Vanessa Greger
email: vanessa.greger@fortiss.org

Dian Balta
email: dian.balta@fortiss.org

Petra Wolf
email: petra.wolf@fortiss.org

Helmut Krcmar
email: helmut.krcmar@fortiss.org

Analyzing Stakeholders in Complex E-Government Projects: Towards a Stakeholder Interaction Model

Keywords: stakeholder analysis, stakeholder interaction model, e-government project, public sector, public administration

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Many electronic government (e-government) projects are not completed successfully or not at all [START_REF] Savoldelli | Explaining the eGovernment Paradox: An Analysis of Two Decades of Evidence from Scientific Literature and Practice on Barriers to eGovernment[END_REF][START_REF] Mertens | Schwierigkeiten mit IT-Projekten der Öffentlichen Verwaltung: Neuere Entwicklungen[END_REF]. One reason for this is the fact that the project's success is compromised by issues evolving during the collaboration between e-government project partners. These issues are mostly based on the involvement of a large number of different stakeholders. Examples thereof include decision-makers of different federal or local public administrations or intermediaries (e.g. software companies or consultants). In particular, these stakeholders often have different, conflicting interests and priorities depending on their perspective on the project and the project phase [START_REF] Brown | Technology diffusion and the 'knowledge barrier': the dilemma of stakeholder participation[END_REF][START_REF] Flak | Stakeholders, Contradictors and Salience: An Empirical Study of a Norwegian G2G effort[END_REF]. This hinders the consideration of all their requirements. Hence, a detailed and structured stakeholder management is a prerequisite for implementing e-government projects successfully [START_REF] Mainardes | A model for stakeholder classification and stakeholder relationships[END_REF]. Therefore, all stakeholders need to be identified and their concerns, interests and requirements regarding the e-government solution need to be analyzed and prioritized using stakeholder analysis techniques [START_REF] Bryson | What to do when stakeholders matter: Stakeholder identification and analysis techniques[END_REF][START_REF] Bryson | Analyzing and Engaging Stakeholders In Handbook of practical program evaluation[END_REF].

Addressing those issues in our paper, we follow the widespread definition of Freeman et al. and define a stakeholder as "any group or individual who can affect or is affected by the achievement of a corporation's purpose" [START_REF] Freeman | Stakeholder Theory: The state of the art[END_REF]. Besides identifying the stakeholders and their needs, interactions between them need to be considered, as stakeholders can significantly influence each other through their interactions. This can result in a change of the stakeholder's perspective on the e-government project. For example, stakeholders having a strong lobby can influence the project management. In consequence, the project staff needs to consider specific requirements of these particular stakeholders. This is the case even if other previously planned requirements cannot be taken into account any longer. In summary, we understand interactions as communication between stakeholders in order to exchange resources, like information or funds [START_REF] Levine | Exchange as a Conceptual Framework for the Study of Interorganizational Relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Sharp | Stakeholder Identification in the Requirements Engineering Process[END_REF].

So far, existing stakeholder models only consider the perspective of individual stakeholders without showing interactions between them in detail. However, in order to understand changes in the stakeholders' perspective, it is necessary to consider and analyze interactions between them. Until now, there is a lack of research on who the stakeholders in complex e-government projects are and how they interact with each other. In our paper, we present findings of a literature review on already existing stakeholder models. Furthermore, we perform a stakeholder analysis on the example of the pre-filed tax filing system in Germany 1 . This e-government project is conducted by one German public administration designing an e-government solution to be used by other public administrations. We aim at identifying and categorizing the stakeholders of this particular e-government project as well as modeling stakeholder interactions. This is the first step to design and conduct e-government projects as closely to all stakeholders' benefits as possible. Finally, our contribution compares the derived stakeholder interaction model with the stakeholder models found in literature. For this purpose, our research is guided by the following questions:

 What does a stakeholder interaction model in e-government projects look like?  Taking into account the stakeholder models identified in literature, to what extent does the stakeholder interaction model enrich the existing body of knowledge?

The remainder of this paper is structured as follows: First, the research methodology is explained. Second, the findings of the literature review are presented. Third, we illustrate and explain the derived stakeholder interaction model. Afterwards, our findings are discussed and compared. Finally, a conclusion is made and further research is outlined.

Research Methodology

A literature review according to Webster and Watson [START_REF] Webster | Analyzing the Past to Prepare for the Future: Writing a Literature Review[END_REF] was performed in order to identify already existing stakeholder models. Using the keywords "stakeholder" and "egovernment", we searched databases, e-government specific conferences and journals. Our initial search yielded 66,846 results, including duplicates. In a first step, we screened titles upon relevance to our research goals. In case a title was considered relevant, we screened the corresponding abstract as well. Hence, we were able to identify 48 papers as input for the third step of a comprehensive paper review including the full text content. These papers were read and categorized using the following categories:

(i)
no stakeholder enumeration or classification, (ii) only stakeholder enumeration and (iii) stakeholder model.

Papers classified into the first category are not relevant for our further analysis. These papers are either not e-government specific or refer to the importance of stakeholders without a further enumeration or classification. Hence, 26 papers are seen as relevant, as they contain a stakeholder enumeration or a stakeholder model. Analyzing them in more detail, we found that 18 out of the 26 papers contain a stakeholder enumeration and only eight papers describe a stakeholder model. These papers were analyzed in more depth in regard to their categorization, interaction and scope. In order to guarantee reliability and validity, the papers were classified by two researchers.

Moreover, we conducted a stakeholder analysis on the example of an e-government project within a German state administration. This project aims at upgrading the German tax filing system ELSTER by the possibility of automatically loading tax relevant information into the system. In order to identify and categorize the stakeholders of this project, we conducted a semi-structured interview with three members of the project management team of the e-government solution. Further, we participated in a workshop, where information about the e-government solution was communicated to so-called ELSTER deputies. We also searched through official websites for information about this e-government solution. On the basis of this information, we identified and categorized the stakeholders and, consequently, derived a stakeholder interaction model. Afterwards, this model was examined and approved by the project leader. Finally, we compared the developed stakeholder interaction model with the stakeholder models found in literature.

Findings

Literature Review

The papers were analyzed using the mutually exclusive categories stakeholder enumeration and stakeholder model. 18 out of the 26 relevant papers were grouped into the first category. This category contains, for example, project-related papers, e.g. [START_REF] Neuroni | Inter-organizational Cooperation in Swiss eGovernment[END_REF][START_REF] Gega | E-Government and Public E-Services in Albania: Trends and Challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Gnan | Corporate governance and management practices: stakeholder involvement, quality and sustainability tools adoption[END_REF], listing rather specific stakeholders. Other exemplary papers in this category demonstrate stakeholders by using a graphical representation [START_REF] Flak | Stakeholders, Contradictors and Salience: An Empirical Study of a Norwegian G2G effort[END_REF][START_REF] Chigona | Investigating the impact of stakeholder management on the implementation of a public access project: The case of Smart Cape[END_REF][START_REF] Flak | Analyzing Stakeholder Diversity in G2G Efforts: Combining Descriptive Stakeholder Theory and Dialectic Process Theory[END_REF]. Since these approaches contain only enumerations of stakeholders without defining further categories, we did not include those models into our further analysis. Reviewing the literature, we identified exemplary stakeholders like citizens, enterprises, officers, local government agencies, local government staff, media, steering committees or politicians (e.g. [START_REF] Neuroni | Inter-organizational Cooperation in Swiss eGovernment[END_REF][START_REF] Chigona | Investigating the impact of stakeholder management on the implementation of a public access project: The case of Smart Cape[END_REF][START_REF] Berner | What constitutes effective citizen participation in local government? Views from city stakeholders[END_REF][START_REF] Hardy | Assembling E-Government Research Designs: A Transdisciplinary View and Interactive Approach[END_REF][START_REF] Wolf | E-Government: Bürger, Politiker und Unternehmen als Anspruchsgruppen[END_REF]). We also found research work based on case studies similar to the one we focus on, e.g. Tan, Pan and Lin ( 2005) analyze stakeholders of e-government projects on the example of the electronic tax filing system in Singapore. They present government, tax officials, taxpayers, employees and the Inland Revenue Authority of Singapore (IRAS) as stakeholders of an electronic tax filing system [START_REF] Tan | Managing Stakeholder Interests in e-Government Implementation: Lessons Learned from a Singapore e-Government Project[END_REF]. However, they do not illustrate a further categorization of these stakeholders or interactions. Furthermore, three papers comprise a stakeholder model whose classification is based on the rating of the stakeholders [START_REF] Zhang | Exploring stakeholders' expectations of the benfits and barriers of e-government knowledge sharing[END_REF][START_REF] Scholl | Applying Stakeholder Theory to E-Government: Benefits and Limits[END_REF][START_REF] Yang | Citizen Involvement Efforts and Bureaucratic Responsiveness: Participatory Values, Stakeholder Pressure, and Administrative Practicality[END_REF]. As our focus is on the identification and categorization and not on the rating, we also excluded these papers from our analysis.

