on someone's job security could be referred to as a social impact of the interdependence. In recent times, calls have been made for expansion in the scope of assessment approaches to consider social factors [START_REF] Liu | Modelling complex systems for project planning: a semiotics motivated method[END_REF][START_REF] Sun | Evaluating business value of IT towards optimisation of the application portfolio[END_REF]. In addressing some of these calls, this study develops a framework to assess the social impact of interdependencies in DBEs.

The rest of this paper is structured as follows. Section 2 presents the background and related works on DBE, interdependence impact assessment approaches and social impact effects. Next, Section 3 presents the proposed framework while Section 4 illustrates its application in a vehicle clearing domain of Ghana's main port, Tema Harbour hereafter referred to as Ghana's port DBE. Section 5 concludes the paper with implications for research and practice.

2

Background and Related Works

Digital Business Ecosystem

DBE is an internet driven socio-technical environment that focuses on collective value creation between diverse entities [START_REF] Stanley | The ABC of Digital Business Ecosystems[END_REF]. Typically, DBEs are characterised by complex interdependencies between organisations and individuals, technology platforms and processes that cut across industry boundaries. With these interdependencies come conflict of norms, values, beliefs and strategies due to diversity of participants. In some cases, the perception of stakeholders about an interdependence may affect their productivity [START_REF] Liu | Modelling complex systems for project planning: a semiotics motivated method[END_REF]. Indeed, there may be resistance and sometimes sabotage from stakeholders if they feel unease about the impact of some interdependencies. Thus, it is important to constantly assess the impact of interdependencies to address conflicts that may affect productivity. Though there have been some studies on DBE, a key aspect such as interdependence assessment is still under-researched. In the extant information systems literature, some studies have focused on providing a foundational understanding of DBE by explicating definitions, origin and characteristics [START_REF] Nachira | A network of digital business ecosystems for Europe: roots,processes and perspectives[END_REF][START_REF] Stanley | The ABC of Digital Business Ecosystems[END_REF]. Alternatively, some DBE studies also focus on platforms [START_REF] Tiwana | Evolutionary Competition in Platform Ecosystems[END_REF], capability development [START_REF] Selander | Capability search and redeem across digital ecosystems[END_REF], system integration [START_REF] Korpela | Digital Supply Chain Transformation toward Blockchain Integration[END_REF], and norm evolution [START_REF] Senyo | Evolution of norms in the emergence of digital business ecosystems[END_REF]. Notwithstanding the contributions from these studies, a critical area like social impact assessment of DBE interdependence is still open and less researched. Hence, the need for further studies to consolidate understanding and support development of DBE.

Interdependence Impact Assessment Approaches

Although there is a paucity of approaches for interdependence assessment in general, a few exceptions exist [e.g., 1, 5, 8]. For instance, Pentland et al. [START_REF] Pentland | A thermometer for interdependence: Exploring patterns of interdependence using networks of affordances[END_REF] present an approach conceptualised as "interdependence thermometer" that transforms digital trace data into networks to visualize and measure patterns of routine interdependencies. The findings reveal that using artefacts to evaluate interdependence enables better understanding and visualising of relationships that are intuitively difficult to comprehend. In another strand, Bailey et al. [START_REF] Bailey | Minding the Gaps: Understanding Technology Interdependence and Coordination in Knowledge Work[END_REF] proposed the "technology gap" approach to understand how two groups of engineers traverse interdependencies between technologies during their course of work. The findings reveal that the first group of engineers built automated data transfer process to address technology interdependencies gaps while the others allowed the gaps to exist, resulting in delays. While these insights from the existing approaches are important, some limitations still exist. First, the extant approaches focus on measuring patterns of interdependence while understanding of the social impact of these interdependencies remains limited. Second, the existing approaches have largely assessed interdependencies at the organisational level [START_REF] Lenox | Does interdependency affect firm and industry profitability? An empirical test[END_REF] while limited understanding exists at the DBE level. Given the current pace at which DBEs are emerging across organisational boundaries, it is only prudent to develop approaches that align with this new collaborative network.

Social Effects of Interdependencies in DBEs

From organisational semiotics, social effect refers to conditions that influence people's perception of a situation [START_REF] Stamper | Information in business and administrative systems[END_REF]. For instance, social effects may have an impact on people's well-being, values and norms. In the extant information systems literature, social effects have not been largely accounted for in prior interdependence assessment approaches, calls have been made [START_REF] Liu | Modelling complex systems for project planning: a semiotics motivated method[END_REF][START_REF] Sun | Evaluating business value of IT towards optimisation of the application portfolio[END_REF] for this consideration as these effects may influence people's productivity. In some cases, the perception of individuals about an effect may create fear and resistance to undertake certain activities. As a result, this may negatively affect how they undertake their work. In this study, we draw on Hall's [START_REF] Hall | The silient language[END_REF] 10 social dimensions as the foundation for our proposed social impact assessment framework. Table 1 presents the 10 social dimensions and their description.

Framework for assessing the social impact of DBE interdependencies

This section presents our proposed framework to assess the social impact of DBE interdependencies. The framework as presented in Figure 1 has three main components, namely: (1) DBE context articulation, (2) interdependence profiling and (3) interdependence social impact assessment. These components as discussed below iteratively depict inherent steps to assess the social impact of DBE interdependencies. As a result, it is important to clearly delineate the scope to evaluate. This component consists of two approachesunit system definition and interdependence articulation.

The unit system definition enables articulation of subsystems in a domain. The unit system definition as presented in Figure 2 involves identification and examination of the various subsystems in a domain through observation, review of standard operating procedures and interactions with participants. The main elements of the unit systems definition are date, unit system ID, version of analysis, unit system name, description as well as sub-unit systems involved.

Date: Unit system ID: Version No: Unit System Name Unit System Description Sub-Unit Systems

Fig. 2. Unit system definition approach

After defining the unit systems in a DBE, the various interdependencies are articulated. We propose an interdependence articulation approach (See Fig. 3) to aid this process. The independence articulation approach supports the identification of the various interdependencies in a unit system. The main elements of the approach are unit system, interdependence ID and name as well as DBE entities involved in an interdependence. Interdependence articulation can be undertaken by observation, review of standard operating procedures and interaction with relevant stakeholders.

Unit System

Interdependence ID Interdependence Name Entities Involved Interdependence profiling. This component derives relevant information on interdependencies needed to conduct the social impact assessment. Figure 4 shows the interdependence profiling approach and details its elements, namely interdependence ID, date, version number, name, description, outcome, business processes, as well as entities involved. The ID is a unique identifier for interdependencies while date and version details the period and number of analysis iterations undertaken respectively. The interdependence description details what an interdependence entails while the outcome presents the goal of an interdependence. The business processes depict series of actions to accomplish an interdependence. Lastly, the entities involved in an interdependence are listed with their respective responsibilities. Interdependence social impact assessment. This last component measures and provides results on the social impact of interdependencies in a DBE. The social impact assessment determines the perception of partners in relation to interdependencies they participate in and how these interdependencies affect their ultimate productivity. We draw on Hall's [START_REF] Hall | The silient language[END_REF] 10 social dimensions as criteria for the social impact assessment. Figure 5 shows the social impact assessment approach that articulates how stakeholders perceive interdependencies in a DBE. Each partners' perception is assessed with a positive and negative scale where +3 and -3 represent the most positive and negative impacts respectively with respect to their interdependencies. At the end, the total scores are aggregated based on the two equations below to determine the overall perception of partners on the social impact of interdependencies.

Interdependencies

𝐶 𝑗 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑗 10 𝑖=1 ( 1
)
where Cj is the total score of all partners on an interdependence (e.g. INT1) by aspect i

𝑆 𝑖 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝑛 𝑗=1 ( 2
)
where Si is the total score of the impact of the 10-social dimensions assessed by partner j; n is the total number of partners

Case Study: Ghana's port digital business ecosystem

To illustrate the applicability of our framework, we used Ghana's port DBE as a case study. We selected this case because it provides an empirical instantiation of a DBE, featuring characteristics of complex interdependencies between diverse participants from different industries, technology platforms and processes. Ghana is an African country bordered by the Gulf of Guinea and the Atlantic Ocean to the South. As such, some landlocked countries heavily utilise Ghana's ports as a transit point. The key partners in the port are the Ghana Ports and Harbours Authority (GPHA), the Customs Division of the Ghana Revenue Authority (hereafter referred to as Customs), shipping lines, scanner operators, freight forwarders, terminal operators, Government Ministries, Departments and Agencies as well as importers and exporters.

