Mohamed Elmamy

Mohamed Mahmoud

Abdellahi Ba

A Yahfdhou

Chighali Ehssein

A K Mahmoud

I Youm

IMAT3E'18 International Meeting on Advanced Technologies in Energy and Electrical Engineering 1

Keywords: PVG system, DC/DC, Power, Converter, motor-pump, flow rate, HMT. I

The photovoltaic (PV) pumping system is a widely used in Mauritania to ensure the water supply in rural area for populations needs. This system is composed by three main parts: The PV Generator (PVG), impedance matching (DC/DC Power Convert), and the hydraulic part (coupling of a PMDC motor and a centrifugal pump). Two mathematical motor -pump models for PV application, were proposed in this article to contribute in the studies of PV pumping sizing. These models link directly the operating water current to the voltage and electrical power to the flow rate of the pump versus total head. In this article we study the simulation in Matlab/ Simulink environment the characteristics of a PV pumping system (submersible pump case); The three parts quoted for an overview of the performance of the system, taking into account the climate parameters (solar irradiance, and ambient temperature), and the effect of the total manometric head (HMT) on the pumped flow rate. The models were based principally, on the analysis of the experimentation results for one centrifugal pump, coupled to converter motor. The current, the voltage, the electrical power, the flow rate and the head were the monitored dates. Current-voltage and electrical power-flow have modeled characteristics of the modeled motor-pump. The improved models yielded satisfactory results. In ordre to validate the simulation, we use the meteorological data of Rosso city, which is a region of southern Mauritania.

Introduction

Several research projects have been carried out on the renewable energy conversion systems and their applications which can be summarized in the following two points: The search for precise mathematical models that represent the real photovoltaic cell made it possible to retain the works of [Shatadru Biswas al 2018] and [Hichem Othmani al 2017] and the selected models were designed to reflect correctly the influence of different atmospheric conditions on solar cell parameters. In this context, we must not forget to mention other works on optimization methods such as those of [A. Hamidat

II.

Description and modeling of the photovoltaic pumping system

II.1 System description

The system studied is shown in Fig. 1, we have three parts that make up the PV pumping system; a PVG consisting of This study was performed at the Higher Institute Technological Education (ISET-Rosso) (16°30 North latitude, 15°48

West longitude at 8m altitude above the sea level). V) characteristic that is strongly nonlinear, and that voltage-power (P-V).

Figure. 2. Electrical model of the photovoltaic cell

From this circuit, and applying Kirchhoff's law, we shall derive the following equations:

with: Vt: the thermal tension written as = (A * K * T) / q,A:is the ideality factor of the diode,(K=1, 38.10-38 J/K) is the Boltzmann constant, T: is the ambient temperature in °C, (q=1, 02. 10 -19 C): is the electron charge, Iph: is the photocurrent it is proportional to the solar irradiation flux, Is: the diode saturation current, Rs and Rsh: are respectively the series and parallel resistance of the cell, V and I: are respectively the voltage and the current of the cell.

There are several characteristics of the solar cell that enables us to determine the working areas of the cell. PV cell displays none linear I-V and P-V characteristic curves. We plot the I-V and P-V characteristics of a module, shown in Fig. 3.

IMAT3E'18

International Meeting on Advanced Technologies in I-V and P-V of a

II.3 Motor-pump modelization

The mathematical models of the inverter and the motor pump set are described in a great number of research papers. Where the constant a i , b i , c i and d i are the secondary parameters and depend only on the pumping subsystem type.

On the other hand, the model which gives P (Q) of the pump motor unit for different pumping heights has been developed by [START_REF] Hadj Arab | Motor-Pump System Modelization[END_REF]]. This model directly links the useful electrical power P a function to the water flow of the pump Q as follows:

The principal parameter a ij (h) are constants depend of the pumping system.

III. Results and discussions

The meteorological, electrical and hydraulic parameters were monitored for four days. Table III shows the medium value of the parameters. Throughout these days the PV panel was mounted at a tilt angle of 17 ° for the two first days and 7.5 ° for the two last days and oriented to magnetic North.

IMAT3E'18

International Meeting on Advanced Technologies in and obtain the applied to pump motor. It is necessary to physically separate the pump motor to develop in the rest of this work, simulations of current-voltage characteristics I (V) and the power-flow P (Q). For each head, we obtained two measured curves: the I-V and the P-Q relationship of the motor pump. (Fig. 4) illustrates an example of the characteristics obtained for the pump centrifugal using the experimental measurement. which represent the dependence of the current versus the voltage for each head. From the result, we have tried to find simple mathematical expression, which allow us to adjust the exprimental value. In the case of the current versus the voltage, we found that it is linear. The P(Q) charateristics of the one tested subsystem are carried out and plots for each total head. An example of the measurement values are shown in Fig 5 .  Figs. 6 and7 show an example of the experimental values obtained for one head. Thus to define the I-V and P-Q characteristics, we need to solve of linear equations. For this, at one head, according to (h) we have different measurements of I, V, P and Q with Q being positive. In order to validate the obtained general models, a comparative study of the previous and the present characteristics was made in Figs. 6 and7, we illustrated the and the present characteristics of the centrifugal pump the head. As shown very well in Figs. 6 and In this research a PV water pumping system in Mauritania climate has been designed as case study for a small farm in the Higher Institute Technological Education (ISET-Rosso) was selected and discussed. This system is suitable for many rural zones since it's designed to work with free cost and doesn't need maintenance. The modelization and the validation of the models of the PV array and the PV pumping subsystem, allow us to simulate the performance of the PV pumping systems for several sites. The analytical model has given a great adjustment of the I-V electrical characteristic curves of the PV array versus solare irradiance and ambiante temperature. Concerning the pumping subsystems, the model for I(V) and P(Q) of PV array is found to be suitable with experimental curves. The development of the one motor-pump unit models allows us to obtain the operating point of the system and the pumped flow rate. The one model is based on experimental result of several photovoltaic pumps, which have been characterized completely in the pumping test facility to obtain the parameter of the models, are established for centrifugal pump (Lorentz ps1200 c-sj8-5) with DC motor.

  al 2008], [Imene Yahyaoui al 2015] and [R. Dehini1 al. 2018]. The search for the development of a determined mathematical model, which represents the optimization of the hydraulic part, made it possible to retain the work of [B. Berbaoui al 2018, Omveer Singh al 2016, Y. Belkassmi al 2017, and Y. Bakelli al, 2012]. These different researches have had the objective of proposing a use of photovoltaic pumping for any lighting condition and temperature.

Figure. 1 .

 1 Figure. 1. The experimental setup

  Thus, we can quote [Daud and Mahmoud,2005 ; Hadj Arabe et al, 2006 ; Kou et al, 1998 ; Mezghanni et al, 2007, and Pande et al, 2003]. These models describe the characteristics of each component of the pumping subsystem as the inverter, the motor or the pump. But these models do not give a direct relationship between the operating electrical powers of the pump. In this paper, we use a mathematical model which directly links the output water flow rate Q versus the input operating electric power P and total head h. this model is based on the analysis of the experimental results of one type pumping subsystems [Hmidat et al, 2007; Hamidat and Benyoucef, 2008]. With regard to the equation (2) connecting the characteristic I-V of the pump with the pumping height and the equation (3) in form Q-V which develops characteristics to obtain the performance curves of the pump are proposed by the authors. In the case of the current versus the voltage, we found that it is linear. For this reason, we suggested the following equation [Hadj Arab al, 2006]: With I and Q being positive. Where a, b, b, c, d and e are parameters easily obtained by means of an iterative Newton technique. The researchers, [Hadj Arab al, 2006] generalized the model for all heights by linking all the coefficients a, b, c, d and e to the pumping height h by the following second-degree equations:

  7 the curves agree. Figures 4 and 5 represents the variates of I(V) and P(Q) in function of head value (h=2 m, h=4 m and h=6 m), instead of figures 6 and 7 represents site value for one day.

Fig. 4 .Fig. 6 .

