Alexia Pacheco
email: alexia.pacheco@ucr.ac.cr

Gabriela Marín-Raventós
email: gabriela.marin@ucr.ac.cr

Gustavo López
email: gustavo.lopez_h@ucr.ac.cr

Designing a Technical Debt Visualization Tool to Improve Stakeholder Communication in the Decision-Making Process: A Case Study

Keywords: Design Requirements, Technical Debt Visualization, Technical Debt, Data Visualization, Data-driven Decision-Making

Technical debt is the release of immature software to meet time to market. In large complex companies, technical dept drives IT decision, even when participants in the decision-making process do not realize it. In this paper, we propose technical debt visualizations that can serve as a communication platform between different stakeholders. We conducted a case study in a large multi-industry state-owned company that faces significant challenges due to global digital transformation, its rigid control structures, and external pressures for cost reduction and investment optimization. In this study, we designed and evaluated technical debt visualizations to get feedback concerning its usefulness and ease its future acceptance. The results from this case study show that technical debt visualizations were considered useful for decision-making processes associated with software life cycle, especially for executives, business managers, software product owners, architects and project managers.

Introduction

Deploying immature software in a company is like acquiring debt [START_REF] Cunningham | The WyCash portfolio management system[END_REF]. Technical debt means that even though participants in the software development process know that deploying a piece of software might cause problems, they decide to do it. The two main factors that create technical debt are software complexity (unintentional technical debt) and strategic decisions (intentional technical debt) [START_REF] Allman | Managing technical debt[END_REF]. In large complex organizations with constant changes, these factors are key because the debt acquired by someone´s decisions will become apparent when someone else is in that position.

At Dagstuhl Seminar a definition for technical debt was proposed: "In softwareintensive systems, technical debt is a collection of design or implementation constr ucts that are expedient in the short term, but set up a technical context that can make future changes more costly or impossible. Technical debt presents an actual and contingent liability whose impact is limited to internal system qualities, primarily maintainability and evolvability" [START_REF] Avgeriou | Managing Technical Debt in Software Engineering[END_REF]. For this research, technical debt is the release of immature software artifacts to meet time to market [START_REF] Guo | Exploring the costs of technical debt management a case study[END_REF].

In this paper, we describe a complex organizational context in which technical debt offers an opportunity to improve communications in the decision-making processes. Since the decision-making process is usually conducted at a high level of the organization, technical debt needs to be described at an architectural level (rather than at a technical level). Therefore, We considered the stakeholders and concerns identified by Li, Liang, and Avgeriou [START_REF] Li | Architecture viewpoints for documenting architectural technical debt[END_REF]. In their research, authors propose different viewpoints that provide a comprehensive understanding of technical debt at a managerial level.

Furthermore, since this paper presents visualizations as communication tools, we used the data structure collections spreadsheet described by Guo, Seaman, and da Silva [START_REF] Guo | Costs and obstacles encountered in technical debt management -A case study[END_REF].

During the first efforts of this research, we faced resistance due to the novelty of the concept and the complexity of the context. This phenomenon is independent of technical debt (i.e., significant efforts are required to gain acceptance of any new practices and artifacts). However, we believe that visualizing and measuring technical debt is provides substantial benefits for the company.

Following the design science approach [START_REF] Johannesson | An Introduction to Design Science[END_REF], we conducted a case study in which visualizations (artifacts) were designed to show technical debt explicitly. A group of stakeholders contributed with their perspectives of the information provided through technical debt visualizations. We gathered these perspectives using a survey.

The primary goal of technical debt visualization is to promote a shared understanding of different company-wide perspectives and contribute to achieving general agreements in the decision-making process of the company.

In this paper, we aim to show an example how the design science approach made possible the introduction of novel concepts despite resistance in the organization and to share our findings of technical debt visualizations.

Context

The complex and accelerated world in which companies work, force decision-makers to decide between well-built software solutions and quick releases of software that sometimes carry defects [START_REF] Cunningham | The WyCash portfolio management system[END_REF]. This problem is evident in large companies that are accustomed to rigid processes but are affected by increasingly smaller business windows of opportunity. In most companies, IT decisions are based on business criteria. However, in large companies, time to market pressure is usually distant in the corporate ladder from the IT decision makers. IT decision makers focus on information technologies that they believe allow business automation and operation of the corporation. Moreover, the decisions in a software project affect different contexts (e.g., hardware developments, marketing, production planning). Therefore, coordination between decision makers in different contexts and with different perspectives is required [START_REF] Allman | Managing technical debt[END_REF].

This case study was developed in the context of a multi-industry state-owned company with more than ten thousand employees. By state-owned, we mean that it is a company created by the government to develop commercial activities on the govern-ment´s behalf. As a state-owned company, it must meet many regulations.

By multi-industry, we mean that the company is engaged in two entirely different businesses. Moreover, the company is geographically distributed around the country.

Inside the company, IT is managed in two ways. There is an IT Department for the whole company. However, each management (i.e., each industry) also has local IT areas. The IT Department (1) assures that IT activities and investment comply with regulations and standards, and (2) supports all organizational management levels in their technological requirements.

The company's IT investment is considerable. The company's IT budget is significant compared with total company budget. Most of the IT expenses go to third parties providing services or products (e.g., outsourcing of software development and maintenance, outsourcing of solution operation, solution and infrastructure providers). Rigid control structures are used to manage and monitor incomes and expenses in the organization. Furthermore, since it is a multi-industry company, information has been managed in silos (i.e., each industry segment managed information separately). Since it is a state-owned company, many technical regulations are applied for regulatory purposes (e.g., ITIL, COBIT, TOGAF and ISO 27000).

Efforts to comply with government regulations for IT started several years ago, and IT-related practices have different levels of implementation, most of them based on ITIL and COBIT. These efforts have driven financial and engineering practices looking to create a holistic vision of IT.

A significant disruption occurred when one of the industries in which the company performs moved from a monopolistic industry to a competitive one. This disruption forced several strategic competitive efforts and to investment in IT to optimize budgeting, and costs. Another challenge emerged because of technology disruptions in the other industry. As a consequence, the company faces significant challenges due to digital transformation caused by technology disruptions and converging technologies in both industries.

The company began a process to show the comprehensiveness of IT and to provide it with visibility across the organization. A data model was developed to define a common language and to support data mining across many data sources in the company.

Related Work

In 2009, Munzner [START_REF] Munzner | A Nested Model for Visualization Design and Validation[END_REF] proposed the Nested Model for Visualization Design and Validation which provides a framework for thinking about the design and validation of visualization systems at four levels. According to [START_REF] Munzner | A Nested Model for Visualization Design and Validation[END_REF], the four levels are: (1) characterize the tasks and data in the vocabulary of the problem domain, (2) abstract them into operations and data types, (3) design visual encoding and interaction techniques, and (4) create algorithms to execute these techniques efficiently. These levels are nested; the output from an upstream level is inputted to the downstream level below. The challenge of this nesting is that an upstream error inevitably cascades to all downstream levels. If a poor choice was made in the abstraction stage, then even perfect visual encoding and algorithm design will not create a visualization system that solves the intended problem.

In [START_REF] Meyer | The nested blocks and guidelines model[END_REF] authors indicate that this model has provided guidance, motivation, framing and ammunition for a broad range of visualization proposals, including problemdriven design studies, technique-driven work, evaluation, models, and systems.

Once the industrial context and critical concepts have been described, in the next section we will describe the methodological approach used to design a technical debt visualization tool to improve communication during decision-making processes at different levels of the organization to facilitate understanding of short-term benefits and long-term implications.

In 2014, Shahin, Liang and Ali Babar [START_REF] Shahin | A systematic review of software architecture visualization techniques[END_REF]conducted a review to determine the best visualization techniques for software architecture. This paper was useful to determine some types of visualizations that also apply to technical debt.

In 2016, Fernández-Sánchez, Garbajosa, Yague and Perez [START_REF] Fernández-Sánchez | Identification and analysis of the elements required to manage technical debt by means of a systematic mapping study[END_REF], conducted a systematic mapping to identify and analyze the elements required to manage technical debt. This work was useful to associate key elements associated with technical debt. However, the perspective of this research focused on the desires of stakeholders on the technical debt data.

Methodology

This research is framed within the design science methodology which seeks the design and research of artifacts in a specific context [START_REF] Wieringa | Design science methodology[END_REF]. Artifacts are designed to interact with a problem context to improve something in that context. A design science project iterates on two activities: (1) designing artifacts that enhance the context for stakeholders, and (2) empirically measuring their performance in the context to create knowledge. The first step was a literature review both in academic repositories and industries best practices repositories. Also, practices in the company were observed, especially practices related to the software lifecycle decision-making processes. Moreover, the context of the company was studied.

