Miroslav Kubásek
email: miroslav.kubasek@enviweb.cz

Mapping of Illegal Dumps in the Czech Republic -Using a Crowd-Sourcing Approach

Keywords: illegal dumps, mapping, reporting, GPS, mobile application, crowd-sourcing 1

published or not. The documents may come

Introduction

Illegal dump sites have always been a trouble endangering not only local environment but also human health. It is estimated that currently 100 million tons of illegally waste is dumped world-wide [1].Therefore, people should not be indifferent to that and report to competent and responsible authorities if they find an illegal dump site in order to take actions. The illegal trafficking and dumping of waste heavly affects our environmental, economy and human well being. The costs for cleaning-up illegal dump sites are extremely high, especially if this involves multiple countries. For example, approximately 134,000 tons of waste was illegally dumped in a large gravel pit in North East Europe and the extraction and transport of this waste costs 160 Euros per ton which added up to over 21 million Euros. It is even more costly when the waste is considered to be hazardous. The cost rises to about 300 Euros or more per ton [2].

For example, the situation in United Kingdom is monitored by councils across England to reveal their illegal dumping statistics, to compare relative performance, and to identify opportunities for improvement. In 2012, 732,052 illegal dumps on public land have been reported, 9.1% less compared to previous year (805,320) according to the AnyJunk Fly Tipping Report 2012 [3]. £33m have been spent by the councils on illegal dumping clearance; but only 0.6% of illegal dumping incidents were successfully prosecuted.

During the last decade, in the Czech Republic, several thousand cases of illegal dumping have been reported. For example, the average amount of accumulated waste in the years 2007 to 2009, put to illegal dumps in the forests was about 8 thousand m [START_REF]AnyJunk Fly Tipping Report[END_REF] . The average annual area coverd by illegal dumps for example in the forests is approximately 3,4 hectares and 250 tons. The average annual disposal costs for waste from illegal dumps in the forest is about 40 thousand Euros. In 2010, it 830 illegal dumps have been registered in the forests of the Czech Republic, their total area reaches almost 5,4 hectares with 280 tons of waste. Disposal costs exceeded 40 thousand Euros [4].

An even worse situation is the illegal dumping of waste in municipallity areas in the Czech Republic. In 20011 130 thousand tons of waste have been disposed as reported by the the Waste Management Information System of the Czech Republic (2013) [5] operated by the Czech Environmental Agency (CENIA).

The cost of the disposal of illegal dumps exceeded 20 million Euros. In addition to that, it it can be assumed that many other cases of domestic illegal dumping have not been reported because of insufficient inspection. Local municipal governments confronted with such illegal dumping issues have been working hard to take countermeasures.

An important approach for environmental protection suitable for all regions is to promote the enforcement of municipal policies assuming the residents' improved awareness and deliberate participation. To understand visible changes to the environment such as illegal dumping, in particular, it is urgently needed to create a mechanism and/or tools for a close collaboration between the residents and administration in the Czech Republic.

The progress in information and communication technologies (ICT) in recent years has extended to the environment surrounding geographic information systems (GISs). These GISs are integrated into professional spatial analysis tools conventionally used by research institutes and technical consultants up to familiar information utilization tools using general PCs in USA [1], Japan [6-8] and Australia. The Regional Illegal Dumping Database in Illegal Dumping project is being managed by Hunter and Central Coast region in New South Wales [9] to compare and analyse data collected by councils, from dumping sites. All incidents are entered into a database, which is linked to a GIS that is able to produce locations' maps for each council area.

The "e-japan" Strategy formulated by the Japanese Government in 2001 advocates the introduction of ICT to the administration, aiming at the establishment of an infrastructure for the world's most advanced communications environment by 2005. "GIS Action Program 2002-2005" based on the e-japan Strategy includes the plan for effec-tively using GISs in various governmental fields to streamline administration and to provide higher-quality administrative services [7]. "Let's do it 2008" project was a campaign that began in Estonia that was led by one of the inventors of Skype -Ahti Heinla and the founder of Microlink and Delfi-Rainer Nolvak. They put cutting-edge ICT and 40,000 volunteers to work Saturday to clean-up the tiny Baltic Sea state of Estonia. Heinla and Nolvak used special software based on Google Earth, positioning software for mobile phones and mobile phones with GPS to map and take images of illegal garbage dumps across the country. The innovative software also brings the massive garbage collection campaign virtually into living rooms where Estonians can follow its real-time progress, organisers said. The project aims to recycle 80 percent of the estimated 10,000 tonnes of garbage in illegal dumps [START_REF] Hanfman | A Comprehensive Assessment of Illegal Waste Dumping[END_REF] .

The European Commission has supported the EuropeAid Project "Waste Governance -European neighbourhood and partnership instrument (ENPI) East" (Azerbaijan, Armenia, Belarus, Georgia, Moldova, Russia, and Ukraine) with "Completed Pilot Region Inventories of Existing Illegal/Non-Compliant Disposal Sites"2 . One key sub-result whose achievement will ultimately lead to the achievement of the main result is the development of an existing register of illegal waste disposal sites through, firstly, a desk-based review of the existing inventory and then it's updating through a series of field visits and stakeholder consultation throughout the pilot region.

Utilization of ICT in dealing with environmental issues

A Ddescription of ICT related projects in the area of environmental respectively waste problems in the Visegrad countries are published in the report "Visegrad Countries: Environmental Problems and Policies" [10]. Authors are describing good and bad practices of ICT technology utilization. On the base of existing social and environment-related systems operating in the Visegrad countries region the report concluded, that several crucial common problems exist. Such as:

Poor visibility -the most common and very serious disadvantage. Reporting systems are not advertised properly, thus people do not know that they can use them.

Poor or even lack of internationalization -reporting systems are usually provided in one local language either translated partially or incorrectly. Lack of translation into a commonly recognized international language (e.g., English) makes it difficult or even impossible for foreigners to find such a system and/or use it.

Limited scope -many systems have been built to serve only one particular purpose or to help in solving problems of problems only of small regions. Some of them are discontinued after having solved the problem.

Lack of integration with other systems -systems shows almost no traces of integration with other systems, especially with systems funded by the government. These general problems pointed out in this analyse should be taken into account when preparing or extending social system dealing with reporting of environmental issues.

Project ZmapujTo

The project ZmapujTo3 dealing with the mapping illegal dump sites was started in the middle of 2011, the web site (http://www.ZmapujTo.cz) have been put in operation during summer 2012. The initial aim of the project was to motivate citizens to start creating a map of illegal dump sites in their surroundings At the end of 2012 we put the administrative part of the system for municipalities into operation and we tested its functionality in different pilot territories. The administration function has been fully operational in May 2013 and we are now trying to involve as many municipalities, town districts and other organizations responsible for disposal of illegal dump sites as possible.

The main aim of this project is the possibility to inform the public on the issue and economic drawbacks of illegal dump sites. The project also envisages a more efficient use of municipality finance resources used for the disposal of dump sites; furthermore it will also contribute to catch the illegal waste dumping people or companies. ers.; and finally, it will contribute to their prevention.

An active involvement the administration of municipalities in the project has many advantages. The municipality makes the citizens aware that it takes the issue of illegal dump sites serious and it also saves its expenses of dedecting new dump sites in its territory. Moreover, a timely dedection of a new illegal dump site reduces the expenses of its disposal. The GIS application allows for an easy observation of the sites even in difficult terrains, including the plot number and the owner. An appropriate municipal authority can thus gain maximum information about the illegal dump site without seeing the site personally.

Timely disposed illegal dump sites can also prevent environmental impact and damage to a larger extent (soil and water contamination, hazard of fire etc.), it improves the safety of human health, provides prevention of possible injuries (children, animals etc,), and prevents further uncontrollable extension of illegal dump sites (see Figure 1).

To enable a detailed viewing of reported illegal dumps and their surrounding areas we have included into an interactive map several advanced GIS technologies. The first one is the Google Street View, which enable users to get a very detail overview of the situation around the illegal dump. Google Street View is a feature of Google Maps that provides 360° panoramic street-level views and allows users to view parts of selected cities and their surrounding metropolitan areas at ground level. Google Street View displays photos that have been previously taken by a camera mounted on a car, and can be navigated using either the arrow keys on the keyboard or by using the mouse to click on arrows displayed on the screen. Using these devices, the photos can be viewed in different sizes, from any direction, and from a variety of angles [START_REF] Fechtnerová | The issue of illegal dumping on land designated for forestry[END_REF] .

Panoramio is the second feature, which enables geolocation-oriented photo sharing. The goal is to allow users to learn more about a given area by viewing the photos that other users have taken at that place [START_REF]Waste Management Information System of the Czech Republic[END_REF] .