 46 Fig. 4. I(V) for diff erent h Fig.5. P(Q) for diff erent h

Parameters Value Rated power 190 watt Rated voltage 25,8V Rated current 7,36A Open circuit voltage 32,3V Short circuit current 8,18A Item # 1222 1222 Lift [m] 0-40m max. flow rate [m 3 /h] 7.5 Max. efficiency [%] 48 PVG nominal voltage DC 72-96V PVG open circuit voltage 200V Solar generator [Wp] 350-1200 Max. motor current (A) 9.5 Pomp type Centrifugal Motor power 1.7kw Motor rate 900-3300 Table I. Datasheet of the SOLTERRA-190 module Table II. Controller performance

	The Photovoltaic module rated at 1000w/m 2 solar irradiation and 25°C cell temperature. The rated power of PV
	devices does not give an accurate indication of the outdoor performance, especially when the PV modules aren't a
	brand new one. The controller performances are shown in table II.

four PV panels connected in series with a capacity of 190 Wp for each, The PV panel parameters are shown in table I, a DC/DC Power Convert, and a permanent magnet DC motor coupled directly to a centrifugal pump, sensor less motor and a controller.

TABLE III . Parametre of the four studied days

 III

	Days number	01	02	03	04
	Irradiation (kWh/m 2 /Day)	7.83	9.22	7.97	8.49
	Temperature (°C)	29.52 33.03 40.22 29.06
	Tilt angle (°)	17	17	7.5	7.5

IMAT3E'18 International Meeting on Advanced Technologies in Energy Electrical


Ulf Melin
email: ulf.melin@liu.sekarin.axelsson@liu.setruls.lofstedt@liu.se

Karin Axelsson

Truls Löfstedt

Understanding an Integrated Management System in a Government Agency -Focusing Institutional Carriers

Keywords: integrated management systems, governance, institutional theory, institutional carriers, government

Working with an integrated management system (IMS) is a challenging task. In public organizations, the formalization of an IMS including the communication of control mechanisms, rules, goals and culture are crucial. Several types of carriers are used in order to communicate the content in an IMSboth human actors and artefacts. An artefact studied in this paper is an intranet, as one carrier of the IMS. The purpose of this paper is to explore how institutional theory focusing institutional carrierscan help us to understand how an IMS is represented through human actors and technology in a government agency. The conclusion is that the application of an institutional carrier perspective on an IMS can help us to understand the past and present, the role, and the relative success of such a system. An IMS can be aligned or misaligned related to three dimensions of structure, process and people. Achieving an aligned and legitimate IMS is crucial in order to achieve goals in an organization. The implications of this study are that further research and practice should give more attention to institutional carriers when studying and improving IMS.

Introduction

Management systems of different kinds are used in many contemporary organizations.

In government organizations of today in an era of New Public Management it is commonplace. There are general management systems used in order to align individuals' activities with the overall organizational goals and mission [START_REF] Malmi | Management control systems as a package -Opportunities, challenges and research directions[END_REF] in an act of organizational coordination [START_REF] March | Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Mintzberg | Structure in Fives: Designing Effective Organizations[END_REF]. A general definition of a management system is that it consists of "[…] a set of procedures an organization needs to follow in order to meet its objectives" [START_REF]): Management system standards[END_REF]. There are also dedicated management systems for management control, IT governance , quality, environment, etc. Malmi and Brown [START_REF] Malmi | Management control systems as a package -Opportunities, challenges and research directions[END_REF] define management control systems as packages, which means "[…] a collection or set of controls and control systems." (ibid., p. 287). Such systems can be linked to traditional accounting controls (e.g. budgets), administrative controls, and more socially oriented controls (e.g. values and culture) [START_REF] Malmi | Management control systems as a package -Opportunities, challenges and research directions[END_REF]. In this paper, we study a management system that is packaged and spans over a whole government agency. It contains accounting, administrative, and socially oriented control sub-systems. Since the system is considered as a package, spanning over the organization as a whole, with this integrative aim, we define the management system as integrated. Working with an integrated management system (IMS) is a challenging task in theory and in practice [START_REF] Jørgensen | Integrated management systemsthree different levels of integration[END_REF]. The complexity in the management system pose a challenge, so does the representation, use and development of it. In any organization, the formalization of the IMS and the communication of control and coordination mechanisms, rules and regulations, goals, culture and values are crucial in order to achieve goals. In the public sector we also need to recognize the complexity of values in an IMS, with e.g. competing values in internal efficiency and citizen benefit [START_REF] Axelsson | Public e-services for agency efficiency and citizen benefit -Findings from a stakeholder centered analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Bannister | ICT, public values and transformative government: A framework and programme for research[END_REF][START_REF] Rose | Managing e-Government: value positions and relationships[END_REF].

In this paper, we explore the notion that several types of institutional carriers [START_REF] Scott | Institutional Carriers: Reviewing Modes of Transporting Ideas over Time and Space and Considering their Consequences[END_REF][START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF], linked to pillars of institutions, can be used in order to analyze an IMS. This is done through the study of influential stakeholders (the management group) and the use of an intranet supporting the IMS in a government agency focused as a case in this paper. The use of carriers is a concept that stems from an institutional theory perspective. Based on an institutional perspective, information systems (IS) are artefacts carrying various types of institutionalization [START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage?[END_REF][START_REF] Scott | Institutional Carriers: Reviewing Modes of Transporting Ideas over Time and Space and Considering their Consequences[END_REF]. An IMS can also be carried by human actors, as individuals or in groups. Studying IT artefacts from this perspective within the IS domain is common and analytically promising [START_REF] Currie | Contextualising the IT Artifact: Towards a wider research agenda for IS using institutional theory[END_REF][START_REF] Currie | Special issue on institutional theory in information systems research: contextualizing the IT artefact[END_REF][START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage?[END_REF][START_REF] Orlikowski | Technology and institutions: what can research on information technology and research on organizations learn from each other?[END_REF][START_REF] Robey | Accounting for the Contradictory Organizational Consequences of Information Technology: Theoretical Directions and Methodological Implications[END_REF], but fewer studies have explicitly explored the expressions of particular IT artefacts, like the intranet as one carrier of the IMS in our case. An institutional perspective can help us to understand the processes promoting and impeding change in organizations; processes informed by historically guided values and norms that have stabilized and persisted [START_REF] Powell | The new institutionalism in organizational analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Robey | Accounting for the Contradictory Organizational Consequences of Information Technology: Theoretical Directions and Methodological Implications[END_REF]. One of few studies exploring IT artefacts, focusing on an intranet, from this perspective is provided by [START_REF] Baptista | Paradoxical effects of institutionalisation on the strategic awareness of technology in organisations[END_REF] discussing the paradox between institutionalization and awareness of the strategic value of the intranet in an organization. The authors highlight what happens when IT is embedded in the organization, as is the case with an intranet, by using an institutional theory perspective. However, they do not explicitly discuss this from an IMS perspective. To study the use and the development of an IMS from an institutional perspective is therefore interesting since it potentially can help us to understand the role of values, norms and the use of different carriers to realize the intentions of a management system when coordinating a government agency. Doing this, path dependency connects the past and the future by understanding the role of institutionalism [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Vergne | The Missing Link Between the Theory and Empirics of Path Dependence: Conceptual Clarification, Testability Issue, and Methodological Implications[END_REF].

Thus, the purpose of this paper is to investigate, show and reflect upon how institutional theoryfocusing on institutional carrierscan help us to understand how an IMS is represented through human actors and technology in a government agency. By applying the institutional theory perspective to the studied IMS implemented and carried by the agency's management group and an intranet we aim to understand the past and present, the role, and the challenges and relative success of an IMS. The research questions, asked, are the following: 1) how can we understand an IMS, carried by actors and IT artefacts, and its role in coordinating a government agency, and 2) what can we learn from applying institutional theory, focusing on carriers, pillars, and path dependencies from this case? The expected contributions from this paper are to broaden the scope on how to understand management systems applying an institutional perspective, to reflect upon the challenges and relative success of an IMS from this point of departure and the implications for future research and practice.

After this introduction, we introduce institutional theory and carriers, together with IMSs and governance in Section Two. In Section Three, we define and discuss the research approach followed by a case study introduction. Then we analyze the case by applying the institutional theory perspective to the empirical findings and formulate lessons learned from the case study in Section Four which we conclude in Section Five.

Previous Research

Below we introduce previous research on institutional theory and technology, together with integrated management systems and governance, that we also use to frame and to analyze the IMS in the case study.

Institutional Theory and Information Technology

Institutional theory [START_REF] Powell | The new institutionalism in organizational analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Scott | Institutions and Organizations[END_REF] have proven to be powerful when understanding and conceptualizing the complex nature of technology, institutional arrangements and its embeddedness in socio-economic contexts [START_REF] Fountain | Building the virtual state. Information technology and institutional change[END_REF]. Institutions can be seen as structural arrangements that guide and restrict actors' behaviour [START_REF] Berger | The social construction of reality -A treatise in the sociology of knowledge[END_REF]. Rules of behaviour is an important dimension and range from cultural and mental models to rules in terms of legislation as well as from norms to political structures [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF].