Technical debt visualizations prototypes were designed to show the value and impact of improving communication between the different stakeholders in the decisionmaking process. Later, the designed artifacts were presented in detail to crucial actors involved with IT management in the company and were evaluated through a survey.

The main research question of this research is: How to improve communication and facilitate understanding of short-term benefits and long-term implications to support the business decision-making process at different levels of the organization through visualizations of technical debt?

To address this question, we tried to determine the decision-makers that would benefit from a technical debt visualization and their main concerns. Afterwards, we focused on identifying the main stages of the software lifecycle in which these visualizations could be useful.

Artifact design cycle

To design the technical debt visualizations, we conducted a series of steps:

1. We studied the company context, through document review and observation of decision-making processes. 2. We analyzed different actor´s contexts, through the observation of their role and actions in the decision-making processes. 3. We determined best models to capture the reality of the company, such as existing technical debt models and good IT practices, and the industries where the company participates. 4. We tried to conceptualize technical debt, its management, and its representation model. 5. We designed possible visualizations (See Fig. 1,Fig. 2). 6. We built a prototype and generated visualizations examples using simulated data in the context of the company, which were used to present the concept of technical debt to stakeholders to obtain feedback from them.

Knowledge generation cycle

After the design cycle was completed, data was analyzed to determine the perceived usefulness of technical debt visualizations produced in the decision-making process. This evaluation was performed from the viewpoints of different stakeholders involved in the context of software development for the company. The evaluation process included:

1. Defining research questions to validate artifacts 2. Designing the instruments to obtain feedback from key stakeholders related to IT management 3. Present the technical debt concept and the visualization prototype to stakeholders 4. Collect feedback using the designed instrument and performing data analysis. To guarantee the future acceptance of the technical debt visualization tool, we were careful in the presentation of the concept and the visualizations provided to stakeholders.

We prepared a presentation about technical debt. This presentation is structured in three parts. In the first part, the central concepts about financial debt expressed in simple language are presented: What is debt? What is the purpose of the debt? What does the debt obligate? Problems generated by debt, what is bad debt? and What is good debt? The purpose of this part is to prepare the audience to facilitate its understanding of the technical debt metaphor. In the second part, we introduced the technical debt concept, challenges of technical debt, examples of technical debt incurred, associated concepts of technical debt as main and interest, why does technical debt matter? Technical debt management framework and examples of artifacts to register technical debt were also explained. The last part included technical debt visualization examples for hierarchical data, relational data, spatial visualization and detail data presentation.

The presentation was attached to the invitation to complete the survey. We also presented it to a subgroup of the survey participants. During the presentation, they demonstrated an interest in the topic. Participants expressed that it could help very much during decision-making process in which people from the business are involved.

Survey

Participant opinions regarding the technical debt concept and the designed tool were collected through an online survey. The survey included a section to gather demographic data. The main questions were arranged in five groups to facilitate the answering process to participants:

1. Usefulness valuation of the technical debt concept in process/stage associated with software lifecycle. 2. Roles involved in decision-making processes of the software lifecycle and concerns in relation to technical debt. 3. Usefulness valuation of the visualizations structures. 4. Possible interactions and usefulness valuation of software for technical debt management. 5. Forms to quantify technical debt and feasibility of achieving it.

We invited 30 employees to complete the survey. They are involved in the software lifecycle and business IT solutions development and participate in IT governance. All the significant roles and positions were invited to participate.

Results and Findings

This section describes the results of the survey conducted in this research. Fig. 3 shows the company´s position of the 19 respondents and Fig. 4 shows the role of respondents; almost half of them have administrative roles and the rest are IT professionals. The member of the Board of Directors that answered the survey is an IT professional also, and his opinion is viewed as very valuable.

The roles for which we have the most participants are business management, architecture and development. More than 60% of respondents have worked in IT industry and in the company at least 15 years, and more than 60% of respondents have less than 15 years in their current position.

In this work we tried to determine which actors in the decision-making processes would require a visualization of technical debt. More than 50% of the respondents agreed that the following actors could be users of technical debt visualization during the decision-making processes: Business Management, Executive Level, Software Product Owner, Architect and Project Management. Furthermore, we focused on the main concerns of these stakeholders. Fig. 5 shows the level of concern of respondents of the relative importance of aspects about technical debt (stated as questions to be answered by a technical debt tool). For all the questions, except two, more than 50% of participants showed extremely or very important for them to be answered. The question with the highest accumulated answers of extremely and very important is: Which IT business services are affected by specific technical debt item? We also addressed the perceived usefulness of a tool like the one described in this paper. Fig. 6 shows the results. The main finding is that the perceived usefulness of the visualizations is generalized. The question with the highest accumulated answers of extremely and very useful is: How much technical debt does an IT business service X have? It shows the perceived necessity to present the impact about IT decisions in business terms, to capture the attention from company´s decision-makers. According with respondents, our technical debt visualizations should answer all stated questions. The perceived usefulness of the technical debt concept and visualization in decision-making processes for each stages/processes of software life cycle are shown in Fig. 7. For all the stages/process, more than 50% of participants consider very useful or moderately useful the technical debt concept and its visualization in decision making processes. Thus, we should consider all stages/processes in our designs.

After understanding the necessity and perceived usefulness of visualizations we focused on determining the "best" types of visualizations that allow decision-makers to understand technical debt. More than 80% of respondents consider diagrams/schemes and graphs as most useful presentation structures to understand concepts or problems. Fig. 8 shows the perceived usefulness of visualization structures to demonstrate and facilitate the understanding of technical debt in decision making. The top five (regarding accumulated extremely and very useful) are: tree, fishbone, hierarchical bars, Sankey and reference model.

More than 60% of participants consider feasible to quantify technical debt by amount, effort or qualitative with moderate, or a lot of effort, to gather the necessary information. Therefore, we should consider this issue in the process of developing the technical debt visualization tool. The preferred form to quantify technical debt was by debt amount, followed by effort. In relation with visualizations iterations, the options presented were: zoom-in, zoom-out, drill-in, drill-out, tooltip and selection. All interactions are deemed useful. The interaction less appreciated is zoom-out.

The main finding of our research is that all participants considered that the concept of technical debt is useful, except one that selected No criteria option. 89% of participants believed that having a software tool to manage technical debt is extremely or very useful. Thus, the development of technical debt visualizations for this company with a refined version of the proposed design seems to make sense.

Conclusion and Future Work

To improve communication that supports the decision-making processes at different levels of the organization associated with the software life cycle is a challenge that companies must confront nowadays, especially because of digital transformation and converging technologies. In industrials sectors that have shorter and shorter time to market, many times products are being delivered too early, threatening a company´s future wellbeing. The technical debt metaphor offers an opportunity to communicate trade-offs between the benefits in short terms and the impacts in long term. On the other hand, data visualization has demonstrated its ability to improve understanding of concepts and support decision making. Therefore, designing and building technical debt visualizations are crucial to support organizations in the digital transformation era. To design technical debt visualization, we applied a design science approach. The process allowed us to make viable the acceptance of technical debt by the company´s software development stakeholders. Technical debt metaphor has accepted as a valua-ble toll to reach a shared understanding with decision makers from other domains, on the long-term impacts of decisions.

Technical debt visualizations (artifacts) were designed to improve stakeholder communication to support the business decision-making process at different levels of the organization. The designed artifacts were evaluated empirically to get feedback from stakeholders. We used an on-line survey to gathered data which allowed us to improve the alignment of artifacts with the needs of company.

From this case study we conclude that design science approach helped us make viable the introduction of a novelty concept in this industrial context.

Furthermore, we concluded that the technical debt visualization contributes to improve the communication in the decision-making processes associated with the software lifecycle. Moreover, the main actors that would benefit from this type of visualizations of technical debt include executives, business manager, software product owner, architects, and project managers.

The main question that stakeholders want to answer is: how much technical debt does an IT business service have? This proves the necessity of describing technical debt in business terms rather than technical. On the other hand, visualization structures that are deemed to help facilitate the understanding of technical debt are: tree, fish-bone, Sankey and reference model.

As future work, first, we will improve visualization prototypes according the results obtained in this case study. Second, we will put into production the tool and evaluate technical debt visualizations usefulness in the real decision-making process at different level of organization.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Visualizations built with the prototype. a) Dynamic graphic of technical debt; b) Which IT business services are affected by TD-Item 12?.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Visualizations built with the prototype. How much technical debt do IT business service of Industry 2 have?.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Position of respondents (n=19).

Fig. 4 .Fig. 5 .

 45 Fig. 4. Role of respondents

Fig. 6 .Fig. 7 .

 67 Fig. 6. Perceived usefulness of the visualization system that have the capacity to answer each question

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. Perceived usefulness of visualization structures

Acknowledgments

This work was partially supported by Research Center for Communication and Information Technologies (CITIC) and the Doctoral Program at University of Costa Rica.


