Cecilia Warrol
email: cecilia.warrol@teknikforetagen.se

Johan Stahre
email: johan.stahre@chalmers.se

Innovation, and PhD Education on a National Level -Produktion2030, a Swedish Example

Keywords: Production, innovation, research, PhD education, Sweden

de documents scientifiques de niveau recherche, publiés ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

A competitive manufacturing industry is vital for Sweden's job market and growth. Similar economic dependencies may be found in most of the European countries, as well as in other global regions. This industrial sector is a foundation for a sustainable society and a key driver for new businesses and services; information and communication technology; and breakthrough manufacturing technologies e.g. additive manufacturing. Not surprisingly, governments globally are launching massive efforts, investing in manufacturing research, innovation, and education (RIE) programmes. Their goals are to increase global competitiveness in the manufacturing sector by stimulating e.g. innovation processes, business development, and technology transfer. In Europe, programmes like Finland's Fimecc; Germany's Industrie 4.0; Denmark's MADE; and the Smart Industry from the Netherlands are good examples of manufacturing innovation efforts. In Sweden, national manufacturing strategic research agendas [START_REF]Teknikföretagen: Made in Sweden -Strategic Research Agenda[END_REF] were established in 2008, 2011, and 2013. These initiatives were led by industry, in this case represented by Teknikföretagen 1 , together with the Swedish Production Academy and the national Research Institutes. As a result the national research and innovation programme Produktion2030 2 emerged. Its vision is that Swedish manufacturing industry stays a frontrunner and innovation leader in sustainable production. This paper presents the challenges, background, and operation of Produktion2030. The two authors of this paper are director and co-director of the Produktion2030 programme. 1 Teknikföretagen (The Swedish Association of Engineering Industries), the main association for Sweden's export industry, representing 4000 companies. http://www.teknikforetagen.se 2 The Produktion2030 research and innovations programme: http://www.produktion2030.se Figure 1. Swedish governmental research funding in production [START_REF] Hjelm | Manufacturing research funding in Sweden[END_REF] The national project "Produktion för konkurrenskraft" (Production for Competitiveness) was launched by The Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences in 2004. The project was an important contribution to the reestablishment of a strong Swedish community for production research and development. The aim was to map Swedish academic and institute production research; to assess the R&D needs of the manufacturing industry; and suggest actions to increase competitiveness of that industry. In 2007, Teknikföretagen 1 took the lead in disseminating and promoting results from the project through a nation-wide tour, covering more than 100 Swedish cities. Recommendations were also submitted to the ministries Enterprise as well as Education & Research in an industrial request for future research funding to universities and institutes. In addition, The Swedish Production Academy3 , a national network for academic production engineering professors, was founded. All universities with engineering programmes and production research are members and the majority of PhD students are organized in the Production Academy Doctoral Chapter (PADOK). The Academy also hosts a bi-annual academic conference (Swedish Production Symposium) and constitutes a platform for long-term development of research and higher education.

Consensus for a new innovation programme -Produktion2030

The collaboration between industry (i.e. Teknikföretagen), the Swedish Production Academy, and the national manufacturing research institutes was established through joint efforts. Since 2005, these actors had collaborated in promoting and developing national interest in production research, dissemination and education. To influence policy makers and put forward recommendations for research funding and education, these actors have produced national agendas for development in production, aiming to influence industry, academy and government. The first two agendas, "Svensk produktionsforskning 2020" and "Svensk produktion 2025" had impact on the Swedish Research and Innovation Bill in 2008, resulting in a radically increased government funding of 300 MSEK (M€ 30) within the production research area. A third strategic agenda, "Made in Sweden 2030" was presented in 2012.

The agenda described a well-accepted roadmap for further governmental and industrial investments to renew a large number of industries, manufacturing industry included. Thus, the strategic research and innovation programme Produktion2030 was established in 2013.

The manufacturing industry in Sweden represents a majority of the national gross investments in R&D, with more than a third of the total national spending on R&D deriving from the manufacturing industry. This makes Sweden highly dependent on its manufacturing industry for knowledge growth and innovation, as well as for job creation and growth. Government research and innovation policy directed towards the technology sector (e.g. manufacturing and engineering) has a huge impact on industry's investment's in manufacturing as well as R&D. Regular surveys performed by Teknikföretagen confirms this.

Based on this discussion, Produktion2030 has the potential to fulfill the long-term goals of the programme, with increased investments in production in Sweden as a result. The programme also has a wider scope than its predecessors, encompassing the entire manufacturing sector. Further and a bit unusual for this kind of programmes, the responsibility of the project portfolio is in the hands of the programme steering committee. The strategy and operation of the research programme is almost fully outsourced to its stake-holders. Instead, the programme will be assessed by the Swedish Government every three years. Thus, it will be up to industry and the research community in collaboration to make it successful. It should be noted that a continuous and mutual collaboration between Production2030 and VINNOVA, the funding agency, contributes to improvements and quality assurance of the programme.

Produktion2030 is organized in two main dimensions: 1) Six areas of strength, jointly identified by industry, academia, and institutes. 2) Five instruments, providing a scalable organizational infrastructure to facilitate operations.

The Produktion2030 Areas of Strength

Manufacturing is a wide thematic field with several possible dimensions. Research and innovation content may range from capturing of product customer needs to new ways for production system operation and maintenance. Digital tools for design and development of products have their corresponding potentials in digital visualization of production system for innovation and design. In a national context, there is natural distribution of interests and expertise among industry, academia, and research institutes.

In order to focus Produktion2030, parts of the strategic research agenda efforts were spent on identifying manufacturing areas where Sweden was already strong on research and innovation, and where a good potential for increased national competitiveness could be identified. Produktion2030 should be guided in the most relevant direction to achieve maximum impact in Swedish manufacturing industry. Therefore the scope of the research and innovation was structured into six areas. These areas were chosen through workshops, questionnaires, and bilateral discussions where representatives from research institutes, industry and academia took part. The findings were anchored with a large number of manufacturing companies with extensive research and production in Sweden, e.g. AB Volvo, SKF, ABB, Sandvik, and Saab Group.

After several subsequent stages of analysis done in close collaboration between industry and researchers from academia and institutes, consensus was reached on the following six areas, which were to be developed as national Swedish areas of strength in manufacturing:

1. Environmentally sustainable and resource-efficient production 2. Flexible production 3. Virtual production development and simulation 4. Humans in the production system 5. Product-and production-based services 6. Integrated product-and production-development

The identified areas of strength correspond well to the prioritized research areas within the European public-private partnership (PPP) programme "Factories of the Future" which is aimed at enhancing the competitiveness of European industry [START_REF]European Commission: Factories of the future -Multi-annual roadmap for the contractual ppp under horizon 2020[END_REF]. The areas identified by the European PPP organization are: (i) Advanced manufacturing processes, (ii) Adaptive and smart manufacturing systems, (iii) Digital, virtual and resource-efficient factories, (iv) Collaborative and mobile enterprises, (v) Human-centred manufacturing and (vi) Customer-focused manufacturing.

The Produktion2030 Instruments

The operation of Produktion2030 is based on five "instruments", the second dimension of the programme, which provides a scalable and transparent organizational infrastructure. The vision of Produktion2030 is that Sweden should be a front-runner in sustainable production and that investments in production in Sweden increase. Therefore, it takes more than investments in research and innovation projects to move forward. The development of education related to national areas of strength, an increase of mobility between industry and research organizations and effective technology transfer to SMEs are important tools to reach the programme goals.

The operations of Produktion2030 are organized through the following five instruments:

1. Research and innovation projects: 0.5 to 3 year projects with a high Technology readiness level. Projects are initiated through consortia applications based on open calls for proposals twice a year. Sizes and formats of calls vary 2. Knowledge and technology transfer to small and medium sized enterprises (SMEs): captures and transfers method development, new knowledge and technology from the research and innovation projects to SMEs 3. Researcher and Industry Mobility: funding for short job exchanges for researchers in industry, universities and research institutes 4. Education: Produktion2030 has established a national PhD-course programme and will develop courses on masters level as well as platforms for continuous education 5. Internationalization: major efforts to harmonize Swedish R&I&D programmes relevant for the manufacturing industry with EU programmes and funding.