Next feature enables the integration of a cadastral map of the Czech Republic [START_REF] Morita | GIS-based Support Systems for the Reduction of Illegal Dumping[END_REF] . This feature can simply identify an owner of a specific plot so that the municipal officer can directly contact the owner.

This interactive map is also enhancement by a set of layers that enable users to adjust the map to their needs. A user can select from an ortofoto layer either displaying satellite images, hybrid layers or displaying a mixture of normal and satellite views and terrain layers or displaying a physical map based on terrain information. Furthermore the map can also integrate three-part map layers e.g. Bing maps, Yahoo maps or Open Street maps. The interactive map also integrates a heat map (graphical representation of data where the individual values contained in a matrix are represented as colours). This heat map enables visualizing the frequency of illegal dumping.

Thanks to the linkage of the project ZmapujTo to local governments of the Czech Republic as well as to forest owners, PLA administrators, etc., the person who owns the specific site can quickly react and take action.

The ZmapujTo project also aims to inform the public about the dangers related to illegal dump sites, motivate the public to report dump sites, but also offers municipalities and other organizations a tool for administration of all these reports.

Fig. 1. ZmapujTo approach

Reporting tools

The primary way of sending reports about illegal dump sites is by using the mobile phone application ZmapujTo. Currently, this application is available Android and iPhone operating systems and everybody can download it from the project web site or via Google Play [START_REF] Tasaki | A GIS-based zoning of illegal dumping potential for efficient surveillance[END_REF] and Apple iTunes [START_REF] Ichinose | On the relationship between the provision of waste management service and illegal dumping[END_REF] .

The user can take a photo of an illegal dump site with his smart phone and marks its exact location in a map. The GPS in the smart phone determines the position approximately and the user can then change it so that it fits the reality. Then the user selects the size of an illegal dump site, specifies what type of waste is there and sends the report (Figure 2).

All reports are anonymous, but the user can also insert optionally a comment or his contact data. After checking if the report is genuine (elimination of spam or experimental/erroneous reports), all reports are displayed in the interactive map at the web site and the related municipalities can use this information to take actions.

Alternatively, the user can use the web interactive form to report an illegal dump site. The interactive form can be opened in a computer with a common web browser, or in a mobile device (smartphone, tablet). The address for the web browser is http://new.zmapujto.cz.

Fig. 2. Screenshot of the mobile device application

Interactive map

After the mentioned verification of reports, all reported illegal dump sites appear in an interactive map, available at web address http://skladky.zmapujto.cz (Figure 3.). This map allows filterning for new reports, reports about to be removed or the already removed dump sites. At the bottom part of the interactive map a list of the latest reported illegal dump sites is displayed. The map has also a function that can show a list of the dump sites closest to a selected location, including information about the distance from/to the site.

The interactive map has several layers (including satellite images), as well as the map layer of the cadastre of real estates, which allows for an easy identification of the owner of related property. It is forssen that in the future, more layers can be integrated (e.g. points of waste collection, legal dump sites, contaminated places, etc.) from the Czech National Geoportal 9 using INSPIRE standards. This map is also equipped with the Google Street View technology which allows viewing the place using panoramic photos taken in the street. Thanks to this, a user can gain a very detailed view where the illegal dump site is without even going there.

Illegal dumps management

An important part of the project is the administration and management of illegal dump sites, which allows municipalities or other interested organizations to get involved in the project. The aim of this part of application is to provide a simple tool providing information to municipalities about illegal dump sites reported in its district (Figure 4.). The administrator of the municipality allotted to a specific dump site can change its statuse.g. when they are preparing to dispose it, it has been removed, comments can be added, or reports concerning the expenses of its disposal. If a new illegal dump site appears within the district, the administration system of application sends an email to the administrator of the municipality. The administrator can also use the statistics of the district and a widget, which can be placed on the municipality web site and inform thus the visitors of the municipality web site that the municipality is involved in the project, how many dump sites have been reported, removed or what expenses have been related to its disposal. Currently, there are 29 municipalities and institutions from the entire Czech Republic involved in ZmapujTo project. We are collecting their experience using the information system, their comments concerning improvements and we are expanding the service based on these feedbacks. There is also a DEMO version of the administration application available so that a potentially interested person can try this system.

One of the most active system users are the officials of the city district Praha 10, whose are using this system intensively. They have even been able to involve city policemen, whose now report illegal dump sites and overfilled garbage bins as a part of their daily guarding walks. Within two months, there have been 371 illegal dump sites reported and 294 of them have been disposed.

Illegal dumps analyse

Since July 2012 1780 illegal dumps have been reported and more then 400 dumps have been cleaned (State to 15. July 2013). The Figure 5 shows the aquivalent area representation of the reported dumps. The greatest part of dumps has a medium size (44%). Small sized dumps are illegal dumps which can be cleaned and transported by hand, the medium sized dumps are dumps up to 5m [START_REF]AnyJunk Fly Tipping Report[END_REF] and above this volume it is recognized as a big dump. The small amount of overloaded containers is due to the fact that this type of reporting has stared much later (since January 2013).

Fig. 5. Representation of illegal dumps

During the reporting process the user has to specify in more detail the waste type. The user can select from 12 waste categories which cover the whole range of possible wastes. He can assign one or more categories in one report. As can be seen in Figure 6, the most common type of an illegal dumped waste is household waste and plastics. More than ten percent of these dumps still contains construction and demolition waste but also automotive waste (tires, batteries etc.).

Conclusion

The ZmapujTo project has been launched a year ago. During its existence over 1700 illegal dump sites in the Czech Republic have been reported and mapped in the system. The crowd-sourcing approach and the developed mobile application for reporting and mapping facilitated the dedection of illegal dumps. Furthermore the public awareness was heavily increased. 29 pilot municipalities of the Czech Republic are already involved in this project and over 400 illegal dump sites have been disposed since the last year. [10] We believe that the ZmapujTo project is vital and has a great potential in the future also taking into account its possible usage in neighbouring States of the Czech Republic, taking advantage of the INSPIRE GEOPORTAL [START_REF] Kubásek | Crowdsource Approach for Mapping of Illegal Dumps in the Czech Republic[END_REF] . We are looking forward to others users interested in getting involved either local governments or organizations responsible for elimination of illegal dump sites.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Print screen of the interactive map with illegal dump sites

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Screenshot of the administration application for illegal dump sites

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Distribution of waste per type

map of the garbage dumps can be seen at: http://www.teeme2008.ee/?op=body=55ar/mas

see web site http://www.wastegovernance.org/index_eng.html

english equivalent of Czech words "Zmapuj To" is "Map It"

source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Google_Street_View

Panoramio is reachable under web address http://www.panoramio.com

see http://nahlizenidokn.cuzk.cz/

https://play.google.com/

https://itunes.apple.com

http://geoportal.gov.cz/web/

http://inspire-geoportal.ec.europa.eu/


Thorsten Schlachter
email: thorsten.schlachter@kit.edu

Clemens Düpmeier
email: clemens.duepmeier@kit.edu

Rainer Weidemann
email: rainer.weidemann@kit.edu

Wolfgang Schillinger
email: wolfgang.schillinger@lubw.bwl.de

Nina Bayer
email: nina.bayer@lubw.bwl.de

"My Environment" -A Dashboard for Environmental Information on Mobile Devices

This paper describes a universal approach to the development of a cross-platform and multi-functional environmental mobile application. According to the Pareto principle [1] only common use cases are implemented and can be described in a lightweight description format instead of being explicitly programmed. These use cases include information about the environment ("my environment"), reporting of environmental data ("crowd sourcing"), and environmental experience ("electronic nature guide").

Introduction

Every month users of mobile devices are facing many new applications. Those can be used to access information of their interest in almost any place and situation using context information such as current position and time. People use apps for localized weather forecasts, travel information (including delays), news, stock quotes, etc., and maybe even provide information by themselves, implicitly by allowing apps to send location and speed (traffic flow) information back to service providers or explicitly by reporting their own observations via a crowdsourcing application.

At least in Europe authorities are committed to actively provide environmental information to the public [2]. For that reason many environmental information systems (EIS) do implement web frontends, web services, or even service oriented architectures and it is relatively easy to use these for the implementation of mobile frontends, e.g. mobile apps.

The range of environmental information provided varies from unstructured data, like text documents and media files, up to structured and semi-structured information, like tabular data, spatial data, metadata, time series, charts, and also includes specialized information for specific applications. Nevertheless, although data is very diverse some recurring usage patterns can be observed.