Cezary Mazurek
email: mazurek@man.poznan.pl

Marcin Werla
email: mwerla@man.poznan.pl

Enterprise Information Management in Cultural Heritage Domain

Keywords: Digital Cultural Heritage, Metadata Harvesting, Metadata Aggregation, Digitisation Management, Digital Humanities, Interoperability

The aim of this paper is to present the complexity of information management in cultural heritage domain on the basis of real-life examples of distributed research infrastructures for the arts and humanities. The digitisation of cultural heritage artefacts is a process that is ongoing for many years in institutions all over the world and generates increasing amount of digital information. This generates challenges on the level of particular institutions which are holding heritage collections, but also on the national and international level, where such information is combined to provide end users unified access to distributed heritage datasets. The paper presents the flow of cultural heritage information from the level of a single institution up to pan-European data platform Europeana.eu via the level of regional and national cultural heritage data services. It is based on experiences of Poznań Supercomputing and Networking Center collected during the last 15+ years of involvement in the development of cultural heritage network services on all these levels.

Overview of Cultural Heritage Data Landscape

The most important information systems on the level of a single memory institution are those which are used to manage information about physical collections of the institution. They can be called library catalogues, integrated library systems, museum inventory management systems or archival information systems. Their key responsibility is to collect information about the cultural heritage assets and support management of these assets. To enable that, some of the systems are not only holding data records but are also supporting domain-specific procedures like inter-library book loans or museum objects exchange. In some domains, these systems are based on sets of well-defined rules or procedures, like for example, SPECTRUM standard [START_REF]SPECTRUM: The UK museum documentation standard[END_REF]. Part of the information stored in such systems is describing the basic features of given physical object and is called descriptive data (for example title, author, date of creation etc.).

When such an object is digitised, it becomes data and the descriptive data becomes metadata (data describing data). Digital objects with their metadata are usually managed by another type of systems, specialised in digital assets management and called digital libraries, museums, archives or in general repositories. Such repositories have to handle various types of data (as various as digitisation outcomes can be) and various types of metadatadescriptive, administrative, technical, structural etc.

Part of that information (both data and metadata) can be made available online for a wider audience through institution's web portal or online collections system. Such system is usually indexed by Google and other search engines, but in many cases, it also can actively distribute information (usually metadata) to other platforms, called metadata aggregators. Such platforms aggregate information from several sources, depending on their scope of interest. Moreover, aggregators can provide data to other aggregators (for example with wider scope), which makes them an interconnected network of cultural heritage data services.

Further in the chain of data flow are domain specific services, often very narrow, focused on re-use of cultural heritage data and metadata in a specific context, usually education, humanities research or tourism. Another re-use community is set up by socalled creative industries, like graphic designers, game developers or artists.

The following sections of this paper describe examples of consecutive stages of cultural heritage data flow, starting on a level of single cultural heritage institution, through regional data platforms, to national and international level metadata aggregators, to reuse environments. For each of these stages, real-life examples are provided and major challenges are emphasized. Section two focuses on an institutional level information management in the processes of digitisation, long termin digital preservation and provision of on-line access to digital cultural heritage collections. Section three provides an ovierview of regional cultural heritage data platforms and section three shows, how data from such platforms is aggregated and distributed on national and European level. The papers ends with a summary and conclusions.

From Offline Physical to Online Digital -Digitisation Workflow Management

The basic digitization workflow consists of following high-level steps: (1) selection of objects for digitisation, (2) preparation of objects and digitisation, (3) postprocessing, (4) digital archiving, (5) online publication. During all these steps digital information is created, processed and transferred. The type and amount of information, as well as the level of automation of the entire process, depends strongly on the context of the specific institution. Solutions used to support the process can vary from simple spreadsheet-based information management to sophisticated systems like dLab developed by PSNC [START_REF] Mazurek | Tools for mass digitisation and long-term preservation in cultural heritage institutions[END_REF].

In dLab system the core element of the information model is a digitisation task. It usually corresponds to all work related to and outcomes of digitisation of a single physical object. Such a single object can be a painting, a postcard, a book or a full year of issues of a journal which are bound together in one binding. Therefore an outcome of a single digitisation task may be one but also more digital objects which are at the end archived and made available online. The progress of execution of a single task is monitored by the dLab system and reported to managers of the digitisation process/project. Each digitisation task is divided into activities. Activities correspond to single actions that have to be taken in order to perform entire task. Examples of such activities are: digitisation of an object, cropping and deskewing of output scans, running OCR processing, converting digitisation output from one file format to another. Usually, there are finish-to-start dependencies between tasks which determine the ordering of execution (e.g. digitisation -> postprocessing -> OCR), but there are also parts of the workflow, which can be executed in parallel (e.g. when all files are ready and quality checked, archiving and online publication can happen in parallel). Moreover, some activities can be executed automatically (like file format conversion, technical metadata extraction) while others require human involvement (quality verification). For some specific purposes, tasks can be grouped so that there is one activity that is shared for all grouped tasks. A typical scenario for such grouping is an activity of physical transportation of a number of books from library storage room to digitisation lab, and back. The transportation is done at once for a group of books (tasks), digitisation is done one by one, and transportation back is again done in a batch.

dLab system holds the full history of execution of a specific task, including all its activities. Each activity may be in a number of states, depending on the progress of the task (see Fig. 1). dLab system includes the following basic states: ─ Waitingcannot be executed because of dependencies to other activities. ─ To docan be executed. ─ Doingexecution of the activity is in progress ─ Donewas executed properly, but no quality assurance was made on the results. ─ Acceptedthe results of execution were accepted by the quality assurance person. Additionally, for exceptional situations, a number of additional states are available, including:

─ Refused to dowhen the task was supposed to be executed, but before the execution, it came out that it's not possible. For example, a book was supposed to be digitised, but it came out that it has damaged pages which should be fixed prior to digitisation. ─ To redoafter execution, the results were not accepted by quality assurance and the activity has to be repeated. ─ Undoneafter proper execution of the activity it came out that one of the previous activities was executed improperly and an entire subset of activities has to be repeated. For example, OCR activity was executed and then it came out that few activities earlier, the digitisation was done wrong, therefore digitisation and all further activities have to be withdrawn and repeated. ─ Skippedused when an activity was optional and the system operator decided to skip it in particular case.

Users in the dLab system have various roles which determine their permissions, assignments to specific activities and operations which they can do on such activities (e.g. execution or quality assurance). This shows, how complex a digitisation workflow can be, especially if the memory institution is involved in a mass digitisation project during which several hundred thousands of objects are supposed to be digitised within the precise time period.

As mentioned above, usually two parallel final steps of digitisation are digital archiving and online publication. Digital archiving is often based to some extent on the OAIS reference model [START_REF] Lee | Open archival information system (OAIS) reference model[END_REF]. It assumes that information is contained within packages, that have structure and content dependent on the stage of archiving process. Three main types of information packages are submission, archive and dissemination. Submission information package is the input to the archiving process, and usually, at the same time, it is a full output of the digitisation activities. During ingestion of information package to the archive, it is transformed into archive information package, which should contain as much information as possible and be independent of the archival system, so that if the system is gone for some reason, the archive information package is so self-explanatory, that the information within can be accessed. This assumption, for example, makes encryption of archive information packages really deprecated, as the encryption key has to be stored somewhere outside of the package and makes access to the information inside the package dependent on some extra information stored somewhere outside of the package. Dissemination information package is obtained by processing of the archive information package to optimise the information for delivery to specific, authorized user. Usually, it may mean that only a subset of information from the archival information package is copied to the dissemination package (for example only part of the metadata or lower resolution images).

The second final step, online publishing of the digital object, is usually done by submitting a dedicated, optimised for online viewing, version of the digital object to the online collections system of the institution. The format of the object, as well as the set of metadata attached to it, depends on the possibilities and design of that online portal. In Poland, many regional level institutions decided to cooperate on that stage, by creating regional data platforms that are shared infrastructures for these institutions and allow them to optimise several aspects of the online delivery of cultural heritage content. In order to support that PSNC developed the dLibra system [START_REF] Mazurek | Distributed Digital Library Architecture for Business Solutions[END_REF], which together with dLab (for digitisation workflow management) and dArceo (for long-term digital preservation) create together DInGO toolset (https://dingo.psnc.pl/) used by several hundred institutions in Poland. The next section provides an overview of selected information management aspects related to online access to cultural heritage objects.

