Keegan Mcbride
email: keegan.mcbride@ttu.ee

Maarja Toots

Tarmo Kalvet

Robert Krimmer

Ragnar Nurkse

Open Government Data Driven Co-creation: Moving Towards Citizen-Government Collaboration

Keywords: Open Government Data, Co-Creation, Public Service Innovation

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Currently, within the fields of e-Government and public administration, scholars are proclaiming that public services are changing, Information Communication Technologies (ICTs) are helping to drive this change, and ICTs are empowering citizens, which may lead to higher rates of innovation in the public sector [START_REF]European Commission: A vision for public services[END_REF][START_REF]OECD: Together for Better Public Services: Partnering with Citizens and Civil Society[END_REF][START_REF] Dunleavy | New public management is dead -Long live digital-era governance[END_REF][START_REF] Linders | From e-government to we-government: Defining a typology for citizen coproduction in the age of social media[END_REF][START_REF] Osborne | A New Theory for Public Service Management? Toward a (Public) Service-Dominant Approach[END_REF].

Similarly, there is talk of changing how we understand and define a public service; for the purpose of this paper, the following definition of public service is adopted: public services are "any services which are offered to the general public with the purpose of developing public value, regardless of the role that the public sector plays in the process" [START_REF] Toots | A Framework for Data-Driven Public Service Co-Production[END_REF].

One major way that ICTs are empowering citizens and transforming public service creation and delivery is through digitally enabled co-creation. Specifically, it seems that ICTs and digital technologies can be applied in a variety of ways to enable different forms of co-creation [START_REF] Lember | The increasing role of new technologies in co-production[END_REF]. A recent paper notes that digital technologies and ICTs are primarily effecting co-creation in three different ways: changing traditional co-creation, enabling new forms of co-creation, and replacing traditional co-creation through automated processes [START_REF] Lember | The increasing role of new technologies in co-production[END_REF]. However, as noted by [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF], more work is needed when it comes to understanding how OGD may be used to create new and innovative services; it is also brought up by [START_REF] Mcbride | Co-Creating an Open Government Data Driven Public Service: The Case of Chicago's Food Inspection Forecasting Model[END_REF] that there is little empirical work and more research is needed into the emerging phenomenon of co-created OGD-driven public services. A recent paper, [START_REF] Khayyat | Towards a model for facilitating and enabling co-creation using open government data[END_REF], discusses the relationship between OGD and co-creation, but the concept of co-created OGD-driven public services is not touched on in detail. To better address the research gap, two research questions were formulated that this paper aims to address: 1) How can OGD contribute to the co-creation of new public services? 2) How does OGD influence our understanding of stakeholder roles in the public service delivery process?

In order to answer these research questions, an exploratory case study was conducted on a pilot project that is being conducted as part of a Horizon2020 (H2020) project where a new public service is being co-created through the exploitation of OGD. This project aims to explore how OGD may be used to help drive co-creation and innovation within the public sector [START_REF] Krimmer | Deliverable 2.1 OpenGovIntelligence framework--first release[END_REF]. To demonstrate how this happens, six pilots are being conducted, one of which is taking place in Estonia. The Estonian Real Estate Pilot Program (EREPP) is a pilot project that is carried out in cooperation between the Estonian Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications (MKM) and Tallinn University of Technology (TTU). The authors of this paper were directly involved with the project and in charge of the implementation of the pilot application in Estonia. This project gives the researchers direct access to the process of co-creating a new public service that is based on OGD; for this reason the project was selected as an appropriate case for answering the proposed research questions.

The paper starts with an initial overview of the concepts of co-creation, OGD, and OGD-driven co-created public services. Following this, the methodology for the paper is put forth and, additionally, a conceptual model is provided as it aids the investigation of co-created OGD-driven public services. In the next section, the context surrounding the case and the case itself is presented. Following this, a discussion of the results of the case will take place where propositions will be forth in addition to reflections and implications that this case may have for the current theory and understanding of cocreated OGD-driven public services.

Co-creation and OGD

Co-creation. The term co-creation has its roots in the concept of "coproduction", which was first coined by Elinor Ostrom 1972 [START_REF] Ostrom | Metropolitan reform: Propositions derived from two traditions[END_REF] . Ostrom found that in areas where citizens were more forthcoming and welcoming to law enforcement, there was a higher level of public service, or a higher production of public value, compared to areas where citizens were not as cooperative with the police [START_REF] Ostrom | Formation of Police and law enforcement policy[END_REF][START_REF] Osborne | Co-Production and the Co-Creation of Value in Public Services: A suitable case for treatment?[END_REF]. She thus concluded that the value of a public service was very much determined by not just the provider of the service, but by the interaction between the consumer of the service and the provider [START_REF] Ostrom | Formation of Police and law enforcement policy[END_REF][START_REF] Sharp | Toward a New Understanding of Urban Services and Citizen Participation: The Coproduction Concept[END_REF][START_REF] Whitaker | Coproduction : Delivery in Service Participation Citizen[END_REF]. When Ostrom talks about coproduction, she defines it as "the process through which inputs used to produce a good or service are contributed by individuals who are not "in" the same organization" [START_REF] Ostrom | Crossing the Great Divide : Synergy , and Development[END_REF]. Ostrom also notes that using the term "client" when defining a service is not necessarily the best term as client is "a passive term", and in her understanding of coproduction citizens can "play an active role in producing public goods and services of consequences to them" [START_REF] Ostrom | Crossing the Great Divide : Synergy , and Development[END_REF]. Though participation of service consumers is paramount for the success of a public service, one should not count on service consumers to be automatically engaged and active citizens once a new service is provided [START_REF] Pestoff | Co-production as a social and governance innovation in public services[END_REF]. A new public service needs to motivate active coproduction; however, if a public service requires higher levels of motivation for participation it is also likely that there will be an increased effort "required of service consumers to overcome hurdles to participation" [START_REF] Verschuere | Co-production: The State of the Art in Research and the Future Agenda[END_REF]. One way to lower the barriers to coproduction is to involve citizens at every stage of the public service creation process; this is known as co-creation. In this paper, the term "cocreation" may be understood as "the involvement of outside, non-typical, stakeholders in the initiation, design, implementation, and evaluation of a new public service" [START_REF] Toots | A Framework for Data-Driven Public Service Co-Production[END_REF]. Open government data. This paper deals specifically with OGD rather than open data in general. There are currently many different definitions of OGD [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF][START_REF] Gonzalez-Zapata | The multiple meanings of open government data: Understanding different stakeholders and their perspectives[END_REF][START_REF]Open Knowledge Foundation: What is Open Data?[END_REF], but most definitions share some core components: data must be machine readable, it should be licensed in a way to allow easy sharing and reuse of data, and it should be usable and understandable by humans. With this in mind, for the purpose of this paper the following definition of OGD will be used: OGD is non-confidential data which is gathered, and subsequently released by a government organization in a machine readable format which is discoverable, usable, and freely available [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF][START_REF]Open Knowledge Foundation: What is Open Data?[END_REF][START_REF] Toots | Open Data as Enabler of Public Service Co-creation : Exploring the Drivers and Barriers[END_REF]. Benefits of OGD. There have been recent academic works such as [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF][START_REF] Toots | Open Data as Enabler of Public Service Co-creation : Exploring the Drivers and Barriers[END_REF] that present some of benefits that may be provided by OGD. Some benefits (though there are likely many more) are increased transparency, new forms of social participation, innovation, creation of new public services, increased accountability, creation of new business models and improved data models [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF], [START_REF] Janssen | Open Data , Information Processing and Datification of Government[END_REF][START_REF] Dawes | Planning and designing open government data programs: An ecosystem approach[END_REF][START_REF] Hartog | Open Data Within Governmental Organisations: Effects, Benefits and Challenges of the Implementation Process[END_REF]. Barriers Relating to the Use and Release of OGD. If OGD is released, and it is truly open (it meets the requirements set out in the definition provided earlier), then it has the potential to create major benefits for society. However, as pointed out by [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF], just making OGD available is not enough, as "the value is created by its use". OGD usage generally refers to any interaction an actor (a user of OGD can come from any sector be it private or governmental [START_REF] Toots | Open Data as Enabler of Public Service Co-creation : Exploring the Drivers and Barriers[END_REF]) has with the data, such as downloading, analyzing, or exploiting the data [START_REF] Mcbride | Co-Creating an Open Government Data Driven Public Service: The Case of Chicago's Food Inspection Forecasting Model[END_REF][START_REF] Foulonneau | How Open Data are turned into services?[END_REF][START_REF] Foulonneau | Open data in service design[END_REF].