To illustrate our framework, we present a high-level generic vehicle clearing process as follows: 1) Importer relies on the electronic ministries, departments and agencies (e-MDA) platform to obtain unique consignment reference (UCR), 2) Importer relies on the e-MDA platform to submit import declaration form (IDF), 3) Importer depends on the Pre-Arrival Assessment Reporting System (PAARS) to apply for Customs Classification and Valuation Report (CCVR), 4) Customs valuation officers use the PAARS to process application for CCVR, 5) Importer uses the Ghana Customs Management Systems (GCMS) to submits Customs declaration, 6) Customs compliance officers process declaration using the GCMS, 7) Importer relies on the bank to make duty and other charges payment, 8) Importer uses the Ghana Integrated Cargo Clearance System (GICCS) to make request for shipping release, 9) Customs examination officers use GCMS to release vehicle after physical examination and 10) Importer relies on the Driver and Vehicle Licensing Authority (DVLA) for temporary number plate. For this study, four separate set of questionnaires were designed in conjunction with Hall's 10 social dimensions for data collection. Data were collected from each group of partners in the interdependencies. This is because different groups of partners are involved in each interdependence in the vehicle clearing process.

Using our framework (see Figure 1), the result of the unit system definition in Ghana's port DBE is presented in Figure 6. From the case, Ghana's port DBE can be decomposed into many unit systems. As established earlier, our focus is the vehicle clearing domain, so we identified this as the unit system (U1) of concern. From the analysis, U1 is composed of four sub-unit systems represented as U1.1 to U1. [START_REF] Korpela | Digital Supply Chain Transformation toward Blockchain Integration[END_REF] Next, we articulate interdependencies in the unit system defined (U1). Using the interdependence articulation approach, we identified 10 interdependencies in the unit system. Figure 7 shows the unit system, interdependencies articulated as well as entities involved.

Unit System ID Interdependence Name Entities Involved U1 <<vehicle clearing domain>>

INT1

Importer relies on the e-MDA platform to obtain UCR online

 Importer  E-MDA INT2
Importer relies on the e-MDA platform to submit IDF  Importer  E-MDA INT3 Importer depends on the PAARS to apply for CCVR  Importer

 PAARS INT4

Customs valuation officers use the PAARS platform to process CCVR online

 Customs  PAARS INT5
Importer uses the GCMS to submits Customs declaration

 GCMS  Importer INT6
Customs compliance officers process declaration using the GCMS

 Customs  GCMS INT7
Importer relies on the bank to make duty and other charges payment

 Importer  Bank INT8
Importer uses the GICCS to make shipping release request

 GICCS  Importer INT9
Customs examination officers use GCMS to release a vehicle after a physical examination

 Customs  GCMS INT10
Importer relies on DVLA for temporary number plate  Importer  DVLA Fig. 7. Interdependence articulation from U1 of Ghana's port DBE Based on the second component of our framework, we perform interdependence profiling on our case study. The aim of interdependence profiling is to analyse the interdependencies articulated in the unit system (U1) so that more information can be derived to enable the social impact assessment. Figure 8 shows a sample interdependence profile detailing information on the description, outcome, business processes, entities involved as well as their responsibilities. Lastly, we perform the social impact assessment on the interdependencies identified in the vehicle clearing unit system. For all the interdependencies identified, we first compute the average score for each interdependence based on the ten social dimensions. Second, we aggregate the score for each social dimension in respect of each interdependence horizontally and vertically using equation ( 1) and ( 2) above. Figure 9 shows the social impact scores of the various interdependencies on the ten social dimensions. office to purchase a temporary number plate to move vehicles from the port. This manual process results in delays, favouritism and corruption. As such, importers view this interdependence as a hindrance to effective and efficient processes in vehicle clearing.

𝑪 𝒋 = ∑ 𝑽𝒊𝒋 𝟏𝟎 𝒊=𝟏 Subsistence 1 3 2 1 2 2 3 -1 1 -1 13 Classification 2 2 1 0 2 2 1 0 3 0 13 Territoriality 3 2 2 0 3 -1 -1 -1 1 -3 5 Temporality -1 0 2 -2 0 2 -1 1 0 -1 0 Learning 0 1 2 1 1 2 -1 -1 -1 -2 2 Recreation 0 2 2 0 2 1 1 -1 2 -2 7 Protection 2 2 2 1 2 2 0 0 2 -1 12 Exploitation -2 -1 0 -2 0 2 0 -1 0 -1 -5 Association 1 1 1 -1 1 1 0 -1 0 -1 2 Interaction 0 2 1 0 2 2 0 0 -2 -1 4
𝑆 𝑖 = ∑ 𝑉𝑖𝑗 𝑛 𝑗=1 6
On the ten social dimensions, the results show that subsistence and classification aspects had the highest impact on interdependencies in U1. This can be explained by the perception of partners on the limited threat of job security of these interdependencies. Currently, the laws in Ghana's port DBE protects jobs of most key participants, hence the positive attitude regarding the social impact of interdependencies in U1. The limited discrimination in the port can be attributed to high process automation, thereby reducing face-to-face interaction in most interdependencies. Conversely, the exploitation, temporality, learning and association aspects recorded the lowest impact scores respectively. This result can be attributed to the presence of some loopholes in some interdependencies where importers are exploited. Also, in the current clearing processes, most activities are undertaken during the day, hence the low temporality impact score. At present, the clearing procedure offers limited avenues to learn new skills due to the routine nature of processes, hence the low impact score. Lastly, the low association score can be explained by digitalisation of many processes, leading to limited collaboration among partner groups.

In sum, we argue that critical attention is needed on interdependencies INT 10, 8, 4 and 7 since their social impact scores might negatively affect ultimate productivity of the unit system. Similarly, more attention should be paid to exploitation, temporality, learning, interaction and association aspects of interdependencies in the unit system as these have all recorded awful social impact scores. However, attempts should be made to improve on other interdependencies and social dimensions that recorded reasonable social impact scores.

Discussion and Conclusion

This study developed a framework to assess the social impact of interdependencies in DBEs since limited attention has been paid to the effect of social factors in prior approaches [e.g., 1, 5, 8]. The case illustration above demonstrates how our framework offers mechanisms to assess the social impact of interdependencies taking into consideration multiple perceptions of partners in a DBE. Using our framework, we successfully articulate a DBE's context, interdependencies and their social impacts. From our results, it is evident that interdependencies that involve face-to-face recorded low social impact scores as they are largely characterised by corruption, extortion and delays. Conversely, interdependencies that occur via technology platforms recorded high social impact scores. By providing a framework and demonstrating how to assess the social impact of interdependencies of a DBE, our study makes contributions to research and practice. From research perspective, this study brings new theoretical inspiration to DBE research through our framework and application of organisational semiotics principles. In addition, we contribute to research by applying Hall's social dimensions in two new domains -DBE and interdependence domains since it has mostly been used for infor-mation technology systems analysis, planning and development. Practically, our framework presents a tool for practitioners in DBEs to assess and respond to social impact of interdependencies. With this tool, practitioners can make decision on which interdependencies to revise or maintain to improve value co-creation in a DBE. Our study is limited by the sole focus on social impact assessment. Thus, future studies may add other assessment dimensions such as operational and strategic aspects to present a complete evaluation method. Also, our study is limited to one-to-one interdependencies. Future studies can investigate one-to-many or many to many interdependencies.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. DBE framework for assessing the social impact of interdependencies

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Interdependence articulation approach

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Interdependence profiling approach

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Social impact assessment approach

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Unit system definition in Ghana's port DBE

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. Independence profiling

Fig. 9 .