Regional Data Platforms

Systems used to manage physical collections are usually treated as internal to the institution. Sometimes they have a window to WWW which provides part of the functionality, and part of the information, which can be accessible to users external to the institutionto the general public or for example to registered readers of a given library. In case of smaller organisations, such systems may be in fact desktop installations, existing on (the only) one PC in the institution. Portals which are used to make digital collections available online are usually more demanding in terms of hardware resources than systems used to manage institution's inventory. Reasons for that are twofold. First of all, the amount of data stored in digital repositories is usually several orders of magnitude bigger than the amount stored in library or museum catalogues. High-resolution scans of a thick book can take several gigabytes, while the catalogue record describing that book takes not more than few kilobytes. This difference requires not only more powerful hardware to store and process the data, but also significantly more network bandwidth, to make sure that the digital content may be transferred to online users. Secondly, the group of potential users of a digital library or museum is usually much bigger when compared to a basic online catalogue. Information available in the online catalogue is usually most interesting for users geographically close to the institution because if they will find an interesting position in the catalogue, they can go and access the physical object on site. In case of digitized objects, the access is ensured via online data transfer and can be utilized by users all around the world, as long as they have the network connection. It means that not only the servicing of a single user session requires more resources, but also there will be most probably more user sessions than in case of other institution's services of a more local nature.

It makes the creation of a sustainable digital library or museum a challenge, which in Poland is widely addressed be setting up of so-called regional digital libraries [START_REF] Mazurek | Network of Digital Libraries in Poland as a Model for National and International Cooperation[END_REF]. Such regional initiatives are playing the role of regional platforms for cultural heritage data and metadata, which are maintained by bigger institutions like university libraries or local research computing centres and used by many other institutions from the region, creating consortia of several tens of partners. From the information management point of view, it is interesting how this approach allows for a consensus between the benefits of shared approach and need for emphasis on the unique institutional identity of each consortium partner. Shared infrastructure approach requires all partners to agree on shared metadata schema and common layout of digital collections. The institutional identity remains visible thanks to three levels on which it can be expressed. The most basic level used in almost all regional platforms in Poland is related to a metadata schema, which usually in such cases includes provenance field used to indicate to which institution a particular object belongs. The second level is implemented with institutional collections, sets of objects from a single institution, which are promoted in the web portal of the regional digital library. With such approach (see Fig. 2) anyone visiting the main page of the regional portal have a chance to see the institutions contributing to it and browse their digitised objects. The ultimate way to ensure institutional visibility on such regional data platform is a setup of dedicated web portal based on that platform, which has a unique design with strong institutional identity and presents only objects which are provided to the platform from that specific institution. Such approach, called the virtual digital library (see Fig. 3), is not the most popular one, as it requires additional hardware resources, but it helps in some cases to liaise between regional cooperation and institutional ambitions.

The regional data platforms approach allowed hundreds of medium and small Polish institutions to start publishing their digitised collections online. Nowadays over 40 regional digital libraries exist in Poland and together with institutional digital libraries and repositories, they make available online around 5 million objects. Information about these objects is aggregated on the national level in a dedicated service called Polish Digital Libraries Federation. This portal and its European counterpart are described in the next section. Fig. 3. Virtual repositories based on a regional digital library platform.

National and International Metadata Aggregators

As the development of digital libraries in Poland was progressing, in mid-2000's it became visible that the increasing number of online cultural heritage collections need a unified access point. General purpose internet search engines were indexing the metadata and data from digital libraries, but it was not possible to run user queries only over a subset of websites which were providing high quality and trusted data. Also, the way of query formulation was not ideal, as it was not supporting advanced queries connecting several metadata fields. Therefore PSNC started developing a solution that could provide more homogeneous access to distributed cultural heritage resources.

The public opening of the service took place in 2007 and since then the Polish Digital Libraries Federation is available at http://fbc.pionier.net.pl/ [START_REF] Lewandowska | PIONIER Network Digital Libraries Federation -Interoperability of Advanced Network Services Implemented on a Country Scale[END_REF]. At the beginning it was providing access to around 80 000 objects from 15 cultural heritage institutions, now it is indexing over 120 institutions and provides access to around 5 million objects. The aggregation of the information was in the beginning based on the OAI-PMH protocol [START_REF] Sompel | Resource harvesting within the OAI-PMH framework[END_REF] and was using Dublin Core metadata schema [START_REF] Weibel | Dublin core metadata for resource discovery[END_REF] as a common standard for storing and indexing of the data. The initial assumption was that digital libraries cooperating with the Federation will be able to map information from their internal schemas to the widely know Dublin Core Metadata Element Set. After a few years of development and maintenance of the service it came out, that in many cases the mapping is established once when the particular digital library starts cooperation with the Federation and then is no longer maintainedit is not updated when the digital library modifies its metadata schema. Beside the Dublin Core set of metadata field came out to be too narrow to hold the semantics of the aggregated data which was leading to a serious loss of data quality. For example, the place of publishing of books had to be mapped to a "Publisher" field in the Dublin Core schemaa field that should hold the name of the publishing entity.

Finally, the initial technical architecture [START_REF] Mazurek | Distributed Services and Metadata Flow in the Polish Federation of Digital[END_REF] was not scalable enough to support the increasing amount of data sources and metadata volume.

This led to the redesign of the entire system and development of new aggregation platform based on cloud technologies [START_REF] Mazurek | Architecture for Aggregation, Processing and Provisioning of Data from Heterogeneous Scientific Information Services[END_REF]. The new system was from the beginning designed with a focus on scalability and high availability. Also, the approach to information integration was redefined. The main way of obtaining data is now still OAI-PMH protocol, but support for simple CSV file delivery was added. Besides, now the assumption is that the Federation should aggregate as rich data as possible and handle the mapping of information on its own side, not relying on the data provider doing the mapping. This requires more effort related to the daily operations of the Federation infrastructure but can be to some extent automated and leads to significantly better data quality. The architecture of the new system consists of the following layers (see Fig. 4): ─ Data storagea most central layer of the system used to exchange data between all other layers, based on NoSQL database cluster. ─ Data aggregationscalable set of agents which are responsible for communication with data sources and delivery of data to the data storage layer. Agents are managed by a central agents manager and are specialized in different types of data sources. New instances of agents can be created if new data sources are added and new types of agents can be implemented to provide support for new types of data sources. ─ Data processingscalable set of processing components executing predefined chains of (meta)data transformation, for example, mapping from one schema to another, cleaning, normalisation, enrichment etc. Data processing components load data from and store data to the data storage layer and are triggered automatically as new data arrives from agents to data storage. ─ Data provisioning layerused to provide read-only access to data storage with a REST API that can be utilized to implement applications on top of the aggregated data. Example of such application is the portal of the Polish Digital Libraries Federation.

Besides providing access to the aggregated (meta)data via the Federation portal, PSNC also cooperates with European-level cultural heritage data platform called Europeana.eu. This platform to some extent repeats the scenario of the Federation, but is working on an international level and is getting its data mostly from aggregation services like the Polish Federation. Europeana is operating on a scale larger by one order of magnitude than its national level partners, with dedicated ingestion team that is responsible for data processing and is ensuring the best possible data quality. Europeana is accepting the data in a dedicated schema called Europeana Data Model (EDM) [START_REF] Knepper | Making library linked data using the Europeana Data Model[END_REF]. The aggregation and processing of that data are happening in a cloud-based system called Europeana Cloud, that is a shared development of the Europeana Foundation and PSNC. This cloud infrastructure consists of the following components [START_REF] Werla | Design of Europeana Cloud technical infrastructure[END_REF]:

─ Metadata and Content Service (MCS)used to provide authorized R/W access to all data stored in the Europeana Cloud platform, based on NoSQL database and object storage. ─ Unique Identifier Service (UIS)used to provide unique identifiers to all data stored in the MCS service. ─ Data Processing Service (DPS)used to process data stored in MCS in a scalable way. Based on streaming data processing framework, allowing to deploy and scale various data processing topologies. ─ Image Service (IS)used to provide HTTP-based access to high-resolution images stored in MCS services, based on IIIF image provisioning protocol [START_REF] Snydman | The International Image Interoperability Framework (IIIF): A community & technology approach for web-based images[END_REF].

Besides, there are several backend services used for internal asynchronous communication of the services and for services monitoring.

The information model used in the system is hierarchical. The basic component is a record which may have one or more representations. Each representation may have one or more versions and each version may have one or more files. A book may correspond to a record. Several representations inside that record may correspond to the digital version of that book in several formats (for example TIFF, JPEG2000 and PDF) and to the metadata of that book in several formats as well (for example in Dublin Core and EDM). Each such representation will start with one (the first) version including some files, but in case of updates in the future, new versions will be created accordingly.

Europeana Foundation, which is the operator of Europeana.eu platform, and many other institutions that are publishing cultural heritage collections online, are focusing not only on exposing as much data as possible but also on facilitating and promoting further reuse of that data in many areas. The next section describes briefly selected scenarios of such re-use.

Re-use of Cultural Heritage Data

For most of the people, it's obvious that cultural heritage is a key element for the identity of any society. For most of the people, cultural heritage in physical form is something that they can passively experience in dedicated spaces like museums, galleries or archives. The main reason for such situation is obviously the value of heritage objects associated with their age, history, beauty, uniqueness etc. Lack of possibility to physically interact with the heritage always was and still is one of the key means of its protection. High-quality digitisation changes that, because the uniqueness of the physical object is replaced with infinite possibilities of replication of information in digital form.

