Paul

Khoury Elie

Meignier Sylvain

Odobez Jean-Marc

Deleglise Paul

A CONDITIONAL RANDOM FIELD APPROACH FOR AUDIO-VISUAL PEOPLE DIARIZATION (1,2) Gay

Keywords: Audiovisual, diarization, Conditional Random Field

We investigate the problem of audio-visual (AV) person diarization in broadcast data. That is, automatically associate the faces and voices of people and determine when they appear or speak in the video. The contributions are twofolds. First, we formulate the problem within a novel CRF framework that simultaneously performs the AV association of voices and face clusters to build AV person models, and the joint segmentation of the audio and visual streams using a set of AV cues and their association strength. Secondly, we use for this AV association strength a score that does not only rely on lips activity, but also on contextual visual information (face size, position, number of detected faces,. . . ) that leads to more reliable association measures. Experiments on 6 hours of broadcast data show that our framework is able to improve the AV-person diarization especially for speaker segments erroneously labeled in the mono-modal case.

INTRODUCTION

We address the problem of audio-visual (AV) person diarization in broadcast data as illustrated in Fig 1 . Solving such a task would allow the design of AV person structured indexing and exploration tools useful to achieve, for instance, fast annotation of already temporally segmented documents, automatic person naming by further exploiting OCR or closedcaptions [START_REF] Jou | Structured exploration of who, what, when, and where in heterogeneous multimedia news sources[END_REF], or in general, facilitate browsing and access to relevant video parts.

However, AV person diarization is a hard problem due to many difficulties. Speaker diarization systems can make errors due to short utterances, spontaneous speech, and background noise. In the visual modality, faces display many variations in scale and pose as shown in the top row of Fig 1 .  Interestingly, the joint exploitation of audio and video could help to correct those errors. However, the association between speech and face can introduce many ambiguities in case of multi-face shots, as shown in the first image of Related work. Earlier work on AV person diarization performs separately audio and video clustering in a first step and associate the clusters in a second step [START_REF] Liu | Major cast detection in video using both speaker and face information[END_REF][START_REF] Khoury | Association of audio and video segmentations for automatic person indexing[END_REF][START_REF] Dielmann | Unsupervised detection of multimodal clusters in edited recordings[END_REF]. The most simple clue to associate faces and speakers is their temporal co-occurrence. Additionally, lips activity is an interesting cue to detect and localize a speaker in a video through the use of motion information [START_REF] Bozonnet | A multimodal approach to initialisation for top-down speaker diarization of television shows[END_REF][START_REF] Bendris | Lip activity detection for talking faces classification in tv-content[END_REF][START_REF] Khoury | Unsupervised video indexing based on audiovisual characterization of persons[END_REF]. However, it is hard to apply when the mouth region cannot be followed precisely motivating some authors in [START_REF] Bozonnet | A multimodal approach to initialisation for top-down speaker diarization of television shows[END_REF] to focus only on video segments where the AV association can be performed with high reliability (single talking face) to correct errors in the speaker diarization process. Moreover, these methods assume that the mono-modal diarizations are perfect and only perform AV association without attempting at correcting clustering errors made in the first step. More closely related to our work, the authors in [START_REF] Bendris | People indexing in tv-content using lip-activity and unsupervised audio-visual identity verification[END_REF] try to correct these errors using AV cues. They first perform the 2-steps cluster association using a greedy algorithm. Each cluster is then represented by biometric models and a rule based approach is used to refine mono-modal segments based on the AV scores given by these models. One major drawback is that this work makes a succession of local and hard decisions which might not be globally optimal. In the computer vision literature, global optimization frameworks have been successfully used to perform the segmentation task and handle multi-modality. Authors in [START_REF] Tapaswi | knock! knock! who is it? probabilistic person identification in tv-series[END_REF] use Markov random field to combine audio and video classifiers for identifying people in TV-Series while [START_REF] Du | Face association across unconstrained video frames using conditional random fields[END_REF] uses Condi-tional Random Fields (CRF) to integrate various cues in a face clustering task. Proposed method. This paper presents a CRF based framework which performs a global optimization over the audio segments (also called utterances) and the video segments (also called face tracks) to refine the clusters. The errors from the mono-modal diarizations are corrected by favouring couples of utterances/face tracks sharing the same label to have a high score of association. On the other hand, errors from wrong associations are prevented by representing each cluster with a biometric model and encouraging high scores between segments and their respective cluster models. This second part ensures the inner consistency of the clusters. The CRF formulation enables to learn the weights of the contribution of each type of information and to discriminantly perform inference to get the most probable clusters. In contrast to [START_REF] Bendris | People indexing in tv-content using lip-activity and unsupervised audio-visual identity verification[END_REF], the decision is taken by considering jointly all the multi-modal information in a probabilistic framework and the optimization is performed globally over all the segments.