In a second step, the eight remaining papers presenting a stakeholders' categorization were analyzed by using three attributes (Table 1). The attribute categorization explains the composition of entities in each model in more detail. As we aim at designing a stakeholder model which also considers the interrelationships between stakeholders, we added the attribute interaction in order to take note of the awareness of interactions between categories. The attribute scope informs if there is a relation to a particular project (project specific) or not (generic). The findings of this analysis are shown in Table 1.

The stakeholder models are characterized by varying numbers of categories, ranging from two to seven categories. Besides, five out of eight models relate to a specific project. Additionally, five models show interactions between categories. In the following, we will describe the stakeholder models in more detail.

Flak and Rose [START_REF] Flak | Stakeholder Governance: Adapting Stakeholder Theory to E-Government[END_REF] focus on a governance and management perspective regarding stakeholders in the e-government domain. Their findings are rather generic. The authors clearly state that their model shows no interaction between the categories. They point out initial priorities in future research in order to cover the existing research gap. In a further study, Flak, Sein and Saebo [START_REF] Flak | Towards a Cumulative Tradition in E-Government Research: Going Beyond the Gs and Cs[END_REF] identify two main categories, link stakeholders to these categories and show interaction types between them. However, their categories are still rather generic. De [START_REF] De | E-Government Systems in Developing Countries: Stakeholders and Conflict[END_REF] also identifies two categories -a demand side and a supply side. He allocates the project-related stakeholders to these two categories, based on the direction of their interactions. We found that the categories of Flak, Sein and Saebo [START_REF] Flak | Towards a Cumulative Tradition in E-Government Research: Going Beyond the Gs and Cs[END_REF] are similar to those of De [START_REF] De | E-Government Systems in Developing Countries: Stakeholders and Conflict[END_REF], as the category government can be seen as the supply side and the citizens present the demand side.

Johannessen, Flak and Saebo [START_REF] Johannessen | Choosing the Right Medium for Municipal eParticipation Based on Stakeholder Expectations[END_REF] focus on e-government stakeholders at a municipal level. The interactions are analyzed in regard to the communication needs between the resulting categories. We noticed that their categories extend those of Flak, Sein and Saebo [START_REF] Flak | Towards a Cumulative Tradition in E-Government Research: Going Beyond the Gs and Cs[END_REF] by a political category. Beside this, the citizen category of Flak, Sein and Saebo [START_REF] Flak | Towards a Cumulative Tradition in E-Government Research: Going Beyond the Gs and Cs[END_REF] is divided into business and organizations / citizens [START_REF] Johannessen | Choosing the Right Medium for Municipal eParticipation Based on Stakeholder Expectations[END_REF]. The model by Fedorowicz, Gogan and Culnan [START_REF] Fedorowicz | Barriers to Interorganizational Information Sharing in e-Government: A Stakeholder Analysis[END_REF] is designed for the tax domain. It aims at addressing privacy concerns and its categories are related to the procedures conducted in this special privacy case. Further, this model does not show any interaction.

A stakeholders' influence analysis on managers at a municipal level was conducted by Gomes and Gomes [START_REF] Gomes | Depicting the arena in which Brazilian local government authorities make decisions: What is the role of stakeholders?[END_REF]. They conclude that the type of influence is more important than the number of stakeholders. The authors elicited eleven stakeholders and categorized them according to the kind of influence they carry out on decisions. Based on this categorization in regard to the influence, they found five categories. We noticed that the authors focus on decision-making by a single institution, driven by bidirectional interaction with each category of stakeholders. However, they give no information regarding the interactions between individual stakeholders or between categories.

A generic, but rather comprehensive view on stakeholders in the e-government field is provided by Heeks [START_REF] Heeks | Benchmarking e-government: Improving the national and international measurement, evaluation and comparison of e-government[END_REF]. His model emphasizes the inclusion of interactions in detail, i.e. between different stakeholder groups. However, this model contains only categories without naming stakeholders in detail. Further, interactions are only shown between one particular stakeholder category (operators) and all other categories. This approach is similar to the model proposed by Axelsson and Lindgren [START_REF] Axelsson | Public e-services for agency efficiency and citizen benefit: findings from a stakeholder centered analysis[END_REF]. They analyze stakeholders in the context of e-services by building categories with more specific subcategories. Furthermore, they describe interactions between stakeholders and one particular organization. Still, they do not show the various interactions that take place between the stakeholders.

In summary, we found some stakeholder models which are used to identify, structure and analyze stakeholders. The categories in these models have different levels of detail depending on the context in which they are designed. Besides, some stakeholder models show interactions. However, these interactions are not analyzed in detail or are only shown for one category in the stakeholder model. Finally, we noticed that almost all categories can be allocated to a supply side and demand side. Some models partly align the categories to the lifecycle of e-government projects [START_REF] De | E-Government Systems in Developing Countries: Stakeholders and Conflict[END_REF][START_REF] Heeks | Benchmarking e-government: Improving the national and international measurement, evaluation and comparison of e-government[END_REF]. This can help to identify all stakeholders of each phase of the lifecycle and to derive the requirements, interests and concerns of the stakeholders depending on the particular project phase.

Case Study

Before presenting our findings of the case study, we will briefly give some background information: In Germany, tax filing is situated on the federal state level. The federal states are cooperating in developing and running the electronic tax filing system ELSTER. Hence, a large number of different decision-makers is involved. These decision-makers are both internal, i.e. within public administrations, and external (e.g. consultants). Further, they are located on different levels, e.g. federal, state or regional level. The exemplary project (called pre-filed tax system) aims at upgrading ELSTER by the possibility to provide tax data to citizens and to load this data automatically into the system. The project is characterized by a hierarchy with several levels and decisionprocesses within the project team and between different federal states. Besides, there are many intermediaries (e.g. software companies or consultants) who have influence on the project's success. Moreover, the e-government solution has heterogeneous target groups, as every citizen aged over 18 years should be able to use it. This e-government solution can be accessed by citizens on a voluntary basis since January 2014.

Figure 1 shows the stakeholder interaction model identified by conducting a stakeholder analysis. During the literature review, we noticed that the categories of many existing models can be divided into a demand side and a supply side. We applied this classification as a basis for the stakeholder interaction model and extended it in detail by adding further categories. Besides, we allocated the categories to phases of the lifecycle of an e-government project, starting with the assignment (strategic project owner), over the design and implementation (operating project owners and partly supporters) to the usage and application (partly supporters, external users and internal users).

The derived stakeholder interaction model comprises five categories: Strategic project owners are stakeholders who decide to conduct a project and commission it. Operating project owners implement the project. Supporters help operating project owners by implementing and operating the e-government solution. Further, they also help the external users solving problems occurring during the usage of the e-government solution. Besides this positive influence, supporters can also have negative influences. For example, on the one hand software producers can promote the deployment and usage of the solution by integrating the provided functions into their product. On the other hand, they can evaluate this function as useless and hence, they will criticize or even hinder the project. The fourth category contains the already mentioned external users who use the e-government solution and may benefit from it. They do not belong to the public administrationcontrary to the internal users. Internal users are stakeholders who interact with external users and receive the output of the e-government solution's usage. Each stakeholder, identified during the stakeholder analysis, is assigned to exactly one stakeholder category.

Fig. 1. A stakeholder interaction model for the German pre-filed tax system

In a first step, we derived the following interactions between the five categories:

 strategic project owners and operative project owners,  operative project owners and internal users,  operative project owners and supporters,  supporters and external users,  supporters and internal users as well as  internal users and external users.

We noticed the absence of interactions between strategic project owners and internal or external users. Besides, operative project owners do not directly interact with external

Strategic project owners

Operative project owners Supporters

External users

Internal users

Governance Board IT users. Hence, neither strategic project owners nor operative project owners have knowledge about the external users' requirements regarding the developed system. This can result in an assignment for implementing an e-government solution which does not meet the external users' needs or which is not applicable in the internal users' daily work. Further, our interviewees did not mention the media as a stakeholder. However, in our opinion, the media can have a significant influence on the success of an egovernment project due to their (positive or negative) reports.

In a second step, we analyzed the interactions between the stakeholders in more detail. The connecting lines in the stakeholder interaction model (Figure 1) represent various interactions between stakeholders:  The governance board IT interacts with the project staff by commissioning them to develop the e-government solution and providing them with funds for the project.  The project staff communicates with the ELSTER deputies on a state level in order to inform them about the e-government solution. Further, the project staff interacts with business units in order to exchange information about legal or functional requirements.  ELSTER deputies on a state level communicate with the project staff and the governance board IT by exchanging information about requirements derived from the practical usage of the developed system. Moreover, they inform ELSTER deputies of local tax offices about what the developed system looks like and how it can be used. Hence, the exchanged element is the know-how about the e-government solution. ELSTER deputies of local tax offices need to interact with tax officials in order to help them to answer requests of citizens. In this case, know-how about the system is the exchanged element in the interaction between tax officials and ELSTER deputies of local tax offices.  Tax officials communicate external users' requirements regarding usage and system to ELSTER deputies. Besides, tax officials interact with the role administrator by exchanging information about which external users need further authorizations for using the system.  In case of problems concerning the pre-filed tax system, all internal and external users can contact the ELSTER support or ELSTER hotline. In this interaction, the exchanged element is information about current problems and know-how about the system.  Employees in data centers and the project staff interact by exchanging technical requirements.  Software producers communicate with the project staff in order to propose technical requirements, so that they can integrate the pre-filed tax filling function into their software product.