When studying and understanding institutions path dependency is an important concept connecting the past and the future in this line of research [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Vergne | The Missing Link Between the Theory and Empirics of Path Dependence: Conceptual Clarification, Testability Issue, and Methodological Implications[END_REF]. Path dependency can be described as increasingly constrained processes that cannot easily be escaped when changing organizations. The concept is also considered as one answer to the question of how and why institutionalization occur [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF])institutionalization in terms of externalization, objectification and internalization [START_REF] Berger | The social construction of reality -A treatise in the sociology of knowledge[END_REF]. Robey and Boudreau [START_REF] Robey | Accounting for the Contradictory Organizational Consequences of Information Technology: Theoretical Directions and Methodological Implications[END_REF] specifically suggest the use of institutional theory to understand the processes promoting and impeding change in organizations. IS researchers trying to explore the complex interplay between IT and its social context have also promoted and used institutional theory as a vehicle [START_REF] Barley | Technology as an occasion for structuring: Evidence from observations of CT scanners and the social order of radiology departments[END_REF][START_REF] Currie | Contextualising the IT Artifact: Towards a wider research agenda for IS using institutional theory[END_REF][START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage?[END_REF][START_REF] Orlikowski | Technology and institutions: what can research on information technology and research on organizations learn from each other?[END_REF]. If we take a closer look at the digitalization of government, the role of institutional theory as a perspective to understand the complex interplay in this sector and research domain is acknowledged by e.g. [START_REF] Fountain | Building the virtual state. Information technology and institutional change[END_REF][START_REF] Luna-Reyes | Using institutional theory and dynamic simulation to understand complex e-Government phenomena[END_REF]. From previous research, we also know that government organizations are operating based on a set of public values affecting what is possible and suitable to achieve in general and linked to the use of IT (see e.g. [START_REF] Bannister | ICT, public values and transformative government: A framework and programme for research[END_REF] or [START_REF] Rose | Managing e-Government: value positions and relationships[END_REF]). We choose to explore the empirical data in this paper using institutional theory, focusing pillars, carriers and path dependency, since it sheds light on the IMS and how it is carried by actors, structures and artefacts in the organization and how this has evolved over time. Based on this perspective, information systems are artefacts carrying various types of institutionalization [START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage?[END_REF][START_REF] Scott | Institutional Carriers: Reviewing Modes of Transporting Ideas over Time and Space and Considering their Consequences[END_REF]. Thus, these artefacts are filled with assumptions about how government agencies should be organized. IT artefacts are not neutral; they contain additional ideals ascribed to them. As non-neutral artefacts they can support or impede the original intentions.

Institutional Pillars and Carriers

Three elementspillarshave been considered as vital ingredients for all institutions [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF]; 1) regulative, 2) normative, and 3) cultural-cognitive systems. For a more detailed description of these elements we refer to Scott [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF]. Elements in institutions are conveyed by different types of carriers expressed as follows: "Institutional ideas travel in many ways. Not only are they made up of various elements […] but they are carried by several types of vehicles." [33, p. 882]. Carriers are presented in different versions and with different labels. By using Scott [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF] as a point of departure we can identify the following classes of carriers: symbolic systems, relational systems, activities, and artefacts. Institutional carriers are linked to the regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive pillars [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF]. Symbolic systems can, for example, carry regulative elements (rules and laws), normative ditto (values, expectations, and standards) and cultural-cognitive elements (categories, typifications, schemas). Relational systems can carry regulative elements (governance and power systems), normative elements (authority systems), and cultural-cognitive ditto (structural isomorphism, identities). Activities as the third type of carries can be a vehicle for regulative elements (when e.g. monitoring and sanctioning), normative elements (like roles, jobs, routines and habits), and cultural-cognitive elements as a pillar like predispositions and scripts. Finally, artefacts as the last carrier can serve as a vehicle for regulative elements (objects in line with specifications), normative (objects meeting standards), and cultural cognitive elements (objects with symbolic value) [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF], p. 95 f.]. Scott [START_REF] Scott | Institutional Carriers: Reviewing Modes of Transporting Ideas over Time and Space and Considering their Consequences[END_REF] also states that carriers are interdependent and can be combined. In the analysis below we use the different types of carriers as a theoretical perspective to investigate how an IMS is carried by a management group and an intranet. One important statement made by [START_REF] Scott | Institutional Carriers: Reviewing Modes of Transporting Ideas over Time and Space and Considering their Consequences[END_REF] is that the carriers as vehicles are not neutral; they effect the elements that are transported. Viewing IT artefacts as carriers is put forward by [START_REF] Barley | Technology as an occasion for structuring: Evidence from observations of CT scanners and the social order of radiology departments[END_REF][START_REF] Orlikowski | The duality of technology: rethinking the concept of technology in organizations[END_REF].

Integrated Management Systems and Governance

The broad definition of management systems provided by ISO [START_REF]): Management system standards[END_REF] can be elaborated in several different categories of management systems. Organizations also develop specific management systems over time, gathering their own processes and routines for managing certain operations. ISO notes that some systems are formalized while other systems exist entirely in the minds of individuals in the organization. Organizations that use several management systems often seek to integrate them [START_REF] Simon | Evolution of Integrated Management Systems in Spanish firms[END_REF]. The collected description of all operations inside an organization can be described as several connected management systems or an IMS. The idea of integrating management systems can be traced back to the desire to create management structures that are congruent and easy to maintain [START_REF] Bernardo | Benefits of management systems integration: a literature review[END_REF][START_REF] Gianni | Management systems integration: lessons from an abandonment case[END_REF]. Another motive is to enable the best use of shared resources to meet an objective. This is another challenge that is clearly linked to the case studied in this paperif and how to integrate several management systems into one system (an IMS).

Jørgensen et al. [START_REF] Jørgensen | Integrated management systemsthree different levels of integration[END_REF] elaborate on the work of Wilkinson and Dale [START_REF] Wilkinson | An examination of the ISO 9001:2000 standard and its influence on the integration of management systems[END_REF] and suggest a three-level model where an organization can seek to integrate management systems; "A) Corresponding: increased compatibility with cross-references between parallel systems. B) Coordinated and coherent: generic processes with focus on tasks in the management cycle. C) Strategic and inherent: an organizational culture of learning, continuous improvements of performance and stakeholder involvement related to internal and external challenges." [18, p. 714].

Management systems and the need to strategically govern processes and businesses using different IT artefacts are important in contemporary organizations in different sectors. In order to do this successfully and in a balanced way strategic alignment is suggested as one approach. Early studies emphasize that a higher degree of alignment between business and IT strategies will result in more successful organizations [START_REF] Venkatraman | Continuous strategic alignment: exploiting information technology capabilities for competitive success[END_REF]. Strategic alignment and its results have been well-researched over the years, as broad literature reviews [START_REF] Balocco | ICT Governance: A Reference Framework[END_REF][START_REF] Brown | Framing the frameworks: A review of IT governance research[END_REF][START_REF] Tallon | Competing perspectives on the link between strategic information technology alignment and organizational agility: insights from a mediation model[END_REF] show. In recent studies the notion of IT governance has been related to strategic alignment issues. De Haes and Van Grembergen [START_REF] De Haes | An Exploratory Study into IT Governance Implementations and its Impact on Business/IT Alignment[END_REF], for example, illustrate how IT governance has been implemented in many organizations in order to improve the alignment between business and IT. Management systems can be a tool to coordinate and control these activities and components. An organization's structures, processes, and people are important carriers of the management system, which will be further discussed below.