There have been many attempts to provide a better understanding of OGD barriers [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF][START_REF] Toots | Open Data as Enabler of Public Service Co-creation : Exploring the Drivers and Barriers[END_REF][START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Open data policies, their implementation and impact: A framework for comparison[END_REF][START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Socio-technical Impediments of Open Data[END_REF][START_REF] Conradie | On the barriers for local government releasing open data[END_REF]. On the user level, commonly cited barriers are the lack of technological understanding/ability; lack of domain knowledge; language barriers to the data; lack of time to use data [START_REF] Toots | Open Data as Enabler of Public Service Co-creation : Exploring the Drivers and Barriers[END_REF][START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Open data policies, their implementation and impact: A framework for comparison[END_REF][START_REF] Conradie | On the barriers for local government releasing open data[END_REF][START_REF] Young | Civic Hackers' User Experiences and Expectations of Seattle's Open Municipal Data Program[END_REF]. On the government level, commonly cited barriers are missing political motivation; no understanding of the potential benefits of open data; missing technical infrastructure or technical know-how; poor data quality; confidentiality or personal data issues related to the release of data [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF][START_REF] Toots | Open Data as Enabler of Public Service Co-creation : Exploring the Drivers and Barriers[END_REF][START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Open data policies, their implementation and impact: A framework for comparison[END_REF][START_REF] Conradie | On the barriers for local government releasing open data[END_REF][START_REF] Young | Civic Hackers' User Experiences and Expectations of Seattle's Open Municipal Data Program[END_REF].

On the government level, a majority of the barriers are directly related to the release and publishing of open data whereas, on the user level, a majority of the barriers relate to their ability to use or understand OGD. However, in the case where these user barriers do not apply, namely when the user of the data has a strong understanding of data analytics and a personal interest in open data, they may often struggle to use the OGD which is provided. In this situation, the most relevant barriers are related to the poor quality (encoding issues, missing values, lack of metadata, etc.) of the OGD, lack of interesting information, outdated data, and lack of an application programming interface (API) functionality [START_REF] Young | Civic Hackers' User Experiences and Expectations of Seattle's Open Municipal Data Program[END_REF].

Framework for Understanding OGD-Driven Co-Created Public Services

In order to better understand this concept of co-created OGD-driven public services, the framework (Figure 1) put forth by [START_REF] Toots | A Framework for Data-Driven Public Service Co-Production[END_REF] is to be used. In previous research, the authors of the framework proposed that OGD plays an almost catalytic role in the co-creation process and, once OGD has been introduced, it may be exploited by any actor to co-create a new public service. This framework draws on the ideas of agile development, lean methodology, and co-creation to propose an OGD-driven co-creation cycle, which consists of four steps: co-initiation, co-design, co-implementation, and co-evaluation. This conceptualization of the process puts forth the idea that when OGD is released, any actor is able to exploit OGD and become an active participant in the co-creation of a new public service. This process is able to start when access to OGD becomes available and OGD becomes subsequently exploited.

In order to understand better how OGD exploitation occurs, four propositions have been put forth which will then be referred back to in the discussion.

 Proposition 1 (P1): In order for OGD to be able to contribute effectively to the cocreation of new public services, a change in the current understanding of stakeholders in the public service creation process must take place.  Proposition 2 (P2): If OGD is released by government agencies, and this data is used to create a new public service, then the government is a participant in its co-creation.  Proposition 3 (P3): OGD may be used as a base, or platform, from which new and innovative public services may be co-created between government agencies, who maintain and release the data, and with outside stakeholders.  Proposition 4 (P4): OGD has the potential to enable, encourage, and drive public service co-creation.

Methodology

The research for this paper was carried out in the form of a single holistic exploratory case study [START_REF]European Commission: A vision for public services[END_REF]. For this paper, four different sources of evidence have been used: semistructured interviews, workshops, survey, and documents. Six semi-structured interviews were conducted with members from Estonian public administration and from Estonian civil society; all members were selected due to the interest and role in OGD and service design and delivery. A list of five basic questions was drafted and used as the starting point for all interviews and all interviews were recorded, transcribed, coded, and then analyzed. Five interviews were done in person, and one interview was done through email. Two different workshops were attended (the first of which was organized by the authors). The workshop organized by the authors followed Nominal Group Technique [START_REF]OECD: Together for Better Public Services: Partnering with Citizens and Civil Society[END_REF]; in attendance were seven different public sector agencies and two Estonian start-ups; all participants played a role in either releasing, maintaining, or using OGD. The second workshop was a working group made up of members from private sector companies and public sector organizations in Estonia that were working together to plan and understand how government could become more data-driven. In the workshops, all responses to questions were written down by the participants and collected at the end of the day by the organizers, and then coded and analyzed. As part of a larger study, a survey was conducted that aimed to gain insight into how OGD could be used in the co-creation on new public services. This survey received 63 responses, however the responses received represented six different countries so only the responses from the Estonian stakeholders were included in this paper. Nine responses were received from Estonian stakeholders: three from the nongovernmental sector and six from the public administration sector; for previous discussion on the results of the survey, please see [START_REF] Dunleavy | New public management is dead -Long live digital-era governance[END_REF]. Finally, for the document analysis, Estonian public policy documents, white papers, and laws were examined. For the purpose of anonymity, interview and survey responses are cited in this paper using codes: interviews are referred to by letters from "A" to "F" and survey respondents by four-letter codes where "EE" indicates Estonia, and "PA" or "NG" indicate whether the respondent represents the public sector or the non-governmental sector respectively.

