Jean-François Stich

Samuel Farley

Cary L Cooper

Monideepa Tarafdar

INFORMATION AND COMMUNICATION TECHNOLOGY DEMANDS: OUTCOMES AND INTERVENTIONS

Keywords: Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Organizational communication, Email, Stress, Work Life Balance, Productivity, Performance, Interruption, Cyberbullying, Overload

Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to review four demands employees face when communicating through information and communication technologies (ICTs). We review the outcomes associated with each demand and discuss relevant interventions to provide a set of evidence-based recommendations.

Design/methodology/approach -This paper reviews the following demands associated with ICTs: response expectations, constant availability, increased workload and poor communication. We draw upon empirical research to highlight outcomes and intervention strategies, before discussing implications for research and practice.

Findings -The findings suggest that there are diverse outcomes associated with each demand. The outcomes were not inherently negative as evidence suggests that positive performance outcomes can arise from response expectations and constant availability, although they may be allied by health and wellbeing costs.

Practical implications -A number of practical strategies are described to help organizations address computer-mediated communication demands, including tailored training, organizational policies and role modelling. The paper also outlines suggestions for future research on the dark side of IT use.

Originality/value -This paper integrates four interrelated demands that employees can face when communicating through technology. We extend knowledge by analyzing interventions which enables a synthesis of implications for practice.

INTRODUCTION

Many employees are reliant on information and communication technologies (ICTs) to communicate with colleagues, clients and partners. Actual data concerning the spread of ICTs across different industries is difficult to capture due to the evolving nature of work, but it is clear that communication technologies are highly prevalent. In 2009, 90 percent of U.K businesses had access to the internet (Office for National Statistics, 2009), whilst in the USA 62 percent of employees could be considered networked workers, a term coined to describe individuals who use the internet or email in their workplace (Madden & Jones, 2008).

In this paper, we examine evidence relating to ICT working practices from an organizational effectiveness perspective. At present, the productivity gains that arise from ICTs (including efficient file sharing and travel cost savings) are well known (Palvalin, Lönnqvist and Vuolle, 2013), however research in this area has often focused on the benefits without signaling the risks. We argue that the effectiveness of utilizing ICTs for computer-mediated communication is debatable. This debate concerns "whether the tools used are risk-free, or at least do not produce undesirable 'sideeffects'" (Mano and Mesch, 2010, p. 67). In this respect, it has been argued that ICTs can be viewed as both a support and a demand for employees [START_REF] Day | Information and communication technology: Implications for job stress and employee well-being[END_REF]. [START_REF] Day | Perceived information and communication technology (ICT) demands on employee outcomes: The moderating effect of organizational ICT support[END_REF] empirically identified eight demands associated with ICTs, including ICT hassles, response expectations and constant availability. ICT demands can negatively impact on organizational effectiveness by directly affecting how employees function. For example, ICT hassles (e.g. computer crashes, viruses, slow internet speed) could inhibit task completion, while poor communication could promote misunderstanding and ineffective decision making. This paper will review how four of the demands identified by [START_REF] Day | Perceived information and communication technology (ICT) demands on employee outcomes: The moderating effect of organizational ICT support[END_REF] impact on organizational effectiveness. The research builds on [START_REF] Day | Perceived information and communication technology (ICT) demands on employee outcomes: The moderating effect of organizational ICT support[END_REF] empirical study by updating the evidence on ICT demand outcomes, but perhaps more centrally by reviewing interventions which have been developed to address each ICT demand. In conducting this review, we aim to provide a more transparent picture of how ICTs contribute to organizational effectiveness, while also presenting evidence that can inform the design of more effectual organizational interventions. The paper concludes with implications for research and practice.

LITERATURE REVIEW

Four of the demands identified by [START_REF] Day | Perceived information and communication technology (ICT) demands on employee outcomes: The moderating effect of organizational ICT support[END_REF] specifically link to the way ICTs are used for employee communication, these are: (1) the extent that employees are expected to respond quickly to computer-mediated communication; (2) the extent that ICTs enable constantly availability; (3) the use of ICTs to increase workload; and (4) poor communication. We examine each factor in turn to identify how these demands relate to organizational outcomes. For each factor we first analyze the organizational outcomes and then provide suggestions for interventions that can address them. After reviewing each communication demand we elaborate on interventions used to mitigate their impact in order to provide suggestions for managers and organizations.

Response Expectations

Organizational Outcomes

Having to respond quickly to requests is not a demand specific to ICT or technology, indeed employees are often interrupted more in person [START_REF] Van Solingen | Interrupts: just a minute never is[END_REF]. ICT has however provided new opportunities for constant interruptions that ask for immediate responses. The phone has been interrupting employees for long enough (1998), but recent literature is now focusing on emails (e.g., [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF] and instant messaging (e.g., Gupta et al., 2013) due to their increasing prevalence within organizations. Unlike phone calls, emails are supposed to be asynchronous and as such could be replied to whenever convenient. However, a study that investigated the responding habits of employees within a large UK company found that most emails were dealt with within six seconds of reception, with an average of 1min44s (Jackson et al., 2001). The fast pace at which incoming emails are checked (along with arrival notifications) can thus make them as disturbing as synchronous media (e.g. phone calls, instant messaging) (2001). Regarding the impact of such interruptions on performance, Mano and Mesch (2010) found that email interruptions led to enhanced work performance, perhaps because they "increase the acquisition of work-related information critical for getting the job done" (2010, p. 68). Yet this explanation only covers emails which contain critical information and typologies suggest that other interruptions, such as those transmitting systems information, might actually have the opposite effect [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF].

The impact may also depend on the type of task at hand, as well as how performance is evaluated. An experimental study found that simple tasks were accomplished quicker and with greater accuracy than more complex tasks because of interruptions, as interruptions focused participants' attention on important cues (Speier et al., 2003). Therefore performance on simple or short tasks might be less negatively impacted by interruptions than performance on more complex or longer projects [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF]. Similarly, interruptions asking for an immediate response unrelated to the task at hand fragment attention and reduce time dedicated to primary task activities. This can potentially result in lowered performance, efficiency and work quality (2015). These negative effects can be further nuanced by contextual elements. An experimental study found that instant messages became more disruptive as the hierarchical level of the sender increased (Gupta et al., 2013). Individual variables might also moderate response expectations, as individuals who enjoy multitasking might be less negatively affected by instant message interruptions (Li et al., 2011). Furthermore, selfdisciplined individuals might be more capable of resisting interruptions, which enables them to maintain their productivity [START_REF] Al-Dabbagh | To connect or disconnect-that is the question: ICT self-discipline in the 21st century workplace[END_REF].

Interruptions not only fragment attention, they also make it harder for an individual to return to their primary task. Employees within a large UK organization took an average of 64 seconds to recover from an email interruption to reengage in their primary task (Jackson et al., 2001). Other studies have referenced recovery times as long as 15 minutes [START_REF] Van Solingen | Interrupts: just a minute never is[END_REF]. Given the time taken away from the primary task to deal with response expectations, it has been estimated that knowledge workers lose 4-5% or 28 minutes of their workday to interruptions (Gupta and Sharda, 2008), whilst more than ten interruptions per day can severely hinder worker productivity [START_REF] Van Solingen | Interrupts: just a minute never is[END_REF].

Although interruptions that transmit information necessary for task completion might actually increase performance (Mano and Mesch, 2010) (as opposed to other interruptions) [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF]Speier et al., 2003), these productivity gains may be counterbalanced by detrimental effects on mental and physical health [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF]. Indeed, the 'workplace telepressure' created by response expectations was associated with higher physical and cognitive burnout, health-related absenteeism and poorer sleep quality (2015).

