Natalia I Vargas-Cuentas
email: natalia.i.vargascuentas@ieee.org

Avid Roman-Gonzalez
email: roman-gonzalez@ieee.org

SPACE MARKET FACING THE ECONOMIC GROWTH IN SOUTH AMERICAN COUNTRIES

With the recent growth of development in the area of aerospace technology and the new possibilities of starting a small-scale space mission; countries without access to space before, have leaped to the aerospace era and now have access to space in many ways. For example, by carrying out various individual projects or by establishing agreements with other nations, including public or private investment.

In that sense, South America, having a significant economic growth in recent times, has become a potential for any company that wants to promote the aerospace technological development in the region. But for this, it is necessary to take into account the implementation of a proper market research and good planning of a strategy to target the problem solving and innovation that Latin American countries need.

As will be shown later in this research study, the data indicate that, in recent years, many South American countries were inclined to invest in remote sensing technology. Considering the above, the present research aims to show the relationship between the economic development of the countries of South America and visible decision to invest in space technology, specifically targeting remote sensing systems.

I. INTRODUCTION

The development of aerospace technology has been marked by various stages, from the beginning with the space race between the US and the former Soviet Union to today. The aerospace development represents for a country its technological level, capacity building, and their power. The development of the aerospace industry brings a lot of technology for the use of society in our daily lives, technology initially developed to explore the universe is the same as today we use in our daily lives Today we can see that the South American countries are showing strong economic growth, and this leads to a higher rate of development and increased investment in new technologies.

In recent years, it has seen as many governments in South America, have decided to invest in space systems. These space systems have different applications, among them we can mention disaster management, urban improvement, environmental assessment, telecommunications, etc. This growth means that many of the countries that previously only exported raw materials, now have the great opportunity to move into industrial development to add value to products. The possible technological development that this economic growth produce would also take in the future the need for aerospace technology in countries that do not yet have. Therefore, it is necessary, from now, to do planning studies and strategies for this potential market in our region.

This study, socially speaking, cover the entire population of all ages and all levels, for both genders, because the use of technologies that brings the aerospace industry today is used in everyday activities.

The development of aerospace technology is still considered often labeled "confidential" so that this situation represented a limitation to access some data during the development of this research study. The main objective of this work focuses on an assessment of the behavior of remote sensing space market in terms of economic growth posed by countries in South America.

This paper continues as follows, Section II presents an analysis of the aerospace technology around the world. Section III shows the different fields of the aerospace industry. In Section IV, is shown the incursion of South-American countries in remote sensing technology. Section V discusses the space market in South America. Finally, Section IV presents the conclusions.

II. AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY IN THE WORLD

In this section, we present the background to this study, the current status of space technology worldwide.

The development of space technology starts just after the Second World War, with the so-called "Space Race" that occurs during the period known as the "Cold War" between two powers such as the United States (USA) and so on that time was known as the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR).

Study Background

There are few types of research done on the issue of development of the aerospace market in South America, but among the works we can mention:

The authors of (Roman-Gonzalez & Vargas-Cuentas 2012) shows an overview of all that is aerospace technology in the world. (Roman-Gonzalez 2012) and (CNES 2009) present some of the issues of aerospace remote sensing technology in various fields. The work presented in (Algarañaz et al. 2011) shows a study on the possibility of creating clusters of companies in the aerospace area in Costa Rica. Finally, in (Canales Romero et al. 2012) we find the situation of Peruvian universities participating in the international QB50 project that aims to study the lower atmosphere using a network of 50 nano-satellites.

Aerospace Industry in the World

The "Space Race" begins with the launch of the first artificial satellite, Sputnik I launched by the USSR on October 4, 1957. Then, the dog Laika became the first animal in space, on November 3, 1957, also by the USSR. In 1958 the first US satellite was launched, the EXPLORER I. In 1959, the USSR would still keeping to the head of the "Space Race" with the arrival of the first probe to the Moon, the LUNIK 2. After two years, The Soviet cosmonaut Yuri Gagarin became the first man in space on April 12, 1961, aboard Vostok. In 1962, USA sent its manned flight in 1969 FRIENDSHIP 7. Only in 1969 US would take the lead in the space race with the first landing on the moon with Apollo 11. Then, the USSR achieved the first landing on Mars with its Marsnik 3. In 1972, the last manned mission to the moon with Apollo 17 would occur by USA. In 1986 the first permanent station was launched into space, the MIR station by the USSR. In 1990 t h e USA put into orbit the Hubble Space Telescope. After so much competition between two world powers in 1998, it's time to conduct missions together and so that Russia would send the first module of what would later become the International Space Station (ISS), this first module it is the ZARYA. In 2011 it was concluded the construction of the ISS, where the USA has a considerable percentage of the station, the second part was implemented by the Russians. Also, Japan and the Union European have a laboratory on the ISS and finally Canada has a robotic arm. Today, many countries are working with the ISS.

The economy of the aerospace industry is a special economy. The aerospace sector is not very big in the world economy. It is estimated that annually, total The Organization for Economic Co-operation and Development -OECD countries (30, including the G-8 and EU) spend between 100 and 150 MMD, equivalent to a percentage between 0.38% and 0.57% of the total GDP of these countries (According to 2010 CNES). Even the US, which is the country that invests more in aerospace, it spends less than 0.5% of its GDP.

However, aerospace receive much attention because it causes a side effect that comes with a lot of communications technology and other resources that could not be produced by any other system.

Further development of this sector symbolizes the technological strength, leadership, and imagination that has unlimited growth, which goes beyond the frontiers of knowledge since space is limitless. Factors that produce dynamic commercial use of aerospace applications occurred in 1980 from the rapid growth of satellite telecommunications services including TV broadcasts; establishing a commercial launch industry; the development of products that require high standards of quality and safety. Aerospace is an industry characterized by heavy investment in research and development of new technology.

According to different studies, the percentage of GDP that each country invests in the development of aerospace technology, only 60% is directed to the services market for value added, 30% is intended for the manufacture of terminals and only 10 % is designated for manufacturing satellites and launch services.

According to the CNES 2010, between countries that invest in aerospace technology, the European Union is in second place with 11.7%, and within the European Union, France is the country with the most investment, followed by Germany and Italy.

Of all the investment made in different countries to promote aerospace technology, we may divide it into two types of applications, military applications and civil applications. US invests more in military than in civilian applications, while the European Union and Japan invest more in civil applications than the military.

For the future, the growth of the aerospace sector is directly influenced by limits on government budgets, changes in the political, military conflicts, changes in social trends, fluctuations in the operation of capital markets in pricing systems and in international trade.

Although resources for the development of aerospace technology are very limited, their dividends are extremely high. So it remains an extremely dynamic sector, how much do the cellular companies for their service?, how much Google receives for the service provided by Google Earth?, Televisa, SKY, CNN, could live without satellites?

The services that can be developed in the coming decades are space tourism, space usage for point to point transportation of cargo and people, manufacturing of physical goods in the micro-gravity, energy production in space for ground use, mining space, etc.

III. DOMAINS OF AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY

Space technology could be divided into five major strategic domains: the area of security and defense, the sciences of the universe, the area of application to the public, the area of access to space, and the area of Earth, environment and climate.

Security and Defense

Aerospace technology has great applications for security and defense, as tools that help governments to control their borders and to properly trace their territory maps using radar, tracking systems, etc.

Access to Space

The European Union has a whole range of launchers ensuring its access to space completely independently. It has the Ariane5 which is the main launcher with a load capacity of 10 tons. Following an agreement signed with the Russians, now the Soyuz is launched from French Guiana, the Soyuz launched from Russia has a payload of 1.7 tons, but launched from Guyana increases their capacity to 2.8 tons by strategic geographic Guyana position. Also, it has a small launcher Vega with a capacity of 1.5 tons, which can meet the small demands. With these three launchers, Europe has the means to meet all kinds of demands.

Science of the Universe

Another major axes of the aerospace industry is exploring the universe in order to better understand the origin of the universe, everything that happened after the Big Bang and the formation of the different elements found in space. To perform this task, the aerospace technology has sent different missions as space telescopes, rovers, space probes, etc. Between these types of technology we could mention the satellite telecommunications, navigation and positioning systems, telemedicine, etc. CNES is currently conducting studies to analyze the spread of the dengue epidemic in parts of Africa through satellite images. (DLR)

Earth, Environment, and Climate For the evaluation of the Earth, atmosphere and climate, which are frequently used satellite images to fulfill the principle of remote sensing.

Remote sensing is the technology that allows us to obtain information about the Earth's surface without contact with it. This is done by detecting and recording the energy emitted or reflected by the Earth and processing, analyzing and applying that information.

