Rosanna Fornasiero
email: rosanna.fornasiero@itia.cnr.it

João Bastos
email: jsbastos@fe.up.pt

Américo Azevedo

Andrea Zangiacomi
email: andrea.zangiacomi@itia.cnr.it

Eva Coscia
email: eva.coscia@txtgroup.com

Collaborative Services for Customized Production in Networked Companies

Keywords: Collaborative Networks, Collaborative Portal, Supply Networks

Increasingly, consumer demand of fashionable products is arising as significant challenge for company managers. In order to respond to this demand, companies are asked to supply small series of innovative and fashionable goods of high quality, affordable price and eco-compatibility in short periods of time and with high service levels. As a result of these rapidly evolving challenges, companies are forming collaborative networks in order to design, develop, produce and distribute such products and services in a collaboratively way. These highly integrated and dynamic supply networks depend intensively in new set of tools, methods and related services in which rely the collaborative networking operation. This paper presents a specific case study implementation of these collaborative supporting services, through the realization of a collaborative portal.

Introduction

Due to social, technological, economical and financial changes, company managers need to re-invent the concept of enterprise. A new level of complexity emerged in the last decade, forcing managers to address the market and especially the individual customer with augmented care by putting more emphasis on the service levels they provide, by reducing response times and by tackling the specific needs of the diversity of customers. Added to this pressing necessity, the managers are realizing the fact that competition as well as collaboration schemes are transitioning from among companies to among supply networks, and management of both inter-organizational and intersupply chain processes and information is even more critical for rapid response and quality assurance of products and processes specially when producing in demand driven supply networks.

Along this vein, consumer needs and expectations of specific target groups -such as elderly, obese, disabled, or diabetic persons -are arising as challenging opportunities for European companies which are asked to supply small series of innovative and fashionable goods of high quality, affordable price and eco-compatible in short periods of time and with high service levels. In order to design, develop, produce and distribute such products and services in a collaboratively way, a new set of tools, methods and related components of collaborative networking are required.

The main objective of the present paper, framed within the EU (European Union) funded project CoReNet, is to present an innovative Collaborative Portal for the TCF SMEs (small and medium enterprises) companies in collaborative networks to support the network formation, the knowledge sharing and the expertise in manufacturing of small batches of products addressing the need of the special consumer target groups. The aim of this collaborative portal is to equip fashionable and healthy footwear & garments network managers and stakeholders with the necessary guidance to address the combination of processes, functions, activities, relationships and pathways along which products, services and information move in and between TCF companies.

The remaining of this paper is organized as follows: first the existing related literature is shown as theoretical foundations, followed by an enumeration of the required services for collaborative networks. Finally, conclusions and final remarks are presented concerning the collaborative portal and the following steps regarding their development and improvement.

Foundations and Research Topics

Managerial Reasons. In recent years, it is emerging at industrial level, the awareness that full adoption of collaborative small series production methodologies and technologies are of decisive importance to European Manufacturing Industry, SMEs. In reality, companies urgently need to proactively respond to the high variability of the consumers demand and expectations, to reduce the risks of following too fast changing trends without appropriate basis, which cause serious limits in terms of both customer's satisfaction and enterprises competitiveness and sustainability This is especially true in consumer goods sectors, where customers' tastes change very quickly, and even more in the current economic situation of downturn, where the purchase capability of customers has sharply decreased and is this strongly focused on the high value products. In particular for fashionable sectors such as Textile & Clothing Industry and Leather and Footwear Industry (TCFI) the number of seasonal collections has been increasing enlarging the offer in terms of models along the year, and the number of sold products is decreasing in major markets, leaving best opportunities only for value added products. Moreover, social phenomena like ageing, increase of obese people and major sensitivity versus disabled people and versus ecofriendly products, are also key challenges to be faced by the considered consumers sectors, with reference to healthcare and sustainability. In order to address the new type of target groups (elderly, obese, disabled, or diabetic persons) demand, it is necessary to develop new collaborative supply chain solutions based on cost effective, social compliant and eco-efficient design and production of customized products that fully satisfy the customers, considering their health issues as well as their desire for fashionable products.

Recent research in the field addressed different forms of business networks and their structural forms of organization. The literature distinguishes for example by value chain orientation (horizontal, vertical, lateral), life span (long-term vs. shortterm), and degree of virtualization or hierarchical structure (hierarchical vs. non-hierarchical networks) [START_REF] Camarinha-Matos | Collaborative Networks for a Sustainable World[END_REF]. Nevertheless, the most common business networks are formed along the value chain and for enduring purposes [START_REF] Christopher | Logistics and supply chain management -Creating Value-Adding Networks[END_REF]. In parallel, the current market trends demands for flexibility at the supply network level, the processes and the product designs in order to empower the companies to quickly adapt for new business requirements and sustainability challenges. This new demands are forcing business networks to have much shorter life-time existence and take advantage of new infrastructure technologies supported in distributed information systems and knowledge [START_REF] Simchi-Levi | Operations Rules -Delivering Customer Value through Flexible Operations[END_REF].

A new concept of demand-driven supply networks is emerging in literature as a collaborative approach in response to consumer's needs and expectations. In this new demand paradigm the value creation has shift from the traditional idea of value creation and has become co-creation, where customers actively co-create and recreate value with organisations [START_REF] Ramirez | Value co-production: intellectual origins and implications for practice and research[END_REF]. Thus, all these changes are setting the stage for an expanded role for customers, changing the balance of power and forcing companies to provide new co-creation environments, where customers are no longer passive recipients of goods and services and instead customers are now active partners cocreating value with organisations [START_REF] Romero | Collaborative networked organisations and customer communities: value co-creation and co-innovation in the networking era[END_REF]. In reality, many companies that embrace this paradigm transformed their operating systems from the traditional functional supply networks through a holistic approach that addresses demand and customer expectations in all of its dimensions. This implies different approaches to the market based not only on traditional sales channels (shops, retailers) but increasingly on an Internet mediated direct contact with consumers for product co-design and coinnovation, for product sales and consumers marketers support but also for after-sales services. Concurrently, consumers are increasingly valuing collaborative networks that endorse the sustainability challenges. These networks by seeing the world's present and future challenges seek to develop new products and processes that can be part of a sustainable solution. Namely, through a holistic view of the supply network it is possible to measure and optimize the overall impact of the "carbon footprint", to implement policies that seek recycling and waste prevention, product design for sustainability and the use of emerging clean technologies [START_REF] Simchi-Levi | Operations Rules -Delivering Customer Value through Flexible Operations[END_REF].

One of the major concerns in sustainable supply chain has been the supplier management. Several recent incidents related with sustainability have shown that the reason suppliers cause such environmental problems is because most suppliers are small and medium-sized enterprises (SMEs) which cannot sufficiently deal with the environmental management issues. These cases show how important supplier selection and support are. Even if such mistakes occurred in the upstream of a buying firm's supply chain, it is the buying firm's responsibility to the public. Such incidents cause damages to buying firms financially as well as damages on reputation [START_REF] Kim | Implementation of green supply chain management: Impact on performance outcomes in small-and medium-sized electrical and electronic firms[END_REF].

From the production viewpoint, companies from different sectors in sustainable networks need to integrate their production systems in order to offer to the customer integrated solutions and innovative services and products.

Perspectives on Collaborative Business Networks . Growing competitiveness in the global market encourages manufacturing companies to form alliances among them for mutual benefit. Various forms of collaboration emerged as response to transformations in the business environment and the rapid developments in information and communication technologies (ICTs) [START_REF] Camarinha-Matos | Collaborative networks: A new scientific discipline[END_REF]. Collaboration in the form of virtual organizations [START_REF] Afsarmanesh | A framework for management of virtual organization breeding environments[END_REF][START_REF] Kankaanpää | Methodology for non-hierarchical collaboration networks for complex products manufacturing[END_REF], virtual organization breeding environments (VBE), business community [START_REF] Carneiro | An innovative framework supporting SME networks for complex product manufacturing[END_REF], business ecosystems [START_REF] Moore | The death of competition: leadership and strategy in the age of business ecosystems[END_REF], etc. are a powerful instrument to achieve strategic objectives such as short lead time, high quality, and cost competitiveness especially for SMEs which need to create critical mass to stay competitive. The multi-perspective approach on collaborative environment (technological, semantic, social and business perspective) emphasizes the importance of the business view that allows collaborative networks to be regarded as combinations of inter and intra-organizational business processes [START_REF] Chituc | Multi-perspective challenges on collaborative networks business environments[END_REF].

