P A Midgley

Jonathan Simon Barnard

Alex S Eggeman

Joanne Helen Sharp

T A White

Dislocation electron tomography and precession electron diffractionminimizing the effects of dynamical interactions in real and reciprocal space

Keywords: tomography, electron diffraction, transmission electron microscopy, dislocation structures, STEM Keywords (user supplied): weak beam imaging, precession electron diffraction

teaching and research institutions in France or abroad, or from public or private research centers.

Dislocation electron tomography and precession electron diffraction -minimizing the effects of dynamical interactions in real and reciprocal space

Introduction

David Cockayne's research activities and interests over the past 40 years are reflected throughout this special issue. In this paper we review and extend two topics that strongly reflect David's research in weak-beam imaging [1] and kinematic diffraction [2], minimising the effects of dynamical interactions to elucidate strutural information in real and reciprocal space.

The first half of this paper extends David's weak-beam approach to three dimensions by coupling WBDF imaging with tomographic acquisition and reconstruction. This approach introduced very recently [3,4] has been improved through careful image processing and the development of STEM medium-angle annular dark-field (MAADF) imaging; both improvements are discussed here.

In the second half of the paper we discuss the use of precession electron diffraction and whether the diffracted intensities recorded using PED can be treated as kinematical in nature and thus used in structure solution algorithms. In particular we explore the importance of intensity ordering and show how the relative intensities of reflections are very important and that reasonable structure solutions can be achieved even when the absolute intensities have large errors.

Electron Tomography of Dislocations

Although stereo-microscopy has been used for many years to investigate the threedimensional nature of dislocation networks, the precision with which the depth of the dislocation in the foil can be determined is limited by the small angle (5-10 degrees) that the sample must be tilted for the stereo affect to work. A true three-dimensional reconstruction of a dislocation network can be achieved only using a tomographic approach; the first implementation of this was through a tilt series of Lang x-ray topographs showing individual dislocations in diamond with a spatial resolution ~100 µm [5]. In 2006 the first electron tomogram of a 3D dislocation network was published [3] and showed how the interactions between dislocations can be revealed at far greater spatial resolution than with x-rays and with more clarity and precision than with stereo electron microscopy [4].

The electron approach combined the weak-beam dark field method pioneered by Cockayne and others [1] with tomographic acquisition and subsequent reconstruction. The key element of the weak-beam tomography approach is to keep the diffraction condition constant (or near-constant) throughout the tilt series. This then minimises the variation of the image position with respect to the dislocation core. However, in elastically anisotropic materials, even if the excitation is kept constant throughout the tilt series the image will vary because the position of the dislocation is sensitive to a ratio of elastic stiffness constants. In the case shown in [4] and here, which is for GaN, a hexagonal crystal, that ratio is c 66 /c 44 . The 3D reconstruction of a dislocation is therefore at best a narrow 'cylinder' which defines the location of the associated dislocation core. In fact for WBDF tomography the cylinder will always be slightly to one side of the core as shown in examples below. The resolution of this weak-beam technique was estimated to be about 5nm. However, in many of the original reconstructions the quality of the reconstruction was degraded by unwanted contrast arising primarily from thickness fringes and oscillatory contrast of dislocations tilted with respect to the beam and this in turn led to a pronounced 'dustiness' in the reconstructions.

Here we explore ways to reduce these artefacts and to improve the overall contrast of the dislocations seen in the final 3D reconstruction.

Improvements in Weak-Beam Dark-Field (WBDF) Tomographic Reconstructions

In a weak-beam dark-field (WBDF) image with many dislocations, strong intensity variations occur due to dislocation strain fields and consequent thin film relaxation. Our original approach [4] to recovering the dislocation images from the large-scale intensity variations is demonstrated in figure 1, taken from a tilt series recorded from an epilayer of GaN. Each image in the tilt series is smoothed over several pixels many times (>10 times) so that the fine-scale features are 'diffused' rapidly into the background intensity, while preserving the structure of the medium-to-large variations (figure 1(b)). This smoothed signal is subtracted from the original and thresholdlimited (figure 1(c)). Too little smoothing results in very weak dislocation registry with thin broken line segments that often disappear in certain tilt members. Too much smoothing results in very strong dislocations images attended by broad dusty channels associated with thickness fringes. This compromise is illustrated in Figure 1(d), where the dislocation visibility is good, but some thickness fringe contrast remains.