Research Approach and Case Study Introduction

This single, qualitative and interpretative case study [cf. [START_REF] Myers | Qualitative Research in Business & Management[END_REF][START_REF] Walsham | Interpretive case studies in IS research: nature and method[END_REF] focuses on developing empirically and theoretically grounded knowledge about IMSs in a government agency setting. This paper is written in the context of a project aiming at studying and evaluating the current management system and contributing to the foundation of a new IMS from a research-based perspective. We categorize this study as an act of engaged scholarship [START_REF] Van De Ven | Engaged scholarship -A guide for organizational and social research[END_REF] where we combine theorizing and contributions to the government agency's problem solving. Qualitative data collection and analysis was conducted in an iterative and reflexive manner in three stages starting with document studies to get an overview of the current management system [START_REF] Alvesson | Reflexive methodology: new vistas for qualitative research[END_REF]. Twelve semi-structured interviews [START_REF] Myers | The qualitative interview in IS research: Examining the craft[END_REF] where then (2) conducted over a period of two months (Jan-Feb 2015) with representatives from several business areas and hierarchical levels at the headquarters of the organization (Finance and control, Safety management, Performance management, Controlling, Information management, Communications, Operations). The semi-structured interviews were held in Swedish and quotes used in this paper are translated to English by the authors. The interviews were guided by open ended questions. In some of the interviews respondents used a live version of the intranet to demonstrate some of the IMS features and how they interpreted the implemented documents and processes. That gave us the opportunity to observe the intranet in use and how the IMS was implemented in terms of e.g. representation, design, document structure, search engines, etc. This part of the data collection was documented with a camera. Alongside this process (3) we conducted a hermeneutic literature review [START_REF] Boell | Hermeneutic Approach for Conducting Literature Reviews and Literature Searches[END_REF] to increase our understanding of the current situation and explore themes that surfaced continuously during the analysis of the data. The analysis was performed during the research period where interviews were transcribed and the responses were categorized inductively, as a part of a content analysis approach (cf. [START_REF] Krippendorff | Content Analysis: An Introduction to Its Methodology[END_REF]). The main categories identified in the analysis were; perceptions of an IMS, structures, roles and responsibilities connected to the IMS, and the role of the IMS in the organization (how the IMS is intended to be used and is used throughout the organization). This is an example of a reflexive research process [START_REF] Alvesson | Reflexive methodology: new vistas for qualitative research[END_REF] working with the generation of categories based on the empirical data while using theory as a guide (e.g. institutional carriers) when analyzing data [START_REF] Walsham | Interpretive case studies in IS research: nature and method[END_REF]. In this paper, we focus on the latter part in this reflexive research process using institutional theory as a lens and the themes emerging inductively from this analysis. In March 2015, we also conducted a workshop to validate the collected data, the initial analysis and also gathered additional data. This workshop was attended by seven representatives from the organization. A final workshop was held in June 2015 in order to present and discuss results as a part of the engaged scholarship approach mentioned above.

The setting for this case study is a government agency in Sweden with over 5000 employees spanning over several operational areas. The annual budget is over 5.5 Billion EUR (2014). The large and heterogeneous government agency uses an IMS that fills several functions in the organization. According to our respondents the IMS should depict the organizations structure and processes (and contact points in and in-between). The intention from the management group with the IMS is that it also should communicate "soft" aspects such as culture and norms. As such, the IMS should work as both control and guidance throughout the organization and in some situations also in collaboration with external resources. Influential stakeholders, such as the management group is one important carrier of the IMS, so is the intranetthe window of the IMS also carrying it and making the IMS accessible throughout the organization.

Currently the IMS consists of documentation of all operations in the organization. All the documents (approx. 4000) are published and accessible through the intranet where an overview of each business function is provided for employees. In most parts of the organization, the intranet has come to represent (become the window of) the management system as a whole. Specific actors and roles related to each business unit are responsible for keeping the documents related to their function relevant and up to date. The process of doing this is, however, carried out differently across functions. This has led to inconsistencies in notation, detail and depth of the descriptions. There are also differences in the perception of the IMS. The top management perceive the system more as a control system, whereas the employees view it as a guiding tool. This is one of the challenges that guided the analysis below.

Analysis

In this section we present our analysis of the IMS, based on institutional theory. The analysis is organized in two themes emerging from this paper's focus on how the IMS is carried: 1) the IMS and the management group carrying the IMS, and 2) the intranet carrying the IMS. The findings are summarized together with lessons learned from the case study linked to previous studies covering e.g. the integration dimension of the IMS, alignment, and the institutional perspective with a key focus on carriers, pillars and path dependency.

The IMS and the Management Group Carrying the IMS

The managerial attention toward the IMS emphasizes the necessity to have an IMS. The IMS can be characterized according to a general ISO definition [START_REF]): Management system standards[END_REF] and can be considered as a package of controls following [START_REF] Malmi | Management control systems as a package -Opportunities, challenges and research directions[END_REF]. However, the top management and several management levels at the government agency clearly state that it is important that there is one integrated IMS present at the agencynot a package of different management systems. The IMS can have different controls, but it should be considered as one system. The reason for putting a large emphasis on the necessity of having only one IMS can be understood as a clear expression of path dependency [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Vergne | The Missing Link Between the Theory and Empirics of Path Dependence: Conceptual Clarification, Testability Issue, and Methodological Implications[END_REF]. The agency merged from two rather different agencies historically (with different structures, process and organization culture) and there has been important to govern the agency as one organizational unit since thennot two. This explains the expressed need to have only one integrated IMS according to the management group, carried also by one united management group. However, the intention to have one IMS in order to merge and coordinate the agency is more alive in the strategies and the rhetoric surrounding it, than in practice. In order to realize this intention, the management group needs to carry the IMS more explicitly. This can be linked to the symbolic, relational and activity dimensions of institutional carriers. Symbolic dimension can e.g. be used to realize the regulative elements from the institutional pillars containing rules in the organization covering the need to use the IMS, normative dimensions containing values, expectations and standards (below) within the IMS communicated from management to coworkers and cultural-cognitive elements such as typifications within the IMS for different usage situations, etc. Relational systems linked to the management group carrying the IMS is a central part of the overall governance structure and processes within the government agency. Establishing legitimacy for the IMS through management's own activities following the prescribed processes (in line with e.g. prescriptions within the IMS) and rules for example is important. The intentions linked to the IMS are multi-faceted. Listing the intentions explored in the interview data and from the document studies, empirical data involves aspects from supporting employees in their daily work, via enablers for control and monitoring, safety, legal compliance, communicating overall strategic objectives and visions, providing information on news, supporting standardized process, to describing the organization as a whole and as a vehicle to enable an active leadership. Contrasting these intentions with other interpretations and voices elaborating on whether the top management at the agency actively carries the IMS, we have identified that it is considered that the management's actions and attention are not always in line with the guidelines and the set of objectives for e.g. legitimate behaviour in the IMS. This means that the expected dimensions of carriers introduced above regarding the symbolic, relational and activity parts are not efficiently or explicitly present in management behaviour of today in the case. Being a legitimate carrier of a "successful" IMS requires compliance and a synchronized picture in these dimensions. One respondent at the agency expressed this in the following way when asked what the main objective of the organization was:

"Our main objective? [...] is that what is written on paper [the IMS], or what is communicated by the management?" (Business Developer, February 10, 2015) In this example, we can see that adherence to the IMS is related to how the management group carry the IMS, how they act, and to the characteristics also of the intranet carrying (cf. [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF]), communicating and legitimizing it. Regulative, normative and cultural cognitive elements of the IMS are clearly affected by different carriers, in this case human actors in different management roles in a relational dimension of the system. This was discussed during a workshop arranged at the agency. This was considered as a discrepancy between the content in the IMS and the image of the IMS and the management staff, on different levels from top to middle management. A common view here is that the management needs to have a more unified view of the IMS in the organization, the legitimacy of it, and the representation of the same system linked to different carriers (above). There is also a line of thinking describing that people in middle management and more operative roles needs to develop a further understanding of the IMS, and also legitimize it in thoughts and in daily operative work; to use the IMS as an aid to reach the overall goals in the organization. For example, people in the organization are all parts of a relational system where normative and cultural-cognitive (shared values) elements are formed and traded over time [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF].

Managers carrying an IMS through behaviour and an active use of the intranet carrying it, could create a more efficient and solid alliance between human actors, behaviour and technology strengthening and legitimizing the IMS, instead of weakening it as illustrated above. This can be expressed in terms of using the directive power of an IS as an institution, and be traced back to cognitive and normative elements that are embedded in such artefacts (cf. [START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage?[END_REF]). Rules with normative forcesa kind of prescriptive behaviourare also embedded in the system directed towards designated positions in the organization and its actors (ibid.). Starting with the management positions as examples of important roles, illustrating prescriptive behaviour and its embeddedness in the intranet carried IMS, can make the IMS more active and efficient in the organization.