Forming Virtual Organizations (VO) can offer a new competitive environment and manufacturing agility [START_REF] Frayret | A network approach to operate agile manufacturing systems[END_REF][START_REF] De Maggio | Collaborative innovation networks, virtual communities and geographical clustering[END_REF]. The VO is a temporary alliance of member companies which join to take advantage of market opportunities [START_REF] Camarinha-Matos | Methods and Tools for Collaborative Networked Organizations[END_REF][START_REF] Romero | Virtual organisation breeding environments toolkit: reference model, management framework and instantiation methodology[END_REF] as specific target market requirements can be. Within a VO, each member company will provide its own core competencies in areas such as research and development, marketing, engineering and manufacturing. One of the major issues in the formation and operation of VO is the rapid integration of the business processes of collaborative companies.

During business networking, it is critical that strategic collaborative relationships between partner organizations are developed both upstream and downstream the dynamic business environment. It is expected that participating companies must continue to revamp their business model in response to industry competitions and product lifecycle. From the perspective of SMEs, the collaborative business is an alternative to traditional supply chains, where they can manage the business better and increase their added value [START_REF] Lefebvre | E-collaboration within one supply chain and its impact on firms' innovativeness and performance[END_REF][START_REF] Walters | Cooperative innovation: a value chain approach[END_REF][START_REF] Ignatiadis | Introducing A Collaborative Business Model For European ERP Value Chains Of SMEs[END_REF]. In regional or sectorial Business Communities, trust can be built and communication streamlined, creating an environment suitable for the fast and efficient creation of Virtual Organizations (partnerships or collaboration projects) to respond to specific business opportunities [START_REF] Kankaanpää | Methodology for non-hierarchical collaboration networks for complex products manufacturing[END_REF].

ICT Requirements. In order to develop a collaborative platform to support the intended high levels services it is necessary to start from the main requirements within the different user domains (manufacturer, suppliers, service partners, customers, etc.) as well as the technical requirements related to the software modules and involved data flows (and repositories). Also the middleware components devoted to provide general services to be used from different applications (authentication, workflow management and business document engines; product data handling, etc...).

A suitable approach to build the necessary architecture to support collaborative portal for customized production in networked companies is the Service Oriented Architecture (SOA). The SOA is an emerging approach that addresses the requirements of loosely coupled, standards-based, and protocol independent distributed computing. Typically business operations running in an SOA comprise a number of invocations of these different components, often in an event-driven or asynchronous fashion that reflects the underlying business process needs [START_REF] Papazoglou | Service oriented architectures: approaches, technologies and research issues[END_REF].

Service Oriented Architecture (SOA) is a flexible set of design principles used during the phases of systems development and integration. A system based on a SOA will package functionalities as a suite of interoperable services that can be used within multiple separate systems from several business domains. SOA architectures are generally based on several elements: (i) Services (usually web-services): they represent atomic functionalities offered by the system. (ii) Vehicle messages: they represent the information exchanged by the different services. They are based on XML. (iii) Enterprise Service Bus (ESB): it is the channel used to integrate together all the services and exchange messages.

Nowadays SOA solutions are very popular, because they offer several advantages over traditional architectures: (i) Loose coupling: services are no more directly connected each other, but instead they exchange messages using a service bus. This allows services to be updated and substituted without heavy impact on the whole architecture. (ii) Flexibility: the backbone of a SOA architecture is represented by the ESB. Adding or removing services and functionalities becomes very easy since it is just a matter of configuring the bus, while the services are not touched by these operations. (iii) Easy maintenance: functionalities offered by SOA are fruited using web services. End users don't need to install anything to use the services, and the maintenance is centralized in the hand of the developers. This allows end users and providers to cut dramatically the costs related to update and maintenance of software.

These three advantages, together with the easy configuration of modern Enterprise Service Bus (ESB) and development of services, decreed the success of SOA architectures. Another relevant ICT aspect in building and providing an infrastructure for collaborative networks is related with the use of open-source software solutions. As Frank Hecker point out, in the traditional software business models, softwarehouses provides all (or almost all) of the value to customers, and they realize their revenues and profits in return through traditional software license fees. On the other hand, in an open-source business model, much of the value provided to customers will not be provided solely by the software house developer, but rather by other developers and members of collaborative network who are attracted to work in opensource products and services and will thus help augment the overall resources available to specify and develop the collaborative solutions as opposed to traditional competitors' solutions. These "outside" developers may be motivated by the prospect of working with software tools that solves important problems for them and for others, the possibility of future gain providing related services and creating related products, the opportunity to increase their own personal knowledge, or the ego satisfaction of enhancing their reputation among their peers [START_REF] Hecker | Setting up shop: the business of Open-Source software[END_REF].

Framed in this objective it surfaces the concept of a collaboration portal. This collaboration approach seeks to provide collaboration mechanisms in single place, deploying collaborative capabilities that extend standard business applications.

A leading open-source portal framework for web content management (WCM) is the Portal Liferay®. The Liferay portal is in principle a stack of java portlets that provides a WCM system to support integrity of all functionalities of a collaborative framework. It is a software platform designed for creating dynamic websites and web applications. It can display different page content depending on whether the user is logged in or not. It is a good platform to start with development of collaborative web sites for teams and entire businesses or wiki pages. It also supports Social Networking, Mashups, Content Management and Document sharing out of box with integration with for example Microsoft Office® [START_REF]Liferay -Enterprise, Open Source, For Life[END_REF].

The Services for Collaborative Networks

The CoReNet project was conceived in order to address specifically the health sector, considering Textile, Clothing and Footwear (TCFI) consumer's goods for people like elderly, obese, diabetics, and disables. In the case of the TCFI companies, it is necessary to go further and consider cross-sector interactions since some activities like market trends and customers' needs analysis, products design, supplier's management and finite product delivery need to be synchronized and collaboratively integrated. The CoReNet collaborative project responded to such needs by conceiving a new holistic framework, meant as a set of methods, tools and technologies for sustainable small series industrial value creation of health fashionable goods enabling synchronized product design, production and delivery and functional answer to consumer needs. A key element in order to deploy these services for the supply networks stakeholders was the Collaborative Portal. The Collaborative Portal is the virtual place, where actors can find information, support and easy access to the tools and products developed and configured within the collaborative community.

The Collaborative Portal Structure. The Collaborative Portal represents an open space for actors active in the area of target groups like diabetics, obese, elderly and disabled people supporting the usage and validation of the CoReNet results and stimulating the discussions about topics related to personalization, design, production, sustainability of products.

The CoReNet Collaboration Portal is based on social networking approach to provide a friendly and collaborative environment in the Textile, Clothing and Footwear sector: consumers and companies can join different communities testing solutions and sharing needs and interests on healthy and fashionable products for specific market niches. Inside the Portal, the user can find open communities like Textile and Clothing community and Footwear community where it is possible to access demo trials, video and short presentations on innovative tools supporting design, profiling and production of healthy and fashionable products. It is also present four pilot communities for dedicated case studies where specific products are under development according to the needs of the target groups and the specific features of the companies analyzed.

The Fig. 1 presents the schema of the Collaborative Portal structure. This portal is accessed by an Internet connection through a browser application. The application server runs over the web content management framework of Liferay and supports legacy integration and messaging with companies external applications such as ERP's through a Enterprise Service Bus (ESB).

The CoReNet tools represent adaptable and agile instruments specifically tailored for the SMEs in the textile, clothing and footwear sector to support the revision of their business processes in a collaborative way.

CoReNet proposes a novel approach based on matching market needs with fashionable and functional products and related innovative technological solutions for textile, clothing and footwear industries. Within CoReNet Collaborative Portal, all partners of the value chain will be able to actively collaborate in value creation processes where the end consumer is the driving actor. CoReNet methods and tools will enable design changes and production processes adaptation for easy and sustainable product customizations. (production managers, purchasing managers, buyers, according to who is in charge of the partner search in the company). The PS can be used collaboratively after product design, before order collection and at the production planning phase. At these stages it is important to define the configuration of the supply chain for the targeted production season so that the bestsuitable partner is activated on need (i.e any time new orders are collected). In case it is not possible to extrapolate the adequate partner from the list of former ones, the system allows also an open advanced search on the Internet. The Partner Search might be used also after order collection in case there are specific needs of customization and personalization of the product.

Data can be both manually entered by human users, (through a GUI implemented as a portlet) and automatically retrieved from legacy systems (e.g. manufacturer's ERP systems).

Collaborative Planning. The CoReNet Collaborative Planning approach is oriented to address the demand planning and demand fulfillment activities. The tool allows each partner to directly propose new delivery dates, lead times and costs, via a webbased planning graphical tool which is available and shared by all supply network partners.

The planning scheme is based on negotiations undertaken between all the core partners and potential partners. The main goal of this negotiation is to arrive to an optimized plan for the supply network, where all the required operations are characterized in terms of minimum and maximum lead times, minimum and maximum time overlaps and minimum cost, and other relevant negotiation indicators defined at the beginning of the negotiation.