Possible interventions

In order to tackle interruptions and response expectations, researchers have made several suggestions. A frequent suggestion has been to increase the interval at which incoming messages are checked [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF]Gupta et al., 2011;Jackson et al., 2001Jackson et al., , 2006)), although this does not apply to phone calls. It has been estimated that increasing the email checking frequency from 5 minutes to 45 minutes could save employees 13.16 minutes per day, which would have accounted for a £10,000 per day saving in the organization surveyed for the study (Jackson et al., 2006). Other researchers went as far as to suggest a checking frequency of between two and four times per day (Gupta et al., 2011;Kushlev and Dunn, 2015). Increasing the email checking frequency has been found to increase task coordination, perhaps because it increases certainty among recipients that their messages will be dealt with at a specific time [START_REF] Dabbish | Email overload at work: an analysis of factors associated with email strain[END_REF]. Though increasing the email checking frequency can improve productivity and task coordination, it can also increase email overload, as checking emails whenever they arrive as opposed to in batch prevents the inbox piling up (2006).

As an additional strategy, employees could work on their email or instant message checking self-discipline [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF][START_REF] Al-Dabbagh | To connect or disconnect-that is the question: ICT self-discipline in the 21st century workplace[END_REF]. Although recipients are not the only ones to blame, as senders should also try to limit the number of interrupting messages they dispatch [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF]. This can be done by only contacting the relevant individual and by avoiding 'reply-to-all' messages (Jackson et al., 2003). If senders do not expect immediate responses, they could avoid synchronous messages such as instant messages or phone calls as they create stronger response expectations (Gupta et al., 2013). Managers need to be particularly aware that sending messages which are unrelated to their subordinates primary task can divert attention and reduce its final quality, especially if the task is more complex [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF]. Managers might also consider their subordinate's orientation towards multitasking and avoid interrupting employees who prefer to focus on a single task (Li et al., 2011).

On an organizational level, a "companywide awareness of interruptions' impact on productivity" (Van Solingen et al., 1998, p. 101) needs to be promoted by assessing the impact within a company [START_REF] Al-Dabbagh | To connect or disconnect-that is the question: ICT self-discipline in the 21st century workplace[END_REF] and by collectively discussing the results in order to create a more empathetic organizational culture [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF]. Response expectations can also occur outside of working hours, thus blurring work-home boundaries and creating pressure for 24/7 availability [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF]. We now discuss the implications of constant availability.

Constant Availability

Organizational Outcomes

This widely researched and reported aspect of the work-related ICT culture concerns how ICTs make it possible for work to cross into the non-work domain (Currie & Eveline, 2011;[START_REF] Diaz | Communication technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work[END_REF] and increase productivity expectations [START_REF] Ayyagari | Technostress: Technological Antecedents and Implications[END_REF][START_REF] Tarafdar | The Impact of Technostress on Role Stress and Productivity[END_REF]. A survey of Australian workers found that 38% of Australians check their emails during non-work hours and kept their mobile phones switched on (Weekend Australian, 2007). Moreover, in the UK it was recently reported that managers work an extra day each week in unpaid overtime, a finding that was attributed to the smartphone culture and 'tech pressure' (BBC News, 2014). This constant connectivity materializes in corporate smartphones, such as BlackBerrys or remote access to work communication media (e.g. email). Although these devices and media have sometimes been described as an "electronic leash" tying employees to their workplaces [START_REF] Boswell | The use of communication technologies after hours: The role of work attitudes and work-life conflict[END_REF], studies have found that employees rarely resist the introduction of such technologies and even embrace it (Cavazotte et al., 2014;Mazmanian, 2013), feeling more satisfied with their jobs as a result [START_REF] Diaz | Communication technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work[END_REF]. Most are even eager to claim that they accepted the introduction of these technologies of their own free will and with no organizational pressure (Mazmanian, 2013), while some think it is an inherent necessity of their jobs [START_REF] Waller | The impact of e-mail on work-life balance[END_REF]. These desires might actually emerge less from organizational demands and more from friends, family, industry or society in general which perpetuate or glorify this "always-on" culture (Matusik and Mickel, 2011). Indeed, employees often consider these devices and media as "empowering", and feel a greater sense of professionalism, productivity, autonomy and control when using them (Cavazotte et al., 2014). They also feel more productive and more able to multi-task due to having these technologies (Matusik and Mickel, 2011). Similarly, teleworkers -who mostly work outside the office -feel a greater sense of productivity [START_REF] Bailey | A review of telework research: findings, new directions, and lessons for the study of modern work[END_REF] which is sometimes reflected by higher supervisor ratings and job performance [START_REF] Gajendran | The Good, the Bad, and the Unknown About Telecommuting: Meta-Analysis of Psychological Mediators and Individual Consequences[END_REF]. Accordingly, availability was the only dimension of ICT demands that was positively associated with professional efficacy in Day and colleagues' framework [START_REF] Day | Perceived information and communication technology (ICT) demands on employee outcomes: The moderating effect of organizational ICT support[END_REF].

These positive organizational outcomes and employee perceptions however can come at a personal cost, making constant availability a "double-edged sword" (Dén-Nagy, 2014). "Advantages that appear in the domain of work can require sacrifices in private life" (2014, p. 208) and studies have linked constant availability to increased work-life conflict and work-life imbalance [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF][START_REF] Diaz | Communication technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work[END_REF]Matusik and Mickel, 2011;[START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF], outcomes which have been associated with job burnout [START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF]. Although ICT facilitates these outcomes, individuals also share some of the responsibility (Mazmanian, 2013). Employees and especially managers who send messages outside working hours implicitly encourage constant availability by creating response expectations [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF]. Nevertheless, individuals who have a more positive view of this connectivity do not experience as much work-life conflict as those who view it negatively [START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF]. Similarly, employees who are highly engaged experience less work-home interference [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF], while employees who prefer to segment their home and work roles report greater psychological detachment (Park, Fritz & Jex, 2011).

Qualitative studies have shown that employees are generally aware of these trade-offs when they choose to become available outside working hours (Cavazotte et al., 2014;Matusik and Mickel, 2011). Participants in Waller and Ragsdell's study (2012) and especially "middle and senior managers who appear to be the victims (and culprits) of a 24/7 culture of accessibility" (2012, p. 170) were clearly aware that these technologies had a negative impact on their lives outside work; yet they continued to use them. Paradoxically, employees often claim these technologies give them greater autonomy, while they remain aware that technologies also allow for increased organizational control and surveillance (Cavazotte et al., 2014) and even decrease autonomy in practice by reducing the ability to disengage from work (Mazmanian et al., 2013). As employees are often aware of these trade-offs, they cope with the demands created by 24/7 availability by taking them less seriously or finding justifications for the choices they make (Cavazotte et al., 2014).

Possible interventions

Given that employees often choose to remain constantly available and embrace technologies that facilitate constant connectivity (Cavazotte et al., 2014;Mazmanian, 2013), they may feel empowered by these technologies and be more productive as a result (Matusik and Mickel, 2011). Therefore organizations might have a hard time protecting their workers from the resulting "self-inflicted work-life conflict" (Wright et al., 2014, p. 524). The ability to detach from work is however important for employee wellbeing as empirical evidence demonstrates that a lack of recovery from work is associated with negative health outcomes, including burnout and psychosomatic health complaints [START_REF] Eden | Vacations and other respites: Studying stress on and off the job[END_REF]Lundberg & Lindfors, 2002).

In terms of organizational policies and culture, a main element to consider is whether to promote or react against norms of constant availability (Matusik and Mickel, 2011). If these norms were to be promoted, organizations should try to increase awareness of associated worklife issues [START_REF] Diaz | Communication technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work[END_REF]. For example, collective discussions could be held about the topic [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF] and support groups could be implemented where employees could share suggestions on best practice (Leonardi et al., 2010). Training interventions could even be designed to better prepare employees for the work-life conflicts that they might face once they adopt these technologies (Leonardi et al., 2010). Managers should also give special consideration to employees who are more vulnerable to the work-life conflict, such as older, less engaged, less tech-savy workers or those who view these norms negatively [START_REF] Waller | The impact of e-mail on work-life balance[END_REF][START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF].

