Farah Arab
email: farah.arab@usherbrooke.ca

Yasir Malik
email: yasir.malik@usherbrooke.ca

Bessam Abdulrazak
email: bessam.abdulrazak@usherbrooke.ca

Evaluation of PhonAge: an adapted smartphone interface for elderly people

Keywords: Smartphone, Mobile Phone Interface, Accessibility, Evaluation, Aging

Smartphones can play a significant role in maintaining decent Quality of Life for elderly people. Key factor to Smartphones usage success among elderly people depends on the accessibility of phone interface. In this paper, we present preliminary evaluation results of our PhonAge, an accessible and adaptable interface for Smartphones that is customized to the elderly profile. The results of the evaluation show adequacy of the interface to elderly needs. The evaluation feedbacks also helped in improving PhonAge interface design.

Introduction

Smartphones can play a significant role in maintaining decent Quality of Life (QoL) for elderly people. It can promote independent living, active aging, and active socialization, while ensuring safety. The aging process is associated with progressive degradation of sensory, physical and/or cognitive abilities. The related disabilities deprive elderly people from independent living and maintaining social interaction [START_REF] Helal | The engineering handbook of smart technology for aging, disability, and independence[END_REF], as a consequence they feel isolated and are transferred to special care facilities.

Recently, Smartphones have gained attention among elderly people and many of them are starting to use them for various purposes (e.g. as a reminder) [START_REF] Oksman | Young People and Seniors in Finnish 'Mobile Information Society[END_REF]. Numerous services available on Smartphones can assist elderly people (e.g. navigation, interactive diary, activity reminder, speed dial, emergency service), however these solutions are not much welcomed in elderly community, either, because of accessibility issues, usability, elderly resistance and rejection toward technology, complex and tedious perception toward technology, etc. [START_REF] Arab | Age, memory and time: practices and support[END_REF][START_REF] Ziefle | How to overcome disorientation in mobile phone menus: a comparison of two different types of navigation aids[END_REF]. At present, the mobile industry is targeting young and a tech-savvy population [START_REF] Fisk | Designing for older adults: Principles and creative human factors approaches[END_REF] and does not always take into account the special needs and expectations of the elderly population when designing services or phone devices. The main difficulties in adapting Smartphones for elderly people are limited or lack of personalization, complexity of mobile user interface (mUI) or a navigation menu, quantity of information arranged on screens, number of functions, language, etc. Consequently, mobile technology becomes more and more complex and elderly people are confronted with devices and services that are not adapted to their needs. We present in this paper a preliminary evaluation study that is conducted to test the usability of our solution named PhonAge [START_REF] Abdulrazak | PhonAge: Adapted Smartphones to Assist Elderly in Age Friendly Cities. 11 th international conference on smart homes and health telematics[END_REF], an accessible and adaptable solution for Smartphones that can host diverse useful services to elderly people. The results and feedback from this evaluation illustrates the adequacy of PhonAge to elderly needs, and helped in addressing the shortcomings of PhonAge interface.

The rest of the paper is organized as follow. In the next section, we present an overview of PhonAge, in section 3 we present the evaluation of PhonAge along with discussion on results in section 4, and finally, in section 5 we conclude our work with direction on our future work.

2

Overview of PhonAge

PhonAge is an attempt to promote the use of smartphones among elderly people. In our experience while designing mHealthcare and social services on Smartphones for elderly people, we found that accessibility of phones is the major obstacle towards acceptance, usability and continuity of use [START_REF] Abdulrazak | PhonAge: Adapted Smartphones to Assist Elderly in Age Friendly Cities. 11 th international conference on smart homes and health telematics[END_REF]. To address such issues, we designed and evaluated PhonAge, an accessible and adaptable solution for Smartphones that is customized to the elderly profile and can host diverse services to assist them in their activity of daily living (ADL) [START_REF] Abdulrazak | PhonAge: Adapted Smartphones to Assist Elderly in Age Friendly Cities. 11 th international conference on smart homes and health telematics[END_REF]. PhonAge main interface/screen (Figure 1-a) is divided in three sections, namely (1) a spatiotemporal assistance section (Top section) to continuously provide elderly people with spatiotemporal contextual information (date, time and weather), (2) the Main activity and service area section to provide accessible phone feature and services to assist elderly and (3) an emergency section to ensure safety of elderly people while moving. PhonAge emergency button allows elderly people to alert someone in case of emergency (e.g. health problem, attack, wandering) according a predefined context-aware emergency protocol (based on the context-awareness framework presented in [START_REF] Abdulrazak | Micro contextawareness for autonomic pervasive computing[END_REF]). It also provides a configuration options that allow elderly people/caregiver/family to adapt Smartphones according to elderly needs, change the text and icon size, choose among the icons from gallery, change the order of icons, etc. (detailed presentation of PhonAge is available in [START_REF] Abdulrazak | PhonAge: Adapted Smartphones to Assist Elderly in Age Friendly Cities. 11 th international conference on smart homes and health telematics[END_REF]).