Figure 2 shows an alternative approach that we have developed specifically for dislocation finding in the dark-field images prior to reconstruction. If the diffraction condition is the same across the sample, each dislocation image has a width determined by its Burgers vector and the deviation parameter, s g eff [START_REF] Stobbs In | Mat. Sci: Proc. 3 rd Int. Sch. E.M[END_REF]. Each image is convoluted with a kernel (figure 2(c)) that enhances the contrast where a strong intensity maximum occurs in 3 neighbouring pixels in a vertical direction. Figure 2 shows the original (a) and convoluted image (b) with the kernel shown in figure 2(c). The convolute consists of thin lines about 1 pixel wide. Figure 2(d) shows a similar convoluted image where the kernel has been rotated by 90 degrees to pick out the horizontal lines. With a series of kernels that are systematically rotated, each pixel in the convoluted images gives a sinusoidal intensity variation that describes the strength and orientation of the line through the amplitude and phase of the Fourier transform of the convoluted image values.

The principle advantage of this filtering process is the complete removal of thickness fringe at the expense of enhancing fine-scale intensity fluctuations in the background signal. Likewise, if the kernel size is poorly matched to the dislocation width, the dislocation is lost, as shown on the right hand side of figure 2(e). However, this line-finding algorithm has been found to work only where the dislocations are reasonably widely separated, especially for dislocations that thread the sample. For closely spaced dislocations, the material in-between scatters strongly with attendant thickness fringes. For the diffraction conditions used, these fringes are closely spaced and the filter enhances these rather than the line along the dislocations. Thus, for dense dislocation networks, the line-finding algorithm fails and the simple smoothing procedure gives a more satisfactory result.

Figure 3 shows a direct comparison of the three-dimensional reconstruction of dislocations in a GaN epilayer with the crude smoothing filter (a) and with the linefinding algorithm (b). Alignment of the tilt series was easier with the line-found images and some of the poorly reconstructed dislocations in figure 3(a) are reconstructed well as a consequence, e.g. dislocations marked H in figure 3(b). The other effect of line finding is the removal of the dustiness in those spaces between the dislocations. The improvement in the visualisation of the individual dislocations is demonstrated in figure 3(c) and (d). Each 'blob' in this figure is a re-projection of the dislocations D1-D3, F along 16 voxels corresponding to a distance of 35nm. The linefinding algorithm allied with the better alignment reconstructs dislocation with much stronger voxel intensity and with a more compact lateral extension. At certain tilt angles the dislocation intensity is brighter resulting in residual traces of intensity threading through the 'dislocation'. Despite the improved alignment of the tilt series, the presence of some arcing of the dislocations D3 and F might be signs of genuine elastic anisotropy of the dislocation image from the core, as predicted in our previous work [3].

Further improvement of the reconstructed dislocation array can be achieved through existing tools used by the structural biology community, who have to contend with low signal to noise ratios. We have found that one tool in particular, the anisotropic non-linear diffusion algorithm (AND) introduced by Frangakis and Hegerl [START_REF] Frangakis | [END_REF] and developed by Fernández and Li [8], can used to reduce the spurious signal surrounding the dislocation and increase the visibility. The AND algorithm assesses the dimensionality of objects by measuring the intensity gradients in three orthogonal directions to distinguish between points (0D), lines (1D) and planes (2D). Smoothing proceeds in an iterative manner either isotropically (edge enhancing diffusion), or along edges and lines (coherence enhancing diffusion) depending on the configuration of the algorithm. Figure 4 shows dislocation D3 (a) before and (b) after AND filtering configured to enhance the lines rather than isotropic smoothing (CED diffusion). The difference image in figure 4(c) shows the increased voxel intensity within the centre and a decrease in the immediate surroundings, i.e. a reduction of the 'halo'. "Artificial enhancement of streaks that run through the reconstructed dislocation for two or three different tilt angles can also be seen in figure 4(c). At these angles, the filtered dislocation contrast was very strong and the streaks are residual intensities associated with back-projection. The intensities are above the AND noise thresholds and are, therefore, considered to be genuine features.