If constant availability were to be fought, organizational policies that limit access to ICT at night and during weekends could be enforced [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF][START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF]. More informally, organizations could circulate guidelines that explicitly discourage work communication beyond working hours [START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF]. Managers should also make clear their expectations on constant availability [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF]. If managers want to limit interactions beyond working hours, they should act as role models by refraining from sending any such messages themselves. Otherwise they are likely to create response expectations and encourage the same "always-on" culture they wish to prevent (2015). Finally, a more subtle approach identified by Matusik and Mickel ( 2011) is to limit the use of corporate smartphones or similar devices to organizational-specific interactions. The authors state that when employees are encouraged to use devices for organizational and personal interactions, the organization is "encouraging the highest degree of responsiveness and accessibility" (Matusik and Mickel, 2011, p. 1023).

As response expectations expand beyond working hours creating pressures for constant availability, employees might experience increased workloads and longer work days. This changing nature of workload is now discussed.

Workload

Organizational Outcomes

When examining the impact of ICT on workload and its associated organizational outcomes, several questions arise. What is the contribution of ICT to the overall workload of employees? Has workload increased or decreased with the introduction of ICT? If so, under what circumstances? Regarding the initial question, one study found that interruptions from instant messaging systems led to a higher perceived workload (Gupta et al., 2013). Similarly, it has been found that receiving more emails increases the length of the workday and produces greater feelings of overload [START_REF] Barley | E-mail as a Source and Symbol of Stress[END_REF]. In addition, studies have examined the volume of interactions by calculating the average time spent reading or sending emails in organizations. Jackson and colleagues (2006) found that employees spent 29 minutes reading emails each day, which cost their organization £40,848 per day or £9.8million per year, on the basis of the hourly cost of work. These figures do not however take into account how reading these emails might have allowed the organization to save time and money elsewhere. For instance, it has been found that the more work-related emails received, the higher the work effectiveness (Mano and Mesch, 2010). Nevertheless, stress and distress were also higher because of more numerous work-related emails, leading the authors to state that "technology has provided excellent means for achieving competition driven goals. But insofar as it affects employees, it may have given rise to unexpected side-effects" (Mano and Mesch, 2010, p. 68).

Stress

also arises from ICT communications in form of information overload. In particular, email overload which has been defined by [START_REF] Dabbish | Email overload at work: an analysis of factors associated with email strain[END_REF] as "users' perceptions that their own email use has gotten out of control because they receive and send more email than they can handle, find or process effectively" (2006, p. 431). Their study found that email overload led to reduced task coordination. This was the result not of the sheer volume of emails, but of email overload as subjectively perceived by individuals. On a more transverse level, perceived communication overload has been found to lead to perceived losses in productivity for individuals who depend highly on communication technology in their jobs (Karr-Wisniewski and Lu, 2010). Other workers might also be more at risk of email overload. Jackson et al. (2006) found that employees in geographically dispersed teams frequently returned to their inbox to find that emails had piled up whilst they were on the move or in meetings , thus leading to increased overload.

Possible interventions

Most

studies have focused on interventions targeted at reducing email overload. Email overload is based not only on email volumes but also on users' ability to handle their emails [START_REF] Dabbish | Email overload at work: an analysis of factors associated with email strain[END_REF]. Reducing feelings of email overload could be done by either "reducing the amount of incoming information" or "enhancing recipients' information processing capabilities" (Soucek and Moser, 2010, p. 1459). Regarding the former, studies have suggested that organizations should design and circulate email guidelines to encourage users to limit the amount of emails they send (Soucek and Moser, 2010). As informational emails sent by the organization contribute to email overload, these types of emails could instead be sent via alternative channels, such as an intranet or an RSS news feed "rather than sending email "blasts" that necessitate action by every employee" (Mark et al., 2012, p. 10).

In order to enhance users' abilities to deal with email overload, training interventions could be designed and implemented [START_REF] Burgess | Email training significantly reduces email defects[END_REF]Jackson and Lichtenstein, 2011;Soucek and Moser, 2010). A comprehensive training intervention designed by Soucek and Moser (2010) consisted of improving people's ability to use email features such as filters, improving personal workflow and enhancing the quality of written emails. Trainers first demonstrated techniques such as email filtering or archiving and discussed effective email communication. Participants then took part in role-playing exercises in which they had to filter, categorize and respond to fictional emails designed to reflect common problems such as newsletters, spams or poorly written emails. After each exercise, participants received feedback from the trainer and discussed their actions with peers. In the final part, the trainer displayed examples of poorly written emails and debated recommendations for best practices. As a take-away activity, participants had to draft an email policy that they could circulate among their colleagues or team members. Following the training, participants had greater knowledge of email functions and applied them more in their jobs, which reduced strain and improved productivity. Although the volume of emails did not change posttraining, participants were able to cope with this volume because of enhanced information processing abilities.

Finally, organizations could try to "promote a culture with a high perception of email as a business critical tool" (Sumecki et al., 2011, p. 413), as more positive views towards email can also mitigate feelings of email overload (2011). Organizations could also assess information overload in order to help individuals who are most at risk of becoming overloaded (Karr-Wisniewski and Lu, 2010). Furthermore, technical solutions could be implemented by adding task management features in email applications [START_REF] Bellotti | Quality Versus Quantity: E-Mail-Centric Task Management and Its Relation With Overload[END_REF], setting email applications to check incoming messages less frequently [START_REF] Dabbish | Email overload at work: an analysis of factors associated with email strain[END_REF] or even sharing the email volume with a personal assistant, a crowdsourced assistant or an algorithm (Kokkalis et al., 2013).

As overload can also be the result of poorly formulated emails or misunderstandings (Jackson et al., 2006), we now discuss the organizational outcomes and interventions associated with poor communication.

Poor Communication

Organizational Outcomes

The literature suggests that there are two main ways in which employee and organizational functioning can be interrupted by poor communication. Firstly, individuals may misunderstand the messages they receive through ICTs which can produce frustration, stress [START_REF] Day | Information and communication technology: Implications for job stress and employee well-being[END_REF] and poor decisions (Jackson and Van den Hooff, 2012). Secondly when employees are subjected to online communications perceived as uncivil or aggressive it can produce detrimental individual-level and organizational-level outcomes, including reduced wellbeing and turnover intentions [START_REF] Baruch | Bullying on the net: Adverse behavior on e-mail and its impact[END_REF][START_REF] Giumetti | What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context[END_REF].

A significant body of literature has focused on how ICT produces understanding costs for employees (Daft and Lengel, 1986;Kock, 2004;Sproull and Kiesler, 1986). [START_REF] Byron | Carrying too heavy a load? The communication and miscommunication of emotion by email[END_REF] suggests that the primary outcome of miscommunication via email is a reduction in the quality of interpersonal relationships, which are integral to organizational functioning. Although, [START_REF] Byron | Carrying too heavy a load? The communication and miscommunication of emotion by email[END_REF] Although it is generally accepted that miscommunication impairs individual and team effectiveness, limited empirical study has focused on outcomes of computer-mediated misunderstandings. However, research has shown that when virtual teams are distributed, a degree of situation invisibility exists as communication partners are less aware of contextual factors in their partner's environment (Cramton, Orvis and Wilson, 2007). This has implications for virtual team outcomes as teams have reported lower social cohesion and satisfaction when situation invisibility exists (Cramton et al., 2007). When employees are less aware of their communication partner's environment, they are more likely to make dispositional attributions about negative partner behavior than situational attributions [START_REF] Walther | Misattribution and attributional redirection in distributed virtual groups[END_REF]. Dispositional attributions occur when behavior is attributed to an individual's personality, whereas situational attributions are made when behavior is believed to stem from a person's environment. [START_REF] Walther | Misattribution and attributional redirection in distributed virtual groups[END_REF] found that unwarranted dispositional attributions were linked to lower task performance and lower relational attraction. These unwanted byproducts of distributed communication may be less problematic when communication is fairly infrequent and facilitates the completion of simple tasks. However, it has been suggested that even synchronous media, such as video conferencing should not be used for discussing controversial topics or creative ideas (Panteli and Dawson, 2001), as it encourages more formal communication whereby it is difficult to build chemistry and rapport.

