José Abdelnour-Nocera

Torkil Clemmensen

Socio-Technical HCI for Ethical Value Exchange

Keywords: sociotechnical, human work interaction design, international development, ethics

Ensuring ethical value exchange is moving to the forefront of the global challenges that HCI will have to address in the coming years. In this position paper, we argue that applying a context-sensitive, sociotechnical approach to HCI can help meet the challenge. The background is that the life of marginalized people in contemporary society is challenging and uncertain. The marginalized can face health and cognitive issues as well as a lack of stability of social structures such as family, work and social inclusion. Three questions are of concern when innovating together with people 'at the margins': how can we describe users without attempting to stereotype badly, what sociotechnical HCI methods fit the local societal context, and how to make the design sustainable in face of current planetary challenges (e.g., climate change)? We adapt the sociotechnical HCI approach called human work interaction design (HWID) to meet the challenges of designing for ethical value exchange. We present three cases of service design, and suggest how to add a fourth similar case using the HWID approach during a field trip and workshop at the INTERACT 2017 conference in Mumbai. We conclude that applying a context sensitive sociotechnical HCI framework implies that both the backend and frontend of service design and product innovations should be executed and valorized from within the local context.

Introduction

Ethical value exchange is moving to the foreground of Human-Computer Interaction (HCI) in these years, adding a new dimension to the current user experience and web 2.0 platform designs [START_REF] Gardien | Changing your hammer: The implications of paradigmatic innovation for design practice[END_REF]. For example, an emerging network focused on product and service innovations in resource constrained environments explores new design methods, experiences and knowledge of doing innovation with people 'at the margins', for example in South Africa, India, Brazil, Denmark and UK [START_REF] Abdelnour-Nocera | Service Design and Innovation 'at the Margins' in Resource Constrained Environments[END_REF]. In these projects that look at Global South Service Innovation there is a lot of focus on a frontstage mindset (e.g., touchpoints, user friendliness, user interfaces), but the methods, tools and infrastructure used to analyze and/or do backstage 'work' are envisioned and driven to a large extent by Global North assumptions (e.g., analytical cognitive styles, horizontal decision making structures, economically-driven thinking). We argue that through a sociotechnical HCI design approach, exemplified with the Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) model [START_REF] Clemmensen | A Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) Case Study in E-Government and Public Information Systems[END_REF], researchers and designers can visualize and do something about these critical gaps, and more generally, contribute to an 'HCI of ethical value exchange'.

The life of marginalized people is challenging and uncertain. The marginalized lack stable social structures such as family, work and social inclusion. People are typically said to be marginalized due to unequal social structures and a lack of education, proper housing, it-services and healthcare. Marginalized people in Denmark and UK share some of these traits, but in what we might call a first-world guise. Meaning that for example the elderly, refugees, and the disabled in UK or Denmark compared to Brazil or South Africa have more economic resources. However, relative to the rest of the British and Danes they are marginalized and suffer the ill effects associated with that position such as estrangement and a lack of participation in innovation. The elderly may for example be marginalized due to cognitive and physical decline associated with the aging process. In South Africa, black students are presented with equal opportunities to attend university, but its very different socio-economic and cultural background make it challenging for them to remain in higher education leading to high drop-out rates for this sector of society. Approaching marginalized people is challenging -their exclusion from society and societal resources has created estrangement. Moreover, a lack of resources may make it hard to take part in the dominant patterns of innovation and consumption. In addition, a significant problem is that stereotypes of these marginalized people fail to understand their experiences and life perspectives [START_REF] Cabrero | Re-Conceptualising Personas across Cultures: Stereotypes, Archetypes and Collective Personas in Pastoral Namibia[END_REF].

There is therefore a need to revisit sociotechnical HCI analysis and design methods with the aim to co-create alternative patterns of innovation that include the marginalized. Furthermore, in the emerging transformation economy, the focus on ethical value exchange with trust and collaboration in the foreground requires empathic, in-context experimentation and data collection through living labs [START_REF] Gardien | Changing your hammer: The implications of paradigmatic innovation for design practice[END_REF], which requires a sociotechnical, context-sensitive approach such as HWID [START_REF] Clemmensen | A Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) Case Study in E-Government and Public Information Systems[END_REF].

The larger questions that we want to discuss by analyzing cases of innovating together with people 'at the margins' are: how can we describe users without attempting to stereotype badly, what sociotechnical HCI methods fit the local societal context, and how to make the design sustainable in face of current planetary challenges (e.g., climate change)? We suggest the IFIP WG 13.6 Human Work Interaction Design HWID framework as an example of a sociotechnical HCI approach to frame service design cases and assess the extent to which HWID is suitable and how it should be modified to support open, bottom-up innovation in the global south.

Why Service Design Cases?

The service design field emanated from the appearance of information technology and an increased design focus within management and organizational studies. The field is relatively new, but stems partly from interaction design and participatory design (PD), [START_REF] Blomkvist | Existing Prototyping Perspectives: Considerations for Service Design[END_REF][START_REF] Holmlid | Interaction Design and Service Design: Expanding A Comparison Of Design Disciplines[END_REF][START_REF] Sanders | Co-creation and the new landscapes of design[END_REF]. PD plays an important role in service design [START_REF] Holmlid | Interaction Design and Service Design: Expanding A Comparison Of Design Disciplines[END_REF]. Thus, what is transferred to service design is a basic structure consisting of involvement techniques, collaborative approaches, and liberating objectives.

As fig. 1 points out there are three key elements in service design: users, touchpoints, and the service journey. Contrary to many design methods service design tries to capture what is outside of the IT system and has a focus also on the surroundings and contexts of use as well as the different sequences of interactions. Similar to PD techniques such as future workshop, service design looks at both the frontend and the backend users of the IT system [START_REF] Kensing | Participatory IT Design-an exemplary case[END_REF]. Service design focuses on the contexts around the solutions and as such has a holistic approach to problem solving.

Sociotechnical HCI for Ethical Value Exchange

The value propositions for a design approach should be rethought in relation to the paradigmatic economy that the designers attempt to contribute to [START_REF] Gardien | Changing your hammer: The implications of paradigmatic innovation for design practice[END_REF]. In this paper, we use Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) to contribute to ethical value exchange, and hence present the HWID approach in relation to value propositions relevant to ethical value exchange. HWID is illustrated in fig. 2. The left side of the figure illustrates the social, which is analyzed as end-users' work tasks performed through IT systems within a given work domain. The right side illustrates the technical in HWID, which focuses on interaction designs as such, and on interaction design methods and techniques. The approach is context-sensitive, which is illustrated by the lower bar. The top bar indicates that researchers need to choose appropriate theories and methods for the phenomena under study. Obviously, at the center of the approach is the services and products being designed.

The value propositions for a HWID for ethical value exchange are inspired by Gardien [START_REF] Gardien | Changing your hammer: The implications of paradigmatic innovation for design practice[END_REF]:  End-user benefitapply HWID theories to conceptualize not only interaction at individual level, but also HCI as organizational, societal, and global issues, and to help determine what is ethical peace of mind when speaking of HCI  Cause of declineusing HWID to mitigate HCI's native risk of focusing too much on interface functionality and forgetting the social life of humans  People research objectivethe aim with using HWID should include not stereotyping users (badly), executing sociotechnical HCI methods from within the local societal context, and designing for planetary sustainability (e.g., climate change)  People research method -HWID analysis and design should be conducted in the context of everyday life  Aesthetics -HWID as a design approach should be thought of as a parametric platform that can be valorized for a given local context Templates etc. from old system  Innovative integrationcradle to cradle sustainability achieved by the continuous, never ending analysis-design relations in HWID  Brandtransparent and easy to understand what HWID analysis and design activities that have been done so far, and thus instantiating trust.