The proposed approach provides several key benefits for manufacturers and suppliers of the TCFI sector that are looking for agile solutions for the order management and the production plan processes supporting the production of small series. The Collaborative Planner solution is:

-easily accessible and easy to use, as the tools provide advanced GUI and are available within a unique portal (thus no installation is required); -supports the exchange and the automatic check of business information through well-known channels, like the emails (hiding technical details about the internal format of the exchanged documents); -helps the selection of partners leveraging on information already owned by the manufacturer and provides an open collaborative environment where planning with the selected ones an agreed production plan. The proposed planning approach integrates the partner profiling and search services and fits the needs of customer-oriented supply networks in achieving flexibility and responsiveness to the market demands.

Conclusions and Further Research

The ongoing European project "Customer-oriented and eco-friendly networks for healthy fashionable goods (CoReNet)" aims to provide TCF Industry companies with the tools and methods to face the challenge of working in demand-driven and customer oriented collaborative networks.

During the project test and validation of specific isolated tools on the pilot cases, arose the need to offer a virtual place, where all the actors involved in the collaborative network could find information, interact, obtain support and easy access to the tools and products developed and configured within the collaborative community. This need has led to the design and development of the Collaborative Portal. This new tool, evolved in order to support the network formation, the knowledge sharing and the expertise in manufacturing of small batches of products. The ultimate objective of this collaborative portal became the offer of an integrated set of collaborative services that equip fashionable and healthy footwear & garments network managers and stakeholders with the necessary guidance to address the combination of processes, functions, activities, relationships and pathways along which products, services and information move in and between TCF companies networks. Until now the project research work allowed the definition of a Collaborative Portal that set up the foundations for the development of future technologies and tools that support network operation and the instantiation of collaborative services. The undergoing phases include the evaluation of the current services and tools and the improvement of the concept inside the CoReNet project together with the industry partners and the customers. The final goal is to provide a sound customer-oriented Collaborative Portal suitable to collaborative network managers, stakeholders of TCF industry and customers.

Fig. 1 :

 1 Fig. 1: Collaborative Portal StructureManagement of Market Trend Analysis. The Knowledge Management Tool (KMT) for cross-sectorial trends is a toolset based in new market information model collaboratively sourced from the unstructured information from consumers (aesthetic, physical parameters, comfort and health requirements), retailers (sales status and customer preferences), designers and suppliers interaction (sectorial requests and provisions), and within a social network environment, relying upon the use of semantic technologies for knowledge extraction and pattern matching for consumer trends identification.The KMT application is composed of several tools and services integrated in the CoReNet innovative consumer-cooperative environment for product design. The components are:-KMT Fashion Intelligence (FI) -The main features of this tool are: Data mart with transactional data organized for reporting and exploratory data analysis; Data mart with data collected from comments made in social networks (Pinterest.com, in particular) about the products and part of the transactional data. These data are integrated and organized for reporting and exploratory data analysis; Demand characteristics and social network comments exploration using OLAP; Demand characteristics and social network comments reporting using reports and dashboards. -KMT Fashion Profiler (FP) -The main features of this service are: Automatic segmentation customer demand using clustering algorithms; Visualization of

Acknowledgments:

The research leading to these results has received funding from the European Union's Seventh Framework Programme (FP7/2007-2013) under grant agreement n° [260169].


Wolfgang Seiringer

Jorge Cardoso
email: jorge.cardoso@kit.edu

Johannes Kunze Von Bischhoffshausen
email: johannes.kunze@kit.edu

Service System Analytics: Cost Prediction

Keywords: Service cost modelling, service analytics, Linked USDL, co-creation, customer factors, service system, customer involvement, service modelling, business analytics

Services become every day more important for society. Cost prediction is one important aspect which has not received the required attention. Nonetheless, its impact on the economic success of service-based industries is considerable and, so, it cannot be overlooked. Therefore, in this paper we tackle the problem of cost prediction of service systems. Since previous work generally followed an ad hoc approach, we present a three layered approach based on customer factors to measure customer involvement since it is a good predictor for service cost. Service co-creation between customer and provider is the central concept of our costing approach. For service modelling we use Linked USDL, and to reason on costing data we use methods from service analytics. On the one hand, we reduce the uncertainty introduced by customers and can predict more accurate service costs. On the other hand, the systematic approach enables a better understanding of the costing problem and the service systems under study, and increases reusability of service analytics algorithms.

Introduction

During service provisioning, provider and customer are part of a service system to cocreate a service. The process of co-creation requires both partners to invest resources (e.g. human resources, knowledge, and energy). Co-Creation is a concept which is not limited to Business-to-Business (B2B), it can also be observed in the Business-to-Consumer (B2C) context. In B2B and B2C both partners participate and invest resources into co-creation. Service provisioning also requires a provider to integrate and account for providers' human resources and customer factors (CF). Customer factors are all the tangible and intangible aspects which influence co-creation and can only be provided by the customer. Examples of customer factors include information, knowledge, experience, and commitment that customers bring in during the cocreation. For a provider, customer factors are a source of uncertainty since they affect service performance and service costs [START_REF] Erkoyuncu | Understanding service uncertainties in industrial product-service system cost estimation[END_REF]. To reduce the gap between forecasted and real service costs, the modelling and understanding of customer factors and their impact on costs is fundamental. This will increase the precision of service cost modelling.

We propose an approach to extend established service costing methods with customer factors. The approach requires modelling the concept of service systems to facilitate inferring service costs by means of service analytics. We model service systems using the Linked Unified Service Description Language (Linked USDL). Since the consumed time of a resource can be used as a proxy for cost, we will rely on the process model of USDL to calculate the required time to complete a service. In other words, USDL enables to build a process model of a service which can then be used for service costing.

To achieve this goal, an extension of the business process is necessary to integrate customer factors on service cost. In our approach, we extend processes by adding a new view for costing in the form of a function to measure a customer's individual influence on service performance. For each identified customer attribute a function is constructed and mapped on the customer factors. USDL serves as a service model which provides a schema that enables methods from the field of service analytics to derive cost information. As a result of our study, we concluded that Linked USDL provides a suitable logical framework to reason of services' characteristics such as cost. With our research we want to find answers to the following questions: Does a systematic approach yields a greater precision for service-based cost modelling? Can the element of co-creation and customer factors yield better models for cost modelling? We claim that a systematic approach 1) including customer factors, 2) using service schema/instance modelled with USDL, and 3) services analytics methods can provide a sound solution for service-based cost modelling.

Service costing and service analytics have a direct impact on the competitiveness of organizations and on the reinvigoration of service-based economies. A better estimation of the cost of services based on customer factors leads to more fit service offerings.

This paper is organized as follows. In section two we describe a maintenance service to motivate our proposed approach. Section three introduces related work. Afterwards in section four the concept of customer factors is presented. In section five we write about service modelling and show how customer factors can be integrated into Linked USDL. In the following section six we describe concepts of service analytics and finally we conclude in section seven.

Motivation Use Case

Our use case is based on a world-wide offered B2B maintenance service of a medium-size manufacturing company producing medical devices for laboratories. Cocreation starts when the customer contacts the provider since maintenance is due. We divide co-creation into provider and customer domains and analyse service activities which (1) are required for co-creation [START_REF] Erkoyuncu | Understanding service uncertainties in industrial product-service system cost estimation[END_REF] and with a direct relation to the offered service. To co-create maintenance the provider has to perform all or only selected service activities. This means which business partner is responsible for, which service activity and, which service activities have to be performed, is defined and documented before co-creation. To document this kind of commitment the usage of a Service-Level Agreement (SLA) is a possibility. In our case identified service activities are check device status, send spare parts to customer, send technician to customer, install spare parts, update device software and teach the usage of new functions. To account for a provider's service costs, it is necessary to measure the cost effects on service performance during co-creation. For example to co-create service activity check device status the provider's performance, and activity time consumption, relies on a problem description submitted by an employee of the customer. Because the maintenance costs vary for each customer the provider requires a flexible costing approach. Furthermore, instead of having fixed costs for the maintenance service, the provider wants also to include customer depending factors.

Related Work

Activity-Based Costing (ABC) is a well-known approach to account service costs. ABC has its origin in the manufacturing industry [START_REF] Cooper | Measure Costs Right: Make the Right Decisions[END_REF]. A further development of ABC is Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing (TDABC). Here time is regarded as the leading cost driver. Because most of the supplied and consumed resources like employees and machines can be measured using time. In contrast to ABC, the approach of TDABC is easier to maintain and to keep the used costing data up to date [START_REF] Anderson | Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing[END_REF]. In production theory a similar concept, compared to our customer factors, exists based on production factors and factor combination [START_REF] Flandel | Modern Concepts of the Theory of the Firm -Managing Enterprises of the New Economy[END_REF]. Production factors are split up in internal and external factors. A production factor can be, for example, a defective medical device, information, or the customer himself. The internal factors are entities that are provided by the producer. The customer supplies the external factors. It is not possible for the provider to produce or buy external factors on the market. Also the associated knowledge is under control of the service customer. The producer is forced to integrate it into the production process. Factor combination means that internal and external factors are combined to obtain the desired product. This implies that both sides have to provide resources during co-creation [START_REF] Frisch | Theory of Production[END_REF].