In sum, we noticed that various elements are exchanged during a huge number of interactions. Identified elements are for example know-how about the e-government solution or special technical or functional requirements.

In the following, we will discuss the existing stakeholder models and the derived stakeholder interaction model regarding the categorization, the assignment of categories and interactions.

On the one hand, the categories of the existing models are specific, as they are based on a project context [START_REF] Fedorowicz | Barriers to Interorganizational Information Sharing in e-Government: A Stakeholder Analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Gomes | Depicting the arena in which Brazilian local government authorities make decisions: What is the role of stakeholders?[END_REF]. Hence, they cannot be transferred to another e-government context in a meaningful manner. On the other hand, the existing stakeholder models are rather generic [START_REF] Flak | Towards a Cumulative Tradition in E-Government Research: Going Beyond the Gs and Cs[END_REF][START_REF] De | E-Government Systems in Developing Countries: Stakeholders and Conflict[END_REF][START_REF] Flak | Stakeholder Governance: Adapting Stakeholder Theory to E-Government[END_REF]. We noticed that the categories derived from our case study can be incorporated in some of the generic models (e.g. [START_REF] Flak | Towards a Cumulative Tradition in E-Government Research: Going Beyond the Gs and Cs[END_REF][START_REF] De | E-Government Systems in Developing Countries: Stakeholders and Conflict[END_REF][START_REF] Axelsson | Public e-services for agency efficiency and citizen benefit: findings from a stakeholder centered analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Johannessen | Choosing the Right Medium for Municipal eParticipation Based on Stakeholder Expectations[END_REF]). For example, the categories strategic project owners, operative project owners, partly supporters and internal users represent the government side presented in the model of Flak et al. [START_REF] Flak | Towards a Cumulative Tradition in E-Government Research: Going Beyond the Gs and Cs[END_REF], whereas external users are the citizens in their model. We point out that using more specific categories is helpful for identifying and analyzing stakeholders. However, the categories need to be specific in such a way so that they can be transferred to different egovernment projects. Consequently, a balance between too generic and too specific categories is necessary. We assume that the categories of the developed stakeholder interaction model consider this trade-off. Even if stakeholders vary depending on the project domain, the five categories are still applicable. Thus, the presented stakeholder interaction model can be transferred to other e-government projects.

Analyzing the existing models, we noticed a lack of approaches, in which categories are assigned to phases of the lifecycle of an e-government project. Only two models [START_REF] De | E-Government Systems in Developing Countries: Stakeholders and Conflict[END_REF][START_REF] Heeks | Benchmarking e-government: Improving the national and international measurement, evaluation and comparison of e-government[END_REF] consider partly different project phases. However, all e-government projects pass through similar phases [START_REF] Wieczorrek | Management von IT-Projekten: Von der Planung zur Realisierung. 3 edSpringer[END_REF]. Hence, we argue that it is useful to assign the defined categories to these phases. This guarantees the independence of the categories from the project domain and that the categories can be applied to all e-government projects. Further, this assignment facilitates the analysis of (potential) stakeholders, since all stakeholders can be identified considering the lifecycle of an e-government project. Considering this, we designed our categories according to processes related to the egovernment solution from the beginning on, over the implementation to the use and application (Figure 1). Most of the existing stakeholder models represent punctual interactions between categories. Two of them have only two stakeholder categories [START_REF] Flak | Towards a Cumulative Tradition in E-Government Research: Going Beyond the Gs and Cs[END_REF][START_REF] De | E-Government Systems in Developing Countries: Stakeholders and Conflict[END_REF]. This limited number of categories complicates a more detailed analysis of interactions between stakeholders. One model lays a special focus on communication needs, which present a specific set of interactions between categories [START_REF] Johannessen | Choosing the Right Medium for Municipal eParticipation Based on Stakeholder Expectations[END_REF]. Thus, we interpret this focus as a limitation, since interactions are not only limited to communication needs. Heeks [START_REF] Heeks | Benchmarking e-government: Improving the national and international measurement, evaluation and comparison of e-government[END_REF] as well as Axelsson and Lindgren [START_REF] Axelsson | Public e-services for agency efficiency and citizen benefit: findings from a stakeholder centered analysis[END_REF] consider the interactions of one stakeholder category with all other categories. However, further interactions are not taken into account and exchanged elements are not described. In sum, except of these two models [START_REF] Axelsson | Public e-services for agency efficiency and citizen benefit: findings from a stakeholder centered analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Heeks | Benchmarking e-government: Improving the national and international measurement, evaluation and comparison of e-government[END_REF], none of the models discusses interactions between the stakeholders' categories in detail. On the contrary, we found that it is important to analyze interactions between all stakeholders. We highlight the importance as follows: Interactions need to be identified and analyzed, as stakeholders can significantly influence each other through communication and interactions. This can result in a change of the stakeholder's perspective on the e-government project. A stakeholder interaction model can help considering interactions between all stakeholders' categories as well as the stakeholders themselves. Thus, we enlarged the existing models by representing interactions on a stakeholder (e.g. between role administrator and finance officer) and category level.

Conclusion and Further Research

Our paper illustrates a stakeholder interaction model and analyzes to what extent this model can enrich the body of knowledge in regard to already existing stakeholder models. Thus, our aim is to contribute to the creation of a theoretical foundation of the egovernment research field. Consequently, our paper gives a comprehensive overview over stakeholders of complex e-government projects as opposed to the narrow scope of stakeholder models so far. We identified five general categories in which stakeholders can be classified, namely strategic project owner, operative project owner, supporters, external users and internal users and allocated them to the lifecycle of e-government projects. The presented stakeholder interaction model shows various interactions which take place in this particular project. Hence, it sheds light on the interrelationships and the exchanged elements. We noticed that almost no stakeholder model identified during the literature review shows detailed interactions between stakeholders. Hence, we conclude that our stakeholder interaction model can extend the existing stakeholder models by illustrating various interactions. Finally, our contribution helps e-government practitioners to identify and categorize stakeholders and to understand stakeholders' interactions by designing an interaction model for their e-government project.

In terms of future research, a more extensive, empirical evaluation of the stakeholder interaction model is proposed in order to extend the model and to explore further implications towards stakeholder analysis. We aim at contributing to this goal by conducting semi-structured interviews with members of all stakeholders groups in our particular project. Hence, we focus on the identification of interaction directions by analyzing the kind of interactions in more detail. Moreover, we will elicit and further analyze concerns, interests and requirements of different stakeholder groups. Finally, we will derive guidelines for practitioners on how they can use the stakeholder interaction model in order to identify, classify and estimate the influence of their stakeholders on the project's success.

Table 1 .

 1 Analysis of stakeholder models

	Author	Categorization	Interaction	Scope
	[24]	2 categories:	yes	generic
		government, citizens
	[25]	2 categories:	yes	specific
		demand side, supply side
	[26]	3 categories:	yes	specific
		government (divided into
		decision maker, management
		and service provider),
		citizen (divided into user and
		engaged user),
		business (consultant / vendor)
	[27]	4 categories:	no	specific
		data controllers, data subjects,
		data providers, secondary
		stakeholders
	[28]	4 categories:	no	generic
		internal stakeholders, other
		governmental agency
		stakeholders, citizens,
		organizational stakeholders
	[29]	5 categories:	yes	specific
		political, government
		administration, civil society
		(divided into business and
		organizations / citizens)
	[30]	5 categories:	no	specific
		inspection zone, limitation zone,
		collaboration zone, orientation
		zone, legitimacy zone
	[31]	7 categories:	yes	generic
		drivers, constructors, owners,
		sources, recipients, third parties,
		operators

We are grateful for the support provided by ISPRAT e.V. in terms of funding our research project at the Chair for Information Systems (TU München). We further thank all project participants and interviewees, especially the project staff for their most helpful input and feedback during the project.


Luiz Carla Monteiro Soares

Antonio Joia

Carla Danielle Soares

Luiz Antonio Joia
email: luiz.joia@fgv.br

LAN House Implementation and Sustainability in Brazil: An Actor-Network Theory Perspective

Keywords: LAN House, Actor-Network Theory, Digital Inclusion, Digital Exclusion, Brazil

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

In recent years, Brazil has expended considerable efforts to provide its citizens with access to information, digital technology and other benefits generated by Information and Communication Technologies (ICT), with the objective of enhancing the social and economic development of the country [START_REF] Gomez | Who uses ICT at Public Access Centers?[END_REF]. In partnership with the private sector, this movement has relied on initiatives such as tax deductions to reduce the cost of computers, investments in Internet cafes, the deployment of ICT laboratories in public schools, among other measures instituted through public policies and by NGOs [START_REF] Gomez | Who uses ICT at Public Access Centers?[END_REF].