Evaluation

To study the usability and accessibility factors of PhonAge, we conducted a first stage evaluation with elderly people. The study aims at highlighting the compliance of PhonAge's mUI to the needs of elderly people and identifies usage difficulties. Following, we present evaluation method and preliminary results.

Method and Data Collection

To evaluate the mUI of PhonAge, we compiled a semi-structured interview supported by a questionnaire of about 45-60 minutes composed of 27 questions divided in three parts, and a direct observation of the PhonAge usage. The interview is designed to be conducted in person (by examiner) and the feedback and remarks to be recorded by the examiner. The questionnaire was pre-tested with one elderly people of age 65. Following we describe three parts of questionnaire:  Icon Understandability Test is run to evaluate the meaning that PhonAge icons give (similar to [START_REF] Batu Salman | Senior friendly icon design for the mobile phone[END_REF]). First, participants are asked to give the meaning of the 12 icons proposed in PhonAge (figure 1-b). Second, we present the icons with their respective labels and ask the following question: "According to you which information do you consult if you touch the next icons''. The order of the icons is modified to avoid inferring with any meaning.

 Use Test Method is run to evaluate the usability of PhonAge. The evaluation is designed to assess difficulties in use, utility of the navigation arrows provided (to switch between screens), and utility of functions (e.g. emergency, organization of icons/functionality on main screen). Participants are asked to navigate through phone functions and perform four defined tasks i.e. call, search contact address, search email and locate the camera function.

Moreover, participants are asked to evaluate the PhonAge interface in terms of utility, facility of use and their preferences (i.e. interface structure, color of the wallpaper, services usefulness). We ask questions like "According to you, is it easy to? According to you, it is useful for outside activities to? According to you, the background is?"

Results

The results presented in this paper are those conducted with twenty elderly persons aged 60 to 84 (Mean=70 years, standard deviation=8, 2, 13 females and 7 males) who participated in this study. Following, we present the results.

Activity of Daily Living

In our study, most of the participants (19/20) live at home except one person lives in a retirement home. 11/20 participants live with family, 5/20 live in couple and 4/20 by themselves. The results show that the main outings are grocery (14/20), daily walk (10/20), visit relatives (10/20), leisure (8/20), medical appointments (5/20), administrative activities (2/20) and volunteering (1/20). 10/20 participants prepare independently their outings, 8/20 by writing a task list, 3/20 plan their trips (e.g. bus schedules), and 3/20 assemble in advance documents for administrative activities. 7/20 has been at least once victim of abuse outside. Half of the participants (10/20) also don't feel secure outside particularly because of the risk of street attacks or falls, vulnerability feelings and frailness. However, this insecure feeling decreases when someone accompanies them. Results show also that 11/20 participants have a mobile phone that they use either to call, to be contacted or as an event reminder (e.g. birthday or medical appointments). 3/20 participants also use the phone to send a message or take a photo, and 5/20 participants consult their directory (occasionally). Figure 2 illustrates the results of Use of mobile phones by elderly people.