PROPOSED METHOD

Problem formulation

Let A = {A i , i = 1 . . . N A } denote the set of utterances and V = {V i , i = 1 . . . N V } the set of face tracks. The AV person diarization problem can be formulated as the estimation of the labels field E = {e a i , i = 1..N A , e v j , j = 1..N V } by maximizing the posterior distribution P (E|A, V ) such that the same person index is used for e a i and e v j when the utterance A i and the face track V j correspond to the same person.

The labels e a i and e v j take value in the set of possible person indices denoted as E. Let G be an indirect graph over the set of random observed variables A and V . We express the posterior probability for labels E as:

P (E|A, V ) = 1 Z(A, V ) (1)
×exp λ av

(i,j)∈Gav f av (A i , V j , e a i , e v j ) + λ a N A i=1 f a (A i , e a i ) +λ dct v N V i=1 f dct v (V i , e v i ) + λ surf v N V i=1 f surf v (V i , e v i )
where Z(A, V ) denotes the partition function, and f av , f a , and f dct v and f surf v respectively denote the AV association feature function, the audio feature function, and two video feature functions which will be defined in Sec 2.2. A graphical illustration of our model is shown in Fig. 2.

Model components

The association feature function f av is defined on all the couples of overlapping utterances/face tracks: G av = {(i, j)/t(A i , V j ) = 0} where t(x, y) denotes the duration of the overlapping time between segments x and y. The goal is to output a high score if utterance A i and face track V i correspond to a talking face. It is defined as: Fig. 2. Example of a factor graph representing our model with 4 segments. The face tracks V 1 is temporally overlapping with the utterance A 2 , so, following the model component definition, they are dependent through the association feature function f av . The utterance A 1 does not have any overlap. Thus, its likelihood depends only on its label e a 1 through the biometric feature function f a .

f av (A i , V j , e a i , e v j ) = t(A i , V j )h(A i , V j ) if e a i = e v j -t(A i , V j )h(A i , V j ) otherwise
where h(A i , V j ) represents the output of a SVM classifier indicating whether an utterance/track couple belongs to a talking face or not. The features used as input to the SVM not only include a lips activity measure computed using least mean square difference as done in most works, but also other contextual features that can help distinguishing a talking face track like the average face size, the average distance of the face to the center of the image. Importantly, we also take into account the presence and characteristic of other appearing faces by using the number of detected faces, the relative face size and relative lips activity as input features. Experiments showed the benefit of such contextual information for utterance/face track association.

The acoustic biometric feature function f a (A i , e a i ) indicates how likely the audio features of a given utterance A i should be labeled with the person index e a i . This is a speaker modeling task, where we need to define an acoustic model for each label e and learn this model in an unsupervised fashion from the data currently associated to the label (and priors on model parameters). In our case, we choose a 512 GMM-UBM with diagonal covariance inspired from [START_REF] Ben | Speaker diarization using bottom-up clustering based on a parameter-derived distance between adapted gmms[END_REF]. Feature are 12 MFCCs with first order derivatives and the features are normalized: short-term windowed mean and variance are computed to normalize the frame, and a feature warping normalization is applied. Visual biometric feature functions. We need to proceed similarly for the visual modality. Following [START_REF] Khoury | Fusing matching and biometric similarity measures for face diarization in video[END_REF], we combine Speeded Up Robust Features (SURF) based matching and statistical models, and define two biometric feature functions f dct v and f surf v . f dct v relies on statistical models based on 45 dimensions Discrete Cosinus Transform features and a 512 GMM-UBM with diagonal covariance [START_REF] Wallace | Cross-pollination of normalization techniques from speaker to face authentication using gaussian mixture models[END_REF]. For f surf v , we extract SURF descriptor vectors from face images and define the score between a face track V i and a label e v j as the average of pair-wise surf vector distances between the track V i and the current face-tracks associated with this label [START_REF] Khoury | Face-and-clothing based people clustering in video content[END_REF].

Optimization and parameter training

The CRF inference for new data is conducted by applying the following steps: i) initialize the labels, ii) for each label, learn the biometric models from their associated data, iii) get the most probable labels. Steps ii) and iii) are then iterated in a Expectation-Maximization style by alternating model updates and inference.

Label initialization is achieved by first performing separately audio and video clustering (see Sec. 3.1) and then associating the clusters in a second step to obtain the AV person labels E (audio and face cluster couples). The association is done by optimizing Eq 1 while dropping the biometric terms. The optimization is conducted using the greedy Hungarian algorithm where each element C ij of the cost matrix is the sum of the scores from the association function f av over all couples of utterances/face tracks currently associated to labels e a i and e v j . For each resulting person label, biometric models are learned from their associated data and used to compute the likelihood of any utterance or face track observation. Given these models, we run the loopy belief propagation inference to get the most probable labels E by solving E = arg max E P (E|A, V ).