It is also a fact that access to digital information and technology has grown and is on the increase in Brazil, especially in underprivileged areas, by means of the deployment of LAN Houses, according to data from the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee [START_REF] Cetic | Pesquisa sobre o Uso das Tecnologias da Informação e da Comunicação no Brasil: TIC Domicílios e TIC Empresas 2008[END_REF]. Moreover, 49% of the Brazilian population had some form of Internet access in 2012 and of these 49%, 19% gained access via LAN Houses [START_REF] Cetic | Pesquisa sobre o Uso das Tecnologias da Informação e da Comunicação no Brasil: TIC Domicílios 2012[END_REF].

Despite the recent decline in the number of users accessing the Internet via LAN Houses, this type of establishment is still the second largest provider of public access to ICTs in the country, after the main provider, namely home access. Moreover, there are around 100,000 LAN Houses in the country, with 87% of users belonging to lower income classes, i.e. people who would not have access to the World Wide Web if it were not for the existence of this type of commercial institution [START_REF] Cetic | Pesquisa sobre o Uso das Tecnologias da Informação e da Comunicação no Brasil: TIC Domicílios 2012[END_REF][START_REF] Neri | Mapa Da Inclusão Digital[END_REF].

Notwithstanding their apparent importance, there are few studies on the success of LAN Houses in Brazil, in terms of their implementation and sustainability in the national context. Thus, the research question of this work is: "How have the implementation and sustainability trajectories of LAN Houses been in Brazil, from an Actor-Network Theory (ANT) perspective?"

2

Theoretical References

LAN Houses

LAN Houses first appeared in South Korea in 1996 as an entertainment option. They were net gaming houses using LAN (Local Area Network) technology, which included an in-series linkup of computers to exchange information. In Brazil, the first LAN House opened in São Paulo in 1998, using the same business format proposed by the LAN Houses in Korea. However, the format experienced changes over the years, as the gaming entertainment house lost ground to access to information via the Internet for work, study, relationships and the practice of online and network gaming.

There are around 100,000 LAN Houses in Brazil, generating about 250,000 direct jobs [START_REF] Isuu | Anuário -A Rede de Inclusão Digital[END_REF]. However, of these estimated 100,000 establishments, only five thousand of them are formally registered [START_REF] Isuu | Anuário -A Rede de Inclusão Digital[END_REF]. According to the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee (CGI.br), over 85% of LAN Houses have not been formally registered because the legislation does not recognize the activity [START_REF] Cgi | Pesquisa sobre o uso das tecnologias da informação e da comunicação no Brasil: TIC LANHOUSES[END_REF]. Nonetheless, LAN Houses are the main point of access to the Internet for lower income classes. Approximately 80% of Brazilians of these classes access the Internet through paid access centers. These paid centers cater to 47% of the population, who pay between US$0.50 and US$1.00 per hour for Internet access use. In this portion of the population, about 80% of users frequent centers as they do not have a computer at home [START_REF] Cgi | Pesquisa sobre o uso das tecnologias da informação e da comunicação no Brasil: TIC LANHOUSES[END_REF].

The concentration of these paid access centers occurs not only in the outskirts of large cities -in underprivileged communities -but also in inland cities far from the major urban centers [START_REF] Cgi | Pesquisa sobre o uso das tecnologias da informação e da comunicação no Brasil: TIC LANHOUSES[END_REF]. They are usually simple but adequate facilities to provide the intended service. Besides access to the Internet, the LAN Houses offer other additional services, including games, communication apps (Skype, MSN, etc.), electronic/digital copying and printing, computer courses, etc. They also provide electronic commerce via the Internet and the purchase of products through the supply of credit from the owner of the establishment [START_REF] Cgi | Pesquisa sobre o uso das tecnologias da informação e da comunicação no Brasil: TIC LANHOUSES[END_REF].

Actor-Network Theory

The Actor-Network Theory -also called the sociology of translation -has been a popular approach in the Information Systems (IS) literature, due to its conceptualization of technology as one of the 'actors' in any Actor-Network analysis [START_REF] Walsham | Research on information systems in developing countries: Current landscape and future prospects[END_REF]. Thus, this approach has been used by several IS researchers to study the complex repertoire of actions associated with the implementation of technologies [START_REF] Walsham | GIS for district-level administration in India: problems and opportunities[END_REF][START_REF] Monteiro | Actor-network theory and information infrastructure[END_REF][START_REF] Stanforth | Using actor-network theory to analyze e-government implementation in developing countries[END_REF].

Technologies are heterogeneous artifacts that embody trade-offs and compromises [START_REF] Bijker | Shaping Technology/Building Society: studies in sociotechnical change[END_REF]. In particular, technologies can embody social, political, psychological, economic and professional commitments, skills, prejudices, possibilities and constraints, being continuously shaped and reshaped by the interplay of a range of heterogeneous forces within the networks [START_REF] Bijker | Shaping Technology/Building Society: studies in sociotechnical change[END_REF][START_REF] Latour | Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society[END_REF].

In particular, the Actor-Network Theory, or ANT, does not acknowledge differences between people on the one hand and objects on the other [START_REF] Callon | Some elements of a sociology of translation domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieux Bay[END_REF]. For instance, for ANT objects might authorize, allow, afford, encourage, permit, influence, block, prohibit and so on [START_REF] Latour | Reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network theory[END_REF]. In effect, this approach portrays society as a socio-technical web where technical objects participate in building heterogeneous networks that bring together both human and non-human actors of all types [START_REF] Law | Notes on the Theory of the Actor Network: Ordering, Strategy and Heterogeneity[END_REF].

In addition to this, ANT is highly appropriate when actors negotiate interests and try to gain influence in complex IS implementations [START_REF] Stanforth | Using actor-network theory to analyze e-government implementation in developing countries[END_REF][START_REF] Nhampossa | Re-thinking technology transfer as technology translation: A case study of health information systems in Mozambique[END_REF]. Therefore, many researchers believe that ANT has much to offer to IS research [START_REF] Monteiro | Actor-network theory and information infrastructure[END_REF][START_REF] Macome | On implementation of an information system in the Mozambican context: The EDM case viewed through ANT lenses[END_REF][START_REF] Elbanna | The Theoretical and Analytical Inclusion of Actor Network Theory and its Implication on ICT Research[END_REF], as ANT seems suitable for examining contradictory group formation processes associated with actornetworks related to IS implementation. For instance, ANT was used to examine the implementation of Geographical Information Systems in India [START_REF] Walsham | GIS for district-level administration in India: problems and opportunities[END_REF] and the assessment of digital inclusion in a Brazilian municipality [START_REF] Teles | Infoinclusão em Piraí Digital: Evidências Empíricas a partir da Teoria Ator-Rede[END_REF], to name only a few applications of ANT in IS research.

The dynamics associated with the formation of an actor-network accrues primarily from the process called translation. Translation means offering new interpretations of interests and channeling people in different directions [START_REF] Latour | Science in action: How to follow scientists and engineers through society[END_REF][START_REF] Callon | Some elements of a sociology of translation domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieux Bay[END_REF]. The results of such translations are a slow movement from one place to another [START_REF] Latour | Reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network theory[END_REF]. Hence, translation is the strategy by which the actor-network renders itself indispensable in the network building process. Thus, translation is the mechanism by which actors recruit other actors and ensure their faithful allegiance [START_REF] Elbanna | The Theoretical and Analytical Inclusion of Actor Network Theory and its Implication on ICT Research[END_REF]. The strategies used in translation will depend on the circumstances, including negotiation, persuasion, seduction, simple bargaining, and even coercion [START_REF] Nhampossa | Re-thinking technology transfer as technology translation: A case study of health information systems in Mozambique[END_REF]. Finally, it is worth mentioning that it is impossible to revert to a point at which a certain translation once was [START_REF] Callon | Some elements of a sociology of translation domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieux Bay[END_REF]. In other words, one cannot reverse a translation, which leads to the concept of irreversibility [START_REF] Latour | Reassembling the social: an introduction to actor-network theory[END_REF].

In order to illustrate the concept of translation clearly, an approach that distinguishes four interrelated moments of translation was proposed, namely: problematization, interessement, enrolment and mobilization [START_REF] Callon | Some elements of a sociology of translation domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieux Bay[END_REF]. These four moments are neither linear nor broadly inseparable [START_REF] Law | Notes on the Theory of the Actor Network: Ordering, Strategy and Heterogeneity[END_REF].

The first moment, namely problematization, is the process by which actors position their project as indispensable to others. Interessement, in turn, involves a group of actions by which an entity attempts to impose and stabilize the identity of the other actors. In the enrolment phase, a black box effect is created, which involves enrolling and controlling other actors. Indeed, interessement achieves enrolment if it is successful in creating alliances, while mobilization represents the successful alignment of actors [START_REF] Callon | Some elements of a sociology of translation domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieux Bay[END_REF].

Other concepts related to the formation of actor-networks include both the obligatory passage point (OPP) and inscriptions. OPP refers to a situation that must occur for all the actors to achieve their interests when a change in a network is introduced [START_REF] Callon | Some elements of a sociology of translation domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieux Bay[END_REF]. Inscription, in turn, refers to the way technical artifacts embody patterns of use [START_REF] Rhodes | Using Actor-Network Theory to Trace an ICT (Telecenter) Implementation Trajectory in an African Women's Micro-Enterprise Development Organization[END_REF].

