Agnes Korn

Maryam Nourzaei

"Those were the hungry years": A glimpse of Coastal Afro-Balochi

"Those were the hungry years": A glimpse of Coastal Afro-Balochi

Agnes Korn, Maryam

Introduction

The present paper is a contribution to the description of Balochi (Bal.) dialects. We will present results of our research about Balochi varieties spoken by the "Black" population on the coast of Iranian Balochistan.

This paper presents some findings, particularly in the field of morphosyntax, of our work on what we will call "Coastal Afro-Balochi" (CAB) for the sake of brevity. Our material consists of folktales, life stories and procedural texts (e.g. how to produce various milk products) recorded from male and female informants of different ages and different social backgrounds and from different towns and villages on the coast (see Map 2), in 2010 and 2014.

It needs to be stressed that "Coastal Afro-Balochi" is not a uniform dialect. As is the case for other parts of Balochi society, there are notable regional differences; this will be noted below where appropriate. 1

The African connection of Balochistan

While it may initially seem surprising that we find people of African descent in Balochistan, contacts between the coast of the Indian Ocean, the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa date back a long time. 2 The presence of Baloch in the Gulf States is particularly well known, and since the 19 th century, 3 Baloch have also gone to East Africa and settled there. Conversely, people from East Africa have come (or rather been brought) to Iran and other regions along the coast of the Indian Ocean for many centuries. 4 Slavery was abolished in Iran in the early 20 th century, but people of African descent still constitute a marginalised group of Iranian society and have continued to live in very poor conditions; this bitter and at times brutal reality is reflected in some of our recordings. 5 They are sometimes referred to as "Black" by others, but they do not see themselves so. Mostly they are identified as golām (cf. Persian ġolām 'slave') both by others and by themselves (as opposed to balōč referring to the non-Black members of society), and terms like golām and nōkar 'servant' are even used as their tribe names or family names.

While this article is a linguistic paper, we would like to say that the African heritage of Balochistan is a point as worthy of notice as is the Baloch element in East Africa. Areas where Koroshi is spoken

F A R S Jashk

The speech of the Afro-Baloch

To our knowledge, there is as yet no description of the speech of any group of Afro-Baloch. Farrell, 6 studying influences on the Balochi of Karachi, mentions the possibility of influence from African languages. But the lexical items of possible African origin that Burton 7

collected from Afro-Baloch in Karachi (at least some of which are clearly from Swahili) are no longer in use today according to Farrell's investigations, and the only item he found is na 'and' (not on Burton's list), which is "used to conjoin nouns, especially names" and might be connected to Swahili na. 8 However, it might perhaps be worthwhile double-checking these findings, as Farrell's observations probably refer to the possible African elements in the speech of non-African Baloch in Karachi, and Farhat Sultana, while not a linguistic study, remarks that "many Baloch of African descent in Karachi speak a dialect which is similar to Swahili". 9 Independent of the question of linguistic elements from African languages, an investigation of the speech of the Afro-Baloch is interesting in itself for reasons of their status as a specific social group; moreover, owing to their marginalisation and lack of access to education etc., their speech might present traditional features that are less seen in other sectors of Baloch society. Also, we made it a point to chiefly (but not only) record female informants. Given the traditional nature of Baloch society, male linguists have not had access to women, and to our knowledge, Balochi data and texts published so far have nearly exclusively been from male informants. 10 It is thus possible that some of the archaic features noted below may also be due to Afro-Baloch women's particularly low exposure to other dialects and languages. Likewise more or less undescribed are the dialects spoken on the coast of Iranian Balochistan (although a number of works have mentioned various specific features). 11 It is 8 Farrell (2003), p. 184. 9 Farhat (1996), pp. 45/50 note 9. She also notes that gwāt spirit healers on the coast of Pakistani Balochistan "speak a dialect which is a mix of Swahili and Balochi" (1996), pp. 34/50 note 4, cf. also p. 45. Gwāt (a Balochi word meaning 'wind') is a type of evil spirit similar to jinns and can produce illnesses etc., and people seek the help of healers to counter these effects. The tradition is likely to contain African elements cf. Farhat (1996), pp. 28, 34. 10 Exceptions include the sample text in [START_REF] Baranzehi | The Sarawani dialect of Balochi and Persian influence on it[END_REF], one text in [START_REF] Axenov | The Balochi Language of Turkmenistan[END_REF] and texts in [START_REF] Nourzaei | Koroshi. A Corpus-based Grammatical Description[END_REF] and [START_REF] Nourzaei | Participant Reference in Three Balochi Dialects: Male and Female Narrations of Folktales and Biographical Tales[END_REF]. 11 See [START_REF] Nourzaei | Participant Reference in Three Balochi Dialects: Male and Female Narrations of Folktales and Biographical Tales[END_REF] for a recent work on Coastal Balochi data from Iran.

generally assumed12 that they more or less correspond to those spoken on the Pakistani coast and belong to the "Coastal Balochi" group of Southern Balochi (SBal.) (cf. Map 1). 13 On the other hand, studies on Balochi dialects spoken in Iran published in recent decades have highlighted marked influence from standard Persian, particularly in the nominal system and the case marking and types of alignment that follow from it, rendering these dialects quite different from Pakistani Coastal Balochi. But most studies of Iranian Balochi14 focus on dialects spoken in the northern and central parts of the province Sistan-va-Baluchestan, so what kind of pattern an Iranian variety of Coastal Balochi (or: a coastal variety of Iranian Balochi) would show is quite unresearched.

The emphasis of this paper will be on discussing the position of Iranian Coastal Balochi as spoken by the Afro-Baloch in comparison with other Balochi dialects. The focus is on morphosyntactic properties which distinguish it from other Balochi dialects of Iran on the one hand and Coastal dialects of Pakistan on the other.

Transcription and other technicals

As is common for Balochi dialects in Iran independent of their belonging to the Western or Southern group, the pronunciation of the vowels is adapted to that of Persian, so that the short vowels (/a/, /i/, /u/ in other dialects) are pronounced as /a/, /e/, /o/ in CAB, and thus noted here. Nasal vowels are noted as such where we hear them; this does not imply that nasal vowels are phonemic in CAB (they probably do not contrast with vowel + n).

Examples from our recordings and from published sources are slightly phonemicised, and examples quoted from other sources have been adapted to the system used here, some glosses are added. The CAB examples specify the place where the recording was made with the initials of the informant, the text number of this informant and the sentence number.

Nominal system

General points

Historically, Balochi shows a split-alignment system with nominative-accusative alignment in clauses whose verb forms are based on the present (PRS) stem (intransitive subject and transitive agent in the direct case, objects in the oblique case) and ergative-absolutive alignment for those based on the past (PST) stem (agent in the oblique, subject and direct object in the direct case). The pronominal clitics (enclitic pronouns, PC) are used in the historical functions of the oblique case (i.e. for direct and indirect objects, for the agent in the PST domain and for possession). Many Balochi dialects have diverged from this system, though, and all types of alignment (nominative, ergative, neutral, tripartite) are found in some dialect or the other. 15 Balochi also shows differential object marking (DOM), which means that only definite direct objects are marked as such while indefinite ones are unmarked (thus appear in the direct case). 16 One point in which Balochi dialects diverge considerably is the nominal system. The nominal system of Pakistani Coastal Balochi comprises a direct (DIR), oblique (OBL), object (OBJ) and genitive (GEN) case (Table 1), the OBJ case showing an element -rā which is affixed to the form already marked by the OBL ending. 17

Nouns

Case system

DIR OBL OBJ GEN SG -∅ -ā -ārā -ē PL -ān -ānā, -ānrā -ānī
Conversely, many Iranian Balochi dialects exhibit a major refashioning of the case system (probably under the influence of Persian), viz. a coalescence of the direct and the oblique case to yield what may be called a nominative case (Table 2), and to a certain extent also a substitution of the eżāfe construction 18 for the genitive case. The case system shown by our CAB data diverges considerably from both systems. The suffix -rā does not occur on nouns at all. The plural ending -ānā or -ānrā is not found either. This means that CAB differs from Pakistani Coastal Balochi in not having a separate object case; instead, it has the following system of only three cases (Table 3). -ān -ānī 16 For the analyses to follow, a form used as agent of ergative constructions ("ergative agent") and, as a rule, with prepositions such as če / ča 'from' or gōn 'with' cf. [START_REF] Jahani | Balochi[END_REF], p. 657 is interpreted as OBL (not OBJ). Thus man 'I' is interpreted as being OBL (and DIR at the same time) in those dialects where it is used in the functions just mentioned cf. Korn (2009a), pp. 61f.; "subject of nominative constructions" includes the subject of intransitives and the agent of transitives in the PRESENT (PRS) domain. A form used in the possessive mihi est construction cf. [START_REF] Jahani | Balochi[END_REF], p. 666 is interpreted as OBJ if it is different from the OBL form, and is included in the category of "indirect object". For discussion of the cases in various Balochi dialects and their functions, cf. Korn (2008a). 17 Cf. Korn (2008a), pp. 172f., Jahani and[START_REF] Jahani | Balochi[END_REF], p. 652. One might add a vocative case (which has the form of the direct case in the SG and the form of the oblique in the PL). 18 The "eżāfe" is a clitic used in Persian (and some other Iranian languages) by which dependent elements (adjectives, possessors etc.) are attached to a head noun. 19 Cf. [START_REF] Jahani | The Case System in Iranian Balochi in a Contact Linguistic Perspective[END_REF], Korn (2008a), pp. 180-185, Jahani and[START_REF] Jahani | Balochi[END_REF], p. 652. 20 Nourzaei (n.d.), p. 117 also notes -ā in GEN function for her Coastal Balochi data, but does not note -ī.

A locative case?

There are some cases of an oblique case ending affixed to a genitive (1)-(3).

1) šot-ag-an hamo hākem-e ǰāh-ā hōseihān-īy-a hā go.PST-PRF-3PL DEM chief-GEN place-OBL PN-GEN-OBL yes "They went to that chief's place, to Hoseinhan's [place], yes". Konarak, SE 1.1:72.

2) man ta-rā ārt-a pa ōtī bādešāh-ē-a I you.SG-OBJ bring.PST-PRF to own king-GEN-OBL "I brought you my king" Shirgwaz, YN1:267.

3) enčok a bey-ã ... ē bačalok-ey-a this much V.EL become.PRS-1SG DEM little boy-GEN-OBL " I am (i.e. was, at that time) this size, like this little boy". Konarak, SE 1.2:22. This looks like the "locative" case of Afghanistan and Turkmenistan Balochi (4):21 4) Western Balochi of Turkmenistan, Axenov (2006), p. 80, ex. 124. dukkāndār watī dukkān-ayā āt shopkeeper own shop-LOC come.PST.3SG "the shopkeeper came to his shop"

In an earlier paper, I argued that in Afghanistan Balochi, the locative occurs more or less exclusively on nouns and pronouns with reference to humans,22 as in the instructive example (5), which opposes the oblique gis-ā "to the house" to the locative āǰizag-ayā "to (that) woman": 5) Western Balochi of Afghanistan [START_REF] Buddruss | Aus dem Leben eines jungen Balutschen, von ihm selbst erzählt[END_REF], p. 7.

bi ē gis-ā wa bi ā gis-ā to DEM house-OBL and to DEM house-OBL "they carried me [the baby] to this and that house, bi ē āǰizag-ayā wa bi ā āǰizag-ayā mn-ā burt-ant to DEM woman-LOC and to DEM woman-LOC I-OBL carry.PST-3PL to this and that woman" I also argued that the way the "locative" is employed in Afghanistan Balochi shows an earlier situation vs. the more general use seen in Turkmenistan Balochi, and that the motivation for the rise of the locative may be seen in the context of a typological constraint as to the possibility to apply local deixis to persons. 23 The locative marker, being the oblique case marker suffixed to that of the genitive, literally means 'at [the place] of' and is thus a periphrasis similar to English and French (6). The "locative" pattern occurs only in some rare cases in our CAB data; it seems to be limited to humans, and not systematic even there (usually one would say, e.g., X-ī lōg-ā 'at X's house'). From the isolated examples, it is questionable whether the pattern should be called a separate case; the occurrences might be better analysed as free combinations of the adverbial OBL ending on a noun already marked as genitive. If so, the pattern found in CAB could be the protoform of the more regular use seen in Afghanistan and Turkmenistan.