Poor communication also encompasses negative interpersonal communication, including cyber incivility (Lim and Teo, 2009), cyberaggression [START_REF] Weatherbee | A Case of Cyberdeviancy: CyberAggression in the Workplace[END_REF] and cyberbullying (Privitera and Campbell, 2009). Cyber incivility has been defined as "communicative behavior exhibited in computer-mediated interactions that violate workplace norms of mutual respect" (Lim and Teo, 2009, p.419). Several studies have demonstrated how cyber incivility can reduce organizational effectiveness by depleting employee resources. [START_REF] Giumetti | What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context[END_REF] conducted a within subjects experiment whereby participants completed math tasks whilst interacting electronically with a supportive and an unsupportive supervisor. The results showed that individuals reported higher negative affect, lower energy and lower task performance in the uncivil condition. A field study identified similar findings, as experiencing day-specific cyber incivility was associated with greater distress on that work day which persisted until the following work day (Park, Fritz & Jex, 2015).

Workplace cyberbullying has also been linked to detrimental outcomes. Cyberbullying differs from cyber incivility as it involves repeatedly experiencing negative behaviors from a more powerful perpetrator (Heatherington and Coyne, 2014). Cyberbullying has been associated with intention to quit [START_REF] Baruch | Bullying on the net: Adverse behavior on e-mail and its impact[END_REF], frustration, anxiety and vengefulness (Hong, Chien-Hou, Hwang, Hu and Chen, 2014) and lower job satisfaction [START_REF] Farley | Exploring the impact of workplace cyberbullying on trainee doctors[END_REF]Snyman and Loh, 2015).

A study by Porath and Pearson (2010) outlined the costs of offline incivility, which included decreased work effort, decreased attendance, reduced work quality, reduced organizational commitment, reduced time spent working due to worrying and increased turnover

intentions. Yet online harassment may more readily undermine effectiveness because online acts are more visible which may affect an organizations reputation. For instance, in April 2014 it was reported that one in five British workers had criticized their boss on social networking sites (The [START_REF] Metro | Mozilla chief Brendan Eich resigns: Can you criticise your boss on Twitter? Retrieved from[END_REF]. Furthermore, cyber harassment can be anonymous and it can affect employees outside working hours, which can heighten fear of future harassment as experiencing unwanted messages from an unknown perpetrator produces greater ambiguity [START_REF] Ford | Virtual harassment: media characteristics' role in psychological health[END_REF].

Possible interventions

Several interventions geared towards improving communication have involved employee training. Jackson, Burgess and Edwards (2006) administered a questionnaire to Plc employees to identify difficulties associated with sending and receiving emails. Sender training was then administered to employee groups within the organization which involved targeting emails, getting the message across and using an effective subject line. The results showed that there was a significant improvement in the overall quality of messages received by recipients as a result of the training. Most notably, the training has a significant impact on email clarity as recipients reported that emails were better written, easier to read and more to the point after training. Jackson and colleagues (2006) [START_REF] Giumetti | What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context[END_REF]Park et al., 2015). CREW is an intervention designed to reduce acceptance of uncivil behaviors whereby workgroups attend weekly meetings to learn civil ways of interacting. It may be particularly relevant for volatile virtual teams, as it aims to help work units identify ways to reduce incivility (Osatuke, Moore, Ward, Dyrenforth and Belton, 2009). This is done by helping workgroups develop and implement their own intervention, rather than imposing an intervention upon them. Organizations struggling with cyber incivility may consider the method as studies demonstrate that CREW training reduces face-to-face incivility, absenteeism and burnout (Leiter, Laschinger, Day and Oore, 2011;Osatuke et al., 2009).

A further strategy concerns the implementation of organizational policies that prohibit negative ICT communication. [START_REF] West | Cyberbullying at Work: In Search of Effective Guidance[END_REF] interviewed human resources professionals on the effectiveness of cyberbullying policies. All interviewees reported that their organization had some form of workplace harassment policy, however respondents noted that even when their organizations policy covered cyberbullying, training was needed to heighten awareness. Organizations may also consider developing social media policies. The popular press has coined the term 'Facebook Fired' to refer to instances where employees have been sacked from their jobs as a result of posting on social media (Schmidt and O'Connor, 2015). To prevent such occurrences, Schmidt and O'Connor (2015) suggest organizations craft clear policies that do not overly restrict employees and include examples of prohibited wrongdoing.

SUMMARY OF FINDINGS

The key findings from this review are summarized in Figure 1 for each of the four dimensions. In addition to this figure, we now provide a summary of the key findings across all dimensions.

Organizational outcomes

As noted in this review, some demands created by ICTs are just plain detrimental to organizational performance. Cyber forms of harassment can deplete employee resources, reduce positive affect and increase distress [START_REF] Giumetti | What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context[END_REF]Park et al, 2015) Poor communication in general can create misunderstandings which may cause frustration, stress, [START_REF] Day | Information and communication technology: Implications for job stress and employee well-being[END_REF] poor decisions (Jackson and Van den Hooff, 2012) or weaker interpersonal relationships [START_REF] Byron | Carrying too heavy a load? The communication and miscommunication of emotion by email[END_REF]. In addition, employees can take from 64 seconds to 15 minutes to recover from an email interruption and reengage in their primary task (Jackson et al., 2001;[START_REF] Van Solingen | Interrupts: just a minute never is[END_REF], and knowledge workers might lose up to 28 minutes of their workday because of interruptions (Gupta and Sharda, 2008). Similarly, those being overloaded by emails experience reduced task coordination and productivity [START_REF] Dabbish | Email overload at work: an analysis of factors associated with email strain[END_REF]Karr-Wisniewski and Lu, 2010).

However, some demands act as a "double-edged sword" (Dén-Nagy, 2014) by increasing organizational performance under certain circumstances, but at a personal cost. On one hand, performance might be increased by interruptions carrying work-related information or a higher volume of work-related emails (Mano and Mesch, 2010). Individuals having access to ICT outside working hours might feel empowered by devices such as BlackBerrys resulting in a greater sense of satisfaction, professionalism, productivity, autonomy, control (Cavazotte et al., 2014;[START_REF] Day | Perceived information and communication technology (ICT) demands on employee outcomes: The moderating effect of organizational ICT support[END_REF]Matusik and Mickel, 2011). On the other hand, ICT response expectations have been found to increase physical and cognitive burnout, health-related absenteeism and cause poorer sleep quality [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF]. The 24/7 availability increases work-life conflict and work-life imbalance [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF][START_REF] Diaz | Communication technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work[END_REF]Matusik and Mickel, 2011;[START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF], outcomes which have been associated with job burnout [START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF]. This paradox is intriguing, as employees are often aware of these tradeoffs and often embrace the introduction of some these technologies rather than resisting it (Cavazotte et al., 2014;Mazmanian, 2013).