The instruments have been constructed to create highest possible impact of the programme. Further, they are connected and slightly overlap in order to assure programme coherence.

The findings and results from the Research and innovation projects are disseminated through the Knowledge and technology transfer instrument as well as through the Education instrument. The Mobility instrument has as main objective to support knowledge transfer within individual projects, thereby strengthening consortia and endorsing impact. Common to all instruments are the participations from the three types of stakeholders: industry, academy and research institutes. Each instrument has a designated manager (or management group), reporting to the Programme Office.

Sweden is among the leading countries in the world when it comes to investments in research, with typically 3 % of GDP invested annually from private and public sectors. In addition, Sweden ranks among the foremost countries when it comes to innovation. In contrast, only a small portion of these investments in research and innovation are turned over into business creation or added value for industry. The void between research and the private business sector, known as the "Valley of death" [START_REF] Auerswald | Valleys of Death and Darwinian Seas: Financing the Invention to Innovation Transition in the United States[END_REF], is challenging governments all over the world, and great efforts are made to create innovation and research programmes that can minimize this gap and build supporting infrastructures that make more use of research in the business community.

Produktion2030 is aiming to construct a reliable infrastructure that connects research and business through primarily three of its five instruments. The instrument "Research and innovation projects" typically invests in projects that result in test-beds and demonstrators which provides opportunities to try results in an industrial setting. Through this approach an industrial impact is achieved and the companies in the project consortia can attain imminent results to challenges and needs put forward in the project. The instrument "Knowledge and technology transfer to SME's" is designed to increase the use of test-beds and demonstrators far beyond the limited numbers of companies in a consortia. The instrument aims to extend the reach of each project by re-packaging them to fit a wider group of companies, typically SME's that are subcontractors to the manufacturing sector. Each project is offered a small top-up funding to create a simplified, shorter version, and already after two years the results are very promising. To support this dissemination, the manager of the instrument is working in partnership with a large number of clusters and SME-associations within the manufacturing sector. The "Mobility" instrument supports the implementation of results from the research and innovation projects by targeting the project consortia. This instrument provides the opportunity to achieve a more thorough testing or implementation of results by making shorter job exchanges between the consortia partners possible (e.g. representatives from industry and research).

The fourth instrument "Education", is in a way involving industry by directing its offerings of courses and continuous education programmes to members of industry as well as to representatives of academia and research institutes, in this way networks between industry and research organizations are created. Expert Groups as well as the Steering Committee can during the course of the programme suggest topics and knowledge trends that are then addressed by the Education instrument.

Internationalization, the fifth and last instrument directs much of its efforts to increase industry involvement in European funded projects, as well as positioning challenges for Swedish industry and research community high on the agenda for European research programmes and platforms.

Industry commitment is an important KPI of the success of Produktion2030 and the principal organization, Teknikföretagen, together with the funding agency VINNOVA, is expecting a fifty-fifty co-financing of the programme as a whole. To date, after two years in operation, we find that this goal has been surpassed, as every instrument and activity has an average industry participation more than 50 %.

3.3

The organization of the Produktion2030 programme

The organization and communication flows in Produktion2030 are shown in Figure 2. The programme has a bottom up (described in fig. 2 as a left to right flow) approach where ideas, vision, challenges and project proposals are suggested by members of industry, academy and research institutes, organized in Expert Groups. The groups form communities for national special interest in production, specifically in the corresponding area of strength. The groups have a strong commitment to identify challenges and opportunities in production development and innovation. The proposals are passed on to the Research and Innovation Council, a smaller group of 10-12 people representing industry, academy and institutes, with the task to discuss and prioritize the wide range of proposals coming from the Expert Groups. The third level in the decision process is the Steering Committee of 10 people, which has the power of decision, working towards the goals set up in the programme. The Expert Groups gather at least two times per year with the assignment to identify challenges related to production industry, including needs in education, test beds and demonstrators.

Discussion and conclusions

Manufacturing excellence is of vital importance for an export-dominated country like Sweden. Being a nation of only close to 10 million people, strong national collaboration and consensus between industries, universities, institutes, Government, and funding institutions need to be sought to maintain a high level of excellence in the research and education and to attract increased investments in production activities.

The aim of the Produktion2030 public-private partnership (PPP) programme is to invest and leverage a limited amount of government funding towards a maximum impact on the manufacturing industry, production research, and education. The results in technology developments and innovations production will have an influence on investment in production in Sweden as well as supporting Swedish efforts to be a front runner in production.

This paper has presented a series of national Swedish programme efforts. It has also exemplified how a national programme for research, innovation and PhD education can be designed and operated to achieve a high level of national involvement and consensus on aim, vision and direction.

2

  Background -National Swedish efforts for manufacturing research, innovation, and PhD educationFifty percent of Sweden's export goods derive from the manufacturing sector and more than one million people are employed directly or indirectly by this sector. The Swedish reliance on industry has resulted in a long history of governmentally funded research and development programmes in the manufacturing area. In the 1960's and forward, technology-and processoriented research programs focusing on e.g. machining, welding, assembly, robotics, and materials have supported Swedish industrial excellence. In parallel, excellent organizational and work-science related research put Sweden in a leading position in how to organize and operate manufacturing operations. For practical reasons, the two inseparable organizational and technical strands merged in the 1990's. Also at that time, research projects became highly integrated between industry, academia, and institutes. Industrial co-funding requirements increased and the amount of governmental funding for manufacturing research started to drop, reaching a critically low level around 1995. The drop forced industry, academia, institutes, and research societies to protest strongly. Governmental funding agencies then launched sectororiented programmes to support more applied research in manufacturing (i.e. automotive, aerospace, etc.). Examples are the aerospace programme NFFP(1994)(1995)(1996)(1997)(1998)(1999)(2000)(2001)(2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008) and the automotive programmes MERA(2002 -2007) and FFI (2008 -ongoing). In parallel, major Swedish research foundations launched manufacturing research efforts that focused on basic and applied research as well as national PhD education programmes, e.g. for product development(ENDREA 1996(ENDREA -2002) ) and production development(PROPER 1997(PROPER -2004) ) [START_REF] Johansson | Production Engineering Research and Education -PROPER Final report 1997-2004[END_REF] as well as ProViking (2002-2012).

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Produktion2030 Organizational structureThere are currently around 200 persons involved in the Expert Groups. Each Group is managed by two Expert Group Leaders, who have been selected among young (i.e. less than 45 years) and promising academic researchers in each area of strength.The proposals are passed on to the Research and Innovation Council, a smaller group of 10-12 people representing industry, academy and institutes, with the task to discuss and prioritize the wide range of proposals coming from the Expert Groups. The third level in the decision process is the Steering Committee of 10 people, which has the power of decision, working towards the goals set up in the programme. The Expert Groups gather at least two times per year with the assignment to identify challenges related to production industry, including needs in education, test beds and demonstrators.

3 Produktion2030 -a national programme for research, innovation and education

  Produktion2030 was one of five national Research and Innovation programmes launched in the first wave of Swedish Public-Private Partnerships in 2013. The government aim with the innovation programmes was to give industry, academy, and institute stakeholders considerable influence on the design and management of the research programme. Industrial leadership is crucial for the programmes' success. Challenges and research priorities are put forward from industry and the research community. Also, activities such as writing call texts, instigating dissemination activities and education programs are managed by the stake-holders through the programme management group.

The Swedish Production Academy: http://www.produktionsakademien.com

Acknowledgments

The authors would like to express their gratitude to the Swedish agency for innovation systems, VINNOVA for funding our work. We extend our gratitude to the Swedish Foundation for Strategic Research (SSF) (http://www.stratresearch.se/en/) for the extensive and absolutely critical support of the following three research programmes for production engineering and product development, i.e. PROPER [2] (1997-2004), ENDREA, and ProViking (2002)(2003)(2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008)(2009)(2010)(2011)(2012)(2013). We would also like to thank The Royal Swedish Academy of Engineering Sciences (IVA) (http://www.iva.se/iva-in-english/) for establishing the national project "Produktion för konkurrenskraft" (2004-2005) which served as a joining force for Swedish industry, academia, and institutes towards multiple national research agendas and eventually the Produktion2030 programme. Finally, we would like to acknowledge the importance for the development a Swedish research and innovation infrastructure of the efforts made by the professors of the Swedish Production Academy; the industry experts at Teknikföretagen; and the researchers at Swerea IVF representing the Swedish research institute sector.