Chile IV. SOUTH AMERICA WITH AEROSPACE TECHNOLOGY IN REMOTE SENSING

scheduled to be released in May 2010, but was launched on June 10, 2011. Built by the company INVAP -Argentina in cooperation with the American space agency NASA, the main objective of this satellite is The Satellite Earth Observing System of Chilean was signed in 2008 and involved an initial payment of at least $ 72 million for the Chilean government, this satellite is based on the AstroSat-100 satellite platform of the French company EADS Astrium, has weighing 115 kg, it has a high resolution camera with 1.45 meters of resolution in panchromatic mode and 5.8 m in multispectral mode with 4 bands, a broad sweep of 10.15 km, with a period of 5 days and five years of life.

Brazil

The CBERS-2B satellite was launched on 17 September 2007 and was built through a cooperation agreement between the government of Brazil and China (Corporation China Aerospace Science and Technology-CASC) at an approximate cost of $ 200 million. The CBERS-2B is based on a similar to that of its predecessor CBERS-2A, platform weighs 1,450 kg, has a high resolution camera with 2.55 meters detail in panchromatic mode and 20, 80 and 260 mts mode with 4 multispectral bands, variable sweep width depending on the level of detail of 27, 120 and 890 km, and a revisit period of 130, 26 and 5 days respectively, it was designed to have a lifespan of five years, however officially stopped operating the July 9, 2010, after only two years and 10 months of operation due to technical problems.

Venezuela

September 28, 2012, was put into orbit the first earth observation satellite of Venezuela called "Miranda", the same that was built by the Chinese company Great Cooperación Industrial Wall (CGWIC), subsidiary of the China Aerospace of Science and Technology Corporation (CASC). The satellite "Miranda» had an initial cost of 140 million dollars. According to information published in various media, had an initial increase in the budget of 35 million for the construction of the satellite itself, to secure 13 millio n and 24 million for the construction of satellite factory, adding all approximately 212 million dollars. The VRSS-1 satellite is based on CAST2000 bus developed by the China Academy of Space Technology (CAST), and according to information now available, has a camera with a panchromatic sensor with 2.5 meters of a level of detail, makes the most expensive bought in the region, due to their limited technical characteristics.

Argentina

The SAC-D satellite (Satellite of Scientific-D applications) SAC-D, also called Aquarius, was get climatic and oceanographic information, processes measuring ocean salinity, identify pockets of high temperature on the Earth's surface for conducting fire risk maps and soil moisture, etc. This scientific satellite has multiple instruments such as radar and infrared sensor, medium resolution camera that can take data at different levels of detail up to 2 times a day and sweep variable widths from 380 to 1.600 km wide, according the tool you use, weighs 1,600 kg and at least 5 years of life.

Ecuador

The April 25, 2013, was placed in orbit the first Ecuadorian nano-satellite NEE-01 Pegasus, the same as using a platform called CubeSat 10 x 10 x 10 cm and 1 kg. This is basically a scientific experimental satellite and was designed and built in Ecuador, by the Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency (EXA), without foreign assistance. It was built with contributions from private entities, who invested $ 80,000, while Ecuador contributed with about $ 700,000 for the launch, insurance, logistics and tests of certification.

Peru

Peru, with his Peruvian Space Agency -CONIDA (Comision Nacional de Investigacion y Desarrolo Aeroespacial), on September 15, 2016, launch of its first Earth Observation Satellite, this space system, includes a sub metric satellite, the launch and insurance and ground infrastructure.

Also the technology transfer and training of 30 Peruvian engineers in the city of Toulouse -France, for seventeen months to acquire skills, competencies and professional skills as indicated by the supplier.

This acquisition represents an investment of approximately 212 million dollars to the Peruvian government. The Bolivian Space Agency announced the country's willingness to purchase a remote sensing satellite in the near future.

V. NANO-SATELLITES: EMERGING TECHNOLOGY

Thanks to the miniaturization of various electronic systems, one was developing small crafts called nanosatellite, which can be launched into space and complete the basic functions of a standard size satellite.

We can see that nowadays there are different raids in the development and implementation of nano-satellites, in the world, as the nanotechnology has enabled create systems with a new principle: "Faster, Better, Cheaper", with size reduction, time reduction, we can achieve a decreasing cost. This investment is ranging from a few hundred thousand dollars (especially in nano-satellite missions with educational goals), up to hundreds of millions of dollars (for space missions with more real purposes into society applications).

This can prove the interest of these countries in South America in promoting the development of the space industry, first by the needs of different applications that can be given to this type of technology, and second by economic growth that these countries are showing. Economic growth (in many cases is between 3 to 6%), it allows the Latin American countries, invest in satellite technology, years ago this idea was not in the plans of many South American countries (who thought only of strengthening education, health and other basic services to the population).

It is worth mentioning that these investments in satellite technology are given through the purchase to companies from North America, Russia, Europe, China, or Japan. This is because there is not yet a Latin American company that can offer satellite technology to market. So this evidence the lack of a development of its own technology in this field of engineering.

However, it is believed that there is a possibility to start in the aerospace market through the development of nanosatellite missions. In recent years there has been the incursion of many educational institutions in the development of CubeSat. That is why the aerospace market could be more dynamic by opening the market to more companies for increase the development of nanosatellite missions.

Likewise, it is believed that another market opportunity arises from the geographical position of some Latin American countries such as Peru and Ecuador, this position takes this opportunity to become space launch centers. Given that the launch price is around $ 80,000 per kilogram, the opportunity to implement a launch center suggests an interesting business in South America. If it is true, governments may have limitations to invest in a project of this type, but with the interest and support of private investment, could get into this potential market together.

Regarding missions simulation, and the growing interest in sending manned missions to Mars, the desert of La Joya in Arequipa -Peru, or the salt desert Uyuni in Potosi -Bolivia, could become in good locations for do the simulation of Mars exploration, as is being done in the Mars Desert Research Station -MDRS located in the deserts of Utah -USA.  In South America's market do not exist a company that could offer satellite technology.  The foray into the aerospace market can be initiated through nano-satellite missions, who is showing a significant increase in recent years.  The nano-satellite market should only be the first step to venture into the development of the industry of satellite technology in South America.  Another potential market is for space launches because South America is in a favorable geographical position for that purpose.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Investment in aerospace technology (CNES) Although aerospace emerged as a political reality of the technological race during the Cold War, it has always been linked with the economy. It started as a direct government spending (US and USSR) but had multiplier effects that have allowed the creation of new technologies that raise productivity; stimulating a new industrial development and new products; training the workforce in new capacity and technical skills; the emergence of new technologies side.Factors that produce dynamic commercial use of aerospace applications occurred in 1980 from the rapid growth of satellite telecommunications services including TV broadcasts; establishing a commercial launch industry; the development of products that require high standards of quality and safety. Aerospace is an industry characterized by heavy investment in research and development of new technology.According to different studies, the percentage of GDP that each country invests in the development of aerospace technology, only 60% is directed to the services market for value added, 30% is intended for the manufacture of terminals and only 10 % is designated for manufacturing satellites and launch services.According to the CNES 2010, between countries that invest in aerospace technology, the European Union is in second place with 11.7%, and within the European Union, France is the country with the most investment, followed by Germany and Italy.Of all the investment made in different countries to promote aerospace technology, we may divide it into two types of applications, military applications and civil applications. US invests more in military than in civilian applications, while the European Union and Japan invest more in civil applications than the military.

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig. 2: Gamma of launchers of the European Union.(CNES)

Fig. 3 :

 3 Fig. 3: Example of using satellite images in disaster.(DLR)

Fig. 4 :

 4 Fig. 4: Signing of the purchase of the Peruvian satellite (Peru21)

Fig. 5 :Fig. 6 :

 56 Fig. 5: Nations and continents who launched nanosatellites 2016. (Nanosatellite & CubeSat Database) Already several countries and institutions have developed and currently are developing nano-satellites with different primary objectives, but with one purpose: access to space.

Fig. 7 :

 7 Fig. 7: Nano-satellite by launch years (Nanosatellite & CubeSat Database) VI. DISCUSSION OF THE AEROSPACE MARKET IN SOUTH AMERICA As seen in previous sections, several South American countries are investing in space systems.This investment is ranging from a few hundred thousand dollars (especially in nano-satellite missions with educational goals), up to hundreds of millions of dollars (for space missions with more real purposes into society applications).This can prove the interest of these countries in South America in promoting the development of the space industry, first by the needs of different applications that can be given to this type of technology, and second by economic growth that these countries are showing.