Possible interventions

To tackle some of these outcomes, this review discussed several possible interventions suggested in previous studies. First, training interventions could be implemented to improve email quality, clarity and efficiency (Jackson et al., 2006), to tackle email overload (Soucek and Moser, 2010), to reduce cyber incivility [START_REF] Giumetti | What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context[END_REF] or to prepare for ICT-related work-life conflict (Leonardi et al., 2010). The review discussed some content proposed in these training interventions such as role-playing activities or commented examples. Organizational policies could also be designed to mitigate the negative outcomes identified. The impact of these demands on productivity should be assessed in the organization [START_REF] Al-Dabbagh | To connect or disconnect-that is the question: ICT self-discipline in the 21st century workplace[END_REF], then collectively discussed [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF]. Researchers have suggested that organizations should then decide on which behaviors to promote and which to restrict (Matusik and Mickel, 2011). Depending on the results of internal surveys, discussions and debates, policies could be designed; indeed the review discussed some examples such as guidelines or restrictions. [START_REF] Day | Information and communication technology: Implications for job stress and employee well-being[END_REF][START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF]Speier et al., 2003). -Yet it takes time to recover from interruptions (Jackson et al., 2001;Gupta and Sharda, 2008).

-And these response expectations can lead to detrimental health effects [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF].

Possible interventions

-Increase the message checking frequency (Gupta et al., 2011, Jackson et al., 2001). -Avoid synchronous messages if not needed (Gupta et al., 2013). -Assess interruptions impact on productivity within the organization [START_REF] Al-Dabbagh | To connect or disconnect-that is the question: ICT self-discipline in the 21st century workplace[END_REF].

CONSTANT AVAILABILITY Organizational outcomes

-Constant availability can also cause work-life imbalance and conflicts [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF][START_REF] Diaz | Communication technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work[END_REF][START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF]. -Although employees are aware of these problems, they often choose to remain constantly available and feel more productive and professional by doing so (Cavazotte et al., 2014;Matusik and Mickel, 2011).

Possible interventions

-Help employees to deal with worklife conflicts with support groups, collective discussions or training (Leonardi et al., 2010;[START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF]. -Discourage or ban work communication beyond working hours [START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF].

WORKLOAD Organizational outcomes

-The more emails, the longer the workday and the greater the feelings of overload [START_REF] Barley | E-mail as a Source and Symbol of Stress[END_REF]. -Receiving plenty of work-related emails can increase work effectiveness but also stress and distress (Mano and Mesch, 2010).

-Information overload can lead to lowered productivity (Karr-Wisniewski and Lu, 2010; [START_REF] Dabbish | Email overload at work: an analysis of factors associated with email strain[END_REF].

Possible interventions

-Train employees to improve their use of emails in order to deal with email overload [START_REF] Burgess | Email training significantly reduces email defects[END_REF]Jackson and Lichtenstein, 2011). -Circulate guidelines encouraging users to limit the amount of emails they send (Soucek and Moser, 2010).

POOR COMMUNICATION Organizational outcomes

-Misunderstood messages can lead to frustration, stress and poor decisions (Jackson and Van den Hoof, 2012).

-Cyber incivility increases distress, decreases task performance and reduces energy [START_REF] Giumetti | What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context[END_REF]Park et al., 2015). -Cyberbullying is linked to increased turnover intentions, anxiety and frustration [START_REF] Baruch | Bullying on the net: Adverse behavior on e-mail and its impact[END_REF]Hong et al., 2014).

Possible interventions

-Train employees to write clearer emails (Jackson et al., 2006).

-Train employees about civility, respect and engagement at work (Osatuke et al., 2009). -Implement cyberbullying policies [START_REF] West | Cyberbullying at Work: In Search of Effective Guidance[END_REF].

Finally, we discussed what can be done at an individual level. For example, managers could act as role models in terms of constant availability by refraining from sending messages beyond working hours [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF] or individuals could change the setup of their email software in order to tackle ICT interruptions [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF]Jackson et al., 2006).

Having summarized the key findings across the four dimensions, we now discuss their implications for research as well as key gaps in this literature.

IMPLICATIONS FOR RESEARCH

The current digital environments that individuals face at work places demands on them that are potentially detrimental to performance and well-being (Tarafdar et al., 2015b). Although research is beginning to examine some of these issues, there is a need to theoretically structure these 'dark side' ICT related phenomena in order to ( 1) understand what we already know about them and to (2) provide directions for future research. This paper tackles these two objectives from the point of view of ICT communication in organizations. Specifically it accomplishes the following objectives. One, current studies examine different kinds of impacts of ICT such as loss of employee control (Mazmanian et al., 2013) and poor performance (Tarafdar et al., 2015a). However these studies look at disparate characteristics of and expectations from IT use without providing an integrated understanding of these demands. By focusing on four key characteristics of ICT communication, this paper looks at the different demands and their possible organizational consequences in an integrated manner, thus providing theoretical structure to this phenomenon. Two, we identify the organizational interventions that can offset the negative consequences of ICT. In doing so, we theoretically link the demands from ICT, their organizational consequences and possible organizational interventions. This takes the literature forward by explicitly focusing on interventions rather than just on the demands of ICT or their consequences. Finally, in reporting systematically on the state of the current literature we are able to suggest directions where future research should direct its efforts to further develop the area of negative consequences of ICT communication.

Specifically, the review highlighted the double-edged nature of ICT in that some productivity benefits also come at a personal cost. This paradox could be further investigated if studies on ICT and productivity were to systematically include well-being-related outcomes. Looking at both productivity and wellbeing emphasizes that organizational effectiveness is about both people and performance. This paper also discussed innovative and clear suggestions for practice identified by other researchers. Future studies could follow the example of some of the papers cited to improve their recommendations for practice. We suggest that the 'implications for practice' section should be considered key here. These suggestions for practice could then be investigated in other research studies such as quasi experiments. For example, studies have suggested that training interventions might be designed to tackle email overload, and Burgess and colleagues (2005) successfully built upon this suggestion by designing an actual training intervention and by evaluating its outcomes. Some interventions discussed in this paper such as email guidelines or interventions on cyber harassment are yet to be investigated in practice. These studies have much to bring to both research and practice. Finally, most ICT methods leave behind a trail of their existence, which presents opportunities for researchers as it may be possible to identify objective instances of overload, interruption or cyber harassment and determine their subsequent impact on organizational effectiveness. In this paper, we reviewed experimental research which demonstrated that interacting with an uncivil supervisor was associated with lower task performance [START_REF] Giumetti | What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context[END_REF]. This suggests that there is potential for field studies that can use objective indicators of overload or interruption (e.g. number or volume of emails received) and how they are linked with subsequent indicators of employee health and performance.

IMPLICATIONS FOR PRACTICE AND CONCLUSIONS

We have reviewed four aspects of ICT communication that affect the health and performance of employees: expectations that they should respond immediately to communications, 24-7 availability, increased workload and the potential for poor communication. There are a number of potential interventions that could minimize the nefarious aspects of these downsides. Regarding response expectations, employees could be trained to let recipients know whether their email is a priority so that recipients can determine when they need to respond and can then prioritize their workload. Furthermore, longer message checking intervals can enable people to get on with their primary work, rather than constantly tuning in. Also employees should be discouraged from 'reply to all' and not cc people who really have no 'need to know'. In terms of 'constant availability', both employee and employer have a responsibility to set personal and organizational guidelines about accessing email and other forms of ICT outside of working hours. The research evidence is clear that this 24-7 culture is damaging people's health and relationships outside, as well as their productivity. The reactions from those concerned about this have led some employers to shut down servers at the weekends and to create 'email free' times during the week. The very least employers should do is create guidelines and diktats which encourage people to be 'email free' during non-work time unless absolutely necessary. In respect of the impact of ICT on workloads, we would encourage people to severely limit the 'ccing' of people into emails, let the recipient know the priority of the email, train people on email filtering or archiving, develop a detailed email policy and encourage employees to check their emails less frequently and not in the evening or on holiday unless absolutely necessary. Finally, there are a range of practical implications to minimize the risk of misunderstandings. Many organizations are now stopping email communications within the same building to encourage colleagues to meet face to face, as this can minimize communication difficulties and promote team building. Guidelines should also emphasize that difficult conversations (e.g., about job loss, promotions, performance management) should not be done by any form of ICT. Another worrying trend alluded to earlier is the increase in cyberbullying, so training that addresses this (i.e. the CREW programme), should be considered by employers if they identify this as an increasing problem area. As much as possible when it comes to difficult or complex or nuanced conversations they should be done by face to face communications or at the very least video conferencing.