Description of Three Service Design Cases

Each of the projects described below shares a common interest in answering the questions presented in section 1 within a service design framework. The first project is concerned with socio-cultural and human interaction approaches in the design of interventions to support students at risk in South African universities. In South Africa (SA) 25% of schools are functional, the rest are dysfunctional in terms of accountability, teachers' knowledge of content, absenteeism, coverage of curriculum; high dropout and poor performance on national assessments [START_REF] Leibowitz | Access to higher education in South Africa[END_REF]. Many dysfunctional schools are in townships and rural areas -in black communities. Consequently, many black students are underprepared to enter university and successfully complete their studies within the set time. There is a 50% higher completion rate for white students compared to black students [START_REF] Murray | Factors affecting graduation and student dropout rates at the University of KwaZulu-Natal[END_REF]. The dropout rate at university is a serious concern that results in wastage and perpetuates the vicious poverty cycle. Research on designing information systems as intervention for students at the risk of dropping out or failing to complete their studies in the minimum set time is critical in SA.

SA universities attract students from diverse races, religions and cultures. Sometimes students at risk are identified late and the tendency is often to offer more readings and remedial classes thus adding an information burden to them. Given the situation, through an existing Newton Mobility Grant between the University of West London (UWL), University of Cape Town, and Cape Town University of Technology, we are exploring how service design approaches can be used to design an intervention information system for students at risk in SA universities.

The second project is led by the University of Bradford, IIT Madras and UWL and is concerned with critically examining city-wide strategic framing using concepts such as smart cities and sustainable cities and embedding inclusiveness as a central plank of such city-wide frames. In this regard, achieving Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) at the city level requires resolving overlapping and inter-connected SDGs whereby inclusiveness becomes a very important element. Though the rhetoric suggests that all cities claim to be inclusive, in reality smart cities exclude those who do not have access to digital technologies; sustainable cities focus on environmental issues the benefits of which are predominantly manifested through housing price appreciation in better neighborhoods. Chennai is one of 100 smart cities chosen by the Government of India and it has also been one of the earliest members of the UN-Habitat's Sustainable Cities Programme. In our project, we are examining the scope for such city-wide framing approaches to exclude particular groups including women, children, elderly people, and those living in slums.

The third project is at the proposal stage with the Danish research councils and is concerned with establishing a strong alliance between related research interests in two different continents: The IT University of Copenhagen, Universidade do Estado de Santa Catarina,and The Institute of Computing in Brazil. In Brazil and in Denmark digitalization of both public and private services are implemented and are to be implemented in the nearest future. The digitalization of services often overlook the less privileged citizens -the marginalized. By marginalized we understand the elderly, handicapped, poor, not educated, among other main categories. The main question to explore from the HWID perspective is how service design methods, originating from the global north, should be changed and innovated upon in order to adapt to local contexts in the global south. The focus is on design with and for people at the margins, in this particularly case focusing on Brazilian run projects in game design for elderly and interaction design for down syndrome children. Through this exploration new design methods may arise that can bridge the differences in cultural circumstances and contexts.

The Alibaug Fishery Case Study

The above projects illustrate the kind of cases that sociotechnical HCI for ethical value exchange aims to support. For the INTERACT TC 13.6/13.8 workshop WS11: Human Work Interaction Design meets International Development reported in this paper, the approach was similar. Since the workshop took place at the INTERACT 2017 conference in Mumbai, there was a unique opportunity to observe technology-mediated innovative work practices in informal settings. In this context, away from the mainstream industrial sites of the global north, the workshop used the HWID approach to analyze findings related to opportunities for design research in this type of work domain. On day one, workshop participants did a field trip to visit a fishery in a small village that has had a ICT business solution implemented with the support of the India-based company TATA and the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute (CMFRI). On day 2, the workshop participants gathered at the workshop and reflected critically over the ethical value exchange aspects of the ICT solution, and proposed possible add-ons and new designs. The workshop participants and the TATA and CMFRI representatives shared interpretations from the field trip and discussed HWID activities for ethical value exchange.

An observation script based on the above presented HWID model and research objective was used to collect data and engage during the field trip and workshop. Below we present selected findings and insights on the Alibaug fisher case.

Interaction design related findings

The ICT solution was based on an Android app consisting of screens that offered functionality to the fishers. During interviews with the fishers, it was revealed that a key service provided was wind speed, as shown in fig. 3 and in the interview excerpt below involving a researcher, a TATA designer, and a fisher. The designer also took the role as interpreter between the researcher and the fisher. Researcher: how much money did you save by that? Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: so they think it was a loss, because they had to come back without fish, but at least the boats were saved. Designer: also fifty people did not go so that is a saving, correct?

In the excerpt above, the TATA designer explains how the fisher uses the wind speed information to warn his colleagues not to go fishing if the wind is too strong or coming from the wrong direction, and how this functionality saves the boats from damage. Fishers do have opinions and feedback to the designers, as can be seen below when a fisher, the TATA designer and researcher discuss the bottom bar in fig. 3.

Designer: this is good info, he [fisher] is saying that the index shows meter per second and it should be km/hour.

Researcher: so you [TATA designer] will change that? Designer: yes.

The designer/translator who is from TATA acknowledges that the fisher has a point about the format of the wind speed, and says that the designers will change that.

The key important service, however, is shown in figure 4. The location of fish is marked by thick curved lines, each illustrating a probability band that there will be fish in this km-wide zone. The map is based on a satellite photo from the day, which captures the color, i.e. the amount of plankton [fish food], and the temperature of the water, and uses this to infer the amount of fish in each square of the map. Then the squares with most fish are marked to make it easy for the fishers to find the fish location of the day.

Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: this is a different service, this map shows potential fishing zones, where the fish are....you can go and catch fish everywhere but the marking shows more fish there.

Researcher: how much trust do you have in this service? Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: confidence...approximately 70%, minimum

As the excerpt illustrates the fishers has great confidence in this fish location service. However, it is not entirely clear to the fishers how this is calculated: Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: so he says [Fisher] the only thing he knows is that he does not know how it is calculated. Researcher: can you ask him to guess? Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: he says that probably they understand the environment in which the fish lives, and environment information can tell where the fish is -which is actually right Researcher: so ask him where the scientist get the information about the environment from. Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: he cannot, does not know.

Researcher: another thing, so if we look at this [the line showing the location of the fish], how is this calculated? how does he think it is calculated, what is his mental model?

So, not surprisingly, the basic wind speed service in Figure 3 is understandable by the fishers and quite useful, while the more advanced algorithm behind the fish location service is less understandable though it is still trusted to a high degree.

Human Work: Related findings

The meeting with the fishers' association, see figure 5, revealed the key role of this organizational body in the fishers' use of the ICT solution. The fishery association distribute the diesel to the boats, and in other ways is the central coordinating and support body. The discussions were mediated by Dr. Singh, the scientist and project lead from CMFRI, who also took the role as translator between the fishers and the researchers.. The above excerpt shows how the society has a key role in the everyday practice of the Alibaug fishers. However, the society also acts as the interface between fishers and the larger society, represented by the designers from TATA who need data for their research, and the state government who needs someone accountable for the support they provide to the fishers. This is illustrated in the next excerpt.