Vittorio Zanetti
email: v.zanetti@studenti.unibg.it

Sergio Cavalieri
email: sergio.cavalieri@unibg.it

Matteo Kalchschmidt
email: matteo.kalchschmidt@unibg.it

Roberto Pinto
email: roberto.pinto@unibg.it

The role of Additive Manufacturing in the B2C Value Chain: challenges, opportunities and models

Keywords: Additive Manufacturing, Value Chain, Business Model, Sustainability, Glocalization, Distributed Manufacturing, Co-production

Additive manufacturing is shifting business models towards mass customisation and responsible production paradigms. Such a technology is fostering re-localisation and value-added approaches in order to increase customer involvement into a more flexible and sustainable production process. This paper provides both theoretical tools and case studies to frame the additive manufacturing realm and the distributed fabrication background.

Introduction

During the last 20 years, the manufacturing world has been undergoing some disruptive innovations that have changed the way production is conceived. A shift toward its intangible side has been driven by both digitalisation and servitisation. Overcoming the traditional distinction between labour and capital-intensiveness, many businesses can be termed as data-intensive, since several steps along their value chain rely on ICT and digitalised resources in order to provide better responsiveness and cost-effectiveness.

To face with the more stringent market requirements, traditional production approaches based on make-to-order transactional strategies have to cope with mass-production principles and an intimate relationship with the customer. This means managing small and diversified batches [START_REF] Boër | Mass Customization and Footwear: Myth, Salvation or Reality[END_REF] and giving rise to a "make-to-individual" relational-based paradigm with an increase of management complexity and, therefore, a potential upsurge of production and service provision costs and risks. Service-driven processes, such as design, support and maintenance, are now crucial to the customer, and can ensure a competitive advantage for enterprises, regardless of their dimension.

The combination of these trends is pushing companies to rethink their value creation mechanisms by changing from a global to a local perspective -from a standardization to a customization approach -and therefore becoming a "good and reliable neighbor" for the final customer [START_REF] Cavalieri | Interactive Business Models to Deliver Product-Services to Global Markets[END_REF]. A glocal strategy is supposed to find the right balance between a global approach (typically related to efficiency) and a local perspective (related to responsiveness) [START_REF] Svensson | Glocalization of business activities: a glocal strategy approach[END_REF].

Firms with global brands and technologies are now considering to meet local customisation needs and to endorse nearby resources and expertise. They shift "from primary producers and distributors to aggregators" [START_REF] Rifkin | The Third Industrial Revolution: How Lateral Power Is Transforming Energy, the Economy, and the World[END_REF] to coordinate a network of trade and commerce across the value chain, playing the role of logistic orchestrators, decentralising their operations and digitalizing their structures. While raw materials and data flow into a global network, skills and production sites can be managed by proximity, thereby reducing the complexity typically related to the scale [START_REF] Manuj | Global supply chain risk management strategies[END_REF]. Factories have to be conceived as modular, easily reconfigurable, adaptive and evolving, capable of small scale production to create new customized products and services, environmental friendly and able to respond to the continuous change of the market [START_REF] Selladurai | Mass customization in operations management: oxymoron or reality?[END_REF].

To tackle all these challenges and maintain the competitive leadership in different markets, technology can play an important enabling and boosting role in developing value by providing innovative ideas to be turned into new customer-oriented production systems allowing also to balance uncertainty along the supply chain [START_REF] Gualandris | Product and process modularity: improving flexibility and reducing supplier failure risk[END_REF].

In such a context, this paper addresses specifically the role of Additive Manufacturing (AM) as a key enabling technology for the dynamic reconfiguration of "customer-oriented value" constellations of manufacturing companies and solution providers, capable to operate at multiple locations in proximity with the customer. Through the description of relevant case studies, the paper provides a descriptive framework, which identifies different structures of value chains according to the combination and consistency of strategic, managerial and operational dimensions.

Value chain reconfiguration: the case of additive manufacturing

To properly drive the manufacturing change, firms should consider what is more valuable for their customers and partners. Cost-cutting is no longer the main concern in creating value. Moreover, digitalisation is changing the rules of the game such that it soon may allow customisation with negligible costs [START_REF] Rifkin | The Zero Marginal Cost Society: The Internet of Things, The Collaborative Commons, and the Eclipse of Capitalism[END_REF]. The Shih's "Smile Curve" [START_REF] Jason | ACER: an IT Company Learning to Use Information Technology to Compete[END_REF] (Figure 1a) helps in understanding the shift of the contribution to the added value coming from different value-chain stages: while in the past, pre-production (R&D, design, subcontracting) and post-production (logistics, marketing, aftersales) stages were slightly more important than production (manufacturing, assembly) itself, nowadays upstream and downstream stages are becoming crucial to the value chain. Co-designing the product with the customer or providing availability contracts and maintenance can really generate the willingness to pay for a premium price.

To build such commendable value chains, enabling technologies are required, like for instance Additive Manufacturing. AM, often referred to as 3D-printing, is a manufacturing process operating through deposition of material layer by layer onto a substrate; such a process enables the creation of complex structures starting from a 3-D CAD model, without the additional costs that traditional subtractive technologies usually require (Figure 1b). More importantly, design complexity is often correlated to flexibility, customisation and energy efficiency.

An AM-based process can use different materials and deposition techniques, and is particularly suitable for small series and personalised products manufacturing, spare parts and prototyping. The latter was noticeably the first application of such technology dating back in the 1980s, when AM was still named "Rapid Prototyping". Today, AM is widely used in aerospace, defense, automotive, healthcare, consumer products and retail. Since with AM labour is no longer a critical source, the advantage of locating production in countries where its cost is lower will be eroded soon, fostering re-localisation and customer proximity. Moreover, since products could travel along the value chain mostly as digitally stored data, thereby tearing down the wall between production and delivery, the sustainability trait of AM (summarised in Table 1) is starting to threaten traditional subtractive techniques.

Additive manufacturing-driven value networks

In order to ensure a successful implementation of AM, proper configurations of value networks must be identified. In this section, three Business-to-Consumer scenarios are presented: Home, Distributed and Centralised Printing. The following models, represented in Figure 2, are drawn and adapted from previous literature [START_REF] Shipp | Emerging Global Trends in Advanced Manufacturing[END_REF][START_REF] Birtchnell | Freight Miles, The impacts of 3D Printing on Transport and Society[END_REF][START_REF] Striukova | Impact of 3D Printing Technologies on Business Model Innovation[END_REF] without any claim to completeness.

In the Home Printing Scenario, the customer sends a request to a service provider that supplies her with a 3D-printable CAD model. Alternatively, in the "Maker" case, the customer is also a designer and does not need the service provision of a third party to print her creations. This scenario is unlikely to scale up in the short term, since makers and enthusiasts are just a small niche of the market. According to many scholars, the "Desktop Manufacturing" requires design skills that normal customers are unwilling to develop or unlikely to learn.

In the Distributed Printing Scenario, the customer sends the products specifications to an aggregation platform that outsources local 3D printing retailers (typically, but not necessarily, the printer owners) who can ship the finished product to the customers after printing it. This model can be declined in many ways and relevant cases are further discussed.

In the Centralised Printing Scenario, the printing stage is "behind the scenes" and does not affect the configuration of the logistic chain, since the impact is solely on the production process. In this model, the environmental concern trait is weakened, thus making it unlikely to be adopted in re-localisation contexts.

It is not in the purpose of the paper to show exhaustively the differences between the aforementioned models, but instead providing real cases for the Distributed Printing Scenario, where AM is the major (but not the only) enabler for a decentralised fabrication paradigm. Four noteworthy models are presented below and summarised in Figure 2c.