The Intranet Carrying the IMS

In the case study, it was evident that the intranet was an important carrier [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF] of the IMS. The intranet was the major representation of the IMS for many people in different roles in the heterogeneous organization performing their work. To some extent the artefact was even synonymous with the IMS (cf. [START_REF] Barley | Technology as an occasion for structuring: Evidence from observations of CT scanners and the social order of radiology departments[END_REF][START_REF] Orlikowski | The duality of technology: rethinking the concept of technology in organizations[END_REF])the media (the artefact) and the content focusing the different parts of the IMS were treated as one by many employees and users in the organization. When several of our respondents in the interviews and in the workshops described the IMS, they even described the functional and graphical user interface design of the intranet and thereby put the artefact in the foreground rather than the IMS. They also pointed out the importance of the design of the intranet as an artefact and a symbolic system [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF], and how important it was in how well key information (regarding e.g. the support for routines in their daily work) was communicated in the organization as a part of management and control. This puts a lot of pressure on the overall design of the intranet being effectively designed in order to carry the IMS appropriately. Respondents kept coming back to the challenges of the design and underlying logic involved in searching for information in the IMS carried by the intranet, and to get an overview of the content relevant for them in order to be supported in their daily activities.

"The IMS contains so much information you don't know where to start looking" (Workshop participant, March 31, 2015) "If you are not appealed by the front page [of the IMS on the intranet], you do not look at it, and finally you do not search for information there" (Manager, Finance and Control, February 09, 2015)

"Unified notation and frameworks to present information in the system are important so that the employees can navigate." (Workshop participant, March 31, 2015) "An information-based system would make it easier to use in the organization." (Workshop participant, March 31, 2015) The examples and citations above show how the design of the IT artefact, the intranet, in the government agency, shapes the user perceptions about the content of the system and the IMS, and also its use or non-use. The respondents also suggested many alternative ways of designing the structure of e.g. documents in the intranet. In this case the graphical user interface was commented upon as being very important, including the possibilities to search for relevant content (e.g. documents on safety or other rules or regulations), the structure of the document linked to particular work processes, etc. Properties regarding design also included for example a uniform appearance that enables recognition, the ability to personalize views based on roles in the organization or finding and defining the appropriate metadata to facilitate filtering. This would make it easier to find the appropriate documents linked to a certain area within the large and heterogeneous organization or linked to a particular task in order to get support.

As stated above we can also interpret the intranet as a symbolic system [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF], thereby focusing the information stored in the system. With this perspective, we can identify important features of the intranet carrying the IMS such as a large amount of information that is difficult for users of the intranet to absorb and thereby to get supported by and managed throughone of the most important roles for an IMS. At a workshop the participants discussed the possibility of moving from the existing document-based intranet to an IMS carried by an information-based system. This was thought of as allowing more flexibility and effective communication with different types of content such as images, video and text. Once again, the design of the intranet is critical for the IMS and how it is interpreted and used within the organization. We interpret that this goes beyond the initial intention and scope of the intranet in this case study. This means that the expectations of the intranet effectivity are not met when it comes to design, use and governance intentions from the top management group.

Gosain [START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage?[END_REF] studies enterprise information systems from an institutional perspective and proposes: "[…] the view of enterprise information systems as carriers of institutionalization. Enterprise information systems represent a particular template for the conduct of the organization's activities. At the core of enterprise software packages are numerous assumptions about how organizational processes should work; but even with careful configuration, the fit to organizational needs is often lacking [START_REF] Talbert | Getting the most from an enterprise system[END_REF]. As the organization evolves over time and the assumptions built into a system's configuration stay static, this misfit has the potential to increase." (ibid., p. 168). The point of departure in this analysis of the intranet as a carrier of institutionalization also shows that the IMS as the content is a template of conduct. However, not as active as it could be regarding the legitimation of it by managers not carrying it optimally (above) and the overall design and functions in the intranet not having a good usability and representationand therefore not optimally carried by the intranet. This means that several important dimensions are not supported well enough by the intranet as the sole carrier the IMS. For example, the regulative elements are not carried enough, supporting actions in line with specifications and rules. Normative dimensions [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF] in terms of standards are not communicated well enough using the IMS as a vehicle to support and govern daily work in the government agency. This also goes for the symbolic values that are expected to be a part of the IMS and the intranet in order to achieve the governance expected. As stated by e.g. [START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage?[END_REF][START_REF] Ko | Information technology governance: an evaluation of the theory-practice gap, Corporate Governance[END_REF][START_REF] Talbert | Getting the most from an enterprise system[END_REF] this line of reasoning can also be associated with achieving fit between the behaviour, processes and structures in the organization and the design of the systems (the IMS and the intranet) as such longitudinallya snapshot of fit is not enough.

Findings and Lessons Learned -How the IMS is Carried

Table 1 below summarizes the intentions, the present situations and the needs identified in the analysis above focusing on the IMS. The findings clearly show that the IMS could be carried more distinct and be made more legitimate by the management group and the intranet respectively in order to be effective in the organization and to govern the structure, processes and culture. The intentions are not fulfilled and several needs are identified in order to achieve a legitimate IMS governing the organization (Error! Reference source not found.).

A lesson learned from the findings in the case study is that the vision of having one integrated IMS can be questioned using an institutional perspective including path dependency [START_REF] Vergne | The Missing Link Between the Theory and Empirics of Path Dependence: Conceptual Clarification, Testability Issue, and Methodological Implications[END_REF]. One integrated management system seems to be very, or even far too, complicated to be carried by actors and artefacts (e.g. an intranet) in a large and heterogeneous organization, so the type of and level of integration is challenging [START_REF] Jørgensen | Integrated management systemsthree different levels of integration[END_REF][START_REF] Wilkinson | An examination of the ISO 9001:2000 standard and its influence on the integration of management systems[END_REF]. An aligned [START_REF] Symons | IT Governance Framework, Forrester Best Practices[END_REF] structure and one IMS or several interlinked IMSs seem to be a critical choice regarding the challenges and relative success of management and control of behaviour in terms of relational systems, activities, and artefacts. Mirroring the findings in the present case study with Jørgensen et al.'s [START_REF] Jørgensen | Integrated management systemsthree different levels of integration[END_REF] three levels model of integrating management systems, the case is intended to be "coordinated and coherent" (model B). A redesign of the intranet to support the IMS focusing the structuring of information, design, reach and range in order to make use of the directive power in the artefact However, in practice the misaligned (Grembergen (2009) IMS is not effective and can be even counterproductive. An IMS can be aligned or misaligned in relation to the three dimensions of structure, process and people [START_REF] Ko | Information technology governance: an evaluation of the theory-practice gap, Corporate Governance[END_REF]. Achieving an aligned and legitimated IMS is therefore crucialan IMS that is legitimated through actors and artefacts as combined carriers (cf. [START_REF] Scott | Institutional Carriers: Reviewing Modes of Transporting Ideas over Time and Space and Considering their Consequences[END_REF]). In order to have an effective IMS the case study has also shown that it is important to use the potential of the directive power of an intranet carrying the IMS. Using an intranet as an important and aligned carrier of central pillars when governing an organization, has a potential in the studied government agency. However, this demands a well-designed, well-structured, legitimate and embedded artefact, containing usability for different roles and actors within a heterogeneous organization.

The analysis of the management group at the government agency and the intranet as carriers of important elements of institution also illustrates the importance of combining and aligning carriers (in terms of e.g. relational systems [management group] and the artefact [the intranet carrying the IMS]) when trying to realize the intentions embedded in an IMS. Non-aligned and non-legitimate (misalignment according to Gosain [START_REF] Gosain | Enterprise Information Systems as Objects and Carriers of Institutional Forces: The New Iron Cage?[END_REF]) norms, values and behaviour, for example, do not lead to a successful use of an IMS. Misalignment is shown in the case in three dimensions: 1) within the IMS as such and 2) by the management group (business) and 3) IT (the intranet) carrying the IMS. Applying an institutional theory perspective and the focus on carriers have been generative when understanding the IMS in the government agency (further elaborated below).