Fig. 8 :

 8 Fig. 8: GDP Growth Rates in Latin American Economies (OECD)

Fig. 6 :

 6 Fig. 6: Mars Desert Research Station -Crew 138 VII. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS  In recent years it has presented a significant increase in interest from South American countries to invest in aerospace technology.  The investment made by countries in South America, mainly consist in acquiring the aerospace


Natalia I Vargas-Cuentas
email: natalia.i.vargascuentas@ieee.org

Avid Roman-Gonzalez
email: roman-gonzalez@ieee.org

,3,x34368 NANOSATELLITES: ACTUAL MISSION THAT CAN PERFORM

Today, thanks to the miniaturization of various electronic systems, one was developing small crafts called nanosatellite, which can be launched into space and complete the basic functions of a standard size satellite. During some years, it has been observed that the popularity of nano-satellites has grown considerably. Already several countries and institutions have developed and currently are developing nano-satellites with different primary objectives, but with one purpose: access to space.

Given this emerging technology, there are some questions that still open: Does serve a nano-satellite?, Is it functional?, What is its primary contribution? Most of the nano-satellites have a purely educational purpose since its development is looking to venture into the research and application of aerospace technologies, establishing the basis for implementing major projects in the future.

On the other hand, the nano-satellite development serves as an introduction and training of new professionals in the aerospace field. A nano-satellite is a tool for demonstrating scale development of a spatial element that can be placed into an orbit and can communicate with the Earth, at least with a simple "beep" transmitted on its waves. But, on the other hand, there are much more complex nanosatellite missions oriented to different complex tasks. These tasks could be remote sensing missions, communication, physical characteristics monitoring, magnetic field, radiation monitoring, climate change, meteorology, agriculture, deforestation, communication, astronomy, planetary sciences, etc.

Due to this wide range of possibilities at the engineering level, this paper aims to analyze the actual capabilities of a nano-satellite to perform the different missions giving today. One analyze different nanosatellite missions, their goals, and successes. Based on this information, the idea is to present a series of conclusions about what we can realistically expect of a nanosatellite mission today.

I. INTRODUCTION

The development of nano-technology, after the cold war, has allowed reducing the size of the different systems in different engineering fields. The aerospace field could not be separated from this development. Nanotechnology has enabled create systems with a new principle: "Faster, Better, Cheaper", [18] with size reduction, time reduction, we can achieve a decreasing cost, thus ensuring that space is accessible not only to developed countries.

In this context we see a huge reduction of the costs/time of manufacturing and launching a satellite, which is by far the most expensive part of the space research endeavor, making space more accessible to developing countries, like several South American countries who are investing in space systems.

This can prove the interest of these countries in South America in promoting the development of the space technology industry, with the use of nanosatellites as scientific research and technology validation platforms is now increasingly recognized, first by the needs of different applications that can be given to this type of technology, also we have to take in to account that the new capabilities offered by the nano-satellites promises to increase research in this type of nano-systems [19].

The nano-satellites development serves as an introduction and training of new professionals in the aerospace field. to develop a nano-satellite would venture into aerospace research and application of technologies providing the possibility to establish the basis to implement large projects using local knowledge and technology.

The experimental science of designing, implementing, and putting a nano-satellite into orbit involves the use of engineering and technology in such knowledge areas as: communication, telematics, telemetry and remote sensing, also others inherent subjects as automation, control, and remote control [START_REF] Vargas-Cuentas | [END_REF].

A nano-satellite is a tool for demonstrating scale development of a spatial element that can be placed into an orbit and can communicate with the Earth, at least with a simple "beep" transmitted on its waves. But, on the other hand, there are much more complex nanosatellite missions oriented to different complex tasks. These tasks could be remote sensing missions, communication, physical characteristics monitoring, magnetic field, radiation monitoring, climate change, meteorology, agriculture, deforestation, communication, astronomy, planetary sciences, etc.

II. NANO-SATELLITES MISSIONS

This section describe the background of this study, are presented, the current situation of nano-satellites, as emerging technology worldwide, first we present a South American approach and finally we provide a global approach.

Thanks to the miniaturization of various electronic systems, one was developing small crafts called nanosatellite, which can be launched into space and complete the basic functions of a standard size satellite.

Nano-Satellites Missions in South America

A. Argentina CubeBug-1 is the technical name of "Capitan Beto" the first Argentine nano-satellite, weighing 2 kgr and dimensions of 10 cm square. This CubeSat was launched from the space center in Jiuquan-China by the rocket Long March 2 on April 26, 2013. This nanosatellite had the scientific mission of this nanosatellite was to explore the universe and its conditions. The CubeBug-1 was conceived, designed and manufactured by the Satellogic Company in collaboration with the Applied Research Company (INVAP) in the province of Rio Negro and funded by the Ministry of Science, Technology and Innovation. "Capitan Beto" meant the first step to democratize access to space. On the other hand the project has educational and scientific purposes not only for Argentina but throughout South America since both hardware and software of CubeBug-1 are open platform and available to any university or research institute. [START_REF] Vargas-Cuentas | [END_REF] B. Brazil The South Regional Center for Space Research at the University of Santa Maria of Brazil developed the first nano-satellite called NanoSatC-Br1; this CubeSat mission was primarily to provide monitoring of the Earth's magnetosphere, making measurements of the magnetic field on Brazilian, Ecuadorian, and South Atlantic territory. [START_REF] Freitas | Desenvolvimento de uma Estação Terena (ET) para o Nanosatélite Científico Brasileiro -NanoSatc-Br[END_REF] The NanoSatC-Br1 is 10 × 10 × 11.3 cm and weighs 1.33 kg and was launched as a secondary payload on a Chinese vehicle in 2014 with the Satellite China-Brazil Earth Resources Satellite (CBERS-4) [15].

In August 29, 2015 Brazil launched the SERPENS mission a nano-satellite of 3U, developed by a University Consortium. The main objective of SERPENS was have a transponder to test VHF and S-band communications for store and forward messaging, a UHF transponder fully compatible with the HUMSAT store and forward messaging system and pulsed plasma thruster (PPT) built by Mars Space Ltd. and Clyde Space. [START_REF] Vargas-Cuentas | [END_REF] C. Colombia April 27, 2007 the first South American nanosatellite was launched from the Baikonur Cosmodrome in Kazakhstan. Less than a kilogram of mass and a volume of 10 cm3 , this project was called Libertad I, which was the first foray into nano-satellite technology by Colombia and was developed by three teachers and three students from the Universidad Sergio Arboleda. This CubeSat orbited the Earth about 30 days and sent temperature data every 45 minutes. This project was a first step for Colombian in space development and meant an appropriation of technology and knowledge.

The University Sergio Arboleda is currently leading its second nanosatellite design and development, which will be called "Libertad II" [16]. D. Chile SUCHAI is a 1U Cubesat, developed at the Space and Planetary Exploration Laboratory (SPEL), this nano-satellite carries a Langmuir probe, a small camera, and his main mission is operate in coordination with ground-based instruments such as magnetometer networks and Incoherent Scatter Radars (ISRs) for measure the plasma density at low orbit at all latitudes this measurements will help to study the magnetospheric/ionospheric plasma parameters.

The Cubesat SUCHAI .is expected to be in orbit in 2016, it will be launched in a Space-X Falcon-9 rocket [17].