Project lead scientist: and that is why it was very easy for us to know the consumption, number of boats, how much diesel each boat consumed, before our app and after. Researcher: every fisher gets the same amount of diesel or it depends on the size of the boat? Project lead scientist [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: yes, size of the boat, or rather, how many cylinders is there [in the engine], so a small boat has one cylinder, a little bigger has two cylinders, so according to that, they [the association] decide the amount of diesel. Researcher: are all fishers always honest, they never cheat and say I have two cylinders? Project lead scientist [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: largely -because these societies have been founded in Maharashtra, based on [name] movement. these societies are unique in Maharashtra and in the country. This society is 70 years old (…)they spend the money from the society, and then twice a year, they get the money from government. They maintain a 100% record.

As the excerpt illustrates, the fishery society distributes diesel across boats. The diesel is cheap due to specific government support. In fact, it turns out that nobody in the fishery community pays any taxes to government. The app plays a key role in the optimum use of diesel as fishers will welcome any information about good areas to fish. However, this also disrupts to some extent the previous division of labor and fishing knowledge between small and big boats, and potentially undermines the competitive advantage of certain fishers, who were better at finding fishing spots without the help of the app.

Taken together, the fishers' trust in the fish location algorithm and the key role of the fishers' society in providing information to the TATA ICT designers may indicate that though the initiative by researchers to support the fishers is based on deep knowledge of fishers' practices, the app solution places more emphasis on the introduction of new practices, than on the support of existing individual fishers' subjective view of their world and previous knowledge. This requires a sociotechnical effort to also 'redesign' the social system by trying to mitigate or rearticulate some of these potentially negative effects. This could be done through helping to change the value systems underpinning fishing practices in these communities as well as co-designing new rules of engagement between all stakeholders involved in the fishing support service.

Overall Objectives

In summary, the overall objective of this paper was to hint at a possible sociotechnical HCI framework, customize value propositions, and present cases, to enable discussion of:

-how can we describe users without attempting to stereotype badly? -what sociotechnical HCI methods fit the local societal context? -how to make the design sustainable in face of current planetary challenges (e.g., climate change)? One of the answers that the cases may support is to see service design's backend issues as the social side of HWID, and the frontend issues as the technical side of HWID.

The Alibaug fishers case study surely provided another case study where we can explore how service design could be adapted, through the sociotechnical lens of HWID, to articulate ethical issues of value exchange. In this case study it is highlighted how a focus on the frontend use and experience of the service provided by the app could overlook delicate and tacit social and cultural backend arrangements. Given the contextsensitivity of the framework, both sides and their interrelations should thus be considered as a design platform that is executed and valorized from within the local context. This is what we hoped to illustrate with this paper.

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. Customer service journey

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure2. The HWID framework[START_REF] Clemmensen | A Human Work Interaction Design (HWID) Case Study in E-Government and Public Information Systems[END_REF]

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Screen from app, showing wind speed danger areas Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: so here is this where his experience [fisher's] and the information match, and that is why his confidence in the app is there… Researcher: and then what happens? Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: and he actually calls those people and say don't go, and the people who are already gone, they started to ....they were called on the wireless radio and asked to come back.Researcher: how much money did you save by that? Designer [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: so they think it was a loss, because they had to come back without fish, but at least the boats were saved. Designer: also fifty people did not go so that is a saving, correct?

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Map showing the location of fish

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. Photo from meeting in fishers association, Alibaug

Theories, concepts, frameworks, models and perspectives Methods, techniques and tools Human Work Interaction Design

	Demographic	Establish design goals
	characteristics,	(usability and UX)
	Education, Profession, Values, Subjective preferences, Skills,	Usability and user experience evaluation
	Knowledge, Cognitive resources, Emotions	Involve workers and stakeholders
	Work contents, goals, functions, tools	Give participants access to design process

Environment and context: National, geographic, cultural, social, organizational

	Implemented
	new system
	Prototypes
	Sketches

  Researcher: how many people come here every day? Project lead scientist [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: 100 people come every day, but there are 300 in total, some are at sea. Researcher: what do they do when they come here? Project lead scientist [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: they get the diesel, they are given the diesel, the government diesel Researcher: in a carry on can? Project lead scientist [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: in a drum, and that drum they carry to sea, so when they are at sea, they can add more diesel Researcher: diesel is cheap? Project lead scientist [interpreting what the fisher is saying]: government of Maharashtra subsidize the diesel, 8 rupees per liter, so if market price is 60 rupees, they will get it for 50 [something] rupees.


Helen Petrie
email: helen.petrie@york.ac.uk

Gerhard Weber
email: gerhard.weber@tu-dresden.de

Charudatta Jadhav
email: charudatta.jadhav@tcs.com

Jennifer S Darzentas
email: jenny.darzentas@york.ac.uk

Issues of Culture in Designing for Accessibility

Keywords: Cross Cultural Differences, Cultural Sensitivities, Accessibility, Universal Design, Assistive Technology, Users with Disabilities, Older Users

Cross cultural differences and cultural sensitivities have not yet received much attention in the areas of accessibility, assistive technologies, and inclusive design and methods for working with disabled and older users. However it is important to consider the challenges of developing accessible and usable technologies for people with disabilities and older people in different cultural contexts. This chapter presents the background to the topic and then considers three particular issues in relation to the topic: the accessibility of interactive systems in the home and implications for emerging markets; the accessibility problems in relation to a multilingual society such as India; and finally, the issues of the cultural biases of the methods used when working with users within a user centered design lifecycle or a "double diamond" methodology, whether they are mainstream users, disabled or older users.

Introduction

The population of older people and people with disabilities is growing rapidly throughout the world, due to many complex changes in societies from decreasing birth rates to increasing survival rates from accidents and chronic health conditions. According to the World Health Organization (WHO), there are currently between 110 and 190 million people with substantial disabilities [START_REF]Disability and health fact sheet[END_REF] and approximately 901 million older adults (usually taken to be people aged 60 or older, although the definition itself varies from country to country and organization to organization), worldwide. The United Nations (UN) predicts that the population of older adults will increase to more than 2 billion by 2050 [2]. The UN also predicts that the number of older people will exceed the number of the young people, aged 15 or younger, for the first time in 2047. This change in the balance of older to younger people (known as the old age dependency ratio or the potential support ratio) has many consequences, one of them being that older adults and people with disabilities will need to live more independently, without as many people of working age to care for them. Many analysts and researchers [e.g. 3] believe that technology will provide at least a partial solution to this problem, allowing older adults to live in their own homes safely and independently for as long as possible and to give disabled people greater independence. While this may be a viable solution for some individuals in the wealthy, developed countries, for older and disabled people in many parts of the world, there are issues of affordability as well as accessibility and acceptability.

These demographic changes are worldwide phenomena, although different countries are experiencing them at different rates and in different ways. In addition, there are many cultural sensitivities and differences in attitudes to disability and old age, which have important implications for designing interactive systems for disabled and older people. However, designing for cultural diversity is an aspect of universal design and can increase the overall number of users and the usability of interactive systems for those users [START_REF] Marcus | SIG on one size fits all?: cultural diversity in user interface design[END_REF].

In this chapter we explore three particular issues in relation to the topic of cultural differences and accessibility: the accessibility of interactive systems in the home and implications for emerging markets; the accessibility problems in relation to a multilingual society such as India; and finally, the issues of the cultural biases of the methods used when working with users within a user centred design lifecycle or a "double diamond" methodology, whether they are mainstream users, disabled or older users.