Conclusions

The purpose of this paper has been to investigate, show and reflect upon how institutional theoryfocusing on institutional carriers with the support of pillars and path dependencycan help us to understand how an IMS is represented through human actors and technology in a government agency. The conclusion of this research is that the application of institutional carriers [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF] as a perspective on IMSs can help us to explore and understand, in our case, a management group and an intranet as an example of an IT artefact, the role and the challenges as well as relative success of such systems. It is evident that the institutional perspective can help us to understand the symbolic and relational systems that come into play in an organization using an IMS and the human actors, routines and artefacts linked to regulative, normative and cultural-cognitive pillars within. The findings and lessons learned from the case study also lead us to the conclusion that the interplay between the general intention behind an IMS and significant actors and artefacts carrying it are highly important when governing a government agency and its structures, processes and culture. This finding is original in the context of IMS, applying institutional theory when studying human actors and an IT artefact as carriers and is one important contribution from this paper. The conclusions show the strength of institutional theory, in terms of path dependency, when exploring IMSslinking the present to the past [START_REF] Scott | Institutions and organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Vergne | The Missing Link Between the Theory and Empirics of Path Dependence: Conceptual Clarification, Testability Issue, and Methodological Implications[END_REF]. Addressing path dependency in this case made it possible to understand the importance and the attention that the agency management gave the aspect of having one integrated IMSinstead of e.g. heading for a more manageable and more effective IMS package (cf. [START_REF] Malmi | Management control systems as a package -Opportunities, challenges and research directions[END_REF]). It is also linked to how IT in general is governed, where the intranet in this case is an example [START_REF] De Haes | An Exploratory Study into IT Governance Implementations and its Impact on Business/IT Alignment[END_REF][START_REF] Ko | Information technology governance: an evaluation of the theory-practice gap, Corporate Governance[END_REF]. One potential weakness of institutional theory is that the theoretical perspective can be too dominating, using distinct theoretical concepts, seeing only what the theory (as a lens) prescribes when analyzing the empirical material (cf. [START_REF] Walsham | Interpretive case studies in IS research: nature and method[END_REF]). In the case study, however, we have tried to avoid that by using a reflexive research approach, with clear inductive parts, interpreting the empirical material more openly in the early stages, as stated in the research approach section.

The implications of this study is that further research and practice should pay more attention to institutional carriers when studying and improving IMSs. Another implication is the potential to further address human actors and artefacts carrying IMS. There is also a need to deal with the limitation that we have so far only studied one government agency in one national setting. However, we believe that the current case study is a generative example to learn from when focusing IMS and carriers, but there is a need to broaden the empirical data to also include other contexts.

Table 1 .

 1 Findings summarized.

	Analytic	Intention	Present situation	Needs
	theme

Acknowledgements

This study is partially financially supported by anonymized government agency.


Tarmo Kalvet
email: tarmo.kalvet@ttu.ee

Henrik Karlzén

Amund Hunstad

Marek Tiits

Live Enrolment for Identity Documents in Europe

Keywords: Morphing, Identity document, Passport, Live enrolment, Social acceptance, Public sector innovation, Drivers and barriers, Risk management

Digital image alterations (morphing) of identity document photos is a major concern and may potentially allow citizens with malicious intent to enrol for identity document(s) later to be used also by another individual. Taking the photo in the application officelive enrolmentcan address this issue. However, this is a break with tradition and entails a sizeable overhaul in the public sector, which can be reluctant to change and often lacks the necessary formal methods that ensure a smooth transition. The objective of this paper is to map the main barriers and drivers related to live enrolment based on theoretical research and interviews conducted with high-ranking officers at passport authorities in Estonia, Kosovo, Norway and Sweden. These countries have successfully switched to live enrolment. The main driver for live enrolment has been increased security; for Estonia, user convenience was important and was behind the decision of keeping alternative application processes for the citizens around. The absence of legacy systems makes it easier to implement public sector innovations, such as live enrolment. Behind the successful implementation is proper risk management, covering technological, political and organisational risks. Finally, the research results indicate varying experiences, obstacles, cultural differences and tradeoffs, emphasizing the need to understand barriers and drivers in a contextualised way.

Introduction

Existing facial recognition algorithms are unable to fully deal with digital image alterations. This means that malicious citizens are able to apply for identity documents that can be used also by another individual. When a photo is brought in the photographer, the applicant, and others involved, all must trust that the photo has not been tampered with. In theory, biometric facial recognition algorithms should be able to determine altered photos from genuine ones, but, in practice, the algorithms are not perfect.

While the live enrolment of fingerprints is a common standard for identity documents, such as European passports, this is not the case for passport photos. The non-live photo enrolment procedure is vulnerable to 'morphing attacks' [START_REF] Ferrara | The Magic Passport[END_REF], in which a digitally altered photograph is enrolled in order to allow two or more persons of similar appearance to use the same passport to pass visual checks of their face (both automated and manual) at border crossing points. This would mean that a known criminal could travel with the passport of somebody else. More generally, if one does not make sure that the photo is an authentic representation of the person applying for the passport (and nobody else!), the photo will not provide the intended security. For instance, someone may be forced to apply for a passport with somebody else's photo, resulting in identitytheft where that somebody could travel in the name of the coerced. This could be useful for a criminal involved in e.g., illegal immigration or human trafficking. The adoption of a common standard for live enrolment of passport photos may eliminate, or at least greatly reduce, these threats.

As of 2016, only some European countries have switched to live enrolment (Figure 1).

Fig. 1. State of the live photo enrolment in the Europe

Source: Authors on the basis of national experts participating in the "Sixty-sixth meeting of the Committee on a uniform format for visa" (16 March 2016, Brussels) and on national passport application websites. Some countries are applying a mixed approach where live enrolment is offered as an option, while most of the European countries are still applying traditional approach where applicants bring their photos with them. Primarily Northern and Southeastern European countries have made live photo enrolment mandatory. Meanwhile, a number of larger member states, such as France, Italy, Spain and the UK, have not yet launched live enrolment. In some cases, the existence of live enrolment varies at the intra-country level; for instance, it is available only in a third of Swiss cantons and various German municipalities.

The objective of the paper is to explain the main drivers and barriers behind switching to live enrolment. These are vital to understanding the problem at hand, its possible solutions, and to propose policy recommendations to other countries. It is important to note that there might not be one best model suitable for all countries as cultural and economic differences must be considered.

The research is carried out on the basis of four countries -Estonia, Kosovo (Kosovo is recognised as a country by most, but not all, EU member states), Norway and Sweden in the issuance of passports. These countries represent a variety of practices. In Kosovo, Norway and Sweden live enrolment is mandatory. Estonia, on the other hand, represents a country where a mixed approach is in place. These countries represent an economically, socially, and culturally diverse group of countries, therefore they were selected as case study countries for this research.

As the first step, a review of existing academic and policy literature was conducted to search for influential factors that may affect the implementation of live enrolment. Since the specific topic is scarcely discussed in literature, the literature search was expanded to involve academic papers and policy reports on public sector innovation and technology acceptance. As a result, an inventory of potential barriers and drivers was compiled, covering technological issues, organizational, user aspects and other relevant factors.

For the second step, interviews were carried out with high-ranking persons at passport authorities of each country. Interviews were either conducted in person or by phone. The respondentsall government employees with a top-level passport process responsibility (currently or previously)were selected to be knowledgeable and have good insight into the matter at hand.

The paper is structured as follows. In section two, a general overview of the live enrolment processes in Sweden, Norway, Kosovo and Estonia is provided. This is followed by literature review. In section 4 the formulation of several hypotheses about challenges and experiences of full live enrolment based on the theoretical studies and previous empirical work takes place. Section five discusses the findings, followed by the conclusions (section six).

Live Enrolment Processes in Sweden, Norway, Kosovo and Estonia

In Sweden there is only one way of applying for a passport, and it is in person at a passport application office where a facial image is taken. This includes taking a digital photo and it is not possible for the applicant to receive a copy of the photo. The system was introduced in 2005.

Norway's process is highly similar to the Swedish one and was also introduced in 2005.

In Kosovo live enrolment is also in place, a digital photo has been taken close to the table of the clerk since 2008.

Estonia, an example of a typical mixed enrolment process, accepts three different modes of the submission of passport photos since 2007:

 Live enrolment: Passport application with a photo taken in special photo booth, which links the digital photo with the personal identity code of the person. An important difference to e.g. the Swedish case is that the photo booths are self-service rather than operated by application office staff. The differences may have implications for both quality and security.  Traditional application for passport on a paper along with printed photo, submitted in person in Estonian Police and Border Guard Board or sent in by postal mail;  Electronic passport application (filled in PDF form) together with photo in JPG format in the same electronically signed document (BDOC).

Literature Review

Studies on ICT-driven innovation in the public sector frequently emphasize the organizational, administrative and political context as a source of innovation drivers and barriers. Since the application of the live enrolment requires changes in organizational workflows and coordination between different organizations, it faces a number of organizational barriers. Such barriers involve, for example, existing governmental silos and lack of communication, the complexity of organizational change, and concerns about high implementation costs.

