Gabriel Marcuzzo

Canto Cavalheiro

Antonio Luiz

Joia

Examining Sources of Resistance to the Implementation of a Patent Management System in a Developing Country: Evidence from a Case Study of the Brazilian Patent Office

Keywords: Information systems, resistance, patent office, implementation

User resistance to information systems implementation has been identified as a significant reason for the failure of new systems and hence needs to be understood and managed. While previous research has explored the reasons for user resistance, there are gaps in our understanding of how users evaluate change related to a new information system within patent office organizations. This paper explores the sources of resistance associated with the implementation of a Patent Management System (PMS) at the Brazilian Patent Office, which is named ´Instituto Nacional da Propriedade Industrial` (INPI). This study investigates typical types of user resistance together with strategies for overcoming these resistances. In the case under analysis, the study shows that resistance to the PMS caused a delayed adoption of the system and the main motives for resistance were: the employment relationship and the perceived interference of the system with the power and autonomy of the patent examiners.

Introduction

As the value of companies is increasingly determined by their ability to innovate, the protection of intellectual property (IP) assets has become absolutely paramount in the current knowledge-based economy. Consequently, since a patent office enables the protection of inventions through patents, it is becoming an essential public institution in supporting enterprise value creation. In fact, two essential objectives underlie a patent office. On the one hand, it promotes more investment in research and development by providing a monopoly to the inventor in exploring the invention [START_REF] Scherer | Nordhaus´ theory of optimal patent life: A geometric reinterpretation[END_REF]. On the other hand, it encourages the disclosure of inventions so that others can use and build upon research results [START_REF] Galini | Patent policy and costly imitation[END_REF]. According to van Pottelsberghe and Mejer [START_REF] Van Pottelsberghe | The London agreement and the cost of patenting in Europe[END_REF], the operation of a National patent office affects directly the credibility of the patent examination process and, as a consequence, the demand for patents by firms. Hence, this type of public organization is constantly seeking to improve efficiency and effectiveness of its operations [2; 25]. Accordingly, over the past decades, Information and Communication Technology (ICT) has been largely adopted by patent offices throughout the world as an instrument to enhance execution of business processes. In practice, the ICT solutions adopted by these offices are often referred to as e-government solutions. Based on that, this research has adopted the e-government definition proposed by Stanforth [START_REF] Stanforth | Using actor-network theory to analyze e-government implementation in developing countries: Information Technologies and International Development[END_REF], which defines e-government as the socio-technical arena within which information and communication technologies are applied to organize public management in order to increase efficiency, transparency, accessibility and responsiveness to citizens.

Although governments are traditionally considered more conservative entities, slower to adopt new initiatives than players in the business realm, various authors recognize that there are many opportunities for developing e-government applications [16; 4; 18]. In the particular context of e-government, there is a widespread consensus that knowledge about public information systems has turned into a critical resource for public organizations [START_REF] Stanforth | Using actor-network theory to analyze e-government implementation in developing countries: Information Technologies and International Development[END_REF]. As such, given the scale and complexity of their operations, patent offices are characterized by their extensive use of ICT.

However, user resistance to information systems implementation has been identified as a significant reason for the failure of new systems and hence needs to be understood [START_REF] Joia | Lessons learnt from an unsuccessful G2G endeavor in Brazil[END_REF]. A primary assumption is that information systems frequently embody a distribution of intraorganizational power among the key actors affected by its design [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF]. So far, the extant literature in IS has widely covered the area of user resistance, primarily when it comes to health information systems [17; 14; 13; 10], but is largely silent on the context of information systems implemented within national patent offices. To our knowledge, this article is the first contribution addressing the sources of resistance to IS implementations within patent office organizations. This paper is aimed at identifying sources of user resistance that may occur when implementing an information system supporting the operations of a patent office.

The outline of this paper is as follows. First, we provide a literature review on topics central to this research as the theories addressing resistance to information systems. Following this, the research methodology is discussed. Then, the empirical setting is provided by assessing the resistance to the implementation of an information system at the Brazilian patent office. Subsequently, reflections are made regarding the lessons learnt from the case. Finally, our conclusions are put forward.

2

Literature Review

Patent Office

As pointed out by Pavitt [START_REF] Pavitt | Innovation: Process[END_REF], innovation is inherently uncertain, given the impossibility of predicting accurately the cost and performance of a new artifact, and the reaction of users to it. Hence, the logic behind the patent system assumes that firms invest in risky R&D activities in order to generate innovative new technologies. These firms can protect their new technologies by applying for a patent [2; 9]. In case the patent-holder intends to commercialize the invention in other countries, a patent application needs to be filed in the national patent office of each desired country [START_REF] Van Pottelsberghe | The London agreement and the cost of patenting in Europe[END_REF].

In practice, patent office organizations are public bodies responsible for processing patent applications for a country [START_REF] Galini | The economics of patents: Lessons from recent U.S. patent reform[END_REF]. In short, the simplified workflow of patent offices can be described in the following way. First, the patent office receives patent applications continuously. After a period of confidential deposit, the patent applications are classified and sent to patent examiners with adequate technical background. Then, the patent examiner assesses the invention and search for prior art to decide whether the invention is patentable [START_REF] Van Pottelsberghe | The London agreement and the cost of patenting in Europe[END_REF].

Resistance to Information Systems

Our research provides a review and interpretation of resistance in the particular context of IS implementation. As a matter of fact, the expression "Resistance to Information Systems", as used in this article, includes all instances both of non-usage and of inadequate use of information systems by the potential users [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF]. This resistance is also identified when individuals adopt behavior that may lead to the discontinuation or removal of the system [14; 12]. IS literature has examined the phenomenon of resistance primarily concerning health information systems [6; 10; 13]. For instance, Horan et al [START_REF] Horan | Understanding physician use of online systems: an empirical assessment of an Electronic Disability Evaluation System, in: E-Health Systems Diffusion and Use: The Innovation, the User and the USE IT Model[END_REF] demonstrated that medical professionals will not allow a system to become successful within a hospital if it is inadequate for their work practices. Similarly, Paré [START_REF] Paré | Implementing clinical information systems: a multiple case study within a US hospital[END_REF] conducted multiple case study to understand resistance to the implementation of clinical information systems within a US hospital. Nevertheless, the pioneering work of Markus [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF] continues to be the sole benchmark in the treatment of collective behavior within the scope of the organization. Lapointe and Rivard [START_REF] Lapointe | A multilevel model of resistance to information technology implementation[END_REF], in turn, elaborated a theory that integrates the individual and collective levels of action.

Previous literature suggests several theories for understanding the cause of user resistance to IS implementations. According to Markus [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF], there are three alternative vectors, derived from the general view of resistance. These three vectors comprise: System-Oriented Theory, People-Oriented Theory and Interaction Theory.

System-Oriented Theory.

Fundamentally, the system-oriented theory states that individuals or groups pose resistance to IS implementations due to factors related to the design of the system. As such, the system-oriented theory argues that resistance is derived from external factors related to the system's design [START_REF] Joia | Implementation of an electronic prescription system in a brazilian general hospital: Understanding sources of resistance[END_REF]. Markus [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF] cites the following as examples of system factors that incur resistance: lack of user-friendliness, technically deficient systems, and poor ergonomic design. According to the system-determined theory, when such factors are present, the system's intended users will resist its utilization.

People-Oriented Theory.

People-oriented theory suggests that people resist the new system because of factors internal to a person or group [START_REF] Jiang | User resistance and strategies for promoting acceptance across system types[END_REF]. As such, this theory presupposes that people or groups resist information systems for factors of a personal nature [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF]. Examples of this vector include, for instance: lack of training, fear of computers and the lack of perceived utility by the user in relation to the system.

Interaction Theory.

The interaction theory is certainly the most sophisticated of the three theories. That theory involves people factors as well as system factors. This explanation identifies neither the system nor the organizational setting as the cause of resistance, but their interaction. Essentially, resistance-generating conditions are mismatches between the patterns of interaction prescribed by a system and the patterns that already exist in the setting into which the system is introduced [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF]. Thus, the resistance is explained as a product of the interaction of system design features with the intraorganizational distribution of power dimensions [START_REF] Joia | Implementation of an electronic prescription system in a brazilian general hospital: Understanding sources of resistance[END_REF].

Markus [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF] acknowledges the existence of various ramifications for this interaction vector. Consequently, she highlights two perspectives, namely the socio-technical variant and the political variant. The socio-technical variant focuses on the distribution of responsibilities for organizational tasks. This variant emphasizes that new information systems can give rise to a new division of labor and of functions and responsibilities that is different from that which existed prior to that time in the organization. In this way, IS implementations can be perceived as enablers of organizational change [START_REF] Joia | Lessons learnt from an unsuccessful G2G endeavor in Brazil[END_REF]. In the political variant, resistance can be explained as a product of the interaction between design attributes of the system and the intra-organizational distribution of power and status. In this variant, the systems are developed and implemented with the main objective of influencing the power between different organizational sub-units [12; 17].