 9 Fig. 9. Interdependence impact scores of the vehicle clearing unit systemFrom the results, interdependencies INT 3, 5 and 6 have the most positive impact scores[START_REF] Tiwana | Evolutionary Competition in Platform Ecosystems[END_REF] in the vehicle clearing domain U1. Conversely, interdependencies INT 10, 8 and 4 have the most negative impact scores (-13, -5 and 2) respectively. For instance, the importers in interdependence INT 10 perceived it to have the lowest negative impact. This negative impact score can be explained by the face-to-face interactions involved in the interdependence. Importers require fast processes as delays may result in more operational cost. However, this interdependence requires importers to queue at DVLA's

Table 1 .

 1 Ten social dimensions[START_REF] Hall | The silient language[END_REF][START_REF] Sun | Evaluating business value of IT towards optimisation of the application portfolio[END_REF]

	Aspects	Description
	Association	Grouping, alliances e.g., the formation of teams to evoke com-
		petitiveness and sense of belonging of participants
	Subsistence	Physical and economic matters related to existences e.g., im-
		pact of an interdependence on income or job security
	Classification	Differentiation of people by gender, age, level of education
		e.g. whether an interdependence improves equal opportunity
		for all
	Territoriality	Accessibility e.g., the impact of an interdependence may lead
		to an erosion of control, influence, or loss of authority

Temporality Time division, synchronous, asynchronous e.g. issues of time zone differences caused by an interdependence Learning Sharing knowledge, gaining awareness e.g., de-skill or more opportunity for learning new skills within an interdependence Recreation Fulfilment, joy e.g., whether the job becomes more interesting or boring within an interdependence Protection Fairness, rights e.g., granting file rights access to the appropriate groups of people and maintain the confidentiality of information Exploitation Individual's vs organisation's interests e.g., cutbacks on operating costs with salary-cut, retrenchment or longer working hours Interaction Interrelations and communications, e.g., fostering collaborative attitudes in the workplace

  which can also be further decomposed to lower granularity if necessary.This unit system covers activities involved in clearing vehicles at Ghana's port.

	Date: 17/1/2018	Unit system ID: U1	Version: 1.0
	Unit System Name	<<Vehicle Clearing Unit System>>
	Unit System
	Description
	Sub-Unit Systems	U1.1 Import declaration processing, U1.2 Duty and taxes payment, U1.3 Physical
		examination and U1.4 Vehicle release processing


Kwasi Dankwa
email: k.d.dankwa@pgr.reading.ac.uk

Keiichi Nakata
email: k.nakata@henley.ac.uk

Getting it Right: A Model for Compliance Assessment

Keywords: Compliance Assessment Model, Quality Management System, Activity Theory, Technology Acceptance Model

de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The quest for organisations to produce safety critical products and to meet customer needs has led to ubiquitous implementation of systems and processes that supports compliance. To these organisations, compliance is a way of ensuring that they get it right at the first time to reduce reworking processes and wastage of resources. Thus, compliance to rules, regulations, policies and standard is essential. Consequently, tools, frameworks and models have been put in place to assess practice and to ensure that compliance requirements are met. Some of these tools include Compliance Action Framework [START_REF] O'neill | An action framework for compliance and governance[END_REF], Analytical Framework for Behaviour Analysis [START_REF] Hirschauer | An analytical framework for a behavioural analysis of non-compliance in food supply chains[END_REF] and ICT Approach [START_REF] Governatori | ICT Support for Regulatory Compliance of Business Processes[END_REF]. However, non-compliances have been reported as most of the existing systems have failed to assess the reasons behind the non-compliance behaviour or the compliance intention. There is therefore the need to consider other tools and approaches that incorporates compliance intentions of agents to aid in the management of non-compliance. The purpose of this research is therefore to develop a conceptual model for the assessment of compliance behaviour that considers the reasons behind the non-compliance behaviour. The paper starts by reviewing tools and models that have been applied in information systems, develop a conceptual model based on the literature review and evaluate the new conceptual model by assessing compliance behaviour to a Quality Management System (QMS).

2

Rational for the Model

Compliance Behaviour

The study of agents' attitudes and behaviour has a long history in information systems research and compliance behaviour is no exception. Compliance behaviour have been shown to be impacted by many factors which may include incentives, governance, controls, culture and behavioural issues. Because of this, researches in different disciplines have looked at compliance effects (for example, [START_REF] O'neill | An action framework for compliance and governance[END_REF], [START_REF] Hirschauer | An analytical framework for a behavioural analysis of non-compliance in food supply chains[END_REF] and [START_REF] Governatori | ICT Support for Regulatory Compliance of Business Processes[END_REF]) but there are still some gaps in theories and models to support compliance assessment. According to [START_REF] Warkentin | Behavioral and policy issues in information systems security: the insider threat[END_REF], management of compliance relies on the agents' behaviour to either follow requirements or not. Others [START_REF] Dankwa | Making Sense of Non-compliance: A Semiotic Approach[END_REF] indicate that norms within the organisation influence human behaviour which in turn influence compliance to QMS. Accordingly, understanding factors that influences adoption of the rules and regulations and the effects of norms will be useful in understanding non-compliance behaviour. The next sections will therefore review two models that considers acceptance and use of IS and the interaction that exist between the subjects and the objects in the organisation.

Extension of Technology Acceptance Model (TAM)

Over the year's researchers have worked to gain a better understanding of technology acceptance and implementation success in order to make the most of technology investments. User acceptance of technology is seen as the demonstrable intention on the part of the user group to employ information technology for the purpose it is set to be used for [START_REF] Dillon | User acceptance of new information technology: theories and models[END_REF]. Technology Acceptance Model (TAM) is one of the models which has captured the attention of the Information Systems (IS) community. It proposes that the behavioural intention by a user to use a system is influenced by perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the system which influences the actual use. Application and extension of TAM will aid the assessment of compliance behaviour because of its use in explaining and predicting acceptance behaviour of agents. Moreover, most of the compliance requirements are formulated into IS, as such the extension of TAM is considered as appropriate; we argue that the factors that influence user behaviour to accept and use technology for the purpose it was introduced can be applicable in assessment of compliance activities. This is because, for a staff to exhibit compliance behaviour, they must accept to follow the rules and regulations as required in consonance with TAM. We further argue that, because compliance is influenced by intention of the user, the success in using TAM to predict acceptance and use of technology can be extended to the analysis of compliance behaviour. According to [START_REF] Venkatesh | User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view[END_REF], behavioural intention is the formulated conscious plans to perform or not to perform certain specified future behaviour. Since adherence to set of rules or regulations is a behavioural manifestation of compliance, we argue that understanding the factors that influence behavioural intention is relevant in analysing compliance behaviour. Consequently, by understanding user's acceptance of compliance requirements, assessment of the reasons for the compliance behaviour can be made. Essentially, use of TAM to assess acceptance of technology may be extended to assess acceptance and compliance to rules and regulations.

Extension of Activity Theory

Activity theory is a conceptual framework with "activity" being the foundational concept. This is understood as useful as it develops interaction between the subjects and the world objects [START_REF] Kaptelinin | Activity Theory[END_REF]. An activity is defined by an object and this may be material thing, a plan or a common idea which is manipulatable by the participants of the activity [START_REF] Kuuti | Activity Theory as a Potential Framework for Human-Computer Interaction Research[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Abdullah | Activity Theory as Analytical Tool: A Case Study of Developing Student Teachers' Creativity in Design[END_REF] activity theory has been found to be effective in providing insights into all aspects of interactions and contradictions in processes. Its application in this research is therefore relevant as the processes within the organisation involves activities. As the subjects interact with the object by use of the tools and rules [START_REF] Engestrom | Learning by expanding: An activity -theoretical approach to developmental research[END_REF], the outcome of the interaction may be assessed. This interaction between the subject and the object is mainly characterized by two key aspects; the subjects of activities have needs which should be met. With organisations having needs, we argue that this theory will allow for the activities of the subjects to meet these needs to be assessed. It affords a process of reviewing the factors that are critical to the interaction between the subject and the object.

The next sections describe the conceptual model development, collection of data and evaluation of data.

Methodology

To meet the objective of the research, a design is considered that seek to understand the subjects view of a QMS. To do this, a conceptual model was developed by an extension of TAM with constructs in Activity Theory. Questions were formulated from the factors of the model and staff were interviewed to ascertain their views on the reasons behind non-compliance behaviour to a QMS.