5

The Case

Case Context

The pilot case was part of the H2020-funded project OpenGovIntelligence which had selected six different countries for pilot projects to be carried out. These pilot projects should address a relevant and current societal issue and, if done successfully, the pilot should demonstrate how OGD is able to drive innovation, improve service quality, and overcome barriers relates to the use and exploitation of OGD in the public service creation context [START_REF] Krimmer | Deliverable 2.1 OpenGovIntelligence framework--first release[END_REF]. For the project, Estonia was able to provide a problem, potential datasets, and articulate a reasonable solution for the problem. Additionally, Estonia also came with the image of being a world leader and expert when it comes to ICT innovation, e-services, and e-society [START_REF] Kalvet | Innovation: a factor explaining e-government success in Estonia[END_REF]. Thus, Estonia was expected to provide a good location for using OGD, in combination with newly created ICT tools, to create a new public service that has a high potential to create new benefit for society.

Once Estonia had been selected as a pilot country, the process to understand the current situation of OGD and co-creation began. The initial research included an overview of the potentially relevant legal texts, an overview of relevant government ministry documents, a survey, and further on in the project unstructured interviews were undertaken to get further knowledge of stakeholder perception of OGD and co-creation of publics services. The results of this research provide the necessary contextual foundation for understanding a more in depth discussion of the case. Inside Estonia OGD is regulated by the Public Information Act (PIA). In the act it is stated that all data that may be used for public purposes, that is to say it is not restricted by law, shall be opened to the public [START_REF]Riigikogu: Public Information Act[END_REF]. The PIA continues on to say that data should be released in machine readable format and come without any restriction on reuse of the data; however, it also states that this is only required if it would not involve "disproportionately great effort" for data holders [START_REF]Riigikogu: Public Information Act[END_REF]. Agencies should be following an "open by default" policy, but often what ends up happening is agencies hire a person to deal with all incoming data requests (Interview D). Estonia has made steps in the right direction for OGD, but as it is not a concrete requirement for all data to be made available in an open and machine-readable format, the availability of OGD in Estonia is lacking (Interviews A&C, Survey EENG1, EENG3, EEPA5).

The second important part of the background information relates to the current situation and understanding of co-creation of public services within Estonia. The idea of co-creation of public services within Estonia is one that does not have much government support (Interview A-F, Survey EENG1, EENG2, EENG3, EEPA3, EEPA5, EEPA6). Some of the reasons for this include not enough funding, not enough citizen demand, low levels of collaboration between citizens and government, and lack of understanding of the concept (Interviews A, B, C, D, E, F). With this in mind, steps are being taken to try to move towards creation of new public services that have been co-created with citizens (Interview E & F). Many agencies are going out to end users to ask for their input on what services they need and then trying to involve them in the design and creation process (Interview D).

Though Estonian public agencies are beginning to consult potential service end users at the beginning stages of development, this is often where the cooperation ends (Interview B). When looking at the usage of OGD for the co-creation of new public services inside Estonia there is not, yet, an example as it is not currently occurring. Some of the main reasons for this are the infancy stage of the Estonian OGD infrastructure and agencies not being willing to participate in co-creation of services with citizens and other stakeholders (Interviews B & F).

Case Description

Due to the poor quality of OGD in Estonia, one of the aims of the pilot project was to lobby for increased availability of OGD. The pilot project aimed to include users in the service design, development, implementation, and evaluation as often as possible. The events presented within this case study took place between June 2016 and December 2017 and represent the co-initiation, co-design, and co-implementation stage.

Co-Initiation. The idea for the pilot project within Estonia was co-initiated. The initial topic was proposed by foreign academics and students within Estonia, the idea was then presented to the Ministry of Economic Affairs and Communications (MKM) where it was refined and accepted. The need for such a service has also been highlighted by numerous individuals in Estonian expat groups both in person and on social networks. Once the service had been accepted and put forth, the next steps were the co-design and co-implementation of the service. Co-Design. As the service aims to demonstrate how OGD may be used to create a new public service, the first task to be completed was to gain an overview of the OGD sets that were currently available. In order to identify these datasets, two different approaches were used. The first and initial starting point was a simple Google search using the Estonian term for open data, "Avaandmed". The second approach was to make requests to government agencies for datasets that could be useful for pilot development.

To aid in the initial design of the new service, two workshops were conducted. The first Estonian Real Estate Pilot Program Workshop was conducted on 16 September 2016. The workshop had nine attendees (excluding the organization team) who represented seven different government agencies and two private sector companies. The workshop was divided into two sessions. In the first session, the participants discussed and came up with four main benefits of an Estonian real estate portal based around OGD: fairer pricing, happier citizens, one stop shop for real estate data, and increased availability and usage of real estate information. The second session was titled "Constructing the Functionality" and dealt primarily with constructing user stories and personas. In any agile development project, personas and user stories play a critical role as they allow the development to reflect better the actual needs of the users [START_REF] Chamberlain | Towards a framework for integrating agile development and user-centred design[END_REF]. Two core target groups consistent throughout the participants' work: foreign students and foreign employees who are moving to Tallinn were selected as the initial groups for the pilot.

Taking into account the personas and the user stories, the initial datasets that should be included in the pilot program were discussed, voted on, and selected. These five datasets were public transport data, safety data, price data, point of interest data (schools or doctor's offices), and property information (such as age of the building, amenities within the building, or the accessibility of the building).

A second presentation and workshop took place at a meeting of the Estonian Data Analytics Working Group, which is made up of members from multiple public and private sector organizations. What was discovered at the workshop, and matched the literature and the results of the previous workshop, was that OGD was generally looked upon favorably and as a needed innovation, but that there was no political will or user demand for better OGD. The private sector representatives took a critical approach towards the presented service, the general criticism was that this work seemed to be better suited for private sector agencies and that the data that had thus far been cleaned would be very valuable for some private sector companies' business models.

Co-Implementation. After the workshops, the five OGD sets that had been selected for use were explored. These datasets required a large amount of cleaning and manipulation in order to make them usable, this initial work was conducted by staff members at TTU. At the same time this data cleaning was progressing, a hackathon sponsored by MKM that dealt with big and open data was announced. In order to test, design, and implement a new OGD driven service, the datasets that had been gathered and cleaned were brought to the hackathon (which took place from 21 to 23 October, 2016) and the idea for an OGD-driven real estate portal was pitched and selected.