Icons Understandability Test

Evaluation of the icon understandability showed, that common icons (e.g. phone, emergency) were easily understandable (meaning and purpose) by all participants (20/20), even without a label (Figure 3 illustrates the results of the understandability of PhonAge icons). Labeling the icons helped participants to understand the navigation and social service icons. However, none was able to understand the following two icons: "shopping" for shopping list and "home phone number" on contact screen (Figure 5), 20 participants inferred that the shopping icon is for on-line shopping and not a shopping list. Similarly only one participant inferred that time shown on the agenda icon (7:00) (Figure 1) referred to an appointment at 7:00 AM. These results confirm the compliance of 9 icons to the associated functions. They also provided us with valuable feedback to modify the icons of shopping list, home and office phone. Taking into account our observation that elderly people pay attention to details/indications of icons, adding a sheet symbol to the "shopping" icon improved the understandability of the icon. participants found these tasks difficult due to a visual impairment condition and their first time use of smartphones. During the first interaction with PhonAge, 17 participants used only the navigation arrows of the mUI to navigate through screens and icons selection (Figure 1-a). Only 3 participants used the touch scrolling, as they were already accustomed to it. After a demonstration time of the option (i.e. navigation arrows and touch scrolling), 17/20 participants preferred to keep both in the mUI. After this learning phase, participants found touch scrolling very intuitive as most of them said "we flip pages like in magazine, moving finger/hand form right to left." 16/20 participants faced a difficulty to return to home screen (while navigation between screens). In the current version of PhonAge, returning to home screen is done always using the back button provided by the device. Since these participants were all novice Smartphone users, they were not aware of the presence of the button. One of the novice participants and the three who were already accustomed to touch screen devices had no problem returning to the home screen. After a learning phase of this option, the 20 participants were accustoming to the use. The overall evaluation results shows that participants appreciated the clear color (e.g. green, yellow, blue) of the wallpaper and they appreciated the readability (16/20), visibility (20/20), pleasant aspects (18/20) and contrast (20/20) of the interface. Eighteen participants preferred the portrait display contrary to landscape display as they found it more classic. The position of the icons and information on the main screen are also very much appreciated, for instance, all participants (20/20) liked the access to the spatiotemporal values and emergency button on all screens. Six participants also pointed, that one way to appropriate PhonAge is to personalize the label of the icons by adding the word "my" e.g. my contacts, my agenda, my shopping list rather than contacts, agenda, shopping.

PhonAge Compliance to Preferences and Needs of Elderly People

The use-test results confirmed the adequacy of PhonAge mobile interface design with elderly people perception. For most of the participants, the main purpose of using mobile phone is maintaining social relationships (calling and receiving calls, respectively 11/20 and 15/20) and having safety services (contact somebody in case of emergency, 20/20). The most useful PhonAge's reported functions are: emergency (20/20), social service i.e. possibility to be connected with known and unknown people (17/20), and agenda to organize ADLs (15/20) (Figure 4 illustrates the results of PhonAge Service Usefulness).

In addition, participants found temporal information and its presentation very important; 16/20 reported that date is important while 14/20 reported time is important. However, 17/20 participants reported that weather information is not necessary to be available on all screens all the time. 15/20 participants reported that contact details is useful, they appreciated abstracted contact presentation (i.e. home, office and mobile contact information) (figure 5), and feel unnecessary to have detailed contact presentation (i.e. email, address, social contact).

Figure 4. PhonAge Service Usefulness

This feedback helped us to include the option of disabling detailed contact presentation in the configuration. Finally, only 3/20 participants (those already use smartphones) considered navigation service useful while other don't feel the need as their mobility is around their homes or they are accompanied with someone while going out. Only 4/20 participants find it interesting to take photos using smartphone camera, also all participants (20/20) appreciated the idea of displaying photos on the phone screen. We presented in this paper our first evaluation of PhonAge, a smartphone based solution that comply with elderly people profiles. This evaluation confirmed that PhonAge is quick to learn and its design meets the expectation and perception of elderly people. Moreover, the feedback received from the evaluation helped to improve and modify the icons so that elderly can have a better understanding of the function they use. The evaluation also highlighted the concern of participants regarding the data entry for contacts, daily activities, shopping list, etc. In future, we are working to develop and evaluate PhonAge' services in the context of Age Friendly cities that would assist elderly to remain independent and maintain social interaction. We encourage research community to use PhonAge, and welcome an opportunity to work together. Our goal is to build a system that promotes successful aging by use of PhonAge as a host that enables successful deployment of useful assistive services.