Compliance Assessment Model

The proposed conceptual model, called Compliance Assessment Model (CAM) was developed as a synthesis of TAM and Activity Theory (Figure 1). CAM is based on the premise that; the subject has a need and interacts with the object to attain the outcome. This interaction by the subject is achieved by use of mediational means; tools, rules and division of labour. The compliant use of the tools by the subject is influenced by the perceived usefulness and perceived ease of use of the tools.

Fig. 1. Compliance Assessment Model

Data Collection

The purpose of this section was to facilitate the collection of data for analysis. The data collection process enabled collection of information from all the relevant sources in the sample population. This was to allow for the answering of the research problem and to aid evaluation of the outcomes. To do this, the data collection was performed by use of purposeful sampling method. Seven staff members (table 1) from different departments and staff grades in "a healthcare product provider" were selected for the interview. The selection of staff was based on their interaction with QMS and interviews were conducted over a period of 1 month with each interview lasting between 1 -2 hours using questions generated from the constructs of the conceptual model. Thematic analysis was then used to analyze the data gathered from the interviews.

Summary of Interview Data

The data collected from the interviews are summarized below. Community. There was expression that the community of staff influence each other in the way they behave towards the QMS. Staff F stated: "The collective attitude of staff in the department impacts on QMS and staff B indicated that "general shared frustration with the QMS within the Lab".

Division of Labour.

There was expression by staff that department structure (hierarchy) and stakeholders in other departments influences the way they related to the QMS. "My staff in the department are influenced by me and they take QMS seriously, but Senior management team do not influence me positively" (staff A). "The managers in the department see the QMS and the QA staff as police and as such this notion is transferred across" (staff D).

Perceived Usefulness. Staff expressed that if the QMS is perceived as useful for the task, then they may be inclined to comply all the time. "Yes, I see QMS to be a useful tool as such I use it" (staff G). "I don't think I need the QMS to do my routine process" (staff D).

Perceived Ease of Use. Staff expressed that if the QMS is perceived as easy to use, then staff compliance may increase as they will be more inclined to follow always. "I see it as easy to use but again application is varied across staff and department" (staff C). "If QMS is simple, accessible, easy to learn and readily available then it will be followed" (staff G).

Behavioural Intention. Some of the staff expressed that they intend to follow QMS always, but others had reservations in following QMS all the time. Staff F indicated "Yes. I see it as part of my day to day stuff, I see QMS as part of the process and so the intention is to use it". Staff B also asserted that they "I intend to comply in all cases but may not be happy doing that".

Actual Behaviour. Staff expressed mix-feelings that although they intend to follow the QMS, they do not follow always. "I am more likely to follow the QMS in emergency situation than in less little things due to the clunky nature of the QMS" (staff A). "I generally do but the timing may be the main non-compliance. This is because I know is important and required for the output of our process but following sequential process of the QMS may be difficult" (Staff B).

Findings and Discussion

Findings

Through the data collection and evaluation, three more constructs were noted: KPI's verses QMS, Resource and time allocation and Misunderstanding/misplaced roles. Summary of the 3 new constructs are stated below: KPI's Vs. QMS. Staff expressed that some of the KPIs tends to contradict the requirements of QMS and as such negatively influences compliance to QMS. Staff B indicated, "Some of the KPI's are to reduce number of quality incidents raised and as such staff will prefer not to raise a lot to meet the KPI". Staff G also stated, "Failure of management structure in line with KPIs etc. have also contributed to the failures in QMS".

Resource and Time Allocation. Staff expressed that the resource and time allocations are not always enough to achieve required outcome. "Not enough time given to do the work, but you are expected to do it; only interested in statistics and not the actual process been done effectively" (staff A). "Staff always rushing off their feet (very busy) which leads to the mistakes/errors and to ask them to then complete QI and all related QMS paperwork, they will prefer not to report it" (staff E).

Misunderstanding /Misplaced Roles. Staff expressed that there seem to be misunderstanding of roles within the department. Staff E stated, "Frontline people think that they are doing QA work as people in production will expect QA to be raising Qis dealing with issues and not them". Also, some of the staff indicated that actions of stakeholder's in other departments may impact negatively on them which may lead to non-compliance. "The department is like a hub so other department not conforming to the QMS will have an impact on our services as we can't be reliant on their report /results" (staff B).

Figure 2 shows the updated CAM model with the additional constructs based on the findings.

Fig. 2. Updated CAM Model

Discussion

The model was developed to assess the adoption and compliant use of the QMS in place. Data collected and analyzed showed that the tool was seen as relevant by the staff: "QMS is critical to the process and used to manage the quality of the products in the organisation" (Staff E). This showed that in order to attain the required outcome, the awareness of the tool is critical. This supports [START_REF] Engestrom | Learning by expanding: An activity -theoretical approach to developmental research[END_REF] who indicated that the tool is relevant to attain the desired transformation. Consequently, the availability and awareness of the tool is important for compliant behaviour. Although all the agents showed awareness of the importance of the QMS, there were some reservations. This may be attributed to the presentation of the QMS as a sign in the form of; standard operating procedures, equipment manuals and policies. The use of the QMS may therefore be dependent on the interpretation by the agents. As such the training, experience, participation in workshop, knowledge and social setup etc. of the department is relevant for the outcome. Moreover, because the subjects have needs [START_REF] Kaptelinin | Acting with technology: Activity theory and interaction design[END_REF] they will require the tools to attain their needs. Because of this their awareness of the tool is important. Essentially, as the subject aligns their values with the organisation [START_REF] Jenkinson | Compliance Culture[END_REF], a positive compliance culture is created that supports compliance behaviour. This was evident in the data collected as staff who accepted the values of the organisation were more willing to compliantly use the QMS. In using the QMS, the perceived usefulness of the tool was shown to influence the intention of the subjects. As stated by Staff G, "they see the QMS to be useful and as such they use it". This is consistent with [START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF], who indicated that perceived

Subject Attitude

Rules

QMS

Norms

Perceived Usefulness

Perceived ease of use

Behavioural intention

Actual Compliance

Object

Outcome

KPI

Community

QMS as a Tool

Resources

Division of Labour

Misplaced/mis understanding of roles usefulness exhibited stronger and more consistent relationship to adoption and use. Essentially, the acceptance by the subjects that they perceive the QMS to be useful, the more incline they are to exhibit compliance behaviour. Also, the ease of use of the QMS was shown to influence the outcome. Staff C indicated that "compliance behaviour may be enhanced if there is ease of interpretation of the QMS". This supports [START_REF] Park | The operators' non-compliance behaviour to conduct emergency operating procedures -Comparing with the work experience and the complexity of procedural steps[END_REF], the possibility of non-compliance behaviour will increase if the procedures are so complicated that the operators cannot clearly understand the context of required actions specified in the procedures. As such, if the QMS is complicated and not easily understood then it will not be compliantly followed. Data analysis showed that the community in which the subject operated influenced their behaviour. As stated by staff F, "there is collective attitude by staff to follow the QMS compliantly." This is consistent with [START_REF] Hofstede | Culture's Consequences: Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions, and organizations across nations (2nd edition)[END_REF] who stressed that community creates "collective programming of the mind" that makes groups unique and this can influence the pattern on thinking, feeling and potential interactions. As such, although the subjects may have diverse needs, they were all united by the norms within the department which influenced their compliance behaviour. Consequently, the social interactions act as the 'force behind' the observed activities. Importantly, social influence and interaction has a significant impact on the intention to use information systems [START_REF] Venkatesh | User acceptance of information technology: Toward a unified view[END_REF]; in this case the intention to compliantly use the QMS. Thus, the subjects exhibited confidence in their actions through similar activities of peers within the departments which likely influenced the compliance behaviour. Furthermore, as the subjects look up to their managers on a routine basis, their behaviour is shaped by them. The hierarchy influenced the behaviour of staff either negatively or positively. Also, because of the reliance of the subjects on other stakeholders in the 'process chain', the data showed that there was stakeholder influence on compliance behaviour. Here, the subject relied on the output of the processes from their stakeholders. As such the negative output from the stakeholders subsequently influence the subject's behaviour. This is consistent with [START_REF] Dankwa | Making Sense of Non-compliance: A Semiotic Approach[END_REF] who stressed that the reliance on the initiator in the 'life cycle' of responsibility ultimately influences the compliance behaviour; positively or negatively. Again, this was extended to stakeholders not fully understanding their roles which influence the interactions between the subjects and the object. Moreover, the resources in place (time, material) was essential in the subject's behaviour in that they influenced their approach to the process. There was evidence in the data as subjects indicated that they may not have enough time and as such may not compliantly follow the QMS. Another factor is the KPI's in place which were also seen to compete with the requirements of the QMS. As the staff strive to meet some of the KPI's they indicated that it affected their compliant use of the QMS. There is indication that staff intention to comply, was critical in their actual compliance behaviour. Staff who indicated that they always intend to comply also indicated that they actually comply to the use of the QMS. This is because the increased intentions may yield increased effort which may increase likelihood of the subject undertaking the behaviour [START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF]. Importantly, the data collected based on the model demonstrated its utility in assessing compliance behaviour.