Dislocation Fidelity

In dark-field images of dislocations, the actual positions of the bright lines recorded rarely coincide with the dislocation core itself. This fact was established early on in both the kinematical and dynamical theories [9,10]. This location discrepancy can be made arbitrarily small by increasing the deviation parameter of the reflection at the expense of intensity. However, in their original work, Cockayne et al showed that this discrepancy could be made small enough to discern dislocation spacing of the order of several nanometres, depending on the elasticity of the material [1]. In the tomographic reconstruction of dislocations, the extra dimension serves to increase the uncertainty in true location further.

We assessed the three-dimensional location discrepancy by modelling dark field images for a fictitious crystal that is rotated about the diffraction condition (figure 5). We have modelled a pair of Shockley partial dislocations in copper using the darkfield imaging package, CuFour, written by Robin Schäublin. CuFour is interfaced with the EMS software written by Pierre Stadelman [11] and uses both Bloch-wave and multislice codes in combination to model the diffraction of the electron beam in the bulk and core regions respectively. Elastic anisotropy is taken into account. Figure 5(a) shows reconstructed Shockley partials and their true core locations for the diffraction conditions specified. Both dislocations lie on an inclined {111} plane corresponding to their common slip plane and are separated by 20nm. The reconstructed 'dislocations' are both displaced away from the core to one side and the centre-of-mass of the intensity sits 1 to 3 nm away from the core locations. The intensity maxima on the other hand do sit slightly closer together. Figure 5(b) shows that, with a line trace passing through their common maxima, the discrepancy in partial separation is relatively small, about 1 nm. In this simulation, the reconstructed 'dislocations' sit to the same side of their cores as determined by the sign of the term g.b. The lateral extent of the dislocations is also determined by this term and it can be seen that, the second partial dislocation is larger owing to the stronger and consequently larger intensity distribution. Thus, there is scope for three-dimensional dislocation separations to be misjudged by several nanometres, especially if the centre of mass of the intensity is used.

STEM MAADF Tomography of Dislocations

The weak-beam dark-field tomography technique utilises only one reflection. Thickness fringes in the tilt series create a persistent 'dustiness' within which the dislocation contrast can be lost. Since the intensity and spacing of thickness fringes are determined by the deviation parameter, incoherently imaging several dark-field images simultaneously may ameliorate the thickness fringe problem. Opening up the objective aperture is one solution at the expense of reduced depth of field. However, multiple-beam dark-field imaging is probably best configured in the scanning TEM medium angle dark-field (STEM MAADF) mode. High-angle (HAADF) scattered intensity is dominated by thermal diffuse scattering and low-angle (LAADF) is dominated by the contrast of only one or two diffracted beams (coherent contrast). The MAADF domain retains the dominance of the elastically scattered signal but the coherent contrast is minimised because of the multiple beams. In MAADF mode, the camera length is adjusted such that the ADF detector is set to collect several orders of the primary reflection; for example in figure 6(b) the ADF detector inner angle is 35 mrad and the outer angle is105 mrad. Several advantages become apparent: First, the thickness fringes are significantly suppressed in the STEM MAADF image (figure 6(b)); second, the dislocation visibility is improved and near constant along its extent, i.e. the depth-related oscillations are weak; third, the depth of focus can be extended by utilising the dynamic-focussing capability of a modern TEM-STEM; fourth, automated routines already exist for tilt series acquisition. The single most important disadvantage of the STEM method is the significant increase in size of the dislocation 'image'. With several beams present of which one or two are strong (and dominant), a large fraction of the extensive strain field becomes visible. It has been found that, under these multi-beam conditions, several closely spaced dislocations merge into one entity. Figure 6 shows the STEM MAADF reconstruction of dislocations in silicon created by nano-indentation, annealing and FIB preparation [12]. The reconstruction shows extremely clearly the presence of several dislocations on the same slip plane (figure 6(c)) to within a precision of about 8-10nm. These dislocations glide along the slip plane with a wide but slightly jagged curve and are widely separated. At certain points the dislocations bunch together and appears to cross-slip onto another {111} plane before proceeding on the original {111} plane. In these cross-slip bunches, the dislocations are not individually distinguishable but do lie approximately along the [-101] direction. Using the 3D reconstruction, the distances between successive slip planes can be measured to within 10nm accuracy. Notice that the visibility of the dislocations is strongest in the thinnest regions and weakens towards the thickest parts of the sample. An in-depth analysis of this sample, including determination of the Burgers vectors, can be read in Tanaka et al [13].