Lastly, it can be argued that ANT does not seek to uncover causes and effects in an endeavor so much as unveil the dynamic processes of collective actions reflected in the life cycle of an actor-network, which is the aspect to be further analyzed in this work [START_REF] Heeks | ICTs and Social Movements under Authoritarian Regimes: An Actor-Network Perspective[END_REF].

Based on what has been presented about Actor-Network Theory, one can perceive that this approach is applicable in Information Systems research. This being the case, the aforementioned concepts associated with ANT might be useful for understanding LAN House implementation and sustainability processes in Brazil.

Research Method

This work adopts the case study method in conjunction with ANT to analyze the implementation and sustainability of a LAN House in a Brazilian municipality. As mentioned above, ANT is an approach for analysis of longitudinal and complex scenarios. Therefore, it was decided to analyze the case trajectory, involving many actors, such as entrepreneurs, frequenters, technical artifacts, local infrastructures, public policies, who interacted with the LAN House.

Case study methodology has been used in a positivist perspective in Information Systems research since the 1980s [START_REF] Benbasat | The Case Research Strategy in Studies of Information Systems[END_REF], becoming an important method for research in this knowledge field in the past 30 years [START_REF] Paré | Investigating Information Systems with Positivist Case Study Research Communications of the AIS[END_REF]. However, this investigation is closer to a critical interpretative perspective [START_REF] Mitev | Postmodernism and Criticality in Information Systems Research: What Critical Management Studies Can Contribute[END_REF][START_REF] Pozzebon | Conducting and Evaluating Critical Interpretive Research: examining criteria as a key component in building a research tradition[END_REF][START_REF] Walsham | Interpretive case studies in IS research: nature and method[END_REF][START_REF] Tsang | Case Studies and Generalization in Information Systems Research: A critical realist perspective[END_REF], as ANT was the theoretical background for this work.

Critical interpretative case studies need to follow criteria to assess their quality and soundness. Four criteria are singled out for evaluating critical interpretative research regarding its ontological and epistemological assumptions, namely authenticity, plausibility, criticality, and reflexivity [START_REF] Pozzebon | Conducting and Evaluating Critical Interpretive Research: examining criteria as a key component in building a research tradition[END_REF]. Thus, this investigation followed these criteria in order to ensure the quality of data collection and analysis.

This work sought to support its authenticity by using multiple sources of evidence collected throughout the year 2012. These included informal interviews with the LAN House owner and frequenters, as well as participant and direct observations undertaken in meetings and activities related to the operation of the LAN House. It also included a broad collection of documents related to the enterprise under analysis.

The plausibility of the work was accomplished via data analysis supported by the adopted literature review and comparison with results found in previous studies. Thus, a case that took place in a LAN House similar to the majority of same in Brazil was analyzed. Yet, as interpretative research, this work did not pursue an objective truth that could be generalized. It sought instead to understand how actor interactions influenced the implementation and sustainability of the LAN House.

Besides, this research sought to be critical when it unveiled the controversies associated with the implementation and sustainability of a LAN House. In the case under analysis, these controversies arose from diverse interests between the LAN House owner and the frequenters, as well as inscriptions in technical artifacts. Thus, this investigation tried to depict reality, leading readers to reflection.

Lastly, reflexivity is associated with the personal bias of the researchers. Therefore, the authors disclosed their role in this investigation. One of the authors worked actively in the data collection, interacting with the owner and frequenters of the LAN House under analysis. Furthermore, the other author, who was not involved in the data survey, sought to remove eventual biases perceived in the description of the case.

4

Case Description

The Jardim Catarina Suburb

This research was conducted in the Jardim Catarina suburb, located in the city of São Gonçalo in the Metropolitan Region of the State of Rio de Janeiro. The city of São Gonçalo has the second largest population of the State of Rio de Janeiro (999,728 inhabitants) [28]. Moreover, the Jardim Catarina suburb has a total area of approximately seven square kilometers, with 176 streets and avenues, and about 23,000 households with approximately 73,000 inhabitants [START_REF]Prefeitura Municipal de São Gonçalo[END_REF]. The economically active resident population in this neighborhood consists of a small percentage of the middle class and a majority of low-income earners, underemployed and self-employed. About 11.5% of the heads of households are in the 20 to 30-year-old bracket, having no education, and 70% of these have a maximum of three years of schooling, which highlights the precariousness of the educational status of its residents [START_REF]SEBRAE: Diagnóstico socioeconômico do Bairro do Jardim Catarina[END_REF].

The monthly income of the heads of households in Jardim Catarina is on average US$970.00. However, radical differences are found in the older areas of the suburb, constrained in environmental and social terms. The households in these areas have an average monthly income of US$540.00, well below the average for the suburb [START_REF] Dominguez | Jardim Catarina: Memória e Movimentos Cotidianos numa Periferia Fluminense[END_REF].

Thus, based on information about the Jardim Catarina suburb -its demographic and social aspects, its size and characteristics of an outlying suburb, in addition to the dearth of studies on this suburb -this setting was considered a relevant choice for carrying out this research.

Fox Video Rental Store and LAN House

Fox Video Rental Store and LAN House, hereinafter called Fox, located on one of the main streets of Jardim Catarina suburb, started operating in 2003 as a video rental store.

In 2007, it became a LAN House with good customer turnover throughout the day (about 30 people). However, the most intense number of people in the establishment begins after 5 p.m. when young people return from school or work and go to the LAN House. On weekends, movement increases after 2 p.m. The majority of users are young people from 14 to 20 years old, seeking a place to meet friends, play games, access the social network and listen to music. Some students also go to the LAN House to do their homework, some of which is done by the owner of the establishment himself. Nevertheless, the LAN House also has patrons of other age groups, such as adults between the ages of 30 and 55 and children aged 10 to 14. The group aged over 30 usually goes to the LAN House in search of other services such as consulting egovernment websites, printing of bank payment slips, preparing curriculum vitaes and checking e-mail, rarely accessing the Internet themselves. Some users say they go to Fox because they have no Internet access at home, but contend that even if they did they would still continue to frequent the location because it is a nice place to meet up with friends.

According to the owner, in the early days of Fox, between 2006 and 2007, the store was always full with all the computer workstations busy. The turnover of the business was basically distributed as follows: 80% from hours of Internet access and the remainder derived from other services such as CD copying, faxing, and printing. Currently (circa 2013), Fox has an average of 100 active clients and Internet access no longer contributes so much to the turnover of the store, accounting for a mere 20% of total sales.

LAN House Implementation and Sustainability Trajectories

By using the owner of the LAN House as a point of reference, it was possible to identify the actors involved in the trajectory of the implementation of the paid access center. It was also possible to understand the applications and two relevant translation processes that occurred during the formation of the network of actors, namely the setting up of the LAN House and the sustainability of same via introduction of electronic government services.

The setting up of the LAN House is considered a moment of relevant translation as it marks the implementation of the paid access center, i.e. how this network was formed with its associations and interactions. The second moment of translation, namely the sustainability of the LAN House via introduction of e-government services is also relevant as it ensured the continued existence of the paid access center, offering new service options, both for the community and for the owner, who assumed a new role as will be seen below, namely that of digital broker.

The First Translation Process: Implementing the LAN House

The first four moments of this translation process are detailed below, namely problematization, interessement, enrolment and mobilization.

Problematization

The problematization phase occurs from the moment the owner decides to open the paid access center as a solution to compensate for the loss of revenue of the video rental store. Therefore, this actor -the owner -identifies and defines the role of other actors required for the formation of this heterogeneous network. The elements that are identified as relevant actors are the technical artifacts (equipment and software), local infrastructure and the young patrons of the rental store, in addition to the owner.

Interessement

With the actors identified in the problematization stage, the LAN House was set up as a circumscribed network in an environment focused on technical artifacts and with the commitment of the lead actor, the owner, having all the actors aligned to his purpose. To achieve this, the owner took some steps to become indispensable and stabilize the roles of the other actors in the formation of the network. The technical artifacts were purchased and installed with the help of a computer technician, who temporarily allied with the interests of the principal actor to instruct him how to install the software. However, this human actor did not join the network, distancing himself before its materialization.

With respect to the young patrons, the owner encouraged them to acquaint themselves with the LAN House. Once he had attracted the interested parties, the owner consolidated the alignment of their interests to evaluate the participation of (human and non-human) actors necessary for the setting up of the LAN House, in a heterogeneous network, focused on an obligatory point of passage, namely the establishment of the new undertaking.

Enrolment

After the interessement stage comes the enrolment phase, in which the main actor, i.e. the owner of the LAN House, effectively defines the roles. At this point, this actor establishes and coordinates the roles of all actors who will represent his interests in the network of stable alliances, namely: -Performance of the chosen computers and installed software. -Layout of the physical space of the store divided between the video rental area and the LAN House. -Performance of the broadband provider.

-

The role of the young people who frequented the rental store, not only as patrons of the paid access center, but also as its promoters to the local community.