Topic 1: Cultural differences and accessibility of interactive systems in the home

Major drivers for the greater use of technology in the home include an interest in greater comfort and entertainment, a desire to reduce and simplify effortful and repetitious tasks, a desire to increase personal safety, interest in monitoring one's physiological state, and a desire to improve communication with family and friends. While this comes at the price of more complexity of the functionality of household technologies, there is now an abundance of products to support these functions. Many of them use a computer and serve multiple purposes through an interactive user interface. Understanding the needs of people using such interactive systems is crucial to detect both cultural and accessibility requirements in everyday activities.

Mismatches between the language and cultural assumptions of designers and those of users may lead to inappropriate functionality and hence a lack of acceptance of technologies. As pointed out by Chavan et al [START_REF] Chavan | The washing machine that ate my sari -mistakes in cross-cultural design[END_REF], a very small error in the design of a washing machine for the emerging markets such as India, combined with a poor understanding of Indian clothing resulted in many items of clothing being destroyed and the loss of an important market for Whirlpool in India (this in spite of excellent washing system, serviced by men, which is available in India, see Fig. 1, below). Whirlpool renamed the "delicate cycle" on their washing machine as "sari cycle" which probably seemed very culturally appropriate at the time. But unfortunately, the washing machine actually shredded the delicate fabrics of saris -Whirlpool had failed to research the cultural and linguistic conventions of this particular market.

Lack of accessibility relates to many facets of the use of computers by people with sensory, physical of cognitive needs in both developed and developing countries. In emerging countries such as China, some 73% of households already had a washing machine by 2010 [START_REF]Increase in washing machine penetration[END_REF]. To prevent accidental water flooding, it is mandatory to push a button to release an electromagnetic door lock before the washing machine door will open. Washing machines enter such a state at the end of the washing program and usually signal this only visually. Lack of sight makes it hard to know why the door will not open when this visual indicator is not present. Some machines do include an auditory signal, but there is only one auditory signal (a generic beep), which sounds when the washing program begins, when there is a problem and when the program ends. Although a visually impaired user can hear the signal, it is not sufficiently communicative to understand what state the washing machine is in. In 2016, more than 98% had phones with either Android or iOS as the operating system [8]. Controlling a robot vacuum cleaner, such as the Roomba [9] by an app on a smart phone is convenient, and more importantly, the only way to change the robot's operation. However, although a robot vacuum cleaner is very convenient for people with physical disabilities such as a tremor in their hands, adjusting its setting via the app can be very difficult. Designers of such apps need to understand the requirements for larger buttons and split the virtual keyboard to reflect sub-tasks on smaller screens, if more space is needed. The same approach allows enlargement of fonts for increased readability for people who are dyslexic.

In China, Brazil and India demand for web-connected smart TVs is considerably higher than it is in developed countries [10]. However, there are a number of accessibility issues in interacting with a smart TV. For example, smart TVs encourage interaction through gesture and voice commands. For people with physical disabilities interacting through gesture may not be possible. Voice commands may be a useful alternative, but creating voice command interaction that avoids accidental activation of commands when simply speaking is still not easy to design. In addition, voice command interaction has not currently addressed the needs of people with speech difficulties.

The examples discussed above make it clear that specific home technologies increase quality of life in many ways but may introduce new barriers, both cultural and in relation to accessibility. Providing a range of new modalities for interacting provide good solutions for the accessibility issues. Developing countries may sometimes utilize technology considered already out-dated in the developed world, but more often are now jumping straight to the very latest technologies and skipping what might be considered the intermediate steps. For example, in Cambodia smartphone use is very high, with over 95% of citizens having access to a mobile phone of some type [START_REF] Phong | Mobile phone and internet use in Cambodia 2016[END_REF]. This is largely because the landline infrastructure was badly damaged and became very outdated during the Khmer Rouge regime and subsequent war with Vietnam (1975Vietnam ( -1992)). At the end of that period, rather than invest in landline infrastructure, investment was made in mobile infrastructure. One consequence of this is that internet access is largely via smartphones, with 80% of those Cambodians using the internet doing so via a smartphone in 2017. This is far highly than in the United Kingdom, where in 2016, 66% of citizens reported accessing the internet from their smartphone [START_REF]Adults' media use and attitudes[END_REF]. Thus, Cambodia can be seen as more technologically advanced than the UK in terms of devices for internet access.

To some extent, addressing accessibility issues can also benefit cross cultural issues. For example, designers of medical devices have understood the need for high accessibility of their devices. Speaking thermometers, large print glucose meters, talking blood measure monitors are available at low to modest costs due to their widespread use. However, embedding them in homes alongside accessible home appliances requires a range of interdisciplinary skills involving architects, hardware builders, software and industrial designers. There is a need to establish appropriate services for living independently as none of these devices have a common approach to accessibility. Making the accessibility of devices compatible can be achieved most easily through personalization capabilities [START_REF] Loitsch | A knowledge-based approach to user interface adaptation from preferences and for special needs[END_REF], which may be most beneficial to address the various cultural needs of people in emerging countries.

People with disabilities and older people have needs and wishes for technology that HCI designers and developers are often unaware of or fail to understand fully. In European countries, we have observed that designers and developers of interactive systems also often have difficulty establishing contact with disabled and older people and lack a good range of techniques to work with them in the development process, in spite of being eager to develop technologies to support these user groups. There are also many cultural and societal differences between countries which affect needs and attitudes towards technologies for disabled and older people. For example, the effects of demographic changes in China are comparable to European countries, but attitudes to family are typically somewhat different from European attitudes. Even between European and North American countries that are considerable differences in attitudes to disabled and older people. In the Nordic countries, there is a very strong philosophy that the whole of society has a responsibility to provide quality of life and opportunities for disabled people and to care for older people. In southern European countries, the philosophy is more that the responsibility lies with the individual family to care for their family members. In North America disabled people are strongly encouraged to be very independent whereas in European countries the philosophy if more of providing as much support as possible (e.g. financially, technically) for disabled people.

When designing an interactive device or localizing an existing design for a different culture, a number of critical needs of older and disabled users should be addressed: the need for communication with and through devices, the need for mobility, and the need for personal safety. We consider two approaches for designing home appliances to address such needs for users: simulation and standardization.

Simulations can be used to help designers and developers understand the needs of disabled and older users and possibly the needs of users from other cultures. For example, the effects of having a tremor in one's hands (a common problem for older people, essential tremor is experienced by at least 4% of people over 65 [START_REF] Thanvi | Essential tremor -the most common movement disorder in older people[END_REF]) may be experienced by creating a randomly jittering touch point. This allows designers to get a personal insight into older users' need for larger buttons. Visual problems can be experienced by having designers and developers were spectacles which simulate different visual conditions [15] or by distorting the screen contents [16,17]. The latter is particularly useful for understanding how people with color vision deficiencies experience the colors in displays [18,19,20]. Dyslexia may be simulated by reversing, inverting and transposing characters and creating inconsistent spellings of words [21]. Limitations in dexterity may be experienced by placing small buttons on the knuckles of the hands and wearing several layers of tight rubber gloves, this impedes both mobility and sensitivity of the fingers (see Fig. 2, below). Although the simulation approach is promising it has not yet been applied to cultural design features. Standardization of user interfaces is making good progress towards establishing the key concepts of accessibility. New work in Europe requires that those creating standards must consider whether accessibility is a concept is that is applicable to their technical committee work, and have a protocol to do this [START_REF]CEN-CENELEC Design for all Protocol[END_REF]. In addition, all standardization bodies revise standards periodically, meaning that theoretically, older standards will be reviewed in the light of accessibility. In particular, International Organization for Standardization (ISO) standards are subject to review and revision every five years. Thus, existing standards are updated if there are experts available to do the work. However, a problem for variations in accessibility due to cultural factors, is that even ISO, whose member countries vote for approval of standards, does not represent the cultural variations throughout the world, due to a lack of experts familiar with cultural and accessibility requirements. In addition, there normally need to be strong background economic reasons to be part of standards initiatives, that are traditionally dominated by trade and industry and less by consumer representatives. Thus, for instance in a country that does not manufacture home appliances, it is less likely to find manufacturers aware of cultural factors to do with accessibility. Similarly, consumer organizations with expert localized information about cultural factors impacting accessibility may not have an interest or the funding to participate in these standardization activities.