E. Ecuador

The NEE-01Pegaso was developed in 2011entirely by Ecuadorian professionals belonging to the Ecuadorian Civilian Space Agency (EXA), the objective of the nano-satellite was to transmit video in real time since it was equipped with a camera. The launch of the first Ecuadorian nano-satellite was from Jiuquan spaceport in China by the Long March 2 rocket in April 2013. On 16 May of the same year, Pegaso was broadcasting its first images in real time while orbiting Ecuadorian territory. On May 23, 2013 the NEE-01 stopped broadcasting since it collided with space debris. [START_REF] Vargas-Cuentas | [END_REF] F. Peru Peru, with the support of its national space agency CONIDA (Comision Nacional de Investigacion y Desarrolo Aeroespacial) is trying to make inroads in the development of spce technology. The Pontificia Universidad Catolica del Peru (PUCP) launched the first peruvian nano-satellite PUCP-SAT in November 2013 The University Alas Peruanas (UAP) launched his nano-satellite UAPSAT in January 2014. This CubeSat a cubic shape and measures 10 × 10 × 10 cm with a mass of 1 kg, the same will be dedicated to meet technology demonstration objectives for scientific and educational purposes On the other hand, the National Engineering University (UNI) developed a CubeSat called Chaski-I will have a weight of 1kilogramo and dimensions of 10 × 10 × 10 cm and its main objective is to transmit images of Earth in color and infrared range, its launch was in February 2014. [START_REF] Vargas-Cuentas | [END_REF] G. Uruguay The first experience in development of space systems in Uruguay has been carried out by the Institute of Electrical Engineering (IIE) and the entity ANTEL (Administración Nacional de Telecomunicaciones), the two entities supported by the Uruguayan government have achieved development a nano-satellite called ANTELSAT whose mission is to transmit in color and infrared images of Earth's surface. ANTELSAT also seeks to promote education and research in the field of aerospace technologies for undergraduate students and develop in them skills in radio communication and handling of nano-satellites, ANTELSAT was launched on June 19, 2014. [START_REF] Vargas-Cuentas | [END_REF] Nano-Satellite Missions in the World GAMALINK, which is an S-band inter-satellite communication module, a novel dual band GPS/BD receiver, an AIS receiver, and an ADS-B receiver, all being designed based on SDR technologies. Also a novel cold-gas micro propulsion module based on MEMS technology will be used for orbit and constellation control. TW-1 project consists of three nano-satellites carrying different payloads and instruments with one 3U CubeSat and two 2U CubeSats, forming an along-trace satellite network. [ C. United Kingdom UKube-1 (United Kingdom Universal Bus Experiment 1), it 1s a cubesat of 3U, developed for the United Kingdom Space Agency and the Clyde Space, University of Strathclyde, launched by the rocket Soyuz-2 1b on July 08, 2014. This nano-satellite aimed measure the plasmaspheric space weather. The CMOS Image Demonstrator by the Open University is a camera that will take images of the earth and test the effect of radiation on space hardware using a new generation of image sensor. Astrium's "Janus" Experiment to demonstrate the feasibility of using cosmic radiation to improve the security of communications satellites and to flight test lower cost electronic systems. AMSAT's FUNcube-2, an outreach payload allowing school children of primary and secondary age to interact with the spacecraft. The GOSTE-1 Mission will develop and deploy a Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) radio occulation (RO) system that will contribute to our understanding of tropical cyclogenesis. GPS Radio Occultation Experiment and Comprehensive Open Source Mission Operations Software (COSMOS) Technology Demonstration. Observations from the tropics will be combined with observational data from other sources to provide improved maps of mid-level moisture, vorticity, and temperature in the upper troposphere and lower stratosphere. These products will improve estimates of the potential intensity of developing tropical cyclones and their intensity predictions, while the temperature profiles through the stratosphere will provide observations for testing general circulation model predictions. GOSTE-1 is a nano-satellite of 3U and is been developed by the University of Hawaii at Manoa, the launch year have to be determine. [21] Remote Sensing Missions CaNOP (Canopy Near-IR Observing Project), this 3U nano-satellite is being developed by Carthage College in United States of America. This cubesat will have a remote sensing platform for performing multispectral imaging of global forests to help understand large-scale biomass production and carbon uptake in both mature and harvested forests. The launch year of this nano-satellite have to be determine. [21] Meteorology CONASAT mission is developed by the National Institute for Space Research in Brazil, this nano-satellite mission will have at least two identical satellites of 8U, CONASAT A Y B. The main objective is gather environmental data like rain volume, temperature, humidity, air pollution, ocean streams, environmental hazards, etc. collected and transmitted to satellite by remote platforms on ground, and to retransmit them to the mission center. The launch year have to be determine. [20] Planetary Sciences CHIRP is a 6U nano-satellite developed by NASA Jet Propulsion Laboratory (JPL) this CubeSat will have a VHF transmitter to study Ionospheric dispersion of Radio Pulses. Science mission concept in which a CubeSat mounted antenna would transmit wideband Very High Frequency (VHF) 30-300 MHz pulses through the ionosphere to a ground receiver. The objective of the mission would be to verify dedispersion algorithms and to quantify the day-to-day variability of the ionosphere as a function of geophysical inputs required for the advancement of charged particle astronomy. The launch year have to be determine. [21]

VI. CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

 In recent years it has presented a significant increase in interest from South American countries to invest in aerospace technology.  The investment made by countries in South America, mainly consist in acquire the aerospace technology to other countries outside Latin America.  In South America's market do not exist a company that could offer satellite technology.  The foray into the aerospace market can be initiated through nanosatellite missions, who is showing a significant increase in recent years.  The nanosatellite market should only be the first step to venture into the development of the industry of satellite technology in South America.  Another potential market is for space launches, because South America is in a favorable geographical position for that purpose.

VII. REFERENCES [1]

A. Roman-Gonzalez, N. I. Vargas-Cuentas; "Tecnología Aeroespacial en el Mundo";

  A. China 3CAT2 is a 6U CubeSat mission designed to perform ocean altimetry by means of Global Navigation Satellite Systems Reflectometry (GNSS-R). The main payload is the novel dual-band altimeter P(Y) & C/A ReflectOmeter (PYCARO). Was developed by the Universitat Politècnica de Catalunya -Barcelona TECH. This Cubesat was launched by the rocket Long March 2D on August 15, 2016.[22]

  [22] III. NANO-SATELLITES IN THE NEAR FUTURE GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite Systems)

  Lemur-2, it is a constellation of 12 nano-satellites, 3U with the main mission to provide weather data for government and commercial customers. Spire plans to provide this data by measuring signals from GPS satellites as those signals pass through the atmosphere. This technique, known as GPS radio occultation, provides profiles of temperature, pressure, and humidity in the atmosphere that can be incorporated into weather forecasting models.Lemur mission has two payloads: STRATOS imaging payload and the SENSE AIS payload. The SENSE payload enables tracking shipos worldwide by receiving their AIS signals. Spire satellites listen for GPS satellite signals -which are impacted as they pass through Earth's atmosphere. Using a process called GPS radio occultation, Spire measures the change in GPS signal readings to calculate very precise profiles for temperature, pressure, and humidity here on Earth. Was developed by the private company Spire. This constellation of cubesats was launched by the rocket Atlas V on March 23, 2016.[22]

		CAMSAT (AMSAT China) developed a
		constellations of nano-satellite for amateur radio
		missions. They was launched by the rocket Long
		Marcha 6, on September 19, 2015.
		CAS, Chinese Amateur Radio Satellite, have the
		amateur communications payload and it consists of U/V
		20 kHz wide transponders with 145 MHz CW beacon
		and 19k2 GMSK AX25 telemetry downlinks. Also have
		atmospheric physics experiments. [22]
		B. United States of America
		Flock-2p, it is a constellation of 12 nano-satellites
		of 3U for optical earth observation with 3-5m
		resolution. Was developed by the private Company
		Planet Labs. This constellation was launched by the
		rocket PSLV-XL on June 22, 2016. [22]
		NODes is a technology demonstration of a pair of
		lowcost	1.5U	nano-satellites,	each	weighing
		approximately 2 kilograms and measuring 10
		centimeters by 10 centimeters by 17 centimeters, in
		Low Earth Orbit (LEO) with advanced cross-link and
		downlink communications capability, suitable as a
		platform for Space Weather or other science
	22]	applications requiring geographically distributed,
		synchronized data acquisition.
	Tianwang-1C was developed by the Shanghai	Was developed by the NASA Ames Research Center
	Engineering Centre for Microsatellites and was	and the Montana State University, Santa Clara
	launched by the rocket Chang Zheng-11, on September	University. This two cubesats was launched by the
	25, 2015. Tianwang-1C was developed by the Shanghai	rocket Atlas V on December 6, 2015. [21]
	Engineering Centre for Microsatellites and was
	launched by the rocket Chang Zheng-11, on September
	25, 2015. [22]


Avid Roman-Gonzalez
email: roman-gonzalez@ieee.org

Natalia I Vargas-Cuentas
email: natalia.i.vargascuentas@ieee.org

INCA PROGRAM FOR DEVELOPING A NANOSATELLITE AT THE UCH

Given the technological development, the incursion on aerospace topics in the Peru, and the interest from students in engaging in a space mission; the Universidad de Ciencias y Humanidades -UCH embarks on the design and implementation of a nanosatellite project. To this objective, it has been created the INCA group by its acronym in Spanish "INvestigacion en Ciencias Aeroespaciales" (research on aerospace sciences). This group is formed by two students from the professional school of electronic engineering for each module of the nanosatellite. In these six months of work, it has been advancing with the search and study of the state of the art on the development of nanosatellites in South America and around the world.

I. INTRODUCTION

The development and put in orbit of nanosatellite have increased in recent years, especially from universities around the world and space agencies of developing countries. This increase is primarily due to reduced costs -compared to standard space missionsof the implementation of nanosatellites missions.

Despite the cost reduction on a nanosatellite mission, although it's hard to implement a mission of this dimension for universities in developing countries. This difficulty is mainly due to low economic resources, the poor organization of research groups, and the rapid stage of students who after graduation are no longer interested in unfinished projects.

By the above reasons, in this paper, we present the proposal to form the INCA Team for its acronym in Spanish 'INvestigacion en Ciencias Aeroespaciales' (research on Aerospace Sciences), and also the name of the team refers to one of the most important cultures of Peru.