In [START_REF] Schlachter | Concept of a universal mobile application accessing environmental information systems[END_REF] and [START_REF] Schlachter | LUPO mobil. Ein Schichtenmodell zur Auswahl und Nutzung von Umweltdiensten auf mobilen Endgeräten[END_REF] a descriptive approach of a universal mobile application accessing EIS based on extended OpenSearch descriptions, outlined in section 2, was presented. In [START_REF] Schlachter | Building Mobile Environmental Apps Using Web and Cloud Technologies[END_REF] and [START_REF] Schlachter | LUPO mobil -Nutzung von Webtechnologie zur Entwicklung plattformübergreifend einsetzbarer, mobiler Umwelt-Anwendungen[END_REF] we added our first lessons learned in the field of cross platform development for mobile devices, summarized in section 3.

Within the rest of this paper we would like to add our ideas of an integrated display of environmental information for our app. We additionally present an extension of our use cases, now including environmental reporting and environmental experience for both, the public and professionals.

2

No Programming Required!

In order to avoid programming for new fields of application the most important concept for this environmental app is a description format, called "target system description" based on the OpenSearch description format. The OpenSearch description format allows for the description of URL patterns for dynamic access to web systems. Originally the OpenSearch descriptions format was designed for access to web interfaces of search engines and mainly supplies a syntactic description for such queries. The semantics of its parameters is rigid. However, OpenSearch descriptions can be extended. For the purpose of use for a mobile environmental application, the following features have been added:

 Freely definable URL parameters.  Semantic classification of these parameters, i.e. a rudimentary description of their semantics, for instance, the geographical position of a place in a certain format.  A description of the sources of these parameters, e.g. automatically determined from a GPS component or by user selection from a given list of values.  Structural presentation of the results, e.g. mapping of attributes.  (HTML-)Templates for the display of certain result types.  Content-dependent grouping information.

Such extended OpenSearch descriptions supply the necessary information for the registration of an information source in an application, for the generation of queries, and for the visualization of received data.

The template mechanism can also be applied to HTTP POST requests, which enables the app to write data to various destinations, e.g. REST services. With added HTTP basic authentication as well as OAuth (2.0) authorization flexible services for the storing of reported data can be described.

A "target system catalog" format, which extends the RSS 2.0 specification, is used for the description of multiple target systems, allowing the distinction of target systems, e.g. for different customers (Federal States) using the same app, and also the grouping of related target systems, e.g. different types of nature reserves or conservation areas.

HTML5-based Cross-Platform Approach

Instead of developing independent native apps for each particular target system (possibly with the use or consideration of the appropriate specification), cross platform development aims to deploy one application without (or at least without major) changes to multiple target platforms. This is often done by combining an unchanged common core of the application (top box in Fig. 1) with platform-dependent parts provided by cross development frameworks.

Fig. 1. Deploying an iOS-application using a cross-platform development tool.

Such a combination then can be delivered for a particular platform. In Fig. 1 the OS specific "package" of an application, platform-independent and platform-dependent parts, is shown by the darker highlighted area.

The cross-platform development tool (brighter highlighted area) provides an application programming interface (API) against which the application can be programmed. On its backend it provides a specific implementation for each target platform (OS) that translates abstract commands into native functionalities of the system. According to the respective programming interface manufacturers of crossplatform development tools have to implement the OS-specific layer for each supported operating system once. This is especially easy if well-established features, commonly available for all or at least many target systems, have to be implemented. More specific features may be emulated by the interface, in the worst case, they are not supported. Some manufacturers of cross platform development tools fall back on pre-existing technologies. One possible technology of note is Java, which is available for all popular mobile platforms.

A similar approach relying on widely available technologies is based on Web technology. The central idea is to run the actual application within a Web browser component which is already available on all platforms.

With the help of a cross platform Web development tool (and possibly using a platform-specific software development kit (SDK)) the generated native app contains all of the necessary resources for the application, in particular at least one HTML page, any associated graphics and CSS files as well as one or more JavaScript libraries that contain the abstract interface and the OS-specific implementations of the API. The display of the graphical user interface creates the browser in the form of HTML components, whose appearance can be controlled using Cascading Style Sheets (CSS).

The application logic is implemented with the help of the libraries in the form of JavaScript functions that may also provide functionality that is not standard in many Web browsers such as Multi-touch controls.

After a first prototype for the Android platform was fully implemented in Java, a second prototype based on Web technologies (HTML5) was developed to compare native and cross platform approaches. The second prototype was able to proof that a cross platform approach for the app is more feasible and so the first productive version of the app is based on Javascript-based Web technologies and a cross platform toolkit providing native functionalities through a common Javascript API.

The used PhoneGap/Cordova framework for cross development supports the particular use of components of different operating systems (including iOS, Android, Windows Mobile and BlackBerry) in a portable way. I.e. PhoneGap is able to access the camera, contacts, the file system, accelerometers, and GPS.

JQuery Mobile (JQM) provides a fully touch-optimized and asynchronous interaction with mobile browser-based applications. JQM runs on all commonly used browsers (like Firefox, Chrome, Opera and Safari), but in detail the display may show browser-and platform-dependent differences.

The Google Maps API is used for the display of maps and other data which include geospatial representations.

An Environmental Dashboard

The first prototypes of our mobile application behaved like a collection of single mini applications for querying EIS. Data provided by one data source has been displayed after a user request and has not been put in context of information provided by other data sources.

Our actual approach combines data and displays from several data sources within a kind of dashboard, dynamically changing when context changes or data sources provide new data (Fig. 2). The user may register for certain types of information and/or certain data sources. The app dynamically queries these using context information like sensor data (GPS, radio cell) or default settings provided by the user.

For example, spatial data from multiple data sources are merged into a single map view with different layers for each data source and the user has the possibility to individually switch single layers or groups of layers on or off, and thus display only the relevant data important to him.

Other areas of the dashboard can show other types of information, e.g. a media carousel can combine previews of all media objects collected from several data sources, and there still may be areas for other specialized mini apps, e.g. display of water levels or air pollution and the respective forecasts. Starting at the dashboard the user has additional possibilities to navigate to a more sophisticated query form, a more detailed display of a single item, or even to the original information system. We believe that in most cases a quick overview with a reduced complexity at the dashboard will meet the user's needs. I.e., a user frequently may be interested in the actual ozone levels before going jogging. With sports in mind he rarely is interested in querying a time series of ozone data at his location, even if he could do so.

Nevertheless the user is provided with functions to formulate complex queries or to filter larger hit lists. The navigation philosophy "dashboard/mapsearch/filteringdetail view -alarm/navigation/reporting" is applied within all use cases of the app. Key views and click paths are shown in Fig. 3. Fig. 3. Key views and click paths for the use cases "information" and "reporting".

(Views for the use case "environmental experience" are not included.)

Beyond "Pure" Environmental Information

In addition to the environmental information dashboard, the app implements two other use cases, "reporting of environmental information" as well as "environmental experience" (electronic nature guide).

In the majority of cases reporting of environmental information follows a pattern of two. "Ad hoc reporting" aims to capture spontaneous observations, i.e. to take some photos or a video of a certain species, tag them with some additional information (e.g. locality, timestamp and some user input), and upload them to a server. In contrast, "systematic reporting" mostly does not start from scratch but aims to verify or complement existing information. This means a user has to be enabled to query (search and filter) existing objects, to view object details, and to supplement these details. For example, an employee moves to multiple measuring points and checks their condition. So he may be provided with additional routing information, and, of course, with the existing data for each station. In both cases there may be need for caching collected data offline on the device and for a delayed upload (to an EIS or to the cloud).

Many functions of the app are implemented using cloud services. For example, routing information is provided by the Google Directions API [7], and place names are determined using the Google Geocoding API [8].

From the perspective of EIS cloud services can help to close the gap between available and published data by providing infrastructure, storage, services, or even whole applications. For example spatial data easily can be (re-)published using tools like Google Maps for Business [9] when original systems do not provide standardized interfaces or are not powerful enough to cope with a large number of simultaneous requests. Structured or binary data may be stored in the cloud using services like Google Fusion Tables or Google Drive and the respective APIs [10,11]. The discussion of the use of cloud services will be subject of another publication. "Environmental experience" is our third use case, which has been prototypically implemented as a web application (Fig. 4) [START_REF] Bayer | Konzept und prototypische Realisierung eines mobilen Umweltführers[END_REF]. It combines aspects of environmental information and environmental reporting with the navigation along a given track such as a nature trail, as well as "learning by playing" elements in the manner of geocaching [13].

The application enables the user to navigate along the nature trails and provides him additional information (text, media, technical information). Besides fixed predetermined routes, there are also geocaching routes, where the user only knows the start-ing point of the route and is provided with basic additional information/criteria like the length of the course. The route itself is described by geocaching waypoints which arise from the repeated answering of questions.

Conclusion and Outlook

With three applications within a single app, description instead of programming, and cross platform capabilities our project "Meine Umwelt" ("My Environment") has the capability to cover many standard requirements for environmental mobile applications.

However it has room for improvements in the future. At this time information is actively pulled from EIS. Push services should be enabled in order to avoid needless time and energy consuming requests.