A team was formed with members from the project team at TTU and members of the big data science team from the private sector company Nortal. As a compromise between these two groups, the datasets that had been cleaned and obtained by TTU's project team would be used, but it was to be a commercially oriented service rather than a free service; however, the creation of public value was still to be the main goal. Over the next 48 hours, a new service MVP was built which used OGD to rate different addresses based on an individual's preferences. After 48 hours, this idea was presented to the audience where it received an honorary mention for providing valuable location based information.

After the hackathon, development continued on the pilot project. Initially, MKM was intended to develop the new service in cooperation with TTU and outside stakeholders. However, there was much organizational push back, which eventually led to TTU taking the lead in pilot development. The initial development sprint took place between 15 and 18 March, 2017; the initial goal of the sprint was to develop a fairly simple and easy to understand user interface for the pilot project. As EREPP aims to encourage others to participate in the design and development of the service, the code is completely open source and hosted on GitHub.

Discussion

Earlier, four different propositions were put forth and investigated, the case will now be discussed, and the propositions reflected back upon. P1 stated that a change in the current understanding of stakeholders in the public service creation process must take place, if OGD was to be able to contribute effectively to the co-creation of new public services. Along with a change in understanding of the role of stakeholders, there must also be an organizational change in how public services are understood. There are many different understandings of the definition of public service within Estonia, but one that is often referred to is as follows, "a public service is a service that the state, local government, or a person in private law performing public duties provides at the will (including the presumable will) of a person for the performance of their legal obligations or exercise of their rights" [36]. In the interviews it was claimed that a public service was, in essence, something that was paid for by public money and carried out by a public agency (Interviews B,C,D,E,F). Thus, according to these definitions, citizens could not (should not) be able to create new public services. This understanding of public services also carries out into the understanding of the roles of the stakeholders in the public service creation process. When asked, interviewees often said that citizens should be consulted at the beginning stages of a new service and asked for feedback throughout (Interviews B,D,E,F). However, when asked if citizens should be able to play a role in the creation and design of a new public service, the answer appears to be no (Interviews B,F). The interviewees did state that though outside stakeholders are currently not able to play a role in public service co-creation, this may change in the future (Interviews B,F). There seem to be two primary reasons for why stakeholders are not currently viewed as being able to play a role in the co-creation of new public services in Estonia. The first relates back to the definition of a public service in Estonia, and the second is that citizens are referred to as clients or customers rather than as partners or collaborators (Interviews D,E,F). Throughout the case, resistance to the notion that government agencies could work with citizens as partners was clear. The clearest example of this is through the actions of MKM. During the case, TTU took over the pilot implementation from MKM. This was an interesting development, as TTU and MKM still worked together, but instead of the government agency developing the new public service, a university had taken the lead. Though a new public service is in the process of being created, and it does exploit some OGD sources, the effectiveness of the pilot program has been hindered by the lack of access to OGD and the organizational belief that outside stakeholders should not be able to play a part in the co-creation of new public services.

In regards to P2, there seems to be an interesting paradox currently in place in Estonia. On the one hand, some interviewees stated that citizens should not, or are not, able to play a role in the co-creation of a new public service (Interview B). On the other hand, government agencies do make some of their data open, and this data can be exploited to create public value (as demonstrated by this case). Thus, by releasing open data, government agencies are willingly becoming a participant in the co-creation of new services (whether they mean to or not). When government agencies release open data, citizens have the possibility to use, analyze, and exploit this data. In the Estonian case, government agencies were constantly communicated with to discuss issues in relation to data availability, data quality, data structure, etc. This communication accomplished a few different things: it increased communication between service developers and government agencies, it increased awareness of data issues, and, as noted by Interviewee A, these conversations help government agencies become aware of what data they have, what they do not, and what the current issues are.

Related to P3, by opening up datasets, government agencies allow other stakeholders to create public value through the exploitation of their data, while at the same time gaining valuable information in regards to their own data; thus, the government acts platform-like. Though this interaction takes place and does seem to provide tangible benefits for both government sector and other stakeholders, it is also one of the largest barriers present. The reason for this is that releasing data requires government agencies to acknowledge that there is an alternative way to create public services and that other stakeholders may come to be seen as partners or as collaborators rather than as customers or dependents. In line with P4, the case does seem to confirm that there is a relationship between OGD and co-creation. If OGD is available, any actor is able to exploit or analyze this data to create new public value. Throughout the process where OGD becomes exploited, co-creation is occurring, at a minimum, between the government agency and the actor that is exploiting the data. Furthermore, the service provider is also acting a service user at the same time, as they are reliant upon the government's open data. Finally, if an application is developed on top of exploited OGD, a complex public service delivery system begins to emerge. These public service delivery systems are made up of many different stakeholders with different goals, motivations, and behaviors; based on this one case, it does seem to be true that networks, relationships, and feedback have a strong role in influencing the design, development, and implementation of the new public service.

Conclusion and Future Research

The aim of this paper was not to provide a thorough discussion and overview of all the drivers and barriers of OGD, but, rather, to explore and understand the process in which new public services can be co-created through the use and exploitation of OGD. The provision and creation of new and innovative services is one proposed benefit of OGD. Specifically, OGD seems to have the potential to play a catalytic role in the co-creation of new public services. Though this potential appears to exist, there is a large research gap and lack of empirical studies that aim to understand how this process actually occurs. To address this research gap, an exploratory case study was conducted to gain some initial empirical understanding of the process that is undergone to co-create an OGD-public service. An initial conceptual model for understanding co-created OGDdriven public services served as the foundational point for understanding this process. As a result of this exploration, some interesting conclusions seem to appear. Firstly, the availability of OGD may lead to a change in our understanding of public service delivery and the roles that different stakeholders play in this process. In order for the co-creation of OGD-driven public services to take place, governments must be willing to acknowledge that non-traditional stakeholders can take the role of public service creator; if this does not occur, then it becomes increasingly difficult for other stakeholders to co-create new and innovative services. Secondly, it appears that there is genuine interest from non-traditional stakeholders to get involved in the co-creation of new public services; they just need to be given the opportunity to do so. This was shown by the participation of many stakeholder groups throughout the design of the Estonian pilot. Finally, some barriers that may inhibit the co-creation of OGD-driven public services that have been brought out in the literature seem to be reaffirmed: low data quality, organizational push back, inadequate legal frameworks, and a lack of government support.