Of course, the physical interaction is replaced with a virtual one, but with the current state of development of visualisation technologies, the difference between those two becomes smaller and smaller.

One of the domains for which wide access to high-quality digitised cultural heritage is a gamechanger is humanities research. Such wide digital access to information from memory institutions opens new research possibilities both in terms of the range of available historical sources and in terms of how they can be processed. New research approaches, such as "distant reading" [START_REF] Jänicke | On close and distant reading in digital humanities: A survey and future challenges[END_REF] new digital research tools are created.

Example of such research tool, a virtual research environment, is Virtual Transcription Laboratory (VTL) developed by PSNC, and available at http://wlt.pcss.pl/. This service allows end-users to import a historical object from a digital library, run automated text recognition on it (with support for old prints recognition), and then perform team correction, transcription or annotation of the historical document [START_REF] Dudczak | Improving the Workflow for Creation of Textual Versions of Polish Historical Documents[END_REF]. The outcomes of such process can be exported in several formats and used further for other research activities. To achieve high interoperability with digital content platforms, this tool utilizes the services described in previous sections of the paper. When the user enters an identifier of the object to be imported, the VTL backed connects to the API of Digital Libraries Federation to locate from which service the imported object comes from. Then it connects to the API of the source digital library and imports metadata and data of the digital object. All that process is performed automatically and is a seamless integration of several services, not visible to the end-user.

Conclusions

In this paper an overview of a complex and large-scale cultural heritage information flow was provided, basing on real-life examples from the experience of Poznań Supercomputing and Networking Center. This flow starts on the level of a single institution, which is running a (mass) digitisation project and producing digital representations of its collections. After such digital collections are archived and made available online, they become part of a larger ecosystem which integrates regional data platforms with national and international data aggregation services. Such an ecosystem is a perfect environment for the development of research tools which are providing new possibilities in the art and humanities research. In order to make creation and sustainability of such complex organism possible, several technical and non-technical factors are crucial. The most basic requirement is openness for cooperation between cultural and research institutions on various levels, also across national borders. Such openness can be then translated into a high degree of interoperability on the level of data models, APIs and licenses under which all that information is made available. Current stage of development of cultural heritage data platforms in Europe is a great example how widely distributed and independent organisations can establish cooperations and improve such important aspects of information societies as the access to its rich cultural heritage.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. State transitions of activities in a digitisation task in the dLab system.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. The main page of Silesian Digital Library (http://sbc.org.pl/) with institutional collections promoted in the bottom row visible at the screenshot.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Architecture of the Clepsydra system used in the Polish Federation of Digital Libraries.


Mathupayas Thongmak
email: mathupayas@tbs.tu.ac.th

Raising Students' Cognitive Engagement Intention in a Preliminary IS Course Using Gamification

Keywords: Gamification, perceived usefulness, attitudes, cognitive engagement, IS course

This paper guides factors influencing undergraduate students' cognitive engagement intention, using activities in the preliminary Information Systems (IS) course as the gamified settings. A simple process, using student-led activities, to implement gamification in educational environments, is described. A research model, consisting of game elements, perceived game usefulness, attitude towards the course, and cognitive engagement intention, is proposed. The main objectives are to examine the impact of these factors on students' cognitive engagement intention. Data are collected using questionnaires. The model is statistically tested using structure equation modeling. The results show that game elements directly and indirectly affect cognitive engagement intention. Student's attitude towards the course, which is strongly influenced by perceived game usefulness, is also important to raise their cognitive engagement.

Introduction

Engagement in the course is important for developing students' full learning potential. However, there is still difficulty in keeping students engaged in in-class activities. In addition, only small groups of students engage themselves in learning activities [START_REF] Da Rocha Seixas | Effectiveness of gamification in the engagement of students[END_REF]. In the educational context, games are considered as an influential factor for developing knowledge and engaging students [START_REF] Da Rocha Seixas | Effectiveness of gamification in the engagement of students[END_REF]. Adding game elements into those activities possibly make the activities more appealing as well as raising students' level of engagement. These are called gamification [START_REF] Mahmud | Gamification of Engineering Courses[END_REF]. Gamification applications are shown to be effective drivers for participants in various domains such as finance and education [START_REF] Thiebes | Gamifying information systems-a synthesis of gamification mechanics and dynamics[END_REF].

Objectives of gamification in education are to stimulate students' motivation and engagement towards games, to improve participation among learners, and to persuade the desired behaviors [START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF][START_REF] Azmi | Gamification in online collaborative learning for programming courses: a literature review[END_REF][START_REF] Combefis | Learning Programming through Games and Contests: Overview, Characterisation and Discussion[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Examining the impact of gamification on intention of engagement and brand attitude in the marketing context[END_REF][START_REF] Paisley | Gamification of tertiary courses: An exploratory study of learning and engagement[END_REF]. Fredricks, Blumenfeld and Paris defined three types of engagement comprising of behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement [START_REF] Fredricks | School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Osipov | Study of gamification effectiveness in online e-learning systems[END_REF]. In terms of gamification approaches, they are classified as gamifying learning activity, gamifying social activity, and gamifying assessment activity [START_REF] Azmi | Gamification in online collaborative learning for programming courses: a literature review[END_REF].

Although gamification in education has been explored as described in the Section 2, it as an academic topic that is relatively young [START_REF] Hamari | Does Gamification Work?--A Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification[END_REF]. In some countries such as China, the educational gamification is also in the exploring stage [START_REF] Qu | Research on teaching gamification of software engineering[END_REF]. The effectiveness of gamification for learning is still controversial [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | Developing a comprehensive engagement framework of gamification for reflective learning[END_REF]. More research is needed to determine the long term benefits together with the short term benefits of gamification [START_REF] Mahmud | Gamification of Engineering Courses[END_REF][START_REF] Paisley | Gamification of tertiary courses: An exploratory study of learning and engagement[END_REF].

Gamified elements are needed to be studied [START_REF] Ortiz-Rojas | Gamification in Computer Programming: Effects on Learning, Engagement, Self-Efficacy and Intrinsic Motivation[END_REF]. Motivational drivers influencing students' attitude towards the educational methodology should be identified [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF]. Ongoing challenges for designers and practitioners to engage users are the identification and prioritization of engagement factors [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | A Study of Game Engagement through Gamification and Full-body Games[END_REF]. Only few well-established theoretical frameworks are presented [START_REF] Hamari | Does Gamification Work?--A Literature Review of Empirical Studies on Gamification[END_REF]. Cognitive engagement is motivated behavior [START_REF] Pintrich | Students' motivational beliefs and their cognitive engagement in classroom academic tasks[END_REF], which is measured by attention and reflection [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | Developing a comprehensive engagement framework of gamification for reflective learning[END_REF]. It remains under-investigated and inconclusive whether gamification can enable students to think deeply [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | Developing a comprehensive engagement framework of gamification for reflective learning[END_REF]. In addition, gamification is quite complicated to implement [START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF]. Therefore, the purposes of this study are: 1) to study factors directly and indirectly affecting students' attitudes toward the course, including game elements and perceived usefulness of the games 2) to examine and to prioritize the factors affecting students' cognitive engagement intention, and 3) to guide the simple process of implementing gamification to the course.