The use case "environmental experience" is still in an early stage and needs to be improved. And many more EIS have to be connected to the app so that the user can be informed comprehensively on all his relevant environmental issues.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Environmental dashboard with preview map and air quality data.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Display of environmental and touristic information along a given track creating an environmental experience for the user. (Prototype by N. Bayer)


Jiří Barta
email: jiri.barta@unob.cz

The use of simulations for the need of environment protection

Keywords: Simulator, Environment, Information Technology, Study Programme, Specialized Workplaces

The environmental protection is currently a very hot topic. The article deals with the perspectives and possibilities for deployment of "new technologies" or already known technologies but in new ways in order to protect selected environment. In the first part, the paper is focused on education and technologies used in the educational process at the University of Defence, at the Department of Civil Protection. The second part outlines the possibilities of using this technology to protect specialized workplaces, which is also applicable to environmental protection.

Introduction

We live in a time which can be characterized as a continuous development of technologies. These technologies should provide easy access to information, and especially to their most effective utilization. The computer support of management takes part in many different spheres of human activity. At present, there are many available systems and technologies, which enable the formulation of crisis plans, collaboration between the state and private subjects, monitoring of infrastructure and other necessary services for crisis managers in various organizations [START_REF] Heretik | Počítačové modelování možných havárií s únikem nebezpečných látek[END_REF].

Problem Formulation

Information systems and technologies can be used in both public administration and the private sector. They can support successful solutions of crisis situations. One of the areas, where these technologies are used, is education. Higher education institutions form the highest level of the Czech education. They offer accredited degree programmes at three levels: bachelor´s, master´s and doctoral degree programmes. Apart from public and private higher education institutions there are state institutions in the Czech Republic. The University of Defence is one of the state institutions, which is under the responsibility of the Ministry of Defence.

There is not only an educational process but also research activities both in defence technology for the Army of the Czech Republic as well as in the field of information technology and crisis management system. The focus is on systems that support analyzing, planning and solving emergency and crisis situations. One of these research projects is dealing with interoperability specialized centers of crisis management. This project uses the outputs from modeling programs (see section 3.1) and implements these outputs to the process of crisis management and environmental protection. The University of Defence is the university-type higher education institution, which offers all types of degree programmes (bachelor´s, master´s and doctoral) and carries out associated research, developmental and other creative activities.

Education at the University of Defence

Professional and educational aspects

The University of Defence consists of three faculties: the Faculty of Economics and Management, the Faculty of Military Technology and the Faculty of Military Health Sciences. The academic year 2001/2002 was the first year for the study module "Population Protection" that started at the Faculty of Economics and Management and which is guaranteed by the Department of Population Protection. This department focuses on the area of population protection, crisis management and civil and military cooperation. Furthermore, the department solves the problems connected with military and non-military emergencies. The department emphasizes issues associated with humanitarian aid, environmental security, major accident prevention, information systems and risk analysis. The Department of Population Protection cooperates with many institutions, e. g. the Population Protection Institute, The Ministry of Interior of the Czech Republic, the Nuclear Research Institute Rez plc., the Transport Research Centre and other universities and institutions not only in the Czech Republic.

Students in both bachelor´s and master´s degree study programmes are informed about actual problems of population protection. They pass theoretical subjects (e.g. Economics, Computer Science, Mathematics, Law: Czech National Security and Defence), applied subjects (e.g. Economic-Mathematic Methods, Accounting, Enterprise Theory) and profile subjects (e.g. Crisis Management, Natural Disasters and Industrial Accidents, Population Protection, Environment Protection, Dangerous Substances, Classification and Modelling of Risks, Public Administration Information System etc.). The department is also aimed at doctoral degree study programme and guarantees the programme Forces and Civil Protection [8].

Aims and scientific activities

The main purpose of this programme is to prepare highly-qualified and specialized experts for basic and applied research, research workers, education and practice of civilian protection in accordance with requirements and needs of the NATO [START_REF] Urbánek | Scénáře adaptivní kamufláže[END_REF].

Scientific activity includes the following areas:

 crisis management in civil protection during non-military crisis situation,  logistic support of non-military crisis situation, especially at the field of solution of material standards for civil protection at crisis situation and coordination of human aid with utilization of non-profit-making organizations,  raising of environmental safety at the level of advanced armies of NATO,  dangerous substances detection at industrial accidents and natural disasters,  optimization of information and software support for prevention and solution of consequences of extraordinary events and for simulation of these processes,  interoperability at the crisis management.

It is possible to say that information technologies are used almost in all scientific activities.

Information Technologies used at the Department of Civil Protection

At the Department of Population Protection students have an opportunity to meet with the issue of information technologies in the subject "Information Systems of Crisis Management I and II". In this subject, they can get information not only about IT but also information, which support making up the information systems of public and state administrations. The aim of this subject is to educate students for principal work with chosen information systems that are closely linked with crisis management. Students learn how to use computer programmes for modelling possible impacts and consequences of industrial accidents with the dangerous substances release.

Information systems are products made in order to support effective decision making of crisis managers. For the solution of the scheduled objectives, especially Geographical Information Systems are used [START_REF] Ludík | Process Methodology for Emergency Management[END_REF]. The overview of the most important information systems that are intended for education at the Department of Population Protection is in the table 1. It is used for organization security of governmental and public sector as well as strategic companies from telecommunications, utility and financial sectors.

The aim of this paper is to introduce the product mentioned above that is used for education of students in the Department of Population Protection. It is a methodology for model calculations of the transport and dispersion of pollution in the atmosphere SYMOS'97 (System modeling of stationary sources). This program is also used in the research activities in the field of crisis management and implements its outputs to the process of protecting the environment.

Symos´97 software

Methodology / SYMOS'97 software allows:

 calculation of air pollution gaseous substances and dust from point, line and area sources,  calculation of the contamination from a number of sources,  to identify the characteristics of pollution in dense geometrical network of reference points,  to consider the statistical distribution of wind speed and direction relative to the stability classes layers of the atmosphere.

Symos´97 is the tool for quick forecasting of consequences and impacts of chemical materials leaks on the environment (fig. 1). Thanks to this program, it is possible to calculate and visualize the emission leaks and to model the consequences that resulted from contamination of the environment. The model includes connectivity to geographic information system for direct results display in the map. The software can be easily used by non-professionals [START_REF] Heretik | Počítačové modelování možných havárií s únikem nebezpečných látek[END_REF]. Symos´97 calculation results are arranged in a very easy, comprehensive and unambiguous format, which helps to make quick decisions. This effect is achieved by minimizing output items to important ones and by displaying results on the map, as it is in the fig. 2 &3.

Fig. 2. Concentration and Isolines [2]

Fig. 3. Isolines on the map [START_REF] Bubník | SYMOS 97, Systém modelování stacionárních zdrojů[END_REF] This software is used at distinct projects in terms of its research activities in the field of security, communication, civil-military cooperation and other. One of these projects aims for a novel perspectives and possibilities of "new approaches" to education and training of selected members of management. This research project of the University of Defence is called Interoperability Workplaces to Support Teaching of Security Management in a Computer Network. The primary aim of the research project is to create the new system and technology for education, training and exchange of relevant information with managers of crisis management. The secondary aim of the research project is to use this new system to protect the environment.

To deal with the question of using common security, communication and information technologies and other computer-aided technologies, it is necessary to apply the principle of COTS (Commercial Off The Shelf) as much as possible. That means maximal utilization of commercial products, technologies and services to create a specific system or technology [START_REF] Urbánek | A Development of Wireless Interoper-mobile Application for Outdoor Operation Management[END_REF].

Specialized Workplaces

The research project Interoperability Workplaces to Support uses existing structures and systems of communication. The key idea is to connect existing heterogeneous information systems and other relevant organizations in the area of management.

These individual management entities will be able to exchange information and experiences. They can use selected simulation programs (such as Symos´97) and information systems of other entities connected to the network. Therefore, this will enable the sharing of information and practical experience across the whole spectrum of management and crisis management [START_REF] Ludík | Process Methodology for Emergency Management[END_REF][START_REF] Urbánek | Crisis Scenarios[END_REF].

The system "Workplaces to support teaching of security management in a computer network" is implemented at interface with communication among different systems of crisis management entities. This system can be implemented among expert workplaces, and among the various computers. The system is used in the existing Internet network for communication. Of course, it uses a secure connection via encryption algorithms. The method primarily applies the basic tools for Windows and network settings. The method allows the sharing of computers, the computing space and simulation programs for the education and training of other entities registered in this system [START_REF] Barta | Project ADAPTIV and its Uses for Protection of the Selected Objects Infrastructure[END_REF]. The open system architecture also allows the use of supercomputers in the VSB-Technical University of Ostrava.