Though the findings that have emerged from this paper seem to be confirmed from this case study, it must be noted that this is a single case study and, as such, further empirical research should be conducted to test these conclusions and recommendations. This future research could aim to understand how OGD influences public service cocreation, the sustainability of co-created OGD-driven public services, how the process differs depending on what stakeholder group drives the process, and how the presence of OGD influences the relationships between public service producers and public service consumers.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig.1. OGD-driven Public Service Co-Creation Framework. Source:[START_REF] Toots | A Framework for Data-Driven Public Service Co-Production[END_REF]

Acknowledgements

This work was supported by the European Commission (OpenGovIntelligence H2020 grant 693849), Estonian Research Council (PUT773, PUT1361) and TTU Digital Governance Competency Center (SS483).


Shefali Virkar
email: shefali.virkar@donau-uni.ac.at

Gabriela Viale Pereira
email: gabriela.viale-pereira@donau-uni.ac.at

Exploring Open Data State-of-the-Art: A Review of the Social, Economic and Political Impacts

Keywords: Open data, open government data, effects of open data

This research paper explores the impact that the access to, and free usage of, stored (mainly public sector) data has on society, the economy and on good governance, together with the implications of this new paradigm for modern-day governments. Although a number of recent research studies attempt to identify the benefits and drawbacks of open data, or to demonstrate its role in governance processes, there exists to-date no systematic attempt to both rigorously survey current literature to enumerate the areas in which open data has had an impact and to discuss its potential as a significant tool for policymaking.

To address this research gap, and to highlight its intrinsic value to different actors, we examine the current state-of-the-art on the impacts of open data research and practice through a systematic survey of extant scholarly and practitioner literature. The first part of our study will present a comprehensive overview of the societal, economic, and political impacts of open data. We will then evaluate the new possibilities afforded by open data to policymaking, and conclude with a discussion of its role in open governance.

Introduction

As digital technologies come to be applied in different domains and sectors, most especially in the public sector, new possibilities for innovating governance have been created by the growth in data, computational power and social media [START_REF] Janssen | Introduction to Policy-Making in the Digital Age[END_REF]; all of which signal a new Era that is data-driven. In this scenario, open data emerges, being "one step further the knowledge-based society and economy" [START_REF] Hossain | State-of-the-art in open data research: Insights from existing literature and a research agenda[END_REF]. Open Government Data (OGD) can be considered as a specific subset of data which lies on the open data and government data domains [START_REF] Kučera | Open government data catalogs: Current approaches and quality perspective[END_REF]. Open Government has OGD as one of its principles, but requires also an extensive transformation of the public sector and its relationship with the public that needs to be mediated by information and communication technology (ICT) [START_REF] Janssen | Transparency-by-design as a foundation for open government[END_REF]. The principles of open government are data openness, transparency, participation, and collaboration [START_REF] Veljković | Benchmarking open government: An open data perspective[END_REF]. Based on these principles, the idea of open government is to establish a modern cooperation among politicians, public administration, industry and private citizens [START_REF] Bauer | Linked Open Data: The Essentials. Edition mono/monochrom[END_REF].

In order to highlight the value of open data, the objective of this study is to present a comprehensive overview from the academic literature and practice on the impacts of open data along the following dimensions: 1) Social Impacts, 2) Economic impacts, and 3) Impact on Good Governance. The section on the creation of social capital covers the influence that the opening of data has on society and the rights of the individual. For instance, citizen empowerment and democracy are identified as core expected effects of OGD initiatives [START_REF] Ruijer | Open data for democracy: Developing a theoretical framework for open data use[END_REF]. The second topic, economic impact, is often measured in monetary terms and the generation of revenue. For example, when analysing the effects of OGD utilization [START_REF] Safarov | Utilization of open government data: A systematic literature review of types, conditions, effects and users[END_REF], economic development is considered the second most prominent aspect. Within the third domain, the role played by open data in the furtherance of good governance is discussed. Here transparency and accountability are listed amongst the primary effects of OGD initiatives [START_REF] Safarov | Utilization of open government data: A systematic literature review of types, conditions, effects and users[END_REF].

The main theoretical contribution of this study pertains to the provision of an overview of the current state-of-the-art in open data research as one of the first comprehensive reviews to have a focus on the various impacts of OGD. The practical implications affect policymakers and governmental institutions by providing recommendations on how to maximize the benefits of OGD implementation, especially but not limited to any specific national context. This paper starts by presenting a review of open data state-of-the-art and the methodology applied to this study. The research design is followed by the results and analysis of the literature review. The following section then presents policy recommendations. Finally, concluding remarks and an agenda for future research are discussed.

A Review of Open Data State-of-the-Art

Despite the clear potential of data for innovation [START_REF]OECD: Emerging issues: The Internet of Things[END_REF][START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Innovation with open data: Essential elements of open data ecosystems[END_REF] and the growing amount of data that have been opened by several levels of government around the world, there are still doubts as to whether OGD will achieve all the expected benefits [START_REF] Danneels | Open data platforms: Discussing alternative knowledge epistemologies[END_REF]. Open data has become a topic of increasing importance in research and practice, with a particular expansion in recent years [START_REF] Safarov | Utilization of open government data: A systematic literature review of types, conditions, effects and users[END_REF][START_REF] Gonzalez-Zapata | The multiple meanings of open government data: Understanding different stakeholders and their perspectives[END_REF]. Despite being investigated with greater focus on public sector settings, open data studies are not exclusively related to government but also conducted in private settings [START_REF] Hossain | State-of-the-art in open data research: Insights from existing literature and a research agenda[END_REF]. "The foundation of the information provided by the government is referred to as open data, sets of data published by government that can be read and interpreted by either humans or machines" [START_REF] Mellouli | Smart government, citizen participation and open data[END_REF]. This study pays particular attention to data opened by governmental organizations, but we use the terms OGD and open data interchangeably for convenience.

The main impacts of open data initiatives in local governments are related to the use of data to improve decision-making and to better meet the needs of citizens (user side), as well as promoting transparency (provider side), due to the fact that governments provide access to and stimulate the re-use of public sector information [START_REF] Hossain | State-of-the-art in open data research: Insights from existing literature and a research agenda[END_REF][START_REF] Viale Pereira | Increasing collaboration and participation in smart city governance: a cross-case analysis of smart city initiatives[END_REF]. Transparency was also identified by [START_REF] Attard | A systematic review of open government data initiatives[END_REF] as one of the main objectives of opening government data, together with the direct impact provided by information access, increase in accountability and new possibilities for citizens to participate in the governance process.

Three recent literature reviews explore the OGD topic; focusing on the utilization of OGD [START_REF] Safarov | Utilization of open government data: A systematic literature review of types, conditions, effects and users[END_REF], on assessing OGD initiatives [START_REF] Attard | A systematic review of open government data initiatives[END_REF] and providing insights from open data research [START_REF] Hossain | State-of-the-art in open data research: Insights from existing literature and a research agenda[END_REF]. Although the first two provide some discussion about the impact of OGD on stakeholders and main effects of OGD utilization, an overview of the current state-of-the-art in open data and its impact is lacking. The same applies to benchmarking studies such as the Global Open Data Index (GODI) 1 that focus on open government data publication from a civic perspective, but do not look at other aspects such as context, use or impact.

