Jessica Holmes

Building Confidence in Foreign Language Communication through 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' Mots Clefs : interaction, interaction strategies, confidence, autonomy

This study will therefore attempt to respond to the following question: What impact does the teaching of interaction strategies have on students' ability to participate in

Table of contents Introduction

During my first year as a trainee teacher, I have often been surprised at the disparity between, on the one hand, the level of English possessed by students in my classes and on the other hand, the difficulty that certain students encounter when taking part in an exchange in English. One may think that an advanced level of language acquisition would go hand in hand with the ability to fluently converse in the target language. Though it has become apparent throughout my trainee year that this is not the case for all students.

In recent years, the interaction dimension of language learning has claimed an important place in the foreign language classroom. Not least thanks to the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFRL) which redefined the standards by which languages are taught and evaluated across Europe. The aim of the European Council when creating the CEFRL was "to meet the needs of a multilingual and multicultural Europe by appreciably developing the ability of Europeans to communicate with each other across linguistic and cultural boundaries." In order to reflect this objective, which emphasises the 1 importance of being able to use language as a tool to communicate with others, interaction has claimed its place as a fifth language skill in addition to the traditional oral and written comprehension and production skills.

Yet, the skill of interacting, not only in a foreign language but also in ones mother tongue, involves overcoming certain hurdles that are not prevalent or as prevalent in the other language skills. When a speaker takes part in a conversation there is a degree of risk taking; the speaker runs the risk that their conversation partner may not understand them and that they may not understand their conversation partner, which would essentially result in the breakdown of communication. Thus, those taking part in any interaction run the risk of losing face whenever they take part in an exchange. As a result of such unpredictability, certain learners are faced with the issue of self-confidence, an element which is essential to language acquisition. 2 Given that current foreign language teaching methods aim to encourage learners to actively use foreign languages as a communication tool, but that learners are often blocked by their lack of self-confidence when it comes to actively taking part in such communication, teachers must consider ways by which to enable learners to overcome interaction hurdles as well as issues of self-confidence.

In the first section the role of interaction in language acquisition will be explored. This will be followed by a reflection in the second section on ways in which teachers may train learners to enable them to become autonomous language users. Finally, the third section will concentrate on a series of experiments carried out with a class having received training in the use of interaction strategies and the results of these experiments will be discussed and analysed.

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The role of interaction in language acquisition

Interaction is at the heart of human activity and language undeniably plays an essential role in establishing social relations and interactions. According to Chomsky: "the use of language is a very important means by which this species, because of its biological nature, creates a kind of social space, to place itself in interactions with other people." If we are to 3 accept Chomsky's point that an essential role of language is to create social relations and interactions, should this be transferred to language learning and therefore to practices in the language classroom? In other words, should the process of learning a second language be anchored in social relations and interactions in the same way that is the case for the acquisition of one's mother-tongue?

The role of interaction in the learning process

The work of Vygotsky is the basis of much research in cognitive development and has played a particularly important role in Social Development Theory, which is based on the notion of social interaction playing a fundamental role in the development of cognition, that being the process of acquiring knowledge and understanding. For Vygotsky, learning is a process that uses a range of internal developmental skills that are only able to operate when the learner is interacting with people in his or her environment and in cooperation with his or her peers. In this sense, individual mental resources are developed through collective behaviour. In Mind in Society: The Development of Higher Psychological Processes he defines learning in the following way: "Learning awakens a variety of internal developmental processes that are able to operate only when the child is interacting with people in his environment and in cooperation with his peers. Once these processes are internalised, they become part of the child's independent developmental achievement." 4 He depicts a learning dynamic, present throughout the span of a human life, which further anchors the learning process in social interactions: "Every function in the child's cultural development appears twice, on two levels. First, on the social, and later on the psychological level; first, between people as an interpsychological category, and then inside the child, as an intrapsychological category. The actual relations between human individuals underlie all the higher functions." 5 This literally means that the social situations to which individuals are exposed as a child, but also as an adult, condition cognitive development. In other words, the capacity to develop and acquire new knowledge is not biologically determined but rather aided by social Osiatynski, W. On Language and Culture Noam Chomsky interviewed by Wiktor interaction with peers. In order to learn, new knowledge must first be encountered on a social level in interactions with other people, before being internalised and acquired by the individual.

Vygotsky was also the first psychologist to introduce the idea of the zone of proximal development which he defines as "the distance between the actual developmental level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers." 6 He believed the role of education to be to provide learners with activities which are within their zone of proximal development so that they may gradually progress as they become increasingly more skilled and able to accomplish certain tasks independently. Often the teacher is considered as the sole person in the classroom able to help learners to progress by providing guidance or helping with the accomplishment of tasks. However, following the zone of proximal development theory, learners who have not yet reached total independent use of a certain skill may be aided by other learners who are able to perform the skill independently in group interaction tasks. Therefore, interaction between peers in the classroom may provide a valuable alternative to a teacher-centred approach. Though Vygotsky's work was centred on learning more generally, his theories provide an interesting starting point for the language teacher to begin to analyse the place of interaction in language acquisition.

The role of interaction in language acquisition

There exist numerous theories about how learners most effectively learn foreign languages each with diverging opinions on the importance of interaction in the language acquisition process. The CEFRL proposes an eclectic approach, combining elements from a number of different theories: "Most 'mainstream' learners, teachers and their support services will follow more eclectic practices, recognising that learners do not necessarily learn what teachers teach and that they require substantial contextualised and intelligible language input as well as opportunities to use the language interactively, but that learning is facilitated, especially under artificial classroom conditions, by a combination of conscious learning and sufficient practice to reduce or eliminate the conscious attention paid to low-level physical skills of speaking and writing as well as to morphological and syntactic accuracy, thus freeing the mind for higherlevel strategies of communication." 7 Three key elements to take from this are firstly the need to provide learners with contextualised and intelligible foreign language input in the form of learning supports such as texts, videos, audio files and also in the form of language used during classroom interactions. Secondly, this may be combined with moments of conceptualisation based on lexical, grammatical, phonetic and cultural elements and finally this must be accompanied by opportunities for learners to practice the language in interaction activities. It is thanks to the Vygotsky, L. S. (1978). p. 86 6 CEFRL, https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/framework_en.pdf p. 140 7 ! 7 opportunities that students have to interact and practice manipulating the language that they may become fluent users of the target language.

The emphasis that is placed on the need for practice and use of the foreign language in interaction can be linked to Anderson's skill-based theory of language acquisition that he developed in his adaptive control of thought model (ACT-R model). This theory suggests that skill acquisition involves progression through three stages: the declarative, the procedural and the automatic stage.

In the first stage, which concerns declarative knowledge, the learner acquires knowledge about a skill generally from a more competent person. However, the learner does not necessarily try to use the skill at this stage due to the fact that this knowledge is "static information such as historical or geographical facts encoded in memory" or in terms of language acquisition "explicit mental representations of language items that may include word definitions or grammar rules". 8 The second stage involves the proceduralization of the knowledge acquired in the first stage. During this stage the learner acts on their declarative knowledge resulting in them no longer needing to retrieve separate pieces of information from their memory, rather this information is readily assembled in chunks which can be called upon whenever the conditions for the specific behaviour are met. This stage of moving from exclusively declarative knowledge to procedural knowledge is achieved by "engaging in the target behaviour or procedure while temporarily leaning on declarative crutches." 9 The final stage is the automatisation stage which happens over a large amount of time and involves practise in executing the task in order to reach spontaneity, with minimal errors and minimal distraction from other tasks and with a reduced demand on cognitive resources. 10 It is this stage which corresponds to fluency in a foreign language.

Therefore, in terms of language acquisition, interaction plays an essential role in both the proceduralization and the automatisation stages of this skill-based theory. It is precisely during activities in which learners are required to communicate and interact with their peers that they are able to practice and verbalise their declarative knowledge and that with prolonged practice and repetition of the same or similar structures they are able to acquire a degree of spontaneity. It is thus essential for the language teacher to integrate interaction into each lesson.

Redefinition of the status of the language learner

As a result of the importance given to interaction in current teaching methods the status of the language learner has been subject to readjustment. Evelyne Berger explains this change Lyster, R. & Sato, M. (2013). Skill acquisition theory and the role of practice in L2 8 development. Contemporary Approaches to Second Language Acquisition, p. 71-91. Anderson, J. R. (1987). Skill acquisition: compilation of weak-method problem 9 solutions. Psychological Review, 94(2), p. 192-210. DeKeyser, R. (2001). Automaticity and automatization. Cognition and second 10 language instruction, p. 125-151.

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in relation to research carried out in Conversation Analysis and Second Language Acquisition (CA-SLA) and she presents it as:

"a theoretical and methodological reconceptualisation of learning, orientated towards interactional and sociolinguistic language dimensions: 1) recognition of the learner as a 'competent' communicative individual, capable of participating in social activities using even limited ressources and 2) a vision of the acquisition process as anchored in social practices rather than confined to the mind of the individual." (Translation) "une reconceptualisation tant théorique que méthodologique de l'apprentissage, orientée vers les dimensions interactionnelles et sociolinguistiques du langage : 1) une prise en compte de l'apprenant en tant qu'être communicatif 'compétent', car capable de participer à des activités sociales avec les moyens du bord et 2) une vision du processus acquisitionnel ancré dans les pratiques sociales plutôt que confiné au cerveau des individus." (Original) 11Berger adds that the learner must be considered as: "a 'competent' communicative individual, capable of adapting to the context, even with limited second language resources (…) who may call upon alternative resources to compensate limitations in the second language and participate as a competent member in an exchange as a result." (Translation)

"un être communicatif compétent, capable de s'adapter au contexte, et cela, même s'il a des ressources en L2 limitées (…) qui aura recours à des ressources alternatives pour compenser ses limitations en L2 et ainsi participer comme membre compétent à l'échange." 12 (Original) What is interesting here is the redefinition of the learner as a competent individual fully able to communicate and participate in social interaction, which is a radical reversal in the way that language learners have traditionally been considered by their teachers. Traditionally a learner was considered as an individual whose limited knowledge of the workings of the foreign language in question meant that certain more complex tasks were not possible until an advanced level of acquisition was reached.

However, with the current action-orientated approach proposed by the CEFRL it is not longer possible for learners to be considered in these terms. This approach considers language learners as "social agents", which the CEFRL defines as "members of society who have tasks (not exclusively language-related) to accomplish in a given set of circumstances, in a specific environment and within a particular field of action." 13 Claire Bourguignon in "La démarche didactique en anglais: Du concours à la pratique" explains the aim of this approach as being the following: "The objective is to enable the learner to develop strategies that will allow him or her to be an autonomous user of the language (…) that he may be able to mobilise both the Berger, E. (2016). Prendre la parole en L2 : Regard sur la compétence d'interaction 11 en classe de langue. Berne: Peter Lang. p. 29. Berger, E. (2016), p. 35. 12 CEFRL, https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/framework_en.pdf,p. 18 13 ! 9 necessary knowledge and language skills when faced with any type of situation." (Translation) "L'objectif est que l'apprenant développe des stratégies lui permettant d'être un usager autonome de la language (…) qu'il puisse mobiliser les connaissances et les capacités langagières dont il a besoin face à tout type de situation." (Original) 14 Therefore, the current focus in teaching foreign langauges is on enabling learners to become autonomous users of the language, who are able to communicate in any situation without the help of a teacher. This takes into account the fact that in reality, outside of the classroom, when learners are required to interact in a foreign language they are not considered by the other interactants as 'learners', they are considered as language users who are able and indeed required to reach communicative goals without the observation, help and correction of their teacher. Even though in institutional terms the end goal of language learning is to achieve academic qualifications, the ultimate end goal is to be able to communicate fluently and spontaneously in real social contexts such as for travel, employment or educational purposes. It is clear that in order to succeed in these situations the learner must possess the necessary communication strategies to allow him or her to be autonomous without the presence of a teacher for guidance.

As a result, if the teacher's role is no longer to transmit knowledge but rather to enable the learner to become an autonomous language user and a competent social agent through participating in interaction tasks, the role of the language teacher must inevitably also change. Bourguignon, C. (2005). La démarche didactique en anglais: Du concours à la 14 pratique. Paris: Presse Universitaires de France, p. 37.

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Training learners to become autonomous language users

From teacher-student communication to student-student communication in small group tasks

As established in the first section of this study, for learners to effectively learn a foreign language they must actively take part in communicative interaction. In the traditional language classroom and indeed still in many other subjects today, the majority of the communication that takes place is between the teacher and the students. However, this type of interaction is not authentic in the sense that it does not mirror the types of interaction that occur in the social context outside of the classroom. This can be attributed to the fact that the teacher and the student are not on an equal footing and do not stand to gain equally from their interaction. On the one hand, the teacher aims to encourage students to speak in order to assess their abilities and their understanding and to help them progress. On the other hand, the students' responses rarely help the teacher to progress in terms of language skills even if they may provide new cultural knowledge thanks to the students' diverse backgrounds and education.