Testing

During testing, it is necessary to take into account the fact that throughput communication network is very variable over time. This complicates the stability of information system and the communication between specialized workplaces must be modified to the actual situation. All the results were recorded and the restrictive conditions for using this technology in real situations were defined. The result was a test environment illustrating the real usage of the information and communication system for specialized workplaces. Developing of a network standard for a facility and connecting interface design is a precondition for building an effective communication expert system, which will satisfy requirements for the needs of management and executive units of crisis management. This system is designed as an open network to which the verification can be accessed by other users of the environment of crisis management and various experts on the issue of terrorist acts, accidents and natural disasters [START_REF] Heretik | Počítačové modelování možných havárií s únikem nebezpečných látek[END_REF].

Conclusion

Finally, it is necessary to say that all software products represent the function of crisis manager helper in his decision making. All computer programs are only "lifeless" and "thoughtless" products. The crisis manager is principal, especially his knowledge, abilities and acquirements, and many times his extemporization too. At the same time, it should be noted that this solution is a compromise in many aspects and it does not fully meet needs of all stakeholders. In addition, relations between the lines of preparation for solution of civilian crisis management and lines of preparation and training for crisis management staff have to be considered carefully [START_REF] Urbánek | Crisis Scenarios[END_REF].

The resulting situation can be recognized as an essential qualitative advance, but it has to be developed henceforth. The "Workplace expert of crisis management" belongs among the priority issues and it needs to be contemplated from the national security point of view, as well as the crisis management viewpoint.

The first steps to resolve such issues meet consistently all requirements resulting from the Conception of population protection. It is important to detect system uncertainties and gaps, when an issue emerges, and to formulate all requirements on education and training in this area to be further developed.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig.1. Symos´97start of simulation[START_REF] Bubník | SYMOS 97, Systém modelování stacionárních zdrojů[END_REF]

  This university educates and prepares military professionals and other experts. The scope of university work is defined with focuses of education, formation and training of these professionals as required by the Army of the Czech Republic and research projects in favour of the Ministry of Defence and Public Administrations [8].

Table 1 .

 1 Information Systems at the Department of Population Protection[START_REF] Barta | Project ADAPTIV and its Uses for Protection of the Selected Objects Infrastructure[END_REF][START_REF] Bubník | SYMOS 97, Systém modelování stacionárních zdrojů[END_REF][START_REF] Heretik | Počítačové modelování možných havárií s únikem nebezpečných látek[END_REF][START_REF] Urbánek | Scénáře adaptivní kamufláže[END_REF]

	Area	Information	Description
		system
	Civilian Emer-	ARGIS	Information system for Planning of Civil
	gency Planning		Resources, which is important for self-
			solution of extraordinary events in the Czech
			Republic


Jiří Barta
email: jiri.barta@unob.cz

Veronika Sadovská
email: veronika.sadovska@unob.cz

Albert Srník
email: albert.srnik@unob.cz

Jiří F Urbánek
email: jiri.urbanek@unob.cz

Protection of Information and Communication Systems

Keywords: Interoperability, Security environment, Assets, Communication and information systems, Safety

Awareness, education and protection of organizational information secure environments are currently highly serious and relevant topics. The paper deals with the perspectives and possibilities of "new approaches" to the protection of information and communication systems and nets as a part of Czech Republic critical infrastructure. It means that selected technologies are used, considering new perspectives to interoperable management training and education. The first part of this paper is focused on the current state of organization management information systems in Czech Republic. The second part concentrates on the possibilities of new technologies application and computer-aided tools, protecting information  communication systems and other assets.

Introduction

From the distant past to the present, the people have to satisfy their subsistence needs that closely relate to their existence and to a preservation of their culture and assets. The human society was changing all the time, especially at the scientific and technological platforms. The progress has brought more advantageous living conditions. Along with the benefits, the negative events, such as natural disasters and man-made industrial accidents of great extent, have emerged. Fearsome disruptive events arise from scientific and technical progress. The hazards of such an anthropogenic extraordinary events cause deaths and damage of the people, assets and living environment. These inflictions are increased by the development of new sources for meeting a demand and innovations of production technologies capacity. Infrastructure, designed for meeting a demand is mostly endangered by industrial accidents and environmental disasters. Moreover, it can be distinguished among epidemics, pandemics, epiphyte and epizootics. Besides such events, the humankind is also threatened by itself in connection with wars, genocides, international terrorism and organized crime. These phenomena are the major reasons, why assets intended for population needs satisfying are critically vulnerable. Assets represent everything that any organization or organization perceives as valuable and it can be eliminated by activated threats, i.e. perils. In business terms, it is considered not only a property but also the employers with their abilities and skills. In respect of this fact, it is accepted as "firm assets" or "company assets". Another meaning of the term "assets" appears in area of information protection. The "information system assets" can be understood as hardware, software, information system documentation, classified and other critical information that are stored in the information system [START_REF] Allen | The PENGUIN English Dictionary[END_REF], [14].

Needs for change in the understanding of threats

Infrastructure protection is a topical issue nowadays. The risk of various extremist and terrorist actions is very serious in the present time. We believe, this danger is rather underestimated due to the inclusion of Czech Republic into the group with low terrorist attack risk [START_REF] Proházková | Bezpečnost a krizové řízení[END_REF]. Despite of above mentioned, terrorist threats became a much discussed subject in professional community. Here, particular areas, technologies or states that could be the next terrorist targets, are controversial and often fuzzy.

To ensure the defence against these attacks on time, various instruments of security, crisis, and emergency management are used. Their basic parts consist from the activities, covered by contingency and emergency planning, which are based on the analysis and assessment of risks and threats. It is an expert analysis of the required goals, which identifies the appropriate ways of goals achievement, and personoriented leadership that supports the creative work and mutual collaboration [START_REF] Proházková | Bezpečnost a krizové řízení[END_REF].

Preventive measures, protecting information infrastructure elements are the most effective but they require the availability of necessary technologies, economic resources and personal qualities. In developed states, instruments for security management are used that help to ensure the high security of communication and information infrastructure elements.

The technology is a key factor in protecting information infrastructure elements [START_REF] Ludík | Process Methodology for Emergency Management[END_REF]. It is not necessary to invent and develop new technologies for the protection and security of individual subjects. It is possible, and for economic reasons often necessary, to use common technologies with a slight modifications or in a new use cases. These procedures create opportunities to secure the selected infrastructure objects at relatively low costs.

There are many research institutes dealing with science and research in information technologies. They toy with the question of the use of common security technologies and other security options that use the principle of COTS (Commercial Off The Shelf) as much as possible. That means the maximal utilization of commercial products and services to create a specific system or technology [START_REF] Urbánek | A Development of Wireless Interoper-mobile Application for Outdoor Operation Management[END_REF].

Security Environment of Information Systems

Each organization should assure security of its information system by reason of property and data loss (or theft) possibility. Comprehensive identification of assets is integral part of the protection securing. The identification consists in compiling a list of organization information system. Other part of the identification process is represented by determination of assets vulnerability within the system realized by application of methods intended for data gathering. The aim of this step is to create the register of assets and system vulnerability (weak points) for the reason that the vulnerability may be the potential target of threats [START_REF] Božek | Management rizika[END_REF]. The active and passive prevention is essential for the assets security. The purpose of active prevention (or just prevention) is to reduce the threat (before its activation as the peril) and potential damage of the assets. It includes:

 Threat elimination or reduction and its transfer,  Asset resistant strengthening, e.g. building guarding.

The passive prevention (or preparedness) is losses reduction after activated threat. The passive prevention includes:

 Information about threat activation,  Operations during emergency event occurrence,  Clearance operations, loss reduction and prevention of domino and synergetic effects.

Principally, building up the preparedness results from the vulnerability determination, because the preparedness can be defined as an ability to manage any emergency event or crisis. On the one hand, the preparedness refers to a community preparedness level.

On the other hand, it is linked to the preparedness level of rescue system integration. The preparedness should cover the protection of all assets and it manages all consequences of any emergency/disruptive events. Therefore, it means that any organization has to design such organizational structure of all resources in order to ensure efficient mobilization at the appointed time and place.

Although, the preparedness means creation of certain safety measures because it is impossible to be prepared for every threats. The design of preparedness should contain more than simple balance of resources (staff and equipment), which is more frequent than desirable. The preparedness is mainly aimed at two states within the framework of crisis managementcontingency and emergency states.

The organization should make its own security policy that should contain base rules for ensuring the security of its assets with the help of organizational, personal and technological measures. The security policy helps to manage difficulties, connected with intense utilization of information systems that are perceived as essential resources for any organization and its performance [START_REF] Urbánek | Scénáře adaptivní kamufláže[END_REF].