Related Research

The work of Mitchell, Danino and May applied a gamification approach such as challenges, points, and leaderboard to an introductory undergraduate module in Computing. These competitive elements could encourage students to share knowledge and techniques to support less-experienced team members [START_REF] Mitchell | Motivation and manipulation: A gamification approach to influencing undergraduate attitudes in computing[END_REF]. Cheong, Filippou and Cheong explore undergraduate IT students' perceptions of game elements. Results indicated that students' had positive perceptions of gamified systems and were interested in the use of gamification in learning [START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF]. Silpasuwanchai, Ma, Shigemasu and Ren proposed a framework of engagement in gamification for learners. The framework showed the connections between gamification strategies, engagement dimensions, and final learning outcomes [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | Developing a comprehensive engagement framework of gamification for reflective learning[END_REF]. Iten and Petko examined the relationship between anticipated enjoyment, willingness to play, game enjoyment, self-reported cognitiveness, and motivational learning gains. Results showed that anticipated enjoyment and actual game enjoyment played a minor role in the students' willingness to learn with serious games [START_REF] Iten | Learning with serious games: Is fun playing the game a predictor of learning success[END_REF]. Galbis Córdova, Martí Parreño and Currás Pérez investigated key motivators of undergraduate students' attitude towards the use of gamification as an educational innovation to improve their competencies. Findings pointed that perceived attention, perceived relevance, and perceived confidence positively affected students' attitude towards using online educational video games. Perceived attention and perceived confidence also influenced perceived relevance [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF]. Ortiz-Rojas, Chiluiza and Valcke analyzed the effects of gamification (badges) on learning performance, intrinsic motivation, self-efficacy, and engagement of engineering students in a programming course, using a quasi-experiment. Results showed a statistically significant enhancement in students' engagement, compared to the control group, but no significant improvement in learning performance, intrinsic motivation, and self-efficacy [START_REF] Ortiz-Rojas | Gamification in Computer Programming: Effects on Learning, Engagement, Self-Efficacy and Intrinsic Motivation[END_REF]. Mahmud, Weber and Moening tried to investigate students' perceptions about badges, experience points tracking with levels, leaderboards, and quizzes with automated feedback implemented in Moodle and understand how students' learning of the course materials increase through gamification. Results from an online survey showed that game-like elements were slightly helpful towards students' motivation. The combination of experience points with levels was not a strong driver [START_REF] Mahmud | Gamification of Engineering Courses[END_REF]. Putz and Treiblmaier empirically tested the effectiveness of gamification in business context, using gamified workshops. It was found that enjoyment and curiosity were fostered by gamification elements and later influenced individuals' attitudes and behavioral intention to apply sustainable business practices [START_REF] Putz | Gamified Workshops as Drivers for Attitudinal and Behavioral Shifts toward Sustainable Business Practices: The Role of Enjoyment, Curiosity and External Regulation[END_REF]. Gamified applications are systems use game-designed elements to achieve educational goals by letting students learn by playing a specific game [START_REF] Tomaselli | How to Engage Users through Gamification: The Prevalent Effects of Playing and Mastering over Competing[END_REF]. Perceived usefulness is defined as the perceived increase of understanding, problem solving skills, creativity, and interests in the course topics after conducting games in the class. These attributes such as challenge/problem solving, creativity, social interaction, helping others, importance/utility in business, image/reputation, and change are sub-constructs of the practical application of Management Information Systems (MIS) coursework influencing students when they select their majors [START_REF] Rouibah | Understanding student drivers and obstacles toward MIS major from the perspective of an arab country: The case of Kuwait[END_REF]. Past studies show the evidence that game-based learning enhances competencies such as critical thinking/decision-making, problem-solving, conflict-resolution, and communication skills [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF]. Games enabling children to confront with problems, learn from their mistakes, and put efforts to find a solution, developing problem solving skills and thinking skills for children [START_REF] Vos | Effects of constructing versus playing an educational game on student motivation and deep learning strategy use[END_REF]. One of the anticipated benefits of gamification in the views of students is the improvement of their understanding of the course content [START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF]. Games provide experiences across var- ious contexts, improving learners' understanding of complex situations and contributing the knowledge construction [START_REF] Vos | Effects of constructing versus playing an educational game on student motivation and deep learning strategy use[END_REF]. They can be promising tools for enhanced learning and understanding the complex subjects [START_REF] Surendeleg | The role of gamification in education a literature review[END_REF].

Theoretical Background and Hypotheses

Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H1: Game elements positively affect perceived usefulness of gamification.

Students who have ever joined the gamified class show the positive attitude towards the gamification: "I truly enjoyed playing games to learn the material as opposed to listening to a lecture. I would recommend this class to anyone. " [START_REF] Poole | Get your head in the game: Using gamification in business education to connect with Generation Y[END_REF]. Individuals' behavior and attitudes toward environmental consciousness could be impacted by gamification [START_REF] Putz | Gamified Workshops as Drivers for Attitudinal and Behavioral Shifts toward Sustainable Business Practices: The Role of Enjoyment, Curiosity and External Regulation[END_REF]. The majority of students in the study of Cheong, Filippou and Cheong [ 4 [ have positive feelings and expectations regarding the gamified education. They believe that it will make the classrooms more interesting and reform learning environments, decreasing dropout rates and better motivating and engaging students attend the classes and to participate in class activities. A significant amount of undergraduate students prefers using a computer game for learning since they are experienced with games, desire social interaction, and open-mind to the game applications in learning. More than 30 percent of students feel that the use of gamification in education is an exciting idea. More than 20 percent of students think they will be comfortable with it ] 4 [ . Students have positive attitudes towards games for learning. Children feel fun and are able to deal with educational games well. They also assume that working with the games is easy [START_REF] Iten | Learning with serious games: Is fun playing the game a predictor of learning success[END_REF]. Literature studies indicate that game-based learning is more interesting for learners [START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF]. The nature of games and game elements make games fun and are intrinsically motivated for educational use of gamification [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF]. In addition, gamified problembased learning has a positive effect on users' subjective preferences [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | A Study of Game Engagement through Gamification and Full-body Games[END_REF].

Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H2: Game elements positively affect students' attitudes towards the course.

Benefits relating to gamification are enhancing learning and increasing student engagement [START_REF] Surendeleg | The role of gamification in education a literature review[END_REF]. It also has an increasingly important role in trainee engagement ] 7

[ and is frequently applied to drive individuals changing their behaviors and acquiring new skills [START_REF] Putz | Gamified Workshops as Drivers for Attitudinal and Behavioral Shifts toward Sustainable Business Practices: The Role of Enjoyment, Curiosity and External Regulation[END_REF]. Previous findings show that the influence of gamification on students' engagement and motivation is quite positive generally [START_REF] Iten | Learning with serious games: Is fun playing the game a predictor of learning success[END_REF][START_REF] Vos | Effects of constructing versus playing an educational game on student motivation and deep learning strategy use[END_REF][START_REF] Tan | Incorporating meaningful gamification in a blended learning research methods class: Examining student learning, engagement, and affective outcomes[END_REF][START_REF] Fotaris | Who wants to be a Pythonista? Using Gamification to Teach Computer Programming[END_REF][START_REF] Veltsos | Gamification in the Business Communication Course[END_REF]. Games have a potential to enhance the motivation in learning because they stimulate curiosity and interests of learners. Playful environments also improve students' motivation and learning outcomes significantly ] 23 [ . Students are involved in a gamified course have a significantly higher engagement such as desires to learn more , compared to students in the control group [START_REF] Ortiz-Rojas | Gamification in Computer Programming: Effects on Learning, Engagement, Self-Efficacy and Intrinsic Motivation[END_REF][START_REF] Tan | Incorporating meaningful gamification in a blended learning research methods class: Examining student learning, engagement, and affective outcomes[END_REF]. Leaderboard, for instance, influence students' motivation ] 8 [ . Engagement is classified into three categories in literature: behavioral, emotional, and cognitive. Cognitive engagement is related to the mental investment such as the efforts of learners in the educational process to make them understand the studied topics and to reach the highest level of comprehension of the studied area [START_REF] Da Rocha Seixas | Effectiveness of gamification in the engagement of students[END_REF]. It draws on the ideas of willingness to put efforts on comprehending complex topics and to gain the mastership of difficult skills [START_REF] Fredricks | School engagement: Potential of the concept, state of the evidence[END_REF][START_REF] Osipov | Study of gamification effectiveness in online e-learning systems[END_REF]. It focuses more on self-regulation and strategy use than (general) motivation [START_REF] Chiu | Immigrant students' emotional and cognitive engagement at school: A multilevel analysis of students in 41 countries[END_REF]. Silpasuwanchai, Ma, Shigemasu and Ren [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | Developing a comprehensive engagement framework of gamification for reflective learning[END_REF] proposes an engagement framework of gamification for learning. Gamification strategies consisting badges, points, leaderboard, etc., affect engagement (behavioral engagement, emotional engagement, and cognitive engagement), having internal states, tasks, and user characteristics as mediators. The findings show the significant increase of cognitive engagement (attention and reflection) in the gamified group over the non-gamified group [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | Developing a comprehensive engagement framework of gamification for reflective learning[END_REF]. Students' perceived engagement and motivation are increased after the application of gamification ] 8 [ . Gamified approach seems to have a positive effect on engagement, for example, the number of downloads, posts, and lecture attendance ] 30 [ . Many learners agree that the gamification presence can motivate them to work harder [START_REF] Mitchell | Motivation and manipulation: A gamification approach to influencing undergraduate attitudes in computing[END_REF]. After completing the gamified modules, the cognitive competence is increased, showing self-efficacy advantages from gamification [START_REF] Smith | Gamified Modules for an Introductory Statistics Course and Their Impact on Attitudes and Learning[END_REF].

Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H3: Game elements positively affect students' cognitive engagement intention.