In contrast to ABC and TDABC we also consider customer introduced uncertainty. Compared to production factors, we present a concept extending to the customer domain, called customer factors

Co-Creation and Customer Factors

We use the developed concept of customer factors to quantify the uncertainty introduced by a customer and rely on TDABC to compute service costs. Standardisation of service processes is difficult due to the heterogenic nature of services [START_REF] De Vries | Service Marketing Management -An International Perpective[END_REF]. Because of heterogeneity, customer factors vary in quantity and quality.

From a practical perspective it is impossible to model all the changing customer factors. Our research work is focused to measure the impacts on service performance and not the kind of individual customer factors.

To understand the monetary impact of customer factors we made a literature review with a focus on the following three aspects. (1) Is the exchange of resources associated with co-creation? (2) Are customer factors used to calculate services costs? (3) Which kind of customer attributes are used to describe customer factors? We can summarize that there is a common understanding about a necessary resource exchange between service provider and service customer. We could not find specialized methods trying to measure the impact of customer involvement on service costs using customer factors. In all selected articles we could find a, detailed or at least a vague description about the, correlation between customer involvement and costs. The kind of stated customer factors or customer attributes range from not precisely specified to concrete values [START_REF] Bergholtz | Towards a model of services based on cocreation, abstraction and restriction[END_REF], e.g. health care information [START_REF] Moll | The patient as service co-creator[END_REF], project complexity, company size, experience [START_REF] Sioukas | User involvement for effective customization: an empirical study on voice networks[END_REF], commitment, information [START_REF] Lu | Research on the motivation of the customer participation based on gray relational analysis[END_REF], cocreation activities [START_REF] Zhang | Value co-creation with customers and its impact on capabilities[END_REF] or knowledge about customer profiles [START_REF] Furstner | A possibility for optimal customer profile definition[END_REF]. Based on this input we argue that each customer provides individual customer attributes and it is necessary to consider them for performance measurement. We have derived four abstract customer factors: co-creation, information, technology and experience. They are conceptualized to measure the impact on activity time consumption. Subsequently cost can be calculated based on activity time using the associated resource cost e.g. the salaries of employees. We have defined customer factors which are easy to associate with customer related influence on co-creation process. From previous publications, e.g. [START_REF] Dorn | A Prototype for Service-Based Costing[END_REF], we know that a clear semantic of customer factors supports applying a costing method designed for services. Using individual customer attributes to describe the general concept of customer factors requires a generalized approach and stable mapping from attributes to factors and from factors to resources. Metrics for customer attributes must be defined for each service case individually. This procedure enables our approach also to provide reasonable values for changing and difficult to quantify customer input. The discipline of service analytics provides techniques supporting the identification and calculation of service attributes. We use three abstraction levels to map the concept of customer factors to service costs. The first level is used to capture customer individual attributes like company size or number of employees and map them to our four customer factors. Customer factors constitute the second level. The mapping of a customer attribute to a customer factor has to be decided individually and is based on the expressed semantic meaning. For example number of employees can be associated with information and capacity of internet connection with technology. For the third level, Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing, customer factors are then mapped to the concept of TABC. Customer attributes are not directly mapped to TABC to have a stable relation between customer factors and their impacts on service costs. We have selected the following four customer factors because (1) they provide a comprehensive selection, (2) their intention is clear, (3) they are applicable to different service cases and ( 4) are able to capture the complete range of possible customer attributes and service characteristics. The CF are:

Co-Creation (C i ): Describes the level of co-creation. A high co-creation level indicates a high level of customer involvement. The more activities are performed by the customer the higher the level of co-creation. Co-creation is the ratio between the number of involved service activities and the number of service activities performed by the customer. Compare also [START_REF] Erkoyuncu | Understanding service uncertainties in industrial product-service system cost estimation[END_REF] where the first term is used to calculate C i .

Information (I i ): For a provider, I i measures the degree of dependency on external information. An example customer attribute from our maintenance scenario mapped to I i is the average number of service activities per co-creation.

Technology (T i ): Indicates the importance of technology during co-creation e.g. infrastructure capabilities or IT service availability. From our service case we can map the average number of e-mails to T i .

Experience (E i ): Indicates the degree of experience and competencies that are required by the involved human resources in co-creation. We can map the time being in relation with a customer or number of maintenance co-creations to E i .

All four customer factors are applied on an individual activity A i , see [START_REF] Spohrer | The Service System is the Basic Abstraction of Service Science[END_REF]. Variables I w , T w and E w are used to weight the impact of these three customer factors and enable weighting varying importance of customer factors. Please note that the weight of the customer factors can be different. Only the sum must be 1 to get a normalized value, which is subsequently comparable between service cases and customers.

ܨܥ = ܫ * ܫ ௪ + ܶ * ܶ ௪ + ܧ * ܧ ௪ , with ሺܫ ௪ + ܶ ௪ + ܧ ௪ ሻ = 1 (1)
To get individual customer factor values (I i , T i and E i ) we use the formula e.g.

ܫ = ∑ ೕసభ

where ܣܥ are customer attributes and ݉ is the different number of ܣܥ mapped to ܫ . To map a customer attribute to a customer factor we use the injective function ݂: ܣܥ → ܨܥ . The output of our service model for service S i is a parameter value indicating the impact of customer involvement during co-creation, compare [START_REF] Erkoyuncu | Understanding service uncertainties in industrial product-service system cost estimation[END_REF]. Where ܨܥ ௌ ∈ ܴ and only activities A i are including where C i is 1. The value of C i can be 0 (not an involved service activity) or 1 (is an involved service activity). The usage of C i allows calculating individual service costing scenarios for different customers. To increase the importance of an individual customer attribute, it is also possible to weight the individual ܣܥ like described for ܨܥ . For this paper we have selected the average method to calculate a single customer attribute, which has no negative consequences to the semantic of this concept.

ܨܥ ௌ = ∑ ܥ ୀଵ ݊ + ∑ ܨܥ ୀଵ ݊ , ݊ is the number of service activities (2)

Service Modeling

So far, current approaches for service analytics look into developing algorithms to provide insight on, e.g., cost estimation and service performance. Nonetheless, the object of analysis, the service system, is not conceptualized. This leads often to the development of algorithms which are hard to reuse since they are developed to analyze particular services. Therefore, we propose and rely on the adoption of an abstraction by using a "master schema" for representing services. For our work, we use Linked USDL (the Universal Service Description Language, www.linkedusdl.org), one of the most comprehensive service models developed up to date when compared to WSDL, OWL-S, SAWSDL, hREST, MicroWSMO, WSMO-lite, or WSMO [START_REF] Cardoso | Towards a Unified Service Description Language for the Internet of Services: Requirements and First Developments[END_REF].

Considerable improvements were made to technology with the introduction of Service-Oriented Architecture (SOA) concept. Nonetheless, one of the main limitations is that service-orientation was introduced to solve integrations problems. SOA was biased by an enterprise-centric vision. Linked USDL was developed as an answer to this partial view by bridging a business, an operational and a technical perspective on services. The language models service concepts and properties such as service level, pricing, legal aspects, participants, marketing material, distribution channels, bundling, operations, interfaces, resources, etc. Linked USDL is a language which has evolved from USDL [START_REF] Cardoso | Towards a Unified Service Description Language for the Internet of Services: Requirements and First Developments[END_REF] by using a semantic representation for the schema.

Linked USDL and Service Costing

Linked USDL provides a wide range of concepts which can be used for costing. These are organized in 4 modules: core, pricing, service level, and legal. In this paper we will only use the core module to provide illustrative examples, namely:

• usdl:service & usdl:InteractionPoints. A service is described by a set of interaction points. Interaction points have been introduced in the context of service design and blueprinting [START_REF] Shostack | How to design a service[END_REF] and have gained a wide adoption in service marketing and operations management. Each service activity from our scenario has a set of interaction points. Using Linked USDL, these points are identified and represented with USDL. • usdl:InterationType. An interaction is characterised with a mode (manual, semi-automated, human-machine, machine-human, or automated) and a space (on-site or remote). Both, the mode and the space, provide additional information on an interaction which enable a better cost estimation. • usdl:receives & usdl:yields. An interaction involves the exchange of resources (e.g. information. documents, knowledge, etc.). The concept receives captures the resources needed for an interaction to take place, while the concept yields describes the resources that are generated. During service provisioning, information pertaining these concepts is captured and integrated. It constitutes a base for a systematic service costing and service analytics.