The security policy is based on a security survey, processed by informal team, organized from one external specialist and staff members, responsible for particular areas regarding security. The security survey deals with assessment and description of the security situation within the organization. It consists from the identification of organization assets, the assessment of their importance and the detection of security weaknesses. The planning of basic security measures is also integral part of the security survey. The survey scope is determined by organization management, which should reflect the security as a complex issue. The comprehensive processing also enables efficient access and implementation of security policy. is recognized as a weakness of certain asset. The weakness can be the target of one or more threats. Therefore, it indicates the possible extent of damage to certain asset.

The security policy objectives are focused on information documentation and information system operations. Following objectives have ensured of interoperable:  Confidentialitydata leak protection,  Integrityasset protection against unauthorized and random modification and guarantee of asset accuracy and completeness,  Accessibilitystable access to assets in accordance with organization objectives,  Incontestabilityclear identification of transaction author or communicating parts,  Correspondence between legislation and obligationsthe legislative, contractual obligations of the organization.

Benefits of security policy are:

 Uniformity in information management,  Quick recovery after incident,  Adoption of efficient measuresfuture prevention of errors.

Asset Evaluation on Security Environments

The value of the information system is recognized as the basic attribute that is derived from objectively quantified price of the system and/or from subjectively evaluated importance of the system by certain organization on certain security environments. One possible option of asset evaluation is to assess potential impacts of undesirable incidents on the organization. Its interests may be directly or indirectly affected by data leak, modification, inaccessibility and/or damage on the asset. Such incidents may consequently result in loss of income or profit, market share, or image and reputation. The organization has to count with all these factors within the framework of asset evaluation. The information value is often relative in connection with the evaluation process and the evaluator point of view. The typical example of this problem is linked with information which may be perceived as valuable or not, e.g. impact of harmful substances on living organisms, or current economic score of bond issuers. The assessment of the asset value may be based upon the level of impact, measured in money units and associated with the asset damage or loss.

In the asset evaluation, the following aspects have to be taken into account at various security environments:  Purchase price (or costs),  Asset importance for organization existence and activities,  Damage abatement costs,  Speed of damage control,  Profit characteristics,  Others, e.g. potential asset profits.

In the asset evaluation is desirable to divide it into appropriate groups, according to their common features. Assets may be classified as computer assets, security assets, commercial assets and services. It is also necessary to assign owner to each asset. The owner is an individual who is responsible for asset development, production, maintenance, utilization and security. This owner can be viewed as the real holder with all property rights [START_REF] Božek | Management rizika[END_REF][START_REF] Božek | General Procedure of Risk Management[END_REF].

The determination of the asset value in connection with the impact assessment, which may result from the loss of the asset confidentiality, availability or integrity, it includes selection of scale and evaluative criteria. The scale may be expressed in money units and/or qualitative values. The qualitative values are perceived as numerical or verbal values (from low to critical value). It is practical to use colour resolution and order as you can see in table 1.

Table 1. Example of qualitative evaluation of assets [2]

The principle of the asset (information system) value determination is based on costs derived from impact of damage to the organization in connection with confidentiality, availability or integrity losses at pertinent security environments. The evaluation may have different results in respect of the viewpoint used during the evaluation. Therefore, the asset may have different values. The final value can be determined by maximal value, by using calculation of average value or using sum of individual values. It is important to use the same method for the evaluation of each asset. The most frequent method is represented by the average calculation. Individual viewpoints are evaluated with the help of the scale illustrated at the table 1. and the final value is calculated. Final asset values are used for risk analysis and calculation of expenses set for the asset protection [START_REF] Urbánek | Crisis Scenarios. Univerzity of Defence[END_REF].

The software can be used in the asset evaluation. The organization may choose from specialized software or spread sheets (e.g. LibreOffice or OpenOffice). The organization has to define the scale and evaluative criteria in order to carry out the asset evaluation. This scale may be qualitative or quantitative.

During the asset evaluation, possible threats and impacts on the organization are assessed in respect of the possibility that certain threat will be activated. The threat can potentially trigger undesirable incident, which may result in damage to the system or the organization and its assets. Threats may be natural or anthropogenic and they may be intended or random. The damage may be classified as temporary or permanent.

Many different threats potentially lead to undesirable damage of the assets. It is necessary to identify such threats and assess their likelihood. Therefore, there is enough space for realization of the risk analysis. The term "risk" means a probability that given threat will occurred and cause direct or indirect damage of the organization.

Risk Analysis

Risk analysis is defined as a process of likelihood assessing of security failure that may result from threat occurrence, assets vulnerability and accumulated impacts on particular assets. The basic step is to determine adequate security level according of the asset value, which includes cost and risk analysis. The purpose of the analysis is to detect weaknesses of assets and to determine the risk level for each vulnerable asset and threat. Risks have to be reduced to acceptable level. The residual risks arisen from inefficient risk minimization have to be adopted. There are several methods for risk analysis implementation, e.g. informal procedures with the use of individuals' knowledge and experience and/or structured procedures. Risks can be also evaluated with the help of scale with defined points according to risk level or by using your own method or appropriate software. A list of risks is the output from this procedure [START_REF] Božek | Management rizika[END_REF][START_REF] Božek | General Procedure of Risk Management[END_REF].

The risk analysis should lead to selection of appropriate security measures. After the identification and assessment of risks and revision of existing and planned security measures, there are so-called risk residues. Risk residues can be accepted in the case of their low likelihood or if the organization has financial limits in connection with measures availability, or they are not acceptable. If they are not acceptable, the risk analysis has to be performed again, but there is a possibility of adopting such measures which are expensive or useless [START_REF] Božek | Management rizika[END_REF][START_REF] Božek | General Procedure of Risk Management[END_REF].

Information System Protection

In ensuring organization security, the key task is protection of the people, information and other properties on relevant security environments. These elements belong to the fundamental assets of the organization. The protection level is influenced by availability of money, people, time and other factors. The protection level is also influenced by organization willingness to accept certain risk level. There are many threats, which endanger the organization information systems. Therefore, it is necessary these threats to identify [START_REF] Halibozek | Securing corporate assets: Protecting a business against cloak-and-dagger tactics requires a manager's eye for efficiency[END_REF]. Data stored in information systems may be intentionally or unintentionally misused or threaten by a nature. Information system protection is understood as protection from viruses, hackers, spam, irresponsible users and natural disasters.

According of the legal act about information protection [15], the protection of information or communication systems is defined as a system of measures for ensuring confidentiality, integrity and availability of classified information stored in information system. This definition implies that information security consists in many rules and mechanisms for ensuring data confidentiality, integrity and availability. Therefore, information security is extremely complex issue. Data confidentiality represents prevention of unauthorized access to the system. Data integrity security signifies prevention of unauthorized data modification. Requirement of data availability lies in ensuring access to the system in the right time [START_REF] Knopová | Bezpečnost dat v informačních systémech[END_REF]. Basic components of information system security are illustrated at the Fig. 1. [START_REF] Dardick | Cyber Forensics Assurance[END_REF][START_REF] Urbánek | Crisis Scenarios. Univerzity of Defence[END_REF] In recent years, the progress of ICT has brought certain need for bigger amount of collecting data within information systems and databases. It has resulted in a possibility of information systems destabilization. Today, we can hack into any information system, disturb any military operation, and connect people ideologically all over the world with help of any electronic device [START_REF] Knopová | Bezpečnost dat v informačních systémech[END_REF]. Threats endangering information system security may have fatal consequences, not only as unconstitutional impacts on privacy or personal integrity, but also as violation of national security. Therefore, importance of information system protection reposed on government authorities and private sector is significant [START_REF] Mitnick | The art of deception: controlling the human element of security[END_REF].

Fig. 1. Information Security Components

Protection of assets owned by organizations is very important in view of business plans. Entrepreneurs act in more complex legal environment, where they may be exposed to unexpected turns and attacks, which threaten their assets. If their business is spread abroad, then it is necessary to apply foreign law, the situation is even more complicated and risks are higher. Planning the structure aimed at asset protection, that is able to eliminate or reduce adverse impacts when emergency event occurs, is needed [START_REF] Halibozek | Securing corporate assets: Protecting a business against cloak-and-dagger tactics requires a manager's eye for efficiency[END_REF].

Process Approach to Asset Protection

The aim of business process modelling is to create model of processes in order to understand all activities, relations among different activities and all assets and their roles within a process. Every process has several basic characteristics. In asset protection, especially crisis asset protection, the creation of appropriate set of activities is emphasized in order to preserve process potential even during emergency event occurrence. The continuity process principle focuses on problem mentioned above [START_REF] Urbánek | Crisis Scenarios. Univerzity of Defence[END_REF].