Mobilization

The translation is completed with the mobilization in which the main actor, after garnering the widespread acceptance and involvement of his interests, mobilizes all stakeholders and can therefore speak on behalf of a group of heterogeneous actors with sundry interests in a single network mobilized by them [START_REF] Callon | Some elements of a sociology of translation domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieux Bay[END_REF].

In this context, the entities involved have acquiesced to unforeseen mobility, in which the initially dispersed actors were regrouped in a given time and place. This occurred when the owner became the representative of all concerned -users of his video rental store and part of the neighborhood -with the material and technical artifacts converging to create a network of access to ICT.

Once all the elements involved in the trajectory of the implementation of the LAN House were aligned in accordance with their prescribed roles, these agreements should be incorporated in a material medium, which, according to the Actor-Network Theory is defined as inscription. Thus, by means of various inscriptions that occurred during the trajectory of the implementation of the LAN House, the creation of the paid access center was achieved.

However, when analyzing the implementation of the first LAN House translation process, the existence of another actor is detected. In the perspective of ANT, this actor, namely the "Computers for All" program of the Federal Government is a key player, though not mentioned by the LAN House owner. This actor was included in the network by an event independent of its intentions, since it was the result of the action of another actor, such that the owner benefited from the reduction in prices of computers to create the LAN House. Thus, the Federal Government played an important role in reducing the cost of computers, facilitating their acquisition, not only by people with low purchasing power but also by the owner of the LAN House, who benefited from the reduced price and the financing terms offered by retail stores.

Another fact worthy of note from the perspective of the Actor-Network Theory is the degree of irreversibility that this network has acquired as the inscriptions were established. The bonds formed between the (human and non-human) elements over the course of the implementation of the LAN House established a significant degree of convergence and coordination of the network. Accordingly, the number of elements incorporated into the new establishment -adaptation of space, installation of equipment, increased demand among young people for Internet access, and increase in the profitability of the business -prevented the disruption of this relationship. Thus, thinking of dismantling the LAN House and returning it to its original state, i.e. only a video rental store, consequently becomes unviable, which strengthens the state of irreversibility of the first translation process of this network.

5.2

The Second Translation Process: Sustaining the LAN House via Electronic Government Services

The second translation process occurred after the establishment and operation of the LAN House, with the introduction of a new actor in the network: e-Government services. This artifact appears as an important actor for the LAN House leading to a transformation and shift in interests, artifacts, people and enrolments [START_REF] Callon | Some elements of a sociology of translation domestication of the scallops and the fishermen of St. Brieux Bay[END_REF], appropriated by the lead actor in order to achieve his own goals.

To understand the importance of the role of this new actor and its interactions with other elements associated with the network, the four moments of this second translation process were analyzed, also describing this new actor.

Problematization

With the increase in the number of computers and access to the Internet in the underprivileged communities, the number of hours of Internet access in the LAN House is on the decline. The owner detects a reduction in revenue. In the meantime, the search for electronic public services that the state promotes for citizens begins to emerge. Thus, a relevant actor is identified: e-Government services.

With the goal of providing public services to the population via the Internet, the Federal Government developed actions of the e-government program, prioritizing the use of ICT to democratize access to information. However, actions related to egovernment services have not reached those lacking access to ICTs, namely the underprivileged population who need to have access to the provision of public services by electronic means. Thus, e-government, even unintentionally, becomes a relevant actor to the LAN House, which, through its owner, shall provide such services to the community in which it operates.

Thus, according to the owner of the LAN House, there appears a new user profile: adults, over the age of 24 to 26, who do not have access to a connected computer and/or printer, and who have the LAN House as a point of reference for the services offered by government agencies through access to ICTs. From the perspective of ANT, this new actor joins the network, proposing and demanding new enrolment and interactions between the human and non-human elements, such as availability of a quality printer and knowledge on the part of the main actor about the use of online services offered by the government and his own services.

Interessement

The owner of the LAN House promotes the possibility of access to e-government services for this new user profile. Thus, he aligns his interests with those of the people who wish to take advantage of this type of service.

Enrolment

Users of e-government services frequent the property while the owner assumes a new role, serving as an intermediary to assist their access to these e-government services.

Mobilization

The translation is completed with the continuity of the LAN House in the community. Therefore, once again, the LAN House becomes an obligatory point of passage for these actors, who need to go to the LAN House to access online public services. The main actor (the owner) thus offers this type of service in the LAN House, always with a view to increase his billing.

Therefore, with the actors mobilized around the interests of the principal actor, the inscription of e-government services occurs, with the owner buying a new printer and registering for credit protection service, entering into an agreement with the neighboring real estate broker to offer digital services, conducting enquiries, printing dockets, among other digital services.

In addition to this, the users of the LAN House come to consider it as a digital convenience center with the owner providing online services in addition to e-government services. These include copying digital media, checking e-mail, doing homework and online research, developing curriculum on the Internet, among others. The owner, therefore, assumes the role of digital broker with the responsibility of sending, preparing and registering documents online, hampering most LAN House users from achieving full digital inclusion.

As demonstrated in the two previous cases of translation, there is no pre-defined, structured and established social order in the ANT approach, but actors associating and disassociating in a permanent dynamic of relationships. For this reason, new negotiation processes and inscriptions are made and new networks are formed.

Final Remarks

This research presented two relevant translation processes as well as the four associated moments in which the actors had different levels of interest and alignment. From the analysis of these translations, it was seen that although the LAN House does not promote effective digital inclusion, it is important to highlight the relevance of this type of establishment in low-income areas, which consequently have restricted access to computers and the Internet such as the Jardim Catarina suburb in São Gonçalo.

In this sense, it should be stressed that the power to democratize access to the Internet exercised by thousands of LAN Houses spread around the country gives them a social function, as in addition to access to ICT, they promote the access of the underprivileged to a range of important community services hitherto inaccessible to them. This scenario demonstrates the extent to which the paid access centers serve the environment in which they operate, either by facilitating access to the World Wide Web or as online service providers. In this way, they respond to the dynamics of ICTs via the expansion of computer use by individuals and the dissemination of public services via the Internet offered by the State to its citizens.

In this context, it can be claimed that the LAN House currently plays a new role, namely that of a digital convenience agent. Consequently, the owner also has a new attribute, i.e. that of digital dispatcher, promoting and exercising the role of processing, expediting and sending documents of its users by digital means. This fact hampers LAN House users from pursuing effective digital inclusion, especially those who resort to it with a view to the use of the available e-government services, as there is a person who can do that on behalf of them, as was set forth before. These findings indicate the need to redesign or re-evaluate public policies, so that LAN House users can feel fully digitally included, eliminating the owner's role as digital dispatcher.

Finally, to understand the importance of this subject not only for Academia but also for the Government -through public policies aimed at reducing the number of digitally excluded people in the country -new research is required, as also supported by other researchers [START_REF] Kumar | e-Choupals: A Study on the Financial Sustainability of Village Internet Centres in Rural Madhya Pradesh[END_REF][START_REF] Sey | Literature Review on the Impact of Public Access to Information and Communication Technologies[END_REF]. This includes case studies in LAN Houses located in other outlying suburbs from the perspective of ANT, to verify the possible existence of other actors in the constitution of the network, as well as analyze the availability of online egovernment public services and the extent to which they can influence the sustainability of LAN House business. In addition, more research should be conducted into the role of the LAN House owner as a digital broker, identifying to what extent old practices are merely presented in a new guise.

* In Brazil, LAN House is the expression assigned to a Paid Internet Access Center


Marcelo De Araujo
email: marcelo.haraujo@usp.br

Nicolau Reinhard
email: reinhard@usp.br

Marcelo Henrique De Araujo¹

Nicolau Reinhard¹

Categorization of Brazilian Internet Users and Its Impacts on the Use of Electronic Government Services

Keywords: Capability Approach, Electronic Government Services, Internet use patterns

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

In Brazil, e-government (e-gov) initiatives have become popular among the citizens due to the diversity of electronic services available to the population, such as electronic voting system, filing an income tax return report, scheduling medical appointments, enrollment of students in public schools, among others [START_REF] Avgerou | Interpreting the trustworthiness of government mediated by Information and Communication Technology: Lessons from electronic voting in Brazil[END_REF][START_REF] Reinhard | The Adoption of Electronic Filing For Individual Income Tax Returns In Brazilian[END_REF]. However, the success of these initiatives (e-gov) depends on the access and predisposition to use the ICT resources in the interaction between the government and the civil society. Public policies for digital inclusion in the country encourage both the individual access (through tax reduction on computer equipment, promoting the purchase of computers and access to the Internet) and the collective access, which includes the offer and availability of Internet access in public access centers (for example, Public Telecenters and Cybercafés) [START_REF] Lemos | LAN Houses: A new wave of Digital Inclusion in Brazil[END_REF][START_REF] Mori | Brazilian Digital Inclusion Public Policy : achievements and challenges[END_REF][START_REF] Madon | Digital inclusion projects in developing countries: Processes of institutionalization[END_REF].

Through its Center of Studies on Information and Communication Technologies (CETIC.br), the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee (CGI.br) conducts surveys in order to generate statistics about the use of Information and Communication Technologies (ICTs). For the purposes of this paper, the data used were taken from their ICT Household Survey, a survey conducted annually and whose data enable the generation of indicators about the availability and use of the Internet by the Brazilian population.