Studies have found that the innovation capacity of public sector organizations depends on a number of organizational factors, such as organizational structures, intraand inter-organizational collaboration and coordination, organizational culture, leadership styles [START_REF] De Vries | Innovation in the Public Sector: A Systematic Review and Future Research Agenda[END_REF][START_REF]Powering European Public Sector Innovation: Towards A New Architecture[END_REF], resources [START_REF] Bekkers | From public innovation to social innovation in the public sector: A literature review of relevant drivers and barriers[END_REF], qualified personnel [START_REF] Alshehri | E-government principles: implementation, advantages and challenges[END_REF], etc. Public sector organizations are also strongly affected by the legal culture and administrative traditions of the state [START_REF] Bekkers | From public innovation to social innovation in the public sector: A literature review of relevant drivers and barriers[END_REF]. Moreover, the inherent complexity of public sector organizations and their accountability to a multitude of stakeholders make the implementation of organizational changes much more difficult in the public sector than it is in the private sector [START_REF] Rashman | Organizational learning and knowledge in public service organizations: A systematic review of the literature[END_REF].

Although the public sector context generates more barriers than drivers to innovation, some drivers still exist. Firstly, drivers may be generated by external triggers, such as competitive pressure by other organizations, countries or international bodies [START_REF] Bekkers | From public innovation to social innovation in the public sector: A literature review of relevant drivers and barriers[END_REF], legal obligation, political priority and public demand [START_REF] De Vries | Innovation in the Public Sector: A Systematic Review and Future Research Agenda[END_REF]. At the organizational level, innovation can be driven by participation in cross-organizational and cross-border knowledge transfer networks [START_REF] Albury | Fostering Innovation in Public Services[END_REF], and strong leadership by administrative and political managers [START_REF] Bekkers | From public innovation to social innovation in the public sector: A literature review of relevant drivers and barriers[END_REF].

The regulatory and legal context is perceived to be important in several respects. On the one hand, existing regulations often stifle innovation; on the other, regulations can also promote innovation, for example by imposing a legal obligation to implement certain solutions [START_REF] De Vries | Innovation in the Public Sector: A Systematic Review and Future Research Agenda[END_REF].

Another potentially important factor is demand by citizens and businesses and can act as an influential factor for live enrolment. In order to understand what factors affect the demand and acceptance of live enrolment, research on the acceptance and use of technology can provide valuable insights. The general point of departure of such literature is the understanding that there are a number of factors that influence the user as to whether or not to adopt a novel technology. One popular approach for mapping those factors is the technology acceptance model (TAM), which argues that acceptance is determined by the perceived usefulness and ease of use of a technology [START_REF] Davis | Perceived usefulness, perceived ease of use, and user acceptance of information technology[END_REF]. TAM's derivative, the Unified Theory of Acceptance and Use of Technology (UTAUT) is more elaborate and incorporates additional factors, explaining how a decision is formed about the use of an information system. The theory builds on four key constructs: 1) performance expectancy, 2) effort expectancy, 3) social influence, and 4) facilitating conditions [START_REF] Venkatesh | Determinants of Perceived Ease of Use: Integrating Control, Intrinsic Motivation, and Emotion into the Technology Acceptance Model[END_REF][START_REF] Venkatesh | Consumer acceptance and use of information technology: extending the unified theory of acceptance and use of technology[END_REF].

Hypotheses

On the basis of the conducted theoretical research and previous empirical work, we have formulated several specific hypotheses about barriers and drivers of full live enrolment. This includes aspects pertaining to both the usersindividuals expected to use the live enrolment serviceas well as the suppliers of said public service.

Our key hypotheses are related to the expectations of the government when introducing live enrolment. We expect security related benefits, such as making sure the photo comes from the person who is applying for a passport and is not altered in any way as well as other kinds of protection from document forgery. In addition, central arguments around introducing live enrolment relate to the accuracy and reliability of the identification of persons and protection from identity theft. We also expect to see more general public security policy objectives, such as the fight against illegal immigration and human trafficking, as well as the fight against terrorism and serious crime. [START_REF] Hoepman | Crossing Borders: Security and Privacy Issues of the European e-Passport, 1st Int. Workshop on Security[END_REF], [START_REF] Tiits | Social Acceptance of ePassports[END_REF] We expect the general key barriers and drivers of public sector innovation to be the same for the specific case of live enrolment, with the importance of continuous political support to the process, financial resources, commitment and leadership of administrative and technical managers ("championing of the project"), ICT awareness and capabilities of the stakeholders (systems, skills, tools and methods) [START_REF] De Vries | Innovation in the Public Sector: A Systematic Review and Future Research Agenda[END_REF], [START_REF]Powering European Public Sector Innovation: Towards A New Architecture[END_REF], [START_REF] Kalvet | Innovation: a factor explaining e-government success in Estonia[END_REF].

Existence of a suitable live enrolment technology on the local market, or suppliers who can provide it, might also be important as well as related business models. The cost of implementing live enrolment may also be mitigated by similar existing systems and solutions. If live enrolment for ID cards is already in place, the step towards live enrolment for passports should be considerably easier. Extensive population censuses (registries) can further help as there will be more information in the system already. Conversely, going for live enrolment could also be made easier if other changes were anyway needed to the passport application process, such as introducing fingerprint scanners.

Any security measure must be cost-efficient and in some cases it may be that population density (e.g. in relation to the number of application offices) is too low to offset the cost of live enrolment. On the other hand, live enrolment could be a more costeffective security measure than e.g. ones based on complex certificate distribution, or instead less cost-effective than putting a limit to the amount of new passports a citizen is allowed in a set period of time.

As public sector innovation is risky, we expect to see evidence of resistance from some stakeholders (e.g., agencies reluctant to take on additional tasks). This may be particularly likely in case procedures were recently changed. Related to this is the use of formalized methodological approaches to implementing the change (a clear definition of work rules and methods, training, etc.) in order to mitigate the risks. Since general experience in public sector innovations is that only limited attention is paid to precise systematic gathering and use of measurement and data, we do not expect to see very clear measurable target indicators set in relation to live enrolment.

There are also certain probable expectations from the public which can influence live enrolment uptake [START_REF] Kalvet | Public Acceptance of Advanced Identity Documents[END_REF]. Convenience of the collection of photos (e.g. easier to use photo booth than make the extra effort to a professional photographer) and image satisfaction are likely important factors. Furthermore, the spread of digital cameras could have a two-sided effect: on the one hand, encouraging uptake of related technologies such as live enrolment, while on the other hand, resistance from professional photographers due to an increasingly smaller market may appear. We also expect to see some problems due to the innovative nature of technology. Societal groups such as those less familiar with technology and digital photography may be more risk-averse and resistant to live enrolment, preferring the traditional method; age and profession distribution of a region or country may be underlying factors here. Pre-existing widespread use of privacy-sensitive technology, like biometrics and databases, may make live enrolment easier to accept. For instance, fingerprint usage has previously had bad connotations due to the connection with criminal records, but this has been alleviated by the rising use of fingerprint logins on smartphones.

Finally, since the main purpose of passports is to travel to other jurisdictions, a country must consider not only its own perceptions but also external pressure. For instance, countries must take into account demands from the EU and International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) as well as particular countries like the US requiring certain procedures to ensure visa-free entry.

These specific hypotheses were the main topics focused of the interviews and other data collection, and in the following section key findings are discussed.

Discussion

If current facial recognition algorithms are unable to fully deal with digital image alterations, and live enrolment-where photos are taken in a controlled environment in the application officeprovides a way of alleviating this risk, then the question becomes why are all countries not already using it. Our research shows that some countries have switched to live enrolment successfully, while many still use the traditional method of having citizens bring photos when applying for a passport. Also, many countries allow both methods.

Building on the theories of public sector innovation and acceptance and use of technology, the authors have identified a number of factors influencing live enrolment decisions and implementations. These factors may be split in those behind the decision to switch to live enrolment and the factors impacting the ease of implementation.

Making the Decision to Go Live

A main driver for live enrolment is increased security, hindering false images in passports. Furthermore, live enrolment is convenient for citizens as they do not need to first acquire photos before visiting the application office. Also, formatting issues are unlikely to occur if all photos are taken by the same organisation. However, all security measures must be weighed against the different associated potential costs. For instance, the passport authority will need to administer photos in a different way, while portrait photographers lose a fairly substantial part of their income. Photos not taken by experienced photographers may also lead to less flattering portraits, which may be associated with a decrease in satisfaction among citizens. Some photographers have indicated that they believe they could provide as secure an image process as the government officials and this may ultimately be a question of trust. There may also be old connotations of feeling like a criminal attached to biometrics being captured by the authorities and care must be taken to give applicants sufficient privacy, especially for those with certain religious beliefs or disabilities. Indeed, the passport authorities in Sweden and Norway are both trying to be service minded and create good will.