Precession Electron Diffraction

Precession electron diffraction [14] is now a well-established technique that enables 'zone axis' electron diffraction patterns to be acquired with diffracted intensities integrated through the reciprocal lattice 'rod' via the rocking nature of the beam as it traverses the precession circle. By forming hollow-cone illumination with the upper coils and applying an equal and opposite signal to the lower coils to bring the tilted beam back onto the optic axis, the net effect of the double-rocking is equivalent to having a stationary beam and precessing the crystal about the optic axis. The great advantage of the technique is that many more reflections are seen in the diffraction pattern that would be seen from a conventional 'static' diffraction pattern and the intensities of the diffracted beams, because of the precession integration and the fact that the incident beam is never parallel to the zone axis, are less prone to dynamical interactions.

The question remains however as to whether the recorded precession intensities can be used for structure determination using algorithms and approaches developed for Xray diffraction and if so what is the optimum precession angle and thickness for such an experimental data set. In this section of the paper we consider ways by which we might determine the suitability of precession data for structure solution and how sensitive the data is to dynamical effects.

Quantitative precession diffraction from erbium pyrogermanate

Erbium pyrogermanate, Er 2 Ge 2 O 7 (EGO), was chosen as a test sample because the relative complexity of the structure, with multiple atomic species and high symmetry would yield zone axis or precession patterns with reflections with strong, medium and weak diffraction intensities. The ideal structure viewed along the [001] zone axis, as determined in the bulk by neutron diffraction [15], and the corresponding kinematic diffraction pattern (the intensities being simply the square of the structure factor moduli) for -8< h, k< 8 are shown in figure 7 Previous studies by the authors have considered two different metrics of the diffraction data 'quality' with increasing precession angle [16]: a self-consistent intensity-residual and the structure-solution phase-residual. Residuals are normally used as a figure-of-merit for refinement algorithms but in this context are ideally suited to comparing a set of recorded intensities with a reference set. The intensity residual in this case was calculated not using the ideal kinematical intensities as the reference, but with the intensities from the most highly precessed pattern in the series as the reference. This allows the process to be applied to potentially unknown structures while giving the user the opportunity to get a simple measure of the strength of multi-beam dynamical effects in the sample. The intensity residual (R 2 ) is defined as: All diffraction patterns used in the analysis were recorded on Ditabis imaging plates with 10s exposure times. The phase residual (R p ) calculation measures the difference between the structure factor phases of the true structure (φ kin ) and those of the structure recovered by the structure solution using a phase-retrieval algorithm (φ sol ); this is defined as:

( ) ∑ ∑ - - - = h kin h h i i kin h p F e e F R sol h kin h φ φ kin h
F is the kinematical structure factor for reflection h calculated for electron scattering potentials and using the atomic co-ordinates of the ideal structure. The two residuals were calculated for a series of diffraction patterns recorded at precession angles ranging from 0 to 55 mrad. A corresponding series of structures were solved from these intensities using a charge-flipping algorithm modified for electron diffraction data [17]; the residuals are shown in figure 8(a) and (b) respectively. The rapid decrease in the residual suggests that for the EGO structure at the [001] zone axis a precession angle of 30-35 mrad is needed to remove the majority of the dynamical effects present in the diffraction pattern at this thickness.

Of course dynamical scattering affects all reflections in a pattern, with electron flux being scattered between strong and weak reflections and the zero-beam. Under certain circumstances this can make kinematically weak reflections more intense than kinematically strong reflections. However because the residual calculates the difference between a measured intensity of a reflection and the corresponding reflection in the most highly precessed pattern, the improvement in residual clearly indicates when the intensity 'dynamically transferred' between reflections across the whole pattern is reduced. The plateau seen above 35 mrad precession angle shows that the relative intensity of the entire pattern has stabilised.