Robert Sarrasin develops this idea in Problématique des interactions verbales entre élèves:

"Teacher-student communication only ever represents, even in the classroom context, a restricted range of interactions compared to those that are possible during pair work. Because the teacher's interventions, due simply to the teacher status, don an authoritative character (…) teacher-student interactions are characterised by a formal language use focussed on precision, whereas exchanges between students lead to a more spontaneous language use orientated towards exploratory aims." (Translation) "La communication maître-élève ne représente jamais, même dans le contexte de la classe, qu'un éventail restreint d'interactions, par rapport à toutes celles qui sont possibles entre pairs. Ensuite, parce que les interventions du maître, du fait même de son statut, revêtent forcément un caractère d'autorité (…) les interactions maître-élèves se caractérisent par un usage plutôt formel et axé sur la précision, tandis que les échanges entre élèves induisent un usage du langage plus spontané et orienté vers des fins exploratoires." 15 (Original) In teacher-student interaction, the student knows prior to speaking that his or her production will be validated or otherwise by the teacher and that the teacher's concentration will then move on to another student. Therefore, in this case there is no real need to communicate as the student understands that if he or she is not able to effectively respond to the teacher's question, somebody else in the class will probably be able to do so. However, in small group-based interaction tasks students experience an increased need to use the foreign Sarrasin, R. (1984). Problématique des interactions verbales entre élèves. Revue des 15 sciences de l'éducation (10, 3). p. 503-514.

! 11 language to communicate as they are no longer one student in a whole class but rather one student in a small group who must collectively arrive at a solution to the given task.

Given that interaction holds an important place in language acquisition, it is necessary to find a way of ensuring interaction in the classroom without using a frontal method of teaching, by which all exchanges pass by the teacher. Interaction must take up a significant part of the time students spend in the classroom and these exchanges must take place between students, without interference from the teacher. By means of the student-student small group configuration learners are able to encounter an authentic usage of the foreign language in real communicative situations.

The number of students in each group is an important element to take into consideration. In L'apprentissage coopérant (1996) Robert Pléty explains:

"if the number of partners increases, the information exchanged is richer and so the exchanges themselves function better." (Translation) "si le nombre de partenaires augmente, il y a plus de richesse dans l'information échangée donc les échanges eux-mêmes marchent mieux." (Original)

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Though pair work is an obvious alternative to teacher-student interaction, larger groups of 3 to 4 students allow for more numerous and varied ideas to be exchanged and also incite exchanges more naturally and therefore create increased interaction and increased negotiation of meaning.

However, some teachers may worry that by taking a step aside and handing over control to students in group tasks they are less able to control the accuracy of the productions and are therefore less able to help the students progress. Pléty provides a response to this dilemma: "With group work, learners are able to collaboratively identify the requested task, which enables them to orientate the work in the right direction and to limit errors, even though some will still persist, the learners will be able to inter-correct or auto-correct them." (Translation) "Avec le travail en groupe, les élèves peuvent identifier à plusieurs la tâche demandée, ce qui permet d'orienter le travail dans la bonne direction et de limiter les erreurs, même si elles seront forcément présentes, mais permettrons aux élèves de s'inter/auto-corriger." 17 (Original) Group tasks provide a rich environment for students to take on the responsibility of helping each other to arrive at a solution to the task or simply to arrive at a general consensus in a discussion, whilst also helping each other to become more accurate users of the target language. The notion of inter-correction and auto-correction go hand in hand with Vygotsky's theory, which was presented in the first section of this study, and which argues that individuals learn first by encountering information on an interpsychological level, corresponding to inter-correction, before internalising this information on an intrapsychological level, corresponding to auto-correction. If we are to adhere to Vygotsky's Plety, R. (1996). L'apprentissage coopérant. Collection Ethologie et psychologie des 16 communications. Lyon : Presses universitaires de Lyon, p. 45. Plety, R. (1996), p. 89 ! 12 theory, it is through auto-and inter-correction, which takes place during peer interaction, that learners may progress in their language acquisition. Therefore, if teachers are to put in place successful interaction tasks between students without the presence of the teacher, it seems necessary to be aware of the fact that successful interaction is not simply based on the command of lexical, grammatical and phonetic structures and rules but also on students' ability to use a range of strategies to ensure coherent, cohesive and accurate communication. Indeed, even during interaction between native speakers, a sufficient understanding of the language is not enough to ensure the successful communication of ideas and the arrival at a common consensus in the proposed task.

Beyond the linguistic elements of interaction

When taking part in verbal interaction, beyond the need to formulate appropriate linguistic content, there are other elements to take into account that are not solely language related. Evelyne Berger develops this idea in her book Prendre la parole en L2 : Regard sur la compétence d'interaction en classe de langue:

"Beyond formulating appropriate content, participation in any verbal interactionincluding in the classroom -implies, for example, structuring speech in a pertinent and coherent way in relation to what preceded it. It implies adapting to the present situation and to the behaviour of others as well as managing problems relating to mutual understanding and other unforeseen events. It also implies keeping the attention and the interest of the conversation partner." (Translation) "Au-delà de la formulation de contenus appropriés la participation à toute interaction verbale -y compris en classe -suppose ainsi, par exemple, de structurer son discours de façon pertinente et cohérente avec ce qui précède, de s'adapter à la situation présente et aux conduites d'autrui, de gérer des problèmes d'intercompréhension et autres imprévus ou encore de s'assurer de l'attention et de l'intérêt de son interlocuteur." (original)

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When learning a second language it is easy to focus ones attention almost solely on lexical, grammatical and phonetic accuracy when conveying a message. However, it is not these elements alone that produce coherent and meaningful social interaction and on focussing too much attention on these elements the learner risks by-passing resources and techniques that can improve the quality of interaction and generate more coherent discussion.

According to Berger, the organisation of speaking implies a need for:

"the participants to work on coordination and mutual adjustments, which require mobilising not only linguistic resources but also prosodic, gestural and sequential resources." (Translation) "un travail de coordination et d'ajustements mutuels des participants, où sont mises en oeuvre des ressources non seulement linguistiques, mais aussi prosodiques, gestuelles et séquentielles." (Original) 19 Berger, E. (2016), p. 14. 18 Berger, E. (2016), p. 16. She adds that thanks to "linguistic resources, combined with prosodic and non-verbal resources, the speakers initiate and form their turn to speak in such a way as to guarantee the attention of their partner and to demonstrate the way in which their turn articulates itself around the already established direction of the discussion." (Translation) "ressources linguistiques, combinées à des ressources prosodiques et non-verbales, les locuteurs initient et formatent leur tour de parole de façon à garantir l'attention d'autrui et démontrer la manière dont le tour s'articule aux conduites antérieures." (Original) 20 Therefore, it is not sufficient from a language teacher's point of view to simply expect that when proposing group interaction tasks, students will automatically be able to ensure the smooth execution of the task. During group interaction learners are faced with a series of hurdles, some of which are language related and others which are related to interaction strategies. Some examples of specifically language-related issues include ensuring a certain degree of lexical, grammatical and phonetic accuracy and making certain that the message is communicated using the correct forms to convey the desired meaning. Students are also faced with the problem of knowing whether what they wanted to say has been understood in the same way by the other participants in the discussion, despite any accuracy issues. Students are also aware of their position as a learner in the language classroom and are keen to receive feedback on the accuracy of their language skills. However, we have established that during group discussion tasks, the teacher takes a step back to leave greater liberty and autonomy to the students. This means that the responsibility of correcting mistakes and helping with issues of accuracy falls on the discussion participants themselves. Consequently, this is an area in which students must receive training in order to effectively assume this role, which not only helps to improve their classmates accuracy but also their own.

In terms of problems that learners may face in group discussion tasks that are not specifically language-related, one example is ensuring a coherent discussion in which the participants pay attention to linking their interventions to those of the others in the group. Efforts in this area create more logical discussions which arrive at a general conclusion more effectively. Another example includes ensuring a cohesive discussion in which all members are able to have their say and find their position within the group of participants.

Without the teacher's direct presence in the discussion task, students must be aware of the importance of creating coherence and cohesion as well as helping to improve accuracy and access to meaning in their discussions and they must be equipped with the necessary tools to do so.

Introducing interaction strategies into the classroom

Bajarano et al. argue that "appropriate classroom organisation and detailed task definition, although imperative, are not always sufficient for achieving successful non-native Berger, E. (2016), p. 18. 20 ! 14 language interaction." They attribute this difficulty to the fact that non-native speakers often 21 face difficulties in communicative interaction tasks because they are not aware of interaction strategies that both native and non-native speakers employ in successful interaction.

They believe that it is necessary to train learners in the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' in order to improve the quality of interaction in communicative group tasks. They propose two types of interaction strategies: Modified-Interaction Strategies and Social-Interaction Strategies.

Modified-Interaction Strategies

Modified-Interaction Strategies allow the listener and the speaker to "alter their interactions in order to facilitate comprehension of the intended message." These strategies 22 reflect the theory that "negotiation for meaning makes input more comprehensible to the nonnative speaker and that conversational modification is an efficient way to bring about such negotiation." 23 This type of interaction strategy is relevant to learners who need assistance in the target language in order to effectively reach communicative goals, which means that these strategies specifically concern non-native speakers. This takes into account the fact that non-native speakers, unlike native-speakers, are faced with the additional task of manipulating a foreign language during discussion tasks. As a result of this additional difficulty, lexical, syntaxical and phonetic errors often occur that may result in the inability of the other participants to understand and follow the direction of the discussion.

Bajarano et el. propose four Modified-Interaction Strategies: checking for comprehension and clarification, appealing for assistance, giving assistance and repairing.

The strategy of 'checking for comprehension and clarification' consists of "comprehension questions asked by the speaker in order to check the interlocuteur's understanding of the message (…) or by the listener in order to ask for clarification of the input." Bajarano et al. add that this strategy enables participants in group discussions to "develop ways in which to find out whether as speakers they were understood by the other members of the group, or as listeners they can ask for explanations of words or expressions that may not have been understood." In the following example, Student A checks whether as 24 a speaker he or she has been understood and Student B seeks to confirm that as a listener he or she has correctly understood the meaning of Student A's message. Student B: Did you want to say that because there are so many security cameras in towns and cities, it's like we can't escape from them? Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997) Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997), p. 205. 22 Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 205 23 Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 205 24 ! 15

The strategy of 'appealing for assistance' involves participants recruiting "help from other members of the group in order to express themselves more effectively in the target language." Students may appeal for assistance by asking a direct question as shown by 25 Student A in the example below. However, they may also appeal for assistance by stopping their sentence at the word or expression that is posing a problem followed by a hesitation such as "erm …", as demonstrated by Student B in the example below. The strategy concerning 'giving assistance' "enables interactants to help other members of the group who have difficulty expressing themselves in the target language and who appeal for assistance." An example of this is demonstrated by Student C in the example above. The fact that language learners have certain deficiencies in the target language means that participants in discussion activities need to help one another in expressing their ideas and overcoming any language barriers that block access to meaning. Given that it is not possible for the teacher to be available to aid every student during discussion tasks, it is essential that students learn to help each other.

The final Modified-Interaction strategy concerns 'repairing' which is defined by Bejarano et al. as enabling participants "to correct grammatical or lexical errors in the target language that were made by other members of the group." However, it seems necessary to 27 divide this strategy into two sub-strategies: auto-correction and inter-correction. On the one hand, 'auto-correction' relates to when participants correct their own errors, as demonstrated by Student A in the example below. On the other hand, 'inter-correction' refers to cases when participants correct the errors made by other participants. In the case of 'inter-correction' in order to ensure minimal disruption to the flow of discussion, students often simply recast the correct version of the error made by another participant, as is demonstrated by Student B in the example below.

Student A: My brother is only 10 and he already have has a mobile phone. He is on it every time so we can't have a normal discussion with him! Student B: all the time Student A: Ah yes, he is on it all the time.

Social-Interaction Strategies

According to Bajarano et al. Social-Interaction Strategies are necessary "for maintaining the flow of a cohesive and coherent group discussion in which students react to Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 205 25 Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 205 26 Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 205 27 ! 16 each other and relate to what other members in the group said, rather than deliver their own independent or unrelated short speeches which results in non-interaction participation." 28 This type of interaction strategy is not specific to the needs of language learners, rather the aim is to help participants to become better communicators in discussions. Bajarano et al. suggest that "even when non-native speakers have difficulty with linguistic accuracy they can become quite effective interactants by using Social-Interaction Strategies." 29 Bajarano et al. propose the following Social-Interaction Strategies: elaborating, responding and seeking information or an opinion.

They define 'elaborating' as being when "a participant builds on a previous comment, enlarging on it by giving examples and adding sentences in order to expand the discourse unit." An example of this type of strategy would be: Student C: Information about them shouldn't be published before they have been proven guilty.

The strategy concerning 'responding' is define as when "a participant responds to a content-related question asked by a member of the group. Such responses can include expressions of agreement or disagreement." This means that 'responding' is not limited to 31 answering questions, it also includes giving opinions and reactions in relation to the views expressed by other members of the discussion. The following example demonstrates this type of strategy; Student B responds to the question asked by Student A and Student C responds to the point of view expressed by Student B, without actually responding directly to a question.

Student A: Do you think that websites like Facebook take away took much of our privacy?

Student B: I think that everybody knows that when you sign up to Facebook your information is kept in data stockage so yes it takes away our privacy but it's not a big secret! Student C: I agree, we all know that Facebook is public so we should just be careful about what we post.