Crowdsourcing and collaborative platforms: Quirky

With the rise of the digitalisation and social networks, end users have started to go beyond the consumption status and become more and more involved in the production world. More specifically, innovation is now within the range of everyone thanks to the so-called crowdsourcing platforms. The name stresses both participation and engagement that people can show in new product and service development, simply by submitting ideas, evaluating proposals and finding suppliers and partners for something, which is not yet in the state of the art [START_REF] Estellés-Arolas | Towards an integrated crowdsourcing definition[END_REF]. Even larger businesses are turning to crowdsourcing instead of relying on internal R&D [START_REF] Marsden | Crowdsourcing: Your Recession-Proof Marketing Strategy?[END_REF]. With Quirky [START_REF] Shop | quirky.com[END_REF] for instance, anyone can be a designer and submit her idea, which is evaluated and even improved by the community and, if successful, manufactured by internal experts and sold in retailing shops. Needless to say, the manufacturing stage can be performed by AM machines that disclose com-plex designs and allow performance-based continuous adjustmentbased on community feedbacks -at low costs. Note that Quirky manages all the product supply chain and IPR, which is no longer in the hands of the creator as soon as she decides to submit her idea.

En Route Fabrication and Localised Manufacturing: Amazon 3D-Printing Trucks

As mentioned before, AM makes the discrimination between production, delivery and consumption quite subtle and fuzzy, and new localised manufacturing models are arising in the light of cost-effectiveness. While UPS is expanding its 3D printing in-store services in collaboration with Stratasys [START_REF]TCT Magazine: UPS Expands 3D Printing Service Across US[END_REF], a world-class leader in the AM realm, Amazon is thinking outside the box [START_REF] Dprint | Amazon Files Patent for Mobile 3D Printing Delivery Trucks[END_REF]. As a matter of fact, the company has recently filed a patent application about a business model where the printing stage is performed in travelling trucks. The customer submits the order and the nearest truck starts its route, producing the goods en route. This model can be purposeful for B2B contexts too, where spare parts availability is a major concern. Thanks to this configuration, where the glocal trait is undeniable, trucks will soon carry solely raw materials on board and become fabrication "movable" points with both additive and subtractive technologies equipment. The intrinsic risk of such a patent is the robustness of the production process. Interesting enough, while the world of manufacturing is experiencing servitisation, the world of retailing is approaching what can be defined "productisation": AM technology turns out to be so disruptive that two previously sequential steps are now becoming overlapped.

3.3

Sharing Economy and Community Crafting: 3D Hubs Recently the tags "B2B" and "B2C" have become unsatisfactory in labelling business models comprehensively: as a matter of fact, a new paradigm defined "C2C" (i.e. Customer to Customer), often referred as to peer-to-peer or sharing economy, has changed the business rules [START_REF] Rachordás | Does Sharing Mean Caring? Regulating Innovation in the Sharing Economy[END_REF]. Completely compliant with the servitisation trend and "post-scarcity" economy, customers are no longer interested in owning an asset, but rather in using it for a certain amount of time by paying a predetermined fee. A noteworthy example is 3D Hubs [19], a community made of printer-owners and users who meet both physically and in a virtual marketplace. The customer orders a product or uploads her design through a marketplace and chooses the closest printer ownertypically within 10 kmwilling to provide the service. 3D hubs then charge the user with a 15% commission on the final price set by the service provider, who can even be a user of the marketplace at the same time. According to [19], the hub is now made of more than fourteen thousand peers worldwide with a 3D printer. 3D Hubs does not only provide an on-demand customisable service, but also creates a community of enthusiasts and curious gravitating towards AM with a sustainable incentive mechanism: the users are willing to explore new design solutions at accessible prices, while the printer-owners are keen on shrinking the idle time of their equipment through its rental. The underlying issues are firstly preventing users to bypass the platform once they know each other to avoid the commission and secondly managing complaints.

3.4

Co-configuration and Adaptive Factories: AtFab Another major trend driving the manufacturing revolution is the Open Source approach, where producers give away their IP to customers and encourage them to experiment or suggest improvements, thereby spurring a bottom-up empowerment. The customers take part to the configuration of a product by either producing it directly, deciding where and how it should be manufactured or just even editing a design provided by the supplier and outsourcing its production. The end user is no longer a mere co-designer but a co-configurator [START_REF] Victor | Invented here: Maximizing your organization's internal growth and profitability[END_REF] arranging not just the product itself, but its production process, sourcing, delivery and reuse (disassembly). The case of AtFab [START_REF] Filson | Design Intercalated: The AtFAB Project[END_REF], a design firm co-founded by two architects, is noteworthy in this regard, given its higher degree of adaptation with respect to customer needs. The customer is free to choose whether to edit online models and print them on her own, to choose the nearest fabrication point to make that for her, or even to order a finished product directly from the marketplace. Although AtFab is linked to subtractive manufacturing techniques, the CNC routers and milling machines are completely consistent with the supply chain digitalisation and disintermediation that AM is driving. The social challenges of such mechanism are finding designers/negotiators willing to give away their expertise and IP and ensuring that local fabrication centres are quality-compliant.

A descriptive framework

The previous cases can be framed into a comprehensive matrix, reported in Figure 3. On the bottom x-axis we discern between product-and solution-based approaches, while on the top xaxis a Wortmann-based taxonomy is proposed. On the left-hand y-axis we distinguish two different settings: one where there is a focal company delegating production to local factories, and the other where there is a peer-to-peer constellation of firms, based on sharing economy or feedbacks collection. On the right-hand y-axis we differentiate a customer-oriented (one to one) from a community oriented (many to many) outcome. Note that risk sharing increases going through the x-axis, running parallel to the degree of intangibility in the value proposition and to the customer commitment required. Going down instead along the y-axis, a manufacturing democratisation trait emerges, as well as a bottom-up engagement.

The proposed matrix pinpoints four archetypes and their issues; it serves as a sense-making tool to structure and characterize the state of the art and to establish recurring principles, triggering factors and primary concerns. It provides clarity and can even guide implementation of pertaining initiatives and research.  The Localised Manufacturing context, enabled by timely technology supported by end-to-end marketplaces, offers to customers real-time order traceability and high performances on the delivery, but requires a robust logistic optimisation.  The Adaptive Factory is grounded on an open source mind-set and provides demanding customers with an extreme flexibility along the product life cycle, but requires suppliers who are willing to take part of a discretionary -or even opportunisticrelationship.  In the Community Crafting circumstance, the "value proposition" is the recreational aspect of the transaction. Still, sharing economies and disintermediation initiatives encompass different issues related to quality, complaints, logistics and critical mass.  Collaborative Platforms entangle crowdsourcing and community feedback systems, display basically no entry barriers and disclose user innovation. Sometimes the creator may experience a loss of IP or a long gestation before the actual implementation/ manufacturing of her idea that could even be far from the original submission.

Conclusions

Reluctance towards Additive Manufacturing is motivated by its constraints and yet unsolved issues (production time, volume, material, safety conditions, etc.). Those drawbacks will soon be ridden out and, most importantly, the social connotation of such technologysometimes referred to as "democratisation of manufacturing" -will be recognized and endorsed.

Regardless of the value chain configuration, a thorough digitalisation of production processes is ongoing. Digital platforms manage order purchase and co-development, they enable partner contracting and an easier supplier selection problem, facilitate project planning and monitoring and even collect real-time feedbacks. The digital infrastructure underlying the manufacturing realm will facilitate both imitators and innovators to fast new product development through disruptive technologies such as 3D Printing. Still, this "digitalised" situation will be completely consistent with the endorsement of human expertise in designing high-performing goods: "the artisan production worker will return to prominence" [START_REF] Marsh | Production processes: A lightbulb moment[END_REF]. AM seems to be the proper technology to overcome even the mass customisation and to devise new responsive and responsible models of production, distribution and consumption. Especially for high-value industries in which rapid innovation is much more crucial than cost efficiency, AM could access to highly skilled talents, more important than hourly labour rates in production location decision making. As afore mentioned, proximity to customer concurrently means value increase and sustainability opportunities.