Suitability and Benefit of the Updated CAM

From the evaluation of the updated CAM, the following suitability and benefits were observed.

1. The model will be useful in assessing subject intention to use the tool as prescribed which will be useful in predicting the actual use 2. Because the model assesses the impact of the KPI against the tool, it will be useful in helping to set clear KPI's that supports compliance behaviour. 3. The model will be suitable in assessing acceptance and adoption of a new tool and aid subsequent 'in use' evaluation of the tool. 4. The model will be useful in assessing and understanding resources required for interaction between the subject and the object to achieve the outcome. 5. The model will be useful in understanding and defining roles of subjects. This will also help in reviewing the impact of the leadership team on subject behaviour. 6. The model will be suitable in assessing the reasons behind non-compliance behaviour. This will be useful in setting clear actions which will help safety critical organisations to meet regulatory requirements.

Limitations of the Updated CAM

Although the analysis has shown that actual behaviour and as such compliance behaviour can be assessed by use of the conceptual model, the findings cannot be generalised due to the interpretive nature of the research. It is recommended that further research be repeated in other organisations and situations, and an alternative research design (e.g., a quantitative study) be used to enable triangulation.

Conclusion

This research was set up to develop a Compliance Assessment Model that assesses reasons behind the non-compliance behaviour of agents. The model was developed by synthesis of TAM and Activity Theory. The data collection and evaluation indicated that, the factors from the updated model will be useful in predicting compliance behaviour. This model will be useful in assessing adoption of the compliance requirements and aid observation of the interaction between the subject and object to realise the outcome. Essentially, the use of the CAM model may aid in assessment of compliance behaviour which will be useful in formulating behaviour change support systems to aid compliance.

Table 1 .

 1 Showing Job Titles of Staff Interviewed

	Staff	A	B	C	D	E	F	G
	Job Ti-	Deputy	Lab man-	Biomedi-	Trainee Bi-	Director	Assistant	Team su-
	tle	head of	ager	cal Sci-	omedical	of Lab	QA Man-	pervisor
		lab		entist	Scientist		ager	in lab
				Team
				manager

  Most of the staff indicated that they have accepting attitude towards the QMS, but some had reservations about the QMS in routine use (practice). "Is good and am open to the use of QMS even though I have occasions where I don't want to face using it" (staff B). "I find it useful at times when making decisions but at times I find it too picky as things that might not be as important in most cases (staff C)".

	Perceived Tool/ Mediation. The criticality of the QMS was expressed by staff. Staff E stated,
	Usefulness "QMS is critical to the process and used to manage the quality of the products in the Community Division of Labour
	organisation. It has contributed to increasing the quality of patient output and has
	helped to improve patient engraftment outcome and failed engraftment is now very
	rare". Also, staff B indicated "I see it as a fundamental part of the provision of
	Subject healthcare services and products". Rules	Behavioural	Compliance Actual	Outcome
	QMS	Attitude	intention	Object
	Norms
	Subject Attitude.
	Perceived	QMS as a
	ease of use	Tool

Acknowledgement. The authors would like to thank the Quality Assurance Department at the Blood Establishment for their cooperation and all the staff who took part in the interviews.


Manuel Ibarra
email: manuelibarra@gmail.com

Emerson Ñahuinlla

Wilfredo Soto

Vladimiro Ibañez

Angel Na- Varro

Waldo Ibarra

Understanding the Boundary between Information Systems and Organizational Semiotics: POS as Case Study

Keywords: Organizational Semiotics, Information System, Point of Sale, Restaurant. PRACMATICS intentions, communications, conversations, negotiations, … SEMANTICS meanings, propositions, validity, truth, signification, denotations, … SYNTACTICS formal structure, language, logic, Data, records, deduction, software, files, … EMPIRICS pattern, variety, noise, entropy, channel capacity, redundancy, efficiency, codes, … PHYSICAL WORLD signals, traces, traces, physical distinctions, hardware, component density, speed, economics, …

Information systems have played an important role in organizations, especially in the business field. Organizational semiotics is one of the social technical approaches that considers information through the signs, norms or activities performed within an organization. This paper proposes a conceptual design of the boundary between information systems and organizational semiotics. To perform this task, a Point of Sale (POS) information system for a restaurant was developed as a case study in Apurimac Peru. The system allows the waiter to customize the food and drink orders. To validate this proposal three type of techniques were performed: document review, observation and interview. Also participated in the proof of concept the following people: waiter, customer, owner, cashier and cook. The collected results highlight the three layers and the morphology in the restaurant information system linked to organizational semiotics.

Introduction

In recent years, Point of Sale (POS) information systems for restaurants have undergone interesting changes to implement various communication and information technologies to improve efficiency and customer service, among other aspects [START_REF] Ruiz-Molina | Information and communication technology as a differentiation tool in restaurants[END_REF]. Decades ago, the restaurants used cash registers and papers with pens for annotations, now restaurants use POS terminals with touch screens and mobile devices. These changes encompass both the software and hardware that top-performing restaurants are using today to improve: customer satisfaction, business operations and increase revenues. The definition of POS is a retail store, a cashier at the store, or the location where the transaction occurred. More specifically, POS often refers to the hardware and software used for checkouts -the equivalent of an electronic cash registers many years ago.

POS are used in supermarkets, restaurants, hotels, stadiums, and virtually any type of retail business.

With growth in the use of mobile technology, nowadays, in the restaurants waiters can improve the food ordering using "all in one" computers with touch screens and mobile devices like tablets or cell phones. The allure of mobility, which enables tableside ordering and payment processing, may be having the greatest impact on purchase decisions, at least in table service environments [START_REF] Bhargave | Digital Ordering System for Restaurant Using Android[END_REF].

According to Sarkar [START_REF] Sarkar | Integration of Touch Technology in Restaurants using Android[END_REF], the food ordering system, until a few years ago, was a completely manual process where a waiter used to note down orders from the customers using pen and paper, then take the orders to the kitchen, bring the food to the customer and then make the bill. Although this system was simple it required extensive investment in purchase and storage of paper, large manpower and also was prone to human errors and greater time consumption. In order to overcome these limitations in the manual systems, some systems were developed later like Personal Digital Assistant (PDA) based systems and touchable tablets restaurant management systems to automate food ordering process.

The restaurants are organizations with business that are highly prospective, because everyone has to eat and the amount of opportunities and the chance to grow are in line with the growing market. Employees and customers use signs, objects, norms and language to communicate each other, this means that they are using semiotics approach and information systems.

This article draws the relation between Information Systems and Organizational Semiotics, analyzing the objects of the ticket for Point of Sale System Information.

Section II of this article presents and discusses the document review; section III explains the design and implementation of the proposed design; section IV explains the findings of the proposed design; finally, section V describes the conclusions and future work of this research.

Document Review

Semiotics. Semiotics is the study of signs. Sign refers to anything that stands to someone for something else in a given context [START_REF] Stamper | Understanding the roles of signs and norms in organizations -a semiotic approach to information systems design[END_REF]. Also, it is the study of the meaning of sign processes and meaningful communication. This includes the study of signs and sign processes (semiosis), analogy, metaphor, symbolism, signification, and communication. Within the organizational semiotics literature, three forms of activities are discussed, namely substantive, communication and control [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in information systems engineering[END_REF]. Organizational Semiotics. Organizational Semiotics tries to understand organizations based on the use of all kinds of elements like: signs, texts, documents, sign-based artefacts and communication, thereby using the results of for instance psychology, sociology, economics, and information systems science as basic disciplines. One of the aims of organizational semiotics is to show what you are doing when you are trying to understand, design or change organizations in terms of the use of for instance models and metaphors. This is done in order to prevent people being trapped in the unconscious use of a specific metaphor or model type, and to make design space which is visible [START_REF] Gazendam | An organizational semiotic view on interculturality and globalization, Round Table Workshop[END_REF].