In summary, senior management should be responsible for ICT guidelines, employer expectations, encouraging better work-life balance and minimizing the potential negative effects of poor use of ICT. As Einstein once wrote about technology "I fear the day that technology will surpass our human interaction the world will have a generation of idiots". Technology can be an enormously important tool but we need to manage it rather than it manage us!

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Summary of key findings RESPONSE EXPECTATIONS Organizational outcomes -Some interruptions might increase performance (Mano and Mesch, 2010; Addas and Pinsonneault, 2015; Speier et al., 2003). -Yet it takes time to recover from interruptions (Jackson et al., 2001; Gupta and Sharda, 2008). -And these response expectations can lead to detrimental health effects (Barber and Santuzzi, 2015). Possible interventions -Increase the message checking frequency (Gupta et al., 2011, Jackson et al., 2001). -Avoid synchronous messages if not needed (Gupta et al., 2013). -Assess interruptions impact on productivity within the organization (Al-Dabbagh et al., 2014).

This article is © Emerald Group Publishing and permission has been granted for this version to appear here (http://www.jfstich.com/). Emerald does not grant permission for this article to be further copied/distributed or hosted elsewhere without the express permission from Emerald Group Publishing Limited.

work.

International Journal of Organization Theory and Behaviour,17,J. C.,L.,


Jean-François Stich

Monideepa Tarafdar

Cary L Cooper

ELECTRONIC COMMUNICATION IN THE WORKPLACE: BOON OR BANE?

Keywords: Information and Communication Technology (ICT), Workplace communication, Email, Stress, Technostress

Purpose -The purpose of this paper is to review technostress related challenges arising out of workplace communication, for employees and organizations, and to provide suggestions for taking these challenges on.

Design/methodology/approach -The paper presents an overview of current research and practice in the area of technostress related challenges workplace communication. Findings -Employees face technostress challenges relating to workplace communication in the form of technology overload, interruptions and work-home interferences. Organizations have to strike a balance between giving employees the technology they want and protecting them from these Practical implications -The paper gives practitioners an accessible overview of current research and practice in the area of technostress from workplace communication such as email. A number of practical interventions are reviewed and commented on, which could help employees tackle such challenges.

Originality/value -Although this paper reviews state-of-the-art research, it is written in an accessible and practitioner-oriented style, which should be found valuable by readers with limited time but urgency to deal with technostress challenges arising out of workplace communication.

INTRODUCTION

The workplace use of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) is pervasive, and growing (Eurofound and the International Labour Office, 2017). Being able to use ICT for workplace related tasks, anytime and anywhere, can certainly have benefits in terms of efficiency, flexibility and productivity [START_REF] Mano | E-mail characteristics, work performance and distress[END_REF]. However, it can also give rise to detrimental side-effects such as 'round-the-clock-alwayson' tethering to the workplace, and leaving employees 'techno-stressed' or even burned out [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF]. ICT is thus a double-edged sword both for employees and employers [START_REF] Stich | Information and communication technology demands: outcomes and interventions[END_REF]. Despite ICT and in particular the negative effects of emails, employees often embrace these technologies in the workplace, just as they do in their private lives [START_REF] Matusik | Embracing or embattled by converged mobile devices? Users' experiences with a contemporary connectivity technology[END_REF]. Practitioners are left with no choice but to ride the ICT bandwagon, wondering nevertheless how to ease the journey. This position paper intends to provide them with state-of-the-art evidence on the effects of electronic communications in the workplace, along with practical and actionable suggestions for embracing ICT challenges in a way that do not leave any employee aside.

In this article, we first describe the dark side of ICT use in the workplace, presenting key research on technology overload and interruptions, on ICT-incurred work-home interferences, and on counterproductive ICT use (i.e., cyberdeviancy). In doing so, we establish the human cost of stress created by ICT (technostress; [START_REF] Tarafdar | The Impact of Technostress on Role Stress and Productivity[END_REF]. We then discuss the cost and importance of such technostress for organizations. As this article is mainly written for a professional audience with urgency to deal with ICT-related problems (e.g., emails), we provide them with extensive suggestions to take these challenges on, based on both key research and our own opinions.

WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION RELATED TECHNOSTRESS -CHALLENGES FOR EMPLOYEES

Technology overload

Although ICT allow for fast transmission of business critical information [START_REF] Sumecki | Email overload: Exploring the moderating role of the perception of email as a 'business critical' tool[END_REF], it also allows for mass transmission of not-so-critical, sometimes even irrelevant, messages. Using ICT is a time-consuming activity that often forces employees to do things they would not do otherwise [START_REF] Tarafdar | The Impact of Technostress on Role Stress and Productivity[END_REF]. For instance, most employees cannot bear their email inbox clogging, and ultimately end up using their office hours to "spring-clean" it [START_REF] Kalman | Filing, piling, and everything in between: The dynamics of E-mail inbox management[END_REF][START_REF] Whittaker | Email Overload: Exploring Personal Information Management of Email[END_REF]. Research has shown that having to deal with ICT has significantly lengthened people's workdays [START_REF] Barley | E-mail as a Source and Symbol of Stress[END_REF]. A study found that employees of a large company spent on an average 29 minutes reading email each day, let alone answering them [START_REF] Jackson | A simple approach to improving email communication[END_REF]. Employees feel that the increasing volume of ICT related communication they are required to handle, not only makes them overloaded technologically, but it also leads to increased 'work' overload [START_REF] Barley | E-mail as a Source and Symbol of Stress[END_REF][START_REF] Gupta | Should I send this message? Understanding the impact of interruptions, social hierarchy and perceived task complexity on user performance and perceived workload[END_REF]. Technology overload has been thus defined as the individuals' perceptions that their communication demands, such as that from email, are out of control and exceeding their coping abilities [START_REF] Dabbish | Email overload at work: an analysis of factors associated with email strain[END_REF]. These sorts of feelings -of technology overload and the associated work overloadare associated with increased risks of burnout, sleep disorders and stress [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF][START_REF] Mano | E-mail characteristics, work performance and distress[END_REF]. Further, although on the face of it, the technology we use feels like it is getting simpler, many applications and devices have complex 'user interfaces' that can take a long time to master, which leads to further work unrelated to their primary tasks and objectives [START_REF] Tarafdar | The Dark Side of Information Technology[END_REF]. To aggravate this situation, short technology life cycles and pressure from vendors means that employees often find themselves continuously dealing with new screens, functionalities and interfaces, often without adequate support. This further increases their psychological overload from doing IT-related work [START_REF] Tarafdar | The Dark Side of Information Technology[END_REF].