The remaining instances of word-final -īya appear to be the combination of the clitic marking specificity (often called "indefinite article") =ē plus oblique ending,24 assimilated to īya, as in (7).

7) sād=ī

b ōtk-a bast-ag=ī g ō kahīr=īy-ā string=PC3SG open.PST-PRF bind.PST-PRF=PC3SG with PN=SPC-OBL " He opened the string [and] bound it to a Kahur tree." Konarak, SE 1.1:42f.25

The clitic =o

There are (rare) instances in our data of a clitic =o occurring on a definite noun (8), (32).

8) gwašt=ī

balē nū šēr=o balāh-ēn rastar ẽ say.PST=PC3PL yes now lion=FOC huge-ATTR beast COP3SG "[The animals] said: 'Now, the lion is a huge animal. kay bast-a kã who bind.PST-PRF do.PRS3SG Who would be able to bind him?"' Konarak, GO 1:12.

The status of this element is at yet unclear, but it seems to us that it might be connected to the various markers of definiteness, specificity and focus appearing in forms such as -ak(a), -ū etc. in other Iranian languages, cf. [START_REF] Dolatkhah | On the marker -(y)akï in Kashkay[END_REF]. 26 For Koroshi, a suffix -ok has been noted, which "contributes to a definite singular interpretation of the word to which it is attached" Nourzaei et al. (2015), p.32; there is also a suffix -o that "sometimes" attaches to adjectives and seems to retain more of the probably originally diminutive semantics since it is particularly found with kas(s)ān 'small [START_REF] Nourzaei | Koroshi. A Corpus-based Grammatical Description[END_REF], p. 43.

Given that the CAB clitic is rather rare, it is unlikely to be a definite article (unlike parallel elements in some of Kurdish). Just as [START_REF] Dolatkhah | On the marker -(y)akï in Kashkay[END_REF], p. 285, observe for Koroshi -ok, the instances we found of the CAB clitic occur on the first noun phrase of the sentence, which renders it a likely candidate for being a topic marker.

Personal pronouns

Full pronouns

Agreeing with the case system of nouns (Table 1 and2), the personal pronouns show four cases in Pakistani Coastal Balochi (Table 4) 27 and a reconfiguring of the case system in many dialects of Iran (Table 5).28 then this country and its government is not fitting for you and me". Konarak, GO 1:101ff.

The forms marking core arguments and their functions occurring in our data are summarised in Table 6, where "PRS" and "PST" refer to the nominative and ergative domains, respectively, and "nominative subject" includes subjects in the PRS domain and intransitive subjects in both domains. Particularly noteworthy forms are in bold. The general picture here is that the inherited forms man (dialectally also ma), taw (also to and ta) as well as mā, š(o)mā 29 have the functions of the DIR and OBL cases insofar as the encoding of subject and agent and the use of these forms with prepositions is concerned. Object marking is twofold, however: CAB largely agrees with Pakistani SBalochi. in showing the clearly innovated forms manā, tarā etc. for direct and indirect objects in the PRS and PST domains, thus producing a split in the PST domain in that pronominal direct objects show a dedicated object case while nouns are consistently found in the DIR case (thus unmarked). 30 Interestingly, some of the older function of the inherited forms survives in the (rare) use of man and mā for objects in the PST domain, as in ( 14), where ma is in a pragmatically emphasised position. This is a marked difference from contemporary SBalochi. of Pakistan, where the 1 st and 2 nd person pronouns in object function need to be in the innovated oblique or object case, and yields the system in Table 7.

14) čest=ē

ko hamē ās-e koṭēnag o ǰat=ē ma lift=PC3SG do.PST DEM fire-GEN firewood and hit.PST=PC3SG I.DIR "She took up a piece of firewood from this fire and hit me". Konarak, SE 1.2:41f. 29 These are the oblique case forms of Middle Iranian, going back to the Old Iranian genitives cf. [START_REF] Korn | Das Nominalsystem des Balochi, mitteliranisch betrachtet[END_REF]. 30 For more discussion of this split cf. Farrell (1995), pp. 221f., Korn (2008c), pp. 263ff., (2009a), pp. 71f. One instance of the 1PL pronominal clitic =mān is also found. As this is an isolated instance, it is best explained as a copy from Persian. In fact, it occurs as a last sentence of a text, and in our data, such final phrases often contain formalised expressions summarising the tale or presenting a bottom line, thus liable to contain Persian formulae.

The pronominal clitics again indicate an intermediate position between Pakistani Southern Balochi (which uses only 3 rd person pronominal clitics) and Iranian Balochi dialects, which make large use of them, particularly in those dialects that have lost the distinction of the inherited direct and oblique case (cf. Table 2).

Demonstratives

The inflexion of demonstratives in Pakistani Coastal Balochi (Table 9) likewise has four cases.31

ē išīā išīārā išī, išīē ē išān išānā(n) išānī ē(š) ēšā ēšārā ēšī
The demonstratives are not always treated in detail (this applies to the actual forms as well as to the distribution of the various stems) in the published sources of Iranian Balochi; the available data yield the system in Table 10.32 The various forms of the CAB demonstrative pronouns occur in the functions shown in Table 11. Isolated instances of functions that seem questionable are marked with ⁑.

As in other dialects, the demonstratives are frequently found with (originally emphasizing) ham-"this/that very..." (also shortened to m-), but this element has become so common that it can hardly be said to still have emphasizing function.

No instance of a (substantival) demonstrative after a preposition is found in our data, nor is the oblique plural. Indeed, demonstratives are particularly frequent in attributive position (preceding the noun), where they are uninflected (just as they would be in other Balochi dialects).

PRS-1PL

and become a goverment for ourselves". Konarak, GO 1:8ff.

Just like the nouns, but unlike the personal pronouns, the demonstratives do not use -rā. Conversely, the form āī appears to be used for the genitive and the oblique case, as in pakat šmā āī košōk bey "but you will be his killer" in (32). This wider function of the form āī has also been noted for other dialects, specifically from the Western Balochi dialect group. 33 It might mirror an older situation with a general oblique that also includes the genitive (and the use with postposition), as is the function of the oblique case in Middle Iranian cf. [START_REF] Korn | Das Nominalsystem des Balochi, mitteliranisch betrachtet[END_REF], pp. 296-298. Besides āī, an oblique form āīā occurs, but only for the oblique functions other than the genitive.

The form of the proximal demonstrative corresponding in function to the form āī is ēšī, which is likewise used for oblique functions including the genitive, but in fact it is used even more widely than āī. It seems to be the oblique of ēš insofar as simple ēš is not found in oblique functions such as the ergative agent and direct or indirect objects, but ēšī is found also in roles where one would expect the direct case (Table 12). 34 The single occurrence of a genitive ēīē appears to follow the model of an oblique *ēī to which the genitive ending is affixed. The pronominal system of CAB is not particularly similar to the demonstrative system in other Iranian Balochi dialects. Instead, the CAB system goes more with Pakistani Coastal Balochi, more specifically with the system presented by [START_REF] Collett | A Grammar, Phrase Book and Vocabulary of Baluchi[END_REF], who has ē / ēš-for the proximal demonstrative.

Conclusion

Omitting some minor variations and the prefix (ha)m-, the nominal forms of CAB can be summarised as in Table 13. 33 Thus for the Balochi dialects of Turkmenistan [START_REF] Sokolov | Grammatičeskij očerk jazyka beludžej Sovetskogo Sojuza[END_REF]), p. 70, Axenov (2006), p. 113 and Afghanistan Buddruss (1988), p. 51. Other sources have āīā for the OBL, thus Southern Balochi, Mockler (1877), p. 34, [START_REF] Farrell | Basic Balochi. An introductory course[END_REF], p. 66, Western Balochi of Pakistan, [START_REF] Barker | A Course in Baluchi[END_REF]/I, p. 72, [START_REF] Grierson | Linguistic Survey of India X: Specimens of Languages of the Eranian Family[END_REF], p. 345 and Afghanistan, [START_REF] Nawata | Baluchi (Asian and African Grammaticals Manuals 17b)[END_REF], p. 12. Owing to the case reduction mentioned in Section 2.2, Sarawani uses āī for nominative functions and āīā for the object case cf. [START_REF] Baranzehi | The Sarawani dialect of Balochi and Persian influence on it[END_REF], p. 87. 34 Nourzaei (n.d.) does not note DIR (ham) ēšī for her Coastal Balochi data, but has the additional GEN ēšīe and āīe.

Nouns and personal pronouns

CAB seems to confirm assumptions on the development of the Balochi case system suggested previously. For instance, it substantiates the view advanced by various authors35 of the Balochi case system as being two-layered, with two markers -ā / -rā. The first one is the -ā in the OBL of nouns and the OBJ of the 1SG pronoun, and -rā on the other pronouns of the 1 st and 2 nd persons; it is shared by CAB cf. Tables 3 and7. The second one (presumably a later addition to the system) is the -ā or -rā shown by the object case of nouns (Table 1) and the additional -rā in the object case of the SG pronouns (Table 4) in some dialects, but not in CAB. This appears to underline the assumption that the object case started out in the personal pronouns, presumably for reasons of the higher position that the pronouns occupy on the animacy scale, favouring more specific marking of participants with high status, notably the discourse participants.

The system found in CAB is more archaic than the nominal system found in other Southern Balochi varieties. This is particularly noteworthy as the system in Table 1 is even shared by the oldest Balochi manuscript (ca. 1820, edited by [START_REF] Elfenbein | Codex Oriental Additional 24048 of the British Library[END_REF] and by other 19 th century sources such as [START_REF] Mockler | EdwardA Grammar of the Baloochee Language, as it is spoken in Makrān (ancient Gedrosia)[END_REF]. So far as the personal pronouns are concerned, CAB differs again from the other Southern Balochi varieties including the 1820 manuscript, but here, it is rather close to the system shown by other Balochi dialects of Iran (Table 5).

Overall, the comparatively archaic system of the inflection of nouns and personal pronouns corresponds to stages 3-4 suggested in [START_REF] Korn | Das Nominalsystem des Balochi, mitteliranisch betrachtet[END_REF], pp. 299f. as hypothetical steps to account for the development of the Balochi case system as a whole.

Demonstratives

The system of demonstrative pronouns, not discussed in [START_REF] Korn | Das Nominalsystem des Balochi, mitteliranisch betrachtet[END_REF], in CAB is noteworthy in not showing -rā either. Also, forms with the ending -ā occur besides those without (OBL ēšī(ā), āī(ā)), suggesting that the forms with ī (ēšī, āī) are the general oblique forms including the GEN function (see Section 2.4). Forms with ī thus seem to predate the introduction of the marker -ā at least for the demonstratives, and the forms with -ā seem to be later formations, presumably modelled on the oblique of nouns.

Another interesting point is the distribution of the stems found for the demonstrative pronouns. The proximal deixis shows a paradigm composed of the stems ē and ēš. The former is employed in the direct case and in attributive position (preceding a noun), where nominals are not inflected. One might thus say that the pronoun ē is generally uninflected, while the inflected forms are provided by the stem ēš. 36 Perhaps it was an analogy motivated by the distal pronoun showing the stem ā throughout the paradigm that motivated the spread of the stem ēš into the direct case, including even the original OBL form ēšī, thereby changing a previously suppletive paradigm with an uninflected ē combined with ēšī (cf. āī) as its general OBL.