Process management focuses on integration of activities within the organization for more rapid and flexible cooperation [START_REF] Ludík | Process Oriented Architecture for Emergency Scenarios in the Czech Republic[END_REF]. It optimizes activities of all processes from the first supplier to the end-customer, and it delegates responsibilities for any process. Performance measurement of individual activities enables easier identification of specific problems. It addresses problem causes. Therefore, it has significant value because in the savings of the money and other resources, which can be, on the contrary, spend for elimination of impacts as consequence of activities disharmony. The process management supports teamwork, brings higher flexibility, enabling better sharing of knowledge and maintains communication during whole process.

Conclusion

The majority of the organizations do not focus on information systems protection during times of prosperity. Organizations accumulate certain amount of assets and information, which may be threaten in case of extraordinary event occurrence and they may lose their activities and stable profit. The organizations should make their own security policy that should contain base rules for ensuring the security of its information systems with the help of organizational, personal and technological measures. Therefore, it is important to prevent such events and select appropriate measures in order to protect organization assets.


Alexander Preda
email: alexander.preda@unibw.de

Mauno Rönkkö
email: mauno.ronkko@uef.fi

Stefan Pickl
email: stefan.pickl@unibw.de

Mikko Kolehmainen
email: mikko.kolehmainen@uef.fi

GIS-Based Route Planning for HAZMAT Transportation

Keywords: Hazardous Materials, HAZMAT Transportation, Route Planning, GIS

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Today's living standards and living comfort would not be possible without the use of HAZMAT in industry. For instance, medicine, paints, cleaning agents, and fuels require the use of HAZMAT for their production. Furthermore, the production of such goods creates hazardous waste. Consequently, there is an increasing need for methods to handle ever more complex HAZMAT transportation problems.

Graph-based algorithms are typically used for planning HAZMAT transportation routes. The problem, however, is shown to be NP-hard, whereby one can only hope for good enough solutions. Moreover, route planning involves risk assessment which is based on estimates at best because of the underlying complexities as well as ethical and political considerations.

Because of this evolving nature of the route planning, there is a need to compute alternative settings with varying valuations and factors. This, however, is not well supported by graph-based algorithms that typically require full computations if some of the factors change. To overcome this problem, and as the main contribution, we propose here a GIS-based route planning method. It supports integration of partial valuations, and thereby it also supports computations of alternative scenarios with varying valuations.

We shall start by discussing HAZMAT transportation and risks in Section 2. In Section 3, we introduce the route planning problem. In Section 4, we present the proposed GIS-based route planning method. In Section 5, we illustrate the use of the method with a simple case study. And finally, in Section 6, follows the conclusion.

About HAZMAT Transportation and Risks

The research on HAZMAT transportation began already in the 1990's. A more recent overview about HAZMAT transportation can be found, for instance, in [START_REF] Erkut | Hazardous Materials Transportation[END_REF]. The need for HAZMAT transportation is a direct consequence of our modern society, where the amount goods produced by using hazardous materials has increased. Consequently, HAZMAT transportations have increased especially in urban areas. Partially because of this, the HAZMAT Transportation process is planned and carried out by considering certain national and international standard procedures, like the "UN Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods" [START_REF]United Nations: Recommendations on the Transport of Dangerous Goods[END_REF].

In HAZMAT transportation, there is always a risk involved. According to [START_REF] Erkut | Special issue: Hazardous materials transportation -Introduction[END_REF], risk in the context of HAZMAT transportation is a measure of the probability and severity of harm to an exposed receptor due to potential undesired events. In this sense, risk can be assessed either qualitatively or quantitatively. In a qualitative assessment, the goal is to identify possible scenarios. In a quantitative assessment, consequences are modeled and made explicit, so that the exposed receptors can be identified. All of this information is then used to calculate numerical risk evaluations.

An alternative approach to HAZMAT transportation risk assessment is given by Current and Ratick [START_REF] Current | A Model to assess Risk, Equity and Efficiency in Facility Location and Transportation of Hazardous Materials[END_REF]. They consider the location of facilities coping with HAZMAT in the assessment of risks and costs. Consequently, their definition for risk is based on the amount of transported waste, and not on the losses when an incident exposes transported HAZMAT to the environment. The analysis by Current and Ratick proves that minimizing a risk is highly sensitive to its definition. In particular, minimizing one part of the risk can degenerate the other parts. It could even turn out that there is no stable solution for minimizing a risk for a given objective. As an example, Current and Ratick define "minimizing the risk per population density" as the objective 1, and "minimizing the total transportation risk" as the objective 2. When focusing on the objective 1, one can easily find solutions that increase transportation costs disproportionally. In contrast, when focusing on the objective 2, one can find a stable solution. Still, minimizing the costs for the objective 2 does increase the costs for the objective 1. All in all, the analysis by Current and Ratick suggests that the costs are relatively strongly correlated with the risk.

In the planning of HAZMAT transportation routes, both local authorities and carriers need to interact. In effect, this means that the route planning problem is a two player game, as understood in game theory. In such a game, the local authority is interested in minimizing the risk of transportation, whereas the carrier is oriented, as pointed out by [START_REF] Erkut | Hazardous Materials Transportation[END_REF] and [START_REF] Gumus | Evaluation of hazardous waste transportation firms by using a two step fuzzy-AHP and TOPSIS methodology[END_REF], to minimize the costs. In this process, diffuse information increases the difficulty for the local authority to determine a fix route. To date, the usual approach taken by the local authority is to design the whole transportation network and to allocate it to the carrier. In this way, the maximal transportation risk is to be kept below a certain threshold, while giving the carrier a choice to select the actual route within the network.

There are many route planning algorithms for the HAZMAT transportation. In particular, they involve explicitly risk assessment for the transportation, thus considering one or both of the following [START_REF] Kara | Accurate calculation of hazardous materials transport risks[END_REF]: an incident probability during the transport and the scale of the impact on the population.

Route planning algorithms are typically based on graph theory. For instance, Dijkstra's Shortest Path algorithm [START_REF] Dijkstra | A Note on Two Problems in Connexion with Graphs[END_REF] is one of the most famous algorithms that is used. In graph-based algorithms a directed graph models the transportation network. The usual coding is that the nodes represent crossroads or connection points, while the arcs represent streets or links in the transportation network. The weights for the arcs represent the "cost" for passing that link. The cost is an evaluation of, for instance, money, time, and risk factors.

As another example of a graph-based algorithm, Erkut and Alp formulate in [START_REF] Erkut | Designing a road network for hazardous materials shipments[END_REF] a method for designing a HAZMAT transportation network based on minimizing the total transportation risk. In the algorithm, heuristics are used for the cost optimization. The optimization is performed in two phases. Firstly, the optimization is done by the local authority to minimize the risks. Secondly, the carrier optimizes transportation costs by selecting the most convenient route. This process minimizes the probability that the route selected by the carrier increases the risk more than what is expected by the local authority. As in [START_REF] Current | A Model to assess Risk, Equity and Efficiency in Facility Location and Transportation of Hazardous Materials[END_REF], Erkut and Alp distinguish between minimizing the total risk on the route and minimizing the selective risk on a certain road.

In later works [START_REF] Erkut | Solving the HAZMAT transport network design problem[END_REF], Erkut and Gzara propose a method for the HAZMAT transportation network design problem (HTNDP). The method yields stable solutions which are close to the optimal solutions. Their proposal is a bi-level model with an heuristic solution method, because the HTNDP may be ill-posed. In the center of their analysis is the trade-off between costs and risks.

Amaldi et al. [START_REF] Amaldi | On the Hazmat Transport Network Design Problem[END_REF] developed an improved mixed integer linear program with a bi-level inter-program based on the results of [START_REF] Erkut | Solving the HAZMAT transport network design problem[END_REF] and [START_REF] Erkut | Designing a road network for hazardous materials shipments[END_REF] for solving the HT-NDP, and to guarantee the stability of the solution. Although Amaldi et al. deal with the HTNDP, the article concentrates on computational complexity. The conclusion is that the HTNDP with the option to forbid the use of certain arcs is NP-hard even when only a single commodity should be transported. Amaldi et al., however, point out that the HTNDP is often reduced to the shortest path problem extended with a heuristic. The heuristic consists of an iterative elimination of allowed roads until the carrier is no longer able to use a different route than the one with the minimal risk as expected by the local authority. As emphasized in [START_REF] Current | A Model to assess Risk, Equity and Efficiency in Facility Location and Transportation of Hazardous Materials[END_REF], this elimination method may not only increase the costs, but also the lower bound of the minimal risk.

GIS-based Route Planning Method

There are many sources of information that needs to be considered for route planning. The data is either readily available as GIS data, or it can be converted into GIS data. Also, all the information is typically available for the local authority doing the route planning. For instance, information about buildings, occupants, and potential risk groups are typically maintained by city officials for a given city. Depending on the city, such city records may also indicate increased probability of accidents for specific crossroads and junctions. City records also maintain information about the central infrastructure, including water supplies, electricity, and maintenance resources. As for the actual roads, there are many services maintaining digital road data.