Overview of Causes of Resistance to IS

Given the different aspects of the three theories on resistance to IS outlined above, it was possible to develop an overview of the theories. Therefore, in this study a decision was made to use the pioneering ideas of [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF], since it incorporates the various dimensions relating to resistance to information systems. Consequently, Table 1 summarizes the three approaches to resistance to information systems.

Research Method

This paper studies the resistance to implement an open-source information system at the Brazilian patent office. Here we use a case approach to explore resistance to the implementation of information systems from a qualitative perspective. We adopt a case study approach that examines a phenomenon in its natural setting, using multiple methods of data collection [5; 15]. According to Yin [START_REF] Yin | Case study Research: Design and Methods, Second Edition[END_REF], case study is an adequate methodology to answer "how" and "why" questions. Moreover, Stake [START_REF] Stake | Case Studies[END_REF] argues that case study is not a choice of the research, but rather a choice of the research object.

There has been a growing interest in the use of qualitative techniques in the administrative sciences. A fundamental difference between case studies and quantitative methods is that the case study researcher may have less a priori knowledge of what the variables of interest will be and how they will be measured [START_REF] Benbasat | The case research strategy in studies of information systems[END_REF]. For quantitative data, there are clear conventions the researcher can use, such as the widely accepted rules of algebra through which the validity of mathematical deductions is known [START_REF] Lee | A scientific methodology for MIS case studies[END_REF]. Given the lack of previous research on resistance to PMS implementation, the qualitative approach is the most adequate to provide a rich understanding of this new field.

In this study, data was collected through the triangulation of several methods, which included participant observation, in-depth interviews and document analysis. We carried out in-depth interviews with the key developer, several users of the PMS, as well as patent examiners from other patent offices, who also have experience using a PMS. Besides identifying the world view of the primary stakeholders, the interviews were intended to identify actors that supported and opposed the system. The interviews were held between September 2011 and January 2013. In essence, the data analysis process consisted of both triangulating data sources, as well as developing a code scheme. The code scheme contributed to group similar events into a similar heading. In order to enhance reliability, key informants were also requested to review the case study report. According to Yin [START_REF] Yin | Case study Research: Design and Methods, Second Edition[END_REF], the corrections made through this process contribute to enhance the accuracy of the case study.

Case Study: Implementation of SISCAP

This case examines the development and implementation of an information system that supports the operations of the Brazilian national patent office. This system called 'Sistema de Cadastramento de Produção' (SISCAP) is an open-source information system designed and developed entirely by a Brazilian patent examiner who examines patent applications in the field of electronics. The initial idea for the system arose in 1998, short after the SISCAP´s developer joined INPI. Seeking to improve the efficiency of the patent examination process, SISCAP was designed based on his experience accumulated as a patent examiner. Given his previous experience with the development of information systems, it was possible for him to visualize the benefits of automating some of INPI´s manual procedures and, hence, he found an opportunity to become an open-source pioneer at INPI. Nevertheless, the start of SISCAP´s development only started in 2002, after the completion of a specialization program in web design at COPPE/Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro (UFRJ), which is widely know as a reputable technical institution in Brazil. Here it is also worthwhile to mention that the costs associated with his enrollment in this program were covered by INPI. According to the SISCAP´s developer, attending this specialization program enabled him to rapidly acquire programming skills on languages used for the development of web applications. The initial SISCAP prototype was a simple tool developed in ASP within the Windowns operating system to support the work of senior patent examiners in providing training to junior patent examiners. This initial prototype was not an institutional project, but rather an individual initiative, which was developed by the SISCAP´s developer in his free time. The system was designed to enable senior examiners to upload electronic files containing patent examination reports elaborated by junior patent examiners. This first version was implemented at the desktop of the SISCAP´s developer, but the other patent examiner could access this early version remotely from their own computers. Over the years, new functions were constantly added to the system. Figure 1 displays the current SISCAP´s interface available to patent examin-ers. This initial page generated after logging into the system, provides access to several functions such as generating documents with data corresponding patent applications, see all uploaded reports, access patent applications available for examination, etc.

Facing Initial Resistance

As head of an INPI´s division, the SISCAP´s developer initially used the system to review the quality of the reports produced by junior patent examiners. In 2006, senior patent examiners fulfilling the role of tutors to junior patent examiners used SISCAP during the training period of junior patent examiners. However, once this training program was complete, the tutors immediately stopped using SISCAP. This means that the senior patent examiners started to do everything on paper again, even after experiencing the convenience associated with a tool that provided complete forms with data on the patent applications, generated management statistics and enabled the storage of all patent reports. In short, all tutors decided to start doing everything again only on paper simply because using SISCAP was not compulsory in 2006. As can be seen from a declaration of a patent examiner transcribed below:

"I had a concern regarding the control over the system and there was significant uncertainty regarding the use of data collected by SISCAP".

In order to extend the use of SISCAP within INPI, the SISCAP´s developer demonstrated this first version of the system to a couple (two or three) of other patent examiners of other divisions who also started working for INPI in 1998. This informal demonstration occurred in the first semester of 2006. Yet the reactions of this group of patent examiners was primarily negative, thereby frustrating the initial expectations of the SISCAP´s developer who hoped that the convenience generated by the automation of the process of filling in information in the patent report would convince the patent examiners to adopt the system. It turned out that SISCAP was heavily criticized by these patent examiners. According to the SISCAP´s developer, the following criticism was made by this group of patent examiners towards him: "You are a patent examiner, so why are you trying to develop an information system to INPI? This is not your responsibility!" "I don´t want to make it possible for other people to see my patent reports" "Implementing this system is unethical.You are unethical"

A few weeks after demonstrating SISCAP to patent examiners of other divisions, the SISCAP´s developer was called to attend an individual meeting with INPI´s Director of Patents. The topic of the meeting was an anonymous complaint that the SISCAP´s developer was creating an unauthorized parallel system for registering patent reports. Despite the verbal warning, this meeting did not result in any formal punishment, as the motivation behind the system was clarified.

Despite this frustrated attempt to promote a voluntary adoption of the system, the SISCAP´s developer continued the development of the system by himself. However, he decided to stop promoting its adoption within the organization and to only use it within his division. The first major design change, involved the migration of the application from the proprietary ASP platform from Microsoft to the open source PHP/MySQL platform. This design decision was motivated by the need to improve performance of the system and the awareness that a large-scale service like Wikipedia was entirely developed upon the open-source PHP/MySQL platform.

SISCAP's Adoption

As a consequence of this resistance, for more than two years, the adoption of SISCAP remained limited to the division of the SISCAP´s developer. The rate of adoption started to speed up significantly after the application obtained political support from a higher-level management of INPI. Basically, strong political support was provided by a patent examiner occupying a management position at the presidency of INPI. As such, the heads of other divisions relating to chemical and biological technologies also decided to adopt SISCAP, which resulted in more than half of the Brazilian patent examiners using the system in the beginning of 2009. Despite the initial resistance posed by some patent examiners, the adoption of SISCAP became obligatory in September 2009 with the publication of an internal memorandum that turned SISCAP into the official system for uploading patent reports of all patent examiners at INPI. This memorandum forced the last divisions to adopt SISCAP immediately. Given the experience obtained with the promotion of SISCAP, it was possible to determine that without political support from INPI´s management, it

SISCAP´s ADOPTION

would be impossible to convince all patent examiners to adopt the system. Here a topdown approach turned out to be the most effective implementation strategy. Figure 2 displays a graph representing SISCAP´s adoption in terms of the number of patent examiners using the system.

Expanding the Technological Infrastructure

Since SISCAP became an official system, the INPI administration decided to gradually expand the technological infrastructure for the system. However, this configuration of SISCAP implemented in a single desktop has imposed performance limitations that made it impossible to scale up the system. In this way, towards the end of 2009, the system was migrated from the machine of the SISCAP´s developer, which runs Windows, to IBM blades running Linux. Beyond the computational resources, another patent examiner and a programmer started working on SISCAP in order to integrate it with the other systems at INPI. This integration effort, which is called the `e-patentes` project, was awarded a national-government prize in 2012.

Case Discussion

By examining the implementation of SISCAP at INPI, it was possible to identify a set of patterns characterizing resistance to the implementation of a PMS. In order to clearly describe the source of resistance, each element of the three theories on resistance to IS are examined and an overview of the sources of resistance is provided in table 2. Interaction of the system with the division of labor POLITICAL VARIANT HIGH RELEVANCE: Alignment of the system with the political environment of the organization was critical in order to obtain support from highlevel management. User resistance was circumvented by making the use of the system compulsory.