The co-occurrence of ē and ēš in what originally seems to have been a suppletive paradigm is reminiscent of suppletive paradigms found in other Iranian languages (and in general in Indo-European): it is rather typical for pronominal paradigms to show two unrelated stems (originally one for the nominative and one for the remaining cases). Such suppletivism in the pronouns is well known from other Iranian languages, and indeed inherited from Proto-Indo-European. The main demonstratives in Old Iranian are i/ay-vs. afor the proximal and hau-/hāw-vs. awa-for the distal deixis, 37 and (in Avestan) ha/ta-vs. aita-for a neutral one. Sogdian has a three-way system, too, adding to proximal i/ai-and distal hau-vs. awa-the combination of the stems *aiša-vs. *ta-, 38 and showing that the inherited stems may be recombined in the individual later languages. 39 From a phonological point of view, the most straightforward derivation of ē and ēš would be from the stems ai-and aiša-, respectively. 40 Potentially likewise relevant is the fact that ē and ēš also occur as personal clitics in some Balochi dialects (though only =ē in CAB, cf. Table 8: here, =ē is the 3SG clitic and =ēš the 3PL one. 41 One possible origin would be the Old Ir. independent pronoun GEN.SG ahya, GEN.PL aišām. 42 These forms account well for the forms of the Balochi clitics, and also agree with the fact that the personal pronouns are derived from the Old Iranian genitive (this is particularly obvious for the 1SG pronoun man, which can only derive from the Old Iranian GEN mana). Obviously the pronominal clitics provide no motivation for the distribution of stems in the suppletive paradigm of the proximal demonstrative (the underlying principle of which would rather be inherited), but the presence of matching forms in the demonstrative and the clitic system might have reinforced each other.

Alignment

Ergativity

The changes in the case system shown by other Iranian Balochi dialects (cf. Section 2.2) have important consequences for alignment patterns. Besides the nominative/accusative vs. ergative system historially found in Balochi, patterning as shown in Table 14a-b (cf. Section 2.1), several Iranian Balochi dialects show a system of argument marking known as "neutral", i.e. intransitive subject, transitive agent and object all marked identically in the PST domain (Table 14c). 43 36 Thus already Geiger (1901), p. 241. 37 Cf. [START_REF] Brandenstein | Handbuch des Altpersischen[END_REF]Mayrhofer (1964), pp. 67f., Hoffmann and[START_REF] Hoffmann | Avestische Laut-und Flexionslehre[END_REF], pp. 165-169 for details. 38 Cf. Sims-Williams (1994). 39 The choice in demonstrative stems has also been used as an isogloss for the subgrouping of Iranian since [START_REF] Tedesco | Dialektologie der mitteliranischen Turfantexte[END_REF], pp. 215f, it does not feature in [START_REF] Windfuhr | Dialectology and Topics[END_REF] any more, though. 40 Thus [START_REF] Geiger | Die Sprache der Balūtschen[END_REF], p. 241, who rightly notes that ē does not have anything to do with Persian īn. Conversely, his suggestion Ibid. that the stem ā would have the same origin as Persian ān and go back to ana-seems unlikely to me. 41 -ē and -iš are the only pronominal clitics found in the Southern Balochi varieties studied by [START_REF] Mockler | EdwardA Grammar of the Baloochee Language, as it is spoken in Makrān (ancient Gedrosia)[END_REF] and [START_REF] Collett | A Grammar, Phrase Book and Vocabulary of Baluchi[END_REF]. 42 Cf. Korn (2009b), p. 164, following [START_REF] Lecoq | Le classement des langues irano-ariennes occidentales[END_REF], p. 257. 43 Cf. Baranzehi (2003), p. 82;Jahani (2003), pp. 121-125;Korn (2008c[START_REF] Jahani | Balochi[END_REF]. Agreeing with the absence of a reduction in the case system Tables 3,7, 12, CAB does not follow the neutral pattern in the PST domain found in other Iranian Balochi dialects. Instead, it systematically exhibits split ergativity as does Pakistani Coastal Balochi. This includes the marking of the plurality of an object with the 3PL ending -an(t) / -ã (48), ( 50), ( 51), (65) as is the tradition for "canonical" ergativity in Balochi.

However, there are also examples where one might wonder whether the 3PL suffix could refer to the indirect object. Our examples include ( 16)-( 20 In some instances, the direct objects could be seen as plural, thus the work in ( 16) and the food in (17), so the verbal ending could refer to these entities. However, (18) hardly permits such an interpretation, and (16) could also be seen as parallel to the complex predicates in examples ( 19)-(20). In ( 20), it appears that the reference must be to the relatives, who in this episode asked to be shown the grave of a woman whom the Hots had carried off (cf. example 10 above).

19) mē gaz-ānī

o mē rēk-ānī lāpā bār=ē dāt-ag-an DEM tamarisk-GEN.PL and DEM sand-GEN.PL in load=SPC give.PST-PRF-3PL "In the sand, [under] the tamarisk trees, it gave them a load (?) (= they died)". (Konarak,SE 1.3:13). 20) šot-a šōn=ē dāt-ag-ã go.PST-PRF show=PC3PL give.PST-PRF-3PL "They went [and] he showed them (the direction to the grave)". (Konarak,SE 1.4:30).

Agreement of a verb in the PST (ergative) domain with an indirect object has not been noted for Balochi so far, but it has been observed for several other Iranian languages: This construction, which philologists traditionally refer to as the 'indirect affectee' construction, is found occasionally in Middle Persian, MacKenzie (1964); [START_REF] Tafazzoli | The 'Indirect Affectee' in Pahlavi and in a Central Dialect of Iran[END_REF]), pp. 483-486 and Sogdian Yoshida (2009), pp. 284-285. Sims-Williams (2011), p. 34 as well as in some New Iranian languages, cf. examples ( 21)-( 23), which incidentally also use 'give' and 'show'.

For Bactrian, agreement of the verb with the indirect object is regular for sentences such as (24), where the direct object is inanimate and the indirect object a 1 st or 2 nd person, i.e. "to give / send / ... something (an object) to someone". 21) Middle Persian, [START_REF] Tafazzoli | The 'Indirect Affectee' in Pahlavi and in a Central Dialect of Iran[END_REF] This pattern is quite parallel to the Balochi examples in ( 16)-( 20). As noted by Sims-Williams, the Bactrian construction is an instance of differential object marking: the indirect object is marked on the verb if it is a person while such marking does not occur if the entity that something is given to is inanimate.

Indeed, in all examples of the "indirect affectee construction" that we have seen, the indirect affectee is animate, and in most cases either human or at least quasi-human as in the mythological figures in some Middle Persian examples. So the construction would be an example of differential object marking not only in Bactrian, but also in the other Iranian languages including Balochi, marking as it does the animate indirect object while the direct object (typically inanimate in constructions with verbs such as 'to give') is not specifically marked neither by case nor on the verb.

Mood, tense and aspect

While the overall system of TAM forms in CAB agrees with patterns known from other Balochi dialects, our data show some forms not noted from other dialects so far. 44 Bold and italics from the original, Greek script added.

Progressives and ingressives

Progressives are widely used in Balochi, but the forms actually found vary considerably between the dialects, and even within our data. Ingressives are not particularly frequent.

Verbal nouns used in these patterns include the present participle (PRS-ān), the agent noun (PRS-ōk), the infinitive, which in CAB is formed by suffixing -ag to the present stem (as in other Southern Balochi dialects, but different from dialects that have an infinitive PST-in) and the gerundive, which is derived from the infinitive by the suffix -sī. 45

The infinitive

Many Balochi dialects show the infinitive in the OBL combined with the copula in a pattern that can be interpreted as a locational construction "be in [the position / situation of] doing something", thus not unlike the English "continuous form" (and thus termed by [START_REF] Farrell | Basic Balochi. An introductory course[END_REF]) I am going, at the same time agreeing with the typologially common pattern of locational constructions yielding progressives. 46 While this system has been grammaticalised in Balochi dialects of Pakistan, and is used in several tenses, only a few instances occur in our CAB data. They are all in the present, and may even be limited to a certain number of common verbs. In (25), the implication clearly is 'to be in the process of doing X just now'.

25) zōr-ēn

peywast=ē kan-ag-ā yant=ī force-ATTR union=SPC do.PRS-INF-OBL COP3PL=PC3SG "they are (just now) making a forced union for her (they are marrying the girl without her consent)". (Shirgwaz, YN 1:148).

In addition to this pattern, the bare infinitive is also found ( 26)-( 29). This pattern has not been reported for Southern Balochi dialects yet, but has been noted in Eastern Balochi. 47 In (27), the contrast between "now as the sun is rising" (progressive) and "yet Hawrok is not at work" (simple present) is interesting. "This young man, is it possible that I hit [him]?" (Shirgwaz, YN 1:88). 45 For more details on the use of infinite forms and verbal nouns in Balochi in general, see Korn (2017b). 46 For locative expressions as progressives see Heine and Kuteva (2002), pp. 97-99, 178f., 202f. 47 Cf. [START_REF] Bashir | Some Transitional Features of Eastern Balochi: An Areal and Diachronic Perspective[END_REF], p. 73.

Our data also show infinitives in habitual function (29).

29) čē

kambol-ān a kan-ag ant=ī under blanket-OBL.PL V.EL do.PRS-INF COP=PC3SG "they used to put (lit: they are putting) it under a cloth". (Karewan, GH 1:10).

The ingressive construction with lagg-'start' and the infinitive in the oblique case 'begin to do something' found in dialects as different and far from each other as Karachi and Turkmenistan Balochi is also attested in our data.

The present participle

The present participle, occurring quite infrequently in CAB, is found in (30), which is noteworthy because, unlike the patterns discussed until now, it is not a combination with the copula, but with the verb 'do'. This construction has so far as we know not been noted for Balochi yet.

The agent noun

In descriptions of other dialects, the agent noun in -ōk (formed from the PRS stem), even called "present participle" by some authors, is noted as being combined with the copula to express habitual doing, but also for doing something right now. 48 In our data, instances that come close to a progressive include (31) while other instances are more straightforward agent nouns such as the two instances in (13'). ( 31) is also noteworthy in combining the agent noun with the verb 'do' instead of 'be, become'. [START_REF] Heine | World Lexicon of Grammaticalization[END_REF], pp. 93f. for the connection of continuous and habitual.

then this country and its government is not fitting for you and me". (Konarak, GO 1:101ff).

It seems that the use of the agent noun is less regularised in CAB than in some other Balochi dialects.

The gerundive

The gerundive conveys necessity: when referring to a person, it usually means "someone who should do something", and with an object "something that needs to be done". Like the agent nouns, the gerundive is rare in our data. 49To a certain extent, the uses of the gerundive border those of the agent noun in that both describe a feature of the agent rather than of the event. The proximity of the two formations is illustrated by ( 32

Action noun with copula

Another progressive construction, not noted for any Balochi dialect so far, involves an action noun in the oblique case with the copula. It seems that the action nouns used in this way are such as also enter complex predicates, e.g. kār (34), which is otherwise used in kār kan-'work (lit. work do)', or gap (33) as in gap kan-'talk (lit. talk do)', etc., but note that the nominal element of complex predicates is in the direct case.

Maybe this pattern is based on the progressive pattern employing the infinitive discussed above.

33) mã hanī gap-ā

Mood

The clitic a

There is also an interesting modal formation in our CAB data. It concerns the use of a clitic a. One might expect that this element is identical to the so-called "verbal element" a known from other dialects. In some Balochi dialects (chiefly Western Bal. from Iran, Afghanistan and Turkmenistan, but also elsewhere), this element is very common and is employed like the Persian prefix mī-(35), so that it has been described as marker of imperfective aspect. 50 35) Sarawani Balochi (Baranzehi 2003, p. 89) čand sāl o šomā eda kār a kan-ēt how many year COP3SG you.PL here work V.EL do.PRS-2PL "How many years have you been working here?"

In CAB, a is enclitic to the preceding word (as in a number of Western Balochi dialects, not proclitic to the following one as in some other dialects). It is rather rare in our data and is clearly not a grammaticalised marker of imperfective aspect. In a number of instances, it is used in contexts describing habitual action, cf. ( 29), ( 64), ( 69).

Moreover, it seems to have modal function in several examples, as in ( 36)-( 38) and the second parts of ( 39) and ( 15), 51 where it occurs in contexts that in Persian would show the subjunctive.