Questions Answered by Linked USDL

The Linked USDL can "answer" to various competency questions [START_REF] Gruninger | The role of competency questions in enterprise engineering[END_REF]. For example, "which participants were involved during the interaction points of the service activity process customer inquiry". These can be seen as primitives that service analytics can rely on to identify hidden patterns associated with cost. In this section, we illustrate how they are related to service costing. Examples were selected to answer to three types of questions (identified with CQ1-3) which involve the concept usdl:InterationPoints: who, how, and what.

• Who (CQ1). Who was involved during the provisioning of a service or a particular interaction point? An answer to this question provides information for the CF co-creation C i and CF experience E i . Two types of information can be obtained. On the one hand, the role of a business entity involved (e.g., customer, provider, observer, or third party supplier) and, on the other hand, the role taken when participating in the interaction. For example, if the interaction role was 'observer', then the impact of the customer on co-creation and service cost would be lower than if its role would have been an active 'participant'. • How (CQ2). How was the interaction conducted? The degree of automation of an interaction (e.g., manual, semi-automated, or automated) is related to service cost, but the relationship is not always trivial. An answer to this question provides information for the CF co-creation C i and CF technology T i . . • What (CQ3). What resources were used during interactions? The use of more or less resources influence the cost and complexity of an interaction. Therefore, resources need to be an integral part of a CF evaluation function. An answer to this question provides information for the CF information I i , CF technology T i and CF experience E i. It should be noticed that the variation of the cost and customer factors associated with the situations described by these questions is context (service, customer) dependent.

Using Linked USDL for Service Analytics

Once Linked USDL is populated with instances which represent the provisioning of services, it can be queried by algorithms from the field of service analytics. In this section, we will provide an explanation of the underlying idea. The following example illustrates the application of competency question CQ1 to identify the roles of the stakeholder (i.e. entities) who were involved during the provisioning of the service Maintenance by executing the various activities of the associated process (i.e. from check device status to teach the usage of new functions) from our motivation use case (see Section 2). We use SPARQL to define queries since this is the language commonly used to query RDF structures, the underlying representation format of Linked USDL.

PREFIX usdl: <http://www.linked-usdl.org/ns/usdl-core> prefix gr: <http://purl.org/goodrelations/v1> PREFIX rdf:http://www.w3.org/1999/02/22-rdf-syntax-ns# SELECT ?ip ?interactionRole WHERE{ ?service gr:name ?name . ?service usdl:hasInteractionPoint ?ip . ?ip usdl:hasInteractingEntity ?ie . ?ie usdl:hasEntityType ?businessRole . ?ie usdl:hasInteractionRole ?interactionRole . FILTER regex(?name, "Maintenance") . }

The query starts by identifying all the interaction points executed during the provisioning of the service Maintenance. Afterwards, for each interaction associated with, e.g. checking devices status or sending spare parts to customer, the query identifies the business roles of the stakeholders involved using the variable ?businessRole (which can take the form of a regulator, a producer, an intermediary, etc.) and the interaction role involved using the variable ?interactionRole (e.g. an observer, a participant, an initiator, a mediator, etc.). This information about who was involved during the realization of interactions points is then used by algorithms from the field of service analytics, e.g. clustering and classification algorithms, to extract new knowledge which enable to create better cost estimates.

Service Analytics

Within the process of co-creation, where both partners bring in their knowledge, skills, and resources, both partners form a service system [START_REF] Spohrer | The Service System is the Basic Abstraction of Service Science[END_REF]. For realizing service analytics for cost accounting, there is a need to capture, process, and analyze data within such a service system. This application where analytics supports services systems has been proposed as services analytics [START_REF] Fromm | Service Analytics: Leveraging Data Across Enterprise Boundaries for Competitive Advantage[END_REF]. Service analytics can be decomposed along two different dimensions. The first dimension distinguishes the different types of data sources, whether the data was tracked within the provider organization, at the customer side, or during the encounter between both partners. Therefore, section 6.1 illustrates potential data types which could be used. The second dimension to distinguish service analytics is based on different levels of maturity of applied methods, from basic analytics (reports and queries) and advanced analytics (statistical analysis and data mining). Section 6.2 therefore illustrates a method of applying advanced analytics which could be used for service costing.

Mapping Data Sources to Customer Factors by means of USDL

We propose a semantic layer on top of the different data sources, which enables the mapping of data sources to customer factors, by specifying the calculation of customer metrics which refer to customer attributes.

•

Co-Creation (C i ): A good source for deriving metrics for co-creation would be historical encounter data, containing information on the past interaction between the customer and the provider organization through different channels. Using USDL, this interaction data can be analysed in order to derive meaningful metrics for interaction, such as analysing participants and their roles in meetings.

•

Information (I i ): For deriving metrics related to customer information, analysing documents of past customer projects could be helpful. Using USDL, it would be possible to identify the documents required in each step of the process. Afterwards the quality of these documents could be benchmarked and compared to the average quality.

•

Technology (T i ): Using USDL, which allows modelling technology as a resource, enables an analysis of technology involvement in the past customer projects. A potential data source to investigate would be vouchers of invoices, if the usage of specific technology has been billed individually in the past.

•

Experience (E i ): As USDL allows modelling individual participants, the experience of each involved human resource in a specific point of the service process would be possible. A good data source would be a time tracking database, where employees track their specific activities for a customer project.

Applying Analytics

We propose using data mining for predicting customer attributes and finally estimating service costs. Data mining targets at discovering patterns in data in order to derive predictions [START_REF] Witten | Data Mining: Practical machine learning tools and techniques[END_REF]. The input for running data mining algorithms is a set of instances. Each instance consists of values of a fixed, predetermined set of features, called attributes. An algorithm is then applied to the set of instances to discover patterns and structures that can be used to make predictions about unknown data. In our case, we would analyse data from past maintenance services and services provided to the same customer, of which we want to forecast service costs. The calculated metrics and historical service costing results would serve as our attributes.

Forecasting costs requires the prediction of a numeric quantity. However, we cannot assume a linear correlation between calculated metrics and costs. Therefore, nonlinear methods are required. Potential algorithms are e.g. Neural Networks, Polynomial Regression, or k-Nearest-Neighbour. The derived models are then applied to new cases where service costs need to be estimated.

Example of Customer Factor Calculation

Based on input from the customer care database, we can define nine different customer attributes (three for each customer factor). Examples for this nine attributes are (1) the quality of the problem description for I 1 , (2) the number of required diagnostic devices for T 1 , and (3) the experience of the contact person for E 1 . For each customer attribute we have used an individual metric, e.g. the length of a problem description for [START_REF] Spohrer | The Service System is the Basic Abstraction of Service Science[END_REF]. With a forecasted weighing (I w =0.4, T w =0.25, E w =0.35) and a C 1 =3.33, we obtain customer factor values for ten different co-creation instances (CC i ) of (43,43,40,40,30,33,30,30,30,30). From these results, we can conclude a varying customer involvement from CC 1 to CC 6 and stabilization from CC 7 to CC 10 .

The decreasing customer factors suggest a decreasing customer attribute quality with negative consequences to reach forecasted service costs. To identify the cause of change a drill down to individual customer attribute values is possible and necessary.

Conclusions

From provider side service costing needs more attention. Since current models, such as Activity-Based Costing (ABC), lack accuracy when applied to services and ABC ignores the central aspect of co-creation. Our work tries to overcome these problems using the concept of customer factors to decrease uncertainty about service performance. With our customer factors (co-creation, information, technology and experience) we are able to measure a customer's individual impact on co-creation.

Customer factors are integrated into our three layered approach using customer attributes, customer factors and Time-Driven Activity-Based Costing. Another aspect which has not been explored, is the development of a systematic approach to analyse service systems. In this field, we proposed an abstraction layer (by relying on Linked USDL) which mediates the data sources and enterprise information systems which store service instance data. This layer serves as a conceptual model which simplifies the development and reuse of algorithms for service analytics. In the future, we will exploit the potential of service performance measurement by combining our proposed approach with methods from operations research.


Fredrik Sandberg
email: fredrik.sandberg@lnu.se

Bo Westerlund
email: bo.westerlund@konstfack.se

Erik Widmark
email: erik.widmark@transformatordesign.sesophie.andersson@transformatordesign.se

Sophie Andersson

The Struggles of Co-creation -The Highs and Lows of Involving Stakeholders into the Service Design Process

Keywords: Business Development, Co-creation, Co-Design, Idea Generation, Visual Methods, Service Design

This paper presents our experiences from a research project on how to co-develop new methods for idea generation within a service design practice. As an example the paper describes how service designers used two visual inquiry methods together with customers and employees in different service situations. The results show that that there is great potential in developing methods for co-design work based on design approaches. This project relies on a mindset where materials of different kinds, that can be organized and reorganized in different ways are used. This supports a way of creating knowledge that facilitates production of other results than the purely verbal. We have also realized that it requires a great amount of work to achieve a great result.