This research is based on the following objectives: (i) Categorize the Internet users based on their Internet use (for example, personal communications, entertainment, business applications, etc.) and (ii) Explore the relationships of their predisposition to use the e-gov services with the abovementioned categories. The analysis is based on the ICT Household Survey micro-data for the years 2007, 2009 and 2011. The Capability Approach [START_REF] Sen | Development as freedom[END_REF] was adopted as a theoretical framework, for its consideration of people's freedom to decide on their use of the available resources and their competencies for these decisions, leading to the use of e-government services.

Although the theme had already been explored by [START_REF] Araujo | Factors Influencing the Use of Electronic Government Services in Brazil[END_REF], the contribution of this paper is the characterization of the different groups of Internet users based on their usage of the Internet -and assessing the propensity to use the e-gov in each one of these groups.

The paper is structured as follows: Section 2 discusses the theoretical principles that guide this research. In Section 3, the reference model and the adopted methodological strategy are presented. Section 4 discusses the main results and findings of this research. Section 5 presents final remarks.

2

Literature Review

The Capability Approach

The Capability approach [START_REF] Sen | Development as freedom[END_REF] was developed in order to offer an objective basis for interpersonal perceptions of welfare [START_REF] Prendergast | The concept of freedom and its relation to economic developmenta critical appreciation of the work of Amartya Sen[END_REF][START_REF] Robeyns | The Capability Approach: a theoretical survey[END_REF] thus overcoming limitations of the utilitarian approach, in which this type of comparison -essential for the welfare economywould not be possible.

According to the Capability Approach [START_REF] Sen | Development as freedom[END_REF], simply providing a commodity or resource does not directly imply a direct increase in the welfare of a community, due to the multiple manners this resource can be used (capability) and the results obtained by the effective use of this commodity (functioning). Therefore, the assessment of a resource (commodity) and its use depend on a set of cultural, social and knowledge factors, named conversion factors. Thus, from the access conditions to a certain commodity and the referred conversion factors, individuals recognize a set of resources, which will be assessed based on the possibility of access and perception of use. Consequently, reducing this initial set to its capability [START_REF] Sen | Development as freedom[END_REF] [START_REF] Reinhard | The Challenges of Universal Access: Models and Managementan invitation research[END_REF], that is, a smaller set of resources that they will take into consideration to make their choices of use. Based on these capabilities, the individuals decide how they will use these resources in order to achieve their functioning, that is, the result of the effective use of these resources, which, in a last analysis, will lead to their utility, for example, exercise of rights, welfare [START_REF] Reinhard | The Challenges of Universal Access: Models and Managementan invitation research[END_REF].

ICT Household Survey

The ICT Household survey, performed annually since 2005 by the Brazilian Internet Steering Committee (CGI.br), aims at mapping the availability of ICT resources by the Brazilian population [START_REF] Cgi | Survey on the use of Information and Communication Technologies in Brazil: ICT Households and Enterprises 2012[END_REF] (ICT Household Survey 2012).

The survey uses methodological standards developed by the OECD (Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development), Eurostat and by the Observatory for the Information Society in Latin America and the Caribbean (OSILAC), and Economic Commission for Latin America and the Caribbean (ECLAC), thus allowing international comparisons. The sampling plan is based on the national Census and Household Sample Survey.

Research Methodology and Reference Model

The paper's reference model, presented in Figure 1, is based on the Capability Approach [START_REF] Sen | Development as freedom[END_REF]. The objective of this model is to demonstrate the factors influencing the individuals' decisions to use electronic government services. The model consists of three main constructs: (i) conditions to obtain (or access) the resource; (ii) freedom and ability to choose (capabilities); (iii) results (functioning). The survey's answer to the question "the most common or favorite access location to the internet" was used to operationalize the first construct. As a proxy to users' capabilities, the study constructs factors based on the survey's questions regarding the frequent usage of other Internet services: communication, leisure and entertainment activities, information search and on-line services. This study improves on previous analyses performed by [START_REF] Araujo | Factors Influencing the Use of Electronic Government Services in Brazil[END_REF], where capabilities were represented directly by the usage of e-mail, e-finance, e-commerce services. The last construct synthesizes the target phenomenon of this research, that is, the use of e-government services. For that end, this concept was operationalized through a binary primitive, indicating whether the Internet users made use of electronic government services in the last 12 months.

This study aims also to categorize Internet users, in order to understand the factors that drive or restrict the use of e-gov services. Differently from other models that are based on users' beliefs and attitudes (for example, perception of utility and facility), this paper is based on observed user behavior (actual usage of Internet services) and explores the mediation chain showed by the Internet users' choices and actions, attributes that are directly measured by the ICT Household Survey.

This research uses a positivistic approach a descriptive and exploratory analysis of secondary data (micro-data) from the 2007, 2009 and 2011 editions of the ICT Household Survey, Table 1 presents the survey's variables used in the paper.

Several

The first variable presented in Table 1 is a construct derived from respondents' demographic attributes; due to the small sizes of classes A and D, the data were combined in three groups: Class AB (upper class); Class C (middle class); Class DE (lower class).

The variable "Use of Electronic Government Services" is a dichotomous measure that maps the Internet users that used any of the e-gov services in the last 12 months.

The other (binary) variables represent the different Internet uses, represented by a set of binary metric that explores several activities connected to communication (e.g. e-mail, instant messages, participation in networking websites), information search and on-line services (e.g. search for health information), leisure and entertainment (e.g. on-line games, virtual reality environments), financial services (consult and transactions via internet banking), and education and training activities (e.g. school activities, on-line courses, etc.).

Statistical analysis was performed through multivariate statistical techniques (Binary Factor Analysis, Logistic Regression and Clusters Analysis), using SPSS and Stata tools.

Binary Factor Analysis and the Cluster Analysis were used for the construction of user categories.

Due to the great amount of activities explored in each one of the Internet use patterns, the Binary Factor Analysis technique was applied in order to reduce the problem dimension. Cluster Analysis, using the factorial scores of the latent factors was then applied to identify homogenous Internet user groups regarding the multiple activities performed on the Internet. These clusters were used as proxies for the capabilities of the reference model (Figure 1).

Binary logistic regression technique was used to assess the relationship of the clusters with the users' preferred Internet access locations and also to establish the relationship of the clusters with the use of e-gov services.

Binary logistic regression is a technique that aims at studying the relation between the independent, metric and non-metric variables, and a binary dependent variable [START_REF] Hair | Multivariate Data Analysis[END_REF]. In order to perform the logistic regression, a stepwise procedure was used (with 95% of confidence level). Since the study is not focused on creating predictive models, it was decided to analyze only the odds ratio measures of the statistically significant independent variables.

Analysis and Discussion of Results

In accordance with the objectives of this study, the Internet users were categorized based on their uses of the Internet. The ICT Household Survey lists a number of categories of Internet uses: (i) communication (for example, e-mail, networking websites); (ii) information search and on-line services; (iii) leisure and entertainment (for example, on-line games, virtual reality); (iv) financial services (consult and transact via internet banking); (v) education and training activities (for example, on-line courses). Due to the great number of variables in each one of these categories, Binary Factor Analysis statistical technique [START_REF] Bartholomew | The Analysis and Interpretation of Multivariate Data for Social Scientists[END_REF] was used in order to reduce these variables to a smaller number of latent factors. This analysis was applied to each one of the five abovementioned categories, for each year of the survey (2007, 2009 and 2011) Eigenvalues equal to or higher than 1 were used a criterion for factors retention. Furthermore, where necessary, a Varimax orthogonal rotation was applied, yielding one single significant factor for each category (except for the leisure and entertainment activities category with two factors). The analysis resulted in the following single factors: For the leisure and entertainment activities, the first latent factor gathered all the variables related to the activities with high degree of interaction and collaboration among Internet users, such as participating in virtual reality environments, on-line games, etc. The second factor represented the non-interactive activities (for example, listening to on-line radios, reading news and magazines, etc.). Therefore, the first factor was called "interactive and collaborative activities," and the second one was called "non-interactive activities."