36) man raw-

āb dast a kan- I go.PRS-1SG water hand V.EL do PRS-1SG "I am going to the toilet." lit. 'I will go; I do the ablution, i.e. I am going to wash)'. (Konarak,SE 1.1:38,40).

37) ǰanēn ham be-z tarr-ī šekār a kã na

The woman also SBJV-know.IMP2SG turn.PRS-3SG hunt V.EL do.PRS3SG NEG "The woman also goes hunting, you know, right?" (Shirgwaz, YN 1:28).

38) p-čī bahā a

kan- to-which price V.EL do.PRS-1PL "Why would we sell him?" (Konarak, SE 1.1:10).

39) ta

mnā čest a kan-ey you.SG I.OBJ upright V.EL do.PRS-2SG "You take me off. 50 Cf. Buddruss (1988, pp. 62-65), Axenov (2006, pp. 166ff.), Jahani & Korn (2009, pp. 661f., 673); thus also [START_REF] Nourzaei | The Distribution and Role of the Verb Clitic =a/a= in Different Balochi Dialects[END_REF], who discuss the status of the verbal element as enclitic to the previous word vs. proclitic to the verb in various Balochi dialects. In some dialects, there are restrictions as to the possibility of it occurring clause-initially or after vowels. 51 Cf. also (49b).

deh-ey

ke mana bahā a kan-an give.PRS-2SG CL I.OBJ price V.EL do.PRS-3PL You give me [away] so that they sell me". (Konarak, SE 1.1:81f).

It is not quite clear whether one should assume that the morpheme a as found in CAB is the same element as the imperfective aspect marker found in other Balochi dialects. If it is the same element, a potential semantic bridge might be found in the fact that habitual or durative and modal forms overlap in many languages, as e.g. shown by [START_REF] Vydrin | Counterfactual Mood in Iranian[END_REF] (with examples from various Iranian languages). 52 Somewhat similarly, a sentence like English Every night, I would read this book. allows a modal and a habitual reading as well. The verbal element a is found in habitual uses also in other Balochi dialects ( 40)-( 41

Permissive

Our data show several examples of a construction with bel-, i.e. the imperative of el(l)-'let, leave' in meanings that seem to border a permissive. In ( 44)-( 45), the literal meaning is more present, but in ( 46)-( 47), no active 'letting' is involved. 53 Other instances suggest a reading of 52 Cf. also Lazard 1975. 53 Note that the same verb is used, in combination with the oblique case of the infinitive, as a "terminative" ('to stop doing something') in Turkmenistan Balochi (Jahani & Korn 2009, p. 676) and Western Balochi of Pakistan bel as permissive, or when combined with a negated verb, prohibitive (48). drip.PRS-3PL And again the water drips from it". (Karewan, GH 1:66f).

48) ōtī

dast borret-ag-ã gō kārč-a self.GEN hand cut.PST-PRF-3PL with knife-OBL "He cut his own hands with a knife". dast=ī borret-ag-ã hand=PC3PL cut.PST-PRF-3PL " He cut his hands". borret-ag-ã borret-ag-ã cut.PST-PRF-3PL cut.PST-PRF-3PL "He cut them. He cut them". b-el=ī man-ā gerāk ma-zīr-an SBJV-leave.IMP2SG=PC3PL I-OBL tradesman PROH-seize.PRS-3PL "[He said:] 'May not any tradesmen take me!"' (Konarak, SE 1.1:94ff).

The only author (to our knowledge) who notes such a use of the verb 'let' is Mockler (1877, p. 54), who states that imperatives for other persons than the 2 nd "are expressed by using the 2 nd person Imperative (with ب b prefixed) of the Verb لگ ِ ا ilag 'to permit'" with the present tense, and sometimes with "the connective particle" ki (49). 55 49) Southern Balochi of Pakistan (Mockler 1877, p. 54) a. b-il (ki) ā raw-t SBJV-leave.IMP2SG

(SUB) DEM go.PRS-3SG (Barker & Mengal 1969/I, pp. 195-197). 54 Entities such as water and yoghurt are treated as plural in Balochi (Jahani & Korn 2009, p. 651). 55 Mockler 1877 does not note a negated form of this pattern.

b-il=ē rawt

SBJV-leave.IMP2SG=PC3SG go.PRS-3SG "Let him go". b. b-il (ki) man a raw-t SBJV-leave.IMP2SG

(SUB) I

V.EL go.PRS-3SG "Let me go".

Multiple verb constructions

Quite frequently, combinations of several verbs are met with that appear to refer to a single event. While the phenomenon has been noted occasionally,56 the position of these patterns within the grammatical system of the language, and the distribution in the various Balochi dialects, is a hitherto unstudied topic.

For the vector verb and the converb patterns mentioned in this section, studied by [START_REF] Bashir | Some Transitional Features of Eastern Balochi: An Areal and Diachronic Perspective[END_REF] for Eastern Balochi and Farrell 2003 for Karachi Balochi, respectively, influence from Indo-Aryan has been suggested. Such influence may surely play a role in strengthening the position of the patterns in Balochi dialects of Pakistan, but their presence in Balochi of Iran demonstrates that Indo-Aryan influence is not a necessary condition.

Vector verb constructions

In (50), the sequence of šoda zedag referring to fetching goat milk is reminiscent of French aller chercher (lit. 'go look.for', but lexicalised in the meaning 'fetch'). Even more similar is German holen gehen ('go fetch') vs. simple holen 'fetch', which refer to the same action, but gehen contributes a nuance of 'setting out now'. 50) wa mā pas-ānī šīr=ē šod-a zedag-an and we goat-GEN.PL milk=SPC go.PST-PRF seize.PST-PRF-3PL "And we went and took goat's milk". (Karewan, GH 2:39). Such patterns are actually very common, and occur with and without o 'and' in our data (51).

51) ārt-ag-ant=ē

o zort-ag-ant=ē bring.PST-PRF=PC3PL and seize.PST-PRF=PC3PL "They took it (lit. brought and seized them [the grain]), o rōč-a kod-ag-ant and sun-OBL do.PST-PRF-3PL and they put it in the sun [to dry]". (Karewan, GH 2:22).

For other Balochi dialects, such patterns have been noted for combinations of two verbs joined by o 'and' such as (52); in Eastern Balochi, such patterns employ a form called "conjunctive participle" (descriptively the PST stem with suffix -o or -au), as in (53) (Bashir 2008, pp. 65-75). 52) Western Balochi; Pakistan. (Bashir 2008, p. 75) āī mahrk mā-ra gam-ān gētk o išt DEM.GEN death we-OBJ grief-OBL.PL bring.PST and leave.PST "His death has brought us grief". lit. 'His death brought us grief and left'. 57 53) Eastern Balochi (Bashir 2008, p. 74) a. bāz=ē mard murθ-o šuθ-a many=SPC man die.PST-CP go.PST-PRF "Many men died". (Gilbertson 1923:134) b. bākī-γa āwār māl išt-o dāθ-a rest-OBL looted goods leave.PST-CP give.PST-PRF "The rest of them abandoned their booty..." (Gilbertson 1923, p. 261).

Most clearly in (53), there is actually no act of 'going' or 'giving' involved. As noted by Bashir (2008, p. 74), the reference is to a single event, and "the second (vector) verb contributes aktionsart or aspectual meanings". 58 It seems that such combinations contain a lexical verb in combination with a verb of movement ('go', 'come') or physical transfer ('bring', 'seize', 'throw'). Following Bashir (2008, pp. 65-75), we use the term "vector verbs". The vector verbs largely overlap with ones found in corresponding function in Eastern Balochi, where the inventory (including 'throw' and 'rise') is exactly parallel to that found in Indo-Aryan (Bashir 2008, p. 75). Note that the case marking of the subject in (53b) and ( 54) is the one required by the vector verb and not the one for the main verb.

This corresponds to periphrastic constructions such as the continuous form and the potential construction, where the transitivity feature of the auxiliary ('be' and 'do', respectively) cause the construction to pattern nominatively or ergatively, independent of the transitivity of the main verb. 59 Verbs of movement appear to contribute nuances referring to the phase of an action, such as 'go' (53) and 'come (out)' ( 54) implying the beginning of an action. Verbs of physical transferral could perhaps be seen to imply directionality, thus 'bring' in (51) 57 It is possible that this dialect might have lost ergativity, so mahrk 'death' being in the direct case does not imply anything in terms of agreement with one or the other verb. 58 Essentially the Eastern Balochi pattern was already seen by Dames, who notes: "One verb frequently qualifies another, the two verbs beig used in the same person and tense throughout" (Dames 1881, p. 31;1922, p. 26), citing e.g. ilaγ dēaγ 'to let go' for the phenomenon of interest here, but grouping other patterns under the same heading. 59 Cf. Korn (2009, pp. 65-67;2013, p. 36). Conversely, in compound tenses derived from the perfect participle (PST-a(g)) it is the main verb, not the auxiliary (the copula) that determines the alignment.

I will kill Kahir and bring back (lit. take and bring) Hawrok"'. (Bahukalat,SB 2:53).

These patterns may be particularly common with PST or PRF forms but, as already seen in ( 55), are not excluded from the PRS system either. Vector verbs also occur in imperative contexts. In (56), 'let's sell him' would seem the most adequate interpretation, and the straightforward reading of (15) would be 'Now let's kill the lion and govern ourselves' (there is no going or coming involved in either context). In ( 57), an interpretation 'I'll have a look' would seem quite viable. To some extent, this is reminiscent of French Allez, which is generalised for commands, e.g. Allez, viens ! 'Come here! (lit. go.2PL, come.2SG)' (used e.g. when addressing a child or a dog), or to English Come on, ...

56

) gwašt-ag=ī be-r- bahā=ī kan- say.PST-PRF=PC3PL SBJV-go.PRS-1PL price=PC3SG do.SBJV-1PL "They said: "Let's go and sell him.'". (Konarak, SE 1.1:13) 57) Eastern Balochi (Gilbertson 1923, p. 87) ma rav- gind- I go.PRS-1SG see.PRS-1SG "I shall go [and] see".

Converb constructions

A related pattern is the combination of two verbs for what likewise appears to be a single action, but without the type of semantic bleaching seen in the case of "vector verbs". Instead, the meaning contributed by one of the verbs approaches that of an adverb of manner, as hakalet 'moved' in (58), the lifting of the eyes in (59) (brides are supposed to keep their eyes downcast) and the jumping and running of the schoolchildren in (60). This phenomenon has likewise been noted by Bashir (2008, p. 68) for the Eastern Balochi "conjunctive participle" mentioned above, which "can function as an adverbial in a monoclausal sentence", as in [START_REF]Grammatical glosses found in the[END_REF]. This pattern is possible in Eastern Balochi even with different grammatical subjects (62), which is a noteworthy difference from the otherwise quite parallel Indo-Aryan "conjunctive participle" (Bashir 2008, pp. 70f.).

The verb contributing the semantics of manner has the form of the PST or the PRF stem, identical with the 3SG. As noted by Farrell (2003, pp. 200-204) for Karachi Balochi, the nonfinal verb of a series could be interpreted along the lines of an Indo-Aryan "conjunctive participle" (or a Turkic converb, for that matter), particularly if they show signs of being somewhat less than finite e.g. when the subject does not show the case marking normally required by the verb in question (as is the case for bīθ-au in ( 61) and wāṛt-au in ( 62)).

As pointed out by Bashir (2008, p. 66), there is not necessarily a strict borderline to be drawn between instances that can be analysed as combinations with converbs or vector verbs and other verb pairs; rather, these "constitute a continuum of grammaticization of verbal conceptions" ranging from less to more closely bound verbs. So there is some fluidity between expressions of several events and those that refer to a single event.