Introduction

In this paper we present our experiences from a shorter pilot study on how service designers can use visual inquiry methods to engage with and create knowledge about people's service experiences, needs and expectations.

The main objective with the study was to explore and develop two methods for idea generation in the beginning of a service design process. The aim was that these methods would be based on co-design, i.e. to let customers, employees and other stakeholders create knowledge together, which many consider to be a very successful approach to create innovative solutions [10], [START_REF] Westerlund | Design space exploration: co-operative creation of Proposals for Desired interactions with future artefacts[END_REF]. Researchers from various fields have for many years claimed that the design praxis is undergoing a radical transformation and therefore needs new relevant design methods [10], [START_REF] Krippendorff | The Semantic Turn: A New Foundation for Design[END_REF]. Some of the newer methods that are used in design and service design processes have their roots in ethnology and are considered to support the understanding of user needs and their preferences. Other methods have a background in marketing or business development. Often methods with very different ethos are mixed without awareness of the methods' different intrinsic approach. Design work creates awareness of future opportunities. In this knowledge based work, it is an advantage if people with many different skills and experience are involved. Co-creation and co-design is considered by many to be very successful approaches in order to create innovative proposals. Others believe however, that it is too costly and time consuming to involve many different stakeholders in the design work. The focus of this project was therefore to experiment with and analyze the processes of co-design and co-creation and try to create a methodology and comprehensive approach to this work be performed in an economically satisfactory manner.

Within this research project focus has been on methods that are design-related, i.e. methods that support work with a design point of ethos. The learning is largely taking place by simultaneously working with the proposed solution and the severity of the situation, which is often referred to as a "wicked problem" [START_REF] Rittel | Dilemmas in a General Theory of Planning[END_REF]. Assessments are the only way to evaluate, because within this design approach there's no right or wrong way, only better and less good suggestions seen from a specific perspective [START_REF] Cross | Designerly ways of knowing[END_REF]. The work of this research project is characterized by the exploratory approach using visual and physical tools. The knowledge created often contained more useful nuances than words alone.

The design approach can be perceived as imprecise and uncertain by people from other backgrounds used to solve distinct and well-defined problems. It is therefore important to be able to demonstrate the results of these methods and their ability to create knowledge and ideas for desirable, profitable, future products and services. We begin by describing the project background, and then describe the two visual methods and our experiences using them in a research project. We conclude by suggesting how others can use the method and describing how we hope to use it in the future.

Project Background

The study was a collaboration project between a group of design researchers from two universities; Linneaus University (Lnu), and Konstfack (KF) and a group of design practitioners from Transformator Design AB (TD). The study of the methods took place during a five month period inside a real design case called ABC that TD was responsible for. The aim of ABC was to help a service provider (the client) to create significantly better service experiences for its customers. In order to create knowledge about how both TD and the other stakeholders experienced the two inquiry methods, we visited different service situations where we tested, analyzed and interviewed both service providers and service buyers.

Aim and Research Questions

• How will service designers perceive visual inquiry methods?

• What usability and experience issues will be found from the method prototypes?

Method

This study consists of the design and evaluation of two visual inquiry methods

Prototype Development

In order to test and evaluate the two inquiry methods, a series of different paper prototypes was designed and used in live settings. By ensuring that all participants could see and touch the prototypes, the group could empathize with how the methods might be experienced in different contexts.

Prototyping Method 1

The inspiration for the prototypes of method 1 comes directly from Lucy Kimbell [START_REF] Kimbell | The Social Design Methods Menu[END_REF].

It is a method founded on an icon-based interface. The method supports both designers and non-designers to start building a better understanding of how people/customers are a part of a large network and the fact that they are not independent actors. Every human being is always and all the time linked with a number of people, organizations and objects.

These people, organizations and objects can act as generators to create new ideas. By bringing together or replace any of the above things, new ideas and design opportunities will emerge. This phenomenon is called bisociation in the field called collective creativity [10].

Story world can be used as an aid in both individual interviews and in collaborative design activities. In interview situations, the method is meant to be used as a support and basis for the questions by the interviewer to the interviewee. By using the different icons in the method you will create a collaborative picture of how things fit together. Both the one who asks the questions and the one who answers are given the opportunity to generate new ideas.

"With this method services can become more valuable to customers and users, Easier-to-use, with fewer resources wasted on implementing the right ideas in the wrong way (or on the wrong ideas entirely)"

(Kimbell & Julier 2012).

Prototyping Method 2

The inspiration for the prototypes of method 2 comes from a tool that was already part of TD's work process. It was a LEAN inspired whiteboard where employees of TD could use colored post-it notes to show the executed and non-executed tasks [START_REF] Liker | The Toyota Way -Lean for excellence[END_REF]. The aim of method 2 was to use a version of TD's Lean-inspired whiteboard as part of communicate and move idea generation to where the employees context.

The boards described a number of tasks, both using images and text that the customer service employees in the ABC project should test in their meetings with the customers. When the customer service staff in the ABC project performed tasks they wrote down what they did and how they felt on post it notes and then placed them on the board where they thought they belonged. The idea of the boards was that they should work both with and without support from TD. Once a week TD would visit the workplaces to collect the thoughts and ideas that the employees had created. These ideas were then refined by TD and reused in a variety of collaborative design activities with participants in the ABC project.

Testing the Method Prototypes

The first method tested in the study was method 1. It was tested in stores by three designers from TD. The test opportunity was a half-day activity where TD could try out the method on six different customers. The method is also used for a longer interview. Because of the tight schedule of the ABC project, there was no time for any follow-ups to further test the method in stores. The material created during the tests were picked out and reused in another activity the next day. During the tests of method 2 the boards were placed in both stores and in the customer support office. In the shops the boards were cramped in to already minimal coffee and lunch rooms therefore they were hard for the employees to use. But in the office of customer support the boards could take a more central role. It was placed on the middle of the customer service staff workroom, where it was visible from all sides.

Evaluating the Prototypes

The methods and results were mainly evaluated continuous throughout the project, both by TD and the researchers. But at three specific occasions the team earmarked time to reflect and evaluate the results.

The first occasion was a collaborative mapping activity that the researchers had created and led. In this activity, all project participants created a large map of the things they had done and experienced so far during the project. By using this way to create knowledge, the researchers could visually follow the participants' perception of where the problems, ideas, conflicts, comments, mistakes and creativity had occurred during the project. This way of evaluating the methods gave us a good picture of the context and network that the methods, project and the people belonged.

The second evaluation time was an anonymous questionnaire that was sent out to all project participants from TD. The idea of the survey was to focus the questions and answers only to method 1 and 2. Because of the tight schedule of the ABC project this survey was not prioritized by TD. Only one survey came back to the researchers.

The third and last assessment was an attempt to move both the participants and the methods out of the ABC project and into a lab environment at Konstfack. The purpose of this was to get away from the frames of the ABC project put on the research project. We wanted to see if we could lift the methods from a specific context and evaluate and develop them from a more general perspective. Three of the participants from TD and researchers attended the meeting. The activity lasted for about two hours and during that time managed the group discuss the methods and developed the icon tool into four new concepts on how the tool could work in a digital environment, like the iPad.

Results

Based on the three evaluation assessments, we can only highlight a few, incomplete and general conclusions about the methods. But after listening and reading TD's opinions on method 1, we can generally say that the method was appreciated in particular the icons with different facial expressions. The icons change TD's normal work process where visualization and idea generation usually comes more towards the end of the design process. But because of facial icons TD started to create and use ideas and visual solutions at the beginning of the ABC project. Another noticeable change was that the face icons gave TD a more nuanced picture of the client's situation than what TD usually gets when they use other methods. Through facial icons customers were forced to really think about which emotion best matched their experiences.

Method 2 was perceived by TD as stiff and sometimes hard to use. When TD was not in place, the methods were not used. In the stores, they were not used at all. But as soon as TD was in place and was able to coach the employees, the boards worked much better. The boards became a place where both TD and the employees could interact. The boards could be seen as boundary objects [START_REF] Star | Institutional Ecology, 'Translations' and Boundary Objects: Amateurs and Professionals in Berkeley's Museum of Vertebrate Zoology[END_REF].

What was perceived as bad with the method 2 was that it did not encourage a dialogue between TD and the employees. It was also difficult to understand the pieces of information that the employees posted on the board. Although there were many new and exciting ideas it was in the end difficult to trace them to the person and context. The methods were overall appreciated by TD but they will need more time and experience to refine them. The fragments that we managed to gather during the research project suggest however that the methods succeeded in generating relevant ideas and involve more stakeholders in the TD-design process.