The perceived usefulness is based on the expectancy theory, involving individuals' believes in their decision making processes ] 32 [ . Individuals are driven to engage in an activity if there is a positive expectancy for success [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF]. Perceived usefulness significantly create a positive impact on learner's attitude ] 33 [ . Gardner and Amoroso [ 32 [ propose that perceived usefulness of the Internet is positively related to attitude towards using the Internet. Higher perceived usefulness leads to the more satisfaction of learners in an e-learning system [START_REF] Tao | A Case Study on Computerized Take-Home Testing: Benefits and Pitfalls[END_REF]. Students express their positive attitude towards in-class gamification due to the fun of games ] 35 [ . Educational usefulness of gamification has been supported by research of authors who incorporate game mechanisms in their teaching processes [START_REF] Kanagasingam | Increasing the Learning Motivations Using Gamification[END_REF]. Students play games because of playing with others, the mental challenge, the physical challenge, relieving boredom, and social reasons ] 4 [ . Students perceiving online educational video games relevant and believing in the use of online educational video games to develop their competencies significantly express positive attitudes toward the games [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF]. Games such as serious games are the active, problemsolving, situated, and social form of learning, which promotes students' enjoyment of learning [START_REF] Iten | Learning with serious games: Is fun playing the game a predictor of learning success[END_REF]. Students show their positive attitudes toward gamification because of the game's enjoyment ] 35 [ . Enjoyment and curiosity received from gamification significantly influence people's attitudes toward sustainable transport [START_REF] Putz | Gamified Workshops as Drivers for Attitudinal and Behavioral Shifts toward Sustainable Business Practices: The Role of Enjoyment, Curiosity and External Regulation[END_REF].

Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H4: Perceived usefulness of gamification positively affects students' attitudes towards the course.

Perceived usefulness significantly have a positive influence on the intention to engage in gamification of customers ] 7 [ . It significantly affects behavioral intention [START_REF] Galluch | Maladaptive vs. adaptive use of internet applications in the classroom: a test of competing models[END_REF] such as in the multimedia ERP training tool [START_REF] Scott | Cognitive engagement with a multimedia ERP training tool: Assessing computer self-efficacy and technology acceptance[END_REF] and Internet usage ] 32 [ . It positively correlates with the continuance intention [START_REF] Lin | Antecedences to continued intentions of adopting e-learning system in blended learning instruction: A contingency framework based on models of information system success and task-technology fit[END_REF]. Expectations related to usefulness have a significant impact on a child's intention to further work with serious games [START_REF] Iten | Learning with serious games: Is fun playing the game a predictor of learning success[END_REF]. Perceived usefulness is used to understand the interaction between ICT learning environments and learners' behavior that are involvement, participation, cognitive engagement, and motivation [START_REF] Abdalla | Evaluating effectiveness of e-blackboard system using TAM framework: A structural analysis approach[END_REF]. Gamification in class provides extra-motivation to students ] 35 [ . Improving low student involvement is a potential benefit of gamification in e-learning [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF]. Engagement indicators are autonomy, execution, social, delivery, participation, collaboration, cooperation, questioning, organization of the environment and fun ] 1 [ . Cognitive engagement in the academic tasks is the choice that students make for themselves. It is varied depending on students' self-defined goals, task purposes, and their beliefs about the tasks and themselves [START_REF] Pintrich | Students' motivational beliefs and their cognitive engagement in classroom academic tasks[END_REF]. Affective and cognitive components are the main variables of individual cognitive engagement, which impacts the information acquisition, information transformation, and knowledge construction [START_REF] Liaw | Information retrieval from World Wide Web: a user-focused approach based on individual experience with search engines[END_REF]. Cognitive engagement in terms of attention significantly correlates with the enjoyment and excitement aspects of gamification, whereas cognitive engagement in terms of reflection significantly correlates with the competence and improvement after the use of gamification [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | Developing a comprehensive engagement framework of gamification for reflective learning[END_REF].

Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H5: Perceived usefulness of gamification positively affects their cognitive engagement intention.

Engaging students' cognitive reaction to both in-class and outside-class activities is a way to achieve successful learning outcomes [START_REF] Ortiz-Rojas | Gamification in Computer Programming: Effects on Learning, Engagement, Self-Efficacy and Intrinsic Motivation[END_REF]. Students believing the interactive and entertaining nature of educational game drawing their attention significantly show their positive attitudes toward the online educational video games [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF]. The more positive attitude that a child expresses towards learning games, the more he/she wants to use learning games [START_REF] Iten | Learning with serious games: Is fun playing the game a predictor of learning success[END_REF]. Students show the expectation of gamification in learning. They believe that they will in favor of it; they will be excited about it; and it will increase their interest. They also expect the gamification to be better engaging, leading to the improvement of learning [START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF]. People's attitudes toward sustainable transport using gamification positively affect their intention to use [START_REF] Putz | Gamified Workshops as Drivers for Attitudinal and Behavioral Shifts toward Sustainable Business Practices: The Role of Enjoyment, Curiosity and External Regulation[END_REF]. They are motivated to participate in an activity when it is linked to their satisfaction in the personal value aspect [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF].

Therefore, the following hypothesis is proposed: H6: Students' attitudes towards the course of gamification positively affect their cognitive engagement intention.

Research Methodology

Samples and Setting

The exploratory research was conducted with 209 Thai undergraduate students from five sections, enrolled in the same introductory MIS course in the academic year from 2014 to 2017. The same teacher taught all sections, using the same textbook. The course was the required course (core subjects) for all students who studied in the Thammasat Business School, Thammasat University. They were in the first to the third year of study. Undergraduate students were targeted since they were more likely to play games and had a better understanding of games than postgraduate students [START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF]. Students were exposed to the experiential activities leading by others and themselves. The experiment was designed using a simple process to implement to see if the in-class gamified activities would motivate students to cognitively engage in the course. Students were informed about the use of gamification in the classroom, both before and after the gamified activities running. For each section, students were divided into 8 groups. Each group was randomly assigned to conduct one or more games related to one of eight topics. Conducting and playing games as teams also supported students' social beings because students did not like playing alone [START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF]. After a teacher finished lecturing each course topic, the assigned group ran games in the next period. Proper implementation of gamification should incorporate understanding the players, determining the objectives of the activity, and using appropriate game elements such as achievements, exploration, trial and errors, competition, socialization, and time constraints [START_REF] Da Rocha Seixas | Effectiveness of gamification in the engagement of students[END_REF][START_REF] Mahmud | Gamification of Engineering Courses[END_REF][START_REF] Cheong | Towards the gamification of learning: Investigating student perceptions of game elements[END_REF]. Games conducted by students generally included these aspects. When friend groups led the games, students in other groups could choose voluntarily to be game players or game observers. Totally, students participated in 7 games created by peers and 1 game conducted by their group.

Measure, Data Collection, and Data Analysis

The surveys were developed using a 6-point Likert scale to measure game elements, perceived usefulness of games, attitude towards the course, and cognitive engagement intention. Existing scales and definitions of each factor were applied from the literature to develop the questionnaire, as shown in Table 1. The frequency of students' lesson reviews was also collected using a 5-point Likert scale from very rarely to very frequently. Students were surveyed after they conducted one or more games relating to the assigned topic in classes. Of the 210 students from five sections in the consecutive academic year, 209 survey responses were received. The surveys were later analyzed anonymously, using descriptive statistics, confirmatory factor analysis (CFA), and structural equation modeling (SEM). The CFA and SEM are two of the most commonly applied in empirical research and are well recognized in the IS community [START_REF] Putz | Gamified Workshops as Drivers for Attitudinal and Behavioral Shifts toward Sustainable Business Practices: The Role of Enjoyment, Curiosity and External Regulation[END_REF]. (6-point "strongly disagreestrongly agree) [START_REF] Hamari | Social Motivations To Use Gamification: An Empirical Study Of Gamifying Exercise[END_REF] Cognitive Engagement Intention If games in a classroom composing of various and complete game elements, I will learn more about the lessons if there is in-class game playing. If games in a classroom composing of various and complete game elements, I will study the lessons intensively if there is in-class game playing. (6-point "strongly disagreestrongly agree) [START_REF] Ibanez | Gamification for Engaging Computer Science Students in Learning Activities: A Case Study[END_REF] 5 Findings