61) Eastern Balochi (Bashir 2008, p. 71) čōrav-ā šudī bīθ-au grēθ-ā little boy-OBL hungry become.PST-CP cry.PST-PRF "The baby cried from hunger". lit. 'The little boy got hungry and cried'. 62) Eastern Balochi (Bashir 2008, p. 70)  mār-ā wāṛt-au muṛt-a DEM snake-OBL eat.PST-CP die.PST-PRF "He died of snake bite". lit. 'A snake bit him and he died'.

Repetition

Quite frequently informants use a verb form several times in a row to describe a single event rather than several separate actions, in order to express the duration of an action or its being iterative. In ( 63) and ( 34), the repetition of šot 'went' contributes the meaning of the passing time rather than describing a series of separate actions. In (64), a nuance of intensity may be present in addition to the duration, and in (65), the duration of the cooking could be seen to be combined with the amount of fish.

Additional copula

Quite commonly the 3SG copula is suffixed to a finite verb form of the 3 rd person present. This is most frequent with hast and nēst (thus hast=ẽ, nēst=ẽ and, for the PST, hast-at), and particularly so (but not entirely systematic) at the opening of a tale for 'There was a...' ( 67), but also occurs on other verbs (and not only on forms of the 3SG) and quite inside a tale (68) or a procedural text (69). The frequency of this phenomenon is subject to dialectal differences within our data, and its function is not quite clear. The phenomenon has been discussed by Farrell (2003, pp. 190-193), who notes its existence "in Coastal dialects along the Makran" also into Iran. He does not make a decision about the identiy of the element "" and treats it as a different phenomenon than ast , which inflects insofar as it has a plural ast-, while the element "" is uninflected and uffixed to SG and PL forms.

67)

Following Jahani & Korn (2009, p. 685), we assume that the element is indeed the 3SG copula. One might explain the fact that it inflects only when affixed to (h)ast and nēst by suggesting that the 3SG copula is on its way of becoming a fossilised grammaticalised element. However, the question whether the additional copula in these contexts should better be considered as a separate phenomenon remains open for the moment being.

Farrell (ibid.) mentions the interpretation by Sayad Hashmi, who said the form is a "distant future", but concludes that this does not hold for his data (nor does it for ours, see the examples above). Its being comparatively frequent at the beginning of tales might suggest that it introduces new material, but this does not seem to fit all instances. Nevertheless, the additional copula might perhaps be a discourse related phenomenon.

Summary

5.1

In this article, we describe some elements of the grammar of Coastal Afro-Balochi (CAB) of Iran, i.e. the dialects spoken by Baloch of African origin living in the Coastal area of Iranian Balochistan. In doing so, we are in no way claiming the existence of a difference between the varieties spoken by Baloch of African and other origins. In our data, the only possible candidate of a lexical element not known to us from other dialects and not known to an elderly non-Afro-Baloch informant from that region is taggal-o-varz in (70). While varz could quite well be linked to words in other Ir. languages and beyond (Cheung 2007, pp. 425f.), including English work, and could thus likely mean 'labour, toil', the meaning and origin of taggal is not clear to us. According to our informants, its meaning must be similar to varz. (Konarak,SE 1.4:42f.) In this sense, there is no "Afro-Balochi" as opposed to the Balochi of other members of Baloch society in the same region. Nevertheless, we argue that, as the speech of a marginalised faction of the community, and potentially with a lower degree of social and geographic mobility, the speech of the Afro-Baloch might have been less exposed to influences from other dialects and languages. It could thus show more archaic features than other varieties.

5.2

It has generally been assumed that the Balochi spoken on the coast of Iranian Balochistan corresponds to that spoken in Pakistani Balochistan. This is surely largely correct. However, there are some notable differences. Our data show a number of phenomena that are synchronically and diachronically noteworthy.

These include the CAB case system for nouns and demonstrative pronuns, which is composed of only three cases (direct, oblique, genitive) and does not include the object case attested all throughout Pakistani Balochi (Southern, Western and Eastern dialects). Here, Coastal Afro-Balochi brings new precision to previously suggested lines of development and highlights some steps in the chronology of the case system.

The occasional addition of the oblique marker to a genitive ending, not noted for Southern Balochi so far, is reminiscent of the locative case in some Western Balochi dialects. Our data shows only a few instances, all of which refer to humans. This recalls the situation in Afghanistan Balochi (while Turkmenistan Balochi has extended the use to all categories of nouns), but is probably even more limited than the latter.

The 1 st and 2 nd singular personal pronouns, on the other hand, do have an object case, but still reveal a stage which preceded the system of Pakistani Coastal Balochi in not having generalised the distinction of direct vs. oblique case.

Correspondingly, CAB does not show the animacy split noted for other dialects of Southern Balochi, which have nominative alignment also in the PAST domain for pronouns of the 1 st and 2 nd persons. Ergativity is thus more "canonical" in CAB than in Southern Balochi dialects across the border (and than in other Balochi dialects of Iran).

Noted for other Ir. languages, but not for Balochi so far, is the so-called "indirect affectee construction" in the past (ergative) domain, i.e. the marking of the indirect object (rather than the direct object) on the verb. In accordance with what is seen in other Ir. languages, the available instances feature verbs such as 'give', for which the indirect object is regularly animate while the direct object is inanimate, so that it is the object higher in animacy that is indexed on the verb.

5.3

Phenomena in the verb system not noted yet for Balochi (or at least not for Southern Balochi) include the use of the clitic a ("verbal element") to indicate mood, and durative constructions using the bare infinitive or a verbal noun.

In addition, certain auxiliaries and light verbs occur in our data in patterns not previously noted. The verb 'do', which is otherwise employed in complex predicates and in the potential, is found combined with the present participle and with the agent noun to indicate progressive semantics. A phenomenon hardly described for Balochi (and for Iranian in general) is the combination of several verbs describing a single event (as frequently found in, and noted for, Indo-Aryan languages). The "vector verbs" employed include verbs of motion (which are otherwise employed for forming passives and complex predicates); these appear to contribute nuances referring to the phase of an action. Likewise used are verbs of physical transfer ('bring', 'seize'), which seem to add notions of directionality.

It seems that 'go' is also used in a hortative pattern (translatable as 'Let's...'), and il(l)-'release, let' is an auxiliary for a permissive construction. Here as well, the combination with a finite verb form in the subjunctive amounts to having two verbs describing a single event or action.

The latter also applies in the rather common instances of repetition of a verb form indicating repetition or duration of an action.

Potentially discourse-related phenomena, which would require further investigation, include a clitic =o, to some extent parallel to markers of specificity etc. in other Ir. languages, and a copula added to finite verb forms.

5.4

In conclusion, the study of Coastal Afro-Balochi adds a number of morphosyntactic patterns to those already described for Balochi. It remains to be studied whether these features are also present in any coastal dialect of Pakistan. At the present state of knowledge, CAB appears to be more archaic than both Coastal Balochi of Pakistan and the Balochi dialects of Iran spoken further away from the coast. Afro-Balochi varieties are no more uniform than those spoken by other sectors of Baloch society. In line with the dialect landscape of Bal. dialects in general, dialectal differences are seen on all levels of grammar; in our case particularly in the pronominal system and in modal and aktionsart patterns. Since important parts of the landscape of Balochi dialects in Iran yet remain to be described, the present study also hopes to contribute to our knowlege in this field.

Map 2 :

 2 Region where Afro-Baloch communities are living in Iran (underlined: CAB data)

  -PRF-3PL "They (= the Hots) made them (= my sisters) work". (Konarak, SE 1.2:2). 17) ešīy-a ešīy-a ke warag dāt-ag-an gept-a DEM-OBL DEM-OBL CL food give.PST-PRF-3PL take.PT-PP "When he gave food to them (= the tradesmen), they took him". (Konarak, SE 1.1:32f). = the children) gave them (= the Hots) a pot of water, [and then] they (= the Hots) gave them (= the children) a slice of bread". (Bahukalat, SB 2:16).

  30) hamē bayt-a gwaš-ān kot DEM verse-OBL say.PRS-PRP do.PST "They said the verse o dēm pa zīyārat-a raw-ān and forward to shrine-OBL go.PRS-PRP and [went off] in the direction to the shrine". (Shirgwaz, YN 1:255).

  say.PST=PC3SG I.GEN name-OBL SBJV-leave.IMP2SG "He said: 'Leave my name alone.'". (Shirgwaz, YN 1so that it becomes yoghurt; [let] it become yoghurt". (Karewan, GH 1:11), passim. 54 46) b-el=ī hoš- SBJV-leave.IMP2SG=PC3PL dry.PRS-3PL "Let them become dry". (Karewan, GH 1:76) 47) ē āb-a b-el=ī čax-ant=ī DEM water-OBL SBJV-leave.IMP2SG=PC3PL drip.PRS-3PL=PC3PL "Then let the water drip from it. ē āb-a degar=e čax-an DEM water-OBL other=PC3PL

  was our oppression, those days".

Table 1 : Case system of nouns in Pakistani Coastal Balochi

 1

  19

Table 2 : Case system of Iranian Balochi

 2

	NOM OBJ	GEN

SG -∅

-ā, -ārā -ey, -ī or eżāfe PL -ān -ānā -ānī

Table 3 : Case system of nouns in Coastal Afro-Balochi from Iran

 3

	DIR OBL GEN
	SG -∅ PL	-ā/a -ē/e, -ī, -∅

Table 4 : Case system of personal pronouns in Pakistani Coastal Balochi

 4

	DIR	OBL	OBJ	GEN
	1SG man	manā manārā manī
	2SG taw, tō t(a)rā tarārā taī, tay
	1PL mā	mārā		maē, mē
	2PL šumā	šumārā		šumē

Table 5 : Case system of personal pronouns in Iranian Balochi

 5

			NOM	OBJ	GEN
		1SG ma(n), mon manā	m(a)nī
		2SG ta, taw 1PL mā	tarā, teya taī, tī, tey m ārā may	or eżāfe
		2PL š(o)mā	š(o)mārā š(o)may, š(o)mey
	Although nouns do not use the marker -rā in CAB (Table 3), it does occur on personal
	pronouns (9)-(11).
	9) man ta-rā	bar-ān
	I	you.SG-OBJ Carry. PRS-1SG.
	"I will take you [with me]". Shirgwaz YN 1:50.
	10) mā-re kabr-a	šōn	de
	we-OBJ grave-OBL show give.IMP2SG
	" Show us her grave!" Konarak, SE 1.4:29.
	11) šomā-rē	da
	you.PL-OBJ give.PST
	"He gave [it] to you". Konarak, SE 1.1:16.
	The corresponding form of the 1SG is mana/ā (12)-(13):
	12) taw	man-a	bar-ē
	you.SG I-OBJ	carry.PRS-2SG
	man	bannām	bõ
	I	of bad reputation become.PRS1SG
	"If you carry me off, I will have a bad reputation". Shirgwaz, YN 1:54.

Table 6 : Functions of pronominal forms in Coastal Afro-Balochi from Iran

 6

	nom.		erg. agent obj. of	dir.obj PST indir.obj PST dir.obj	indir.obj PRS
	subj.			prep.			PRS
	1SG ma(n),	ma(n), mã,	man	ma		m(a)nā	m(a)nā, ma
	mã		mon
	2SG	taw / to / ta	to	tarā		tarā, tawa
	1PL		mā		m ārā/a,	mārā/a,	mārā/a	mārā/a,
					māre	māre, mā	māre, mā
	2PL		š(o)mā			šomārā/a,
						šomārē

Table 7 : Case system of personal pronouns in Coastal Afro-Balochi from Iran

 7 The pronominal clitics found in our texts are those listed in Table8(arranging variants by frequency). Second person pronominal clitics are not found in our data for lack of sufficient context in which they might occur.