Interaction of the system with the distribution of intraorganizational power

This overview identifies neither the system-oriented theory nor the people-oriented theory as the main source of resistance in the SISCAP case. Here the interaction theory seems to have the strongest explanatory power. As argued by [START_REF] Markus | Power, politics, and MIS implementation[END_REF], users are inclined to use a system if they think the system increases their power, but users are inclined to resist using a new system if their power is threatened. Obviously, in the SISCAP case, user resistance was closely related to the perception that the implementation of the system would be a threat to the power of patent examiners.

Conclusion

We have identified different sources of resistance to the implementation of SISCAP explaining why widespread adoption of the system could only be accomplished by turning the system compulsory. In fact, when the introduction of an information system, such as SICAP, specifies a distribution of power, which represents a perceived loss to certain patent examiners, this group is likely to resist the system. Three major points emerge from the above discussion.

First, the social context surrounding a PMS and the possible organizational conflicts existing in the organization have a strong impact on implementation of the system and can even determine whether it will succeed or fail [17; 14]. Therefore, it is important to analyze the context in which the system will be implemented in order to understand clearly how the system will be perceived by patent examiners.

Second, the uncertainties arising from the implementation of SISCAP resulted in passive resistance in the form of a delayed use of the system. Accordingly, full adoption of the system was only accomplished by making the use of the system compulsory to all Brazilian patent examiners.

Third, the fact that SISCAP resulted from an individual initiative of a patent examiner generated resistance motivated by a misinterpretation on the motivation behind the system. Consequently, seeking high-level management support of a PMS seems to be the most appropriate implementation strategy.

Finally, our analysis provides a blueprint to guide future research and facilitate knowledge accumulation concerning the sources of resistance to information systems supporting the operations of patent offices.

  The interviewees were: SISCAP´s developer, Vice-President from INPI, Patent Examiners from INPI, as well as Patent Examiners from other patent offices: European Patent Office; Pakistan Patent office and Norwegian Patent office.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. SISCAP Interface

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. SISCAP´s adoption over time. (Source: SISCAP Stat)

  mai/08 set/08 jan/09 mai/09 set/09 jan/10 mai/10

Table 1 .

 1 Causes of Resistance to Information Systems; Source:(Markus [17]; Joia[START_REF] Joia | Lessons learnt from an unsuccessful G2G endeavor in Brazil[END_REF]; Joia & Magalhães[START_REF] Joia | Implementation of an electronic prescription system in a brazilian general hospital: Understanding sources of resistance[END_REF])

		Causes of Resistance to IS
	System-Oriented Theory	People-Oriented Theo-	Interaction Theory
		ry
	Characteristics of the sys-	Factors inherent to peo-	Interaction System -Con-
	tem	ple	text of Use
	Lack of flexibility	Lack of training	SOCIO-TECHNICAL
			VARIANT
	Graphic interface/usability Resistance to technology Interaction of the system

Table 2 :

 2 Identified sources of resistance associated with the implementation of SISCAP Causes

of Resistance to IS System-Oriented Theory Observations

			financial implications for firms.
	Lack of training	LOW RELEVANCE: SISCAP is considered rela-
			tively simple to use.
	Resistance to technology	LOW RELEVANCE: Given their educational back-
			ground, patent examiners are likely to have much
			experience with complex technologies.
	Fear of computers	LOW RELEVANCE: As opposed to medical staff,
			most patent examiners seem to feel comfortable
			with computers.
	Inadequate technical project LOW RELEVANCE: The technical project was not
			carefully assessed by patent examiners who offered
			resistance to SISCAP´s implementation. Apparent-
			ly, any PMS project would generate resistance.
	Interaction Theory	Observations
	Interaction System -Context	HIGH RELEVANCE: The patent office has a very
	of Use		particular institutional context, as it gathers a high
			level of expertise in several technical areas.
	SOCIO-TECHNICAL	HIGH RELEVANCE: Patent reports may have
		VARIANT	huge financial implications for firms. As such,
			many patent examiners may perceive access to their
			reports as a new form of control.
	Characteristics of the system	LOW RELEVANCE: The interviews did not reveal
			problems with the specific characteristics of
			SISCAP.
	Lack of flexibility	LOW RELEVANCE: The need for more flexibility
			was not identified.
	Graphic	interface/usability	LOW RELEVANCE: There were no complaints
	perceived as poor	from patent examiners regarding the design of the
			system. It was not an important factor.
	Unnecessary complexity	LOW RELEVANCE: The system was not per-
			ceived as unnecessarily complex.
	Poor ergonomic design	LOW RELEVANCE: Design was not a barrier.
	People-Oriented Theory	Observations
	Factors inherent to people	HIGH RELEVANCE: Patent examiners are highly
			specialized technical professionals and their deci-
			sions on patentability of inventions have significant


Panagiotis Panagiotopoulos
email: panagiotis.panagiotopoulos@brunel.ac.uk

Julie Barnett
email: julie.barnett@brunel.ac.uk

Laurence Brook
email: laurence.brooks@brunel.ac.uk

Social Media and Government Responsiveness: the Case of the UK Food Standards Agency

Keywords: Social Media Adoption, Government Responsiveness, Open Government, UK Government, Food Communication, Case Study

Social media are often regarded as a set of new communication practices which are likely, if deployed effectively, to make public sector organisations more responsive to the various stakeholders with whom they interact. In this context, responsiveness is usually approached as an administrative function of establishing additional channels of information and responding faster to citizen queries. Notwithstanding the importance of these objectives, this study aims to reconceptualise the relationship between social media and government responsiveness. Drawing on current literature and the case of the Food Standards Agency in the UK, the study identifies new dimensions of social media responsiveness. The findings of this study can provide useful insights both for researchers in the area and those in the process of developing social media strategies in government.

Introduction

Although a responsive government is praised by everyone, the various aspects of this concept are not always clear [START_REF] Saltzstein | Conceptualizing Bureaucratic Responsiveness[END_REF]. Broadly, being a responsive government could mean "responding easily to any and all demands" or entail democratic dimensions such as "reflecting and giving expression to the will of the people" [START_REF] Pennock | Responsiveness, Responsibility, and Majority Rule[END_REF].

As a growing number of government organisations are in the process of social media adoption, the anticipated benefit of improved responsiveness is usually an important motivation. In this context, social media responsiveness is likely to be centred on administrative functions such as increasing direct interactions with citizens, replying faster to queries and providing opportunities for stakeholders to access, share and comment on government information [START_REF] Kavanaugh | Social Media use by Government: From the Routine to the Critical[END_REF], [START_REF] Picazo-Vela | Understanding Risks, Benefits, and Strategic Alternatives of Social Media Applications in the Public Sector[END_REF], [START_REF] Snead | Social Media use in the U.S. Executive Branch[END_REF].

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between social media and government responsiveness. While the paper does not challenge the positive impact of social media on government responsiveness per se, it posits that this relationship requires a more comprehensive examination. Government responsiveness is not just administrative aspects of information provision or responding to public demands for information and action. Complementary views of responsiveness emphasise the ability to listen to the public and respond in a collaborative and consistent manner, e.g. [START_REF] Stivers | The Listening Bureaucrat: Responsiveness in Public Administration[END_REF], [START_REF] Vigoda | From Responsiveness to Collaboration: Governance, Citizens, and the Next Generation of Public Administration[END_REF]. Few studies of social media in government have so far touched upon these aspects of responsiveness [START_REF] Linders | From e-Government to we-Government: Defining a Typology for Citizen Coproduction in the Age of Social Media[END_REF], [START_REF] Mergel | Social Media Adoption and Resulting Tactics in the U.S. Federal Government[END_REF].

The paper reports on the case of the Food Standards Agency (FSA), which is the government body responsible for food safety and food hygiene across the United Kingdom. The FSA's approach illustrates how social media can contribute to responsiveness with initiatives that promote positive behavioural change to the public, reach specific target audiences and demonstrate proactive commitment to food safety. The next sections develop a more detailed conceptualisation of government responsiveness after positioning the concept within current work. Following the methodology and case background, the paper discusses the FSA's approach to social media. The outcome of this discussion provides a springboard for future research in the area, as well as assisting policy makers in delineating the value of social media in this context.

Background: Social Media in Government

Broadly, the use of social media in government has been associated with openness, transparency and even anti-corruption e.g. [START_REF] Bertot | Promoting Transparency and Accountability through ICTs, Social Media, and Collaborative e-Government[END_REF], [START_REF] Bertot | Using ICTs to Create a Culture of Transparency: E-Government and Social Media as Openness and Anti-Corruption Tools for Societies[END_REF], [START_REF] Bertot | The Impact of Polices on Government Social Media Usage: Issues, Challenges, and Recommendations[END_REF]. When it comes to impact on micro-interactions between citizens and governments, social media bears high expectations in terms of responsiveness. This includes expectations to reply instantly to queries, provide continuous updates of information and be prepared to engage with the public on emerging issues. While this potential might be fulfilled in certain cases, high expectations of responsiveness have mostly proven unrealistic. Such expectations may be a key reason explaining why government organisations do not generally use social media, as specific incidents of government non-responsiveness on social media can be explicitly highlighted by the disappointed public [START_REF] Mergel | The Social Media Innovation Challenge in the Public Sector[END_REF]. In turn, even if government organisations appear responsive, the public might not always respond as intended. This phenomenon has been identified as a form of technical rationality, which assumes that citizens will engage more if the government finds them where they are, online [START_REF] Bannister | Forward to the Past: Lessons for the Future of e-Government from the Story so Far[END_REF].