With the creation of the INCA Team, the idea is to start a project to design and implement a nanosatellite for the Universidad de Ciencias y Humanidades -UCH in Peru. We will compose groups of pair students for each module of the nanosatellite, also for the test modules. These students become to the electronics engineering school. In a first stage, students begin with the design of the modules for a year and a half. These designs will be the undergraduate thesis of the students. In a second stage, new students for the lasts cycles will be recruited to implement the modules designed for their colleagues who preceded them in the INCA Team. Similarly, this implementation corresponds to the undergraduate thesis of the students. For these implementations, we will also invest a year and a half.

Finally, after three years we will have a nanosatellite implemented and ready to put into orbit.

The continuation of this article is organized as follows: Section II shows the different modules for a nanosatellite and how the student groups are conformed to develop them. In Section III, the description of our first results is mentioned. Finally, in Section IV the discussion and our conclusions will be presented.

II. NANOSATELLITE MODULES AND

WORKING GROUPS SCHEMA The nanosatellite project of the Universidad de Ciencias y Humanidades called UCHSAT will be based on the CubeSat standard. The CubeSat standard was proposed by Stanford University and Polytechnic State University California (Cal Poly) in 1999 [START_REF]CubeSat Standards: CubeSat Design Specification (CDS) Rev[END_REF] [START_REF] Heidt | CubeSat : A new Generation of Picosatellite for Education and Industry Low-Cost Space Experimentation[END_REF].

The principal objective of the UCH to develop a nanosatellite is the education purpose, preparing students and professionals within the aerospace branch.

A nanosatellite is composed principally by the following required modules: [START_REF] Konstantinidis | CubeSats : a Review[END_REF] The OBC is the main module the nano-satellite and it is in charge of the largest number of tasks running on board as well as the interconnection of the other modules. The OBC also is responsible for the different calculations of the system and it must to generates the necessary information about the state of the scheme. Another task of the OBC is the interpretation of the commands from Earth to perform experiments according to an established schedule.

Power Module (PSM)

This module aims to provide the necessary energy to the satellite platform. The principal components of the PSM are solar panels and batteries. The power generated by the solar panels can be used to provide energy directly to the nanosatellite or for charging batteries. The batteries are used when the solar panels do not produce enough energy for the platform the nanosatellite is in the shadow).

Thermal Control Module (TCM)

The thermal module is in charge of maintaining the most critical EEE components of the system in an optimal temperature range for normal operation. The TCM consist principally by thermistors, which will be responsible for sensing temperature and then sending the information to the OBC. For low temperatures, it has heaters; and for high temperatures, it has heat sinks.

Communication System (COM)

The COM aims to connect the space segment (nanosatellite itself) with the ground segment (ground station (GSM)). The first thing to transmit is information from the OBC to the ground station and then, receive information obtained on Earth back up to the OBC. Communication between the space segment and ground segment is performed using radio frequency waves.

Attitude Control System (ACS)

The ACM is responsible for determining the position and orientation of the nanosatellite. The ACM also is in charge of changing the nanosatellite orientation according to the requirements for operation and experiment. This module could be implemented using orientation sensors like accelerometers, gyroscopes, GPS; and the direction can be changed with reaction wheels or propulsion systems.

Structure (STM)

The STM is the mechanical structure or chassis of the nanosatellite. This module can be made based on different materials like aluminum, duralumin, or titanium as in the case of the Ecuadorian nanosatellite Pegaso [START_REF] Nader | The Ecuadorian Experience in Space: The NEE Satellite Constellation[END_REF]. The STM aims to hold the solar panels and the different nanosatellite modules. It will be necessary also a deployment system in which the nanosatellite is introduced for better fixation in the launcher. This deployment system allows to nanosatellite go out of the launcher when it reaches the desired orbit.

Payload (PLM)

The PLM is the experiment itself; it refers the nanosatellite mission. The mission can be an artist application, an engineering application, and an application for in-situ demonstration, among others.

Our INCA program started in March 2016 (semester 2016-I), the first student involved in the program are students from the electronics engineering school of the Universidad de Ciencias y Humanidades. These students were recruited from the 8th semester.

In the Universidad de Ciencias y Humanidades the undergraduate students, when they are at 8th semester, they must decide, define, and establish their final project with wich, they will obtain their bachelor degree. So, the student will have a year and a half to develop their project (until semester 2017-I). -Luis Alberto RICCI CASTRO and Oscar ARELLANO AYALA are responsible for the Power Module (PSM).

-Andres Jesus MILLA SALAZAR charged of the Thermal Control Module (TCM).

-Marino BALTAZAR VEGA is responsible for the Communication System (COM).

-Dennis SALDANA REYNA in charge of the Attitude Control System (ACS).

-Edwin Orlando LOPEZ ROJAS is responsible for the Payload (PLM).

-Fernando Andres MANCILLA RAMOS charged of the Ground Station (GSM).

When one think about a nanosatellite project, one not only must reflect on the nanosatellite itself but also, it is necessary to think about the testing process.

A nanosatellite must tested in different aspects. The nanosatellite must support the hard space environment like radiation, temperature changes, vacuum, vibration, etc. For this reason, one need to test the space situation on Earth. It is necessary to have modules for vibration test, thermal vacuum box, Co60 source (for radiation test).

For this reason, in the INCA program, one includes the design of a shaker. The shaker will be based on an turning eccentric mass like a vibration module presented on [START_REF] Gonzalez | Design and construction of a module for the dynamic excitation and vibrational analysis of structures[END_REF]. Victor Niels ROMERO ALVA (currently student of 8th semester) is in charge of the design of the shaker. During these six first months, the bibliography revision was done. The students look for the state of the art regarding international CubeSat like [START_REF] Chanover | A Europa CubeSat Concept Study for Measuring Europa's Atmosphere[END_REF], [START_REF] Grim | MakerSat: A CubeSat Designed for In-Space 3D Print and Assembly[END_REF], and [START_REF] Rincon | The Puerto Rico CubeSat a Project to Attract STEAM Students into the Area of Aerospace Engineering[END_REF]; and Peruvian CubeSat like PUCPSat-1, PocketPUCP, Chaski-1, and UAPSAT-1 [START_REF] Roman-Gonzalez | Aerospace Technology in Peru" 66th International Astronautical Congress-IAC[END_REF]. Now, in this semester (2016-II) the idea is to include a second student to each team for a grouping work. These students must be from the 6th semester. The idea is that the design of each module can serve as a final project to obtain the bachelor degree for the first student (a year and a half of development), and the implementation of the design could serve as the final project for the second students (another year and a half of work).

Also, in the 2016-II semester, a new student is included in the INCA program to design a shaker for the testing component.

IV. DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS At the start of the INCA program, it was scheduled to have a nanosatellite called UCHSAT after three years of work. But it was an ideal timetable, because, one did not consider the different delays that can occur in the process. Also, following the plan depends on the people involved in the project, and when they are students, the project risks increase.

It is not easy to have a homogeneous advance between all groups. The compromise degree with the project is different for each student. Currently, it is not possible to determine the exact time when the nanosatellite will be ready. But the idea is to continue the work, motivate the student and recruit more students.

In Peru, the Nacional Council for Science, Technology, and Innovation -CONCYTEC, gives funding for research projects. The INCA program expects to win funding to develop the nanosatellite.

To nanosatellite launch, we hope to apply for the JAXA program to launch nanosatellites from Kibo Module of the International Space Station (ISS) (http://www.unoosa.org/oosa/en/ourwork/psa/hsti/kiboc ube.html).

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Structure of the INCA program

Fig. 2 :

 2 Fig.2: Example of shaker[START_REF] Gonzalez | Design and construction of a module for the dynamic excitation and vibrational analysis of structures[END_REF]


Thomas Pradeu
email: thomas.pradeu@u-bordeaux.fr

Biological individuality is a major topic of discussion in biology and philosophy of biology. Recently, several objections have been raised against traditional accounts of biological individuality, including the objections of monism (the tendency to focus on a single individuality criterion and/or a single biological field), theory-centrism (the tendency to discuss only theory-based individuation), ahistoricity (the tendency to neglect what biologists of the past and historians of biology have said about biological individuality), disciplinary isolationism (the tendency to isolate biological individuality from other scientific and philosophical domains that have investigated individuality), and the multiplication of conceptual uncertainties (the lack of a precise definition of "biological individual" and related terms). In this introduction, I will examine the current philosophical landscape about biological individuality, and show how the contributions gathered in this special issue address these five objections. Overall, the aim of this issue is to offer a more diverse, unifying, and scientifically informed conception of what a biological individual is.