Figure 1 .Part. 1 .Part. 2 .Part. 3 .

 1123 Figure 1. PhonAge Main Screen (a) and Icon Presentation (b)Part. 1. Gathering user information: In this part, we ask questions related to participants profile, such as age, education level, living environment (independent or nursing home), etc. The participants were asked to rate each item using a 5-point Likert scale.Part. 2. Gathering details of outdoor ADLs:In this part, we ask questions about outdoor ADLs (i.e. purpose, frequency and organization of activities), kind of support for outdoor activities (e.g. mobility equipment device), use of mobile phone purpose (e.g. call, messages, reminder), frequency of mobile phone use, type of phones used (e.g. touch screen, dailpad).Part. 3. Accessibility and Usability Test:In this part, we ask questions about understandability, usage, utility and satisfaction of the PhonAge interface.

Figure 2 .

 2 Figure 2. Use of mobile phones by elderly people

Figure 3 .

 3 Figure 3. Results of Icons Understandability Test

Figure 5

 5 Figure 5. PhonAge Contact Screen


Stephen Snow
email: steve.snow@qut.edu.au

Margot Brereton
email: m.brereton@qut.edu.au

Towards Engaged Consumption: new sources of inspiration for eco-feedback design

Keywords: Eco-feedback, resource use, electricity, engaged consumption

Eco-feedback interventions are capable of producing reductions in household energy consumption. Yet less is known about exactly how this reduction is achieved, how to maximise user engagement, or how to effectively translate engagement into energy saving. This paper discusses design opportunities for eco-feedback systems through observations of domestic energy use in both Western and rural developing world contexts. Drawing on case studies from these two contexts including 21 empirical interviews, we present an alternative framework for human-resource interaction, highlighting design opportunities for a transition towards more engaged and sustainable energy consumption among users.

Introduction

Domestic energy consumption continues to grow in saliency in the global consciousness due to its contribution to environmental issues such as climate change and the challenges associated with peak demand [START_REF] Strengers | Bridging the divide between resource management and everyday life: Smart metering, comfort and cleanliness[END_REF]. Providing households with improved feedback on their energy use (eco-feedback) has emerged as a fruitful means of addressing these challenges through heightening energy-awareness, better informing consumption decisions and potentially facilitating pro-environmental behaviours [START_REF] Dadiomov | Power trips[END_REF][START_REF] Froehlich | The design of eco-feedback technology[END_REF][START_REF] Froehlich | The design and evaluation of prototype ecofeedback displays for fixture-level water use data[END_REF]. Research suggests that eco-feedback interventions such as energy monitors or interactive in-home displays are capable of producing significant reductions in household consumption, yielding average energy savings of approximately 7 to 14% for the time they are installed [START_REF] Faruqui | The impact of informational feedback on energy consumption-A survey of the experimental evidence[END_REF]. Less is known however, about the processes through which this conservation effect is achieved or which eco-feedback attributes best facilitate engagement and energy savings [START_REF] Hargreaves | Making energy visible: A qualitative field study of how householders interact with feedback from smart energy monitors[END_REF]. Similarly, while many eco-feedback studies assume a direct link between raised awareness and energy savings [START_REF] Hargreaves | Making energy visible: A qualitative field study of how householders interact with feedback from smart energy monitors[END_REF], social psychology literature suggests heightened awareness is not a reliable predictor of behaviour change [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF]. What is clearer is that many Western consumers are substantially disconnected from the energy resources they consume [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF] and that eco-feedback has the potential to help bridge this divide [START_REF] Froehlich | The design and evaluation of prototype ecofeedback displays for fixture-level water use data[END_REF].