At the strategic level, looking at the processes of social media adoption in government points to why responsiveness remains an important aim that is difficult to conceptualise and practice. Social media practices are likely to be initially diffused in government organisations as an outcome of entrepreneurial activities launched by actors who seize sparse opportunities [START_REF] Mergel | Social Media Adoption and Resulting Tactics in the U.S. Federal Government[END_REF]. At the beginning of such initiatives, social media are likely to be used to complement existing channels of information dissemination before becoming spaces of interaction and more standard practices. As this process matures and interactions via social media increase, information policies and regulatory frameworks usually struggle to cope with the public's expectations for responsiveness [START_REF] Bertot | Promoting Transparency and Accountability through ICTs, Social Media, and Collaborative e-Government[END_REF], [START_REF] Bertot | The Impact of Polices on Government Social Media Usage: Issues, Challenges, and Recommendations[END_REF]. The volume, complexity and fast pace of social media interactions require not only more formal policies but also an adaptation process that is likely to be in tension with bureaucratic structures of governance [START_REF] Mergel | The Social Media Innovation Challenge in the Public Sector[END_REF].

A balanced account of responsiveness also needs to consider that social media cannot be treated as a single entity or even a set of tools with interchangeable properties. The value proposition of different social media applications usually conveys different expectations of responsiveness in different government domains. Each value proposition matches the use of tools and channels of interaction with different engagement audiences and intended added values [START_REF] Panagiotopoulos | A Business Model Perspective for ICTs in Public Engagement[END_REF]. For example, microblogging applications such as Twitter are usually considered a catalyst of increased responsiveness due to their immediacy and real-time nature [START_REF] Waters | Squawking, Tweeting, Cooing, and Hooting: Analyzing the Communication Patterns of Government Agencies on Twitter[END_REF]. Other tools such as blogs serve diverse purposes of more in-depth engagement with the general public or specific groups of experts [START_REF] Mahler | Federal Agency Blogs: Agency Mission, Audience, and Blog Forms[END_REF].

Conceptualising Responsiveness

In the business world, responsiveness to the communication needs of different stakeholders -including consumers -has been at the core of how organisations leverage value. Meehan and Dawson [START_REF] Meehan | Customer Responsiveness: Getting it Fast and Right through Impatience and Intolerance[END_REF] emphasise that responsiveness is about getting it "fast and right". The route to demonstrating timely and effective responsiveness requires certain elements of learning -such as the ability to balance risk tolerance and speed -that cannot always be found even with major consumerfocused organisations. Zaheer and Zaheer [START_REF] Zaheer | Catching the Wave: Alertness, Responsiveness, and Market Influence in Global Electronic Networks[END_REF] note another important dimension by explaining that alertness as proactive attentiveness to information is closely related to responsiveness. Research has also shown that website design features can have a direct impact on organisational responsiveness to stakeholder information needs [START_REF] Kent | The Relationship between Web Site Design and Organizational Responsiveness to Stakeholders[END_REF].

That government responsiveness is an objective worth pursuing is generally accepted since it relates directly to citizen's perceptions of being able to influence government decision making [START_REF] Kim | E-Participation, Transparency, and Trust in Local Government[END_REF]. A variety of policy and cultural factors can shape people's perceptions of government responsiveness [START_REF] Vigoda | Are You being Served? the Responsiveness of Public Administration to Citizens? Demands: An Empirical Examination in Israel[END_REF]. Vigoda [START_REF] Vigoda | Are You being Served? the Responsiveness of Public Administration to Citizens? Demands: An Empirical Examination in Israel[END_REF] synthesises different views of responsiveness that focus on performance or the ability of large bureaucracies to apply general management practices in their effort to serve the public. Bureaucrats could be considered responsive because of choosing business-like methods to fulfil their responsibility to the public [START_REF] Stivers | The Listening Bureaucrat: Responsiveness in Public Administration[END_REF].

Current literature tends to emphasise that high levels of social media maturity in government are associated with the ability to enhance information dissemination, timely responsiveness to the public and, at later stages, to engage with them e.g. [START_REF] Lee | An Open Government Maturity Model for Social Media-Based Public Engagement[END_REF]. High expectations of responsiveness are commonly reflected in measures of interaction (e.g. Twitter mentions) and reach of information shared (e.g. retweets). For example, exercises labelled as crowdsourcing, whether invited by governments or conducted in a less mediated way, are usually approached as complicated technical challenges where massive input from the public can provide useful insight e.g. [START_REF] Sobkowicz | Opinion Mining in Social Media: Modeling, Simulating, and Forecasting Political Opinions in the Web[END_REF]. Similarly, use of social media is related to the government's ability to monitor and respond to public safety or emergency issues in a timely fashion e.g. [START_REF] Kavanaugh | Social Media use by Government: From the Routine to the Critical[END_REF].

Notwithstanding their importance, these uses of social media in government usually account for an administrative view of responsiveness or improving the government's ability to react to the public. A complementary view of responsiveness emphasises the capacity to listen, facilitating an understanding of the audience and promoting new ways of engaging [START_REF] Stivers | The Listening Bureaucrat: Responsiveness in Public Administration[END_REF]. Commitment to listening not only improves the government's ability to react but also enhances its role to create public value. This marks what Vigoda describes as a shift from administrative to collaborative responsiveness [START_REF] Vigoda | From Responsiveness to Collaboration: Governance, Citizens, and the Next Generation of Public Administration[END_REF]. Collaboration not only in terms of increasing direct interactions but also in terms of the government's ability to change behaviours and engage proactively.

So far, few studies of social media have explored this potential of government responsiveness or linked it within practical contexts of use. Linders [START_REF] Linders | From e-Government to we-Government: Defining a Typology for Citizen Coproduction in the Age of Social Media[END_REF] draws on a similar perspective by discussing new models of interaction where social media support the government's efforts to be proactive, monitor public wellbeing and promote positive behavioural change. Mergel reports [START_REF] Mergel | Social Media Adoption and Resulting Tactics in the U.S. Federal Government[END_REF] on empirical data gathered from social media directors in the USA federal government who identify the potential for networking as a desirable goal that could support a "highly interactive and bidirectional" type of responsiveness (p.6). However, interviewees were not able to point to the specifics of how such a networking strategy can take place. Therefore, beyond using social media to support administrative functions, other forms of government responsiveness merit further attention and empirical investigation.

Case Background and Methodology

To empirically examine how social media can make public organisation more responsive, a single case study approach was selected based on a critical or unique case [START_REF] Yin | Case study research: Design and methods[END_REF]. The case of the Food Standards Agency (FSA) was selected due to its distinctive features in relation to the aim of this study. This relates to the structures and communication needs of the FSA, combined with its approach to social media which takes into account different aspects of how the agency could enhance its responsiveness to the public.

Given that everyone has a stake in food, it is not surprising that the communication structures and needs of the FSA are quite complicated and multi-layered. The agency has departments in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland and is responsible for communicating with the public about a variety of issues related to food consumption, transportation, storage, safety and hygiene. As the principal food governance body in the UK, the FSA interacts with a wide range of stakeholders who have professional interests in food, for example, experts in nutrition, health scientists, journalists and organisations in the food industry (e.g. supermarkets). Also, the FSA collaborates with other national and European food governance authorities, as well as local government authorities about the hygiene rating of eating facilities. Finally, the agency organises consumer surveys about eating habits across the UK.

Further to the more routine aspects of food monitoring, inspection and regulation, the work of the agency often requires the handling of food safety crises, which are becoming very important in Europe e.g. [START_REF] Jacob | Government Management of Two Media-Facilitated Crises Involving Dioxin Contamination of Food[END_REF], [START_REF] Shan | Food Crisis Coverage by Social and Traditional Media: A Case Study of the 2008 Irish Dioxin Crisis[END_REF]. A high-profile crisis in which the FSA has been recently involved is the Escherichia Coli outbreak in Germany and other parts of Europe (summer 2011). Also, since the beginning of 2013, the agency has been involved in a crisis stimulated by the detection of horsemeat traces in beef products. The 'horse meat crisis' at the UK and European level has been raising significant public interest about food safety issues and the activities of the FSA to support and protect consumers.