Introduction: The significance of the problem of biological individuality

The problem of biological individuality has been central for philosophers of biology, both recently [START_REF] Wilson | Genes and the agents of life: The individual in the fragile sciences, biology[END_REF][START_REF] Okasha | Evolution and the Levels of Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Clarke | The Problem of Biological Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Pradeu | The Limits of the Self: Immunology and Biological Identity[END_REF][START_REF] Bouchard | From Groups to Individuals: Perspectives on Biological Associations and Emerging Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Clarke | The Multiple Realizability of Biological Individuals[END_REF][START_REF] Godfrey-Smith | Darwinian Individuals[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | The Biological Notion of Individual[END_REF] and less recently [START_REF] Hull | A Matter of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individuality and Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Biological individuality : the identity and persistence of living entities[END_REF]). It has also been widely discussed by biologists (e.g., [START_REF] Medawar | The Uniqueness of the Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Ghiselin | A Radical Solution to the Species Problem[END_REF][START_REF] Buss | The Evolution of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Smith | The major transitions in evolution[END_REF]Michod 1999;[START_REF] Gould | Individuality and adaptation across levels of selection: How shall we name and generalize the unit of Darwinism?[END_REF][START_REF] Pepper | Does biology need an organism concept?[END_REF][START_REF] Queller | Beyond society: the evolution of organismality[END_REF][START_REF] West | Evolution: what is an organism?[END_REF][START_REF] Folse | What is an Individual Organism? A Multilevel Selection Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Minelli | Individuals, Hierarchies and the Levels of Selection: A Chapter in Stephen J. Gould's Evolutionary Theory[END_REF][START_REF] Herron | Cellular differentiation and individuality in the "minor" multicellular taxa[END_REF][START_REF] West | Major evolutionary transitions in individuality[END_REF]. In general, asking what a biological individual is means asking what constitutes a countable, relatively well-delineated, and cohesive unit in the living world [START_REF] Hull | Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | The Biological Notion of Individual[END_REF]Chauvier 2016), but of course each component of this definition needs to be explained and justified.

The exploration of the problem of biological individuality in the last two decades has led to several productive results. In particular, a quasi-consensus has emerged on some important claims. Such claims include question-dependence, rejection of anthropocentrism, the need for a hierarchical approach to individuality, and the idea that individuality comes in degrees (See Table 1).

This consensus, incidentally, is not always acknowledged. This has sometimes led to the repetition of certain already well-established claims. It is no longer useful to argue that our conception of individuality depends on the question and scientific context under consideration, that the level of the organism is not the only one at which biological individuality can be realized, or that biological individuality is a continuous rather than a discrete property. The careful examination of the literature on biological individuality also shows that other claims -e.g., that philosophers of biology interested in biological individuality have tended to be ignorant of "real" biological examples -are simply misplaced, as illustrated by the scientifically rich contributions of those like David Hull.

Label

Detailed claim References

Questiondependence

The answer to the question 'what counts as a biological individual?' will depend to a large extent on the scientific context in which the question is asked. [START_REF] Sober | Organisms, Individuals, and Units of Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Biological individuality : the identity and persistence of living entities[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Genes and the agents of life: The individual in the fragile sciences, biology[END_REF][START_REF] Dupré | Processes of Life: Essays in the Philosophy of Biology[END_REF]; Godfrey-Smith 2013)

Antianthropocentrism

A scientifically fruitful approach to biological individuality should not be based on human intuition, common sense, or perception. It can be very unhelpful to use human beings (or other vertebrates) as the central model for biological individuals. [START_REF] Hull | A Matter of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individuality and Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Science as a process: an evolutionary account of the social and conceptual development of science[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Biological individuality : the identity and persistence of living entities[END_REF])

Hierarchization

Biological individuality is nested and hierarchical; it can be realized at several different levels of the living world (for example the level of the cell and that of the organism). [START_REF] Weismann | The all-sufficiency of natural selection[END_REF][START_REF] Lewontin | The Units of Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Bernard | Lectures on the phenomena of life common to animals and plants. Thomas, Springfield, Ill Booth A (2014a) Populations and Individuals in Heterokaryotic Fungi: A Multilevel Perspective[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individuality and Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Gould | Individuality and adaptation across levels of selection: How shall we name and generalize the unit of Darwinism?[END_REF]

Transitions

There have been transitions in individuality; through evolution, new levels of individuality have emerged as a result of the coming together of previously distinct entities [START_REF] Buss | The Evolution of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Smith | The major transitions in evolution[END_REF]Michod 1999;[START_REF] Okasha | Evolution and the Levels of Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Huneman | Darwinian populations and natural selection[END_REF]. However, the consensus on some major claims should not hide the fact that there are many disagreements among the participants in the debate over biological individuality. In what follows, I will examine recent challenges to philosophical accounts about biological individuality and I will explain how the papers gathered in this special issue of Biology and Philosophy posit themselves with regard to those challenges.

Recent challenges

Several objections have recently been levelled at established philosophical accounts of biological individuality (see Box 1). First, many consider those accounts exceedingly monistic. Should we favour monism or pluralism when thinking about biological individuality? The debate has at least two aspects. The first concerns the question of individuality criteria. Many different, non-overlapping, individuality criteria co-exist in the scientific and philosophical literature [START_REF] Null | How many kinds of individual are there?[END_REF][START_REF] Clarke | The Problem of Biological Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Godfrey-Smith | Darwinian Individuals[END_REF]. These include genetic homogeneity, germ/soma separation, the possession of a developmental bottleneck, policing mechanisms, etc. Some philosophers are monists -either in the sense that they defend one particular criterion, or insofar as they try to find a fundamental and unifying mechanism underlying several (or even all) criteria [START_REF] Clarke | The Multiple Realizability of Biological Individuals[END_REF]. Other philosophers are pluralists, i.e., consider there must be different criteria of individuality, reflecting different scientific questions and contexts [START_REF] Wilson | Biological individuality : the identity and persistence of living entities[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Genes and the agents of life: The individual in the fragile sciences, biology[END_REF][START_REF] Pradeu | The Limits of the Self: Immunology and Biological Identity[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | The Biological Notion of Individual[END_REF][START_REF]Philosophy of biology[END_REF][START_REF] Sterner | Pathways to pluralism about biological individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Love | Philosophical Dimensions of Individuality[END_REF]. The second aspect of the debate about monism focuses on the scientific disciplines used to establish our concept of a biological individual. In their reflections about biological individuality, philosophers of biology have tended to focus on a single biological field -generally evolution [START_REF] Hull | A Matter of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individuality and Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Okasha | Evolution and the Levels of Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Huneman | Darwinian populations and natural selection[END_REF][START_REF] Clarke | The Multiple Realizability of Biological Individuals[END_REF]. In so doing, they have left aside many biological fields where the problem of biological individuality has also played a central role, including physiology, developmental biology, immunology, ecology, the cognitive sciences, among others [START_REF] Dupré | Varieties of Living Things: Life at the Intersection of Lineage and Metabolism[END_REF][START_REF] Pradeu | What is an organism? An immunological answer[END_REF][START_REF] Minelli | Animal Development, an Open-Ended Segment of Life[END_REF][START_REF] Godfrey-Smith | Darwinian Individuals[END_REF][START_REF] Huneman | Individuality as a Theoretical Scheme. II. About the Weak Individuality of Organisms and Ecosystems[END_REF]. The two aspects of the debate are related, at least in the sense that taking into account more biological fields is likely to increase the number of possible individuality criteria.

The second objection is that philosophers have unduly privileged a theoretical approach to biological individuality -at the expense of more practical and experimental considerations [START_REF] Kovaka | Biological Individuality and Scientific Practice[END_REF][START_REF] Chen | Experimental Realization of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Love | Philosophical Dimensions of Individuality[END_REF]. The influence of Hulland, less directly, of Quine -helps explain this situation: in several texts (e.g., Hull 1992), Hull explained that the only way to distance ourselves from intuition-based approaches to individuality was to construct a theory-based perspective (which also explains why he sees the heavily theoretical field of evolutionary biology as the best pathway to defining biological individuality). A greater attention to practices might suggest, for instance, that, in everyday life, biologists "individuate" entities in a flexible and pragmatic way, without any strong ontological commitment [START_REF] Love | Philosophical Dimensions of Individuality[END_REF]. Of course, it remains to be determined whether such pragmatically isolated entities should be considered "individuals" or not, and on which grounds (Chauvier 2016;Guay and Pradeu 2016a).