The Organizational Onion and Norms. The Organizational Onion categorizes Norms into three types: technical, formal and informal [START_REF] Liu | Semiotics in information systems engineering[END_REF] as shown in the Figure 1. Technical Norms represent formal norms that have been digitalized; Formal Norms are documented and bureaucratic rules or standards into the organization; and Informal Norms are unstructured and undocumented rules or standards [START_REF] Stamper | Understanding the roles of signs and norms in organizations -a semiotic approach to information systems design[END_REF]. Semiotic Triangle. The study of signs must be united with the study of norms. From a triadic perspective, Peirce's version of semiotic triangle presents semantic relationship between: sign, object and interpretant [START_REF] Stamper | Understanding the roles of signs and norms in organizations -a semiotic approach to information systems design[END_REF]. Figure 2 shows that, as one interpretation, the interpretant must have knowledge or norm in order to associate the sign with the object.

Fig. 2. The Semiotic Triangle

Semiotics and Information Systems. Stamper [7] has developed a semiotic framework (figure 3) which guides us in examining all the aspects of the signs and studying how signs are used for communication and coordination in an organizational context.

Interpretant Object Sign

Formal Norms (Physical)

Informal Norms (Physical)
Technical Norms (Digital)

Fig. 3. The Semiotic Framework proposed by Stamper

Organizations have both a technical and a social dimension and their performance relies heavily on their ability to integrate both of these dimensions. From this semiotic perspective the IT platform serves the technical business operations whilst the human information functions capture the social dimension of business activities. From the semiotic perspective, an organization is essentially an information system. This is because in the organizations, information is created, stored, and processed to communicate, coordinate and to achieve the organizational objectives [START_REF] Liu | Preface : Co-Design of Business and IT Systems[END_REF].

The organization is the whole system. Stamper [START_REF] Stamper | Signs, Information, Norms and Systems[END_REF] mention that: Within the organization, there are three categories of activities: Substantive (Organizational objectives), Communication (message passing) and Control (accomplishment of Substantive and Communication), as shown in figure 4. The substantive activities are governed by the assignments and tasks that are derived from the organizational objectives within a given institutional structure. Results of the actions in this category are supposed to contribute directly to the attainment of the business goals of the organization. The actions will normally result in changes physically or socially [START_REF] Liu | Preface : Co-Design of Business and IT Systems[END_REF].

SOCIAL WORLD beliefs, expectations functions, commitments, contracts, law, culture, … The substantive activities are carried out in three sub-systems; each depends on another and interacts with one another (figure 5). Informal context is represented as a subculture; Formal context is represented by defined norms or bureaucracy; and IT context automates part of the formal system. The scope of each sub-system is not always clear, and the boundary between these sub-systems can become fuzzy (therefore the dotted lines in the figure). Changing in one sub-system will definitely have impact on others. For example, re-engineering business processes will cause the need for re-design of the IT system, and vice versa [START_REF] Stamper | Signs, Information, Norms and Systems[END_REF]. For this work we used the sign-based Semiotic Communication and the System Oriented Approach of Semiotic Organization which includes Sign System Oriented Approach. Sign System Oriented Approach studies media (spoken language, texts, instruments, computer interfaces) as sign systems, and see the use of these media by people as based on systems of narration and interpretation. User interaction with media (texts, computer interfaces, instruments) is observed, as well as communication between people at work [START_REF] Ibarra | SIERA : Improving Data Visualization for Learning Assessment in Educational Organisations[END_REF].

Logical Architecture for Restaurants Information System

The process (formal and informal layer) starts when the customer calls the waiter to put the food order, then the waiter communicates the order to the cook in the kitchen area, cook prepares the food and waiter takes the food to the customer. Then the data is saved to the dataset hosted in a webserver. Finally, the owner can ask by queries to the database for decision making about total amount obtained in a day.

Fig. 6. Information System and Organization

Methodology for this Qualitative Research

This study adopts a qualitative research approach, for this purpose we perform three types of techniques presented as follows: a) Theoretical and documentation review, this technique helped us to understand the main concepts of semiotics, information systems and POS, this documentation includes: papers, books, norms, internal regulations in restaurants and so forth. The results of this item are shown in theoretical section. b) Observation, in this case, we observed the employee's and customer's daily activities into the tableside ordering and payment processing. c) Interviews, we conducted semi structured interviews to three waiters, five consumers and to the owner. The interviews were conducted at "Fastworkx" Company's leader office and "Il Gato pizzas and chicken" Restaurant in Abancay-Peru, on 27-30 September 2016. The results of the interviews are shown in Table 1.

Table 1. Interviews Results

Type

Question Answer Owner Which are the principal rules or norms for the restaurant?

-Schedule attention is one written rule -Accounting rules, but it is done by an external worker. What information do you need for improve decision making? -Total amount collected in the day is important, -The most requested meals also it is important. Who is my best waiter? for example is very important. Are there some informal rules for the business environment?

-Discounts and Promotions in some days of the week, for example on Tuesday because we have less customers to attend. -Sometimes home delivery, but often times we don't have human resources to attend it. -Customer always has the reason! How do you know the opinion of the customers?

-By the claims book, or sometimes by telephone calling.

How do you control de norms accomplishment in your business?

-Some accounting information is given by the POS system, but others not.

Waiters

Does the POS implemented with touch screens improve your time attention to the customer?

-Of course, and we can add or delete food or drink items, now we can join tables in the system.

How is the communication with food area?

-Something important is that with the implementation of the system, we don't need to go many times to the food area (as we did before). How is the communication with cashier? -The cashier can see all orders and the amounts in the computer screen.

Customer

How is the communication with the customer?

-The communication is calling the waiter for food order and payment

The time attention (before touch screen was implemented) is less than POS system was implemented?

-I think so

Findings

This section presents the results of the methodology applied to the analysis of the relation between information system and the semiotics. The results of the Theoretical and documentation review are shown in theoretical section.

Describing Morphology for a Restaurant Information System

The results of observation are shown in Fig. 6. Finally, the results of the interviews are summarized in the Table 2. The interview results were taken and aligned with the concepts of the theoretical section, the proposal for the Morphology of Restaurant Information System was designed, as shown in the Table 3, and also Restaurant Information System Layers are shown in the Table 1. The interaction related norms.

-Message from customer to waiter (food order) -Message from waiter to Food preparation area (prepare food order) -Message from customer to cashier area (Payment for consumption) Control

The execution related norms -Reviewing book of claims (customer satisfaction) -Reviewing revenues (earnings)

Conclusions and Future Work

This paper explores the relation between organizational semiotics and information system especially in the restaurant business field. For this purpose, a Point of Sale information system was developed to compare the theoretical concepts and the practical approach. The study was conducted qualitatively by using techniques of documentation review, observation and interview. The information collected in documentation review allowed us to understand the main concepts or organizational semiotics and technical, formal and informal norms. The results obtained by the observation conducted us to know; the activities performed by the stakeholders (customer, waiter/waitress, cook, owner, and cashier); the communication between stakeholders; the business process management into the organization and the logical architecture of the Point of Sale system for restaurants. The results obtained by interview summarized the morphology for Restaurants Information System aligned with the Organizational Semiotics concepts. In future work, it is necessary to validate this proposal with other restaurants in different contexts.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. The Organization Onion.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. System and categories of activities (morphology proposed by Stamper)

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Information System and Organization proposed by Stamper

Table 2 .