Due to these diverse and broad communication needs, the FSA's approach to social media was, a priori, a significant challenge. The agency needs to demonstrate responsiveness in communicating with the diverse audiences with which it interacts. Evidence of the FSA's online presence indicated that due to its specific conditions, the organisation was using social media to be responsive in many different ways. For example, the agency was using its YouTube and Twitter accounts to promote healthy eating habits and advise the public about food safety. Therefore, there was scope to examine the formulation and course of this approach as a case that can inform future practice. Data collection for this study included the following sources:

• Documentary data related to statistics about questions received by the FSA, the remit of the FSA in food governance, its broader role, strategic mission, history and stakeholder groups. This included statements about communication needs and structures using offline and online channels.

Most of these sources were available online through the FSA's website or other UK government sources. • Online data sources from websites and social media sites, with an emphasis on YouTube, Twitter and Facebook. This included examples of responses and content monitored by the agency, audience characteristics, online critics, supporters of the FSA's work, etc. • Four interviews with officials from the FSA including a research presentation focused on consumer's perceptions of food information. The interviews were conducted in 2012 and were complemented by further telephone and email exchanges. The interview findings were coded thematically and cross-examined with the documentary evidence and online sources. The focus of the interviews was on four main questions:

1. What are the communication needs of the agency and what kind of questions and comments are usually received by the public? 2. Which channels are used for receiving questions and comments from food consumers or initiating discussions with them? How are response processes organised? 3. What is the agency's commitment to answer questions related to food risks and benefits? How is this commitment affected by food safety incidents or crises? 4. How have social media changed the way the agency communicates with the public?

Social Media and the UK Food Standards Agency

At the heart of the FSA's communication activities is the aim to help protect consumers and improve food safety. Long-term food-related problems in the UK range from high levels of obesity to major food safety incidents. Apart from people's well-being, these issues can negatively affect the UK economy, as was the case with the BSE crisis in the 1990s (known as the "mad cow" disease). The work of the FSA is further complicated because, although everyone eats on a daily basis, food policies and regulations require elaborate scientific evidence, continuous monitoring (e.g. meat audit) and close collaboration with European food authorities. Despite these challenges, consumers have a legitimate interest in understanding, influencing and seeking explanations about food policy decisions. Consumers also require support in their everyday eating habits such as advice about food risks and benefits. One of the FSA's main actions to support consumers is the Food Hygiene Scheme, whose ratings range from 0 (improvement urgently needed) to 5 (very good). All food premises are encouraged to display these stickers and certificates in a visible location. Further to routine support of consumers, the FSA needs to attend to specific seasons when eating habits change, for example, during Christmas or Easter holidays. Before the use of digital media, the FSA's campaigns to influence eating habits and promote food safety were located within costly media advertisements with limited feedback and targeting options. Also, the agency was not able to discuss and engage with consumers on a more regular or routine basis. Helplines were in place for queries such as helping the public address food labelling and hygiene issues to the appropriate authority (which is not always the FSA). Mobile phone messages and mainstream media were used to issue warnings about product recalls and allergies, sometimes as a matter of urgency.

Digital media and food communication

Table 1 provides an overview of the main digital communication tools used by the FSA. The agency maintains a large variety of channels for information dissemination, social bookmarking and networking. Apart from the main website, the FSA has organised training websites and an open access repository for food-related documentation. Also, the agency has decided that all Board meetings that produce food policy decisions should be open to the public. Since 2003, Board meetings are available through live webcast including a public questions and answers section.

With regards to social media, emphasis has been placed on the YouTube channel and the Twitter feed. Twitter is used to alert about new content and invite people to provide feedback about specific issues. Conversations with other Twitter users take place regularly, on certain occasions even initiated by the agency's account when relevant conversations are identified. An important part of the digital strategy is also the Chief Scientist's blog which communicates about scientific issues (e.g. food sampling and testing).

Email alerts and RSS feeds have complemented traditional alerting systems about product recalls and allergy warnings. More recently, mobile applications have been used for hygiene ratings and allergies alerts. Social bookmarking and visualisation tools such as Pinterest and Thinglink have been explored as ways to support thematic campaigns around holiday seasons and provide interactive calendars. Finally, the agency uses the internal networking tool Yammer (about 900 people). Yammer is used for internal information sharing and collaboration between FSA employees and even external stakeholders.

Table 1. Overview of digital communications used by the FSA

Communication channels Use and objectives

Main website

The main website food.gov.uk acts as a central point of information, contact and debate about wider issues related to food hygiene and safety.

Training websites

The website allergytraining.food.gov.uk provides training, and resources about food-related allergies. The website vacuumpackingtraining.food.gov.uk provides training for enforcement officers.

Open access repository

The open access repository foodbase.org.uk contains all documentation produced by the FSA including scientific studies and reports of research conducted with the public.

Chief Scientist blog

The agency's chief scientist maintains a blog named Hungry for Science. The aim of this blog is to communicate foodrelated scientific issues to the public such as and sampling and testing procedures.

Facebook groups

Facebook groups are used for regular communication and special thematic campaigns such as the "Food Safety Week" and the "Food Hygiene Rating Scheme". There is also a separate page in Welsh, or Cymraeg, for Welsh language speakers.

Twitter feed

The Twitter account is an important part of the agency's social media strategy with over 10,000 followers, many of which are food professionals and experts. Additional Twitter feeds might be used such as the @playitsafefood during the London 2012 Olympics or special hashtags such as the #FHRS for the Food Hygiene Rating Scheme.

YouTube channel

The agency has used YouTube since 2006 with over 70 videos and 210,000 views. Most videos are about food safety training such as hand washing for professionals and cooking safety advice. Many of these videos are embedded in the agency's website in specialised pages that include guidance and information (interactive training tools).

Email alerts and RSS feeds

RSS feeds and email alerts are used for food recalls, allergy warnings and stories related to the work of the agency in Scotland, Wales and Northern Ireland.

Live streams

The agency's Board meetings are broadcast and archived with the option for the audience to submit live questions.

Social media interactions

It is important to consider the impact of these channels on the agency's traditional interaction with the public. Online information channels make it easy to find factual information about policies, food issues and the work of the agency. As a result, previously simple questions have been replaced by more complicated queries which require evidence from multiple sources or even expert consultation in order to be answered. Consumers and food professionals use Twitter and Facebook to seek detailed information about policies or clarifications for regulations. Examples of such queries include nanotechnology, the labelling of specific ingredients and differences between product expiry dates. Commitment to respond to questions is implicit but the responses are well communicated on social media channels. Usually, an immediate response acknowledges the issue and then a detailed response is provided after investigating the matter. This builds on a broader protocol of main principles about how to handle questions on each channel (Social Media Response Assessment). For example, phone queries are traditionally responded to within three days but social media demand more immediacy and flexibility. Commitment to respond and engage has been made explicit to the public through a social media use policy and guidelines [START_REF]Terms and Conditions for Blogs and Social Networks[END_REF], including a separate page for Twitter [START_REF]Twitter Policy[END_REF]. Questions are likely to increase when potential food safety issues, such as the horsemeat crisis, arise. On such occasions, social media can be effective and transparent as previously one-to-one questions on helplines can evolve into one-to-many or even many-to-many conversations.

Further to the response processes, an important part of the FSA's approach to social media is gaining an advanced understanding of the audience and building relationships with specific groups. This objective is directly driven by the mission to promote safe and healthy eating habits. A proactive approach to audience understanding and relationship building is emphasised in the organisation's strategy. At the operational level, it is enabled by the use of social media monitoring tools and dashboards, which provide the "listening" infrastructure to intervene and engage. Conversations about food take place on a regular basis and understanding the stakeholders involved and their networks is considered the first step to cultivate relationships with them. Relationships usually start with simple online actions such as

Social bookmarking and presentation tools

The agency uses Pinterest as a visual bookmarking tool. Boards created centre around general food issues or galleries for family food planning, Food Safety Week and a food calendar for the Christmas season. Thinglink is another tool used for interactive images such as food calendars. Infographics are also used for thematic campaigns.

Mobile applications

The agency uses mobile applications for the hygiene rating scheme and allergy alerts. The applications are available on different platforms (Android, iOS and Windows).

"retweeting", "mention", "like" or "pin". These actions can then be escalated into more permanent ones such as "followers" or "friends". Whether these relationships are established on an ad hoc or regular basis, network effects can support the agency's aim to share key messages and campaigns about food issues with a diverse audience. This relates to public awareness and building trust with different groups of key influencers such as allergen charities, consumer organisations and networks of food professionals. It also relates to reaching consumers with specific demographic characteristics such as students, the elderly, mothers and teenagers. Interviewees were able to provide specific examples of how the digital networks of key influencers were used as a platform to promote the FSA's campaigns. Support comes from simple actions such as retweeting a message to more elaborate forms such as providing scientific evidence and expert opinions. For example, regional issues are addressed with the help of local government authorities and consumer organisations provide support for healthy eating. This networking tactic builds on the agency's traditional authority over food issues that guarantees high visibility through digital channels.