In the United States, the National Federation of the Blind [23] have repeatedly requested that the accessibility needs of blind users be taken into account especially in the design of home appliances and consumer electronics, and called for a Home Appliance Accessibility Act [START_REF]Home Appliance Accessibility Act[END_REF]. In Germany, an organization representing blind people [START_REF] Groenewold | IFA 2016: Accessible Household Appliances and Consumer Electronics[END_REF] is campaigning directly to manufacturers to consider accessibility in the products they design. This is because accessibility for home appliances and consumer electronics has not yet been legally regulated, and the draft regulations about accessibility requirements for products and services in the European Accessibility Act (EAA) [26] exclude these two product groups, in spite of the recommendation from the expert group on standardization [START_REF]CEN-CENELEC Design for all Protocol[END_REF] to prioritize accessibility concerns including domestic appliances and consumer electronics.

Topic 2: Cross cultural accessibility issues in India

Another set of issues relate to language differences and the provision of assistive technologies and accessibility of digital materials. People from cultures with languages which are not widely spoken current face many barriers in access to technologies, both mainstream and assistive, due to such language issues. For example, India has 22 official languages and 12 different scripts for writing them. But in total, India has over 780 languages and over 60 different scripts [START_REF]The People's Linguistic Survey of India[END_REF]. The core technologies of text-tospeech synthesis, automatic speech recognition and optical character recognition software are widely used in assistive technologies to make them accessible to people with print disabilities and older people. Such assistive technologies include screen readers, screen magnifiers, and electronic braille displays. But in India these core technologies are only available for a handful of the official languages, let alone the total range of languages. Thus, assistive technologies are not available to many disabled and older Indians at all, or only in their second or third language, and not their preferred native language.

A further aspect of the language issue and accessibility is the availability of digital content in Unicode. Unicode is a computing industry standard for the consistent encoding, representation, and handling of text expressed in most of the world's writing systems. In particular, Unicode allows websites to render text in different writing systems and assistive technologies to convert text to speech and vice versa. It is very important that these digital codes are universally used. The digital code for any specific character must be the same all over the world. To achieve this the Unicode Consortium has published a standard of all possible characters of all languages of the world along with their digital codes [START_REF]The Unicode® Standard[END_REF]. For example, all the Indian languages are part of this Unicode standard.

The problems start with the development of different fonts. Many companies and organizations which develop fonts do not follow the scheme proposed by the Unicode Consortium. For example, the digital code in the Unicode standard for the Hindi character "ka" is 0915 whereas the Kruti Dev font (widely used in northern India, particularly in official documents) assigns the digital code 0064 to the same character. In the Unicode standard, 0064 is assigned to the Roman alphabet lower case "d". If we try to convert a Hindi document created in Kruti Dev font into braille, then the braille conversion software will convert this character into braille dots 145 (N.B. the correct set of braille dots for the Hindi character "ka" is 13, not 145). On the other hand, if you type a Roman alphabet lower case "d" into a digital device and apply the Kruti Dev font to it, then it will display the Hindi character "ka". However, screen reading software will still read it as "d". One important consequence of these issues is that when an organization in India wishes to create a braille version of a document for blind readers, the electronic version of the document cannot be used, instead the document first needs to be re-typed completely. Thus, one of the great advantages of electronic documents is lost.

The Unicode issues also affect optical character recognition (OCR) processes, one of the basic technologies used to create digital content, and one which has made a great difference to the accessibility of material for many people with print disabilities. A digital library cannot come into existence if there is no OCR software for a particular written language. The digital content gets its real power only when the characters of the content is stored as digital codes and not as an image of the printed paper. Only after digital coding of the characters do we get the flexibility of the digital content, such as representation in different media (e.g. audio, braille, even simple font changes such as large print). Creating digital content without OCR again means re-typing all the material and denies print disabled people a key component of their independence, the ability to OCR documents themselves. OCR is available for more that 100 languages across the world. Unfortunately, India languages largely lack this benefit. There is no OCR software for most Indian languages, barring a few which are very recent innovations.

As a measure of the situation in India with regard to problems with its multilingual culture, a number of articles about web accessibility have recently appeared which mention this issue. This is particularly important due to interest in India in transferring services to digital forms, most lately fuelled by the Indian Government's Digital India [29] campaign launched in 2015.

In a case study looking at the accessibility of e-portals [START_REF] Clemmensen | Adapting e-gov usability evaluation to cultural contexts[END_REF], Clemmensen and Katre collected data from state government web portals in India and examined across seven parameters, including accessibility, for which they used 18 criteria. Only two portals met the accessibility requirements, as judged as meeting at least half of the 18 criteria. However, the authors noted that since 20 of the 28 portals were in the English language, this in itself probably posed considerable accessibility barriers.

In a report that examined Indian Government websites [START_REF] Narasimhan | Accessibility of government websites in India: a report[END_REF], amongst 7,800 websites in total, only 3% were judged as accessible and the report commented that "websites which are not developed in accordance with the Web Content Accessibility Guidelines (WCAG) 2.0 will remain inaccessible to over 50 per cent of India's population comprising persons with disabilities, elderly and illiterate persons, linguistic minorities and persons using alternate platforms like mobile phones". The report highlighted examples of accessibility errors common on the websites, one of which was the tendency to present important information written in a different language and script as an image, meaning it would be skipped over by screen readers.

A study of 48 Indian banking websites [START_REF] Kaur | Banking Websites in India: an accessibility evaluation[END_REF] was undertaken in 2014, testing the sites for accessibility using both WCAG 1.0 [START_REF] W3c | Web content accessibility guidelines 1[END_REF] and WCAG 2.0 [START_REF]W3C. Web content accessibility guidelines 2[END_REF]. Accessibility of the banking websites was low: only 25 % conformed to the minimum conformance level with respect to WCAG 1.0 (Level A), and none conformed to the minimum conformance level with respect to WCAG 2.0. The authors explained that this is a problem, since although the internet banking sector in India is still new, the change from cash transfer to bank transfer of welfare payments, will mean a greater need to use internet banking. Amongst the accessibility problems found, the authors noted that that a banking website should have content in appropriate regional languages. They concluded that there is a need to develop a multilingual model for the Indian context. The imperative for the banking services to be accessible is becoming a matter of urgency as the impact of the Indian government's digital push on the economy becomes reality. Kumar Srinivasan, a leading digital entrepreneur has noted that "since the government's push for a cashless economy with the announcement for demonetisation in India, we have seen a rapid transformation and growth in the digital payments segment. With an unbanked population of over 250 million Indians and the country moving towards 520 million smartphone users by 2020, it is a wise move by the government to incentivise digital payments to encourage consumers to shift to "cashless" and increase bandwidths to reach out to a larger populace" [START_REF] Tejaswi | India's will to go digital evident in budget FY19, Friday[END_REF].