Of 209 students, 123 students were female and 86 students were male. In the first section (1/2014), there were 46 students, who were all freshmen. Of 46 students, 17 students were male and 29 students were female. In the second section (1/2015), there were 28 students. All of them were in the second year of study. There were 13 males and 15 females. In the third section (1/2016/Group1), there were 4 freshmen, 34 sophomore students, and 3 junior students. Of 41 students, 20 students were male and 21 students were female. In the fourth section (1/2016/Group2), 43 students consisted of 14 males and 29 females. All of them were in the first year of study. In the last section (1/2017), there were 51 students: 28 freshmen, 21 sophomores, and 2 juniors. Of 51 students, there were 22 males and 29 females. In terms of the frequency of reviewing the lessons (in general), 44 female students (35.8% of total females) reviewed the course content rarely (2-3 times per month). Forty-four females (35.8% of total females) reviewed lessons occasionally (4 times per month). Fifteen female students (12.2% of total females) frequently reviewed the content (2-3 times per week). Eleven females (8.9% of total females) very rarely reviewed the lessons (less than once per month). Nine of them (7.3% of total females) very frequently reviewed the content (more than 4 times per week). Regarding male students, 33 of them (38.4% of total males) rarely reviewed lessons. Twenty of them (23.3% of total males) reviewed the course materials occasionally. Eighteen male students (20.9% of total males) very rarely reviewed the course content. Eleven of them (12.8% of total males) frequently repeated reading course materials. Five male students (4.7% of total males) reviewed lessons very frequently. Table 2 shows the mean and standard deviation of each measurement item. The composite reliability (CR) and the average variance extracted (AVE) are measured to check the internal consistency of constructs. The CR values of game elements, perceived usefulness of games, attitude towards the course, and cognitive engagement intention, greater than .60 [START_REF] Galbis Córdova | Higher education students' attitude towards the use of gamification for competencies development[END_REF][START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF] ranging from 0.836 to 0.936, show a high level of convergent validity. In addition, all AVE values, ranging from 0.506 to 0.831, are above the recommended threshold of 0.5 [START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF], as shown in Table 3. Therefore, all factors present the good internal consistency. Discriminant validity is evaluated by comparing the constructs' correlations with the square root of the AVEs, showing in the bold fonts in Table 3. The correlations among all latent variables are less than 1 [START_REF] Bagozzi | On the evaluation of structural equation models[END_REF]. The square root of AVEs is greater than the correlations, indicating the adequate discriminant va-lidity [START_REF] Putz | Gamified Workshops as Drivers for Attitudinal and Behavioral Shifts toward Sustainable Business Practices: The Role of Enjoyment, Curiosity and External Regulation[END_REF]. The discriminant validity is also examined using Confirmatory Factor Analysis. The CFA model with 4 latent variables and 15 measurement items fits the data quite well. The goodness-of-fit statistics are as follows: χ2 (83) = 124.151, p = .002, CMIN/DF = 1.496, RMR = .043, GFI = .927, NFI = .926, TLI = .967, IFI = .974, CFI = .974, PNFI = .732, PCFI = .770, NCP = 41.151, RMSEA = .057, AIC = 198.151, ECVI = .953, according to the guidelines for determining the model fit [START_REF] Schreiber | Reporting structural equation modeling and confirmatory factor analysis results: A review[END_REF][START_REF] Hooper | Structural equation modelling: Guidelines for determining model fit[END_REF][START_REF] Schermelleh-Engel | Evaluating the fit of structural equation models: Tests of significance and descriptive goodness-of-fit measures[END_REF]. Thus, the test reveals the sufficient discriminant validity. The structural model has a considerable explanatory power, with the R 2 values of 25.8% for perceived game usefulness, 35% for attitude towards the course, and 53% for cognitive engagement intention. Five of six hypotheses are conformed to the previous studies. However, the rejection of hypothesis H5 is explained by the insignificance of the proposed hypothesis of Ortiz-Rojas, Chiluiza and Valcke [START_REF] Ortiz-Rojas | Gamification in Computer Programming: Effects on Learning, Engagement, Self-Efficacy and Intrinsic Motivation[END_REF]: students involved in a gamified course will attain higher learning gains as compared to students in a control condition. In addition, enjoyment received from the game has no significant impact on the cognitive learning gain [START_REF] Iten | Learning with serious games: Is fun playing the game a predictor of learning success[END_REF]. Enjoyment, excitement, perceived competence, and perceived improvement in the gamified group are also not significantly different from the non-gamified group [START_REF] Silpasuwanchai | Developing a comprehensive engagement framework of gamification for reflective learning[END_REF].

Theoretical and Managerial Implications

For theoretical implications, this study confirms the validity of measures in the literature and the developed scales. These measurement items such as perceived usefulness and cognitive engagement intention can be adapted in the future research to expand the view of those variables. This study also presents an experimental design using a simple process to implement gamification in classrooms, using student-led gamification. The experimental design can be adapted into other specific contexts of gamified courses to make the implementation of gamification easier. The model, built on the past behavioral research, can be extended with other constructs, such as behavioral and emotional engagement intention and other drivers of these factors. Moreover, this study explicitly links the use of games with the expected outcomes, showing the effectiveness of gamification in education.

For managerial implications, teachers could easily gamify their classrooms using student-led gamification activities. Using student-led gamification is believed to be better understanding the players (peers) more than the use of games designed by teachers. Student-led activities have also normally incorporated various game elements. In addition, the objectives of each activity would be distinctly declared, if teachers clearly define the assessment method in details. For example, after the game ends in each round, game participants evaluate the game in 5 aspects: game enjoyment, content coverage, content reliability, the harmony of the game conductor group, and overall satisfaction. Findings from the structural model evaluation point that game elements directly affect perceived usefulness, attitude towards the course, and cognitive engagement intention, particularly the perceived game usefulness. Game elements are direct and indirect predictors of attitude towards the course and cognitive engagement intention. Thus, Awards or prizes for winners should be various and creative. Gamified activities should have specific rules such as special items, testing one's luck, scarcity of resources, random timeout, and unpredictable alterations. Leaderboard or player's status should be displayed using colorful graphics or audio signals such as music or announcements from game leaders. Games should contain a form of communication or interaction between players such as exchanging items. Players should be able to personalize their profiles such as selecting and naming their avatars. Perceived usefulness of games directly influences student's attitude towards the course. Therefore, teachers and game conductors should emphasize the usefulness of game in terms of improving students' understanding, increasing creativity, persuading them to pay more attention to the topics, and promoting their problem-solving skills, to promote students' positive attitudes toward the course and the gamified topics. Lastly, the attitude towards the course has a strong impact on the cognitive engagement intention of students. Students will have the positive attitudes toward the course if they feel good about the course; they think the course is interesting; or they like the course. The good attitudes toward the course will later lead students to try to gain more understanding about the lessons, to learn more about the lessons, and to study the lessons intensively. Positive attitudes toward the course could be shaped through students' comprehension of game usefulness and the suitable combination of game elements respectively.

Conclusion, Limitations, and Future Research

Engaging students in learning activities is important for education in the 21st century.

Incorporating games into in-class activities is one approach to increase students' engagement and participation. However, the effectiveness of gamification on the educational outcomes such as attitude towards the course and cognitive engagement intention

has not yet been explored. Therefore, this work aims to examine the effects of game elements on the perceived usefulness of games, attitude towards the course, and cognitive engagement intention, to investigate the relationships among these factors, to rank their importance, and to guide an easy but effective method for instructors to conduct gamification in the classroom. The results show students' perceived understanding, problem-solving skills, creativity, and their interests in the topics after conducting games are quite high. Game elements are predictors of perceived game usefulness, attitude towards the course, and cognitive engagement intention respectively. Perceived game usefulness significantly affects the attitude towards the course, but insignificantly influences cognitive engagement intention. Attitude towards the course is vital to increase students' cognitive engagement intention. The limitation of this study includes the small sample size. Although the experimental studies are conducted in five rounds, there are still the relatively small samples. In the future, more samples should be added to better generalize the results. Comparative studies should be conducted, between the preliminary course and the advanced course or between IS/IT course and other subjects. Comparing the effectiveness of different game elements, which will be implemented in student-led gamification, is also an area for future study. A comparison between student-led gamified activities versus teacher-led gamified activities should be drawn. Comparing between gamification and other active learning methods such as flipping classroom should be done in the future.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Conceptual Framework

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Parameter Estimated Results for the Model

Table 1 .

 1 Summary of Constructs and Sources

		Example Questions	Adapted or De-
			veloped from
			Sources
	Game Ele-	Please evaluate the importance of these components	[41, 42]
	ments	when playing games in the classroom:
		Awards or prizes in games for the winners are creative
		and varying.
		Games have a form of communication or interaction
		between players such as exchange items.
		(6-point "not at all important -very important)
	Perceived Use-	After conducting the games, what is your level of un-	[24, 26, 36,
	fulness of	derstanding about this topic?	43, 44]
	Games	After conducting the games, what is your level of
		problem solving skills?

Table 2 .

 2 Mean and Standard Deviation of Game Elements, Perceived Usefulness, and Attitude towards the Course on Cognitive Engagement Intention

	Measurement Items	Mean	Standard Deviation
	PU_UNDERSTADING	5.13	.685
	PU_PROB_SOLVE	4.96	.774

Table 3 .

 3 Measurement of Validity and Reliability

		CR	AVE GE	PU_GAME ATT_COURSE COG_ENG_INT
	Game Ele-	0.836 0.506 0.711
	ments
	Perceived	0.865 0.616 .508	0.785
	Usefulness
	of Games
	Attitude to-	0.888 0.726 .438	.563	0.852
	wards the
	Course
	Cognitive	0.936 0.831 .469	.494	.706	0.912
	Engagement
	Intention