Furthermore, monitoring and network alertness can support proactiveness when food safety incidents take place. A well-known case is when the agency used a dedicated social media dashboard to receive alerts over emerging risks during the London 2012 Olympics [START_REF]Government Communication Network: How the Food Standards Agency are using Social Media[END_REF]. Following a rumour that the Australian and Canadian badminton teams were falling ill with food poisoning, the agency intervened quickly before the escalation of the incident. Eventually, the cause was not a virus from a food source and the cases were limited to five members of the Olympic teams.

Discussion and Conclusion

The aim of this paper is to examine the relationship between social media and government responsiveness. Current work suggests that social media have been related to different aspects of government responsiveness such as expectations to provide information and responses to the public. Beyond these aspects of administrative responsiveness, these are other dimensions of the concept where social media can be of added value.

The case of the Food Standards Agency provides insight into elements of social media responsiveness based on listening, networking and collaborative aspects [START_REF] Stivers | The Listening Bureaucrat: Responsiveness in Public Administration[END_REF], [START_REF] Vigoda | From Responsiveness to Collaboration: Governance, Citizens, and the Next Generation of Public Administration[END_REF]. More specifically, the case points to the following directions:

1. Managing expectations of responsiveness: responsiveness requires keeping social media activities focused and consistent, such that it is clear for the public how and when interactions can take place. Apart from providing explicit policies and guidelines, this needs to be demonstrated in terms of commitment to, and consideration of, responding fast and responding right [START_REF] Meehan | Customer Responsiveness: Getting it Fast and Right through Impatience and Intolerance[END_REF]. The FSA has managed to maintain a good balance, which will certainly be challenged if the volume of interactions increases. 2. Audience and network awareness: the FSA's targeted approach to reaching groups of consumers and food professionals shows how responsiveness is not about the volume of interactions but the ability to be responsive to specific audiences for specific purposes [START_REF] Saltzstein | Conceptualizing Bureaucratic Responsiveness[END_REF]. For example, 10,000 followers for the agency's Twitter account is not an impressive figure on its own but the added value of Twitter has been important in reaching the networks of contacts and promoting campaigns. Despite its importance, the case of the FSA does not aim to provide an exemplar of responsiveness enabled by social media. Even if the FSA has not realised the full potential of social media, its emphasis on non-administrative elements and network awareness provides useful directions for practice. The FSA's rapid progress and wellconsidered social media development plan worth attention by government departments in similar processes. However, within the contextual limitations of this case and beyond, there are certain caveats to the concept of social media responsiveness that have to be made explicit. An important limitation is that how citizens make sense of government responsiveness is a complicated matter [START_REF] Vigoda | Are You being Served? the Responsiveness of Public Administration to Citizens? Demands: An Empirical Examination in Israel[END_REF]. Especially in the case of the FSA, people might assess decisions about food policies along single dimensions while the work of the agency involves complicated scientific and regulatory issues. For example, meat audit is not always within the remit of the FSA authority due to European regulations. As Mergel notes [START_REF] Mergel | The Social Media Innovation Challenge in the Public Sector[END_REF], the real challenge lies in assessing the actual influence of government initiatives beyond the number of people engaging with them. Brand reputation metrics used by commercial social media monitoring solutions are not likely to provide good indicators of responsiveness if not closely aligned with a public sector organisation's key mission to influence and engage.

Another inherent limitation to social media responsiveness is that those people most likely to engage on social media do not represent the general public. For example, in many of its initiatives, the FSA seeks to reach people with below average socio-economic status as they are more likely to have less healthy eating habits. Studies with the British population show that socio-economic status is associated with higher content creation in social networking sites than online means such as blogs [START_REF] Blank | Who Creates Content? Information[END_REF]. Therefore, initiatives that focus on eating habits could be targeted accordingly. Not only it is difficult for government communicators to assess these new aspects, but also they have limited control over them.

As social media use in government matures, future work can elaborate on the dimensions of government responsiveness and examine what responsiveness means to specific groups of the population who engage in social media activities. Social media users might not always represent the general public, but they do open significant opportunities to improve citizen-government interactions and inform policy development.

  [START_REF] Bertot | Using ICTs to Create a Culture of Transparency: E-Government and Social Media as Openness and Anti-Corruption Tools for Societies[END_REF]. Proactive monitoring and alertness: using social media as information sources can inform the FSA about public sentiment and emerging issues, but only when they build on understanding specific audiences. General feedback mechanisms, no matter how technically sophisticated they might be, cannot provide useful and actionable insight if they lack understanding of the audience. 4. Promoting positive behavioural change: responsiveness to frame public perceptions through digital media suited well the FSA's existing communication style and mission. A wide range of means such as mobile applications, video sharing and interactive training tools are used to educate the public about food hygiene and safety. There is considerable scope to use social media for government activities that promote public education.

Acknowledgments. The authors gratefully acknowledge interview participants from the Food Standards Agency. This research was supported by the FoodRisC project under the Seventh Framework Programme (CORDIS FP7) of the European Commission (grant number: 245124).


Diego Navarra
email: d.d.navarra@gmail.com

Carmine Bianchi²
email: ²carmine.bianchi@unipa.it

Territorial Governance, E-Government and Sustainable Development Policy: A System Dynamics Approach

Keywords: territorial governance, egovernment, sustainable development policy

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

Territorial governance is an important element of the many complex challenges the world faces today. These include: sustainable development, adaptation and mitigation to climate change, rapid urbanization, growing food and energy insecurity, increased natural disasters, etc. [START_REF] Navarra | Urban Governance and Climate Change: Use of Geo-ICT to tackle Global, National and Local Environmental Issues[END_REF]. Good territorial governance is typically seen to be supported by the development of e-government policies and systems at the state, regional and urban levels [START_REF] Navarra | The Architecture of Global Governance: A Case Study of E-Government in Jordan[END_REF][START_REF] Navarra | Perspectives on the Evaluation of Geo-ICT for Sustainable Urban Governance: Implications for E-Government Policy[END_REF]. Sustainable development in metropolitan regions in Europe and around the world is generally measured in terms of both being part of a global economic network (i.e., for instance, in relation to the proliferation, spread and emergence of transnational corporations) and generating a strong public service making the urban territory more attractive to international knowledge, technology and innovation [START_REF]The Network Society: From Knowledge to Policy[END_REF][START_REF] Dicken | Global Shift: Reshaping the Global Economic Map in the 21st Century[END_REF]. The former are considered building blocks of a sustainable innovative economy, a strategic resource in the urban territory, which is tightly related to public sector reforms. Such features are critical factors since the design and development of present and future egovernment policies and systems is seen as the key locus of innovation in the public sector [START_REF] Contini | ICT and innovation in the public sector: European Studies in the Making of E-Government[END_REF], in order to enable the enhancement of performance management in government organizations, and specifically in urban governance and sustainability [START_REF] Navarra | Perspectives on the Evaluation of Geo-ICT for Sustainable Urban Governance: Implications for E-Government Policy[END_REF][START_REF] Navarra | Managing geoinformation systems in the public sector[END_REF][START_REF] Navarra | Towards a Theory to Research and Study Global ICT Programmes[END_REF]. Implicit in this world-wide programme of e-government, found in countries of all levels of development, is a strong sense of managerialism, with e-government often seen as an essential part of a necessary process of reforming and reshaping management practices in the public sector, especially in projects and reforms which will establish accountability systems, increase transparency and reduce corruption [START_REF] Navarra | The Architecture of Global Governance: A Case Study of E-Government in Jordan[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Bol | Managing Metropolitan Complexity: Understanding Metropolitan Management Issues from a Public Managers[END_REF][START_REF] Gong | From policy implementation to business process management: Principles for creating flexibility and agility[END_REF][START_REF] Henman | Governing Electronically: E-Government and the Reconfiguration of Public Administration, Policy and Power[END_REF]. Earlier studies of system dynamics (SD) have been developed to map the dynamic complexity related to e-government policies [START_REF] Navarra | The State and Democracy After New Public Management: Exploring Alternative Models of E-governance[END_REF][START_REF]OECD: Public Administration after "New Public Management[END_REF][START_REF] Azad | E-goverment institutionalzing practices of a land registration mapping system[END_REF]. SD has also been used to explore the core capabilities of local governments as key-factors to exploit the benefits of digital government [START_REF] Burdett | The endless city: the Urban Age project by the London School of Economics and Deutsche Bank's Alfred Herrhausen Society[END_REF]. It has also been applied to model stakeholders behaviour, learning, knowledge management, inter-institutional dynamics and citizens trust in egovernment policy initiatives [START_REF] Forrester | Urban Dynamics[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Molen | E-Government and E-Land Administration -As an Example: The Netherlands. 6th FIG Regional Conference on Coastal Areas and Land Administration -Buidling the Capacity[END_REF][START_REF] Van Der Molen | Cadastres and Climate Change[END_REF][START_REF] Bianchi | Public sector applications of the System Dynamics Approach[END_REF][START_REF] Navarra | The State, Democracy and the Limits of New Public Management: Exploring Alternatives Modeles of E-government[END_REF]. Yet the evaluation of territorial governance policy on the performance of urban areas requires a more nuanced methodological approach. One where the contextualisation of the systemic geography of a city and its critical institutions [START_REF] Navarra | The Architecture of Global Governance: A Case Study of E-Government in Jordan[END_REF][START_REF] Janssen | Electronic Government and Electronic Participation: Joint Proceedings of Ongoing Research and Projects of IFIP EGOV and ePart 2011[END_REF] are considered in order to understand the nature of innovation dynamics in urban regions, in terms of sustainable development. Though urban studies are a tradition in SD literature [START_REF] Scherer | E-participation and enterprise architecture frameworks: An analysis[END_REF], to our knowledge, this is the first paper to propose a dynamic performance management system applied to territorial governance, e-government and sustainable development. E-government policies and systems within the scope of this paper address sustainable development, innovation and economic growth in urban areas and the state's spatial development plans (including state infrastructure for water, energy and waste management), metropolitan and regional policies and other governmental interventions and activities such as in the environment, housing and energy efficiency. However, it can equally be of relevance for tourism, health care, education, crisis management, disaster management as well as for the participation and interaction with the citizens in the creation and re-creation of the city's landscape (also in the politics of urban planning). van der Molen and Wubbe [START_REF] Scholl | Process Integration, Information Sharing, and System Interoperation in Government: A Comparative Case Analysis[END_REF] highlight the importance of urban e-government policies and systems when the public administration, private sector and citizens decide on issues where the spatial component is one of the determinants of decisions, such as when there is a need to access relevant spatial information, and could contribute in a meaningful way to the process of spatial decision making. Without these digital facilities, modern governments cannot understand the built environment of cities, manage land efficiently, utilize computer capacity to assist policy making, or retrieve significant value out of land. In the latter circumstances the value that can be considered important for good territorial governance would be safeguarding the reliability, availability, access and use of spatial information, which can be used in e-governemnt for the fulfilment of societal objectives, sustainable development and climate policies [START_REF] Black | A Dynamic Theory of Collaboration: A Structural Approach to Facilitating Intergovernmental Use of Information Technology[END_REF]. Gathering and compiling such information, beyond the public sector policymaking and decision making processes, would encompass industrial activities, small and medium sized enterprises and many complex relationships between the political and the organisational systems in the public and private sectors [START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Exploring E-Government Evolution: The Influence of Systems of Rules on Organizational Action[END_REF].