Interruptions, Divided attention and Multi-tasking

This never-ending flow of communication results in more frequent interruptions, as employees are compelled to react to their ICT notifications [START_REF] Stich | Information and communication technology demands: outcomes and interventions[END_REF]. Although email can be read anytime, employees tend to react to their incoming email in under one minute 44 seconds on average, and to the majority of it in under six seconds [START_REF] Jackson | The cost of email interruption[END_REF]. In addition, it is common to see most people looking at their screens in the middle of important meetings and events [START_REF] Usborne | What were all those MPs doing on their phones?[END_REF]. Although some interruptions are actually providing timely and needed information that can benefit productivity [START_REF] Mano | E-mail characteristics, work performance and distress[END_REF], most are just disrupting the task at hand [START_REF] Jackson | The cost of email interruption[END_REF]. Indeed, employees can take up to fifteen minutes to recover from such interruptions and re-engage in the primary task afterwards [START_REF] Jackson | The cost of email interruption[END_REF]. Increasingly we find that employees' "attention" is being parcelled among many different tasks at the same time. While multitasking is not necessarily bad for productivity [START_REF] Li | Exploring the impact of instant messaging on subjective task complexity and user satisfaction[END_REF], constant flitting back and forth among different devices and different tasks is time consuming, and results in less sustained attention to one specific task [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF]. It has further been estimated that employees can lose up to 28 minutes of their workday to such interruptions [START_REF] Gupta | SIMONE: A Simulator for Interruptions and Message Overload in Network Environments[END_REF]. The time and energy lost dealing with such interruptions has adverse consequences for productivity [START_REF] Addas | The many faces of information technology interruptions: a taxonomy and preliminary investigation of their performance effects[END_REF], and even for physical and mental health [START_REF] Barber | Please Respond ASAP: Workplace Telepressure and Employee Recovery[END_REF].

Work-home Interference

Employees facing increasing technology overload and "around-the-clock" interruptions are tempted to keep on top of their communication and work tasks by using work-related ICT such as tablets, laptops and smartphones at home [START_REF] Stich | Information and communication technology demands: outcomes and interventions[END_REF].

Indeed, many people prefer doing that because it affords them flexibility, and allows them to integrate their home and work activities [START_REF] Park | Relationships between work-home segmentation and psychological detachment from work: The role of communication technology use at home[END_REF]. Somethe "Crackberries" [START_REF] Mazmanian | Crackberries: The social implications of ubiquitous wireless e-mail devices[END_REF] even become addicted to checking their devices anytime, anywhere, for work-related communication [START_REF] Weinstein | Internet addiction or excessive internet use[END_REF]. However, that also means they end up working longer hours, interfering with their personal/family time [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF].

Techno-invasion has been thus been defined as the perception that ICT has invaded one's personal life, and is an important dimension of technostress [START_REF] Tarafdar | The Impact of Technostress on Role Stress and Productivity[END_REF] [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF][START_REF] Hughes | The Crisis Book: Overcoming and Surviving Work-Life Challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Stich | Information and communication technology demands: outcomes and interventions[END_REF], even though some victims paradoxically continue to crave for remaining constantly available through ICT [START_REF] Matusik | Embracing or embattled by converged mobile devices? Users' experiences with a contemporary connectivity technology[END_REF]. The paradox can go as far as employees suing their companies for making them addicted to ICT [START_REF] Kakabadse | Addicted to technology[END_REF]. For the others who would rather not integrate their home and work lives [START_REF] Derks | Work-related smartphone use, work-family conflict and family role performance: The role of segmentation preference[END_REF], refusing to bring ICT home is a difficult choice to make.

In a recent study of employees, 73% respondents worried that not being connected to their workplace through their email or other electronic means would place them at a disadvantage at work [START_REF] Tarafdar | The Dark Side of Information Technology[END_REF].

Cyberdeviancy

Employees are more easily overloaded and interrupted with ICT than in person [START_REF] Van Solingen | Interrupts: just a minute never is[END_REF], and are also more likely to have their home lives invaded by ICT than by colleagues knocking on their doors. Research shows that employees are also more easily bullied, insulted and misinterpreted through ICT than in face-toface [START_REF] Baruch | Bullying on the net: adverse behavior on e-mail and its impact[END_REF][START_REF] Ford | Virtual harassment: media characteristics' role in psychological health[END_REF][START_REF] Friedman | Conflict escalation: Dispute exacerbating elements of e-mail communication[END_REF][START_REF] Privitera | Cyberbullying: The New Face of Workplace Bullying?[END_REF]. Harassment can now extend beyond workplaces and office hours [START_REF] Baruch | Bullying on the net: adverse behavior on e-mail and its impact[END_REF], and cyberbullying has been found to be even more damaging to people's lives than traditional bullying [START_REF] Ford | Virtual harassment: media characteristics' role in psychological health[END_REF]. Conflicts are also more likely to escalate through most ICT media due to the difficulty of interpreting messages that are not supplemented by voice and eye contact [START_REF] Byron | Carrying Too Heavy a Load? The Communication and Miscommunication of Emotion by Email[END_REF][START_REF] Friedman | Conflict escalation: Dispute exacerbating elements of e-mail communication[END_REF]. Hidden behind computers, employees do not always realize the impacts their messages will have on recipients [START_REF] Friedman | Conflict escalation: Dispute exacerbating elements of e-mail communication[END_REF], resulting in generally poorer workplace communication [START_REF] Stich | Information and communication technology demands: outcomes and interventions[END_REF]. Employees may also think ICT hide them from their employers' surveillance, resulting in counterproductive work behaviours such as spending office hours on social media (Cyberslacking or cyberloafing; [START_REF] Schmidt | Fired for Facebook: Using NLRB guidance to craft appropriate social media policies[END_REF] or on illegal content (e.g., cyberpornography or piracy), or seizing confidential data for their own benefit (data theft). These activities, referred to as "cyberdeviancy" [START_REF] Weatherbee | Counterproductive use of technology at work: Information & communications technologies and cyberdeviancy[END_REF], incur significant human and financial costs for organizations [START_REF] Weatherbee | Counterproductive use of technology at work: Information & communications technologies and cyberdeviancy[END_REF].

WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION RELATED TECHNOSTRESS -CHALLENGES FOR ORGANIZATIONS

Between a rock and a hard place -Giving employees the technology they want

The aforementioned effects of ICT use are difficult to mitigate given the diverse ways they impact individuals. Knowing the risks of bringing work related ICT home does not prevent employees from embracing constant availability. They often feel an increased sense of job satisfaction, professionalism, productivity, autonomy, control and empowerment [START_REF] Diaz | Communication technology: Pros and cons of constant connection to work[END_REF], even justifying their inability to disconnect from work communication as a matter of free choice [START_REF] Cavazotte | Corporate smart phones: professionals' conscious engagement in escalating work connectivity[END_REF]. Should organizations go along with this and encourage employees to access work related communication outside contracted hours? Organizations have the difficult task to both provide employees with the technology they want, while at the same time steer them away from "self-inflicted work-life conflict" (Wright et al., 2014, p. 524), or "self-imposed escalation of work-related connectivity" (Cavazotte et al., 2014, p. 82). In addition to protecting their employees, they must also protect themselves from the costs incurred by ICT misuse and cyberdeviancy by reinforcing their legal and technological arsenal (E.g., electronic monitoring; [START_REF] Smith | Monitoring Employee E-mails: Is There Any Room for Privacy?[END_REF]. This challenge is made even more difficult with the never-ending introduction of new technologies in the consumer market, which at some point become desirable to employees [START_REF] Matusik | Embracing or embattled by converged mobile devices? Users' experiences with a contemporary connectivity technology[END_REF]. Organizations may be tempted "to advance the technology per se rather than to consider its impact on individual workers" (O'Driscoll et al., 2009, p. 126). Although these new technologies are desired and asked for by employees, "we must be vigilant in assessing the human costs that are incurred when these advances are adopted in the workplace" (Mark et al., 2012, p. 563). And even then, organizations that refuse to adopt such advances cannot guarantee that their employees will not themselves adopt them, thereby circumventing their IT departments and surveillance policies (BYOD; [START_REF] Crossler | Understanding Compliance with Bring Your Own Device Policies Utilizing Protection Motivation Theory: Bridging the Intention-Behavior Gap[END_REF]...