Adopting a broader frame of reference, one could justifiably question the significant amounts of time and effort being invested in this field by HCI researchers, when approximately one third of the world's population still rely on burning biomass as their primary source of energy [START_REF] Howels | A model of household energy services in a low-income rural African village[END_REF]. Despite the peak demand issues being experienced in many parts of the world, 25% of the world's population still lacks effortless access to electricity [START_REF] Bidwell | Walking and the social life of solar charging in rural Africa[END_REF] and cannot directly benefit from conventional eco-feedback. On the other hand, these populations unwittingly have a far stronger understanding and appreciation of the relationships between their everyday practices and their resource consumption. For instance, they physically gather the energy resources they require in many cases rather than simply flicking a switch or turning a tap.

Considering eco-feedback has the potential to better engage Western consumers with their energy consumption [START_REF] Froehlich | The design and evaluation of prototype ecofeedback displays for fixture-level water use data[END_REF], we believe this field of enquiry has much to gain from studying practices of people in less developed countries who are already more engaged in this regard. This can serve to inform the design of eco-feedback technology and in turn, provide inspiration for designs that may benefit these communities as well.

The purpose of this paper is to investigate eco-feedback design through the lens of the human-resource interactions which take place in the home and the underlying infrastructures and mentalities that shape these interactions. Drawing from examples from both Western and rural developing world contexts, including 21 interviews with suburban Australian households, we illustrate the discrepancy in engagement with consumption between the two contexts. We then present a framework for humanresource interaction and highlight some of the many design challenges associated with eco-feedback effectively transitioning users towards more Engaged Consumption.

2

The story of two worlds of energy

The Western context

The relationship between everyday practices and domestic resource consumption, whilst inextricable, is often poorly understood in Western contexts [START_REF] Strengers | Bridging the divide between resource management and everyday life: Smart metering, comfort and cleanliness[END_REF]. The continual disparity between the spheres of production and consumption represents a major obstacle to consumers becoming better engaged with their domestic resource use [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF]. Electricity and water consumption for instance result from practices in the household sphere which can be unpredictable, changeable and based on social, cultural or external influences [START_REF] Strengers | Bridging the divide between resource management and everyday life: Smart metering, comfort and cleanliness[END_REF]. Yet in Australia, the billing mechanisms for these 'services' still consist of infrequent unitemised invoices which distill the multitude of actions creating the consumption into a single value. This has contributed to a mentality of disinterest among many suburban Australian consumers towards their resource consumption. Sofoulis [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF] argues this is at least partly due to the longstanding dominant sociotechnical systems for supplying water and electricity. In suburban Australia, large centralised utilities have assumed all responsibility for the supply and (in the case of waste water and sewage) disposal of these resources as a 'service' to their customers [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF]. As a result of this centralised municipal system, an illusion is created of 'endless supply' at the other end of a power socket or tap [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF]; a misconception that was actively promoted by electricity authorities in previous decades: "Now, under the Council's new Tariff of Penny Units… You can use Electricity for every purpose without counting the cost... No need to worry about switching off the lights, but have peace of mind and contentment with a welllighted home. -You can, without being extravagant, use electricity for everything!" (Electricity Topics, Issue 1, pp.8, 1936; reproduced in [START_REF] King | Power for the people: Brisbane electrical heritage 1880s-1950s[END_REF])

The notion of endless supply is further reinforced by the typical home infrastructure related to electricity and water consumption. For instance the positioning of the water and electricity meters external to the dwelling emphasises that responsibility for the management of these resources lies outside of the home [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF]. Many years of cheap and stable electricity prices have further reinforced this disengagement among suburban Australians with their energy consumption, thereby limiting motivation to better understand the factors affecting their consumption or adopt conservation practices.

Providing consumers with better feedback on their energy use represents a means of bridging this gap in energy-literacy and facilitating a more Engaged Consumption among consumers [START_REF] Froehlich | The design of eco-feedback technology[END_REF]. However, considering the weak correlation between awareness and behavior change [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF], a key feature of Engaged Consumption and thus a challenge for designers, should be to effectively translate engagement into energy conservation.