Figure 1 shows public and private sectors dynamics, and how the rules underlying the survival and development of both sectors lie behind their own capability to generate value, to promote sustainable development. Figure 1 also shows how public sector performance does not only provide feedback under the form of taxes and financial contributions from the community receiving a given set of services, but also in terms of external contributions and, we would add, the same applies to information flows in sustainable development policies. So, the private sector feeds back to the public sector: public opinion is primarily affecting the political level, and income primarily affects the funds that the public administration will be able to raise through taxes and other sources to provide the administration level with resources to afford public expenditures. This, we would add, happens increasingly via specific programmes of modernisation and informatisation of the public sector (commonly referred to as new public management [START_REF] Gong | From policy implementation to business process management: Principles for creating flexibility and agility[END_REF][START_REF] Gil-Garcia | Multi-Method Approaches to Understanding the Complexity of E-Government[END_REF] and often noted in e-government initiatives [START_REF] Gong | From policy implementation to business process management: Principles for creating flexibility and agility[END_REF][START_REF] Henman | Governing Electronically: E-Government and the Reconfiguration of Public Administration, Policy and Power[END_REF][START_REF] Janssen | Electronic Government and Electronic Participation: Joint Proceedings of Ongoing Research and Projects of IFIP EGOV and ePart 2011[END_REF][START_REF] Scherer | E-participation and enterprise architecture frameworks: An analysis[END_REF][START_REF] Scholl | Process Integration, Information Sharing, and System Interoperation in Government: A Comparative Case Analysis[END_REF]. However, recently the same argument has extended also to the possibility to foster sustainable economic development and the aversion of climate change through policy making and regulation, the promotion of investments, purchases and employment, and by implementing ambitious modernization programmes for the delivery of public services (i.e facilitating creative interaction between universities, scientists and researchers on the one hand and industry and commerce on the other driving technology transfer and innovation) [START_REF] Navarra | Perspectives on the Evaluation of Geo-ICT for Sustainable Urban Governance: Implications for E-Government Policy[END_REF]. Yet there is no clear comprehensive or holistic methodology in place about how to enhance performance management, monitor and assess progress towards sustainable territorial performance in urban areas via the parallel improvements in public sector innovation and in the implementation of EU policies and guidelines [START_REF] Navarra | Urban Governance and Climate Change: Use of Geo-ICT to tackle Global, National and Local Environmental Issues[END_REF].

A Dyamic Performance Management Approach to Enhance Sustainable Development in Urban Areas

According to Bianchi & Riverbank [START_REF] Bianchi | Using System Dynamics to Enhance Performance Management in Local Government: An Application to Residential Refuse Collection[END_REF] one possible avenue to enhance performance management in the public sector is the application of system dynamics, where modelling organizational systems and simulation techniques are used for understanding the behaviour of complex systems. The advantage of using this approach is placing performance measures into the broader context of the system, responding to the reality that even simple policy and process changes to impact specific outputs and outcomes are not likely to be that "simple" in organizations [START_REF] Bianchi | Management Simulation as an Instrument to Aid Turning "Stunted Growth" Round in Family Businesses[END_REF]. The main focus is on the wider system, and policy implications for each player can be taken by the light of the responses that the observed system's behaviour is likely to give, as a consequence of changes in its structure.

If one takes the point of view of each decision maker on behalf of whom a SD model is developed, such a perspective could be defined as 'external', since it does not primarily reflect the observation point of a specific decision maker [START_REF] Bianchi | Public sector applications of the System Dynamics Approach[END_REF]. A critical tipping point in managing organizational and territorial (inter-institutional) performance is associated to the capability of policy makers to: a) identify those strategic resources which most determine the success in the environment (i.e. competitive and social systems) where an organization or different organizations operate; b) insure that the endowment of such resources is satisfactory over time; c) keep a proper balance between the different relevant strategic resources. SD can then be used to enrich performance management in local government, focusing specifically on how the development of conceptual and simulation models can foster a common shared view of the relevant system among stakeholders. This implies that the number and range of stakeholders involved in making decisions influencing strategic resource dynamics -and, therefore, the relevant system's performance and feedback loops -are often located in several organizational units and institutions in a given territorial area. Figure 2 illustrates how the end-results provide an endogenous source in an organization to the accumulation and depletion processes affecting strategic resources. Endresults that most synthetically measure the overall organizational performance are flows affecting the accumulation of corresponding strategic resources that cannot be purchased. These are: 1) resources generated by management routines, and 2) financial resources [START_REF] Bianchi | Using System Dynamics to Enhance Performance Management in Local Government: An Application to Residential Refuse Collection[END_REF]. Figure 2 also highlights that performance drivers are a measure of factors on which to act in order to affect the final performance. For instance, if related to an end-result such as the number of new business initiatives undertaken in a urban area in a given time span, corresponding performance drivers could be associated to the (financial and socio-political) perceived stability of a region, and to the perceived transparency and promptness of the public sector (e.g., in terms of authorization protocols or supply of various services, such as those related to security, transportation, social assistance, housing). In order to affect such drivers in the desired direction, each decision maker must build up, preserve and deploy a proper endowment of tangible and intangible strategic resources systemically linked each other. The growth of a single organization and of a territorial community (like a urban area) embracing different institutions can be sustainable if the rate at which end-results change the endowment of corresponding stra-tegic resources is balanced. This implies that each institutional decision maker is able to increase the mix of strategic resources and that this increase is not obtained by reducing the endowment of the wider strategic resources in the territory [START_REF] Bianchi | Using System Dynamics to Enhance Performance Management in Local Government: An Application to Residential Refuse Collection[END_REF].