Proponents of OGD believe that the new role of the public sector as an information provider will have an impact on the creation of social and economic value and on the attainment of good governance [START_REF] Safarov | Utilization of open government data: A systematic literature review of types, conditions, effects and users[END_REF]. Cultural challenges of open government data initiatives have strong relation to awareness about the benefits and potential of open data [START_REF] Attard | A systematic review of open government data initiatives[END_REF].

Methodology

In order to analyse the existing knowledge on the impacts of open government data we conducted a systematic literature review as recommended by [START_REF] Kitchenham | Procedures for Performing Systematic Reviews[END_REF], based on the framework proposed by [START_REF] Webster | Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review[END_REF]. According to [START_REF] Kitchenham | Procedures for Performing Systematic Reviews[END_REF], a systematic literature review involves "…identifying, evaluating and interpreting all available research relevant to a particular research question, or topic area, or phenomenon of interest." In agreement with [START_REF] Kitchenham | Procedures for Performing Systematic Reviews[END_REF], we adopted a pre-defined search strategy to ensure that our literature review was thorough, fair, and of robust scientific value. Following [START_REF] Webster | Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review[END_REF], the design of the review for this paper consisted of: defining the search terms; selecting the sources; applying the search in the sources; going backward by reviewing the citations for the articles, selecting the sample based on the abstracts and finally based on the full-text. The Scopus database (a comprehensive, reputable database for peer-reviewed scholarly and practitioner literature) and the Government Information Quarterly Journal (recognized as one of the main sources of literature in the government community) were selected as the main sources for the systematic literature review. Conventional key word searches using the search terms "open data" (6,407 articles) and "open government data" (481 articles) were conducted as the first step. Refinement of these results by publication date (only recently published articles from 2010 to the present), and subject relevance (proximity of abstract to topic based on author judgement) yielded 537 papers. The second round of refinement included looking for terms such as "impact", "effects", "implications" within the title, abstract, or keywords of this list for identifying specific aspects of open data. This step resulted in the identification of 80 papers. Finally, based on the citations from the identified articles in the first and second steps we determined further material that was also relevant for the analysis. The findings of the 60 most pertinent articles are summarised and discussed here.

Findings on the impacts of open data

One of the primary objectives of this research paper is to delineate and discuss in adequate detail the different domains within which open data bears significant effect so as to construct the foundation of a policy roadmap for the future release of information and knowledge. As discussed previously, a list of impacts pertaining to open data have been extracted through a systematic literature analysis of indexed scientific works, and are presented to the reader in this chapter. Our research findings are organized in the following manner: The first section is concerned with the social and political implications of open data. The second section deals with open data's economic implications. The third section outlines the contribution made by open data to good governance. Each derived proposition is then classified as one or the other, and listed, and then discussed.

Generating Social Value through Open Data

Innovation in Public Services: Open data can foster innovation in public service provision [START_REF]OECD: Rebooting Public Service Delivery: How Can Open Government Data Help to Drive Innovation?[END_REF], wherein the act of making information widely available increases the participation of a range of non-institutional actors who co-create [START_REF] Attard | Data driven governments: creating value through open government data[END_REF] and renew public services [START_REF]OECD: Rebooting Public Service Delivery: How Can Open Government Data Help to Drive Innovation?[END_REF] alongside the government. Considering that opening public data can result in improved public service standards, the provision of open data significantly changes the roles played by government [START_REF] Daglio | Building Organisational Capacity for Public Sector Innovation[END_REF] and citizens [START_REF] Linders | Open government as a vehicle for government transformation[END_REF] in the production and consumption of these services. However, information availability and accessibility alone are not sufficient conditions to leverage social value from open data [START_REF] Attard | Data driven governments: creating value through open government data[END_REF][START_REF] Jetzek | Data-driven innovation through open government data[END_REF]. Innovation in public services only arises through the re-use, dissemination and linking up of open government datasets [START_REF] Chan | From open data to open innovation strategies: Creating e-Services Using Open Government Data[END_REF]. The provision of tools and value-creation techniques must accompany any public release of data [START_REF] Attard | Data driven governments: creating value through open government data[END_REF].

Fostering Citizen Empowerment:

The release of open data contributes towards the empowerment of individuals within a society by altering the nature and scope of role that they play in the process of governance [START_REF] Weerakkody | Open data and its usability: an empirical view from the Citizen's perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Ruijer | Connecting societal issues, users and data. Scenario-based design of open data platforms[END_REF][START_REF] Craveiro | The use of open government data to citizen empowerment[END_REF][START_REF] Geiger | Open government and (linked)(open)(government)(data)[END_REF][START_REF] Maier-Rabler | Open": the changing relation between citizens, public administration, and political authority[END_REF]. Citizen empowerment arises through a combination of access to open government data, and the availability of tools and technologies to combine it creatively. The provision of open data has altered the mindset of citizens towards government [START_REF] Weerakkody | Open data and its usability: an empirical view from the Citizen's perspective[END_REF], actively engaging individuals in processes of governance [START_REF] Geiger | Open government and (linked)(open)(government)(data)[END_REF]. Collaborative technologies and social software have further accelerated this change [START_REF] Maier-Rabler | Open": the changing relation between citizens, public administration, and political authority[END_REF]. Thus, building an environment that encourages the emergence of networks of collaboration and co-creation, alongside the provision of open datasets, can translate into the empowerment of individuals within a society [START_REF] Craveiro | The use of open government data to citizen empowerment[END_REF].

Promoting Meaningful Citizen Engagement: In providing the public with the data necessary to take well-informed decisions and actively engage with each other and with government, the release of open data has the potential to make citizen collaboration more meaningful [START_REF] Johansson | Mobile e-services and open data in egovernment processes: transforming citizen involvement[END_REF][START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Open data policies, their implementation and impact: A framework for comparison[END_REF][START_REF] Conradie | On the barriers for local government releasing open data[END_REF][START_REF] Kassen | A promising phenomenon of open data: A case study of the Chicago open data project[END_REF]. Being able to regularly access high quality data about public services and government activities within an open data ecosystem will enable citizens to engage in meaningful dialogue with government [START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Open data policies, their implementation and impact: A framework for comparison[END_REF][START_REF] Kassen | A promising phenomenon of open data: A case study of the Chicago open data project[END_REF]. The open data ethos, through the free-access provision of information and tools, encourages proactive citizen engagement by encouraging individuals to independently develop creative solutions to complex societal problems [START_REF] Kassen | A promising phenomenon of open data: A case study of the Chicago open data project[END_REF]. Government can guide these interactions, channeling efforts into priority areas, with active and regular public engagement in the co-creation of public services also being measured against the achievement of tangible societal and political outcomes [START_REF] Gonzalez-Zapata | The multiple meanings of open government data: Understanding different stakeholders and their perspectives[END_REF].