This paper represents a first attempt to frame some relevant arising business models related to advanced manufacturing techniques. Strategic and operational issues related to demand volatility and result-oriented provisions are highlighted and discussed. Distributed manufacturing and servitisation are now endorsing re-localisation of businesses and re-integration of the customer in the value chain, outlining new sustainable and participatory models.

Further research is solicited to devise dialogical expertise and intuitive tools that can help customers, designers, producers, distributors and retailers devise the next industrial revolution.

LOW

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. (a) The Value Chain Smile Curve (b) Cost of design complexity

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. (a) Legend (b) Scenarios (c) Case studies

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. The four-quadrant descriptive framework

Table 1 .

 1 Sustainability traits of Additive Manufacturing

	Economic	Social	Environmental
	sustainability	Sustainability	sustainability
	Flexibility	Democratization	Waste reduction
	Lower Time to Market	Local expertise endorsement	Energy efficiency
	Complexity for free	Regional availability	Customer proximity
	Lower production costs	Customer involvement	Digital movement


Lionel Bureau
email: bureau@insp.jussieu.fr

A surface force apparatus for nanorheology under large shear strain

We describe a surface force apparatus designed to probe the rheology of a nanoconfined medium under large shear amplitudes (up to 500 µm). The instrument can be operated in closed-loop, controlling either the applied normal load or the thickness of the medium during shear experiments. Feedback control allows to greatly extend the range of confinement/shear strain attainable with the surface force apparatus. The performances of the instrument are illustrated using hexadecane as the confined medium.

I. INTRODUCTION

The surface force apparatus (SFA) has been developed more than thirty years ago to probe surface interactions through a direct determination of force vs separation between two atomically smooth surfaces [1,2]. This technique, originally designed to measure forces between surfaces separated by an air gap, has then been extended to force measurements across liquids of various nature [3,4]. It appears, from the large body of work done in the field, that many liquids, when confined down to molecular thickness, tend to order into layers parallel to the confining walls [START_REF] Israelachvili | Intermolecular and Surface Forces[END_REF][START_REF] Christenson | [END_REF]7,8,9].

The existence of such a molecular layering of simple liquids is at the origin of a number of studies which addressed the question of the lubricating properties of nanoconfined fluids subjected to shear. To do so, different versions of the SFA have been designed, that allow for tangential displacement of one of the confining surfaces and for shear force measurement. The studies performed with these friction devices focus either on the viscoelastic behavior of the confined fluid (i.e. on the response to small amplitude oscillatory shear) [10,11] or on its frictional response when one of the surfaces is driven at constant speed in one direction [12,14]. The following central result emerges: when confined to thicknesses on the order of five molecular diameters, many liquids exhibit a finite yield stress and strongly non-newtonian flow properties. Moreover, such a solidlike behavior is most sensitive to the number of molecular layers between the walls [13,14]. Maintaining a constant thickness, to within a few angstroms, of the medium during shear is thus of primary importance in these experiments. Now, unavoidable mechanical imperfections of the instruments usually cause a slight non parallel motion of the surfaces, which typically results in thickness variations of 10-30 Å for a shear amplitude of 1 µm [15,16]. For a weakly confined medium, of thickness h ∼ 100 Å, the useful range of shear amplitude is thus limited to about 500 nm if one prescribes relative variations of h of less than a few percents. For a medium confined under a finite normal force applied through a spring of typical stiffness 300 N.m -1 , if one wants the above-mentioned non-parallelism to cause an "acceptable " load variation of, say, 5%, over a shear amplitude of 100 µm, the applied load must therefore be of at least 1 mN. Such a load level corresponds to strongly confined regimes where the thickness is typically 1-2 molecular layers.

Such conditions are not limiting as long as molecules of simple structure are confined, for which a shear amplitude of about 1 µm is enough to establish a steadystate regime. However, they may become more of a concern when investigating the rheological properties of more complex molecules like branched hydrocarbons or polymers, which exhibit transients corresponding to sliding distances of more than 100 µm [17,18,19].

To our knowledge, only two devices have been designed to allow for compensation of non-parallel motion and thus extend the range of shear amplitude and confinement to be investigated [8,14,15]. In the present paper, we describe a surface force apparatus with unique performances in terms of intersurface distance stability over large shear amplitudes. This apparatus relies on a well-established mechanical design [20], and uses multiple beam interferometry to determine the thickness of the confined medium. The particularity of the SFA presented here is to allow for time-resolved distance and normal force measurements that are used as input signals of a digital feedback loop. This enables us to operate the apparatus either at constant thickness or constant force during shear motion over up to 500 µm.

II. GENERAL DESCRIPTION

The general design of the surface force apparatus is given on Fig. 1. The medium of interest is confined between two molecularly smooth mica sheets glued on crossed cylindrical lenses, of radius of curvature 1 cm. The mechanical arrangement is very similar to that proposed by Parker and Christenson [20]: the SFA is made of an aluminium alloy cylindrical cell closed by a horizontal circular flange on which all the mechanical parts are mounted.

The lower mica surface is held at one end of a vertical spring, the other end of which is attached to a shaft that can be moved vertically (z axis) and horizontally (x axis). Coarse vertical motion is produced by a miniature trans-lation stage equipped with a stepper motor (Physik Instruments PI-M111.12s, total travel 15 mm, positioning accuracy 100 nm with controller PI-C630). Fine vertical approach of the surfaces is made by means of a hysteresisfree piezoactuator (PI-P753.11C and control electronics PI-E509.C3A ) of 12 µm range, which includes a built-in capacitive sensor allowing for closed-loop operation with a positioning accuracy of 0.5 Å. Motion along the x axis is produced by a piezoactuator using the same technology but with a total travel of 500 µm (PI-P625.1CD and controller PI-E509.C1A).

The upper mica surface is held by a horizontal spring which serves as a shear force sensor.

The apparatus is placed on an active anti-vibration table (MOD-1M, Halcyonics GmbH, Germany), and the whole setup is housed in a home-made thermally regulated enclosure. Four low-noise ventilators are used to maintain forced convection inside the enclosure, where the temperature can be adjusted at ±0.02 • C in the range 10-45 • C by means of a thermoelectric cooling/heating assembly controlled by a commercial PID unit (Super-Cool PR-59).

FIG. 1: Mechanical arrangement of the surface force apparatus. Two crossed cylindrical lenses (L) are mounted in springs (Sp1 and Sp2), the deflexion of which is measured by means of capacitive displacement sensors (Cp). The normal load spring (Sp1) is attached to a shaft that can be moved horizontally by means of a long travel piezoactuator (PZTx), and vertically via a two stage mechanism composed of a piezoactuator (PZTz) and a motorized translation stage (Tr.z). A rubber bellow (Be) is used to ensure air-tightness of the vessel while allowing for normal and tangential displacement of the shaft.

A. Force measurement

Both vertical and horizontal springs are deformable parallelograms with flexure hinges, each of them being precision-machined from one block of highly elastic aluminium alloy. Their respective stiffness are K N = 31000 ± 800 N.m -1 and K T = 28000 ± 700 N.m -1 , and their deflections are measured by means of capacitive displacement sensors with a 15 µm range (Physik Instruments D-015 with electronics E509.C3A) and a resolution of 1.5 pm/ √ Hz. This translates into a nominal force sensitivity, in both z and x directions, of ∼0.05 µN/ √ Hz over a range of about 450 mN. In practice, the force sensitivity is limited by residual vibrations of the springs and is of ±2 µN on a 100 Hz bandwidth. The maximum frequency at which force measurements can be performed is limited by the bandwidth of the electronics, namely 3kHz.

Note that in contrast with many surface force apparatuses, in which the normal load is deduced from the difference in the imposed displacement of the spring remote point and the displacement actually measured between the surfaces, our solution allows to perform force measurements independently of the distance determination.

B. Distance measurement

Intersurface distance measurement relies on multiple beam interferometry.

The Fabry-Perot cavity formed by the silvered mica sheets and the confined medium is shone with a collimated beam of white light produced by a 250W tungstenhalogen source (Lot-Oriel). Infrared radiation is filtered using a series of cold mirrors and water filters.