The strategy of 'seeking information or an opinion' is defined as when "a participant asks for the speaker's opinion or seeks relevant or more detailed information." The 32 following is an example of this type of strategy:

Student A: In my opinion, there should be much stricter age limits for social media sites like Facebook and Twitter. What do you think? Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 206 28 Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 206 29 Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 206 30 Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 206 31 Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997). p. 206 32 ! 17

In current teaching methods, teachers must take a step back in the classroom and put in place activities which give as much autonomy as possible to the students. In putting in place such activities, training learners to employ the strategies mentioned in this section and encouraging them to recognise the importance of ensuring coherence, cohesion and accuracy during discussions seems to be an essential step. In doing so, the teacher can be assured that elements which they usually supervise, such as the circulation of speech and controlling accuracy, are effectively managed by the students when handing autonomy over to them.

In line with the research presented thus far, the interaction strategies previously mentioned will now be analysed in an experimental context in order to ascertain what benefits they may have on the coherence, cohesion and accuracy of small group discussion tasks in the language classroom. ! 18

Teaching experiments and results

In the previous sections of this study we have established that interaction is an essential part of language acquisition but it does not simply consist in the ability to mobilise knowledge of the target language to reach a given communicative aim. It also involves the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' to ensure that the end result is reached through coherent, cohesive and accurate communication. These strategies are not necessarily acquired from the outset and learners must therefore have the opportunity to study and use them in the classroom. In this final section we will assess the impact of teaching interaction strategies on students' ability to participate in classroom interaction and their level of self-confidence when doing so.

Subjects and study model

This study was carried out in a college (lycée) in a central district of Paris in France. The college in question is situated in a privileged area where many of the most historic French universities are situated. In 2017 the college achieved a 99% pass rate in the Baccalauréat exams and 77% of students received a distinction. The class concerned by this study is 33 composed of 23 students aged sixteen to seventeen in what is called the année de première in the French education system. They are all students who have chosen to specialise in sciencerelated subjects at this stage in their education and who have chosen English as their first foreign language.

The level defined by the CEFRL for this year group is B1 towards B2 in each of the language skills, with B2 being the target for the end of the cycle terminal key-stage. Since this study is based on the interaction skill, it is worth mentioning that 4 students had attained the B1 level in the interaction skill at the start of this study, which translates in concrete terms as being able to "deal with most situations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language is spoken"; 14 students had attained the B2 level, which means being able to "interact with a degree of spontaneity that makes interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain for either party" and 5 students had attained the C1 level, which means being able to "express themselves fluently and spontaneously without much obvious searching for expressions". 34 For this study, the learners were divided into small groups of 3 or 4 students. Each group was recorded at the outset of the study and again at the end, after which time they had received training in the Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies. For both the pre-test and posttest, each group took part in a 10 minute discussion task. They were given a topic to discuss with a number of sub-topics to provide them with guidance should it be required. Each group was assigned the same topic, which was different for the pre-test and post-test to avoid any pre-learnt discussions. An attitude questionnaire was also completed by the students prior to Paris Etudiant. Lycée Fénelon -Résultats et classement, consulted 20/04/2018, http:// 33 www.parisetudiant.com/etudiant/annuaire-lycees/lycee/lycee-fenelon-paris/palmares.html CEFRL, https://www.coe.int/t/dg4/linguistic/source/framework_en.pdf, p. 24.

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! 19 the pre-test and after the post-test to record their perceived levels of self-confidence during conversational activities.

Procedures for training learners in the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies'

Over the space of three weeks, 5 lessons were consecrated to this study. The first and last lesson within this period were used to record the pre-test and post-test discussion tasks. Each of the three lessons in between was dedicated to discovering interaction strategies with the students. The lesson plans for these three classes were as follows.

Experiment lesson 1

Material: 20 tokens for each student, tally sheet, discussion topic sheet When one person has no tokens left, the conversation stops and the tokens are counted and noted in a chart.

Activity 3

Reflection on the circulation of speech in the discussion 10 min Discuss why some had more tokens left than others.

Reflect upon how to remedy this (paying attention to who is participating and who isn't, invite others to give their opinion or to give more information about their point of view).

Activity 4

Discussion no. 2 10 min Continue the discussion on cloning. Students must try to observe everybody's tokens and act accordingly, taking into account the reflection in activity 3. When one person has no tokens left, the conversation stops and the tokens are counted and noted in a chart.

Activity 5

Reflection on the circulation of speech in the discussion 10 min Compare the tallies from both discussions. Discuss any differences or similarities in the figures but also in their attitude. Reflect upon whether they felt more comfortable in the first or second part of the discussion and attempt to explain why.

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Experiment lesson 2

Material: One red card per student, discussion topic cards Activity 3 Reflection on accuracy in the discussion task 15 min Discuss how many times they corrected each other and how they felt. Did it disrupt the conversation significantly or was it useful? Because the teacher isn't able to hear and correct everybody, it is necessary for students to correct each other to improve their own accuracy as well as that of their classmates.

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Experiment lesson 3

Material: 30 red cards per discussion group

Cultural objective: Issues surrounding immigration

Interaction strategy: Ensuring a coherent discussion by using strategies to elaborate and respond

Activity Timing Aim

Activity 1 Discover the topic and their roles 15 min In groups of students who have the same role, they must brainstorm arguments to defend their point of view and to rebut the arguments of the others.

Activity 2 Discussion activity no. 1 10 min The students must discuss the topic and every time somebody adds a comment that is not related to the previous statement, if it is an independent comment, the chairman must raise a red card so the participants notice and then place the card to one side.

Activity 3 Reflection on responding and elaborating 10 min The chairman must count how many red cards were raised and each team must share this with the class. Discuss why they think it is important to link one's comments to what has come before and reflect upon the impact this has on the coherence of the discussion. Think of opinion and disagreement expressions that can help to link statements.

Activity 4 Discussion activity no. 2 10 min The students must continue the discussion and this time they must link what they say to the person who spoke previously, before introducing a new point or opinion. If somebody doesn't respond to the previous statement, the chairman must place a red card in front of them. They must then try to respond to the previous statement and continue the discussion.

Activity 5 Reflection on ensuring a coherent discussion 10 min Discuss how many people had red cards and in what circumstances they were given them. Think about the coherence of the two discussions and consider whether there was any difference between the two and make attempts to explain why.

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Measurement

Three variables were measured in this study, in order to shed light on the impact that the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' had on both students' performance and level of selfconfidence during the discussion tasks.

The number of turns undertaken by each member of the group during the discussion tasks was counted in order to ascertain whether the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' had had an effect on students' overall participation.

The use of both Modified-Interaction Strategies such as repairing, and Social-Interaction Strategies including seeking opinion or information and elaborating and responding, were also measured in order to conclude on whether the teaching of these strategies had had an effect on performance during the communicative activities. Students' performance was measured is three ways: the equal circulation of speech between members of the discussion, accuracy and coherence. The equality of speech circulation was measured in terms of the number of times each student participated, first with an overall measurement and then with a more detailed measurement taking into account the length of each turn in order to differentiate between simple productions such as "yes" or "I agree" and more complex productions. The accuracy of the productions was measured in terms of the number of errors made, with a distinction between serious and less serious errors. Finally, the coherence of the discussions was measured on the basis of the number of times students linked their production to what had been previously said using expressions such as "I agree with you but I think that …" or "I disagree with you because …".

Finally, the results of the attitude questionnaire were also analysed to assess whether the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' had had an effect on the perceived sense of selfconfidence felt by the students during discussion tasks in different sized groups.

Hypothesis

The initial hypothesis was that after having received training in the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' the students would have an increased overall level of participation in group tasks with a more significant usage of both Modified-Interaction and Social-Interaction Strategies. Use of such interaction strategies would generate increased equality in speech circulation, increased accuracy and a more coherent discussion. In turn, having been equipped with strategies to enable more coherent and therefore meaningful communication, learners should feel an increased sense of self-confidence in their ability to effectively participate in group task communication.

Results and analysis

The initial hypothesis is that after having received training in the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' the students should have an increased overall level of participation in group tasks with a more significant usage of both Modified-Interaction and Social-Interaction Strategies.

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3.5.1.Overall participation

At first glance the data displayed in the chart below suggest that overall levels of participation actually decreased between the pre-test and the post-test, contrary to what was anticipated prior to starting the experiments. For this experiment, participation was measured by the number of turns undertaken by each student, in other words, the number of times each student spoke. This method of recording participation in the discussion accords the same importance to a one-word productions such as "yes" and longer more developed productions. Though this may seem too general, it does however provide an interesting perspective on each students' attention during the discussion. Even if a certain amount of the productions amount simply to signalling agreement, such as saying "yes", "I agree" or "I understand", this indicates that the students were listening and following the discussion, which is an important skill in itself. Though there is a slight difference in overall participation, the results suggest that interest and willingness to participate in the discussion were still present in the post-test.

However, in order to ascertain a more nuanced snapshot of students' participation in the discussions it is necessary to adopt another approach which takes into account the difference in the length and complexity of the productions, which is also therefore an indicator of the time occupied by each student in the discussion. The data in the table below show that short productions consisting of only a few words such as "I agree" were reduced in the post-test and longer, more complex productions were increased. Therefore, although the overall number of turns undertaken by each student decreased, their turns were generally longer in duration and more complex in terms of content and structure. This may be attributed to the fact that between the two test, students received training in ensuring a coherent discussion by always following "I agree" or "I disagree" with an explanation to support their opinion. Though short productions were still present in the post-test, there were much less of them. This seems to suggest that the training was successful, at least in encouraging the students to produce longer and more complex sentences by trying to justify their opinion.

3.5.2.Use of Modified-Interaction Strategies

In general terms, the overall use of Modified-Interaction Strategies, that is strategies aimed specifically at non-native speakers to encourage them to negotiate meaning to create a more comprehensible discussion, was higher by 10% in the pre-test than the post-test.

However, when the data is examined in more detail it is possible to analyse the use of specific Modified-Interaction Strategies in more detail. From the data below, one can see that in the post-test students were three times as likely to check for comprehension and clarification than in the pre-test. They were more inclined to turn to their discussion partners when they did not understand a lexical form or when they were unable to follow the meaning of the discussion and check for understanding by using expressions such as "Can you repeat? I don't understand" or "Do you mean …?". In addition, as can be seen in the chart below, there was a slight increase in the number of times students used the strategy of repairing to auto-correct their errors or inter-correct their discussion partners' errors. Effective use of auto-correction can be seen in the post-test of Group 6 when Student A says "Since my son has his phone, he's always on it, he *don't he doesn't want to speak to us" (Annexe 12), in the post-test of Group 4 when Student B says "If people want to *s'inscrire want to be part of this social media" (Annexe 10) or in the post-test of Group 3 when Student C says "I've changed my mind (*/maɪd/)" then corrects the mispronunciation of "mind (/maɪnd/)" (Annexe 9). Effective use of inter-correction can also be seen in the post-test of Group 5 when Student B corrects Student A in the following example: "A: My son spends all his time social media / B: "on" / A: "on social media, so that's why I restrict him to only two hours a day" (Annexe 11). Another example can be seen in the posttest of Group 2 when Student C asks "Are you responsible (*/rɪˈspɒnseɪbəәl/)?" and Student A responds "We say responsible (/rɪˈspɒnsɪbəәl/)" (Annexe 8). However, the increase in the use of repairing between the pre-test and the post-test consists of only four occurrences, which is not substantial. This may be attributed to two factors; the first relates to auto-correction and is based on the fact that it is challenging for students to recognise their errors and to then find the correct version. This kind of behaviour develops over a longer period of time than was available for this study as it requires the students to gradually automatise certain expressions and syntaxical structures, leaving room for them to concentrate on repairing other elements. The second factor concerns inter-correction and is based on the fact that students often hear the errors made by their classmates but are hesitant to correct them for fear of interrupting the flow of the conversation and potentially seeming obnoxious; if the message is understandable, students tend to accept it as so and continue with the conversation.

However, the results below, which concern the Modified-Interaction Strategies relative to appealing and giving assistance, show that the students used both of these strategies less in the post-tests compared to the pre-tests. In fact, the use of these strategies was halved in both cases. Nevertheless, some examples can be found such as in the post-test of Group 5 when Student A says "So in my example my son, genre comment on-dit 'passe trop son temps'?" (Annexe 11) and in the post-test of Group 4 when Student B says "people can speak to each other, comment tu dis 'grace'?" / A: "Thanks" / B: "Thanks to blogs, websites like Facebook, Messenger." (Annexe 10). It is interesting to note that almost systematically the students refer back to French when they appeal for assistance. This is without a doubt the easiest and quickest option for them, given that their discussion partners are all native-French speakers. This is therefore a point to explore further in order to decrease or totally eliminate the use of French in discussion tasks. The decrease in the use of these two strategies is an intriguing point to analyse as it goes against the general trend noticed in the use of the first two Modified-Interaction Strategies. One possible explanation for this decline concerns the fact that between the pre-test and the post-test, the students took part in 3 other discussion tasks. It is therefore possible to suggest that the students gradually increased in confidence over this period and that come the posttest, they felt less of a need to turn to their discussion partners for assistance and in turn, less assistance was provided.