Note that for mono-modal labels (i.e. at a given iteration, labels associated with only faces -case of people that appear but never speak-or audio), we still need to be able to evaluate the likelihood of data in the other modality to conduct the CRF optimization. To handle this issue, a Neutral biometric model has been created for each modality, and is associated to the missing modality of each mono-modal person label. In practice, the score of an observation for this neutral model has been defined as the score of the corresponding biometric function obtained at the Equal Error Rate (when the number of false alarms equals the number of miss detections) of speaker and face verification experiments conducted on external data.

Parameter training. The CRF model is parameterized by the different λ values that express the reliability of each cue in the label inference. They can be learned using labeled training data. However, to avoid data mismatch (at test time, the CRF is conducted on noisy face tracks and utterances, not on cleanly segmented ones) it is important to learn parameters using the segments produced by the mono-modal automatic diarization steps but using the true person labels. Additionally, the data associated to each label and used to train the biometric models will come from the clusters produced by the mono-modal diarizations and will thus be noisy as it is will be at test time. Clusters and labels are associated by minimizing the Diarization Error Rate (DER). In other words, the CRF parameters can be trained to account for the errors made by the initial diarization steps.

EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS

Data and experimental protocol

Data and metric. Experiments are done using the dry-run of the REPERE dataset [START_REF] Galibert | The first official repere evaluation[END_REF]. It consists of 6 hours of annotated videos recorded from 2 French TV channels (BFMTV and LCP) and 7 different shows. It includes not only TV news and debates, but also challenging talk shows with multi-head shots as illustrated in Fig 3 . The data is divided into development and test sets (3 hours each). As performance metric, we used the standard Diarization Error Rate (DER). However, since false alarm and miss detection rates do not change in our comparisons, we only report the part of the DER due to the speaker and face clustering error rates, that is, the error remaining after having done the optimal cluster to ground truth association. Initialisation. The initial speaker diarization uses the system of [START_REF] Rouvier | An open-source state-of-the-art toolbox for broadcast news diarization[END_REF] which combines a bottom-up approach with an ILP formulation and i-vector representation. The system is state of the art and obtained the best performance at the REPERE evaluation campaign [START_REF] Galibert | The first official repere evaluation[END_REF], with 17.14 % of DER on the dryrun thus making further improvements quite difficult. The initial face diarization uses the bottom-up system described in [START_REF] Khoury | Fusing matching and biometric similarity measures for face diarization in video[END_REF] already mentioned in Sec 2.2. It combines SURF descriptors and statistical models following a standard speaker diarization approach [START_REF] Barras | Multistage speaker diarization of broadcast news[END_REF]. It achieves state of the art results on the publicly available BUFFY dataset [START_REF] Cinbis | Unsupervised metric learning for face identification in tv video[END_REF]. Models. We tested 2 settings for the CRF parameters. In the first one, a single set of λ parameters (CRF-all) is learned from all the shows in the training set and applied to all test shows. In the second case (CRF-spec), specific sets of parameters are learned for each show in the training set and applied to the corresponding test shows. The rationale is that depending on the context (talkshow, report, debate), the reliabilities of the different modalities might be different. Our CRF implementation relies on [START_REF] Sutton | Grmm: Graphical models in mallet[END_REF].

Results

Association feature function. The SVM association function involved in f av has been trained on the development set using an RBF kernel. We evaluated it by cross validation on 846 couples of utterances/face tracks that should be associated or not. Experiments showed that adding the contextual features like the relative size and lips activity or the number of head detections drastically improved the correct association rate of utterances/face tracks, with a F-measure of 0.76 as compared to 0.69 when using the lips activity only. Diarization tasks. We evaluate the AV people diarization produced by our CRF approach by measuring the speaker error rate, the face error rate and the AV people error rate. Results are reported on Table 1. Init refers to using the initial mono-modal speaker and face diarizations without any AV association or refinement (thus no label simultaneously represents a face and a speaker). Greedy corresponds to the direct association of the mono-modal labels using the Hungarian algorithm as explained in Sec. 2.3. Finally, CRF-all and CRFspec corresponds to the proposed method using the two CRF learning strategies described in Sec. 3.1.