The third objection is that the majority of philosophers of biology have neglected the studies of the concept of biological individuality made by historians of science (Lidgard and Nyhart 2017). Many of the issues raised today about biological individuality have already been raised, in a different context, in the past. For example, the idea of nested biological individuality was examined by Leibniz in response to work by Swammerdam, Leeuwenhoek and others [START_REF] Duchesneau | Leibniz: le vivant et l'organisme[END_REF]; the concept of the multicellular organism as a society of cells was analysed by Claude [START_REF] Bernard | Lectures on the phenomena of life common to animals and plants. Thomas, Springfield, Ill Booth A (2014a) Populations and Individuals in Heterokaryotic Fungi: A Multilevel Perspective[END_REF]; finally, the question of part-whole relations, complex life cycles and alternation of generations fascinated nineteenth-century biologists [START_REF] Nyhart | Individuals at the center of biology: Rudolf Leuckart's Polymorphismus der Individuen and the ongoing narrative of parts and wholes. With an annotated translation[END_REF][START_REF] Nyhart | Alternation of generations and individuality[END_REF]. It would be fruitful and inspirational to examine in detail those proposals compare them with contemporary ones. It is also worthwhile noting that historians interested in biological individuality explore various biological domains1 -instead of focusing on the domain of evolutionary biology only. Philosophers could perhaps be inspired by this comprehensive approach to the problem of biological individuality.

The fourth objection is that these investigations into biological individuality have often been done in relative isolation from other domains which have produced interesting work on individuality (Guay and Pradeu 2016a). These domains include physics [START_REF] French | The structure of the world: metaphysics and representation[END_REF][START_REF] French | Eliminating Objects Across the Sciences[END_REF], the social sciences [START_REF] Paternotte | Collective Individuals: Parallels Between Joint Action and Biological Individuality[END_REF], and metaphysics [START_REF] Dorato | Grades of individuality. A pluralistic view of identity in quantum mechanics and in the sciences[END_REF][START_REF] Morganti | Combining science and metaphysics: contemporary physics, conceptual revision, and common sense[END_REF][START_REF] French | The structure of the world: metaphysics and representation[END_REF]Chauvier 2016;[START_REF] Lowe | Non-individuals[END_REF]. Importantly, several individuality criteria are common to different sciences, but do not play exactly the same role in each science. It could, thus, be useful to compare these different situations to build a better-informed conception of individuality in biology and philosophy of biology.

Metaphysics can also be helpful. It is well known that individuality has been a central question in metaphysics for several centuries [START_REF] Strawson | Individuals: an essay in descriptive metaphysics[END_REF]Chauvier 2016;[START_REF] Lowe | Non-individuals[END_REF]. Metaphysicians have produced precise analyses of individuality and cognate concepts or views -for instance identity, persistence, four-dimensionalism, sortalism, among many others. These contributions could certainly help philosophers of biology produce a more precise conception of a biological individual (Guay and Pradeu 2016b;[START_REF] Haber | The Biological and the Mereological[END_REF]. From this point of view, recent innovative work at the interface of philosophy of biology and metaphysics might call attention to several benefits philosophers of biology could get from a stronger attention to metaphysical considerations [START_REF] Ferner | Organisms and personal identity: biological individuation and the work of David Wiggins[END_REF]Wiggins 2016a;Wiggins 2016b).

The fifth objection concerns conceptual uncertainties. There is considerable confusion over the definition of the notion of a "biological individual", and of related terms such as "organism", "whole" and "parts", "unity", "cohesion", among others (Santelices 1999; Clarke 2011). In the philosophy of biology literature, we find very few attempts to offer precise definitions of those terms, even though they constitute the backbone of the debate over what a biological individual is. To these five objections, we can add another, more traditional, one. It asks: To which biological entities can the notion of biological individuality be applied? A concept of biological individuality that would be applicable to only a small fraction of the living worldfor instance to animals only -would not be satisfying from a biological point of view (unless of course we have strong biological reasons to make such a distinction). As stated, the need to avoid biases towards vertebrates or even metazoans was emphasized in early philosophical discussions about biological individuality [START_REF] Hull | A Matter of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Wilson | Biological individuality : the identity and persistence of living entities[END_REF]. But philosophers of biology have recently begun discussing certain neglected cases, some of which might prove challenging for traditional criteria of individuality. This includes studies of fungi (Booth 2014a;[START_REF] Molter | On Mushroom Individuality[END_REF], stem cells as compared to non-stem cells [START_REF] Fagan | Cell and Body[END_REF]), living things with highly complex life cycles including some plants (Godfrey-Smith 2016; Griesemer 2016) and some eukaryotic microbes (O'Malley 2016), and even perhaps viruses [START_REF] Forterre | To be or not to be alive: How recent discoveries challenge the traditional definitions of viruses and life[END_REF]).

The challenges above are examined at length in several recent publications. The move from theory-centrism (Objection #2) to a stronger attention to practices and experimental contexts is made in many parts of current philosophy of science (e.g., [START_REF] Waters | How Practical Know-How Contextualizes Theoretical Knowledge: Exporting Causal Knowledge from Laboratory to Nature[END_REF][START_REF] Ankeny | Introduction: philosophy of science in practice[END_REF]Love 2015), and this move is gaining prominence in the debate about biological individuality [START_REF] Chen | Experimental Realization of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Fagan | Cell and Body[END_REF][START_REF] Love | Philosophical Dimensions of Individuality[END_REF]. The combination of historical and philosophical approaches (in response to Objection #3) is the main topic of a forthcoming volume edited by Scott Lidgard and Lynn [START_REF] Nyhart | Alternation of generations and individuality[END_REF].

Based on an analysis of past and present-day examples, Lidgard and Nyhart propose to divide the problem of biological individuality into four sub-problems: individuation (thresholds, boundaries, inside/outside, autonomy); hierarchy (levels of organization in complex systems); horizontality (interactions among parts in making a whole); and temporality (change through time, particularly in part-whole relations). These four categories are useful to locate and compare many contemporary positions within the debate over biological individuality. In parallel, there is an on-going attempt to collate biology with other domains (which constitutes a response to Objection #4), particularly physics and metaphysics [START_REF] French | Shifting to structures in physics and biology: a prophylactic for promiscuous realism[END_REF][START_REF] French | The structure of the world: metaphysics and representation[END_REF][START_REF] Ferner | Organisms and personal identity: biological individuation and the work of David Wiggins[END_REF][START_REF] French | Eliminating Objects Across the Sciences[END_REF]Guay and Pradeu 2016b;[START_REF] Mygal | An interdisciplinary approach to study individuality in biological and physical systems functioning[END_REF].

This special issue of Biology and Philosophy mainly addresses Objections #1 and #5. The next section explains how the contributions gathered here can be seen as replies to these objections.

Attempts to build a more diversified and more precise conception of biological individuality

Many of the papers gathered in this special issue are interested in the monism-pluralism debate. Should we adopt several individuality criteria, or should we favour one criterion -and if so which one and with which arguments? Should we ground our concept of individuality in several biological domains or in one given domain -and, here again, if we opt for the monistic choice, on what basis should we do so? Philosophical debates about biological individuality have focused almost exclusively on an evolutionary approach [START_REF] Hull | A Matter of Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individuality and Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Hull | Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Okasha | Evolution and the Levels of Selection[END_REF][START_REF] Huneman | Darwinian populations and natural selection[END_REF][START_REF] Clarke | The Multiple Realizability of Biological Individuals[END_REF]. One organising thought that informs this special issue is that a major aim for philosophers of biology should be to account for the numerous biological fields that explore the question of biological individuality. Indeed, the incorporation, confrontation, and combination of different biological perspectives probably constitutes the most generative way of building a unified and biologically informed conception of biological individuality (see Figure 1). Three papers of this special issue explore the field of immunology, in which the notion of individuality has been intensively explored in the last decades [START_REF] Loeb | Transplantation and Individuality[END_REF][START_REF] Loeb | The Biological Basis of Individuality. Thomas, Springfield Love AC (2015) Collaborative explanation, explanatory roles, and scientific explaining in practice[END_REF][START_REF] Medawar | The Uniqueness of the Individual[END_REF][START_REF] Burnet | Immunological recognition of self[END_REF]Tauber 1991;[START_REF] Pradeu | The Limits of the Self: Immunology and Biological Identity[END_REF]. Lynn Chiu and Gérard Eberl (a world-leading scientist in the field of gut immunology) examine host-microbe associations in light of the recently proposed "equilibrium model of immunity" [START_REF] Eberl | Immunity by equilibrium[END_REF]. Scott Gilbert and Alfred Tauber suggest that recent work on symbiosis and so-called "holobionts" (conceived as functionally integrated and cohesive units constituted of a host and the microbes that live within and on it) casts doubt on traditional views on biological individuality, and could potentially re-orient the whole field of immunology. Thomas Pradeu uses immunology to offer a refined conception of the delineation and persistence of physiological individuals, based on the argument that the immune system constitutes, in any living thing, a mechanism of inclusion and exclusion.