3.5.3.Use of Social-Interaction Strategies

Contrary to the use of Modified-Interaction Strategies, the use of Social-Interaction Strategies increased by 11% in the post-tests. Whereas the Modified-Interaction Strategies are aimed specifically at non-native speakers, the Social-Interaction Strategies are not specific to language learning. Their aim is to enable speakers to communicate more effectively by maintaining the flow of a cohesive and coherent group discussion. 35 This increase may be explained simply by the fact that Social-Interaction Strategies are not specifically related to the use of a foreign-language. They are in fact strategies that the students are used to using in their native-language when they are communicating in classroom discussions, with their family around the dinner table or with their friends at break time. Therefore, these strategies were perhaps easier for the students to appropriate and transfer to the experimental discussions despite the additional language barrier. However, from the following results we will see that the use of certain Social-Interaction Strategies decreased in the post-tests whilst others increased. It was predicted that Bejarano, Y., Tamar, L., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J. (1997) As a result, it was expected that the post-test discussions would include more 'opinion + justification' productions, which would leave less space for simply elaborating on the previous contributions. It was also predicted that the use of the 'seeking information or opinion' strategy would increase as students received specific training in this area.

In the pre-tests the students elaborated on the contributions of their discussion partners more than they responded to them. However, as can be seen below, in the post-tests they concentrated their efforts on responding to the discussion partners' contributions by giving their opinion and justification, which meant that in turn, they elaborated less. Examples of elaboration can be seen in the pre-test of Group 6 in the following exchanges: "B: I think yes fin even criminals may choose if what they have done can be published in public and fin I think they have the right to be anonymous like in medias and things like this / C: their life are published every in the world so they are famous but in the bad sense" (Annexe 6). On the other hand, an example of 'responding' can be seen in the post-test of Group 5 in the following exchange: "C: I think it's the responsibility of the people, people should be careful of what they post and it's their responsibility / D: Yes I agree, I think it's to the people to make to be careful of what they did because it's not the social media who who will change the things. I think it's to the people to just post intelligent things and not and not bad things. B: That's true because we must not forget that social media is something informatique, it's not something real so the real problem is the humans and the people that are on social media and not the platform itself" (Annexe 11). This is in line with the predictions made prior to the tests and suggests that students successfully implemented the suggested strategies on 'responding'. It is worth noting that whilst 'elaborating' is an important discussion strategy, emphasis was put on the strategy of 'responding' in this study as it was noticed that during debate activities, students did not respond enough to their partners, which often meant that they simply paraphrased multiple times the productions of their discussion partners which prevented the debate from advancing. Furthermore, from the results below concerning the 'seeking information or opinion' strategy, one can see that the use of this strategy increased by 28% in the post-tests. This can Pre-test Post-test be explained by the fact that specific training was given to the students between the pre-test and the post-test concerning this strategy and emphasis was put on the importance of including everybody in the discussion. One way of ensuring inclusion was to actively seek the opinion of those who had spoken less than the other members of the discussion. For example, in the post-test of Group 1 when Student C says "So Student A, what is your point of view?" (Annexe 7). Another way was to solicit extra information from those who had spoken less in order to include them in the discussion. Examples of this strategy can be seen in the pre-test of Group 4 when student A says "and do you think that during a trial the criminal have to be anonymous or not?" (Annexe 4) or in the post-test of Group 2 when Student C says "I just want to ask you now, do you think we spend too much time on the Internet?" (Annexe 8).

3.5.4.The number of errors

From the data below, one can see that both serious and less serious errors were still present in the post-tests. On the one hand, a 'less serious error' represents all errors that do not interrupt the flow of the discussion and which would not prevent a native-speaker from understanding the meaning. Examples of such errors can be found in the pre-test of Group 2 when Student C says "I mean you may want to have some private moments, I don't know with your family, your son, or *persons like that" (Annexe 2) or in the pre-test of Group 4 when Student A says "I think *good to have camera in private space" (Annexe 4). On the other hand, a 'more serious error' represents all errors which would likely prevent a nativespeaker from understanding the meaning, even though they may not have posed a problem to the native-French speaking students. Examples of this type of error can be seen in the pre-test of Group 5 when Student B says "cyber harcelement" (Annexe 5) or in the pre-test of Group 2 during a part of the discussion centred on security cameras "B: I know it (security cameras) can help a lot of people to prove something about, I don't know, if someone gets robbed / C: Yes / A: Yeah, do you think it helps a lot and there's no reason to *class?" (Annexe 2).

However, though a certain number of errors persisted in the post-tests, the number of less serious errors decreased by 26% and the number of more serious errors decreased by 34% between the pre-tests and the post-tests. This can perhaps be attributed to the fact that the students were more at ease with the discussion task after repeating the same type of task numerous times during the experiment stage of this study. If this is the case, this suggests that repeating similar tasks on a regular basis can help students to automatise knowledge, become more fluent in discussion tasks and gradually become more accurate in their use of the foreign language.

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Seeking information or opinion

0 44

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Pre-test Post-test

3.5.5.Use of French

From the data below, one can see that the use of French decreased significantly from the pre-test to the post-test. During the experimental discussions, emphasis was placed on the importance off finding other ways of conveying the sense of what one is trying to say when the specific word does not come to mind straight away. As discussed earlier on in this study, the particularity of spoken interaction is that exchanges are quick and there is little time to think, let alone spend time searching for the perfect translation of a word or expression. To add to this, the natural reflex for most students, especially when they are communicating in a classroom environment with other native-speakers of their language, is to revert back to their native-language in order to convey meaning quickly and continue with the conversation. Many students undoubtedly feel that the 'safest' option is to revert to their native-language for any word or expression that poses a problem rather than making a mistake in English and loosing face in front of their classmates. Indeed, the prospect of loosing face may be one of the reasons that students feel a lack of confidence when taking part in discussions. This is therefore a significant area for any language teacher to work on with their students. It is necessary to explain to learners that in the social environment outside of the classroom, they will not always be able to rely on their mother tongue to convey meaning. However, it is also important to provide learners with practice in techniques that allow the non-native speaker to circumvent a situation where he/she cannot find the precise word or expression. Such techniques include finding a synonym or an antonym, or explaining the meaning of the word using other words and expressions. One possible explanation for this significant decrease in the use of French is that the students made more of an effort to bypass any difficult words or expressions by finding a different way of saying it by relying on the lexical baggage that they do have rather than immediately switching to French. Another possible explanation may be that the students had practiced communicating with the same people on three separate occasions between the pretest and post-test and they may have therefore gained in confidence and become more comfortable with their conversation partners. This may mean that they felt less of a need to hide any gaps in the lexical baggage as they were no longer as concerned about loosing face in front of their classmates.

As a result, it seems important to provide learners with regular interaction practice in order for them to gain confidence in their ability to make themselves understood. This should in turn have the effect of reducing their need to revert back to their mother tongue, whilst also enabling them to mobilise a wider range of lexical knowledge by constantly calling upon their lexical baggage to enable them to convey meaning.

3.5.6.Unfinished sentences

The results displayed in the chart below show that between the pre-test and the post-test, the number of sentences left unfinished decreased by 52%. The number of sentences left unfinished in a discussion may be indicative of a lack of awareness amongst the discussion members concerning the need to respect everybody's speaking time and not interrupt each other. During the experimental discussions, the students were made aware of the difficulty faced by some people participating in group discussion tasks to have their say. Some students volunteered to explain to the group that sometimes they struggle to fully express their point of view in discussion tasks because other students dominate the discussion and occasionally interrupt others when they are speaking. This was a significant moment for students to reflect on their own attitude during discussion tasks and the reduction in the number of unfinished sentences may be the fruit of this reflection.

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3.5.7.Confidence in communicative tasks

The results from the questionnaires filled-in by the students reveal an interesting snapshot of the level of confidence felt by each student in different types of group communication activities before and after they were trained in the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies'. The aim of training the students in the use of these strategies was on the one hand to provide them with the necessary strategies to become competent communicators and on the other hand to build their confidence in communicative situations.

The results from the questionnaire filled-in by the students prior to the start of the discussion tasks, show that highest levels of confidence were felt in pair work tasks and that the lowest levels of self-confidence were felt in whole class discussions. The students were asked to rate their levels of confidence for four different types of discussion activities: pair work, groups of 4 or 5, groups of 11 or 12 and whole group (23 students). The options to rate their confidence were: very confident, quite confident, not very confident and serious lack of confidence.

Combining the results for 'very confident' and 'quite confident' we can see that students felt the most self-confidence during discussion activities where there were less group members, notably in pair work, groups of 4 or 5 students or groups of 11 or 12 students.

These results demonstrate that the general level of self-confidence amongst students in this class is generally high, though a certain number of students feel a lack of self-confidence, particularly in whole class discussions. It is also interesting to note that one student recorded a 'serious lack of confidence' in three group types: pair work, groups of 11 or 12 and whole ! 32 class activities and another student recorded a 'serious lack of confidence' in whole class activities. Though these two students are a minority compared to the rest of the class, it is essential from a teacher's point of view to enable these students to build their self-confidence in communicative activities because as we have seen in the previous sections of this study, it is through communication with peers that students progress in language learning. Therefore one can assume that increased confidence in communicative tasks would equate to increased levels of participation and as a result increased progress made in language acquisition.

In terms of levels of self-confidence in communicative activities, the hypothesis was that training students in the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' would lead to higher levels of self-confidence when communicating in pair work and group activities with 4 or 5 students. This hypothesis was made on the basis that the experimental discussion activities were to be carried out in groups of 3 to 4 students and based on the fact that the students recorded higher levels of confidence in smaller group discussion tasks. In concrete terms, this would mean higher recordings of 'very confident' and 'quite confident' and fewer recordings of 'not very confident' and 'serious lack of confidence'. However, levels of self-confidence were not expected to rise in communicative activities involving groups of 11 or 12 students or the whole class due to the fact that students were not particularly trained for this during the experimental stage of this study and that the experimental stage lasted a relatively short period of 3 weeks. A further hypothesis, untested in this study, would predict that over a longer period of time, levels of self-confidence would also improve in larger group activities due to the fact that students would have more opportunities to practice the interaction strategies in different group configurations.

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Post-test confidence questionnaire

The results from the questionnaire filled-in by the students after having received training in the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' show that students generally felt an increased level of self-confidence in each of the group configurations between the pre-test and post-test questionnaire. When we combine the results for 'very confident' and 'quite confident', they have not changed drastically compared to the pre-test results in the pair work, groups of 4 to 5 and groups of 11 to 12 configurations. The students still felt the most selfconfidence with these types of configurations for discussion activities, in other words, in groups where there were less group members. This also shows that globally, those who felt 'quite confident' prior to the experimental activities, either stayed in this bracket or increased their level of confidence to 'very confident'. However, it is interesting to note that the number of students who recorded 'very confident' increased in each category, equating to a 24% increase compared to the results recorded in the pre-test questionnaire.

In general terms the number of students who recorded 'not very confident' decreased by 20% and the number of students who recorded a 'serious lack of confidence' decreased by 50% between the pre-test and post-test questionnaire. Even though the experimental activities were based on relatively small groups of 3 or 4 students, the levels of confidence recorded for 'whole class' discussion activities was also affected with the number of students who recorded 'not very confident' in this category decreasing by 28% even though the number of students who recorded a 'serious lack of confidence' remained the same.

It is therefore possible to suggest that giving students the opportunity to take part in discussion tasks in small groups will not only have a positive effect on their level of confidence when communicating in this type of activity but it will also have a positive impact on their levels of confidence when participating in whole class discussions. This is significant given that language teachers often struggle to encourage certain students to participate in whole class discussions and it is true that a whole school year can pass with certain students having spoken only a handful of times in whole class situations. From the results of this study, a possible solution to this problem has become apparent and that is to favour small group discussions to help such students gradually build their levels of self-confidence before gradually integrating them into whole class discussions.

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Conclusion

This study has focussed on the impact of teaching the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies' on students' ability to participate in classroom interaction and the effect of this on their level of self-confidence in interaction tasks.

It has become clear throughout this study that interaction has an essential role to play in the language acquisition process. Indeed, it is thanks to regular interaction that learners are able to practice and verbalise their knowledge of the language and acquire a degree of spontaneity by proceduralizing information and freeing up the mind for more complex communication strategies.

With the increased focus on interaction in current teaching methods, one of the key aims is to enable learners to become autonomous users of the language, who are able to communicate in any situation without the assistance of their teacher. This poses a significant challenge for language teachers as they must inevitably take a step back and hand over a certain amount of control to their students. It is necessary to find ways of moving from teacher-student exchanges to student-student exchanges in group activities whilst ensuring that coherence, cohesion and accuracy are maintained in the interaction tasks without the teacher's guidance.

One way of solving this dilemma is to train learners in the 'Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies'. This study has found that once learners have been trained to understand and use these strategies the coherence, cohesion and accuracy of their discussions are significantly improved. In terms of coherence, learners respond more directly to the points of view expressed by the other participants in the discussion and therefore link their own opinions and points of view to what has come before on a more regular basis. Concerning cohesion, learners increasingly seek to include the other participants in the discussion by asking their opinion or for more information about their point of view. Accuracy in the discussion is also improved as learners auto-correct their errors and inter-correct errors made by the other participants on a more regular basis.