Implications for Data Protection and Privacy:

The opening up of government datasets for use by the general public has particularly significant ramifications for data protection and individual privacy [START_REF] Hardy | Opening up government data for Big Data analysis and public benefit[END_REF][START_REF] Van Zoonen | Privacy concerns in smart cities[END_REF][START_REF] Scassa | Privacy and Open Government[END_REF][START_REF] Floridi | Open data, data protection, and group privacy[END_REF][START_REF] Meijer | Bridging the contradictions of open data[END_REF]. While open data initiatives aim to create public value through (largely) unfettered innovation and transparent practices, increased openness may also lead to breaches in privacy and security violations as data potentially containing personally identifiable information (PII) is released into the public domain [START_REF] Hardy | Opening up government data for Big Data analysis and public benefit[END_REF]. A balance needs to be struck between protecting the latter and leveraging the enormous potential benefit afforded by the public release of data [START_REF] Van Zoonen | Privacy concerns in smart cities[END_REF][START_REF] Floridi | Open data, data protection, and group privacy[END_REF]. To prevent privacy breaches, it is necessary to eliminate all privacysensitive attributes prior to the opening of data [START_REF] Meijer | Bridging the contradictions of open data[END_REF].

Generating Economic Value through Open Data

Encouraging Entrepreneurship:

The relationship between open data and entrepreneurship is mutually reinforcing [START_REF] Walker | Analytical Report No. 10: Open Data and Entrepreneurship[END_REF]; on the one hand, open data fosters entrepreneurship [START_REF] Lakomaa | Open data as a Foundation for Innovation: The Enabling Effect of Free Public Sector Information for Entrepreneurs[END_REF], whilst on the other, entrepreneurs create value out of open data [START_REF] Manyika | Open data: Unlocking innovation and performance with liquid information[END_REF].

The recognition that open data acts as a catalyst, enabler, and foundation for entrepreneurial activity has been recognized both in policy circles [START_REF] Meyer | The Impact of Open Data[END_REF] and in academic scholarship [START_REF] Jetzek | Data-driven innovation through open government data[END_REF][START_REF] Lakomaa | Open data as a Foundation for Innovation: The Enabling Effect of Free Public Sector Information for Entrepreneurs[END_REF]. At the same time, the real economic value contribution from data comes from the business insights that are extracted from it [START_REF] Kamal | Metrics are Easy: Insight is Hard[END_REF]. Creative business insight falls to entrepreneurs who, in their quest to carve out niche markets and diversify revenue streams, find themselves best placed to bring together information and knowledge from different sources [START_REF] Manyika | Open data: Unlocking innovation and performance with liquid information[END_REF].

Promoting Innovation: Open data has been seen to have a significant positive impact on the creation of economic value by supporting increased rates of innovation [START_REF] Susha | Driving factors of service innovation using open government data: An exploratory study of entrepreneurs in two countries[END_REF][START_REF] Zimmermann | Open Innovation, Open Data and New Business Models[END_REF]. The use of open data creates multiple business opportunities for companies: both established firms [START_REF] Zimmermann | Open Innovation, Open Data and New Business Models[END_REF], as well as SMEs and entrepreneurs [START_REF] Lakomaa | Open data as a Foundation for Innovation: The Enabling Effect of Free Public Sector Information for Entrepreneurs[END_REF], can use open data in combination with new technologies and existing proprietary information to develop new products and services, improve existing offerings, and drive forms of innovative entrepreneurship that are at once commercially profitable and beneficial for the public good [START_REF] Jetzek | Data-driven innovation through open government data[END_REF]. The full business potential of open data cannot, however, be harnessed if governments withhold access to particular datasets or privilege the release of certain types over others [START_REF] Carrara | Creating Value through Open Data. Study prepared as part of the European Data Portal[END_REF].

Impact on Economic Efficiency and Resource Allocation:

The provision of open data by government and private organisations creates economic efficiency gains by enabling the better, more responsible allocation of existing resources and by minimizing resource wastage [START_REF] Carrara | Creating Value through Open Data. Study prepared as part of the European Data Portal[END_REF][START_REF]European Data Portal: Benefits of Open Data[END_REF]. The provision of open data cuts data processing and transaction costs, facilitates strategic connections between economic entities, and empowers key actors [START_REF] Berends | Analytical Report No. 9: The Economic Benefits of Open Data[END_REF]. Ready access to data can also reduce asymmetries of information [START_REF] Manyika | Open data: Unlocking innovation and performance with liquid information[END_REF].

Open Data Business Models: The widespread availability of data, and especially the increasing prevalence of open government data, has resulted, not only in the establishment of new companies, but in the emergence and adoption of new data-centric business models to drive product development, service provision and expansion into new markets [48,[START_REF] Zeleti | Exploring the economic value of open government data[END_REF][START_REF] Bonina | New business models and the value of open data: Definitions, challenges and opportunities[END_REF]. These so-called 'Open Data Business Models' or ODBMs [START_REF] Zeleti | Exploring the economic value of open government data[END_REF] place open data and associated tools at the heart of strategic decision-making and the development of goods and services, and are essential for firms wanting to leverage the economic potential of open data.

Open Data for Promoting Good Governance

Impact on Public Accountability: Open data can be a powerful enabler for public accountability, whereby the publishing of government data online in machine-readable and easily interpretable formats for consumption by citizens and firms effectively holds up government actions to general scrutiny [START_REF] Misuraca | Is open data enough? E-governance challenges for open government[END_REF][START_REF] Guéret | Let's" Downscale" Linked Data[END_REF]. Similarly, the shift towards the provision of big open data by government has made the imperative for public accountability even greater [START_REF] Sivarajah | The role of e-participation and open data in evidence-based policy decision making in local government[END_REF]. Open government portals need, therefore, be designed to fully support ordinary citizens engaged in public accountability efforts [START_REF] Lourenço | An analysis of open government portals: A perspective of transparency for accountability[END_REF].