In practice, the local authority needs to consider several alternatives and variant scenarios. These "what if" cases provide a valuable insight into the robustness and vulnerability of the transportation network, which is critical when defining a valuation of risks for individual cases. This kind of analysis is not well supported by graph-based approaches, as changing some parameters leads to re-computation of the entire network. As discussed earlier, such a task may be computationally expensive and time consuming. To support the exploration, we shall now present an alternative GIS-based route planning method.

The overall workflow of the method is depicted in Figure 1. In the method, the local authority encodes all individual risk influence factors as separate map layers. Consequently, road maps and residential areas are captured as separate layers. There are also disjoint layers for each neuralgic points, such as hospitals, schools, super markets, and bridges. The layers may also contain some strategic factors, such as temporal traffic congestion. External and diffuse knowledge are encoded as fuzzy rules. Such rules consider, for instance, the risk of an explosion or a chemical dispersion with respect to the location of the incident. Fuzzy rules are then used reproduce a map representation of the diffuse knowledge. All the maps are then summed together cell-wise, to produce a cumulative risk map. The cumulative risk map is then analyzed for transportation routes having the minimal cumulated risk with respect to a transport list.

The heart of the method is the algorithm that takes as an input a map, where each cell indicates the summed risk of all the factors at that location, and produces as an output a list of transportation routes with minimal cumulated risk. For such routes, the total risk is the sum of the risk values of all the individual cells in the route.

The algorithm was implemented as an application of the Distance Transform Path Planning algorithm suggested by Zelinsky et al. [START_REF] Zelinsky | Planning paths of complete coverage of an un structured environment by a mobile robot[END_REF] for robotics. In short, the algorithm initializes the map with obstacle comfort weights (here summed risk values). It then computes a distance transform on the map with respect to a fixed starting and ending location. The distance transform is practically a function that returns the cumulated comfort weights (here summed risk values) along a chosen path. The algorithm then minimizes the transform function, yielding a set of paths that have the minimal cumulated comfort weights (here summed risk values).

Our implementation of the algorithm by Zelenski et al. [START_REF] Zelinsky | Planning paths of complete coverage of an un structured environment by a mobile robot[END_REF] has two phases. In the first phase, the risk value cumulation is propagated from the fixed starting location throughout the entire map. The propagation of risk values was implemented as an iterative update, where each cell is updated as the sum of its value and the minimal risk value of its neighboring cells. For the iteration to work, the cumulated risk map was initialized with large values except for the starting point which is initialized with value 0. The propagation algorithm is presented in Figure 2, and the iteration is illustrated in Figure 3. In the second phase, the routes with minimal cumulated risks are computed for a fixed ending point by using the steepest path of decent as in [START_REF] Zelinsky | Planning paths of complete coverage of an un structured environment by a mobile robot[END_REF].

Case Study

The purpose of this case study is to illustrate how the GIS-based route planning method works. Therefore, we consider here only a simple street map, as shown in Figure 4. In the street map, the risk level of each street cell is initialized to zero.

As the first test, we consider only one layer, which is the population layer. It is created and initialized with a random population density. Thus, the risk cumulation is computed only with respect to the population layer. The starting point is set to be the street cell at the bottom left corner and the ending point is set to be the street cell at the top right corner. The risk cumulation for the population layer is shown in Figure 5. Note that, as the map shows the cumulated risk, the highest risk value is actually found at the ending point from where it decreases towards the starting point. After running the route planning algorithm, the route with the minimal cumulated risk is found, as plotted in Figure 5. The found route goes from the starting point to the ending point as straight as possible. The found route avoids the bottom right corner which has higher risk values.

In the second test, we create a layer with two neuralgic points having diffuse risk values. The layer is associated with transportation of class-1 HAZMAT (explosives), and the neuralgic points represent buildings that could be severely damaged by such materials. The associated risk values, however, do not localized just to these buildings, but also to their surroundings. Therefore, the actual risk value varies depending on the distance between the incident location and the buildings. Because of this, fuzzy logic is used to construct a risk layer that captures the described diffuse knowledge. In the construction, the membership functions for the input variable "distances", as depicted in Figure 6, are used. For instance, if the distance between the incident location and a building is about 400 meters, it is mostly considered to be "intolerable"; however, as indicated in Figure 6, such a distance could also fall into classes "close" and "tolerable" depending on the case. Similarly to the variable "distances", the membership functions for the variable "risk values" are constructed, as shown in Figure 6. By applying these membership functions, we can compute how the risk values spread on the map. The result of such a computation is shown in Figure 7 for a neuralgic point located at coordinates (5,7) having the maximal risk value of 10.

By using the technique described above, we can construct a risk layer for transportation of class-1 HAZMAT with two neuralgic points located at the coordinates [START_REF] Erkut | Special issue: Hazardous materials transportation -Introduction[END_REF][START_REF] Gumus | Evaluation of hazardous waste transportation firms by using a two step fuzzy-AHP and TOPSIS methodology[END_REF] and [START_REF] Amaldi | On the Hazmat Transport Network Design Problem[END_REF][START_REF] Erkut | Solving the HAZMAT transport network design problem[END_REF] with highest risk values 50 and 40, respectively, As in the first test, we consider in this second only one layer, which is the layer for class-1 HAZMAT. The starting and ending points are kept as in the first test. After computing the risk cumulation for the starting and ending points, a cumulated risk map is obtained. It is shown in Figure 8. Note that, as the map shows the cumulated risk, the risk value is at highest at the ending point and not around the neuralgic points. For the map, the route planning algorithm yields now a different route than in the first case. The route is plotted in Figure 8. As expected, the route goes along the neuralgic point having the smallest risk value.

As the last test, we combine the two previously introduced layers by summing them up. Thus, there is no need for recomputations, as the new map reuses the earlier computation results. The resulting combined map is shown in Figure 9. This time, when the route with the minimal cumulated risk is computed, it takes the same route as for the first test. The randomly generated risk layer for the population density, although having much smaller values than the layer for the neuralgic points, is sufficient to redirect the route away from the neuralgic point with the smallest risk value.

Conclusion

In this article we discussed route planning for HAZMAT transportation. It is an NP hard problem, and as the main contribution, we presented here a GIS-based route planning method that is complementary to graph-based route planning methods. At the heart of the method is the route planning algorithm that we implemented as an application of the Distance Transform Path Planning algorithm suggested by Zelinsky et al. [START_REF] Zelinsky | Planning paths of complete coverage of an un structured environment by a mobile robot[END_REF] for robotics

The proposed method exhibits several advantages that are critical for the decision maker. Firstly, each risk factor is encoded as a separate layer, whereby each risk factor and its evaluation can be considered in isolation. Secondly, the decision maker can provide several alternative valuations for the same risk factor, to analyze the overall effect of that specific risk. Thirdly, the method merges for consideration any subset of the risk layers that the decision maker is interested in. This supports the "what if" analysis that is of utmost importance for the decision maker. Fourthly, the risk assessment computation is split into a preprocessing phase and into a path analysis phase, whereby the computational results for an individual risk assessment can be reused. This, in turn, lowers the overall computational costs. Lastly, as the computation is performed on maps, it fully supports the distribution of the computation among parallel processes. Thus, the computational complexity can be tackled simply by introducing more parallel processes working on disjoint portions of the same maps.

The research presented in this article is at early stages. The method is currently implemented by using MATLAB. For repeated use in varying scenarios, it has to be wrapped as a computational service. This requires some consideration, as such a service also requires dataset management along with sufficient data security measures.

As for the future research, we also plan to study the use of the presented method for analyzing not only HAZMAT transportation, but also correlation between traffic infrastructure and occurrences of traffic accidents.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. The workflow of the GIS-based route planning method.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Risk cumulation propagation algorithm.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Illustration of risk cumulation propagation; the two top tables show the initial matrices and the rightmost table on last row shows the obtained route with the minimal cumulated risk.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Street map of the case study.

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. A population layer showing the cumulated risk and the plotted route with the minimal risk cumulation.

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Fuzzy membership functions.

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. Risk values computed using a fuzzy realization of the diffuse knowledge.

Fig. 8 .

 8 Fig. 8. The risk cumulation map for two neuralgic points and the plotted route with the minimal risk cumulation. The neuralgic points are indicated with stars.

Fig. 9 .

 9 Fig. 9. Risk cumulation with combined layers and the plotted route with the minimal risk cumulation. The neuralgic points are indicated with stars.

Acknowledgements

Mauno Rönkkö and Mikko Kolehmainen would also like to thank European Regional Development Fund and TEKES for support to continue research in cooperation with Amphion Loudspeakers Oy, Genelec Oy, Mediatuotanto Mindcom Oy, Observis Oy, and Defence Forces Technical Research Centre.