These results are significant as they prove that with training in these strategies, language teachers can hand over control and give learners increased autonomy whilst maintaining comprehensible and productive discussions. By placing learners in charge of managing the interaction activity, from monitoring the circulation of speech to helping each other to improve accuracy, learners become increasingly autonomous and accustomed to the skill of constructing meaning in conversations in the foreign language. The results also show that by taking part in regular interaction tasks their self-confidence increases in small-group tasks and that this also has an effect on the self-confidence of some students in whole class interaction. This suggests that it is essential for language teachers to provide learners not only with opportunities to take part in student-centred interaction, but also to provide them with training in the Skilled Use of Interaction Strategies in order to ensure more comprehensible input and more coherent, cohesive and accurate discussions.

Although the training did not result in an increase in overall participation, it did produce more interactive and comprehensible participation which signifies that the learners did not simply participate for the sake of it but that they participated in order to respond to and ! 35 interact with their peers. It is possible that the small number of students concerned by this study was not sufficient to draw clear conclusions on the use of interaction strategies and their benefits. Therefore it would be interesting to extend this study to a larger number of learners in order to solidly confirm these findings. The relatively short timeframe for this study may have also had an effect on the results. Increasing the time period in order to review the strategies with the learners on more than one occasion and during different discussion tasks would have potentially increased the learners' use of the interaction strategies as they would have gained the habit of employing them more automatically over a period of time.

It is also worth noting that this study was carried out in what may be classed as a privileged school environment where a certain number of students have the opportunity to practice their English outside of school with private English tutors or during trips to Englishspeaking countries. It is possible to suggest that as a result, some of the students may be more at ease taking part in discussions in a foreign language than would be the case in a less privileged school setting. It would therefore be interesting to carry out the same study in a different setting with students whose main access to the foreign language is through the time they spend in the classroom. This would allow for a conclusion to be made on whether the strategies acquired in class are responsible for any improvements to the quality of interaction.

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Annexes Annexe 1: Pre-test transcription (Group 1)

Student A: Today think err website would like too much information about us and we don't know how to use it how they use it and so I think it's a problem today Student B: ermm I don't think I don't think it's a problem because ermm je sais pas when you post something you know that it's not err err effacable Student A: yes but in a normal website not err social media social err je sais pas quoi they want a lot of information that if you don't give to us they Student B: yes but you you are not too you are not to give them to give to them because it's not, c'est pas obligatoire Student A: oui mais en anglais quoi All laughing Student C: Facebook is a problem because we don't suppress the the the photo Student B: we can't we can't Student C: yes but erm whole of the people can err look the image or for example Snapchat is a is a good err website because err is only err 40 45 no 24 hour yes good Student C: right yes but err All laughing Student A: allez Student D: I think err people have the right to privacy because even if they don't have something to hide they have the right to to keep err some information for themself Student C: yes err, yes all of the people have the right to privacy err because ermm All laughing Student C: no vas-y continue Student B: I think we all agree that criminal have to keep their privacy so so go to the next question Student A: but if the privacy can help the police to close Student D: the case Student A: the case Student B: no mais c'est pas Student A: you can use it Student B: on passe à la question suivante, err I think that even if we don't do anything wrong or illegal we should need privacy because there is some information we maybe want to hide and err it's normal to have privacy if All laughing Student A: but but ok keep going go All laughing Student A: I think if we are in a public place we are we can't have privacy today because for example with security cameras they are everywhere but we didn't chose them but they are in the road there are a lot of security camera and I think err they are too lots Student B: do you think it will be more err it will be more it will be nice that they will be er less cameras in the public place? Student B: So we are going to talk about privacy and if you if we think that we have enough or not enough privacy Student A: so the first question is do you think websites like Facebook take away too much of our privacy? I personally think that the Facebook is taking too much of our privacy to to give us too much advertise or publicity they want to track to track what we do on the Internet so it's too much I think Student B: yes Student D: I agree Student C: we don't have a privacy anymore the website use our information less our consentment and we can't do anything to stop that Student A: yes Student B: yes so use Facebook Student A: I think that the biggest problem is Google because we all have because we all need to have a Google account because Student D: yes Student A: on the internet it's you have to do that but in the rule that we have to agree to create an account there is so many things that you accept but you didn't Student D: yes Student A: that's very a very big problem. So do you think people have the right to privacy how about convicted criminal? Student D: Attendez en fait j'ai pas compris, ah on répondre à la deuxième Student B: En fait on a pas besoin de répondre à toutes les questions. Elle a dit qu'on a pas besoin de répondre à toutes les questions Student A: T'es pas obligé de répondre à la question mais Student D: Ah alright. I think I think there is too much, I restart Student B: Ok Student D: I think there is there is too much… Ah j'arrive pas à parler ça me soule, there is too much security cameras or too much Student A: ah tu réponds à … Student D: ouais ouais mais je réponds à … too much security camera or too much like website that comment dire that err … there is too much websites that know our privacy things Student B: the face yes but the name it's important to people to civil people so they know who who did that and imagine what the criminal are alive after do after destroyed the twin towers in New York City. We can the government are obli, obli, oblige Student A: obliged Student B: obliged to show to all the people that he did that person did that so Student A: yes I think we can show his face to be safe about him but I think we cannot give him a name because sometimes people will want to to do bad things to the family and sometimes the families for nothing about these people about the criminal and Student B: in that case don't give the family name but just the name Student A: yes just the name but not the family name because sometimes people want to revenge on the family and they are for nothing so Student D: I'm not totally agree because if we give the family name of the people we can find the family of these people because there are a lot of people who are named the same Student A: yes but sometimes if you say for example it's Herman and and his family name and town where he lived it's very easy to find the person on Facebook with your face so yes I think sometimes it's more difficult but I think when someone is very angry and determined to avenge it's very easy for him to find the person and become Student B: but imagine at this moment you lost your parents and your brother so you are completely alone without family so we just do one thing chase this man and do the same thing to revenge Student C: yes I've never think about that but I think it's very interesting to during the trial for the criminal to be anonymous because sometimes comment on-dit "avocat"? Student A: lawyer Student B: a lawyer, it's the same as they're a convicted criminal so everyone can have this right to privacy even if you have a problem problems with justice Student A: but sometimes we have to to look at the privacy of the criminals to understand the murder for example but but should not be published (at the same time : Student B: of course, yes) Student B: that's a good idea Student A: yeah yeah what do you think Student C? Student D: I think that important to to follow what do convicted criminals even if this is not good for the for their privacy and and because if they don't have anything to worry about I don't see why it would be a problem Student C: I think the criminal have the the right to privacy All laughing Student A: yes yes Student C: there are people like us and it's not it's not the do criminal act if their life are revealed ! 48 Student A: yes but everyone has secrets fin even us we are not criminals but Student B: on ne sait pas All laughing Student B: I think yes fin even criminals may choose if what they have done can be published in public and fin I think they have the right to be anonymous like in medias and things like this Student C: they are their life are published every in the world so they are famous but in the bad sense Student A: the crime is that the media changed the reality Student B: yes fin not always but I understand yes Student C: and their image are bad Student A: yes because we don't good things about someone who killed other people Student B: but maybe in the medias we can say like the situation and say and ask people so Student C: maybe it was an accident All laughing Student A: if it's an accident they are not criminals Student C: yes Student B: yes but Student A: technically Student B: but maybe they can be anonymous during the the trial because if they are found not guilty they if the medias have talken about this affair before they have found not guilty maybe people thinks they are guilty but at the end they are maybe not so they have this image even if they are not guilty or fin maybe it's not clear Student A: maybe yeah maybe the media should publish the privacy of the criminals only after the if they are sure that they are really criminals Student D: yeah yes so third question Student A: everyone needs to have their privacy Student C: yeah I think everyone do has the privacy oui the privacy because if it's not we are if je sais pas comment dire en anglais là and yes even if it's we don't do anything wrong or illegal you can maybe some people say everything like in social media but other people want to stay some fin stay their little secret just their life for them so ! 49 Student C: it's not interesting for the other know your life Student B: yes Student C: in the details or know what you do in your home Student D: yes but when the police has to investigate it has to so erm so I think the privacy is important but err it has limits Student C: yes but the police err can err can have every elements Student D: I mean I mean if you are victim today I don't think you have not already been a victim but I think if you are victim you can't you want that people be inspected because here today we say no they should have their privacy but when you're a victim you say no they shouldn't they have to be follow Student A: yes but it depends for example everyone don't care if machin is cheating on his wife that's not important Student B: important yes Student D: yes Student A: it's important if he killed someone but if he err Student D: yes yes of course Student B: if he killed someone the police may question him and things like that so Student A: yes but err he Student B: they investigate on him but there is reasons and err they will find hints and things like this if you don't want to talk Student A: yes but he won't tell the truth Student B: yes so that's why they need to find things and Student C: and after is the choice of the person if she wants take her life on the Internet or not Student A: no one wants fin no one wants to see their life published in the social media Student C: yes yes Student A: except the star All laughing Student B: But fin in the question it say if you're not doing anything wrong or illegal so in this case there is no problem of someone killing someone so I think Student A: Yes but All laughing Student D: ok next question four, should there be more or less security cameras around cities? Student B: so I think it's quite complicated Student C: I think more because today we live in a very dangerous world and err we need security cameras Student D: I agree Student A: I agree Student B: I agree yes Student A: bye bye ! 50 Student B: Ok so we're going to talk about privacy err I think we should begin by answering the first question so what do you think do you think that websites like Facebook text to the next takes away too much of your privacy? Student A: I think that when you subscribed to Facebook you know that you don't have privacy because all the data is stockage is stocked in in like big data stockage Student B: yeah I agree but I think we should we are all aware that Facebook is something public so we should just take care of what we post on social media Student C: yes I think that the privacy it's that we choose what we want to post and to expose Student D: yes but I think it's normal not all the person should could see what we post on social media because we are we have all a life comment dire 'intime'? Student B: we all have intimacy Student D: intimacy and we don't want normally that all the people world could see what we post on social media Student B: yes and what do you think about children using social media? because they are younger so maybe they don't know the risk of using the internet Student A: maybe that's the parents problem because they introduce them to social media Student B: well personally I didn't ask my parents when I entered in Facebook and I was young so we really don't know fin when we're young we don't know that everyone can see we don't know it's dangerous to post everything and each place we are we post it so Student D: yes I think we should show to young people that they are at risk on social media because maybe they can do wrong wrong thing and it is and it could be it maybe no it could be a problem for the future maybe when when they when they would like to to found a job or something like that because they are on web so we could find find them Student B: yes I think you should be more campaign about dangerous part of the internet because even in cyber harcèlement I don't know if you say it like that but we should have more campaign about the fact that posting everything on social media is dangerous when we are younger and we don't know that it will be in a future Student C: yes I am agree we can answer to the second question. do you think people have the right to privacy, how about convicted criminals? Student B: I think we are all human and we all need to have privacy because it's nothing to do with the fact that we are criminals has nothing to do with privacy Student D: I don't know if we could ask this question because it seems evident photo rest all of our life of all of your life and it was dangerous because we don't suppress the pictures Student B: yes but you can post the photo that you want you are not it's not an obligation to post photos Student C: yes but it was possible it was an error of the jeunesse Student D: of your young years Student A: ok so I think Student D: I disagree with you because you are keeping all the pictures even the ones that have been deleted from the account and I think a lot of people Student A: who are you? who are you? Student D: I'm a victim of bullying and I think a lot of people can get really mean on social media and it's a lot easier to criticise people behind eh comment dit "un écran"? Student B: a screen Student D: a screen Student A: I think Internet has for example if we take Instagram Laeticia Halliday with famous posts some photos and in the heritage process they will take a role in it Student C: I don't understand sorry can you repeat please? Student A: I think Instagram pictures can we make can have I don't know how to express myself Student B: ok, to respond to the victim everything we put on the internet cannot be delete even if it's not on social media because everyone can err can keep it and so social media are not the problem Student D: yes it is because there is no control like what people are saying, you don't put some limits on it and even if you put some there's a lot of things that are said and everyone can't agree of what they're posting on it Student C: yes she is traumatized Student A: but I think there are some benefits of the Internet. for myself I win money with this there are benefits and I think I spend around 30 hours by week on the internet and if we compare this to a normal job, it's the same time so so I think it's ! 54 Student B: it's not related to this subject Student A: Yes but I'm a blogger and I would like to give my point of view on the internet. Student B: What do you think of the haters that are anonymous and that critic criticise you like the victim said? Student D: yes there's a lot of mean comments Student A: yes but I would like to give good picture and so some are not agree with what I do and maybe there is a link with the money that I win because I win a lot of money with this and I think there are problems it's a new job the blogger and and there are problems with this Student B: I win more money that you Student A: yes but you created social media so you profit from this Student B: I think Student C hasn't spoken enough Student C: yes and my daughter my daughter uses social media always and her marks was were bad and I know that social media Student D: yes I think there's a lot of impact on marks and everything with Internet but I also think there's a good point of it we say about it I don't know people are responsible for themselves or their children Student A: I think it's really like an addiction to anything else like tobacco or alcohol but we don't yet think of it as a real addiction so we don't treat it like a disease but it is a disease Student C: but you know it's not a real addiction I mean I real diction like when someone is a real junkie when you take his things out of him he becomes like obsessed but you can take the phone off of an adolescent Student A: but you didn't see my (inaudible) Student C: oh yes he may have some comportmental problems Student A: no I think it can be a real addiction it's not really chemical like an addiction to tobacco or something that's the same thing they are dependent Student C: but a lot of doctor worked on it and it's like 1% of the users of phones are addicted to it it's not this much Student A + Student C: (inaudible) Student C: I finish I finish I finish it's like yes people like to use it and they want it back but it's not a real addiction they spend a lot of time on it but it's not really addiction Student A: no it really can be. take the question in another way how many people of all the smokers are addicted to tobacco? Student C: I don't know Student A: yeah very few people and not any people who smokes can stop but addiction is a disease that can touch any part of their life tobacco as much as phones Student C: yes yes I don't say the contrary. Student C: they don't risk a complain Student B: I agree with you but I also think it can help some childs because there are like I don't know a blog who talk about some difficult subjects and the child can whinge and it can help him to feel better Student A: and we do all we can to protect you from the people like that because we offer you something to block these people and they will not be able to tell you any more. you can also make your profile private so they will not be able to talk to you anymore. Student C: I agree in this part because I love the social network, it permits you to be connected and to talk to some friends but since I'm a victim of bullying I've changed my mind (correction phono my mind) because it's difficult to to be the victim of many people Student A: but that's not the fault of the Internet it's a real life you can be bullied but it's the same but would you like to kill the people that bully you because they are bullying you like deleting their account Student C: but in the real life the people have a name so I can go to the police to to arrest them but in the net in the online bullying the harceller are not protected because they don't have a name I don't have a person I can talk Student A: on the Internet the name is the IP address so you can attack someone that is bullying you you just have to go to the police and say that someone is bullying you Student C: but when but when lots of people are bullying you, you can't recherche every the whole address IP because it's too many Student A: but if you're not going to the police it's your fault not ours Student B: no I think it's not his fault because you are being bullied but you can't say that it's internet's fault because it's the internet isn't like a person so it's not the Internet who bullied you it's the people behind the phone or whatever they are using who are lying so the problem is not with social media or anything like that and it can help some people Student A: and the problem is not Facebook Laughing Student B: Yeah Student C: I think some laws have to be created to protect the social network from these Student C: The Internet has had mostly negative effects on our Society? Student A: ok so for teenage Internet can have benefits or dangerous because they can have a lot of information and a lot of correct information but they can also have lots of fake information and that can like make the teenage make a mistake or Student B: but you can find what you want so for your children who have a lot of work with school they just have to use the internet go to a website like Wikipedia or another and they can find what they want Student A: no yes but I disagree because I think that they can have a lot false false information on Wikipedia because some people I'm not qualified to inform to put information on that website and everybody can put it whenever they want so it's better to use like school books or books in general Student C: yes, I agree but it's easier to use Internet Student B: yeah, yes Student D: For me social media can be sometimes dangerous but if everybody use it correctly it can be good for the society Pause Student A: I think that teenage spend too much time on social media because they don't only spend time for homework or things like that they spend time on social media and not only on the Internet Student C: yes but it can help us to escape a little bit from school and Student A: yes but some became addict I think some teenage don't manage to don't be addict and they spend too much time on social media and Internet Student C: and maybe their parents should Student A: yes but sometimes Student C: punish them a little bit Student A: yes I agree but sometimes they don't agree and they became aggressive when you told when you forbid them to go and social media and Student C: yeah Student B: but the Internet is very useful like all the children and the people can speak to each other comment tu-dis "grace"? Student A: thanks Student B: thanks thanks to blog, website like Facebook, messenger Student C: yes and we can make some friends relationships some relationships create some relationship vous m'écoutez? Student D: I'm agree with you thanks to social media we can make friends so we are not alone in the real life Student D: about age restrictions I think that it's not good because if we do it if we put age restriction on a website if people want to s'inscrire want to be part of this social media they can lie on his age so it's not useful Student C: yes that's true and this is not about the age but the maturity Student A: oh yes but and moreover I think that some people can be pulled in social media because sometimes people are very mean behind a phone or thing like that but in front of the people they don't say anything and some people can really be pulled in from ! 61 Student B: excuse me but there are age restrictions because parents who don't do their job, yes because if the parents are a little bit authority they can forbid to their children that you don't go to Facebook or you don't use Snapchat I don't know but Student D: I don't agree with you because if the children want to go in social media he go on it, the parents have no have no ils n'ont pas de Student C: no right Student D: ils n'ont pas de Student A: pas d'impact Student C: oui voilà Student A: no effect Student D: yes no effect on this decision Student C: yes it is not always the fault of our parents it's also us and maybe if you up your security it can be cool Student A: yes and even sometimes when parents are very authority sometimes their child can hide their social media or something like that so sometimes even if the parents do their best they can't always be behind the children mumbling in French Student D: I'm agree so I think social media can have benefique and negative effects in my opinion they have negative effects but the fact is we have to use it correctly Student C: yes in fact social media are not dangerous but there's always some bad people that use it Student B: social media are not dangerous if if if if excuse me if the parents do the great job if the parents are behind their children so that the children can't do comment on-dit "bétisse"? can do a lot of bad thing of social media so it's a job of parents Student A: I don't agree because I think that sometimes teenage they have they can't always have their parents behind them and sometimes the parents they can hide from their parents so I think the Internet have danger like teenage can be bullied or something like that they can have benefits because it's very easy to have access to information and all of that ! 62