The rural developing world context

Despite facing far more significant challenges, disconnection from resource consumption and lack of conservation awareness is not a problem facing many of the hundreds of millions of people living in rural areas in the developing world. For those who remain without effortless access to electricity and water, resource consumption is a far more tangible, visual, physical and social activity [START_REF] Bidwell | Walking and the social life of solar charging in rural Africa[END_REF]. The link between everyday practices and resource consumption is more explicit, for instance, the same user may gather the resources themselves prior to overseeing and regulating their consumption [START_REF] Howels | A model of household energy services in a low-income rural African village[END_REF]. In this context, feedback on usage is visual and immediate and often requires a prompt response, such as stoking a fire or filling a lamp. Bidwell et al. [START_REF] Bidwell | Walking and the social life of solar charging in rural Africa[END_REF] report on the design and deployment of solar-powered charging stations for mobile phones in the district of Mankosi on the Eastern Cape of South Africa. For many here, electricity is used for the single purpose of charging phone batteries and the supply source (the sun), the distribution network (wires) and the electricity consumption (phones being charged) can all be visualised within a single line of sight. This visualisation contrasts starkly with the act of plugging a charger into a socket on the wall, which many Western consumers are familiar with. In Mankosi, electricity consumption is often a very explicit social process; locals gathered at the mobile charging stations to chat with the charging facilitator and other locals. Users became aware of the factors affecting consumption such as cloud or rain through such informal conversations [START_REF] Bidwell | Walking and the social life of solar charging in rural Africa[END_REF].

Another disparity between domestic resource consumption in the developing world and the West is the amount paid for electricity; both in terms of financial capital and physical effort. Using the example of Sagar Island in West Bengal, India [START_REF] Dadiomov | Power trips[END_REF], men and boys from villages walk to makeshift battery charging businesses to rent car batteries. These batteries are carried home to provide power for lighting, entertainment and other uses during the evening. For these simple privileges and the social status they afford, villagers exert considerable physical effort and pay the equivalent of 10 times the standard electricity tariff in West Bengal [START_REF] Dadiomov | Power trips[END_REF]. A similar situation exists in Mankosi [START_REF] Bidwell | Walking and the social life of solar charging in rural Africa[END_REF] where, in the absence of the solar charging stations, villagers walk to establishments with petrol generators and pay around R5.50 (~US$0.60) to charge their phone when they can afford to. This cost is similarly exorbitant when compared to that incurred by charging a phone battery from a grid-connected dwelling in South Africa (~R0.70 or ~US$0.08) 1 . In both these examples, users have a high tacit knowledge of the factors affecting battery life and ways to conserve energy [START_REF] Bidwell | Walking and the social life of solar charging in rural Africa[END_REF][START_REF] Faruqui | The impact of informational feedback on energy consumption-A survey of the experimental evidence[END_REF].

Interview findings-the Australian context

In order to explore engagement between Australian consumers and their electricity consumption and to seek design inspiration for eco-feedback systems, we began by interviewing 21 participants living in Brisbane, Australia. While our findings here are limited to suburban Brisbane, over time we aim to balance these with accounts from remote Australian communities including primarily Indigenous communities whose remoteness often dictates they operate more self-sufficiently. All of our participants lived in dwellings reliant on mains electricity and reticulated water and sewage, with 16 of the 21 having opted to receive a small digital energy monitor as part of a government sustainability initiative. We were not involved in the design or deployment of this monitor and cannot comment on the circumstances in which it was installed in the homes. The monitor displayed aggregate household consumption instantaneously both in kilowatt hours and in dollars. The interview process included a 'tour' of the dwelling and included questions covering the topics of electricity usage behaviour, electricity feedback and the social sharing of information related to electricity.

(Dis)engagement with energy consumption

Continuous electricity supply was seen by participants as both a necessity and a right. Despite this, the connection between understandings of the impact of everyday practices upon electricity consumption was found to be somewhat tenuous for many participants. For instance "turning off the lights" was mentioned frequently as a conservation practice, both in relation to the participants themselves and to teaching children. However, considering most participants had replaced their incandescent bulbs with energy saving compact fluorescent varieties, turning off lights often represented a less effective conservation action than modifications to other comfort, cleanliness or entertainment practices. In eight other instances, while participants were aware of an appliance consuming a lot of power, such as the air conditioning or tumble dryer, its usage was considered non negotiable. Three participants had signed up to a direct debit scheme where an agreed amount was automatically paid to the electricity utility each month, thereby distancing them even further from their bills. "I don't even get a bill anymore; it's all on line…. I don't even see the little chart with your energy consumption displayed last year versus this year... I used to but not anymore, it just gets automatically paid" (Interview 1)