Ismail et al [START_REF] Ismail | Connect the dots: Accessibility, readability and site ranking -An investigation with reference to top ranked websites of Government of India[END_REF] in investigating accessibility and readability features of the 20 most frequented websites in India, commented that as there were no tools and metrics for readability for languages spoken in India, they had used six different methods in their study, but these were all developed for the English language. They noted a serious gap in the availability of such tools and that there is a strong need to develop readability measures or tests that are language independent. If the language independent route is not possible, there need be efforts to build metrics which would harness the specific features of languages.

Even the official Digital India initiative is struggling with the issue of even the national languages in India as evidenced by the accessibility statement of Digital India, the following notice appears "Digital India is working towards making its portal accessible for persons with disabilities, however currently … information provided in Hindi language is … not accessible" [37].

Tackling the multilingual problem of India is an ongoing process: the Centre for Development of Advanced Computing (C-DAC) [38], the research and development organisation of the Ministry of Electronics and Information Technology has been working on this problem for over 25 years. The statement on their webpage about multilingual technology explains their motivations: "India is a unique country in the world having 22 scheduled languages besides heritage languages and over one hundred widely used languages with different scripts. Despite a very impressive growth of computers and the Internet over the past few decades, most of the content on the Internet and most of the ICT based solutions in India are still available only in English. This is in stark contrast to the ground reality as hardly 10% of Indians use English as a language for communication. C-DAC realized long ago that penetration of IT to masses is possible in India only if we develop tools and technologies to overcome this language barrier" [39].

Topic 3: Methods of working with disabled and older users in different cultures

A final problem to be considered is that of the methods that designers of new technologies use when working with potential users of those technologies who are from different cultures. Designers and HCI practitioners are typically taught to use a usercentred design lifecycle [40] or a "double diamond" design methodology [41]. Both these methodologies involve working closely with users with specific methods such as questionnaires, interviews, focus groups, card sort exercises and so on [START_REF] Cairns | Research Methods for Human-Computer Interaction[END_REF]. However, all these methods have been developed in North America and Europe and users from other cultures may interpret them differently. For example, presented with a prototype interactive system, potential users from some cultures may think it inappropriate to openly critique the design of the system, when it has been developed and presented by authoritative experts. Hofstede [START_REF] Hofstede | Cultures and organizations: software of the mind (3rd edition)[END_REF] would explain this by appealing to the "power distance" dimension of different cultures.

A particular case in point is the extensive use of Likert items in questionnaires about usability and user experience of interactive technologies, for both mainstream users as well as disabled and older users. On Likert items, respondents specify their level of agreement or disagreement on a symmetric agree-disagree scale for a series of statements. Thus, the range captures the intensity of their agreement or disagreement with a given item [44]. A well-known example of the use of Likert items is the System Usability Scale (SUS) [START_REF] Brooke | SUS: a "quick and dirty" usability scale[END_REF] which asked respondents to indicate their agreement to a series of 10 statements about the interactive system they have just experienced on 5point Likert items such as "I think that I would like to use this system frequently". Although the SUS is much criticized [START_REF] Sauro | 10 things to know about the System Usability Scale (SUS)[END_REF], it is still widely used and fulfils a clear need in the quick and simple evaluation of interactive systems [START_REF] Bangor | An empirical evaluation of the System Usability Scale[END_REF]. The cultural specificity of the SUS has been considered, but only for people completing it in English, for whom some of the wording may be difficult [START_REF] Finstad | The System Usability Scale and non-native English speakers[END_REF].

A much more fundamental problem is how people from different cultures interpret the Likert system of varying agreement/disagreement. There is a considerable history of research on this problem in cross-cultural psychology, where it is sometimes known as the "extreme response style" (ERS), a phenomenon noted as long ago as 1946 [START_REF] Cronbach | Response sets and test validity[END_REF]. ERS is the extent to which respondents will use the extremes of a rating scale, as opposed to tending towards the middle of the scale. Variations of the phenomenon are the tendency to answer positively as opposed to negatively in relation to items. Some examples of cultural differences in ERS which have been established include: greater ERS amongst respondents in the USA compared to Korea [START_REF] Chun | Extreme response style in cross-cultural research: a reminder[END_REF]; greater ERS amongst Hispanic respondents in the USA compared to non-Hispanic respondents [START_REF] Hui | Effects of culture and response format on extreme response style[END_REF]; greater ERS amongst North American (from the USA and Canada) respondents than amongst East Asian (from Japan and Taiwan) respondents [START_REF] Chen | Response style and cross-cultural comparisons of rating scales among East Asian and North American students[END_REF]; and significant differences in ERS between Australian, French, Mexican and US respondents [START_REF] Clarke | Extreme response style in cross-cultural research[END_REF].

The cultural bias in the case of Likert items is fairly easy to detect, because it is a simple quantitative measure. The cultural biases in other methods used in working with older and disabled users may be more subtle and difficult to detect, but researchers and practitioners should at least be aware of the possibility that they exist and exercise caution in extending methods to different cultures.

Conclusions

In this chapter we have begun exploring a number of issues related to cross cultural differences and cultural sensitivities have not yet received much attention in the areas of accessibility, assistive technologies, and inclusive design and methods for working with disabled and older users. This is still a very unexplored area and warrants considerable further research and discussion. However, some interesting synergies have begun to emerge. In the same way that personalization and flexibility of interaction designs can assist users with different abilities, these same principles may also be deployed to address the needs of users from different cultures and from different language groups. We welcome further exploration of these issues in a wide range of cultural and language contexts in the future.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Washing men at work in Mumbai (Photo © Gerhard Weber) At least three quarters of the world population now have mobile or smart phones [7].In 2016, more than 98% had phones with either Android or iOS as the operating system [8]. Controlling a robot vacuum cleaner, such as the Roomba [9] by an app on a smart phone is convenient, and more importantly, the only way to change the robot's operation. However, although a robot vacuum cleaner is very convenient for people with physical disabilities such as a tremor in their hands, adjusting its setting via the app can be very difficult. Designers of such apps need to understand the requirements for larger buttons and split the virtual keyboard to reflect sub-tasks on smaller screens, if more space is needed. The same approach allows enlargement of fonts for increased readability for people who are dyslexic.In China, Brazil and India demand for web-connected smart TVs is considerably higher than it is in developed countries [10]. However, there are a number of accessibility issues in interacting with a smart TV. For example, smart TVs encourage interaction through gesture and voice commands. For people with physical disabilities

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Buttons and rubber gloves to simulate reduced dexterity (Photos © Helen Petrie and Jenny Darzentas)

Acknowledgements

We would like to thank all the participants at the INTERACT 2017 Workshop "Cross Cultural Differences in Designing for Accessibility and Universal Design" for their very stimulating discussions around the topics elaborated in this chapter.

The research carried out by Jenny Darzentas for this chapter has been funded by the European Union under the Marie Skłodowska-Curie Action Experienced Researcher Fellowship Programme, as part of the Education and Engagement for inclusive Design and Development of Digital Systems and Services Project (E2D3S2, Grant No. 706396).