The region surrounding the point of closest distance between the cylindrical lenses is imaged on the entrance slit of a spectrograph using a long working distance microscope objective (VLD-MPA10, numerical aperture 0.23. Nachet, France, ). The spatial resolution is diffraction limited and is of ∼1.5 µm.

The spectral position of the fringes of equal chromatic order (FECO) is determined with a half-meter imaging spectrometer (Acton spectra-pro 2500i) equipped with 3 gratings of 300, 600 and 1200 g/mm. A 16-bits 2D charge coupled device camera (PIXIS 400, Princeton Instruments, 1340× 400 pixels) is placed at the exit port of the spectrometer. With the 1200 g/mm grating, the spectral resolution is of 30 pm/pixel over a wavelength range of 40.2 nm. Good quality images of the spectrograph exit field are obtained with exposure times t exp ≥ 20 ms. The readout time of the full CCD array is of 280 ms, which yields a rate of about 3 frames per second for acquisition of the FECO along a spatial coordinate. If measurements of the FECO are made only at the point of closest distance, the readout time is that of a single row of pixel and drops to 17 ms, which, added to t exp ≃ 20 ms, yields a maximum rate of about 27 Hz for spectrum acquisition at a single location.

The distance between the mica surfaces is deduced from the FECO using a Labview-based implementation of fast spectral correlation (FSC) and multilayer matrix method (MMM), as introduced recently by Heuberger [21]. We briefly describe the protocol followed for distance measurements:

(i) the mica surfaces are brought into contact, a spectrum is acquired in the flattened contact zone, and the wavelengths λ i of the transmission maxima are determined.

(ii) for the set of λ i determined at mica-mica contact, we calculate, using the MMM, the transmissivity of the silver/mica/mica/silver layered medium for a range of plausible mica thickness d mica (typically 10000-100000 Å, with 1 Å steps). We choose for d mica the value that maximizes the function T = i T i , where T i is the transmissivity calculated at the wavelengths λ i [21]. We finally calculate for this value of d mica the transmissivity over the full experimental wavelength window in order to check if both the number and the position of the calculated transmission maxima are in agreement with the experimental spectrum. The time needed for the determination of d mica is of a few seconds and is limited by the time for transmissivity calculation over the chosen thickness range.

(iii) the surfaces are separated by ∼ 1 mm, and the liquid is injected between them using a microsyringe.

(iv) the mica sheets are approached down to a separation of a few microns.

(v) the initial thickness of the liquid, d 0 , is determined as in step (ii) above: we acquire a spectrum at the point of closest distance between the curved surfaces, locate the position of the transmission maxima, and calculate for these positions the transmissivity of the silver/mica/liquid/mica/silver multilayer for a range of plausible thickness (typically 0-50000 Å, with 10 Å steps), assuming that the refractive index of the liquid is the bulk one. Once again, the time needed to complete this step is limited by the transmissivity calculation over the range chosen for the trial values of d 0 .

(vi) once d 0 is known, at each time t i a new spectrum is acquired, the intersurface distance d i is calculated as in step (v), with a range of plausible distance d i-1 ± ∆d, where d i-1 is the distance determined at time t i-1 . The time for transmissivity calculations using ∆d = 100 Å and 1 Å increments is on the order of 1 ms, and distance measurements can thus be performed at a rate limited only by spectra acquisition.

C. Data acquisition and feedback operation

Spectra are transferred to the host computer via its universal serial bus and treated immediatly to deduce the intersurface distance as described above. The signals corresponding to the normal and tangential forces and to the positions of the normal and tangential piezoactuators are measured by four digital multimeters (DMM 34401A, Agilent, 6 1/2 digits). The synchronization output of the PIXIS camera is used to trigger the multimeters each time a spectrum has been acquired. Measurements from the DMMs are transferred to the host computer between each trigger event, via a GPIB-PCI card. Feedback operation can be performed using either the intersurface distance or the normal force signal as the input of a digital loop with proportional and integral control, which acts on the voltage of the normal piezoactuator. The gains of the loop were set as described in [22]: we first increase the proportional gain until oscillations are observed, lower it by a few percents from this value, then increase the integral gain in order to reduce the offset to setpoint.

III. PERFORMANCES A. Sample preparation

Mica sheets are cleaved down to a thickness of 2-5 µm and cut into approximately 1 cm 2 squares by means of surgical scissors. This samples are put on a clean mica backing substrate with one angle lying on a thin teflon ribbon in order to allow for subsequent easy de-adhesion. The back side of the mica samples is evaporated with a 45nm-thick silver layer. The results presented hereafter have been obtained using glucose to glue the samples on the cylindrical lenses.

We demonstrate the performances of the apparatus using a linear alkane as a confined medium. We use anhydrous grade n-hexadecane (99+%, Sigma-Aldrich) filtered through a 0.2 µm teflon membrane. A droplet of the liquid (30-50 µL) is injected between the mica surfaces, a beaker containing phosphorus pentoxide is placed inside the vessel which is then sealed and left for thermal equilibration for 12h before starting experiments.

B. Layering under confinement

We first report the force-distance curve obtained when the surfaces are approached by driving the free end of the normal spring at a constant speed of 2 Å.s -1 . Figure 2 clearly shows that the alkane exhibits layering under confinement, as seen from the 0.4-0.5 nm jumps in the intersurface distance, in agreement with previous studies of the same liquid [START_REF] Christenson | [END_REF]15].

The present experimental setup allows for straightforward studies of dynamical effects which manifest when the fluid is confined at high enough velocities, and this without the need for post-analysis of recorded FECO patterns. This is illustrated on figure 3 where we have plotted two approach curves obtained at 0.2 and 5 nm.s -1 . It is seen on Fig. 3 that for thicknesses ranging from 1 to 4 FIG. 2: Normalized force (normal load divided by radius of curvature) as a function of film thickness, for hexadecane confined between mica surfaces, at 24 • C. The curve corresponds to the approach phase only. Data acquisition rate of 13 Hz.

nm, high velocity confinement leads to much less molecular layering and to an upward shift of the force-distance profile, caracterizing the out-of-equilibrium response of the fluid.

FIG. 3: Normal load as a function of hexadecane thickness for two approach velocities: 0.2 nm.s -1 (solid line) and 5 nm.s -1 (dashed line with symbols).

C. Large strain shear experiments

We now illustrate the shear capabilities of the instrument.

On figure 4, we show an experiment where a confined film of hexadecane is sheared at a speed of 5 µm.s -1 over a total sliding distance of 100 µm. This experiment was performed with a normal load setpoint of 185 µN and an acquisition rate of 25 Hz. Under such conditions, the normal load is found to settle at 178 µN during forward shear, and at 192 µN during backward motion (Fig. 4b). Increasing further the integral gain of the feedback to reduce the offset to the setpoint was found to destabilize the control loop. The film thickness is measured to be 9 Å, and the noise amplitude of ±2 Å visible on Fig. 4c is not affected by shear motion and corresponds to the measurement sensitivity at the chosen acquisition rate. Steady sliding is observed under a shear force of 8 µN (Fig. 4d). In open-loop conditions, i.e. without normal load feedback, the non-parallelism of the surfaces (5×10 -3 rad for this experiment) would yield a load variation of about 15 µN/µm, resulting in a complete loss of confinement after 20 µm of forward shear.

Larger shear amplitudes and lower load levels can readily be achieved. This is illustrated on figure 5, where a load of 21±3 µN (setpoint 24 µN) is maintained over 400 µm at a sliding speed of 2 µm.s -1 . Experiments can also be performed under low confinement, by using the intersurface distance as the input signal of the feedback control. On figure 6, we show such an experiment where a film of hexadecane is sheared over 250 µm at a velocity of 0.5 µm.s -1 , while maintaining its thickness at 60±1.5 Å(distance setpoint 60 Å). Under these confinement conditions, normal and shear forces are below the instrument resolution.

The maximum acquisition rate of 27 Hz for simultaneous measurement of forces and distance limits the overall performances of the digital feedback loop and the range of accessible sliding speed. Typically, fluctuations of 20-30 µN or 10-20 Å are observed on normal force or distance when using a sliding speed of 20 µm.s -1 . No noticeable noise is induced by the feedback control when the sliding velocity stays below 2 µm.s -1 .