	DIR OBL OBJ	GEN
	1SG man, ma/ā m(a)nā, mna	m(a)nī
	2SG taw, ta, tō tarā	t ī, taī
	1PL mā	m ārā/a, māre	mē
	2PL š(o)mā	šomārā/a, šomārē šomē
	2.3.2 Pronominal clitics

Table 8 : Pronominal clitics in Coastal Afro-Balochi from Iran

 8

	SG	PL
	1 st =on 3 rd =ī, =ē, =ey =ē, =ī =ēn

Table 9 : Case system of demonstratives in Pakistani Coastal Balochi

 9

	SG			PL
	DIR OBL	OBJ	GEN	DIR	OBL	OBJ	GEN

DISTAL

ā āy, āyā āy(ā)rā āīē, āy(ī) ā, ān āyā, āyānān āyān(ā)rā āyānī PROXIMAL

Table 10 : Case system of demonstratives in Iranian Balochi

 10

		SG			PL
		NOM	OBJ	GEN	NOM	OBJ	GEN
				(or ezafe)			(or ezafe)
	DISTAL	ā(ī)	āīā, āīrā āī(e)	āwān, āyān āwānā, āyānā āwānī
		hamā, hamāiē
	PROXIMAL ē, (i)šī, ēš(ī)	(ī)šīya, šera		(e)šān	(e)šāna
		hamī, hamē,
		hamēš, hamēši

Table 11 : Functions of demonstrative forms in Coastal Afro-Balochi from Iran attrib

 11 However, two remarkable phenomena not noted for other Balochi dialects (yet) are found. One is the position of a demonstrative after the noun (15). and we-you.PL one government=SPC to self government V.EL become.

			PL ā	ā ⁑	dO: ā
				āī, āīā	idO: āīā	dO: āī,	GEN āī
						āīā	GEN.PL āīānī
						idO: āī
	other hamō	šō, ī
	15) balē šmā	by-āy-e
	now you.PL	SBJV-come.PRS-2PL
	(The animals' assembly is discussing their situation. The fox says:)
	"Now you should come
	ke	šēr-ā	ē	ġārat=ē	kan-
	SUB lion-OBL	DEM killing=PC3SG	do.SBJV-1PL
	so that we kill the lion

. nom. subj. erg. agent obj. PST obj. PRS other PROX ē, (ha)mē ē, mē PL ē dO: ē, hamē idO: hamē dO: ē ⁑ POSTP ēīē ēš, ēšī, (ha)mēšī ēš, ēšī (ha)mēšī dO: ēšī GEN (ha)mēšī PL ēšān ēšīā idO: ēšīā dO, idO: ēšīā DIST ā, hamā ā, (ha)mā

Table 12 : Case system of demonstratives in Coastal Afro-Balochi from Iran

 12

	SG

Table 13 : Case systems of nominals in Coastal Afro-Balochi from Iran

 13

			DIR	OBL	OBJ	GEN	DIR	OBL OBJ	GEN
	noun endings	-∅	-ā	-	-ē, -ī -∅	-ān -	-ānī
	personal	1 st ma(n), mã	manā manī mā	m ārā/a, mārē/e	mē
	pronouns	2 nd taw, ta, tō	tarā tī, taī šomā	šomārā/a, šomārē/e šomē
	demonstratives ē,	ēšī,	-	ēīē,	ē,	-
			ēš(ī)	ēšīā		ēšī	ēšān
			ā	āī, āīā		āī	ā	āyānī

Table 14 : Case marking patterns in Balochi dialects (selection)

 14

	14a: nominative/accusative	14b: ergative	14c: neutral
	S		S		S
	A	P	A	P	A	P

  ).

	32) ē	kār=o	manīg	en
	DEM	work=FOC mine	COP3SG
	"This is my job.
	band-agī	manīg	en	manī
	bind.PRS-GRV	mine	COP3SG	mine
	I am to bind [him].
	dast-ān=ī	band-an
	hand-OBL.PL=PC3SG bind.PRS-1SG
	I will bind his feet (lit. hands).
	pakat šmā	āī	koš-ōk	bey
	only	you.PL	DEM.GEN kill.PRS-AGN become.PRS2PL
	But you will kill him". (Konarak, GO 1:17ff).

  OBL to DEM.OBL V.EL give.PST3SG "If the shepherd won, then he (Malek Mahmad) would give his dagger to him".

							):
	40) Balochi from Habd, Iran (Nourzaei & Jahani 2012, p. 181)
	šanek-āna ǰedā	a	kan-ēn
	goat-OBJ.PL separate V.EL do.PRS-1PL
	rah-ēn	āf		a	dah-en=e
	go.PRS-1PL water	V.EL do.PRS-1PL=PC3SG
	"We separate the goats. We go and give them water".
	41) Balochi from Jashk, Iran (Nourzaei & Jahani 2012, p. 180)
	aga čūpān	a		bo
	if	shepherd V.EL		win.PST
	ā	fadī		xanǰar-ā	ba āhī	a	dā
	DEM own dagger-One might also compare the past subjunctive, which has iterative and irrealis uses (42)-(43)
	(cf. Jahani & Korn 2009, pp. 674f.):
	42) Sarawani Balochi, Iran (Baranzehi 2003, p. 99)
	na	ke	ōda be-rapt-ēn-
	NEG SUB there SBJV-go.PST-SBJV-1SG
	"I wish I had gone there".
	43) Western Balochi of Afghanistan (Buddruss 1988, p. 22)
	puč	wa nān		wa	masrap=ē
	clothes and bread		and	consumption=SPC
	ki	man bi-dāšt-ēn-un		mnā dāt
	CL	I		SBJV-have.PST-SBJV-1SG I.OBJ give.PST3SG
	"she gave me clothes and food and [other] consumables that I needed".

Cf. e.g.Elfenbein (1989), p. 637.

The available works on Coastal Balochi,[START_REF] Mockler | EdwardA Grammar of the Baloochee Language, as it is spoken in Makrān (ancient Gedrosia)[END_REF],[START_REF] Pierce | A description of the Mekranee-Beloochee dialect[END_REF],[START_REF] Farrell | Basic Balochi. An introductory course[END_REF][START_REF] Jahani | The Case System in Iranian Balochi in a Contact Linguistic Perspective[END_REF], describe varieties spoken on the Pakistani coast or, in the case of Omani Balochi described by[START_REF] Collett | A Grammar, Phrase Book and Vocabulary of Baluchi[END_REF], derived from there.

[START_REF] Spooner | Notes on the Balochī Spoken in Persian Baluchistan[END_REF]), Yusefian (1992),[START_REF] Baranzehi | The Sarawani dialect of Balochi and Persian influence on it[END_REF],[START_REF] Ahangar | A description of the verbal system in Sarhaddi Balochi of Granchin[END_REF], and cf. the bibliography in[START_REF] Jahani | Balochi[END_REF].

Cf. Korn (2008c).

The "locative" in Afghanistan and Turkmenistan Balochi is also used in comparisons[START_REF] Buddruss | Aus dem Leben eines jungen Balutschen, von ihm selbst erzählt[END_REF]), p. 48, Axenov (2006), p. 81, although all instances are with prepositions meaning 'like'.

Korn (2008b), p. 94.

Korn (2008b), p. 96.

Note that this combination is not possible in all Balochi dialects; also note that the oblique case marker follows the specificity marker cf.[START_REF] Korn | Das Nominalsystem des Balochi, mitteliranisch betrachtet[END_REF], p. 292 for historical implications. The interpretation of this clitic as marking specificity follows the classification suggested byHeine (1997), pp. 72f.

Kahūr trees (here with ū > ī as is common in Southern Balochi), Prosopis spicigera / cineraria, are rather prominent within the very scarce vegetation in Balochistan. They provide edible seedpods, leaves as food for the animals, heating wood, and shade.

We are grateful to Geoffrey Haig for bringing this article to our attention. To the languages mentioned by[START_REF] Dolatkhah | On the marker -(y)akï in Kashkay[END_REF], one might add Bashkardi, which has a suffix -ak (preceding the PL suffix), cf.Korn (2017a), pp. 85, 93f., and the Kumzari "definite suffix" -o,Anonby (2012), p. 57.

Cf.Korn (2008a), pp. 173-175, Jahani and[START_REF] Jahani | Balochi[END_REF], pp. 653f.

Cf.Korn (2008a), pp. 182f., 186, Jahani and[START_REF] Jahani | Balochi[END_REF], pp. 653f.

Cf.Korn (2008a), p. 174. For the proximal pronoun, the system in the first line is that given by Mockler (1877), p. 39 and[START_REF] Farrell | Basic Balochi. An introductory course[END_REF], pp. 66f. and the one in the second line is the one given by[START_REF] Collett | A Grammar, Phrase Book and Vocabulary of Baluchi[END_REF], p. 9, who does not give a plural.

Cf.Korn (2008a), pp. 182f., 186f., Yūsefiyān (1992), pp. 42f.;[START_REF] Korn | Das Nominalsystem des Balochi, mitteliranisch betrachtet[END_REF], p. 91.

See Bashir (2008), pp. 50f., Adamík (1977), pp. 114, 150, 154, Korn (2005), pp. 297-300, with differing views about the origin of the suffixes, andNourzaei (n.d.), pp. 179f.

Cf. Jahani (2017), p. 266 for discussion of the gerundive and Vydrin (2017), pp. 149f. for parallels from other Iranian languages.

Cf. Bashir (2008, pp. 65-75) for Eastern and Western Balochi andNourzaei (2017, pp. 147-152), for a related discussion (not entirely employing the same terms).

Incidentally, this shows the importance of noting the intervention of persons external to the narration (often "edited out" in published texts).


Serge Mora
email: serge.mora@umontpellier.fr

Yves Pomeau

Basile Audoly

Aditi Chakrabarti

Manoj Chaudhury

Jean-Marc Fromental

Corrado Maurini

Souple et solide : comment la matière élastique se déforme-t-elle ?

Les solides mous, tels que la jelly de la cuisine anglo-américaine, peuvent supporter de grandes, voire de très grandes déformations. Ils permettent ainsi d'étudier le comportement de la matière élastique soumise à de fortes sollicitations mécaniques. Nous donnons ici un aperc ¸u de phénomènes originaux rencontrés lorsque ces solides sont placés dans des conditions mettant en évidence leur extraordinaire souplesse.

I. INTRODUCTION

La matière révèle de fascinants phénomènes lorsqu'elle se déforme. On pense d'abord, naturellement, aux fluides que nous voyons au quotidien : les tourbillons, les vagues, les gouttes se formant par la dislocation de minces filets, et bien d'autres encore. Les solides semblent plus sages : leurs déformations sont moins prononcées. Si deux éléments d'un même liquide peuvent s'écarter presque indéfiniment lorsque des forces les y invitent, la réaction élastique des solides s'oppose à une grande déformation: quand deux points d'un même solide sont contraints à s'éloigner l'un de l'autre d'une trop grande distance, dans la plupart des cas le solide s'endommage de fac ¸on irréversible : il flue (déformation irréversible mais sans fracture) ou il se brise. Pourtant, certains solides (caoutchoucs, gels, tissus biologiques par exemple) peuvent encaisser de très grandes déformations sans rompre ni même s'endommager. Comme dans les liquides, ces déformations génèrent des phénomènes tout aussi intéressants, voire inattendus. Nous montrons dans cette étude que lorsque la souplesse des matériaux, les dimensions caractéristiques et les forces appliquées se font écho, des phénomènes particuliers contrôlent les déformations de la matière élastique : comme les liquides, les solides ont une tension de surface dont l'influence pour les matériaux mous est déterminante aux petites échelles, déstabilisant tout cylindre suffisamment fin (section III A), ou entraînant un émoussement d'arêtes initialement vives (section III B) ; aux grandes échelles, au contraire, ce sont les forces volumiques (par exemple la pesanteur) qui pilotent les formes d'équilibre, déstabilisant toute surface horizontale orientée vers le bas (section IV A), ou permettant l'immersion complète d'objets pesants dans des solides (section IV B).