 2 Description of layers of Restaurant POS

	Layer		Description	Example for Restaurant
	Informal	Cultural pat-	-Promotions
			terns norms	-Discounts -Home delivery
	Formal	Play dominant	-Attention to the Schedule
			roles	-Statistical information about consumption and earn-ings for decision making.
	Technical	IT System	-Touch screen computer and mobile devices
				-Ticket Printer
				-Router
				-POS software
				-Network Connectivity
	4.2	Describing Morphology for Restaurant Information System
	Morphology describes the Activity and Description for Restaurant POS. Table3 shows
	the Morphology for POS service.

Table 3 .

 3 Morphology

	of Restaurant POS


Jamie Caine
email: j.caine@shu.ac.uk

Mark Von Rosing

Introducing the Strategy Lifecycle: Using Ontology and Semiotics to Interlink Strategy Design to Strategy Execution

Keywords: Strategy Lifecycle, Strategy Artefacts, Strategy Meta Model, Strategy Semiotics, Strategy Ontology, Strategy Architecture

The ability of existing strategy concepts to analyse strategy, design strategy and execute strategy within organisations has an alarmingly poor historical track record. Based on the long-standing semiotics and ontology research work of the Global University Alliance (GUA) and its members, a Strategy Lifecycle is introduced. The Strategy Lifecycle, underpinned by ontology and semiotics incorporates all the constructs that can be found in the most popular strategy concepts and frameworks. It explains the value of the underlying strategy ontology and the relationship between the strategy meta model, the Strategy Lifecycle and various artefacts used around strategy work. The paper concludes with future scope and application that lies ahead for the Strategy Lifecycle.

Introduction

The challenge of taking your strategy design through to execution has been well documented [START_REF]Bridges Business Consultancy: Strategy implementation Survey Results[END_REF][START_REF] Cândido | Strategy implementation: What is the failure rate[END_REF][START_REF] Carucci | Executives fail to execute strategy because They're too internally focused[END_REF][START_REF] Mellat-Parast | Linking business strategy to service failures and financial performance: Empirical evidence from the U.S. domestic airline industry[END_REF][START_REF] Smith | The reality test : still relying on strategy?[END_REF]. In fact, there has been an overwhelming rate of failure reported within the last two decades [START_REF]Bridges Business Consultancy: Strategy implementation Survey Results[END_REF][START_REF] Cândido | Strategy implementation: What is the failure rate[END_REF]. Scholars of strategy have been critical of strategy implementation and its success rate [START_REF] Klag | Critical junctures in strategic planning: Understanding failure to enable success[END_REF]. Bridges, an organisation that has been surveying strategy implementations since 2002 reported in their 2016 survey a failure rate of 67% [START_REF]Bridges Business Consultancy: Strategy implementation Survey Results[END_REF]. Their recent survey revealed that the main three reasons for implementation failure are: poor communication, lack of leadership and using the wrong measures.

Only one in five organisations review their implementation on a monthly basis [START_REF]Bridges Business Consultancy: Strategy implementation Survey Results[END_REF]. Lessons learned from some of the epic failures highlight (in Kodak's case) the inability to map strategy against the market forces [START_REF] Mui | How kodak failed[END_REF]. Another significant learning curve highlights the failure in organisations' abilities to architect their strategy into daily operations that are monitored in accordance to meeting the strategy objectives [START_REF] Von Rosing | Using a business ontology for structuring artefacts: Example -northern health[END_REF].

This paper positions itself around addressing these challenges and more through introducing the Strategy Lifecycle. This consists of six distinct stages: Analyse and Understand, Strategy Options & Design, Strategy Development, Strategy Execution, Strategy Governance and Continuous Strategy Improvement. We start with providing a summary in the traditional ways of strategy thinking indicating where the gaps are and alluding to areas where the Strategy Lifecycle addresses these gaps. This is followed by introducing the Strategy Lifecycle, its purpose, relevance to strategy and its compatibility with enterprise strategy regardless of industry. The strategy way of working follows with examples of how each stage can be applied to an enterprise. The extent of the model is then presented with its embedded ontology and semiotics followed by the conclusion which summarises the validity and highlights the future work surrounding this area.

Strategy and Traditional Ways of Thinking

The notion of strategy by its most simple definition; "A plan of action designed to achieve a long-term or overall aim" [START_REF]Strategy | definiton of stratgey in english by oxford dictionaries[END_REF] goes thousands of years beyond business strategic management science that has existed since the 1960's [START_REF] Godfrey | Strategic management : a critical introduction[END_REF] However, it is from the work of academia and industry practice since the 1960's where we can examine how strategy has developed within the context of organisation. Decades leading up to the year 2000 have witnessed significant developments in organisation strategy. Godfrey describes these shifts as; "interests, priorities and concerns in response to the wider social, political and economic concerns of the day" [START_REF] Godfrey | Strategic management : a critical introduction[END_REF]. A collection of influential publications in the 60's established the foundation of strategic management. Two academics and one practitioner paved the way for further development within the strategic management discipline. Chandler's Strategy and Structure [START_REF] Chandler | Strategy and structure : chapters in the history of the American] industrial enterprise[END_REF], Slone's My Years with General Motors [START_REF] Sloan | My years with General Motors[END_REF], and Ansoff's Corporate Strategy [START_REF] Ansoff | Corporate strategy : an analytic approach to business policy for growth and expansion[END_REF] are regarded as the break through literature in this field [START_REF] Godfrey | Strategic management : a critical introduction[END_REF][START_REF] Pettigrew | Handbook of strategy and management[END_REF]. It is from their works that a more structural approach towards strategy was formed. Concepts such as separating implementation from formulation, return on investment and policy from tactics were some of the formalised schools of thought [START_REF] Whittington | What is strategy -and does it matter[END_REF]. Three stages within the Strategy Lifecycle (Develop, Execute, and Govern) build upon these thoughts and in the later chapters we discuss the significance of these stages. The 70's witnessed the rise of the consulting firms imprinting their influence on the development of strategy. GE-McKinsey matrix and the Boston Consulting Group Matrix focussed on diversification and growth strategies (Design stage in the lifecycle) [START_REF] Pettigrew | Handbook of strategy and management[END_REF]. Academia continued to further develop the science behind strategy which by the end of 1970's, strategy management was firmly established as a discipline [START_REF] Godfrey | Strategic management : a critical introduction[END_REF]. The 1980's witnessed the intervention of Michael Porter's strategy paradigm. Renown for the Five Forces [START_REF] Porter | How competitive forces shape strategy[END_REF] (Analyse & Understand stage in the Strategy Lifecycle), Value Chain [START_REF] Porter | The value chain and competitive advantage[END_REF] (Execution stage in the Strategy Lifecycle) and Generic Strategies [START_REF] Porter | What is strategy?[END_REF] (Design stage within the lifecycle) his works is still part of academic and industry practice today [START_REF] Prasad | Strategy as "inferior" choice: A re-interpretation of porter's "what is strategy?[END_REF][START_REF] Valos | The impact of porter's strategy types on the role of market research and customer relationship management[END_REF]. Resource Based View (RBV) made its imprint in the 90's, adopting a more focussed lens on internal resources, capabilities and competencies. Innovation and value dominated strategic thought from 1990 onwards [START_REF] Godfrey | Strategic management : a critical introduction[END_REF][START_REF] Pettigrew | Handbook of strategy and management[END_REF]. Each model and theory had its industrial demands, social and economic setting during its time [START_REF] Godfrey | Strategic management : a critical introduction[END_REF]. In spite of this, many of these developments still have use and relevance today. However this does not discard the fact that there is somewhat a disjointed landscape when we try to holistically understand the theory and models that represent strategic management today.

Whilst this is a very brief summary of the development in strategy concepts, it is important to understand the gaps in the existing theoretical strategy landscape. For example Porter's Five Forces does not integrate with strategy options and strategy design, the BCG Matrix does not integrate with strategy execution. The Value Chain which has the highest level of organisational view, does not integrate with the developed strategies or even strategy governance. Newer concepts such as the strategy map, are neglecting the needed links to internal or external forces and trends, the organisational competencies, roles involved in terms of owners, as well as an absent relationship to mission and vision. The gap between the relationship of strategy and its context i.e. forces, mission, vision, organisational components, owners, etc. in existing theory is what separates the ability to work with strategy in the course of its lifecycle. In the later chapters we will delineate gaps filled by the Strategy Lifecycle and through doing so establish its position.