Dealing with varying ability to use ICT

Although ICT can provide a platform for organizations to actually address the communication needs and expectations of employees, it also requires successful training and technology habituation of people who may be technophobic [START_REF] Townsend | Virtual teams: Technology and the workplace of the future[END_REF]. Not everyone likes technology or can use it well or effectively. For example employees who lack the ability to manage and sort their email, experience greater email overload that those who do not [START_REF] Soucek | Coping with information overload in email communication: Evaluation of a training intervention[END_REF]. At the same time those who cannot send concise and clear emails increase their colleagues' email overload [START_REF] Jackson | Optimising e-mail communication: the impact of seminarand computer-based training[END_REF]. They also make conflicts and feelings of harassment more likely to occur, given the difficulty of writing unambiguous and polite messages [START_REF] Friedman | Conflict escalation: Dispute exacerbating elements of e-mail communication[END_REF]. ICT enabled work communication is social and interactive. Such problems are thus often matters of "collective drowning" in the email deluge [START_REF] Mazmanian | Crackberries: The social implications of ubiquitous wireless e-mail devices[END_REF][START_REF] Thomas | Reconceptualizing E-Mail Overload[END_REF])! A major organisational challenge is therefore to improve the ability of all employees to use ICT effectively, in order to limit these sorts of detrimental outcomes.

WORKPLACE COMMUNICATION RELATED TECHNOSTRESS -TAKING IT ON

Specify clear ICT use guidelines

Organizations can design interventions aiming at mitigating these negative outcomes. To prevent work-life imbalance, some organizations have decided to block access to emails outside contracted hours in order to force employees to take sufficient time off work. For example, in Germany, Volkswagen stopped routing emails to some employees on shift (BBC News, 2012). In France, Atos decided in 2010 to progressively replace emails with other, supposedly more efficient, media such as enterprise social networks. In 2014, 40,000 of their 80,000 employees, sent less than 20 emails per week, compared to an average of 100 in 2010 [START_REF] Filippone | Zéro mail chez Atos : la SSII at-elle gagné son pari ?[END_REF]. Their ambitious objective has served as a catalyst for imagining innovative ways to reduce technostress [START_REF] Pillet | Email-free collaboration: An exploratory study on the formation of new work habits among knowledge workers[END_REF]. It has been further suggested that "the cost of email use can be optimised by reducing the volume of irrelevant and untargeted email and by reducing the frequency with which an email application checks for new email" (Jackson and Lichtenstein, 2011, p. 20). If organizations do not want to bear the costs of email use, a paper went as far as to suggest, rather ironically, that email senders could be "charged according to the number of recipients" (Hiltz and Turoff, 1985, p. 688). Such measures, although draconian, do serve to send clear signals as to what is organizationally acceptable or not, with respect to use of ICT, thereby defining and sharing norms of proper ICT use [START_REF] Matusik | Embracing or embattled by converged mobile devices? Users' experiences with a contemporary connectivity technology[END_REF]. This would, therefore, be similar to norms enforced and shared by cyberbullying policies [START_REF] West | Cyberbullying at work: In search of effective guidance[END_REF] or general ICT use guidelines, defining the boundaries of cyberdeviancy and deterring employees from engaging in such counterproductive behaviours.

Develop more careful "one-size-fits-all" interventions

However, "strategies aimed at simply reducing email volume and changing individual behaviours may not be enough" (Sumecki et al., 2011, p. 413). Such unilateral interventions are difficult and risky to design, given that some employees may also experience high levels of stress and inadequacy when they lack the ICT and constant availability they need or desire [START_REF] Stich | Workplace stress from actual and desired computer-mediated communication use: a multi-method study[END_REF]. To the question "why do some individuals thrive in this environment whereas others suffer?" (Macik-Frey et al., 2007, p. 823), research has found that employees thrive when they can use the technology they need and want, and suffer when they cannot [START_REF] Stich | Workplace stress from actual and desired computer-mediated communication use: a multi-method study[END_REF]. Among less risky "one-size-fits-all" interventions is the elaboration of organizational guidelines giving advice and guidance to employees about mitigating their technostress [START_REF] Wright | Work-Related Communication Technology Use Outside of Regular Work Hours and Work Life Conflict The Influence of Communication Technologies on Perceived Work Life Conflict, Burnout, Job Satisfaction, and Turnover Intentions[END_REF]. In France, large organizations are now forced by law, since January 1 st 2017, to create such guidelines in which they describe how they intend to support their employees' "right to disconnect" and disengage from work while at home.

Such guidelines may contain promises to train employees on how to use emails and ICT and protect themselves against technostress. They may also contain guidance for dealing with cyberbullying [START_REF] West | Cyberbullying at work: In search of effective guidance[END_REF]. Email training for instance, has been found to reduce trainees' levels of email overload and their colleagues' levels of email overload [START_REF] Soucek | Coping with information overload in email communication: Evaluation of a training intervention[END_REF]. Email training interventions can include a demonstration of email features (sorting, filtering), examples of poorly-written email, simulation exercises and collaborative writing of "proper email use" guidelines (2010). Further workshop training can be provided on virtual civility, respect and engagement at work (CREW; [START_REF] Giumetti | What a rude e-mail! Examining the differential effects of incivility versus support on mood, energy, engagement, and performance in an online context[END_REF] in order to reduce cyberdeviancy in the workplace.

Help individuals be mindful of their own use of ICT

Besides these organizational innovations that can be applied to all employees, interventions and guidelines can also be applied individually to each employee. Internal surveys could audit employees' levels of technostress and attitudes towards ICT, and their results could serve as a basis for collective discussions in the company, through peer support groups. Technostress [START_REF] Tarafdar | The Dark Side of Information Technology[END_REF], stress [START_REF] Cartwright | ASSET: Management guide[END_REF] and cyberbullying [START_REF] Farley | Design, development and validation of a workplace cyberbullying measure, the WCM[END_REF] instruments reported in recent studies could be the basis of discussions among employees regarding their preferences for and reactions to use of ICT.

Help individuals be mindful of their colleague's use of ICT

Employees with managerial responsibilities have a special role to play in reducing everyone's technostress. Managers sending email to their subordinates outside their contracted hours create even stronger response expectations, and implicitly encourage a culture of constant availability [START_REF] Derks | Smartphone use and work-home interference: The moderating role of social norms and employee work engagement[END_REF].

Managers are, therefore, the ones who both suffer the most from technostress, and have the most impact on others' technostress [START_REF] Waller | The impact of e-mail on work-life balance[END_REF]! They should, therefore, be at the centre of organisational interventions such as workplace guidelines on email use. Organizations should also encourage employees to understand and empathise with the email and ICT use preferences of their colleagues. This could include, understanding communication habits of immediate colleagues, for example, what communication medium they prefer, and how they prefer to use it [START_REF] Stich | Workplace stress from actual and desired computer-mediated communication use: a multi-method study[END_REF].

In conclusion, the pervasiveness of these problems we describe, demands that senior executives and HR managers come together to frame and implement solutions (Tarafdar et al., 2015). Senior leadership should make mindful use of emails and ICT an organizational priority and commit to provide support and resources for tackling these problems. Human Resource managers should monitor employee sentiments and problems with regard to the stressful demands they face from emails, social media and other communication software. They should provide training and resources for employees to maintain their work life balance and create repositories for support resources. IT managers should provide technical support on issues such as how to switch off email alerts and how to better manage their email.

As John Ruskin, the British social reformer wrote, at the beginning of the Industrial Revolution in 1851:

"In order that people may be happy in their work, these three things are needed: they must be fit for it; they must not do too much of it; and they must have a sense of success in it."

This is the challenge of HR in respect of new technology in the 21 st Century.

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