IV. CONCLUSIONS

We have built a surface force apparatus specially designed for shear experiments over large sliding distances (>100 µm). Feedback control is used in order to keep the normal load or the thickness of the confined medium constant during motion. The instrument exhibits exceptional performances in terms of force or distance stability, even in situations of weak confinement under small or zero applied load. We now plan to use this apparatus to investigate the shear behavior of glassy polymer thin films under low pressure, and more generally of media presenting a complex molecular architecture, where large shear strains are needed in order to establish a steadystate regime.

V. AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

FIG. 4 :

 4 FIG. 4: Friction experiment at controlled normal load over a sliding distance of 100 µm. (a) shear displacement. (b) normal load (the horizontal dashed line indicate the setpoint). (c) distance (the apparent increase/decrease of distance on a 20 s time scale actually corresponds to the point of closest distance moving slightly off-axis of the microscope objective during shear). (d) friction force.

FIG. 5 :FIG. 6 :

 56 FIG.5: Shear experiment at controlled normal load over a sliding distance of 400 µm. Left scale: shear motion. Right scale: normal load.

We wish to thank Eric Perez, Philippe Richetti and Carlos Drummond for valuable discussions and for their advice during the development of the instrument.


Miia Jaatinen
email: miia.jaatinen@aalto.fi

Facilitating Organizing in Business Processes

Keywords: Communication, organizing, facilitation, business processes 1

The paper studies the role of co-orientation, i.e., the alignment of attitudes and activities, in the development of collaborative business processes and how a facilitator can support the emergence of co-orientation and the organizing of collaboration. The development of collaborative business processes is seen as a communicative process of collaborative organizing. Conversations in a cocreative workshop are analyzed to understand the process. The paper sheds light on communication tactics that a facilitator can employ to enable collaborative organizing of inter-organizational business processes towards sustainability.

Introduction

Organizing collaboration in inter-organizational context is often achieved through the development of inter-organizational business processes [START_REF] Niehaves | Collaborative Business Process Management: Status Quo and Quo Vadis[END_REF]. The development of collaborative business processes requires a participative approach [START_REF] Smeds | Bottom-up or Top-down? Evolutionary Change Management in NPD Processes[END_REF][START_REF] Davenport | Process Management for Knowledge Work[END_REF] and application of co-creative methods [START_REF] Smeds | Bottom-up or Top-down? Evolutionary Change Management in NPD Processes[END_REF][START_REF] Lind | Collaborative Process Modeling: The Intersport Case Study[END_REF]. Co-creation also enables sustainability [START_REF] Biggemann | Building in Sustainability, Social Responsibility and Value Co-creation[END_REF]. External facilitators can provide an important support for the collaborative development effort [START_REF] Lavikka | A Process for Building Inter-organizational Contextual Ambidexterity[END_REF]. However, little is known about the communicative process of organizing in this context and how it can be managed and facilitated. This paper reports the findings of a study analyzing facilitators' activities in this context and how these activities contribute to organizing and sustainability. Insights from the communication as constitutive of organization (CCO) view are brought into the context of collaborative development of business processes.

Theoretical Background

The role of communication in organizing has gained an increased attention of organization scholars during the recent years. The constitutive view of communication maintains that organizing is a communication process and that this process produces enduring patterns that constitute the organization as a whole [START_REF] Putnam | Introduction: Communication Constitutes Organization[END_REF]. According to the Montreal School, organization is achieved through co-orientation, i.e., actors tuning in to one another and a mutual objective [START_REF] Kuhn | A Communicative Theory of the Firm: Developing an Alternative Perspective on Intra-organizational Power and Stakeholder Relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Newcomb | An Approach to the Study of Communicative Acts[END_REF]. This alignment is produced through interplay between conversations and textual objects [START_REF] Kuhn | A Communicative Theory of the Firm: Developing an Alternative Perspective on Intra-organizational Power and Stakeholder Relationships[END_REF][START_REF] Koschmann | The Communicative Constitution of Collective Identity in Interorganizational Collaboration[END_REF]. Eventually, collaborative dialogue produces the alignment of interests which can be inscribed in joint textual objects. These objects can become distanciated through reification and abstraction and as a result, gain authoritative power in the relationship [START_REF] Koschmann | The Communicative Constitution of Collective Identity in Interorganizational Collaboration[END_REF][START_REF] Koschmann | A Communicative Framework of Value in Cross-sector Partnerships[END_REF].

According to Vásquez and Cooren [START_REF] Vásquez | Spacing Practices: The Communicative Configuration of Organizing through Space-Times[END_REF], three kinds of spacing practices take a central role in the communicative process of organizing by constructing spatial and temporal relationships between actors and elements: presentifying, ordering, and maintaining coherence. Presentifying refers to making an organization and various interests present in a time and space through different materialities. Ordering refers to defining relationships between actors, activities, and responsibilities as well as creating temporal frameworks. Maintaining coherence refers to setting goals and criteria for consistent actions [START_REF] Vásquez | Spacing Practices: The Communicative Configuration of Organizing through Space-Times[END_REF]. All these three practices are supported by conversations and textual objects that represent the organization. Through materialization of the organization, representational objects help reveal gaps in alignment and create alternative modes of organizing [START_REF] Knorr-Cetina | Objectual Practice[END_REF].

Organizing inter-organizational collaboration is a challenging process that sometimes requires an intervention by a neutral facilitator. Facilitation can be defined as a process in which a neutral person diagnoses and intervenes to help a group improve how it identifies and solves problems and makes decisions to increase its effectiveness [START_REF] Schwartz | The Skilled Facilitator: A Comprehensive Resource for Consultants, Facilitators, Managers, Trainers, and Coaches[END_REF]. In this paper, facilitation is understood as an outside intervention to the communicative process of organizing collaboration between companies. Facilitation itself is also understood as an essentially communicative endeavor. It consists of communication activities aimed at creating conversations and textual objects that support the creation of co-orientation and organization.

Cooren, Thompson, Canestraro and Bodor [START_REF] Cooren | From Agency to Structure: Analysis of an Episode in a Facilitation Process[END_REF] showed how a facilitator can support structuring of an event by enabling dialogue and the agency of nonhuman textual objects as well as interplay between them. We continue the study of facilitator practices from this and focus on the ways facilitators can support organizing by enabling the production of elements that constitute an organization. By elements we mean definitions of relationships between actors, activities, and objectives that are produced through spacing practices [START_REF] Vásquez | Spacing Practices: The Communicative Configuration of Organizing through Space-Times[END_REF] and that are inscribed in textual objects and intended to produce collective action [START_REF] Koschmann | The Communicative Constitution of Collective Identity in Interorganizational Collaboration[END_REF]. In our study, we focus on business process charts and process discussions, because we are interested in the organizing of business processes.

The main research question of this study is what kinds of communication tactics a facilitator uses to support organizing in business processes?

Methods

The study uses qualitative data gathered from a participatory action research [START_REF] Reason | Introduction[END_REF] project conducted for an airline company that produces flight dispatch and preparation services together with other service companies at the airport. An introduction of centralized load control and a supporting IT system required the development of the collaborative service process. A facilitated workshop was organized for the companies to support the collaborative development of the process by applying a process simulation method [START_REF] Davenport | Process Management for Knowledge Work[END_REF]. The data consists of the transcriptions of video-recorded conversations that focused on describing and developing the collaboration process with the help of as-is and to-be process models (textual object). The author of this paper did not act in a facilitator role in this workshop but as an observant. However, she participated in the planning of the PAR project which helped her understand the context of the study.

The transcribed conversations were analyzed using discourse analysis, specifically a method called speech act schemas (SAS) that combines speech act analysis with narrative analysis to study episodic structures formed by speech acts [START_REF] Cooren | Acting and organizing: How Speech Acts Structure Organizational Interactions[END_REF][START_REF] Fairhurst | Organizational Language in Use: Interaction Analysis, Conversation Analysis and Speech Act Schematics[END_REF][START_REF] Fairhurst | Discursive Leadership: In Conversation with Leadership Psychology[END_REF]. The method defines 6 different types of speech acts (assertives, commissives, directives, declaratives, expressives, accreditives) and a narrative schema of 5 phases (manipulation, commitment, competences, performance, sanction) that are used to interpret coordination of action. SAS focuses on analyzing the performative character of discoursive interaction and the organizing effects of speech acts and textual objects [START_REF] Fairhurst | Organizational Language in Use: Interaction Analysis, Conversation Analysis and Speech Act Schematics[END_REF].