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Student A: So we will today talk about the social media and their danger and the benefits. So in my example my son, genre comment on-dit, passe trop son temps? Student B: spend Student A: spends all his time social media Student B: on Student A: on social media so that's why I restrict him to only two hours a day on social media Student B: ok I'm the boss of a large social media website and I think that every parent should restrict the time spent on social media and it's not our job to control their kids Student C: I agree with you, I spend a lot of time on social media but I think it's a good thing because I can tell my ideas and I can and I can share with people and I am happy with this Student D: I think social media are a good thing but we should do we should care about the person who Student B: people Student D: people who are a victim of bullying online because it's it's like a crime I think Student A: I totally agree because my son have is one of them, like you, like you were and I said him to totally supprime his account and create a new one with more specific settings Student B: yes I agree with you because yes because we can like choose people who go on a social media because we don't know their personality so if they're bad people then the victim should just erase the account and create a new one we can control that kind of things Student C: I think it's the responsibility of the people people should post er be Student D: careful Student B: yeah careful Student C: be careful of what they post and and it's their responsibility Student D: yes I agree I think it's to the people to make to be careful of what they did because it's not the social media who who will change the things I think it's to the people to just post intelligent things and not and not bad things Student B: that's true because we must not forget that social media is something informatic it's not something real so the real problem is the humans and the people that are on social media and not the platform in itself Student C: yes I agree me for example I I post I I pay attention Student A: on Student C: on what I post and it's my responsibility and I think it's it's good Student B: yes I think the problem is not the social media and we should maybe campaign not for preventing the dangers of social media but to learn to teach people how to protect themselves Student A: that's true there is a lot of people that don't know what is a social media in itself because they are like totally like old people can't see their wall like in Facebook and that's not normal because he wants to have a little privacy but if you don't do what it's for privacy then you won't have it Student B: yes you should be careful of the settings like some people for example my mum don't know that her Facebook page is on private or public so like when you answer on social media the social media should warn you that your are in public so that everybody can see and search you on research bar and find you or it's in a private and only your friends or people you accept can see your page ! 63 Student D: yeah but I think it's social media should say people that that social media are not a private thing because I think social media are never private Student B: it's true and maybe the social media like should be more should more talk about bullying bullying cases because a lot of us think about it as a myth and not and we don't know and we don't understand that there's a lot of people that are suffering because of this and we should be more aware of cases like the victim here Student A: that's true because that you know when someone start to bullying you you can just blacklist him or just report him to the system so he can be banned or something like this Student D: yes but I think sometimes it's too late even if you if you ban him your private Student B: life Student D: life can be published on the internet so Student A: so we need more specific rules then you can attack him in justice Student B: yes that's why my entreprise will fight for this cause Student D: yes but I think sometimes it's just absolute or Student A: yeah but you can the IP of the guy Student C: I think you can find information about him Student D: yes but you should learn to people and particularly children that it that you can do something when you're bullying Student B: yes I think police officers should take this this things more in serious because it's going to affect psychologic mentally the people who are bullied and it's a thing that is so important in the 21st century because we are in the era of the technological advancement Student C: yes Student B: yes very good goodbye ! 64

Annexe 12: Post-test transcription (Group 6) Student A: Ok since my son has his phone he's always on it he don't he doesn't want to speak to us anymore he's always on social media speaking to his friends and it's really bad and he doesn't sleep anymore Student C: The danger with social media is to be victims of online bullying and it's not a good thing, I am suffer I was very bad when it's arrived Student B: but of course everyone needs to limit himself and to don't spend too much time on his phone and things like this it's not because of social media it can be the same with video games or even with reading Student A: yes but the teenagers are always on my phone on the weekend or on the dinner always they can't leave their phone Student B: No Student D: yeah I am agree Student A: I agree Student D: I agree, they do sport and they broke their leg. This is dangerous. Student B: it's dangerous Student A: if they are sporty they can be in good health Student C: so I want to say something, before I am victim of online bullying I was every time on my phone and all social media Student A: this is a good example Student C: yeah yeah but after I was a victim of online bullying stop my phone to use social media Student A: I think it's a little bit late Yes yes but it's a shock in your life when you stop everything and my case it is an example for your son and it's Student A: maybe Student D: but it can arrive as it arrives in the real life. Student B, the blogger Student B: Yes I wanted to say that because bullying exists in real life and in social media and so maybe if you are a victim of bullying in real life yes it's not a good thing, social media are not always a good thing because they can be something more in your bullying but it's not I think it's not the social medias that create your bullying Student A: it might it must if for example you're on a website to meet someone you can speak to someone that you've never seen and Student B: but you don't need to do that, you don't have to talk to strangers Student A: yes but a lot of people do that and my son maybe so so perhaps he's talking to an old woman Student D: so concretely do you think that to answer the question the internet has had a mostly negative effect on our society? Student A: yes Student C: yes yes Student D: How can you say that when you have Instagram? Student A: I want to publish to my followers to show to my son and my daughter my plantation Student B: it's really cool that's a good point in the debate Student A: I'm private you know Student B: yes but everyone can be private in social medias Student A: yes but only the old people are in private Student D: yes but I think in social media there is dangerous people so if you publish your garden or everything the people dangerous can find you your home and your garden Student A: it's only my garden with two follower, I speak for the young people for the teenagers who have around 7 no 700 followers Student D: you know all the people who are following you? ! 66 Student B: yes Student D: all the people? it depends if you're in public everybody can follow you Student A: it might be a bullier Student B: yes but you can choose if you want to be private or not so if you don't want to be to have a private account it's your choice Student D: yes but in all the websites you can you can say if they if there is somebody that hurt you that insults you that do does something that is not nice to you and that's really easy you just have to click on something and that's ok he disappear off your account Student B: yes you can block and err Student A: yes that's true but it's not good Student D: yes Student B: I know there is I know there can be dangers in the Internet but if you be are careful you can limit them and it's the same to be obsessive Student A: but it's not only about the danger I think it's also about the addiction Student B: yes like it's the same you can you must limit yourself, it's the same for Student A: yes if you spend a lot of time on your computer, you're a blogger, it's difficult to say no Student B: but before the computer it was for example the TV but now there is Student A: yes but it's an addiction, it's the same thing Student B: yes Student C: I think the blogger can more video of the social media of the risk of the social media because a lot of young people are following you and you it's prevention of the danger Student B: Attends tu as dis quoi au début Student C: you are a blogger and you can you can do make video about the risks the dangers of the internet for it's a prevention for the young people because there were a lot of problems Student B: but he doesn't think there are a lot of danger because he is a blogger Student C: yes but there are people who are victim of bullying like me and talk about my cause it's a good thing for give an example at the other young people Student D: yes but it's not because sometimes there are problems on the on the internet that we have to delete it or criticise it because that's such a good a good revolution in our society everybody should be happy and like in real life it can arrive Student C: yes I agree with you but we can't live every time with the danger with the prevention but it's we can do prevention Student B: in the street you can call the police, the police officers Student D: yes but that's the same thing on websites Student B: yes but on the social media you don't you don '

  Student A: Security cameras are invading our daily lives. Do you know what I mean?

  Student A: How do you say …? Student B: You can say to protect your erm … Student C: Private life Student B: Yes, to protect your private life.

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  Student A: Criminals should have the right to be anonymous. Student B: They should have the right to keep their name and their image private.

Cultural objective :

 objective Issues surrounding the cloning of humans and animalsInteraction strategy: Managing the circulation of speech by seeking opinion or information all have 20 tokens, every time they participate they must put one token on the table.

Cultural objective :

 objective Issues surrounding smoking Interaction strategy: Improving accuracy by repairing in the form of auto-correction and interthe class into groups of 3 or 4 and give them the letter A/B/C/D, which corresponds to a specific role. Students must study the topic and brainstorm ideas in line with their role. Activity 2 Discussion activity 25 min Students A and B must listen to students C and D discussing the topic. Every time they hear a mistake, they must raise their red card. Students C and D must stop talking and try to correct the error. If they are unable to do so, students A and B must correct the mistake then the person who made the mistake must repeat the correct version before resuming the conversation. After 10 minutes, swap roles so that students C and D are in charge of correcting students A and B.