Another factor affecting the decision of switching to live enrolment is the external global pressure from organisations like the EU and ICAO, as well as influential countries like the USA who require certain procedures for visa free entry. In general, however, EU member states seem to be doing very well with passport security in an international context. There may be pressure coming from other countries having implemented live enrolment or incentives coming from other parts of one's own government who use similar technology. On the other hand, traditions may be strong and if a country recently changed its application procedures it will likely be more reluctant to do so again.

It is also interesting to note that the motivation for going live has been rather different in our case study countries. Estonian prioritised the quality of photos, as the photos were previously not always of sufficient quality, while security considerations, such as avoiding photo morphing were not of concern. Contrastingly, for Kosovo, Sweden and Norway security considerations were the highest. For Estonia, user convenience has been very important and is behind the decision of keeping alternative application processes open for the citizens.

Another finding is that in the absence of legacy systems (like in Kosovo), more profound decisions are generally reached (and implemented) in an easier fashion. Also, it must be reiterated that decisions are easier to reach if there are other organisations that have introduced live enrolment for related servicesit is possible to learn from their experience and somehow pressure to innovate is created from the public side if they have positive experience with live enrolment in other context.

In general, still, decisions to employ live enrolment seems to be influenced equally both by the context external to public sector organizations as well as by organisational level factors. External pressures alone (such as security related considerations by politicians) cannot explain the decisions to switch, as more countries would have switched to live enrolment by now. Suitable organizational level context (including supportive organisational culture, allocation of resources), coupled with individual level drivers of key persons (such as job-related knowledge and skills, willingness to exploit risky avenues) behind the live enrolment introduction, were also needed.

Implementing Live Enrolment

Even if the decision is made to introduce live enrolment, proper risk management is needed to account for any and all setbacks encountered during implementation. One possible risk is that appropriate technology is missing or that vendors do not have suitable offerings. There are not many vendors available and, as such, there is low competition that may have led to higher prices and doubtful quality. There are ideas of certifying vendors to address this. One of the typical problems related to public sector innovation is related to the lack of suitable technology in market. Thus, there is need to develop related technologies further until they can be applied. This also calls for the implementation of rather unpopular public procurement mechanism, so-called public procurement of innovation. In the case of live enrolment suitable solutions did exist in the global market. However, it should be noted that any vendor winning a particular procurement process will effectively have a monopoly for live enrolment in the applicable region and time of that procurement. As such, there is considerably more at stake than in the case of non-live enrolment where there can be many simultaneous vendors sharing the market. Thus, care must be taken in order not to let corruption distort the procurement process. Furthermore, staff must be trained. In an unstable political situation, a decision may soon be reversed and idea championing and motivation could be limited. Overall, a culture rife with innovation will be more accustomed and prepared for changes and therefore more likely to succeed with a change in enrolment processes. Of special concern is when passport applications are done for extraordinary circumstances, such as when conducted outside of one's country, when applying for temporary/emergency passports, or when applying for visas. Indeed, citizens seem to highly value the speed of the application process, with examples of citizens making sure they get passports with the old ten year validity before a switch to a mere five year validity. In general, citizens seem more concerned about the use of fingerprints and biometric data in databases than about live enrolment. Passport officials have suggested changing the discourse and focusing on the improved security measures to stop identity theft.

Our research confirms that one of the typical weaknesses associated with insufficient attention to the use of impact assessments and evaluations is also true regarding live enrolment. None of the countries set target indicators nor was their achievement monitored. Neither have we encountered (public) impact assessments of the benefits of live enrolment (that in turn might slow down other countries to switch as the benefits are debatable).

Our research of technology acceptance aspects did not reveal problems. The overall societal context was supportive as people had already experience with digital photography and automated service machines generally.

A Multi-faceted Situation

The interviews revealed varying experiences, obstacles, cultural differences and tradeoffs. Only in Sweden was the voice of the photographers an issue. Indeed, Estonia may have found a move towards live enrolment easy since they also kept the traditional application method. However, Norway also went full live and in fact had a lot of political support and funding, although the support and funding varied over time. Kosovo, being a rather young country, seems to have succeeded with implementing live enrolment thanks to no pre-existing alternatives. While there were some discussions among photographers, their voices were not very strong. Furthermore, the issue was not particularly political, in part thanks to a small government. Also, since Kosovo's efforts started already in 2000, there was no issue with the advent of digital cameras further affecting photographers. The other parts of the identification chain were also important influencers. The existence and levels of birth registries vary widely in the EU, as do the use of automatic border gates, mobile application kiosks and restrictions on citizens' right to a passport. The use and sophistication of other forms of ID may also play a role. For instance, the Swedish transport authority previously tried but failed to implement live enrolment for driver's licenses. Now they plan to revisit this with the experiences of the passport authority.

Conclusions

Using live enrolment for passports, where photos are taken in the application office, is a topical issue since it can limit the possibility of malicious digital image alterations [START_REF] Behrensen | Harmonization of ePassport and Border Checks in the European Union: Ethical, Social, and Legal Aspects. A summary of the practical implications of the legal, ethical, and social analysis of the FIDELITY project[END_REF]. However, live enrolment has both its advantages and disadvantages and a tradeoff is expected. Live enrolment may make passport applications a one-stop process, ensure consistent formatting and increase security. There may also be spill-over effects. For example, Estonia first introduced live enrolment for driver's licences, and this ex-perience simplified introduction of the live enrolment for passports. Sweden is following a reversed path from live passport enrolment making the similar move for licences simpler. External pressure can also be international e.g. from the ICAO or EU. However, live enrolment is a break with tradition and depends on overhauls in the public sector where measurable targets and risk management is typically wanting and the passport authority may be reluctant to take on new tasks. The public may hesitate to trust the government further with their private data and find that their portraits are now less flattering. Furthermore, live enrolment can make it more difficult for expats, who need to apply for a passport from abroad. Furthermore, a lack of competition among enrolment equipment vendors may lead to high prices for low quality, which both Sweden and Norway have found. Portrait photographers meanwhile suffer loss of income.

To minimise the trade-off, authorities have tried becoming more service-minded, creating good will, not least in relation to the speed of the application process, which is highly important to applicants. Portrait photographers, on the other hand, have suggested that they be certified, in a similar vein to what is done in other areas where the private sector provide a service for the public good, thereby ensuring adequate levels of security. However, at least so far their suggestions have not become a reality. In the case study of four countries, only in Sweden was the voice of the photographers at all an issue and even there the authorities chose to prioritise security and live enrolment.

The decision to introduce live-enrolment and the state of live enrolment in Europe are both multi-faceted. Experiences, drivers and obstacles vary between countries and sometimes there are even more regional structures where one part of a country differs from another. Furthermore, it is not a binary decision: there are different versions of live enrolment implementations and also mix enrolment where live enrolment is offered but not mandatory, such as in Estonia. What is more, when planning the introduction of live enrolment, Estonia prioritised quality of photos and user-friendliness while Sweden focused on security. Implementation wise, Kosovo benefitted from a small government and no pre-existing alternatives, while also pre-empting the digital camera era which later put more pressure on photographers. Norway had substantial political support and funding, although the backing varied over time, while Estonia utilised Schengen funds.

As such, the decision to introduce live enrolment and successfully implementing it, is dependent on a vast number of cultural and political factors. Straightforward sociocultural models are unable to fully explain the current situation and the overall state of a country's passport maturity with its automatic border gates, mobile application kiosks, restrictions on passport renewals as well as the proliferation of birth registries and the security of breeder documents.

Several limitations remain, however. First, the attitudes of photographers (as important stakeholder group) could be studied further. They might be hard to reach, though, as those who suffered economically due to live enrolment could no longer be in business. Also, empirical data could be collected from the countries that do not practice live enrolment now to deepen current results.

Acknowledgments

This work was supported by the European Commission through the project "Fast and trustworthy Identity Delivery and check with ePassports leveraging Traveler privacy" (FIDELITY, grant 284862) funded from FP7 and a grant "Public sector innovation: The case of modern identity management technologies" (PUT773) from Estonian Science Foundation.