Peter Godfrey-Smith examines the relation between biological individuality and the cognitive sciences, in light of work on "minimal cognition" and the emergence of early nervous systems [START_REF] Keijzer | What nervous systems do: early evolution, inputoutput, and the skin brain thesis[END_REF]. Developmental biology plays a central role in the contribution of Gilbert and Tauber, who have long argued for a coming together of the study of development and immunology (Tauber 1991;[START_REF] Gilbert | The genome in its ecological context: philosophical perspectives on interspecies epigenesis[END_REF]. Furthermore, Pradeu shows that, over more than two centuries, physiology has produced very important analyses of biological individuality, which should be combined with evolution-based approaches.

Finally, several contributors pay attention to what the field of ecology has to say about biological individuality, including David Queller and Joan Strassmann, Derek Skillings, and, in an "ecological-developmental" perspective, Gilbert and Tauber as well as Chiu and Eberl.

In addition to all these biological domains, the contributors of this special issue explore, at length, studies on symbiosis. These studies do not constitute a "biological domain" as such; instead, they are located at the interface of many disciplines, including microbiology, evolutionary biology, ecology, developmental biology, immunology, among several others [START_REF] Mcfall-Ngai | Are biologists in "future shock"? Symbiosis integrates biology across domains[END_REF][START_REF] Mcfall-Ngai | Animals in a bacterial world, a new imperative for the life sciences[END_REF]. Symbiosis studies have flourished in the last ten years, and they have offered key insights for anyone interested in biological individuality. The fact that virtually every living thing is home to "foreign passengers" -some of which play important functional roles in the host -raises important issues regarding biological boundaries, individuality criteria based on genetic homogeneity, etc. [START_REF] Gilbert | The genome in its ecological context: philosophical perspectives on interspecies epigenesis[END_REF][START_REF] Bosch | Metaorganisms as the new frontier[END_REF][START_REF] Gilbert | Ecological Developmental Biology[END_REF]. Building on recent philosophical work on symbiosis [START_REF] Pradeu | The self model and the conception of biological identity in immunology[END_REF][START_REF] Bouchard | Understanding Colonial Traits Using Symbiosis Research and Ecosystem Ecology[END_REF][START_REF] Dupré | Varieties of Living Things: Life at the Intersection of Lineage and Metabolism[END_REF][START_REF] Pradeu | A Mixed Self: The Role of Symbiosis in Development[END_REF][START_REF] Godfrey-Smith | Darwinian Individuals[END_REF]Booth 2014b;[START_REF] Malley | Reproduction Expanded: Multigenerational and Multilineal Units of Evolution[END_REF], the contributors of this special issue examine symbiosis from different, yet complementary points of view. One major question concerns what we can call the "holobiont debate", i.e. the question of the degree of unity and cohesion found in a holobiont. This question -particularly animated in some scientific circles (e.g., Zilber-Rosenberg and Rosenberg 2008; [START_REF] Bordenstein | Host Biology in Light of the Microbiome: Ten Principles of Holobionts and Hologenomes[END_REF][START_REF] Bosch | The Holobiont Imperative[END_REF][START_REF] Douglas | Holes in the Hologenome: Why Host-Microbe Symbioses Are Not Holobionts[END_REF][START_REF] Theis | Getting the Hologenome Concept Right: an Eco-Evolutionary Framework for Hosts and Their Microbiomes[END_REF]) -is discussed in all the contributions of this special issue. Queller and Strassmann argue that complex holobionts are generally not organisms because, even when they show some cooperation, they still express levels of internal conflict that are too high to constitute organismic units. Skillings explores the holobiont debate from the point of view of the "founding" example of corals. He holds that most holobionts share more affinities with communities than they do with individual wholes, and that, in general, holobionts do not meet the criteria for being evolutionary individuals, units of selection, or organisms. In contrast, Gilbert and Tauber consider that holobionts are unified communities, acting as units from physiological, developmental, immunological, and evolutionary viewpoints. Pradeu defends the view that, from an immunological point of view, a biological individual is made of all the components that are immunologically tolerated, which include many (but not all) microbes found in or on a host. Chiu and Eberl assert that microorganisms are constitutive of host immunity as external scaffolds, varying in degrees of reliability, specificity, and exclusivity. In their view, even if holobionts are not internally integrated enough to qualify as organisms or units of selection, they are still individuals in a different and more general way: the holobiont must be seen as the host plus the microorganisms that scaffold its immunity. Haber sees holobionts as nested individuals, with sometimes distinct, non-overlapping life cycles. Clarke interprets holobionts in light of reproductive synchrony [START_REF] Frank | Models of symbiosis[END_REF]) and fitness alignment [START_REF] Friesen | Widespread fitness alignment in the legume-rhizobium symbiosis[END_REF]) between the symbiotic partners.

By offering this wide range of perspectives, we hope to offer the readers the opportunity to take a better-informed decision in favour of monism or pluralism. For pluralism-oriented people, a further choice is between a "promiscuous" pluralism (where the different perspectives coexist and remain largely autonomous) and a "combining" pluralism (where one major aim is to combine the different perspectives to produce a unified picture) (Guay and Pradeu 2016a).

In addition to examining neglected biological domains, several contributors attempt to clarify certain central concepts in this debate. Queller and Strassmann think that the main debate should be about the notion of an organism -which they define as a unit in which all the subunits have evolved to be highly cooperative, with very little conflict (see also [START_REF] Queller | Beyond society: the evolution of organismality[END_REF]. [START_REF] Clarke | The Multiple Realizability of Biological Individuals[END_REF] defends the view that the notions of organism and biological individual are synonymous, and in her contribution to this special issue she interprets evolutionary transitions as changes in the extent to which selection acts at one hierarchical level rather than another, a view she grounds in her definition of evolutionary individuality in terms of an object's capacity to undergo selection at its own level. Pradeu insists, on the contrary, on the differences between the notions of organism and biological individual; he suggests distinguishing at least two categories of a biological individual, namely the physiological individual ("unit of functioning") and the evolutionary individual ("selective unit"). Godfrey-Smith also distinguishes organism from evolutionary individual. Complementing previous work in which he defines evolutionary individuals as Darwinian individuals (that is, reproducing units: Godfrey [START_REF] Huneman | Darwinian populations and natural selection[END_REF]2013), he focuses on the organism, which he defines as a bounded and self-maintaining unit, engaged in traffic with its environment (see also [START_REF] Arnellos | Multicellular agency: an organizational view[END_REF]. Skillings also makes a difference between evolutionary individuals (which he defines, following Godfrey-Smith, as Darwinian individuals) and organisms (which he defines as bounded individuals that are functionally or metabolically integrated, i.e. systems with mutually dependent components that work together to maintain the system's structure developmental trajectory). Haber offers a different perspective. He shows that, for the individuality thesis, individuals (be they organisms, species, etc.) must be understood recursively, meaning that biological individuals are "lineage-generating entities that are both constituted by and constitutive of other biological individuals".

Our hope is that, in exploring new biological fields dealing with biological individuality, and by refining certain conceptual distinctions, this special issue will participate in the on-going project of building a conception of biological individuality that will be more unified, more inspired by historical and metaphysical considerations, and that will better reflect current biological perspectives and practices (Lidgard and Nyhart 2017).

  Objection 1: Monism Tendency to focus on a single individuality criterion and/or a single biological field (generally evolution). Objection 2: Theory-centrism Tendency to discuss only theory-based individuation. Objection 3: Ahistoricity Tendency to neglect what biologists of the past and historians of biology have said about biological individuality. Objection 4: Disciplinary isolationism Tendency to isolate biology from other scientific and philosophical domains that have investigated individuality, including physics, the social sciences, or metaphysics. Objection 5: Conceptual uncertainties Lack of definition of "biological individual" and related terms. Box 1. Recent objections to philosophical accounts of biological individuality

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. The concept of a biological individual will be enriched by a confrontation and combination of the perspectives offered by different biological domains. Only six domains are mentioned here, but many others can contribute to debates about biological individuality.

Table 1 . Consensual claims for philosophers and biologists working on biological individuality.

 1

These include morphology[START_REF] Nyhart | Biology takes form: animal morphology and the German universities, 1800-1900[END_REF], developmental biology[START_REF] Benson | Problems of Individual Development: Descriptive Embryological Morphology in America at the Turn of the Century[END_REF][START_REF] Maienschein | Organization" as Setting Boundaries of Individual Development[END_REF]

2011) and cell biology[START_REF] Duchesneau | Genèse de la théorie cellulaire[END_REF] Canguilhem 1992;[START_REF] Gayon | The Concept of Individuality in Canguilhem's Philosophy of Biology[END_REF][START_REF] Bechtel | Discovering cell mechanisms: the creation of modern cell biology[END_REF], among other fields.

Acknowledgements

I thank all the contributors to this special issue, the many anonymous reviewers, and Adam Ferner for his comments on this introduction.