II. LA MATI ÈRE ÉLASTIQUE

Un morceau de solide possède une forme propre : partant d'un état non contraint, si on lui applique une sollicitation mécanique infinitésimale que l'on interrompt au bout d'un certain temps, le solide élastique reprendra sa forme initiale. Lorsqu'une force plus grande est appliquée, il peut se comporter de deux manières différentes, suivant sa nature et l'amplitude de la force. Ou bien la réaction à cette force reste purement élastique comme cela était le cas pour les contraintes infinitésimales ; ou bien le solide peut fluer : endommagé, il ne reviendra plus à sa forme initiale lorsque la force est supprimée. Nous considérons dans cet article uniquement des cas où le comportement du matériau est élastique : si les forces auxquelles le solide a été soumis sont ramenées à zéro, celui-ci retrouve sa forme initiale. En l'absence de dissipation, le solide devrait se mettre à osciller indéfiniment après chaque variation de forces extérieures. En pratique, un état d'équilibre stationnaire finit toujours par être atteint après un régime transitoire en raison de phénomènes dissipatifs. Nous nous intéresserons ci-dessous uniquement à ces états d'équilibre stationnaires.

Un corps élastique déformé possède une énergie élastique égale au travail des forces qui lui ont été appliquées pour atteindre, d'une manière supposée infiniment lente, la déformation finale depuis l'état non déformé. forme W = Ef (ε 1 , ε 2 , ε 3 ), où E est le module de Young du solide, et f est une fonction sans dimension qui doit vérifier certaines symétries [START_REF] Ogden | Non-Linear Elastic Deformations[END_REF], et ε 1 , ε 2 et ε 3 sont les allongements relatifs (définis à la figure 1). La fonction f change d'un matériau élastique à l'autre mais, dans la limite des petites déformations, on a toujours

f (ε 1 , ε 2 , ε 3 ) 1/2(ε 2 1 + ε 2 2 + ε 2 3
), ce qui constitue la loi de Hooke (relation linéaire entre la force par unité de surface et les allongements relatifs) pour les solides incompressibles et isotropes que l'on considère ici.

Le module de Young a la dimension physique d'une pression. Plus il est petit, plus le matériau est souple. Pour les solides usuels comme les métaux, les alliages, les minéraux, les céramiques, les verres ou le bois, le module de Young vaut plusieurs GPa. La limite d'élasticité de ces matériaux, c'est-à-dire la gamme des allongements relatifs pour lesquels leur comportement est celui d'un solide élastique, correspond généralement à des allongements relatifs inférieurs au dixième de pourcent. Les élastomères et les gels ont un comportement élastique sur une gamme de déformations nettement plus large -jusqu'à 1000% dans certains cas -ils ont aussi un module de Young significativement plus petit que les solides usuels cités ci-dessus: d'une dizaine de kPa à plusieurs centaines de MPa pour les élastomères et, encore plus petit, d'une dizaine de Pa à une dizaine de kPa pour les gels réticulés. Ceci provient de leur structure particulière. Un élastomère est constitué d'une molécule unique géante formant un réseau tridimensionnel de chaînes jointes les unes aux autres par des liaisons chimiques constituant les points de réticulation. Au cours d'une déformation, la disposition des segments des chaînes constituant ce maillage tridimensionnel est modifiée par rapport à la configuration d'équilibre, d'où une diminution de l'entropie du système ; la suppression de la contrainte ramène le matériau à son état initial (état le plus probable correspondant à l'entropie la plus élevée), conduisant à un comportement élastique. Un gel réticulé est une solution de macromolécules réticulées par des liaisons chimiques ou physico-chimiques. Contenant généralement moins de points de réticulation par unité de volume qu'un élastomère, les gels sont plus souples. Si le caoutchouc, le polybutadiène, le néoprène et les élastomères silicone ont le plus grand poids économique, ces matériaux jouent aussi un rôle important dans le monde du vivant. L'élastine, une protéine, permet par exemple aux cellules de se lier, et aux tissus biologiques de se former. Elle s'étire jusqu'à 150% de sa longueur au repos sans se briser, procurant de la souplesse aux tissus.

Dans la suite, nous présentons des phénomènes mis en évidence dans des gels réticulés de polyacrylamide ou d'agar-agar. Ces matériaux, dont les propriétés physiques sont facilement contrôlables, sont d'excellents modèles pour étudier, comprendre, ou simplement mettre en évidence des mécanismes physiques intervenant aussi sur des systèmes plus compliqués comme les tissus biologiques, ou certains organes mous et mécaniquement homogènes comme le foie ou le cerveau.

III. EFFETS CAPILLAIRES A. Cylindres instables

Des solutions (liquides) aqueuses chaudes d'agar-agar (concentrations en masse variant de 0,05% à 0,16%) sont injectées dans des moules cylindriques. La longueur des moules est de 2,4 cm, leur rayon varie d'un moule à l'autre : 150 µm, 240 µm, ou 260 µm. Après refroidissement, le liquide se transforme en gel élastique dont le module de Young dépend de la concentration en agar-agar. Il varie entre 42 et 153 Pa, ce qui correspond à des matériaux extrêmement souples. Les moules (en polystyrène) sont dissous par immersion dans du toluène liquide. Les cylindres de gel sont alors libérés dans le toluène liquide, leurs extrémités restant attachées à des cadres rigides de telle sorte que la longueur bout à bout des cylindres reste inchangée après dissolution. L'eau et le toluène étant deux liquides immiscibles, il n'y a pas d'échange de matière entre le toluène et le gel.

La forme et les dimensions des cylindres les plus épais et formés des gels les plus rigides sont inchangées après dissolution. Les cylindres les plus fins et les plus souples se cassent au cours de la dissolution des moules. Pour les cylindres intermédiaires, une modulation longitudinale du rayon apparaît spontanément, puis reste figée sur une durée supérieure à plusieurs dizaines de minutes. Cette modulation est d'autant plus marquée que le module de Young et le rayon sont petits (figure 2). Une mesure de l'amplitude de la modulation en fonction du module de Young prouve l'existence d'un module de Young critique E * (r 0 ) qui dépend du rayon initial r 0 : pour un rayon r 0 donné les cylindres droits constitués d'un gel ayant un module plus faible que E * (r 0 ) sont instables et la configuration stable présente une modulation (à condition qu'ils ne se soient pas cassés) ; les cylindres ayant un module supérieur sont stables.

La tension de surface d'une interface séparant deux liquides est l'énergie par unité de surface associée à l'interface. Cette énergie, qui existe aussi bien avec un liquide qu'un solide, provient de l'attraction entre les différentes molécules (ou atomes) qui n'est plus équilibrée à cause de la présence de l'interface. Elle explique pourquoi une goutte de liquide placée dans un autre liquide immiscible (et de même densité pour s'affranchir des effets de la pesanteur) prend une forme sphérique : la sphère ayant la plus petite surface pour un volume donné, cette forme minimise l'énergie de surface. De même, un cylindre fluide entouré par un autre fluide est instable, ce qui conduit à la formation de gouttes: la surface d'un cylindre déformé par une modulation longitudinale du rayon est inférieure à celle du cylindre droit dès que la longueur d'onde de la modulation est supérieure à 2π fois le rayon (c'est l'instabilité de Rayleigh-Plateau [START_REF] Plateau | Statique Expérimentale et théorique des Liquides Soumis aux Seules Forces Moléculaires[END_REF]).

L'énergie totale (somme de l'énergie de surface et de l'énergie élastique dans le cas d'un corps élastique) d'un système à l'équilibre mécanique est minimale. Considérons un motif de dimension caractéristique d'un matériau élastique soumis à une déformation. L'énergie de surface E surf associée est de l'ordre de γ 2 , et l'énergie élastique E elas est de l'ordre de E 3 . Ainsi, si γ/E alors E surf E elas et l'élasticité pilote la forme d'équilibre du motif. Au contraire, si γ/E les effets de la tension de surface sont dominants. ec = γ/E est la longueur élasto-capillaire qui est d'autant plus grande que la tension de surface est grande et que le module de Young est petit.

Revenons aux cylindres élastiques baignant dans le toluène, et prenons comme dimension caractéristique le rayon du cylindre r 0 . D'après ce qui précède, on s'attend à ce qu'une instabilité de Rayleigh-Plateau (phénomène généré par la tension de surface) se produise lorsque r 0 ec , le cylindre restant au contraire droit lorsque r 0 ec . Un calcul plus détaillé qui consiste à déterminer le champ de déformation qui minimise l'énergie totale du système montre que la compétition entre l'effet déstabilisateur (la tension de surface) et l'effet stabilisateur (l'élasticité) conduit à un rayon critique r * 0 = ec /2 = γ/2E, ou de fac ¸on équivalente à un module de Young critique E * (r 0 ) = γ/(2r 0 ). Les gels d'agar-agar sont essentiellement constitués d'eau emprisonnée dans le "filet" déformable constitué par le squelette de macromolécules du gel. La tension de surface du gel est donc ici essentiellement régie par les interactions entre cette eau et le toluène, et on s'attend à ce qu'elle soit proche de celle entre ces deux liquides, soit γ ∼ γ eau-toluene 36, 5 mN/m. Cette valeur conduit, d'après la formule théorique, à des modules de Young départageant cylindres stables et instables, en accord quantitatif avec les expériences [START_REF] Mora | Capillarity driven instability of a soft solid[END_REF]. Nous en concluons que la déstabilisation des cylindres de gel est une manifestation de la tension de surface, et que l'existence du seuil s'explique bien par la compétition entre tension de surface et élasticité. Pour les solides habituels (métaux, bois, céramique, etc.), ec est de l'ordre des distances inter-atomiques, et aucun effet de la tension de surface sur la forme d'équilibre de ces solides élastiques n'est attendu. Pour les matériaux mous (gels, élastomères), la tension de surface et l'élasticité ayant des origines différentes (la tension de surface provient essentiellement des propriétés du solvant pour gel et des propriétés des monomères pour un élastomère ; l'élasticité provient de l'agencement des points de réticulation), ec est plus grande que toute longueur microscopique, et devient ainsi pertinente dans le cadre de la mécanique des milieux continus. Par exemple pour les cylindres de la figure 2, ec est comprise entre 450 µm (E = 81 Pa) et 850 µm (E = 43 Pa). Pour un élastomère avec E ∼ 10 5 Pa, ec ∼ 1 µm : l'instabilité ne pourrait être observée que pour des objets bien plus fins que ceux de la figure 2.

Le même phénomène se produit aussi lorsqu'une fine âme rigide est entourée d'une gaine élastique souple. Il conduit à des motifs ressemblant aux noeuds de Ranvier qui sont une succession d'amincissements et de bourrelets de la gaine de myéline entourant un axone dans le système nerveux.

Au paragraphe suivant, nous considérons une géométrie initiale renfermant un large éventail d'échelles de longueurs : de nettement inférieur à nettement supérieur à la longueur élasto-capillaire. Les phénomènes liés à la tension de surface se manifesteront alors sans seuil, leur observation devant se faire à la bonne échelle spatiale.

B. Emoussement des arêtes

Des moules de barreaux de section carrée d'arête de longueur a sont remplis de solutions aqueuses contenant des monomères d'acrylamide et de bi-acrylamide, à des concentrations différentes. Une réaction de polymérisation transforme ces solutions en gels élastiques. Les moules sont alors dissous comme précédemment. Les barreaux de gel sont ensuite posés à plat sur une grille en téflon qui minimise les contacts. Afin d'annuler tout effet de la pesanteur, les échantillons sont mis dans un mélange d'huiles fluorées de même densité que les gels. Une section droite du barreau est éclairée par une nappe laser, ce qui permet la visualisation des déformations de cette section. On constate que les angles droits, initialement vifs, ont laissé place à une ligne de courbure finie. Ces déformations sont d'autant plus marquées que l'arête et que le module de Young sont petits (figure 3). En remplac ¸ant l'huile par de l'eau, le gel retrouve exactement la forme du moule. Cette dernière observation est une indication forte d'un effet réversible induit par la tension de surface. En effet, la tension de surface entre le gel (constitué principalement d'eau) et l'eau est largement plus faible que la tension de surface entre l'huile et le gel (γ eau-huile 43 mN/m).