The standardized factor scores derived from the factor analysis were then used as input for the cluster analysis. In order to define the number of clusters, hierarchical clustering was initially applied, defining the "between groups", and the "squared Euclidean distance" as clustering and distance method, respectively. The results suggested the formation of three clusters. Then, the non-hierarchical clustering was applied through k-means algorithm, in order to create the three clusters, whose final positioning is showed in tables 2, 3 and 4. 2, shows the differences in profiles of the three user groups: cluster 2 has a negative value for all different Internet use patterns, indicating that this cluster gathers Internet users that make very little use of the analyzed Internet uses. Therefore, these Internet users are characterized as sporadic users. On the other hand, the data on cluster 3 present positive sign for almost all Internet use activities (except for leisure and entertainment interactive and collaborative activities), indicating that this group has a more Advanced profile when compared to the previous cluster. And, finally, cluster 1 has an intermediate profile (regarding the Internet use patterns) compared to the abovementioned clusters, with a higher leisure and entertainment component. The analysis of the 2009 data (Table 3) and 2011 (Table 4) shows a cluster formation similar to 2007 (only with clusters in different order). The Cluster Analysis for each of the three years resulted in a set of three clusters with similar composition between the years. The observation of the factor loadings led the authors to name them as "Advanced use", "Intermediate use" and "Sporadic use". Table 5 shows the percentage distribution of the e-gov services users in each one of the proposed Internet user clusters. The analysis of the table 5 data shows that the egov services are widely used by the Internet users with the Advanced and intermediate use profile. On the other hand, in the Internet user group of sporadic use, the use of e-gov services has decreased. Therefore, the Table 5 data shows that the proportion of Internet use the e-gov services is much higher among those with higher proficiency in the Internet use (Advanced and intermediate users groups). The Table 6 data shows the Internet access location distribution for each group. The data clearly show an increase of the Internet use preferably at home in all groups. However, the Internet use at home is much higher for the advanced use group (75.6% in 2011) and intermediate group (67.8% in 2011) than the sporadic use group (54.9% in 2011). Table 6 also shows that Cybercafés are, in percentage terms, the second most important access location for this (underprivileged) last group. Table 7 presents the Internet user groups in relation to the socioeconomic status of their members, showing that the three groups are composed mainly of class AB members (upper class) and class C (middle class). The proportion of Internet users in class DE (lower class), although small in all clusters, is greater in the Internet user group of sporadic use.

Use of Electronic Government Services

The paper's objective was to assess the survey' s respondents decision to use egovernment services, based on their preferred Internet access location, mediated by their patterns of Internet usage patterns (use groups). For this purpose binary logistic regression was used, yielding the odds ratios, that measure how much, maintaining the other conditions constant, each one of the explanatory variables increases the chance of occurrence (or probability) of the studied phenomenon (e-government usage). Tables 8, 9 and 10 show the odds ratio values (of statistically significant attributes at 95% of reliability) of different Internet access locations according to the probability of the individual belonging to each one of the analyzed Internet groups. The data in Table 11 shows that belonging to the proposed Internet user groups (capability measure) positively impacts the use of electronic government services. Odds ratio values were much higher among the members of the intermediate and advanced use groups, respectively. The propensity to use the e-gov services was shown to be greater among the users of the intermediate use group, compared to the advanced Internet users. An analysis of the data in Tables 3 and4 emphasizes that the main difference between these two groups is the use intensity of interactive and collaborative activities of leisure and entertainment (for example, on-line games, virtual environment). Therefore, such competence could benefit the use of e-gov services in the intermediate Internet user group. On the other hand, the data showed odds ratio lower than 1 for Internet users of sporadic use, indicating that belonging to this group implies the reduction in the potential use of e-gov services. In other words, the data emphasizes that the lower competence Internet users tend not to use e-gov services.

Conclusions

The objective of this research was to categorize the Brazilian Internet users according to the diversity of activities undertaken by these users on-line and assess the propensity of these Internet user groups to use e-gov services. The results of this research showed the formation of three different groups of Internet users, called (i) Advanced use, (ii) Intermediate use, and (iii) Sporadic use. The first group gathers the Internet users with most competence in Internet use, that is, those who make use of all or almost all analyzed Internet use patterns. The second group consists of Internet users that perform a lower number of activities on the Internet, but that are characterized by the most extensive use of interactive and collaborative activities of leisure and entertainment, such as participating in virtual reality environments and on-line games. Finally, the last group comprises the Internet users with a more mundane (sporadic) use of the Internet, limiting themselves to the performance of few activities on the Internet (when compared to the previous groups).

Regarding the propensity to use e-gov services, the results showed that the Internet users belonging to the advanced and intermediate use groups were more likely to use the e-gov services. On the other hand, the Internet users of the sporadic use group were less likely to use the e-gov services. These results strengthen the notion that the development of Internet use competence has a positive impact on the propensity to use e-gov services. The results also demonstrated that the Internet user group of intermediate use presented a higher tendency to use e-gov services than the Internet user group of advanced use. Such tendency is possibly related to the extensive use of interactive and collaborative activities of leisure and entertainment performed by this user.

In summary, the paper showed the users' preferences for internet access location and the capabilities that favor their use of e-government services.

These findings indicate the appropriateness of enacted public policies that have addressed internet access problems through varied initiatives: at the regulatory and fiscal levels, connectivity rates, especially mobile have dropped significantly due to increased competition among service providers (the creation of a state-owned nationwide broadband network, mandatory users' free mobility between providers), reduction on taxes on entry-level computers, tablets and communication services. There are large direct public investments in connectivity to schools, free wi-fi access in public spaces, with satellite connection being provided to remote rural areas (Amazon Region). Schools with increased connectivity are then able to promote computer literacy. More affordable access to devices and internet connection contributed to the widespread use of communication services, especially social network services, on mobiles (mostly smartphones but also tablets). As a response, e-gov services are increasingly being offered to social class D and E citizens for mobile devices.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. -Reference Model: Capability Approach (Source: adapted from [7], [9])

  (a) communication; (b) information search and on-line services; (c) financial services; and (d) education and training.

Table 1 .

 1 -Variables

	Variables for this study	ICT Survey questions and Categories
	Social Class	AB (combined), C, and DE (combined);
		Most common access location (Home, Work, At
	Internet Access Location	someone else's home, Telecenter, Cybercafe, Other
		place).
	Use of Electronic Government	Yes/No
	Services
	Internet Use for Communica-	Several
	tion
	Internet Use for Information	Several
	Search and On-line Services
	Internet Use for Leisure and En-	Several
	tertainment
	Internet Use for Financial Ser-	Several
	vices
	Internet Use for Education and
	Training

Table 2 .

 2 -Final Cluster Centers (2007)

		Cluster
	1	2	3

Table 3 .

 3 -Final Cluster Centers (2009)

		Cluster
	1	2	3

Table 4 .

 4 -Final Cluster Centers (2011)

		Cluster
	1	2	3

Table 5 .

 5 Electronic government use by Internet user clusters (percentage)

		Advanced use	Intermediate use	Sporadic use
		2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011
	Use of e-gov	56.4 93.7 82.7 83.7 80.3 89.4 88.8 54.3 50.7
	Non-use of e-gov 43.6	6.3 17.3 16.3 19.7 10.6 11.2 45.7 49.3

Table 6 .

 6 -Internet Access Location by Internet user clusters (percentage)

		Advanced use	Intermediate use	Sporadic use
		2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011
	Home	25.5 56.3 75.6 39.0 52.4 67.8 43.8 35.9 54.9
	Work	13.6 28.6 10.6 25.1 18.7 22.8 25.8 12.3 13.3
	School	4.0	0.6	1.0	3.3	3.1	0.9	2.7	2.7	1.3
	Someone else's home 12.7	5.4	3.6	7.8	6.7	2.2	6.2 12.5	9.3
	Telecenter	1.6	0.0	0.4	1.2	0.7	0.1	1.1	1.3	0.5
	Cybercafé	40.9	8.8	7.2 22.9 18.1	4.9 20.2 34.5 18.5
	Other Location	1.7	0.2	1.5	0.7	0.4	1.2	0.2	0.8	2.2

Table 7 .

 7 -Internet Access Location by Internet user clusters (percentage)

		Advanced use	Intermediate use	Sporadic use
		2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011
	Class AB 29.5 64.0 52.5 45.6 45.7 64.3 53.0 32.0 36.4
	Class C	54.8 33.5 44.0 47.4 47.7 33.5 38.0 56.1 54.2
	Class DE 15.8	2.5	3.5	7.0	6.5	2.2	9.0 11.8	9.4

Table 8 .

 8 Contribution of the Internet access location to the Advanced Internet user group

		C	DE
		2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011
	At Home and Work	0.43 3.34 2.24 0.28
	At someone else's home
	Cybercafé
	Telecenter

Table 9 .

 9 Contribution of the Internet access location to the intermediate Internet user group

		C	DE
		2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011
	At Home and Work	1.55	2.25	5.50
	At someone else's home	0.51
	Cybercafé	0.48
	Telecenter	0.24

Table 10 .

 10 Contribution of the Internet access location to the sporadic Internet user group The data in Tables 8, 9 and 10 show that the preferred Internet use at home or at work (individual access) has a positive impact on the chance of belonging to the Internet user group of Advanced and intermediate use. On the other hand, Table10showed that Internet use at home or at work implies the reduction in the probability of belonging to the Internet sporadic use group. Therefore, it demonstrates that the individual access (home or work) encourages the development of capabilities.

		C	DE
		2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011
	At Home and Work	2.11 0.33 0.36 2.70 0.43 0.35
	At someone else's home
	Cybercafé
	Telecenter	4.71

Table 11 .

 11 Contribution of different Internet user groups to the decision of using e-gov services (odds ratio)

			C	DE
	Groups (Clusters) 2007 2009 2011 2007 2009 2011
	Advanced Use	0.17 6.80 2.93 0.31 7.15	4.23
	Intermediate Use	3.71 2.50 4.60 3.20 3.37 10.93
	Sporadic Use	4	0.24 0.19	0.23	0.12