The phase residual curve supports this threshold value but adds important evidence about the tendency towards kinematical behaviour. The residual curve shows a marked decrease at the threshold value (~35 mrad) indicating that the majority of structure factors have become correctly phased, returning the complete structure. Structure solution algorithms normally phase the strongest reflections first as these are the basis for the cell parameters and the general positions of the heavy atom columns. At high precession angles the diffraction pattern has the correct strong reflections present, allowing the algorithm to correctly phase these basis components, and hence returning good agreement between the ideal and recovered phases.

These two residual measurements give us a clear indication that not only does precession reduce the 'transfer' of intensity between reflections within a diffraction pattern but also shows that the relative strength of reflections is good enough to return a structure solution that approximates towards the ideal structure.

Intensity Ordering as a Precession Metric

Multi-beam scattering is almost always present in electron diffraction and even at extremely high precession angles there will be some multi-beam excitations, albeit between potentially weaker higher-order reflections, and as such there will always be a finite transfer of intensity between reflections. Since in a precession experiment the absolute values of intensity cannot be completely kinematic in nature the question exists as to whether there are other properties of the reflection list, such as the order of the reflection intensities, which are important? The possibility is that although the absolute values of the diffracted intensities may change considerably with thickness and thus dynamical interactions, perhaps the relative order of the intensities may be kept more constant by the action of precession. To investigate this idea, first suggested by L. Marks [18], four different intensity distributions were generated from calculated data.

The first set of intensities seen in figure 9 (blue curve) correspond to the kinematical structure factor moduli squared for the [001] projection of the EGO structure , as described before. For all these simulations reflections in the range -8<h,k< 8 were used; however the p4gm plane group symmetry of the [001] projection meant that only 44 reflections were needed to completely describe the structure at this resolution. These reflections were then sorted by intensity (strongest to weakest) and this ordered list of reflections is shown as the lowest curve (labeled unaltered intensities) in Figure 9. The other three curves show artificially generated reflection lists, these lists have the same order of reflections as the kinematic EGO list but the intensities have been generated by i) an I∝e -Kx decay law, ii) a linear I∝-Kx law and iii) an I∝1-e Kx decay law, where x is the order of the reflection. The maximum reflection intensity was kept constant and the kinematically-forbidden reflections (0n0, where n is odd) were fixed to zero. The three artificial distributions were designed to determine how much influence the correct reflection order is compared to the absolute reflection intensity profile.

All four sets of reflections were introduced to a symmetry modified charge flipping algorithm [17], and the resulting recovered structures are shown in figure 10(a)-(d) respectively.

The kinematic intensities, shown in figure 10(a), return the complete EGO structure, the eight-fold ring of erbium atoms is very clearly defined and the position of the four germanium doublets can also be seen, however the limitation of the data to an effective resolution of 0.60 Å means that the doublets cannot be fully resolved. The reflection list for the exponential decay set also returns a good solution (Figure 10(b)) with the erbium atomic columns strongly defined and the germanium positions present, albeit with some distortion caused by strong peaks corresponding to the oxygen columns close to the germanium columns.

For the linear intensity profile set, Figure 10(c), the erbium column positions remain strong but the germanium doublet positions have now moved quite significantly. Artificially enhancing the intensity of weaker reflections means that previously weak peaks (such as those associated with the oxygen columns) have now become important enough to disrupt the correct phasing of the entire structure, so while the largest peaks remain stable the algorithm is less likely to correctly return all the intermediate and weak peaks. This can be seen in the final intensity profile solution, Figure 10(d), here over a quarter of the reflections have an intensity greater than 90% of the maximum, and about three quarters of the reflections are stronger than the second strongest kinematical reflection (the 120 reflection). In this simulation it was impossible to recover the correct structure with all of the positive potential forced into peaks corresponding to the germanium doublet positions, reminiscent of structure solutions with unprecessed data [16]. R 1 factors for the three altered data sets were (b) 0.336, (c) 0.499 and (d) 0.574, and R 2 factors (b) 0.701, (c) 0.886 and (d) 0.910. These are all very high values, as assessed by usual x-ray criteria, but nevertheless the solution maps for (b) and (c) would be good enough to determine a partial structure.

From this it seems clear that the ordering within a set of reflections is an important factor in terms of producing a structure solution. Acceptable structures were recovered from simulations where the order of the reflection was maintained but the intensities were significantly altered. The exception seems to be when the intensities are altered to an extreme situation where the intensity distribution is close to constant across most of the data set; the large number of strong reflections makes it extremely difficult for the algorithm to correctly phase such a basis set.