Reflections

The conditions for implementing this project have been very good. Service designers with highly relevant knowledge and experience have been working closely together with scientists who have extensive experience in the development of design methods. The ABC project, where the exploratory work has been conducted has offered a great complexity and many diverse environments and situations to work with method development.

Conflicting Goals

The designer often empathizes with the end-user (customer's customer) but often the client has the most say in the project. It may seem like conflict to choose whether to focus on what is valuable to the "end user" or the company's sales and profits. The concept of value is itself an example of the different discourses used. A common discourse argue that value is created in the moment of use, ie. when the end user uses a product or service that creates value for this person [START_REF] Krippendorff | The Semantic Turn: A New Foundation for Design[END_REF]. This can be seen as a relational and constructivist approach, which believes that individuals perceive certain events as meaningful and that give people value. Products and services have meaning and value is created when used [START_REF] Krippendorff | The Semantic Turn: A New Foundation for Design[END_REF]. This approach is advocated widely including one of the most important business thinkers of our time, CK Prahalad. He wrote that "value is based on unique, personalized experiences of consumers." And "even companies serving 100 million consumers need to focus on Individuals." [START_REF] Prahalad | The New Age of Innovation: Driving Co-created value through global networks[END_REF]. In design, with its focus on the "end user", it is obvious that the value is created during use. Both these approaches have their own logic, but if these two very different approaches to the concepts of value occurs in the same project, it is easily creates confusion and uncertainty. In the past decade we have increased our understanding of the above dilemma when forced to choose the focus on either the user or the others involved, such as the employees. In order to work against several unclear interlinked objectives, we believe that a tangible exploration approach may have more success than one that relies on only verbal arguments. But the language is of course extremely important, and it is of the utmost importance that the work gives heed to the concepts of different and constantly changing interpretations and reinterpretations.

Co-design, does it mean extra work?

The work with co-design in this research project has taken much more time than estimated. It seems that the work has given very good results in terms of knowledge of customers and employees, and also concrete concepts for improving the customer service of ABC. This preliminary study has shown that there is great potential in developing methods for co-design work based on design mentality. I.e. that projects uses a mindset where materials of different kinds can be organized in different ways, thus supporting a different way of creating knowledge than the purely verbal.

We have also realized that it requires a great amount of work to achieve a great result.

Transformator Design had already good experiences of having the customers' involved in the design process, but they partly lacked a clear methodology and comprehensive approach on how this work can be done in an efficient manner. This project has demonstrated that a co-design work can give very good result, but it takes a lot of work. In conclusion, we believe that it is possible to further develop and refine these methods so that they become more efficient.

Conclusions and Further research

This paper has presented a project that should be seen more as a pre-study and the results indicate interesting possibilities for future explorations. Co-design was the overall approach and the way of involvement was through a visual thinking approach where materials were used that afforded to be organized and reorganized in different ways. This enabled stakeholders to contribute with relevant input and reflections to the larger commercial project that this study was part of. The emphasis of the final workshop was to develop opportunities for further research and here it was obvious that some kind of development of software support for service design processes is desirable. The challenge here will be to support the ease of manipulation, structuring and restructuring of the information that seems to be key affordances of the methods being developed, while at the same time integrate the possibilities that software has over physical artifacts.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig.1. Discussions among the project participants about the first versions of prototypes 1 and 2.By ensuring that all participants could see and touch the prototypes, the group could empathize with how the methods might be experienced in different contexts.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig.2.The second generation of method 2 was tested on employees in the customer support. Method 2 became a meeting point for TD and the ABC Company. The boards created a curiosity among the staff and this led to new dialogues between the different departments.


Florie Bugeaud
email: florie.bugeaud@nekoe.fr

Paul Pietyra
email: paul.pietyra@nekoe.fr

Victor Liger
email: victor.liger@nekoe.fr

From Service Design to Innovation Through Services: Emergence of a Methodological and Systemic Framework

Keywords: Service Design, Knowledge Management, Service innovation software, service strategy, collaborative process and tool, innovation places

The current crisis conducts companies to seek new solutions for growth. In this context, the still new field of Service Design (SD) is gaining more and more attention. Easy to use and based on collaborative processes, it enables to achieve quite quick results. However the SD process is mastered by few actors inside organizations. There is a need to scale up the process to the whole organization. To achieve that goal, SD needs to undergo an industrialization process. What's more, doing SD projects is not enough to change a company. SD has to be linked to transformation strategies. This paper introduces a dedicated framework which is based on four basic components all along the Service Design process: Knowledge, Software tools, Communities and Places. The paper mainly focuses on the first two components. It will be illustrated with a complete demonstration during the session.

Introduction

Considering the manufacturing slowdown of these last decades [START_REF] Bryson | The Services Duality and the Rise of the Manuservice Economy[END_REF], the deep change of our economy and society towards services, and the policies that have been advocated over the world, the reindustrialization is still a challenging topic. Service appears as an interesting economic, social, emotional response. Companies seek for new sources of growth beyond the mere production of tangible goods and value of utility. They have discovered the strategic role of services and try to strengthen their culture and strategy towards this direction [START_REF] Edvardsson | Service Culture and Service Strategy -The IKEA Saga[END_REF]. But they are completely disarmed against this fuzzy notion and the way of finding opportunities, developing and deploying them [START_REF] Gallouj | Innovation in services[END_REF], and even more against the required global transformation.

Service Design [START_REF] Mager | Methods and Processes of Service Design[END_REF] is useful to address these issues. It is a relatively new approach. Most of the Service Design process is done during collaborative workshops, with the use of tools and methods helping the co-design of the service. But they are still handmade. Capitalization, semi-automatic analysis, process acceleration, remote collaboration, indicators recovery in real time, etc. are thus not possible. Moreover launching a service (successful or not) does not mean for a company to undergo a sufficient transformation to survive or grow on a long run. Some Service Design projects enable to reach both goals (as the Gjensidige insurance company project, in Norway, that has succeed in shifting from a pure insurance point of view to the design of new services for people aged 20 to 30 based on a banking and insurance bundle [START_REF] Polaine | Service Design From Insight to Implementation[END_REF]), but most of them don't.

This paper introduces a systemic framework to bring a comprehensive and equipped approach of the service innovation process to companies. To respect the paper format, we only present some screenshots but the session will be the occasion of a case study demonstration. Section 2 presents the service innovation [START_REF] Miles | Innovation in Services[END_REF] approach as a holistic and opened [START_REF] Chesbrough | Open Service Innovation: Rethinking your business to grow and compete in a new era[END_REF] but still handmade practice. It starts from the general Double Diamond diagram and proposes a framework that deals with the necessary construction of a long term strategy. Section 3 details two main components of this framework: Knowledge and Tools. It gives an overview of the exiting tools and presents Umagus, a dedicated software. It also introduces the two other components: Places and People. Finally, Section 4 concludes and gives some perspectives.

Building a Holistic Approach for Service Innovation 2.1 A Service Innovation Knowledge at the Scale of the Whole Organization

Even if is a quite general guide applicable to all design tasks, most of the academics and practitioners agree to describe the global Service Design process in the Double Diamond shape proposed by the British Design Council in 2005 [START_REF]The design process[END_REF]. It is based on 4 major phases: Discover, Define, Develop and Deliver (figure 1). Design process has to be kept alive after the end of the project... There are still very few companies having a real service innovation department, policy and/or strategy. Moreover, many valuable outcomes (knowledge, deliverables and interactions) are lost after the double-diamond process.

A Handmade Practice that Requires a more Structured Approach

To do Service Design [START_REF] Mager | Methods and Processes of Service Design[END_REF], most of actors regularly use a common set of tools and methodologies such as personas, customer journeys, stakeholders mappings, service blueprints, prototyping (storyboards, mockups, aso.) and business model canvas. This Service Design methods and models are often used during collaborative workshops to find opportunities/ideas and/or to conceive a service. They vary from phase to phase. Sometimes the tool is an outcome that may be used directly all along the innovation and the delivery process (eg. Personas). Sometimes the tools are just a way to achieve a step (eg. stakeholders maps). But they all are rich findings and productions gathering a lot of information and knowledge that are lost or unused due to the nature of the materials (post-it, paper, etc.) and the temporary nature of the moment (fig. 2). We argue that these findings and productions are largely underestimated on a long run, and very rarely used to build a long term strategy. That's why we propose the following framework to store, manage and analyze all service innovation projects' findings and productions to "feed" a continuous service design portfolio management linked to the global organization strategy, and to be able to achieve its transformation. Moreover, companies' service design stakeholders often are a distributed and multidisciplinary (engineers, sociologists, economists, etc.) community who has to describe and analyze complex phenomena. This leads to a lack of collaboration and consensus, and a risk for the service and product-service launched on the market.