  Student A: lawyer Student C: lawyer can be Student B: aggressive Student C: like racism so they didn't judge him the right way Student A: yes Student D: I think when you're a criminal the privacy is something to win if you made something bad you lose the right to have privacy Student B: thank you ! 47 Student A: I don't think that websites like Facebook take away too much from fin of our privacy because you can choose what you publish and if someone published fin someone published a picture of yourself you can choose if you want to suppress this picture or not Student B: yes I agree because I think if you want to say nothing and post nothing you can so Student A: yes Student C: yes I agree too All laughing Student C: err yes I think the same because people can post what they want so they are not forced to show their private life Student A: yes and you can choose who can see you Student B: yes if you if you put your account in private or something like that Student C: yes that if someone take a picture of you and take your Facebook it's other you, if someone take a picture Student A: you can remove the picture Student B: yes I think you can I think you can signal the thing Student A: yes or suppress it Student B: so okStudent A: ok so ensuite Student D: second question Student B: do you think people have the the right to privacy, what about criminals? Student A: I think that all people have the rights to privacy Student D: convicted criminals? Student B: bah les criminels, genre ils sont soupçonnés Student D: Ah d'accord Student A: but mais even the criminals have the right to have the right to have privacy because they are human Student B: yes I think so too everyone can have this right and fin like in fin everyone can have … putain comment dire 'avocat' déjà?

  Student A: because you can Student D: comment on dit enquêter déjà Student A: Quoi ? Student D: enqueter? Student B: Ah j'ai oublié Student C: moi je veux dire que Student D: investigate Student B: Ah oui Student A: yes yes investigate Student C: c'est pas parce que … Student A: en anglais, en anglais Student C: c'est pas parce que tu n'as rien fait que tu ne peux pas avoir une vie privée parce que tout le monde … Student A: you can have your secret even if you are not doing anything wrong Student B:

  Student D: but err Student A: what happened? Student D: yes exactly what happened? because maybe that's part of your fault Student C: yes it's not my fault if I'm a victim of online bullying Student D: but what happened exactly because sometimes people are not enough careful and they they do things that they should not do on the web Student A: have you published pictures? Student D: like naked pictures Laughing Student C: not at all Student D: so what happened? Student C: insult me they insult me Student D: on which social media? Student A: why? Student C: because I don't know I can't I didn't do anything Student B: yes but I think she can't develop too much, it's not her history. I think if you are careful enough and you don't post too much things on your personal life and things like this you have no problem with social media Student A: you can choose to see your pictures Student B: Yes Student D: and I think I'm sorry but I think the web is an incredible thing and I'm just like sad to see that some people criticise websites and the web because you are not happy to live in a time you can know everything on one minute on the web you prefer to return to the old time and I'm sorry things like bullying can happen like it happened in the normal life so Student A: ok but Student C: yeah but someone can pirate your account and insult your friends and the your friends Student A: young people are too much on the social media they don't have fun they think that they have fun on the phone but in reality Student D: how old are you? Student A: what I can't say that Student D: sorry, around around Student A: No I can't say that Student D: I think you're around 50 so do you have social media? Student A: yes I have Instagram with two followers, my son and my daughter and I publish pictures of my Garden and it's a good thing Student D: so you don't really know if this is good or no if you just have two followers? Student A: yes I'm not too much on my phone I know when I have to speak with my family or ! 65

Overall use of Social-Interaction Strategies the

  . p. 206. use of the 'elaborating' strategy would decrease and that the use of the 'responding' strategy would in turn increase as the students received training in systematically responding to each other's comments and linking their productions to what came before in the discussion.

	Appealing for assistance	6	13
	Giving assistance		12	24
	0			24
		Pre-test	Post-test
	700
		344
		308
	0
		Pre-test	Post-test
	35
		! 27

Pre-test transcription (Group 2)

  38 Student A: no I think you want to keep you don't want to lose Student B: the same number as … Student A: for example in London there are a lot of cameras too lots they keep all of the little roads and all of this you you you you ahh comment dire? yeah, so, err … I agree, I think that we have a lot of security cameras and err even if it's good because if something happens we can see it like if there is a murder or a car accident we can see what's really happened but there is maybe too many of them in some place that we don't obviously need the cameras Student A: yeah but for example for the terrorist attack if you have camera they do what they are for is there are body in the street who can film with phone and err the security cameras Student A: Privacy privacy on Facebook what do you think? Student C: Yes I think that a Facebook and other sites like Google or or things like that they take too much of our privacy Student A: I agree I agree a lot Student B: but you can actually you can regulate how your privacy you can expose what you want that's actually Student A: yeah but for a moment you put something on the internet it can go anywhere Student C: yes and there are many older people who don't know how to use this website properly Student B: but when you sign up for Facebook you err any other information can be sold to anyone on Facebook Student B: but actually it's your fault if you are Student A: yes it is so that's why you shouldn't sign up on Facebook Student C: yes but when you sign in on Facebook you just want to I don't know stay connected with your family and after that they send your information to companies Student B: but in Facebook I'm not on Facebook but I think you can put err your err account in privacy or something Student A: the private mode is not like your information in private it's not showing to any people but it can still be sold by Facebook Student C: yes to companies that make ads or things like that 's not because you don't have anything to to reproach yourself that you should be watched all the time and you deserve to make things that you are only aware Student B: that would be weird if you are someone watching you every time you are making something doing something or Student A: it's weird, c'est malsain Student B: it's like security cameras around the cities do we think we should put more or less securities camera? Student C: I think I don't care about it what they do in the street it's never illegal or wrong or I don't do anything private on the street so Student A: since streets are public spaces I think we should have a bit more so we can find out more about crime or even just road accidents Student C: yes Student B: if we can help but if you put more it's actually expensive and it's it Student A: not too much not too much just at strategic points Student B: yeah but it's actually weird to be seen everywhere where you are even in cities it's Student C: yes but it's just on the streets so Student A: it's a public space so if you if someone wanted to trap you they could Student C: yes Student B: but I know it can help a lot of people to to prove something about I don't know if someone gets robbed Student C: yes Student A: yeah, do you think it helps a lot and there's no reason to class? Student C: yes Student A: I mean there may be no reason to put more there is even less reason to take back

	Student C: next question All laughing Student A: continue to security cameras what do you think Student C? Student C: err security camera it is a ermm a good thing because we look everything, comment dire in the rue? Student D: in the street Student C: yes yes yes in the street yes because is a bad thing because is a very err Student D: expensive Student C: yes expensive and yes it's not important to have it's not very important to have security cameras is in only street Student A: in every street Student C: in every street yes Student D: don't help err much Student B: no I think it help a lot Student A: why? Student D: and I think if there is a terrorist attack people don't go with their phone to film what is happening and maybe run or hide Student B: oui mais c'est pas ça Student C: yes I because err criminals I mean people in prison may not be criminals they may All laughing you think? Student A: network Student A: so about the right to privacy for any people and especially for criminals what do Student D: media Student A: you won't know and you won't be able to do anything about it Student A: I would like to talk about another problem of the privacy for err the social Annexe 2: Student A: yeah Student B: but if Facebook take one of your information err do we think that you are you will Student B: Oh Student A: so yeah I think we're finished Student A: no you won't Student C: ok Student A: A no no Pause be alarmed? Student A: itcameras Annexe 3:
	be imprisoned errr fin tu sais ils se sont trompés genre
	Student A: Oauis oauis mais non tu parles des gens là c'est prouvé, averé, irréfutable ils sont
	criminels
	Student C: yes yes
	Student A: I think we don't really have any privacy because they need to be watched
	Student B: yeah I think so
	Pause
	Student A: so if you're not doing anything wrong or illegal you shouldn't need any privacy do
	you agree or do you disagree?
	Student C: I totally disagree err I mean you may want to have some err private moments I
	don't know with your family your son or persons like that
	Student A: I agree
	Student C: some privacy
	! 39 ! 40 ! 41

Pre-test transcription (Group 3)

Pre-test transcription (Group 4)

  Facebook will analyse what you say on your profile page and they know what you like with that and they show you Student D: but Facebook won't published that Student B: no but they have it so Student A: they have it so then they use it to track you and to Student B: but you can't feel very private if you know that there are a lot of people on Facebook who know all of your information like your birthday I don't want Michelle de Facebook know that I'm born Student D: but I think well yes I agree Student A: you don't care about the data? Student D: not really Student B: ok we can talk about security cameras Student A: yes Student C: I think the security cameras I don't know what I can think about the security cameras because the next step is put a GPS in the skin a what ? to follow the people cool Student A: but in a way some of the ok in a way two security cameras is good too to look some crime Student B: I think it's good to have cameras but not a lot but to have one in the street or one in the shop it's good because there is always crimes or you can feel safe with a camera with a security camera Student A: I think that security cameras are something good if they are not in your house or All laughing Student A: but in the public space that's ok because what do you want what privacy do you want Student B: yes you don't have anything to hide so it's good and if you have something to hide Student A: but maybe if you are a criminal that can be Student B: yes but you have to be a little crazy or Student C: yes but Student D: there is not really things private in the street Student A: yes and genre like you it's very very difficult to hack the whole security cameras at once At the same time : Student C: and we don't know who have access to the camera At the same time : Student D: and know one wants to see see Student B: and yes that's true Student B: because like a company but we don't know the people but (Student A tries to interject) I've never been following at my home so it's ok Student A: but it can be in the future I think advertiser will use this information to track you in the street they are already trying to do that with with Wi-Fi Student B: OK Student A: they are tracking people around that have the Wi-Fi operated Student B: and yes you have Google and you've passed around like a museum or what and they send a message go to my museum it's cool All laughing Student B: it's a little creepy because they know where you're at and when Student D: and Snapchat with their Student B: with with the map you can see where Student D: yeah yeah the the the emoji they know when you are sad or happy Student B: and when you are on the bus on a plane and you when you were listening to music and all your friends can kinda see what you are doing before they they killed someone we can't or something else but we can't know if they are a criminal Student B: well yes but but yes but the question is after that he killed someone Student A: yes like when they're in prison Student B: bah but in prison you have to follow fin to follow to watch the criminals if fin ! 44 Student A: if yes if they have privacy they will be able to to like Student B: kill someone else or to escape or to do something bad so Student A: hm Student B: so after the prison they have the same right but in the prison er Student A: I think that privacy should be keep when you are not when people are not sure that you did something wrong but when you did something wrong and you are like in prison or something else you don't have to keep your privacy Student B: it's your fault if you did something bad so like Student A: but like really bad er Student B: yes if you still an apple ok but if you kill someone or je sais pas Student A: yes. So if you … tu as un truc à dire ou pas? Student C: bah err yes yes All laughing Student C: the present for the criminal it's like a new home so they need a privacy in this new home Student D: but yes yes a new home without with some things Student B: a new home with guardians and and gun it's not really a good home Student C: there is a guardian in the (inaudiable) Student B: So Student A, what do you think about websites and Facebook and your privacy? Student A: I think that it depends of the person who who use the website because sometimes people they can be in private so there are only their friends who can see their life so it's OK. What do you think? Student B: I agree with you, I agree with you Student C: I think that it's to the person who use it to define the lines to preserve her his private life Student A: Hmm Student D: I think you can lie to if you don't want to say or show privacy in Facebook Student A: yes and what do you think about the security cameras around the City? Student D: I think we should have more cameras but not a lot of this because it's for security for people Student B: yes but if we are more camera we are like in China and all the secret services can observe what we do at any moment so we don't have private life so I think it's perfect like this and we can still have our secret and don't people don't know all of our life Student A: yes I agree with Student B, I think good to have camera in private space like in stores or but not in public place because it's our private lives and we don't have to be watched all the time in the streets so it's better to secure securise space but not all of the cities Student C: yes and last year we studied this topic with my class and sometimes there is there are too much cameras on the streets Student B: yes, so do you do you think anything is wrong or illegal or not? Student A: no Student B: so do you think you should you shouldn't need privacy life yes or not? Student C: no we have to have privacy life because even if we don't do anything illegal we have some, I don't know some things we want to keep for us Student B: I agree I agree Student A: yes because even we have nothing to hide we can have a private life and it's not a big deal but ok Student D: what do you think about privacy for criminals, Student B? Student B: I think all the people that are criminals or civil people should have privacy but even if the criminal can can do what they want they have to to, comment on-dit 'observer'? Student A + Student C: to observe Student B: They have to observe and I think the government can no shouldn't know what they do and who they are so they have so they can have a privacy life but they are very limited I think Student A: yes I think for example that if a criminal came out to jail and after he is observed after by the police because after we can see if he learn in prison what what were his mistakes or not and if you want and if you wants to do it again or not Student B: very good Student A: and do you think that during a trial the criminal have to be anonymous or not?