Impact on

The opening of data has profound implications for notions of public transparency [START_REF] Temiz | Open data project for e-government: Case study of Stockholm open data project[END_REF][START_REF] Kornberger | When Bureaucracy Meets the Crowd: Studying "Open Government" in the Vienna City Administration[END_REF]. Public transparency is one of the three principles around which the open government paradigm has been constructed, and a major objective of releasing open data for governments has become its promotion [START_REF] Sivarajah | The role of e-participation and open data in evidence-based policy decision making in local government[END_REF]. However, there is inconclusive evidence that the conscious opening of publicly held data will automatically lead to increased transparency [START_REF] Janssen | Transparency-by-design as a foundation for open government[END_REF]. Instead, progression from an open government to a transparent one is not considered altogether straightforward [START_REF] Kornberger | When Bureaucracy Meets the Crowd: Studying "Open Government" in the Vienna City Administration[END_REF], as it is argued that the release of open data in machine-readable formats is seldom accompanied by the mechanisms necessary to facilitate its better understanding [START_REF] Temiz | Open data project for e-government: Case study of Stockholm open data project[END_REF].

Creating Public Sector Efficiency Gains: Open data has the potential to modernize and streamline public sector operations; especially when used in combination with technology, and released in line with appropriate regulatory frameworks [START_REF] Donker | Open data and beyond[END_REF]. In fact, the improvement of operational efficiency is often listed as a compelling reason for governments to open their data to the public [START_REF] Weerakkody | Open data and its usability: an empirical view from the Citizen's perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Data and Open Government[END_REF]. Further, the realization of public sector efficiency gains through the release of open data is sometimes considered a pre-condition for good governance [START_REF] Graves | A study on the use of visualizations for Open Government Data[END_REF].

Open Data and Civil Society Organisations:

The release of open data has been seen to have a positive impact on the day-to-day operations of civil society organisations [START_REF] Manyika | Open data: Unlocking innovation and performance with liquid information[END_REF], and has the potential to transform the role that these actors play in the governance process [START_REF]): Open Data is Only the Beginning: Civil Society Organisations as Public Data Analysts[END_REF]. Detailed information on the location of resources, and on the quality of existing systems, can both facilitate the resource mobilization activities performed by this sector [START_REF] Manyika | Open data: Unlocking innovation and performance with liquid information[END_REF] and support dialogue or collective deliberation with public officials [START_REF] Meng | Investigating the Roots of Open Data's Social Impact[END_REF]. Equipped with this knowledge, civil society organisations are also well placed to create awareness about open data and to identify those datasets which possess intrinsic social value [START_REF]): Open Data is Only the Beginning: Civil Society Organisations as Public Data Analysts[END_REF]. However, it may be argued that while open datasets support civil society bodies, the interests of marginalised groups represented by these organisations may not be immediately served by the provision of machinereadable data online [START_REF] Meng | Investigating the Roots of Open Data's Social Impact[END_REF].

Discussion: Insights and Implications for Policymaking

In this section, we aim to propose some practical recommendations for open government data implementation. In general, open data is seen to play a significant role in the generation of social capital and creation of value within the economic context. Open data can also contribute to the advancement of good governance. These aspects imply that widespread access to data offers significant opportunities for policymakers to develop better-informed public policy, and can transform governance processes by encouraging participatory and collaborative decision-making. The maximization of the benefits accruing from open data in the move towards open governance and the provision of inputs for evidence-based policy making will be discussed below.

Exploring the Implications of Open Data-driven Transformation

Digital transformation is changing the process of policymaking and altering governance models in a disruptive way. Developments in open data, data processing, data mining and visualizations combined with social media, participatory tools and civic engagement are responsible for the changes in the policy-making field [START_REF] Janssen | Introduction to Policy-Making in the Digital Age[END_REF]. Our research has highlighted six pre-requisites for open data-driven transformation, mapped in Figure 1: 1. Technical: Facilitating user-friendly access to high quality machine-readable data.

Towards Open Governance

Open governance is a concept that has emerged from the understanding that information belongs to the public, and, alongside with electronic democracy practices, can transform electronic government to electronic governance [START_REF] Klaus | Transforming armed forces through military transparency: open government challenges in a world of secrecy[END_REF]. Open government is highly related to the collaborative governance concept, since open data increases the possibilities for knowledge development, decision making and interdisciplinary collaboration [START_REF] Kamateri | A comparative analysis of tools and technologies for policy making[END_REF]. Citizens' willingness to engage is related to both their perception of government openness to integrate public opinion to formulate decisions and the amount of open public sector information to which they have access [START_REF] Mellouli | Smart government, citizen participation and open data[END_REF]. When analysing collaborative governance, [START_REF]Open Knowledge Definition[END_REF] identified that information sharing and cooperation are the main elements framing the use of ICT to enable collaborative governance along with participation and engagement practices in decision making. In this sense, collaboration in government has as its main goal the enabling of stakeholders to participate in decision making processes that are efficient and effective [START_REF] Attard | A systematic review of open government data initiatives[END_REF].

Conclusion

The objective of this study was to explore the impact that the access to, and free usage of, stored (mainly public sector) data has on society, the economy, and on good governance. In order to achieve this aim, our research made use of a systematic review of current scholarship, and developed a framework that sets out the implications of this new paradigm for policymakers within modern-day governments. This study identified 12 key domains within which the use of open data had the potential to transform and generate social, political, and economic value. These domains were then used as the basis for the development of the foundations for policy recommendations in the field of open data; most particularly to highlight the contribution made by open data to transformations in government decision-making and policymaking.

The results of the literature review highlighted several key insights, pre-conditions for effective open data usage. The first of these is that open data has become a critical input for evidence-based policy-making, which can be achieved through new tools and technologies such as big data analytics. However, data needs to be not just available but accessible in formats that re-usable to generate social, political and economic value. Third, the opening up of data increases its re-use as it exposes information to a wider audience. However, data in circulation needs to be of a certain high quality, and needs to be accompanied by the right tools and technology for it to reach those who can actually make use of it. Fourth, there is a need to invest in technology and skills that will create value out of open data. Fifth, open data may be free but data analytics still requires an investment. Money, time and effort need to be spent to maintain and sustain open data portals. And finally, there is requirement to open data across the board whilst setting out strategic incentives to channel value generation to where it is needed.

In conclusion, it is vital that not only is data available and easily accessible to the public, but also that the appropriate tools and regulatory frameworks are put in place to ensure that the use and re-use of open data is meaningful.

2 .

 2 Legal: Creation of an appropriate legal and regulatory framework for the release of open data. 3. Environmental: Fostering of a permissive culture that supports government-citizen collaboration, co-creation and, eventually, open innovation. 4. Institutional: Streamlining of government organisations to better engage with open data and convert basic information into public goods. 5. Economic: Adoption of data-centric business models for strategic decision making and product/service development. 6. Financial: Incentivisation of data-driven actions leading to innovation.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Mapping Open Data-driven Transformation

https://index.okfn.org/methodology/

Data Portal. https://www.europeandataportal.eu/sites/default/files/analytical_report_n9_economic_bene fits_of_open_data.pdf, last accessed 2018/03/07 48. Koski, H.: The Impact of Open Data: A Preliminary Study. Ministry of Finance publications 15b/2015, March 2015. Government of Finland (2015).