Kati Kuusinen
email: kaku@mmmi.sdu.dk

Value Creation and Delivery in Agile Software Development: Overcoming Stakeholder Conflicts

Keywords: Software design tradeoffs, Agile software development, Collaboration in software development, Value creation, Requirements engineering 1

Agile software development aims at early and continuous value delivery. Yet the concept of value in agile development is underdefined and the meaning can be different for different stakeholders. Successful value delivery requires continuous collaboration with relevant stakeholders which is a main challenge in agile development. In fact, most software project failures are caused by poor communication and misunderstandings between stakeholders. This position paper discusses the meaning of value for business owners, customers, users, software developers, and user experience specialists and works towards an understanding on how to align and articulate value and its delivery in a software project.

Introduction

Value creation is a continuous process throughout the development life cycle in agile software development and it can be described as follows. User or stakeholder needs are frequently written in the user story format: "as a <role>, I want <a goal> so that <benefit / value>" which captures both the requirement and its value. To create user stories the development team needs first to identify the relevant stakeholder roles, dig out what those roles value and what kind of value proposition would then help the team in trying to make the role happier or solve their problem. Then the team needs to chunk down those values and needs to the size and format of a user story. Finally, as the last step before implementation, the created stories are to be ordered based on their business value which might or might not be in line with the original stakeholder value. After this the team implements the user story into working software and gets feedback from the stakeholders for improvement. The development team then grooms and reorders the stories after each implementation increment when they have learned more about the stakeholders and their needs. The process is repeated until the customer is satisfied or the project otherwise comes to an end.

The described process is not straightforward and there are no established guidelines or tools to support stakeholder value identification and prioritization. In fact, it often remains unspoken in teams what value means in the project context [START_REF] Dingsøyr | Emerging themes in agile software development: Introduction to the special section on continuous value delivery[END_REF]. Business value frequently represents only the most important customers' point of view and it can differ from the user value [START_REF] Kuusinen | How to make agile UX work more efficient: management and sales perspectives[END_REF]. In addition to business value, the required developer effort (cost of implementation) has an impact on the order of the user stories. Thus, from the beginning of the project, there are at least four competing forces -the voice of the business owner, customer, user and developer -which might all base on conflicting values.

There are no established means to balance between these values although several approaches have been presented. Decisions are habitually made based on the business owners', product owners' or customers' gut feeling. On the other hand, as the process is iterative and incremental, decisions can and should be made as late as possible with the then understanding throughout the software lifecycle and improved later when further information is available. Nevertheless, the concept of value remains often vague as the project proceeds and a shared idea of value between different stakeholders is rarely formed [START_REF] Dingsøyr | Emerging themes in agile software development: Introduction to the special section on continuous value delivery[END_REF].

Thus, in a software project, several people can work together towards undefined value goal which each of them might understand in their own way from their own perspective. The big picture of the project then becomes blurred from the beginning and does not improve towards the end either [START_REF] Lárusdóttir | The Big Picture of UX is Missing in Scrum Projects[END_REF]. Moreover, working with different stakeholders means working with people from various disciplines and backgrounds, which inherently makes communication more difficult as the used concepts and foci are different.

This position paper discusses the values and needs of different stakeholder roles and the assumptions these roles habitually have on other roles. Furthermore, it discusses how to overcome value conflicts to develop highly valuable software. Section 2 discusses the concept of value in software engineering. Section 3 presents the five focal roles (business owner, customer, developer user, and UX specialist) and their needs and values. Finally, section 4 presents conclusions over this emerging work.

Value in Agile Software Engineering

This section discusses the concept of value in agile software engineering literature. Graeber [START_REF] Graeber | Toward an anthropological theory of value: The false coin of our own dreams[END_REF] defines value from three perspectives; in sociological, economic and linguistic sense as the conception of what is ultimately good in human life, as a person's willingness to pay a price for certain product or service benefits and as a meaningful difference. The three perspectives are relevant to software development as well. Software engineering aims at enabling the creation of complex computer-based systems which will meet the needs of users in a timely manner with quality [START_REF] Pressman | Software engineering -A practitioner's approach[END_REF]. Thus, a software system is both "the programs, documents, and data" created during the development and "the resultant information that somehow makes the user's world better" [START_REF] Pressman | Software engineering -A practitioner's approach[END_REF]. In general, software developers traditionally have their focus on the programs, documents and data whereas user experience specialists focus on ensuring that the resultant information will make the user's world better. Thus, user experience specialists' task is to understand the sociological side of value whereas the business owner brings in the economic perspective. As the software project proceeds, each software increment should bring in a meaningful difference (growth) in value.

The approach where distinct business and user experience specialists bring social and economic value to the project works in traditional development where developers implement predefined requirements. However, developers are in a central role in agile and the development team should be able to make decisions that foster business, customer and user value as well as technical quality and rapid development. Multidisciplinarity and cross-functional teams help in rapid decision-making on issues related to different value types [START_REF] Kuusinen | BoB: A Framework for Organizing Within-Iteration UX Work in Agile Development[END_REF]. The developer must learn from other disciplines to think about economic and societal value and the other internal roles should understand something about the technical side to make the work effortless and improve the communication [START_REF] Kuusinen | Task allocation between UX specialists and developers in agile software development projects[END_REF][START_REF] Kuusinen | BoB: A Framework for Organizing Within-Iteration UX Work in Agile Development[END_REF]. Also, it is beneficial for the customer to understand about the economic, technical and user side of the software project to be able to make informed decisions about the scope of the project, where to have users involved and so forth [START_REF] Kuusinen | How to make agile UX work more efficient: management and sales perspectives[END_REF].

In software engineering, value is frequently understood as usefulness, utility, and importance or as the relative worth or monetary worth of something [START_REF] Dingsøyr | Emerging themes in agile software development: Introduction to the special section on continuous value delivery[END_REF]. These types of value often necessitate that external stakeholders outside the development team (customer, user etc.) assign the value. Thus, the team must learn what the external stakeholders such as customers and users value during a development project. However, estimating, calculating, and measuring business value of software delivery is abstruse [25]. Software is ubiquitous and increasing in size and complexity. For these reasons, software development decisions have a crucial impact on the value delivery and better ways to address the value proposition are needed.

Stakeholder Views on Value

This section presents value from different stakeholder perspectives. The views mostly reflect on our own previous research but are also built on other literature. The roles are according to business to business development where a company orders software from another company typically for its own internal users who will use the software in their work.

Business or product owner is the person in the company developing the software whose main role is to ensure the economic revenue for the developing company but also to guarantee the customer satisfaction. Business or product owner's view is on the business and monetary value of the project for the developing company; how to maximize the return on investment for the shareholders. The secondary goal is to keep the customer happy and to build the relationship with the customer. Thus, the product owner might, for example, drive the development of features that they know are not useful for the user but which the customer wants for some reason [START_REF] Kuusinen | Agile user experience development in a large software organization: good expertise but limited impact[END_REF][START_REF] Kuusinen | How to make agile UX work more efficient: management and sales perspectives[END_REF]. Sure, some business owners might want to explain why such a feature would be a bad idea and suggest a more feasible solution for example, to improve the long-term customer relationship and trust between the partners. For business owner, it is good to keep in mind that customer and user values are distinct. Customer does not necessarily know what the user values although they might say so [START_REF] Kuusinen | Designing user experience for mobile apps: Long-term product owner perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Kuusinen | Agile user experience development in a large software organization: good expertise but limited impact[END_REF][START_REF] Kuusinen | How to make agile UX work more efficient: management and sales perspectives[END_REF]. Moreover, assessing the impact of a business decision on user experience can be beneficial in cases where user value differs from customer value [START_REF] Kuusinen | Agile user experience development in a large software organization: good expertise but limited impact[END_REF].

