Shahanoor Alam

Laurence Brooks

Identifying a Public Sector Information Systems (PSIS) for E-service: A Case of Land Records E-service in Bangladesh

Keywords: land records management, public sector information systems, Bangladesh

This paper aims to identify the need for Public Sector Information Systems (PSIS), a particular field of the IS discipline dealing with the design, redesign and evaluation of E-services in public sector organizations. A longitudinal and empirical study of an E-service project in a public sector organization in Bangladesh reveals that without addressing underlying organizational problems, taking account into organization contexts, statutes and practices and considering the organizational reality and users' capability; it is difficult to implement E-services in public sector organizations. This paper argues that a particular information system (public sector information systems (PSIS)) has the potential to lead to better design and implementation of successful E-services in public sector organizations.

Introduction

With the advancement of information technology (IT) and increasing use of IT for business and organizational purposes, electronic service (E-service) has become a widely used concept across disciplines and academic fields [START_REF] Lindgren | Electronic Services in the Public Sector: A Conceptual Framework[END_REF], [START_REF] Nygren | Public e-Services from Inside: A Case Study on Technology's Influence on Work Conditions in a Government Agency[END_REF]. For example, from buying a book on eBay to online dating or from booking an air ticket to paying council tax can be performed through E-services. However, the forms, process and nature of E-services are vary widely. For example, an email enquiry can be resolved in a few minutes in a business organization while it might take two weeks in the contexts of a public sector organization. According to the nature of an organization, Lindgren and Jansson [START_REF] Lindgren | Electronic Services in the Public Sector: A Conceptual Framework[END_REF] have categorized E-services into two distinct types: private and public. Private E-services deal with business organizations in particular private sector organizations, whereby clients are considered as customers and profit is the main goal. On the other hand, public E-service is delivered from public sector organizations whereby clients are treated as citizens and services are regulated by organizational and bureaucratic rules. Notably, ensuring citizens' easy access to services is the A number of disciplines and fields including E-governance, information systems, management, organization studies and computer science are relevant in designing and implementing E-service applications. However, focuses on the context of public sector organizations and process of service delivery in public sector organization require particular attention due to the nature and wide of public service delivery. Particularly, public sector organizations in many developing countries carry thick bureaucratic processes and heritage from colonial legacies, vested interests of staff and decision makers, rigidity in statutes and structure of organizations [START_REF] Alam | Action Design Ethnographic Research (ADER): Vested Interest Networks and ICT Networks in Service Delivery of Land Records in Bangladesh[END_REF], [START_REF] Bhuiyan | Public Sector eService Development in Bangladesh: Status, Prospects and Challenges[END_REF], [20], [START_REF] Imran | Vested Interests Obstructing Information Systems use: Land Administration in a Least Developed Country[END_REF]. Consequently, designing and implementing E-service in public sector organizations demands more in-depth and wider approach, tools and skills. This paper aims to identify the role of PSIS in designing and implementing E-service in public sector organizations, particularly with a focus on developing countries contexts and illustrated with a case of E-service of land records in Bangladesh, a developing country

The rest of the paper comprises four sections. The following section describes the methodology of data collection and background to the case. This is followed by a brief literature review on public sector information systems (PSIS). The next section illustrates the case of land records E-service delivery in Bangladesh. Finally the paper is concludes by identifying the significance of PSIS in designing and implementing Eservice in public sector organizations.

Methodology and Background

This paper is the outcome of an interventional and longitudinal study. The authors were involved in designing and evaluating an E-service project in a public sector organization in Bangladesh over the last three years. This study has been conducted through an action design research (ADR) [START_REF] Beck | Theory-Generating Design Science Research[END_REF], [START_REF] Sein | Action Design Research[END_REF] framework which allows the researchers to conduct multiple iterations from problem formulation to designing solution to implementation and evaluation of E-service of land records in a public sector organization.