Ordering charts

If we accept that the order of reflections is a useful metric of the diffraction data, it is important to understand what effect electron beam precession has on this property of the diffraction data. For the [001] zone axis of EGO the diffraction intensities were calculated using multislice simulations [START_REF] Kirkland | Advanced Computing in Electron Crystallography[END_REF] for thicknesses up to 370 nm (300 slices) and for precession angles up to 50 mrad. The reflection list was then sorted in intensity order at each slice and the beams were ranked from 1 (the most intense) to 44 allowing an equal rank for reflections with equal intensity at a given thickness.

Figure 11(a) shows the rank of the eight strongest reflections in the kinematical pattern as a function of thickness over the first 200 slices of the simulation when there is no precession angle applied. The notable feature of this ordering chart is the way that all the reflections have a thickness region where the rank increases sharply, indicating that the reflection has become considerably less intense than many of the other reflections in the pattern. This is true even of the strongest reflections in the pattern (such as the 040 or 120). When the precession angle is increased to 20 mrad and then 40 mrad, as shown in figures 11(b) and 11(c) respectively, the behaviour of the reflection rank as a function of thickness changes dramatically.

In figure 11(b) the strongest two reflections (040 and 120) no longer shows the dramatic spikes in order seen in the unprecessed data. Instead these two reflections remain in the top 5 or 6 positions across this thickness range, although several other reflections included in the figure still have thickness ranges where their rank increases significantly. When the precession angle is increased to 40 mrad, figure 11(c), there are clearly 5 or 6 of the strongest beams that show a very stable rank across this thickness range. This suggests that dynamical processes that scatter intensity out of these reflections have become less significant.

Statistics

Figure 11 allows a qualitative analysis of individual reflections included in this simulation. While this indicates that the relative intensity of the strongest reflections becomes more stable with increasing precession angle, it is important to consider the net variation of a group of reflections. The standard deviation in rank of the 8 strongest reflections was calculated at thickness steps of 20 slices. For each thickness step the average standard deviation for this group of reflections was calculated. Figure 12 shows how this `standard deviation' develops as a function of thickness and precession angle.

For very thin samples (<40 nm) the application of precession leads to a rapid reduction in this standard deviation, to a base-level less than 1 indicating that most of the reflections are not changing in relative order. For samples up to 120 slices (150 nm) in thickness, the rapid reduction in the standard deviation is delayed until approximately 20-25 mrad of precession is applied, leading to a generally low standard deviation across the rest of the precession angle range. The thicker samples also show some improvement in standard deviation between 20 and 30 mrad precession angle, however this decrease is not as rapid or large as that seen for thinner samples, and fluctuations at higher precession angles suggest that any improvement is not consistent across this range.

The improvement in this standard deviation is a clear indication that precession is able to stabilize the relative order of strong reflections for the EGO [001] diffraction pattern. As discussed earlier, phase retrieval algorithms are dependent on these strong reflections to solve the underlying crystal structure. This analysis supports the earlier experimental studies: the marked decrease in standard deviation of strong reflections 8(a)). This suggests that the relative intensities of these reflections are maintained by the suppression of routes by which intensity can transfer between them and other reflections. That precession is able to promote such an improvement in the relative intensity of reflections for samples up to ~150 nm thick supports similar conclusions reported previously on simpler systems such as silicon [START_REF] Eggeman | [END_REF].

Conclusions

The influence of David Cockayne's work spreads across many aspects of modern electron microscopy. His pioneering approach to imaging dislocations with the weakbeam method has been extended to three dimensions and together with developments in STEM MAADF imaging has opened up the possibility of viewing dislocation networks in 3D with unparalleled clarity and precision. Precession electron diffraction, a method to collect kinematic-like data, is being used to determine unknown structures. Here we have shown how new approaches to quantifying the effects of precession may lead to a better understanding of the diffraction intensities and how best to use the data for structure determination.