Customer is a person from the purchasing company who often manages the requirements engineering and scoping of the project. Thus, a business customer values a solution for their problem. Typically, it includes a more efficient, robust, safer, faster, automated or cheaper approach compared to the current one. It can also be a novel approach or field for the customer. Software projects are typically mainly negotiated between the customer and the business or product owner roles. Customer usually selects the way of working in the project on a high level. They decide whether users are involved, whether the project is agile and so forth. It is crucial that the person who represents the customer has the required power of decision to enable fast and agile decision-making throughout the project. It is also critical that the customer understands the importance of user involvement and does not think they can decide for the user only because they understand the business process behind the software being purchased [START_REF] Kuusinen | How to make agile UX work more efficient: management and sales perspectives[END_REF].

Software developer designs and implements the software. They value the work itself [START_REF] Beecham | Motivation in software engineering: A systematic literature review[END_REF][START_REF] Franca | Motivation in software engineering: A systematic review update[END_REF]. Their goal typically is to build working, technically sophisticated software. Many developers are motivated by the thought that someone will use the software and that they are helping other people whereas others are mainly driven by being able to solve challenging technical problems [START_REF] Lakhani | Why hackers do what they do: Understanding motivation and effort in free/open source software projects[END_REF]. Feeling good about the work, being in control of the development tasks, sense of competence, and being able to work with the development environment without effort are associated with developers' motivation and good developer experience [START_REF] Kuusinen | Are Software Developers Just Users of Development Tools? Assessing Developer Experience of a Graphical User Interface Designer[END_REF][START_REF] Kuusinen | Flow, intrinsic motivation, and developer experience in software engineering[END_REF]. A pitfall for a developer is to love too much the technical side of the software and forget about the user or vice versa [START_REF] Kuusinen | Agile user experience development in a large software organization: good expertise but limited impact[END_REF].

User is the person who interacts with the system [START_REF]Ergonomics of human-system interaction. Part 210: Humancentered design for interactive systems[END_REF]. Hassenzahl [START_REF] Hassenzahl | How motivational orientation influences the evaluation and choice of hedonic and pragmatic interactive products: The role of regulatory focus[END_REF] sees user as a person with multiple hierarchical goals they are to achieve by interacting with a system. Users have instrumental goals, so called "do-goals", such as making a phone call. These instrumental goals can be satisfied with traditional usability properties such as ease of use, efficiency and usefulness. Hedonic goals or "be-goals" on the other hand are supported by systems hedonic quality, the perceived ability to selfexpression, competency, autonomy, stimulation, relatedness and popularity. In professional life, the system's ability to motivate and create sense of professionalism are indicators of hedonic quality [START_REF] Kuusinen | Towards understanding how agile teams predict user experience[END_REF].

User experience specialist is responsible for the social value of the software under development. Their main goal is to satisfy users' needs and design for good user experience. UX specialist is typically the one who ensures that users' voice is heard from the beginning and throughout the project. UX specialist diffuses the user value from what the user is saying or showing. UX specialist is especially responsible of the hedonic quality of the software since the users cannot express that by themselves. Moreover, understanding and designing for the hedonic value is difficult without deep understanding of UX [START_REF] Kuusinen | Towards understanding how agile teams predict user experience[END_REF]. Thus, the other stakeholder roles are usually not able to do it although they can successfully learn many other UX tasks [START_REF] Kuusinen | Task allocation between UX specialists and developers in agile software development projects[END_REF][START_REF] Kuusinen | BoB: A Framework for Organizing Within-Iteration UX Work in Agile Development[END_REF][START_REF] Kuusinen | Towards understanding how agile teams predict user experience[END_REF].

Overcoming Value Clashes

This section discusses practices found in literature that can help the agile team to identify and create value in a software project.

Business value is characteristically ambiguous and it is difficult to define it accurately in an agile software project [25]. Supporting social interactions between stakeholders [START_REF] Alahyari | A study of value in agile software development organizations[END_REF] and having value workshops [START_REF] Paasivaara | Supporting a large-scale lean and agile transformation by defining common values[END_REF] can make it easier to identify value and form a mutual understanding of it. Even a short workshop between the business owner and users before writing user stories can help to clarify the project focus and lead to better economic and user value [START_REF] Kuusinen | Designing user experience for mobile apps: Long-term product owner perspective[END_REF]. Also, different stakeholder roles can be identified and participated into thinking of what value means for that role. These rolebiased values are then discussed together for example in a value workshop to create a mutual understanding of the overall business value before starting the actual development. The mutual understanding can then be groomed later as required.

A software value map [START_REF] Khurum | The software value map-an exhaustive collection of value aspects for the development of software intensive products[END_REF] can broaden the thinking of value. It presents various value perspectives such as those of customer, financial, internal business learning and innovation. Customer value consists of perceived value including usability, reliability, delivery time and cost and lifetime value including customer revenue and different sources of cost.

Value points [START_REF] Highsmith | Agile project management: creating innovative products[END_REF] or benefit points [START_REF] Hannay | Benefit Points: The Best Part of the Story[END_REF] can be used to concretize and order identified sources of value. They are used similarly to agile story points. Whereas story points measure the required implementation effort of a user story, value points or benefit points measure its value. For example, numbers 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 or Fibonacci series can be used to evaluate the value. The scale and scoring is arbitrary and subjective and the idea is not to create absolute value scores but to enable comparing between the importance of different sources of business value.

As value is not independent from cost, Gillain et al. [START_REF] Gillain | Planning Optimal Agile Releases via Requirements Optimization[END_REF] suggest that value should be assessed together with cost-estimates. The customer can consider one feature more valuable than another per se, but if there is a substantial difference in cost, they might change their opinion. One practical tool for assessing both value and cost is a scale that takes both value and cost points into account. This encourages to select between features instead of giving high value points to all of them.

Agile embraces change. The overall value can be unknown when the project starts and it can be challenging to conceptualize it. Therefore, revisiting and reordering the sources of value in increment reviews can be beneficial. Also, assessing the ability of the implemented software to generate expected value can make it easier to focus the project and in making estimations of the anticipated business value of the future increments. Continuous customer and user involvement helps in reassessing value as most of the business value ought to be assigned by external stakeholders [START_REF] Dingsøyr | Emerging themes in agile software development: Introduction to the special section on continuous value delivery[END_REF].

Conclusion

This position paper presented views on value identification and creation in agile business to business software development. Early and continuous value delivery is a core function of agile software development. However, the value itself often remains undefined in agile projects and each stakeholder role might take it as given from their own perspective. That can lead to misunderstandings and make the project goals unclear. It can also lead to arbitrary decisions on product scope which may endanger the delivery of good user experience. This paper presented common pitfalls and thinking biases different stakeholder roles might fall into if they are not aware of those. Furthermore, this paper presented practices that can help in the identification and prioritization of value in agile software projects. Future work includes observing the value creation process in organizations to generate a sounder understanding of value sources and conflicts between them.

Acknowledgments. The research behind this paper has been conducted while I was working at Tampere University of Technology, Finland and for the Agile Research Network (ARN http://agileresearchnetwork.org) which is a collaboration between researchers at the Open University and the University of Central Lancashire, UK.