Experiences of simplistic eco-feedback

Despite 16 of the 21 participants having received an energy monitor at some point, only half of these were found to be operable at the time of the interview. While five of these cases can be explained by technical malfunction caused by the install of solar panels, the three other cases were due to neglect such as failure to replace the batteries. For the remaining eight working monitors, at the time of the interview half were no longer referred to regularly or were found obscured behind other items (Figure 1). Furthermore, despite the prevalence of the energy monitors among the sample group, all but one participant still relied on the quarterly bill as their main source of feedback on their electricity consumption. Several participants also had trouble reconciling their electricity bills with expectations of what they thought their bills "should" be, resulting in a disbelief or distrust of the utility responsible for generating the bill. These findings correlate closely with Sofoulis's [START_REF] Sofoulis | Big water, everday water: A sociotechnical perspectice[END_REF] arguments regarding the implicit delegation of responsibility for electricity and water resources to external bodies.

"Sometimes I think the electricity utilities are dudding you all the time… I think they're estimating a lot and I don't trust them…. I have very set pattern of living. And I can't see how my power bill would triple. TRIPLE over a few short years. It doesn't make sense to me" (Interview 10)

Despite this, all but one of the participants who had received the energy monitor claimed they had drawn some benefit from it at some point. In most cases however, engagement with the device had not been long lasting, or they had experienced difficulty relating the information displayed on it to specific actions or practices.

When we first got it I looked and it and I thought it was fascinating, but I didn't understand it. Like it just says, y'know, 0.68 or something and I went "that's interesting", but I couldn't relate it to (anything).... I know obviously the lesser the figure the better it is, but that's all. (Interview 20) Nearly all of the participants stated they would like additional feedback. In relation to their "ideal" electricity feedback system, the only attribute that was consistently mentioned as being desirable across the whole sample group was the provision of appliance specific feedback. This finding correlates with those of other HCI researchers in the field [START_REF] Froehlich | The design and evaluation of prototype ecofeedback displays for fixture-level water use data[END_REF]. The desirability of many other attributes, for instance spatial comparison, social comparison, positioning and means of accessing feedback varied, with these attributes being desirable to some participants and undesirable to others.

Conversations related to energy consumption

Finally, we found an interesting disparity between participants' accounts of their conversations regarding (1) electrical appliances that contribute towards energy consumption and (2) absolute measures of consumption such as electricity bills. While appliances were discussed by most participants in social circles and between friends, especially prior to making a purchase; only six of the 21 interviewees mentioned they shared their bill amount with anyone outside of their immediate family. This does not mean that the bill was considered a secret or private thing, as only three participants described it as such, but simply that conversations regarding measurements of electricity consumption were generally contained within the family home, whereas conversations about appliances and their use were shared.

Towards Engaged Consumption-design opportunities

Through our case studies and interview findings, this paper illustrates a considerable disparity in engagement with domestic resource use between suburban Australian and rural developing world contexts. Therefore we raise the question of: what lessons can be learnt from resource use in the developing world toward better engaging Australian consumers with their consumption? To address this, we highlight design opportunities for a transition towards a new framework for human-resource interaction involving more Engaged Consumption among consumers. Here we draw inspiration from our case studies, interview findings and findings made by other researchers. Table 1 presents an overview of our framework and we explain some important characteristics in better detail below. [START_REF] Strengers | Bridging the divide between resource management and everyday life: Smart metering, comfort and cleanliness[END_REF], we consider a key attribute of Engaged Consumption is eco-feedback that enables users to relate their resource consumption to everyday practice. This is something that is more easily done at present in Mankosi or Sagar Island than in suburban Australia. For instance, in developing world contexts, paraffin may be used for lighting; wood or coal used for heating and cooking; and electricity for entertainment and communication [START_REF] Howels | A model of household energy services in a low-income rural African village[END_REF]. In many of our participants' dwellings however, electricity was used for all of these purposes. As such, one possible design strategy for eco-feedback systems could be to provide people with both appliance-specific (e.g. microwave, cooktop) and practice-specific (e.g. cooking) feedback on usage.