  Formatted: JustifiedFormatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 12 pt Formatted: HTML Preformatted, Justified Formatted: Font: (Default) Times New Roman, 12 pt Deleted: planes Deleted:Deleted: The enhancement of the lines through the dislocation is a projection effect: at these tilts the dislocation intensity is high, creating a thin planar extension to the dislocation that is well above the noise level. Thus the AND algorithm classified this as a genuine feature.

  (a) and (b) respectively.

Formatted

  In this I h ref and I h obs are the intensity of the h-reflection in the reference set (the most highly precessed pattern intensities in this case) and the measured set, respectively.

  is close to the 30 mrad threshold seen in the intensity residual (figure

Figure 1 .

 1 Figure 1. (a) A weak-beam dark-field image of p-type GaN (g/3.5g, g =11-20) at a tilt angle of 50 o . (b) Smoothing over 7×7 pixels successively for 11 times removes the dislocation contrast. (c) Subtracting the smoothed image from the original and thresholding the image removes most of the large-scale intensity variation. (d) Line profiles of a dislocation pair shows improvement of the dislocation signal against the background.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. (a) A small region from a weak-beam dark field image and (b) the convolute associated with the kernel shown in (c), where the vertical lines are highlighted. The horizontal convolute is shown in (d) and the overall amplitude image, i.e. 'linestrength' image in (e).

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Two reconstructions of the same area of the p-GaN sample: Smooth filtering of dark-field images only in (a); and line finding filtered images in (b). (c) and (d) compare re-projections of the in-plane dislocations D1, D2, D3 and F along their line directions (16 pixels, 35nm) with smoothing and line-finding, respectively. The dislocations seen are straight threading dislocations (A), threading dislocations that bend over (B) close to crack-tip dislocations (C). The bent threading dislocations become pure screw dislocation (D) that can jog/cross slip (E). Other dislocations glide in from neighbouring regions (F). In the thin region (G) some in-plane dislocations occur (H).

Figure 4 .

 4 Figure 4. Dislocation D3 viewed parallel to the line vector (a) before and (b) after application of anisotropic non-linear diffusion (using 7 iterations, coherent edge diffusion only). The difference is shown in (c).

Figure 5 .

 5 Figure 5. (a) Schematic of two fictitious partial dislocations in copper used for the simulation of a tomographic reconstruction: b 1 =[-112]/6 and b 2 =[121]/6 for the weak beam condition g/-1.1g, g = 020 (100kV beam energy) simulated over the tilt range [-58 o ,+60 o ] with 2 o increments, (b) shows a re-projection of the tomogram in plan view and (c) end-on; small crosses mark the true dislocation core positions. (d) shows a perspective view of the two reconstructed dislocations.

Figure 6 .

 6 Figure 6. (a) A weak-beam dark-field image of a dislocation array induced by indentation and annealing silicon (g/3.4g, g = 2-20) and (b) the corresponding STEM MAADF image (β inner = 14 mrad β outer = 40 mrad) .(c) Views of a STEM MAADF reconstruction using a tilt range of [-60 o ,+60 o ] with 2 o tilt increments showing parallel slip planes with approximately 100nm separation.

Figure 7 .

 7 Figure 7. [001] zone axis of erbium pyrogermanate, showing (a) atom positions in projection and (b) the kinematical diffraction pattern using electron structure factors at 300keV.

Figure 8 . 13 Figure 9

 8139 Figure 8. (a) Intensity residual and (b) phase residual for a series of experimental precession electron diffraction patterns with increasing precession angles. The reference data set used for (a) is a pattern at 55 mrad precession angle.

Figure 10 .

 10 Figure 10. Structure solutions recovered from the intensity profiles seen in Figure 9 corresponding to (a) kinematical Er 2 Ge 2 O 7 , (b) exponential decay, (c) linear decay and (d) 1-exponential decay. The dashed lines indicate negative potential arising from a truncated dataset or imperfect solution.

Figure 11 .

 11 Figure 11. Beam ranking for the eight most intense reflections (highest structure actor moduli) as a function of thickness for (a) 0 precession angle, (b) 20 mrad precession angle and (c) 40 mrad precession angle Figure 12: 'Standard deviation' of the beam rank for all reflections as a function of thickness and precession angle.

  Figure 1

  Figure 3

  Figure 11

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Acknowledgements

The work described here was supported financially by the EPSRC and by the EU I3 project ESTEEM (Contract Number 026019).