In this study, the analysis focused on the communication practices of the facilitator: how the facilitator guided the conversations and used process models for organizing collaboration and how the participants responded. In the following section, the findings are illustrated by excerpts from the data.

Results

The facilitated workshop started with the presentation of the project, greetings from the management, the objectives and agenda of the workshop, and the presentation of the participants. The first discussion topic for the workshop was the current collaboration process and the experienced challenges in it. This was followed by the discussion about the future collaboration process. In the end of the workshop, some group work was conducted on important development challenges but since the role of the facilitators was minor in them, the analysis focused on process discussions closely guided by the facilitators. The first process discussion started with the facilitator introducing the objective of the discussion and the as-is process model that the facilitators had prepared for the workshop based on interviews. After this, the facilitator encourages participants to describe the collaboration process by explaining each role and activity depicted in the process model.

Manipulation

Facilitator

Expressive

As we see in the above excerpt, the facilitators have materialized the collaboration process into a textual object that they claim representing the process. The participants accept this claim with certain conditions confirmed by the facilitator. Right after this, the facilitator asks the participants to describe the actual process depicted.

Manipulation

Facilitator

Directive

The excerpt above consists of one episode and the beginning of a second. Here the facilitator encourages the participants to dematerialize the process model by explaining the roles of the process actors. The discussion continues with the facilitator asking the participants describe step by step the activities performed in the process. As the first episode above shows, the participants start also to bring up the challenges in the collaboration process in the discussion. In this way, problems in the alignment of collaborators are brought to light.

The above examples illustrate the ways facilitators can support the organizing of collaboration through presentifying. They prepare objects that represent the organization and use them to create conversations describing the organization and to support the revealing of gaps in the alignment of actors. The findings suggest that facilitators materialize alignment for conversations, support contextualization of the objects, and enable focusing on points of disalignment.

As the discussion continues, new kinds of episodes appear in the data. In the following excerpt, the facilitator realizes that the process model does not correspond to the actual process.

Manipulation

Facilitator: Does the pilot take contact to dispatch at this phase? Directive Performance Participant: It goes so that after the pilot has received this briefing package, they go through it and can ask for replanning… And in case of long distance flights they often Assertive take contact and ask for more information.

Sanction

Facilitator: So, some kind of contact making could be depicted also here.

Assertive Performance

Participant:

Yes, indeed. Assertive

The above episode is exemplar in respect to similar episodes in the data that the facilitator suggests the process model be corrected. As the discussion continues, the participants start to bring up deficiencies of the model spontaneously and the facilitator translates the observations into modifications of the model.

New kinds of interaction appear in the data as the discussion moves to the future collaboration process. The process model prepared by the facilitators describes the tobe process which has not yet been completely agreed on. This time the deficiencies in the process model generated discussion about the actual process and how to improve that. Since the future process was still partly open, the result was an understanding that negotiations between partners should be conducted in the near future in order to align activities.

Performance

Participant A: In fact, it should be added… that cargo is responsible for cargo only, and can there be notoc-articles in the mail?

Assertive

Performance Participant B: No, we do not accept.

Commissive Performance

Participant A: But then new information can come from the check-in and then catering… That information has to be fed into the [system].

Assertive

Sanction, manipulation

Facilitator: Yes. Is there yet any alternative to how this information is fed?

Directive

Competence, commitment

Participant A: Well, with catering we have not yet agreed on this, nor even negotiated about this. They have quite detailed process nowa-days… but the system changes and we have to negotiate on this at a more detailed level.

Commissive

The above excerpts from the conversations show how the facilitators can support the organizing of collaboration through enabling ordering. They help define the collaboration process by capturing modifications to the model as well as encourage alignment where missing. The findings suggest that a facilitator can support ordering by helping define an organizational structure or by encouraging improvement in the organization.

The discussion about the future collaboration process was preceded by a presentation of the goals of the company and reasons for change. This presentation was given by a representative of the airline company. This presentation can be considered as an effort to set goals and create criteria for performance, i.e., to create and maintain co-herence. The role of the facilitators in this effort was to give space for discussion about the goals and to mobilize commitment.

Manipulation

Facilitator:

…I have asked [F.L.] to tell about the centralized load control and the

Commissive

In this excerpt, the facilitator gives the floor to company representative who explains the aims of the management in the change process. After discussion about facts and reasons, the facilitator expresses her gratitude for the speaker and asks the participants to continue the discussion and development of the future collaboration process by committing to the goals set by the management. After this, a co-facilitator introduces the future model and starts asking questions about it from the participants who commit to the changes. The findings suggest that a facilitator can support the creation and maintenance of coherence by providing goals and motivating and by engaging people in a joint effort.

Discussion

The findings of this study show how a facilitator can support organizing by communication activities. First, a facilitator can support presentifying by materializing the organization, by supporting contextualization of the objects, and by focusing attention. As previous research has found strategy development to be supported by the processes of decontextualization and recontextualization [START_REF] Spee | Strategic Planning as Communicative Process[END_REF], our findings reveal how a facilitator can support these processes. The function of objects in revealing gaps in understanding has been recognized earlier [START_REF] Knorr-Cetina | Objectual Practice[END_REF], but we show how facilitators can make use of it. Second, our findings indicate that a facilitator can support ordering by helping define the organization or by encouraging improvement in the alignment of actors and activities. Research in the development of work practices has recognized the role of collaborative modification of objects in supporting development [START_REF] Miettinen | Epistemic Objects, Artefacts and Organizational Change[END_REF] and we reveal the role of conversations in this process and how a facilitator can enhance the interaction. Third, our findings suggest that a facilitator can support the creation and maintenance of coherence by motivating and by mobilizing commitment. Innovation research has previously shown the importance of change vision for development [START_REF] Davenport | Process Management for Knowledge Work[END_REF] and activity theory emphasized the role of object-orientedness of human activity [START_REF] Miettinen | Epistemic Objects, Artefacts and Organizational Change[END_REF][START_REF] Engeström | Objects, Contradictions and Collaboration in Medical Cognition: An Activity Theoretical Perspective[END_REF]. We show how facilitators can provide a purpose for collaborative development. Altogether, our findings indicate that the role of a facilitator can be important in creating and modifying objects that help define the organization and maintain coherence. They also show that a facilitator can create conversations that help create alignment between actors and activities. Furthermore, a facilitator seems to enable effective interaction between these objects and conversations to advance organizing. The observations confirm the findings by Cooren and his colleagues [START_REF] Cooren | From Agency to Structure: Analysis of an Episode in a Facilitation Process[END_REF] that the facilitator enables the agency of both human and non-human elements. Our findings contribute to CCO theory and organization theory by presenting activities a facilitator can use to support organizing.

The findings contribute to literature on the co-creation of inter-organizational business processes by describing collaborative business process development as a communication process that supports organizing and can be facilitated, managed and influenced by different human and non-human agencies. The findings help understand how business processes can be defined through the interplay between process models and conversations and how a facilitator can support this through communication activities. The findings give support to the observation by Lavikka, Smeds and Jaatinen [START_REF] Lavikka | A Process for Building Inter-organizational Contextual Ambidexterity[END_REF] that interventions can support the creation of shared understanding about a collaboration process and the co-development of coordination mechanisms. We looked at the phenomenon on a micro-level and add that facilitation of conversations can support organizing by helping collaborators to align attitudes and activities and to define the collaborative business process. Organizing through co-orientation also helps create sustainability. Through presentifying various interests are given voice; through ordering the alignment can be improved; and through purpose creating activities, sustainability as a goal can be brought in.

This study focused on analyzing data from a facilitated workshop but indicated that more research is needed on the role of the facilitator before and after a workshop when textual objects are created and organization enacted.