Les déformations d'un long barreau élastique (de module de Young E) de section carrée (avec des arêtes de longueur a) ont été simulées numériquement en utilisant la méthode des éléments finis. Dans l'état de base où la tension de surface est nulle, le barreau n'est pas déformé. L'énergie élastique est donc nulle. La tension de surface est ensuite fixée à une valeur non nulle, γ. La forme d'équilibre du barreau est alors calculée en minimisant l'énergie totale (énergie de surface et énergie élastique) du barreau. Remarquons que ce système est décrit par le seul nombre sans dimension, ec /a. Lorsque le système est observé dans sa globalité, c'est-à-dire sur une échelle de longueur de l'ordre de a, les déformations sont négligeables dans la limite où ec /a 1, alors que la forme devient très arrondie dans la limite ec /a 1 : l'élasticité est alors trop faible pour s'opposer à l'action de la tension de surface. L'excellent accord entre les formes des sections droites issues des expériences et des simulations, obtenu en prenant logiquement pour la tension de surface entre le gel et l'huile la valeur de la tension de surface entre l'eau et l'huile, confirme que les déformations observées résultent bien de la tension de surface [START_REF] Mora | Solid drops: Large capillary deformations of immersed elastic rods[END_REF] .

IV. EFFETS DE LA PESANTEUR A. Instabilité de Rayleigh-Taylor

Différents gels de polyacrylamide sont maintenant formés dans des récipients cylindriques dont le diamètre vaut 19 cm et la profondeur h varie entre 2,1 et 2,8 cm. Ces récipients sont ensuite retournés, de telle sorte que la surface libre soit orientée vers le bas. On constate que les surfaces inversées des gels les plus rigides et en couche les plus fines restent parfaitement planes (figure 4a), tandis que des déformations apparaissent pour des gels plus souples ou d'épaisseur plus grande. Elles sont d'autant plus marquées que le module de Young est faible (figure 4b-f) et que la profondeur est grande.

Il est bien connu que l'interface séparant deux fluides pesants est instable lorsque le fluide le plus lourd se trouve au dessus du plus léger. Le mécanisme responsable de cette instabilité, qui porte le nom d'instabilité de Rayleigh-Taylor [START_REF] Rayleigh | Investigation of the character of the equilibrium of an incompressible heavy fluid of variable density[END_REF], se comprend en comparant les énergies de pesanteur des fluides lorsque l'interface est plane (orientée vers le bas) et lorsqu'elle est perturbée : les fluides étant incompressibles, cette perturbation revient nécessairement à déplacer une certaine partie du fluide le plus dense vers la zone initialement occupée par le fluide le moins dense (c'est-à-dire vers le bas), et à déplacer une partie du fluide le moins dense vers la zone initialement occupée par le fluide le plus dense (c'est-à-dire vers le haut). Ainsi, le centre de gravité de l'ensemble est abaissé et l'énergie potentielle de pesanteur du système est réduite, d'où la tendance du système à s'écarter de la configuration où l'interface est plane et horizontale.

Dans le cas d'un solide, l'élasticité s'oppose à l'action déstabilisante de la pesanteur. L'énergie élastique caractéristique par unité de surface horizontale est E elas ∼ hE, alors que l'énergie de pesanteur caractéristique par unité de surface est E pesa ∼ ρgh 2 , où ρ est la masse volumique du gel. Le rapport E pesa /E elas conduit au nombre sans dimension ρgh/E. Le calcul du champ de déformations minimisant l'énergie totale démontre que l'instabilité de Rayleigh-Taylor se manifeste, à l'interface solide-air, lorsque ce nombre sans dimension est supérieur à une valeur seuil égale à 2, 074 [START_REF] Mora | Gravity driven instability in solid elastic layers[END_REF]. Ce résultat est en accord avec les observations expérimentales qui font apparaître un seuil pour ρgh/E = 2, 02 ± 0.07. Notons que ces effets de la pesanteur apparaissent lorsque la longueur caractéristique du système, h, est supérieure à 2, 074E/ρg : contrairement aux effets de la tension de surface (qui sont négligeables ici de par les dimensions du système), ceux résultant des forces volumiques impliquent les grandes longueurs.

Les vues (e) et (f) de la figure 4 montrent que les déformations peuvent être grandes, avec la formation de plusieurs cuvettes. Dans ce cas, la physique du système est complexe. Les motifs ne correspondent pas tous à des minima absolus de l'énergie, mais à des minima locaux. On observe alors des états métastables. Nous allons dans la suite présenter des expériences où de grandes déformations sont plus simples à appréhender dans la mesure où l'état d'énergie minimale est clairement identifié.

B. Flottabilité élastique

Une bille d'acier (masse volumique ρ acier 7, 8 g/cm 3 ) de rayon a (variant entre 0.5 et 5 mm) est délicatement déposée à la surface de gels dont le module de Young varie de 30 à 3000 Pa. Cette surface se déforme alors. Les billes de plus petite taille déposées sur les gels les plus durs s'enfoncent légèrement. La profondeur de pénétration δ, définie comme la distance verticale entre la position de la surface non déformée du gel et le bas de la bille, est d'autant plus grande que le gel est souple et que le rayon est grand. Au delà d'un seuil, la bille se trouve totalement englobée par le gel : la surface de ce dernier se replie sous l'effet de sa tension de surface de telle sorte que le puits correspondant au passage de la bille se resserre complètement sur lui-même. La surface apparente du gel est alors à nouveau horizontale tout en étant fortement étirée (figure 5). Nous nous sommes intéressés surtout à ce régime où la bille est totalement enveloppée. Sa position résulte de l'équilibre entre son poids, les forces élastiques et les forces de pressions hydrostatiques (assimilables à une poussée d'Archimède). La mesure de la profondeur δ pour différents rayons montre que, dans la limite où δ a, δ est proportionelle à a p avec p = 1.48 ± 0, 05.

L'énergie totale est la somme des énergies de pesanteur de la bille et du gel, et de l'énergie élastique du gel. L'énergie de pesanteur fait intervenir la masse volumique apparente de l'acier, ρ acier -ρ gel . La densité d'énergie élastique est égale au module de Young multiplié par une fonction sans dimension qui dépend des allongements relatifs. Dans la limite δ a, la seule longueur caractéristique définissant la déformation du gel est δ : en tout point du gel dans la région déformée, le déplacement est proportionnel à δ, et sa variation d'un point à l'autre se fait avec une longueur caractéristique, elle aussi proportionnelle à δ. Les allongements relatifs, qui s'obtiennent à partir du gradient du déplacement, sont donc indépendants de δ ! La densité d'énergie élastique est ainsi proportionnelle à E. Après s'être assuré que la limite a/δ → 0 n'introduit pas de singularité, l'énergie élastique s'obtient en multipliant sa densité par le volume déformé caractéristique. La seule longueur caractéristique associée à la déformation étant δ, le volume déformé caractéristique ne peut être que proportionnel à δ 3 . On en déduit ainsi que l'énergie élastique est proportionnelle à Eδ 3 . Ainsi, l'énergie totale vaut :

E totale = (ρ acier -ρ gel ) 4 3 πa 3 gδ + kEδ 3 .
Le premier terme du membre de droite est l'énergie de pensanteur ; le second est l'énergie élastique (k est un facteur sans dimension de l'ordre de 1). En écrivant qu'à l'équilibre la valeur de δ doit correspondre à un minimum de cette énergie, on trouve δ ∝ a 3/2 , en accord avec les observations [START_REF] Chakrabarti | Elastobuoyany heavy spheres: A unique way to study nonlinear elasticity[END_REF]. L'hypothèse δ a revient à supposer que la pression caractéristique exercée par la bille (son poids auquel la poussée d'Archimède a été soustraite, divisé par sa surface) est largement plus grande que le module de Young du gel, soit a >> E/(ρ acier -ρ gel )g. Nous en déduisons que l'enrobage de la bille par le gel est un phénomène qui implique des objets de taille bien plus grande que la longueur caractéristique (E/(ρ acier -ρ gel )g) émergeant des propriétés du gel et de la force volumique appliquée.

V. CONCLUSION

Au delà des petites déformations que l'on rencontre dès que la matière élastique est soumise à la moindre force, des phénomènes spécifiques se manifestent si des dimensions du système correspondent à une échelle de longueur caractéristique déterminée par le module de Young du matériau et les forces apliquées, comme la force de pesanteur ou la tension de surface. Ainsi, les effets capillaires originaux apparaissent sur les échelles de longueur inférieures à γ/E, et les effets de la pesanteur se manifestent sur les échelles de longueur supérieures à E/ρg. Dire qu'un matériau est souple uniquement à partir de la valeur de son module de Young n'a pas de sens : au mieux peut on dire qu'un matériau est plus souple, ou plus rigide qu'un autre. Les expériences décrites dans cet article présentent des situations mettant en exergue des phénomènes résultant du caractère souple de la matière solide. On peut alors dire que le matériau est souple lorsqu'un de ces phénomènes se fait sentir aux échelles de l'observation.

Les gels élastiques utilisés ci-dessus ayant un module de Young particulièrement faible, les phénomènes se sont révélés sur des échelles de longueur observables à l'oeil nu. Lorsque les matériaux sont plus durs que ces gels, ces phénomènes apparaissent sur de plus petites échelles, ou alors à des échelles semblables mais sous l'effet de forces plus intenses, par exemple en remplac ¸ant la pensanteur terrestre par la forte accélération d'une fusée ou d'une centrifugeuse. La possibilité de fabriquer des motifs bien définis, de contrôler mécaniquement l'encapsulation d'objets dans un solide, ou de connaître le comportement de la matière lorsqu'elle est très étirée (une situation que les chirurgiens rencontrent avant d'effectuer certaines incisions) constituent des applications importantes de cette étude.

Pour en savoir plus : vidéo en ligne de la conférence expérimentale, Espace des Sciences Pierre-Gilles de Gennes : Quand les solides imitent les liquides, 58 min (2015) : https://www.espgg.org/Quand-les-solides-imitent-les

FIG. 2 :

 2 FIG. 2: Quatre cylindres en gel d'agar-agar, de différents modules de Young E et de rayons identiques (r0 = 240µm) sont placés dans du toluène liquide. Le cylindre le plus rigide reste droit, tandis que des modulations du rayon apparaissent spontanément et se figent pour les cylindres plus souples.

FIG. 4 :

 4 FIG. 4: Instabilité de la surface d'un gel de polyacrylamide orientée vers le bas. Le diamètre du récipient est de 19 cm, sa profondeur est de 2,8 cm. Les modules de Young sont (a) 234 Pa, (b) 132 Pa, (c) 129,9 Pa, (d) 128,4 Pa, (e) 123 Pa, (f) 120 Pa. Une grille lumineuse carrée est projetée sur les surfaces des gels afin de faciliter la visualisation des reliefs.

FIG. 5 :

 5 FIG. 5: Flottabilité élastique d'une bille d'acier de 5 mm de diamètre. Initialement déposée à la surface horizontale d'un gel dont le module de Young vaut 39 Pa, la bille s'enfonce jusqu'à atteindre une position stable.

  Cette énergie peut être définie pour n'importe quelle sous-partie du solide élastique et nous appelerons W sa densité volumique d'énergie élastique. Elle est d'autant plus grande que la déformation locale est grande. Pour un matériau élastique homogène et isotrope, elle peut s'écrire sous la FIG.1: Soient deux points matériels A et B espacés de la longueur infinitésimale δ dans l'état non déformé (pour la lisibilité de la figure, les distances sont agrandies). Si une transformation induit localement un gradient de déplacement (après soustraction d'un éventuel mouvement de rotation solide), alors la distance qui sépare ces deux points matériels a changé. Soit δ la nouvelle distance. Le rapport ε = (δ -δ )/δ est l'allongement relatif dans la direction joignant ces deux points matériels. Ce nombre sans dimension est souvent exprimé en pourcent. La déformation locale est entièrement définie par la donnée des allongements relatifs (ε1, ε2 et ε3) dans trois directions principales privilégiées, perpendiculaires entre elles.

	solide élastique non contraint	même solide soumis à des contraintes
			(non représentées)
	δ	B	δ	B
	A		A
	état non déformé	état déformé