The Case Study: Sustainable Development, E-Government and Eco-CycleModelling in Sweden

We now describe the case study of Hammarby [START_REF]Commission for Architecture and the Built Environment[END_REF], a district of Stockholm in Sweden, including how specific territorial governance policies, e-government systems and dynamic performance measures were used to promote urban development and environmental sustainability. Our goal is to show how a systems approach can help public officials move to good territorial governance and performance and identify several possibilities of how SD can be used to improve territorial performance in terms of sustainable development. Hammarby is an admirable example of urban transformation, demonstrating the potential of sustainable development policy and eco-cycle modelling in the dynamic performance assessment of the interaction between different urban processing systems. Formerly a run-down part of town in Stockholm's industrial area affected by heavy pollution problems, it become an environmental role model in less than a decade. The city council developed the eco-cycle model to integrate environmental results with strategic planning. An ambitious programme to recycle all waste or waste water to turn into renewable energy was introduced to efficiently use the resources required by households (fig. 4). A preliminary territorial dynamic performance management model is presented in figure 5. The figure shows how the outcome indicators to take into account in order to monitor the effectiveness of adopted territorial policies in the investigated case-study, can be referred to two different sequential levels. On the one side, waste depletion and the change in environmental friendly produced energy are specific end-results for the project. They allow decision makers to affect waste accumulation and the stock of environmental friendly produced energy. Such end-results are affected by the recycling % (i.e. the ratio between recycled and total waste). Such driver is, in turn, affected by the investments in wastewater treatment plants (strategic resource) and by the stock of waste. Figure 5 also shows how the stock of environmental friendly produced energy affects a second critical driver, i.e., the % use of clean energy. This driver, on the one side affects the change in CO2 emissions in the territory (i.e. a third end-result); on the other side, it directly affects the territory attractiveness (i.e. a third performance driver). In fact, a higher % of clean energy produced in the territory will not only affect the environmental pollution levels, but also will directly generate less expensive available electric power available for the different players in the territory.

The ultimate effect (i.e. the outcome) of the described policies can be related to the effect of territory attractiveness -other things being equal -on community satisfaction (prosperity and wealth) and on the stock of population. This set of outcome measure is likely to play a quite counter-intuitive behaviour in the urban area. In fact, on the one side a higher achieved community prosperity will sustain more investments to foster the described policy. This might also imply a stronger and wider level of participation by several decision makers from different public/private sector institutions. This would indicate a higher level of trust and cohesion in the territory. Therefore, such first effect of the policy would underlie a growth-oriented reinforcing loop.

The role of e-government policies and systems in the production of the results described above is not the least important. As early as 2001, the Swedish government appointed a forum for ICT and the environment, under the then Minister for the Environment. Work was implemented in a working group consisting of representatives from industry, research, the Swedish Environmental Protection Agency (Swedish EPA), ministries and environmental organisations. Members of the group and its secretariat staff were recruited from both the private and the public sector [START_REF]Verva: Country Report 2008 Sweden for International Council for Information Technolo[END_REF][START_REF]Government Offices of Sweden: ICT and Energy Efficiency in Sweden[END_REF].

According to a 2007 Swedish Country Report to the International Council for Information Technology in Government Administration [START_REF]Verva: Country Report 2007 Sweden for International Council for Information Technolo[END_REF], the following three emerging e-government trends were reported from within Sweden: a) the traditional reliance on independent individual agencies is complemented with a reliance on functional 'agency federations'; b) The Swedish national agenda becomes more and more intertwined with the agenda as an EU Member State; c) The new (Autumn 2006) Government is signaling more emphasis on joined-up issues and an extended eGov portfolio for Verva, an Administration Development Expert Agency. Hence, while Hammarby's vision was being implemented by the municipal government of Stockholm all Swedish government agencies were preparing to move from an agency centric mode of information production and management to a service oriented architecture to offer their information vault capabilities 'as a service' [START_REF]European Commission: eGovernment in Sweden. epractice.eu[END_REF] increasing private sector initiative intensiveness and projects fostering information transparency and capillarity. Various cooperation projects were implemented between the government, public authorities and the construction industry [START_REF]Government Offices of Sweden: ICT and Energy Efficiency in Sweden[END_REF]. And finally a number of successful best practices have emerged from the private sector (especially in knowledge based industries), substantially increasing projects and initiatives also in traditional sectors like buildings, transport and logistics -overall increasing the attractiveness of the territory and creating new professional profiles, job opportunities and employment.

Towards an Agenda for the Evaluation of Urban Performance and Sustainable Development

Figure 6 illustrates the building blocks of territorial performance, sustainable urban development and the role of e-government policies and systems. The end-results of the exemplary case study presented in this paper can provide an endogenous source in the urban territory to the accumulation and depletion processes affecting strategic resources for sustainable development. These can be outlined in terms of climate change preparedness, liveability and citizens' satisfaction. In fact, they can be modelled as in or out-flows, which change over a given time span the corresponding stocks of strategic resources and as a result of actions implemented by public decision makers, possibly with the active participation of private sector institutions. For instance, municipal projects for sustainable urban development may change private sector participation in such projects (strategic resources) as well as the overall employment rate (end result). A responsible behaviour in energy use (an end-result) and the use of available and emerging technologies in the public sector and surrounding region (a strategic resource) may lead to the reduction of CO2 emissions (endresult) and can in turn influence performance drivers such as energy use. There are also interdependencies between different strategic resources, urban infrastructure and the resulting spatial planning and environmental quality of an urban area: energy produced, water used and waste produced and recycled may affect not only the reduction in waste and water pollution, but also air quality. Furthermore, both presence and functioning of e-government policies and systems can in turn affect changes in energy use and production and support overall progress towards sustainable development both in terms of processes as well as outcomes. A dynamic performance management perspective would stress that city governance and sustainability can improve if the rate at which end-results change the endowment of corresponding strategic resources is balanced. This implies that metropolitan management could be able to increase the mix of strategic resources and this increase is not obtained by reducing the endowment of the wider strategic resources in the territory including climate change preparedness, urban liability and citizens' satisfaction.

As shown in the case study, the combination of monitoring data with other urban data sets provided the base for the design of a dynamic performance management system on the theme of climate change and sustainable development supported by egovernment policies and systems. If analyzed and designed from the perspective and demands of policy makers and with the adoption of a SD approach, e-government policies and systems can provide tailor-made information and maps which can directly be used in support of an integrated climate change policy, city governance and sustainable territorial development.

Conlcusion

The case study of Hammarby provides evidence of the building blocks of territorial performance, sustainable urban development and the capacity of an integrated egovernment policy and for the simultaneous consideration of the environment in budgets, excellent spatial planning, reporting and SD based territorial policy development and monitoring. Most interestingly, a scenario analysis using a preliminary dynamic performance management system highlights a number of counter-intuitive elements in the capacity to transform waste into environmentally sustainable electricity, the increase in job opportunities and of the employment rate and the conversion of a former city brownfield in Stockholm into one of the world's most successful ecovillages.

In conclusion, preliminary SD models can be used to highlight new ways enabling sustainable development in urban areas. The case study also suggests that SD can provide policy makers with an overview of the strategic resources, performance drivers and end results needed to support improvements in the environmental quality of urban areas and for future investigations on the roles of public and private institutions in the development and implementation of climate change policies. We also find that a SD modelling in an inter-institutional context for the integration of sustainability issues in performance management and for the evaluation of sustainable development in urban areas may provide policy makers with new ideas to enable sustainable urban development and foster a common shared view among policy and decision makers allowing the networking of stakeholders at different levels (i.e. city, region and national) for the promotion of welfare and development and the extendibility of these networks to interact in collaborations on a global scale.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. A systematic framework embodying both the public and private sector: value generation as a focus for assessing performance and a prerequisite for information flows in sustainable development policy.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. A dynamic performance management view.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Hammarby's territorial management model.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. A SD insight model portraying Hammarby's territorial performance

Fig. 5 .

 5 Fig. 5. Building blocks of territorial performance, sustainable urban development and the role of e-government policies and systems.

2 Territorial Governance, E-Government and Sustainable Development Addressing

  and being prepared for climate change is a key policy priority in Europe. Both the Lisbon Agenda and the EU Strategy 2020 are calling for measured and targeted improvements in urban environmental sustainability, emphasising specific methods and clear performance objectives. These include the rapid ratification of the Kyoto Protocol and the introduction of the Energy Performance Building Directory in the European region, an energy taxation directive adopting environmental liabilities for building owners, stressing the sustainable use of energy within a new regulatory framework. Therefore, one of the most important challenges faced by metropolitan regions and municipal governments globally is to identify and support policies, systems and dynamics leading to good territorial governance and sustainable development in view of climate change.

	man-
	agement system, which can: a) outline key performance drivers of sustainable devel-
	opment, and b) enhance a common shared view among policy makers about sustaina-
	ble territorial performance (i.e. sustainable development and good urban governance)?
	The following section reviews the literature on territorial governance, e-government
	and sustainable development. Next we address the use of SD in the assessment of
	urban performance for sustainable development. Then we present the exemplary case-
	study of sustainable development, e-government and eco-cycle modelling in Sweden.
	Conclusions follow a discussion of the agenda for policy performance management in
	sustainable urban development.

The exemplary case study of Hammarby in Sweden was chosen because of its advanced programmes and achievements in the key areas of study of this paper, namely territorial governance, e-government, sustainable development and urban environmental performance. Hence, how can e-government support territorial governance and the coordination of sustainable development policies across different urban organisations and stakeholders? How can we use SD to design a dynamic performance