A Framework to Define a Transformation Process Through Services

These difficulties lead us to the assumption that there is a need for a comprehensive approach of the service innovation process and for an appropriate way of spreading a real service design culture among a company. Taking this into account we propose a new framework (figure 3) that will be partly developed in section 3. It aims to enrich the Double-Diamond horizontal logic (figure 1) with a vertical and systemic logic. The systemic perspective of this framework aims to ensure the consistency between the transverse processes of innovation and capitalization, the findings and productions it generates, the tools that are used to industrialize it, the places and the communities that use them. We are developing each inter-related building block according to this systemic perspective. The global innovation process relies on a very iterative approach to design and test new services based on the users knowledge and, at a higher level of abstraction, to consider all strategic and organizational insights and constraints to implement a successful transformation. This paper focuses on two findings/productions and softwares/tools, and briefly presents the two other blocks.

Using the Framework to Foster Service Innovation and Companies' Transformation

The Knowledge Findings and Productions of Service Design Projects as Key Elements to Identify the Strategic Constants

The findings and productions of Service Design projects is the container and revealer of all the knowledge and data of the under construction service. In a non-exhaustive way and in relation to the Double Diamond phases, it takes the form of:

-« discover »: a set of ethnographic « traces » such as photos, videos, verbatims, etc. ; a set of knowledge data stemming from the watchful activities ; a set of discovery deliverables such as personas, maps… ; a set of outcomes from the co-design workshops such as reports, posts-its photos… -« define »: prototypes, tests reports, more advanced deliverables, strategical reports, design constraints, service blueprints, user experience repository…. -others phases: service specifications, touchpoints, job descriptions… The definition, capture, treatment and reuse of these materials (cards, post-its, recordings, photos, videos, logs, etc.) within each service design project are essential to ensure the successful design and delivery of the service and the global transformation. Indeed, these elements have to allow the identification of strategical constants. They put forward insights, concepts, moments of truth, user perceptions, risks, cultural and organizational failures...revealing the need for strategical decisions, processes improvement, human resources recruitment and training, technical development, and so on. Thus service design methods and tools have to be part of a decision-aided approach that intends to bring growth and differentiation to companies.

Existing Tool-related Works to Support some Service Design Phases

Few works exist on the capture and semi-automation of required elements. Most of them propose creative methodologies and toolkits but few works really speak about a technological and complete solution. However, it is essential to capture/accumulate a lot of service design knowledge and data within a specific database to envisage the comparison and analysis of designed services or service design processes.

We can cite an Austrian initiative called myServiceFellow [START_REF] Stickdorn | myServiceFellow: gaining genuine customer insights[END_REF] and stemming from the results of a research project of the Management Center Innsbruck -MCI Tourism, financed by the Tyrolean science fund and the hardware kindly supported by mobilkom Austria. myServiceFellow was a mobile ethnography application for smartphone. It allowed the capture of customer journeys and their enrichment (photo, video, voice). We can also quote the well-known Swiss works on the automation of Business Model Canvas modeling/use [START_REF] Fritscher | Supporting business model modeling: a comprise between creativity and constraints[END_REF] through an application available on iTunes. Another interesting project is the European project MEPSS (Methodologies for Product-Service System) that has worked on a web-based tool for the development of product-service systems. MEPSS proposed a modular approach to guide companies in the process of "developing and implementing a successful and sustainable productservice system" [START_REF] Van Halen | Methodology for Product Service System innovation: How to develop clean, clever and competitive strategies in companies[END_REF]. The Creative Design Institute of the University of Sungkyunkwan is also working on intelligent tutoring systems that aim to investigate computer-based aid to product-service systems design. This Korean team is developing a software primarily based on the service blueprint [START_REF] Kim | A Product-Service Systems Design Method with Integration of Product Elements and Service Elements Using Affordances[END_REF].

In another field than Service Design, there are also some initiatives within the SSME (Service Science Management and Engineering) community. For example SOMF (Service Oriented Modeling Framework) has been proposed by Michael Bell and implemented in EA8 of Sparx System [START_REF] Bell | Service Oriented Modeling: Service Analysis, Design and Architecture[END_REF]. But, even if it is dedicated to the modeling and specification of high-level service systems thanks to a specific language and a diagram of interconnected atomic and composite entities, it is still IT-oriented.

Umagus, a Way to Scale Up and Automate the Overall Service Design Process

As part of a research and development project on the transformation process through services, and in order to implement the second building block of our framework (softwares and tools) which is still not completely addressed, we have worked on the conception of a specific tool and its database called Umagus (figure 4). Umagus aims to scale up and shift from the current handmade approach to an industrialized approach with a structured and semi-automated process. In its first version, it is a web-based platform to support the innovation process and keep the value of its findings and productions. Technologically speaking, it has been developed as a SaaS platform with a graph-database given the nature of the studied phenomena as heterogeneous and interconnected entities [START_REF] Bugeaud | iSamsara: an original approach to represent "servicial agencements[END_REF] and given the few constraints of this kind of database which does not require joint relationships between pre-established tables and which can store a huge amount of data. Umagus is a comprehensive "user experience-oriented" solution for services innovation and management. It enables to capture, organize and visualize "a large amount of information about the targeted company, its value chain, its activities or its users' profiles and usages" [START_REF] Bugeaud | Exploring data to innovate through services: a dedicated web-based solution for manufacturing and services companies[END_REF]. Umagus also facilitates inter-trade co-creation. Indeed, service design is natively a co-design approach. Thanks to collaborative and versioning functionalities, Umagus manages the cooperation of multiple participants in a project, allowing them to share their individual production and interact over it in a synchronous or asynchronous way, but also to think about and produce directly together. It improves the flow of data between distant stakeholders and helps them to appropriate new methods and models. It is thus a good solution to capture, store and visualize complex systems and to facilitate calculations on these systems thanks to algorithms. Key functionalities have already been implemented, tested, validated and used by some companies: service innovation projects management, heterogeneous data and knowledge management (user, market, aso), key methods and models integration and enrichment (persona, service journey with key stages and moments of truth, service blueprint, storyboarding…), dashboards generation (for services managers), service visualizations for different stakeholders, technology or product functionalities specifications from a service system perspective.

Umagus aims to become a key help for companies and service designers to do projects quickly and to don't lose any data and any value from the findings and productions of the service innovation process. But, to go further than the functionalities, our R&D project now focuses on analysis and comparison of all the data that are generated by service design projects and capitalized into Umagus. We are also developing calculation methods for identifying value and innovation forms. This is a work in progress based on all the data and productions we have already captured during more than three years. It will be described in further publications.

Innovation Places and People

Innovation places play a more and more important role within organizations. As a short illustration, we are running a research and development project with a company in the field of aeronautics that aims to create a place and a team dedicated to innovation through services. This project has led us to translate the global service innovation process into specific spaces to meeting the needs and constraints of each phase of the double-diamond. These arrangements are built to enable the physical regular encounter between people, knowledge, tools and process. They are a real proof of the will of companies to change from service design projects to a global transformation through services.

Beyond the places, people are one of the main service innovation pillars. As for technological innovation, companies are starting to create dedicated communities for service innovation. These communities are organized around service design projects, but they are also the backbone of the organizational global change. They need specific animations and motivational tools that we are currently working on and will be the object of further publications.

Conclusion and Perspectives

Starting from the traditional Service Design process, which is based on an existing set of tools and methodologies, we have seen that companies tend more and more to develop a more comprehensive approach of service innovation, in order to achieve a global transformation of their business. Service Design needs to adapt to that trend, scaling up in terms of adoption. That's why we believe that automated solutions for service innovation and design will be more common in the future. They will be linked to global innovation solutions enabling to keep and build on the value of findings and productions of all service innovation projects. What have been done in technological innovation seems to happen also for services innovation. It is just in its early stages.

Umagus is now used during service design projects within industrial and servicial companies. We have now to pursue its use to feed the database and to integrate new kinds of analysis and calculation to make it more automated, collaborative and robust. Other current works concern the deployment and test of dedicated places. These perspectives and their implementation will be the objects of further publications. An oral presentation would be the occasion to concretely demonstrate our works through a simple service design case.

Finally, it seems also interesting to consider Umagus and the overall framework we conceived as possible supports for service design education since this field courses and programs are still under development and will benefit from it.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. The Double Diamonds shape within a global strategic reflection Each phase allows achieving new steps in the innovation project. At the end the company should had a clear outcome: a brand new innovative service. But the Service

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Examples of handmade persona and customer journey.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. Methodological framework for a global transformation through service.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Some screentshots of Umagus (projects, dashboard, persona and journey creation).