	Student D: voila
	Student A: hmm Student D: like Facebook. But I think if you if we used a good like if we don't say our our birthday or things like that Student A: but Student D: then we don't know Student A: but the problem isn't that, they are just tracking what you do on the Internet like when you are searching something on Google or going to some website Student D: But Student A: they know what you want to see so they track you so they know what are you Student C: even Facebook for example is closed Student B: yes but like Facebook will always know Student A: Student B: a problem yes Student A: so do you think that people Student C: yes but for the security camera if yes is someone with bad attention intention he can follow you your movement yes but Student B: Oo la At same time : Student C: yes and it's not a good thing At same time : Student B: not everyone can access to camera Student C: but they can operate it Student B: what? Student A: hack it Student A: it's a privacy killer Student B: oh lala All laughing Student A: yes, so do you think people have the right to privacy, how about convicted criminals? Student C: err the criminal criminals still be a man Student A: hmm Student C: so we he have the same not right because he have he do something err Student B: bad Student C: bad … but he have still erm still to "garder" Student B: keeps Student C: to keep his Student B: privacy Student C: privacy Student A: I think not because criminals can take life from people so why should we let them their privacy? Student D: but Student B: hm Student D: but Student B: ok bye Annexe 4: Student C: Oh Student B: ah you are in private Student B: oh ok Student B: like his face? Student D: yes Student B: like not everybody can see what you post Student C: hack it Student A: yes or the name
	! 42 ! 43 ! 45 ! 46

Post-test transcription (Group 1)

  Student B + Student C: Yes yes Student A: but I think it's not a right to have privacy it's what you do that gives you privacy Student B + Student C: Yes yes Student D: Yes of course All laughing Student B: next question if you're not doing anything wrong or illegal you shouldn't need privacy do you agree or disagree why? Student C: I am disagree because we we have to choose if we how our privacy if not because we are not doing something wrong or you are not in your you can't have privacy Student B: yes I think they since between are right and what we shouldn't do like we shouldn't do something illegal even on the internet but we still need privacy because it's our right as citizens ! 51 Student D: yes yes I agree Student A: for me it's normal if you doing nothing wrong I don't know why you need privacy to hide it because it's a good thing Student D: but maybe we don't want to show what we do and what we post on the internet so Student B: I mean if you kill someone you wouldn't post on the internet first of all it's illegal and then many people would be shocked so it don't know it's privacy not really privacy if you don't want to go to jail you don't post it on the internet Student C: yes of course Student B: next question Student C: yes, should there be more or less security around the cities? Student D: Ah it's a difficult question because it could have good a good effect on security in town but it can show something that we don't want but I think it could be a good thing but to buy cameras and and put it in a town it costs many many err Student B: money Student D: money Student B: I don't know how much camera is in a street but I think we should maybe if you want more security we should just hire policemen and not necessarily cameras I mean yes cameras you know that they track criminals but you can't protect anybody so I don't really see the point Student C: yes Student D: yes but put cameras it can it can have an effect on the police policemen because if we put cameras we need more or less Student B: more or less?Student D: less, pardon, less policeman because we just need a person for many cameras and not necessarily a hundred policemen for just a corner Student C: yes but I think it is better to fin have policeman in the street Student D: yes I think me too Student C: yes a lot of man Student B: yes like a camera wouldn't replace a real person who can protect you Student D: yes but I think a camera could could if if a camera record an er an er an action or something like that we could the person who was aggressed for example could have err Student B: ah yes but maybe it will have an impact on the behaviour of people like when you know there is a lot of cameras that are recording you maybe you don't act the same maybe you can be maybe you can feel like you're being watched all the time Student D: I don't know if the fact to put cameras on city in cities is a real problem I think the real problem is that it costs money and and I think it's the real problem Student C: I think that it's difficult to answer to this question because we don't really know Student C: Ok so Student B: we're going to talk about the internet Student C: the internet has had mostly negative effect on our society. So Student A, what is your point of view? Student A: I'm a well-known blogger so it's my job to be on the social media and all this and why I win a lot of money so I think the Internet is good for me Student C: Yes but it's not a good thing because my daughter is always in her phone and we don't see her Student A: anymore Student B: I am the boss of Facebook and Instagram so I think social media is good to share with people what we do everyday and Student A: which one, which social media? Student B: Instagram and Facebook Student C: Facebook is very dangerous Student B: no no no it's private if you don't show your things no one could can see. no one can see that Student C: the

	Annexe 7:
	how fin
	Student B: how much cameras there is déjà
	Student C: yes and it's difficult (laughing)
	Student B: it's difficult to know
	Student C: so
	comment dire 'une preuve'?
	Student B: evidence
	Student D: an evidence
	Student C: yes but if there are a policeman maybe the person
	Student D: yes but er is yes but er
	Student A: yes but err
	Student C: if there is a person
	Student B: the person wouldn't be aggressed
	Student C: yes
	Student D: er yes but thanks to that the person could go to a tribunal and have
	Student B: yes
	Student C: yes
	Student A: and when you there is cameras you know that you don't have to do a criminal thing
	because there is a camera so
	Student C: ah yes
	! 52 ! 53

  because she can stay in contact with her friends or maybe help each other on groups like Messenger Student B: yes she's right Student A: but half of the friends that you have in the Internet you wouldn't see them anymore so Student D: yes but you can stay in contact with them Student B: yes you can still see them in real life but with Internet you can make friends that you can't see in the real life like friends that are in other countries so internet makes more friends and not less friends Student D: but you can have a lot more haters on internet than in real life I'm a parent and I always see my son on his phone and I don't really know what he's doing if he's chatting with some friends that's ok but actually he can speak with some stranger and if I have a little bit worried Student A: ok I'm the boss of a large social media company and I think this is your problem you are the parent of your children you can take care of him by yourself this is not my job or the job of my company Student A: so one of my friends is a victim of online bullying so I think you should watch over what your son's doing because it could be really grave, really bad if he is bullied on the internet because on the internet everyones anonymous so they don't care about the consequences Student B: but actually I can't control him because he can post whatever he wants so the internet is dangerous I know but it might mean that my son post photos of himself oh I don't know anything but everybody can take it and make whatever they want and so Student A: that's why you should watch over your son Student C: victim of cyberbullying very dangerous I mean it have real consequences on your life Student B: but also I'm a bit worried because I always see my son on his phone on Facebook on Twitter like social media and actually I can't control him he's always on his phone I don't know how to Student A: well you can put parental control on his phone Student C: yes and it's your job as a parent to control what your son is doing you can watch over his shoulder or ask for his phone sometimes I don't know it's your job are you responsable or not? Student A: we say responsible Student C: oh no I didn't say responsible! Do you spend too much time on social media? Student B: I think that you know user conditions you need to be 13 to access Facebook Student C: yes Student A: but actually you can easily put an age older than yours and be on Facebook at like 8 Student C: yes yes but there is a big update on this subject because there is a new law in our beautiful country in France you will need to provide a piece of identity like your passport you know when you want to do some bets online on Winamax or things like Student A: What do you mean? Student C: You know la parie en ligne Student A: yeah I know but Student C: You need to provide something to show that you are older than 18 years old and it will be the same thing with social media now so we have resolved this problem Student A: do we know if the sites are secure because if your ID gets everywhere on the internet it could be really problematic? Student C: what I don't understand your question Student A: do we know if the sites are secure for the papers because if your ID card is anywhere on the internet it could be a real problem Student C: you will just have to provide it when you sign in for the first time that all and yes yes you asked me if Facebook and Twitter are secure yes of course ! 56 Student A: but you don't have to give you ID on Facebook or Twitter Student C: what you don't have to put your ID on Facebook and Twitter no you don't post it it's when you sign in like you put your email address for the first time and you create an account yes it's secured of course what do you think! I just want to ask you now do you think we spend too much time on the internet? Student A: I think we spend way too much time on the internet because you know most kids now are nearly addicts to phones and stuff so yeah Student C: I agree we spend way too much time Student B: yeah I always see my son on his phone playing games you know playing games on the internet or things that I don't know about you know like the little game of Facebook I don't know what it's called Student C: ok yes but if people can't control their time it's a big deal yes of course what can

	Student B:
	Student B: haters
	Student D: yes
	Student B: if you don't do blogs you don't have haters,
	Student D: what?
	Student B: if you only follow your friends it's no will hate maybe the bloggers have haters but
	Student A: sure I have but it's not a problem I have more people that appreciate my job my
	productions than I have haters so
	Student B: yeah
	Student D: how do you explain like if a lot of people are writing mean comments so doesn't
	that effect you in some way?
	Student A: I'm good in myself I'm good in my body so I can absorb all the critics. And are
	your daughter have critics?
	Student B: Yes, does your daughter have harcèlement?
	Student D: being bullied
	Student B: have been bullied
	Student A: and did she cry? and do think she would like to be blogger like me like I am?
	Student B: Student C?
	Student C: I don't know she don't speak with me so I it was she was always (inaudible)
	! 55

Post-test transcription (Group 3)

  do you know what is the real definition of addiction cyber bullied man? laughing Student C: we spoke about about age restrictions on Facebook and Twitter and everything yes it's a problem that will be solved and that's a good thing yes thank you Student B: thank you for your time Student B: We are here to talk about Internet and all the problem around this subject so who are you and why are you here? Student C: I'm Student C and I'm a victim of bullying. Every day a lot of people bully me everyday since 4 months and the cause of this is a picture of my holiday (inaudible) Student B: Ok so who are you? Student A: So I'm Student A: from Facebook I'm the new director of this trademark because I'm here for this social network to make it bigger and better than all the others. What do you think? Student D: I fear for my little Lou because some bad people like pedophiles are hackers can use his little age Student B: I'm a blogger and I think Internet is not the problem but more than users who use it like bulliers and so it's not the internet's fault Student A: yes Student D: but some websites use our privacy like Facebook Student A: yes but but we're not talking about that now Student D: yes Student A: Ok yes Student D: we speak about Internet and websites Student A: I think you I think you're not good your mind is not good because you think of the wrong thing you're not in the subject you're distracted I think so yes shut up so laughing Student A: Internet is like the real life, do you want to avoid people talking because they can insult? Student D: I think no but we can censor Student B: I don't think it's I don't think you can censor all the websites, it's your child who have to like don't go to bad Internet like you can't just censor all the websites Student D: yes I agree Student A: So you were bullied, what do you think? Student C: in the web the people don't have to put their name and in this way they have to encourage to insult the people because they don't risk they don't risk they erm don't risk erm

	Annexe 9: So, who are
	you Student D:?
	Student D: I'm a father of my little Lou
	Student A: Ok
	Student D: and I fear for him
	Student A: What
	Student D: I'm fear for him
	Student B: Student A: What do you want to say?
	Student B: Dis le en français
	Student A: Dis le en français
	Student B: C'est quoi en français?
	Student C: des plaintes
	Student D: plants
	Student B: complain
	Student A: oui complain
	! 57 ! 58

  I am a blogger so I have a lot of followers Student A: a lot of people are insulting me, I think it's the same for … Student B: I am a blogger and I have a lot of followers and they're not all nice to me they can insult me but Student A: but you don't care Student C: but you're famous and Student B: yes I'm famous I know Student C: and some people is agree with your project or discuss discussion

	why don't you do
	that? you want to be famous?
	Student D: Mr Student C
	Student C: Do you have victims of bullying?
	Student A: Yes
	All shocked gasps and laughing
	Student B: Student B: yes
	Student C: me I'm just a people who like everybody and
	Student B: yes
	Student A: but she's like everybody
	Student D: You're right Student A
	Student A: I'm always right
	Student C: but some people that I don't know, is it me, is it me
	Student A: yes
	Student C: for no reason?
	Student A: yes but she's like everyone
	Student B: I have some people who agree with me and I have some who insult me and I just
	like erase their comments and I go and
	Student A: block them
	Student B: and do my life without their comments
	Student A: You used out website to block them
	Student B: yes!
	Laughing
	Student B: can you talk about your little Lulu please?
	Student D: He is so nice
	Student B: I don't care
	Student D: but I think the Internet can be a very good idea to work with for example I don't
	know for example exposé
	Student B: like homework
	Student D: yes
	Student B: ok so you think it's good?
	Student D: yes, but he …
	! 59

Annexe 14: Post-test questionnaire ! 70

  t see you don't know Student D: Ah you mean if somebody for example put a picture of you somewhere Student B: yes Student D: you don't know on the day and then you realise oh my god Student B: you can delete it but of course yes it's er Student D: but at this time it's you you have to pay attention to your account what you put on and try to be in private Student C: yes but the teenagers Student B: that's why you need to protect your information Student C: yes but teenagers don't want to be you know ! 67 Student D: yes I know yes but there is not a lot of problems with the percentage of teenagers that have been bullying bullied that is really small compared to all the teenagers Student C: on the net Student D: on the net Student B: and on social medias there is often age restrictions so it's Student C: yes but who is going to respect Student B: yes but Student D: can you repeat? can you repeat? I don't understand Student B: yes there is often age restrictions Student D: yes Student C: Facebook for example you can't have an account Student B: you need to respect it, it is the law Student D: yes after it's your problem I'm sorry Student C: yes yes but I'm old ok, you're a teenager Student B: yes Student C: do you have a Facebook account? Student B: yes Student C: but you can't if you're not 18 Student B: yes but I'm a well-known blogger, I am 21 Student C: liar I know that you're not Laughing Student B: but yes everyone need to respect this cause so if, it's not the social medias fault Student D: I think that this is not really dangerous if there is children that have account on the website but if after they have a problem this is not the website's responsibility Student B: of course Student D: that's all, I'm sorry, sometimes parents say …

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