In relation to Engaged Consumption effectively facilitating energy conservation, we highlight three aspects of resource use in the developing world which serve to shape conservation. These include the physical effort required to obtain resources, the timing of payment for them and the consequences of wastage. On Sagar Island for example, electricity use is defined by the physical effort and high cost involved with the battery rental process [START_REF] Dadiomov | Power trips[END_REF]. Money is paid for a given quantity of electricity prior to its use and a direct consequence of injudicious usage is no electricity for the remainder of the evening or further physical effort and money spent renting a new battery. For many of our participants however, there were no clear indicators of electricity wastage, no physical consequences of wastage and the economic consequences would not become apparent to them until the next quarterly bill.

Considering it may be unrealistic to introduce physical activity as a pre-requisite for access to electricity in Western contexts, we focus on two more achievable reforms to human-resource interaction aimed at translating engagement into energy conservation. These are: (1) better feedback on inefficient use and; (2) bringing the physical payment for the energy closer to the point of consumption. We consider introducing or at least simulating (through eco-feedback) a system of pre-payment for energy resources to be a key component of Engaged Consumption. In a pre-payment scenario, the user 'gathers' credit and has an obligation to monitor and control usage such that their credit, along with their power or water supply, does not run out before the credit is recharged. Eco-feedback is fundamental in any pre-payment scenario by providing users with information on their consumption and their remaining credit, thereby positioning price at the forefront of consciousness and counteracting the notion of 'endless supply'. Opportunities exist here for eco-feedback that delivers powerful visual representations of money dripping away or energy credits disappearing. Furthermore, utility-led systems for energy pre-payment are already available in areas of both the Western and developing world and when combined with eco-feedback have produced impressive energy saving results [START_REF] Faruqui | The impact of informational feedback on energy consumption-A survey of the experimental evidence[END_REF].

A final design opportunity that we highlight as a potential means of achieving Engaged Consumption is that of sharing information related to electricity. While electricity use was found to be a highly social process in Mankosi [START_REF] Bidwell | Walking and the social life of solar charging in rural Africa[END_REF], we found that less than one third of our interviewee respondents shared any billing or usage information with those outside of their immediate family. We conclude by encouraging HCI designers to look for opportunities for how eco-feedback can better facilitate information sharing and social learning about energy use between friends and family.

Figure 1 :

 1 Figure 1: Two functioning electricity monitors obscured from view

Table 1 .

 1 A framework for Human-Resource Interaction comparing current experience in Mankosi, West Bengal and Suburban Australia with the vision of a more informed and environmentally aware Engaged Consumption

	Human/Resource	Mankosi / Sagar	Suburban	Engaged
	Interaction	Island	Brisbane	Consumption
	Effort expended to	High: Walking; gath-	Low: Flicking a	Low/Medium: Effort
	access energy re-	ering; carrying	switch, turning a tap	required to purchase
	source		etc.	electricity credit and
				to monitor energy use
				through feedback
	Perceived Benefit/	Luxury item;	Assumed necessity;	Informed and reduced
	value	social status and con-	Maintenance of	usage, cost; better
		nection; more usable	lifestyle	control over con-
		hours in the day		sumption
	Awareness of	High: Resource con-	Low: Little appreci-	Higher: Appliance
	resource consump-	sumption is tangible;	ation of resource	and practice-specific
	tion, cost	cash paid for given	use; infrequent bill;	feedback on usage;
		quantity of electricity	no point of sale	cumulative bill
		prior to usage	information
	Sociability of re-	High; talking while	Low; bills discussed	Higher: more social
	source consump-	charging, walking;	mainly within the	learning about
	tion	sharing information	home	electricity
	Based on Strengers

Indicative only; assuming phone charger draws 3.68W while charging; phone takes 4 hours to charge; at ~R47/kWh. Sources: Eksom Schedule of Standard Prices for Local Authority Supplies, South Africa http://www.eskom.co.za/c/article/1090/schedule-of-standard-prices/ and Lawrence Berkley National Laboratory http://standby.lbl.gov/summary-table.html