A Strategy Lifecycle Way of Thinking

We have just elaborated on the various gaps in the existing theoretical strategy landscape and how there is a need to work with strategy in the course of its lifecycle. What we need is to manage the entire Strategy Lifecycle, from strategy understanding and analysis, strategy options and design, strategy development to strategy execution as well as strategy governance and continuous strategy improvement. A lifecycle approach is needed, as it is an instrument to represent the course of developmental changes through which the strategy evolves during its lifetime. Both in terms of evolution but also changes as it passes through different phases during its lifetime ex-instance. As illustrated in figure 1, from strategy understanding and analysis, strategy options and design, strategy development, strategy execution as well as strategy governance and continuous strategy improvement, the lifecycle helps guide the strategy practitioners to work with the strategy during its development phases and lifespan. It enables the mapping of relevant components such as forces and trends, risk, organi-sational competencies, owners as well as the specification of activities needed for strategy execution and governance. What is also worth commenting is the necessity of continuous strategy improvement that facilitates the feedback loop in a systematic approach, where depending on the degree of change it can help an organisation opti-mise its underlying strategy and activities to achieve more efficient results

Fig. 1. Six Phases within the Strategy Lifecycle

The Strategy Lifecycle thereby consists of a set of phases in which each phase is interlinked with the previous one. It provides a highly useful sequence of phases and steps that any strategy practitioner, executive, business analyst or even business architect can follow, regardless of industry and size of organisation. The proposed Strategy Lifecycle concepts are as discussed interlinked between each other, but it also can be combined with any kind of other lifecycle thinking, such as the product lifecycle, value lifecycle, service lifecycle, process lifecycle, application lifecycle or an enterprise architecture lifecycle [START_REF] Rosing | The complete business process handbook body of knowledge from process modeling to bpm[END_REF]. The previously mentioned possibility to integrate lifecycle thinking, helps various practitioners place focus on all relevant strategy aspects from business, information and technology aspects. Which on the one hand is a part of strategy execution, but can also help with the Strategy Lifecycle phases of strategy analysis, strategy design input as well strategy development.

Strategy Way of Working

When a practitioner or organisation decides to use the Strategy Lifecycle to lay the foundation of what we call 'the strategy way of working'; all employees across all organisational boundaries of the enterprise, now have a conjoint way of working with strategy in the course of its lifecycle. This means that a common understanding and consensus has been reached within the organisation, which immediately increases the level of strategy maturity. In Figure 2 is an illustration of the most common steps in the Strategy Lifecycle phases. You will notice that the steps are not linear and interlinked, this is due to the fact that this is not a waterfall approach. This should be viewed as an agile on demand concept, that depending on your specific situation, different components and thereby steps matter. Therefore, all these different steps should be seen as building blocks of the Strategy Lifecycle. Due to space limitation of this paper, we will only illustrate the most relevant building blocks involved.

The Value of an Underlying Strategy Ontology

An ontology is an intentional semantic structure that encodes the set of objects and terms that are presumed to exist in some area of interest (i.e. the universe of discourse or semantic domain). Furthermore this includes the relationships that hold among them and the implicit rules constraining the structure of this (piece of) reality [START_REF] Genesereth | Logical foundations of artificial[END_REF][START_REF] Giaretta | Ontologies and knowledge bases towards a terminological clarification[END_REF]. In this definition, intentional refers to a structure describing various possible states of affairs, as opposed to extensional, which would refer to a structure describing a particular state of affairs. The word semantic indicates that the structure has meaning, which is defined as the relationship between (a structure of) symbols and a mental model of the intentional structure in the mind of the observer. In the context of the strategy ontology, we have used semantics which are an aspect of semiotics, like syntax, to distinguish valid from invalid symbol structures, and like pragmatics, it relates symbols to their meaning within a context e.g., the community in which they are shared [START_REF] Cordeiro | The semiotic pentagram framework--A perspective on the use of semiotics within organisational semiotics[END_REF]. Ontologies can be categorised and classified according to several criteria (e.g., context, semantic relations) [START_REF] Von Rosing | [END_REF]. When ontologies are classified according to their universe of discourse, we distinguish foundational, domain, task and application ontologies [START_REF] Guarino | Semantic matching: Formal ontological distinctions for information organization, extraction, and integration[END_REF]. The strategy ontology would be considered to be an application ontology, as it relates to a very specific universe of discourse. Figure 3 displays the GUA Ontology Meta Model in which the strategy meta model is derived.

Fig. 3. GUA Ontology Meta Model

The strategy vocabulary is built based on the existing applications/uses and as specialisations of the enterprise ontology terms [START_REF] Von Rosing | An introduction to the business ontology[END_REF]. As illustrated in figure 4, the strategy ontology provides an overview of the most common strategy related meta-objects, but it also provides the relationships between the objects and how they are used across the Strategy Lifecycle phases and within various strategy relevant artefacts. The Strategy Ontology Meta Model has the purpose of portraying the strategy relevant meta objects and the relationship between the objects. Furthermore, it documents the semantic relations as well as describing which artefact has that specific object. Unlike other strategy meta models the Strategy Ontology Meta Model aims to encapsulate all the relevant aspects that semantically related to strategy. Constantinous's et al. [START_REF] Giannoulis | Modeling business strategy: A meta-model of strategy maps and balanced scorecards[END_REF] development of 'A meta-model of strategy maps and balanced scorecard' intentionally focuses on Kaplan and Norton's work on strategy maps and the balance scorecard. Although these are two well utilised approaches in strategy they do not, nor does the meta model enable a practitioner to navigate their way through design to execution. Building integrated and standardised strategy relevant artefacts which are relevant for strategy practitioners does require an underlying fully integrated meta model with semantic richness that enables interoperability between the artefacts and the lifecycle phases. Meta models that incorporate multiple artefacts/views use the semantic relations and their rules associated with the meta objects connectivity. For example, the link between the meta-object 'force' and the meta-object 'stratgey' enables the practitioners to understand the forces that impact the organisation and which forces that need to be addressed by the strategy. There are also objects that have multiple semantic relations. For example the measure meta-objects intersect with objectives, organisational functions, roles, process, functions and reports. Each one of the other meta objects has multiple artefacts to model that subject. As it has the same object, consequently, the content of one artefact can through the same object also be reused in a different artefact [START_REF] Von Rosing | Using a business ontology for structuring artefacts: Example -northern health[END_REF]. During the different phases of the Strategy Lifecycle various objects i.e. subjects and thereby artefacts are used. Appreciating the full semiotic depth of the strategy ontology is therefore considered an essential part for any practitioners work with and around various relevant strategy concepts [START_REF] Von Rosing | The relationship between ontology and modelling concepts: Example role oriented modelling[END_REF]. As illustrated in figure 4, the Strategy Lifecycle is therefore built upon ontological and semiotic concepts, which have been studied and observed to apply to almost any strategy modelling, engineering and architecture concept. The Strategy Lifecycle approach is therefore expected to provide a powerful tool to assist in the identification and capture of relevant strategy aspects.

Fig. 4. Strategy Ontology Meta Model

Conclusion

The Strategy Lifecycle provides a truly interlinked approach from strategy design to strategy execution. The underlying ontology and semiotics allows us to take any organisational strategy and integrate it into the way of thinking, working and modelling regardless of industry type. The Strategy Lifecycle is based upon an empiric ontology, meaning that its roots lie in both practice and research. Consequently, it covers all aspects of the strategy phases. Some of the gaps discussed in the strategic theory and models can therefore be fulfilled with the Strategy Lifecyle approach. It is designed to be vendor neutral/agnostic and it can therefore be used with most existing frameworks, methods and (or) approaches that have any of the mentioned relevant strategy metaobjects. Due to the limitations placed on this paper we were only able to demonstrate a brief overview of its usefulness. While it can be used as described, in order to attain the desired level of completeness, it is complemented with elicitation support such as guiding principles for creating, interpreting, analysing and using strategy engineering, modeling or architecture concepts within the Strategy Lifecycle. In future publications this will be extended to evidence deeper in-sights into aspects such as enterprise ontology and semantics, strategy architecture, business architecture and multiple modelling disciplines including value modelling, revenue modelling, performance modeling and service modelling.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. The Strategy Lifecycle Building Blocks and Relevant Artefacts