The CRF improves the AV error rate w.r.t. the mere greedy algorithm from 9.0% to 7.2% for CRF-all and to 7.1% for CRF-spec. This is mainly due to improvements in the audio modality, where the speaker error rate is reduced from 10% to 6.3% for CRF-all and 5.6% for CRF-spec. These improvements are entirely due to the integration of multi-modality, since running the CRF while dropping the association function f av (thus the diarization only relies on the audio biometric model) did not alter the initial speaker diarization. A closer look at the results show that AV cues help to refine clusters in the first CRF iterations mainly when talking heads are present alone in the screen or when the lips activity has enough discriminative power. These cases are illustrated by the images a,c and e in Fig 3 . In subsequent iterations, the updated biometric models benefit from these refinements and enable additional corrections. Note that the shows Planet Showbiz and BFMStory do not exhibit improvement as the above cases are less frequent, to the contrary of multi-head shots (image d), off voices (image b and f) and missed head detections which tend to weaken the coherency of the association information.

Considering the face diarization, we note that the CRF refinement slightly deteriorates the results w.r.t. to the initial diarization, from 5.3 to 5.6 for CRF-all and 5.4 for CRFspec. This is partly due to an undesirable side-effect of the SURF-based biometric models (however overall this term significantly contributes to the diarization). Actually, for per-sons whose face tracks remain splitted in several clusters after the initial diarization, some face tracks move from the dominant cluster to smaller ones during CRF optimization due to the averaging effect: their average SURF matching similarity can be higher with the few tracks of a small and tight cluster than with a large cluster containing more diverse track appearances. As a result, the error rate augments although the cluster purity is preserved. Although dropping the association function f av results in a larger error increase, from 5.3 to 5.8 (CRF-spec) and 5.6 (CRF-all) instead of 5.6 and 5.4 with f av , it is harder than in audio to rely on AV cues to improve the initial face diarization. Indeed, the situations where AV cues are useful like alone talking heads are also often easy cases for the mono-modal face diarization system and are already correctly clustered together.

Finally, we note that a priori information about the show generally improves the results. This is the case for Planet Showbiz, which is quite different from the other shows in the dataset, and for which CRF-spec provides better results than CRF-all. As mentioned earlier, this show leads to less coherent association information. Hence, the λ parameters learned on training data specifically for this show give a lower importance to the AV association function f av , thus avoiding association errors.

CONCLUSION

This paper presents an AV person diarization algorithm relying on a global CRF formulation of the audiovisual information association problem. Experiments show that the model is able to reduce the overall AV person diarization errors (as compared to a greedy algorithm) mainly through improvements in the speaker diarization observed when talking face presence estimation is successful.

Several improvements can be made. For instance, visual person models could be improved by adding clothes descriptors [START_REF] Everingham | Hello! my name is... buffy-automatic naming of characters in tv video[END_REF] or by introducing pose information [START_REF] Kottelat | Audio-video person clustering in video databases[END_REF] in the face comparison functions, while on the association side, the module could be improved using contextual information given by role recognition [START_REF] Schwarze | Role-based identity recognition for telecasts[END_REF] or shot classes (studio vs field, closeups, group, public, etc ) automatically derived from scene content descriptors, movements, duration...

  Fig 1 or shots where the talking person is not visible or difficult to detect like in the third image of Fig 1 where the talking person is the person seen from the back.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Top row: Sample frames of a TV debate. Bottom row: example of an AV people diarization output. Note that cluster 1 both appears and speaks.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Examples from REPERE dataset showing the visual variability of broadcast news data.

Table 1 .

 1 speaker, face and people error rates in percentage of scored time. The initial mono-modal face and speaker diarizations are compared with the results obtained with the CRF-based audiovisual diarization.

			speaker error rate		face error rate		AV people error rate
	show	Init	CRF-all CRF-spec Init CRF-all CRF-spec	Init	Greedy CRF-all CRF-spec
	BFMTV BFMStory	2.8	4.8	2.6	3.5	4.7	4.7	21.7	5.5	6.4	6.2
	BFMTV Planet Showbiz 15.0	15.0	15.0	2.9	5.5	2.9	18.0	11.4	13.4	11.4
	LCP Ca Vous Regarde	14.8	8.7	8.7	3.0	3.1	2.5	26.9	10.9	8.0	7.7
	LCP Entre Les Lignes	14.7	4.1	4.1	4.2	9.3	10.3	40.3	9.9	6.6	7.0
	LCP LCPInfo	9.6	9.7	9.6	7.3	4.9	4.9	28.1	9.6	8.4	8.4
	LCP Pile Et Face	9.2	2.8	2.8	2.8	7.7	7.7	39.5	5.8	6.4	6.4
	LCP Top Questions	19.3	3.8	3.8	8.2	6.2	6.2	28.9	13.1	6.0	6.0
	All	10.0	6.3	5.6	5.3	5.6	5.4	27.1	9.0	7.2	7.1

The authors gratefully acknowledge the financial support from the French Research Agency (ANR) under the Project SODA and from the European Union under the EUMSSI project (grant agreement 611057).