Thus the ADR methodology has provided the opportunity for conducting close observations of the organizational processes and contexts. Thus researchers chose participant observation, ethnographic and semi-structured interviews methods for data collection. They have conducted participant observation on organizational processes and contexts relating this service delivery. Besides, ethnographic and semi-structured interviews have been conducted with four clerical staff, two managers and six citizens, the service recipients. Since an author was a former employee in the organization and a current researcher, this dual role allowed them to apply interventional and observational methods and approaches.

Throughout, researchers close observation and intervention within this complex organizational context help in problem formulation, implementation and evaluation processes of E-service. Data from this study has been analyzed using a thematic approach, with themes derived both from literature, theories, observation, interventions and interviews. The nature of this study finding is qualitative and findings have been presented with thematic and descriptive style. Thus, the study findings has been reported and narrated by the researchers.

This study has been conducted in a public sector organization, namely the District Record Room (DRR) that is responsible for issuing land records to citizens in Bangladesh. The DRR issued certified copies of land records on the basis of citizens' applications. Thus it is called 'land records service'. The land records service in Bangladesh is a core service from the public sector organization for the citizens and every day about 15,000-20,000 citizens need land records. However, this service has a bad reputation for being overly complex, corruption and public suffering which has brought it to the attention of policy makers and development partners. Thus the government has been trying to address these problems through implementing E-service of land records.

E-service Efforts in Public Sector Organization: NPM -E-Governance -Public Sector Information Systems (PSIS)

Public sector organizations carry a list of distinctive features: labor intensive; broad scope; organizational legacy; bounded with legal statutes, guided by rules and regulations; thick bureaucratic processes and merely any reward for innovation rather risk in innovation and change. Consequently, access to the services of public sector or deliver effective service delivery from public sector has never been easy. Thus a number of studies and evaluation reports suggested that in order to design and implement Eservice for public sector organizations requires tracing underlying contexts of the service; increasing collaboration and cooperation and transforming productivity and efficiency [START_REF] Chen | Digital Government Development[END_REF], [START_REF] Gershon | Releasing Resources to the Front Line: Independent Review of Public Sector Efficiency[END_REF], [START_REF] Heeks | Reinventing government in the information age : International practice in IT-enabled public sector reform[END_REF], [START_REF] Varney | Service Transformation: A Better Service for Citizens and Businesses, a Better Deal for the Taxpayer[END_REF]. A number of efforts have been employed in transformation of public sector organization as well as service delivery from public sector organization. This paper mainly focuses on New Public Management (NPM) and Egovernance, whereby service delivery as well as E-service is the main attraction. NPM brought a wave of reform in services in public sector organizations with a view to providing effective and efficient service delivery to citizens [START_REF] Dunleavy | New Public Management is dead-long Live Digital-Era Governance[END_REF]. NPM engaged in deliberate changes of structures and processes in public sector organizations to ensure better service delivery [START_REF] Pollitt | Public management reform[END_REF]. It was mainly management led tools, techniques and strategies. However, NPM failed to keep pace with the dynamism of organizational change and trace the changes relating to technological inducement in public sector organizations [START_REF] Dunleavy | Organisation and state organisation in digital era[END_REF], [START_REF] Dunleavy | New Public Management is dead-long Live Digital-Era Governance[END_REF], [START_REF] Lips | E-Government is Dead: Long Live Public Administration 2.0[END_REF]. Consequently, NPM was blended with public administration in planning and organizing of management functions and services to achieve quality service through using human and technological resources. Thus, it also focused on decentralization to reduce bureaucratic hierarchy and complications. Further, it introduced competition and ensured rewards and specific performance measures through reforming complicated processes and employing resources. However, NPM brought mechanistic concepts and tools from the ideology of the management of private sector organizations and these were hardly applicable to public sector organizations [START_REF] Farazmand | Privatisation Or Reform? Public Enterprise Management in Transition[END_REF], [START_REF] Mccourt | New public management in developing countries[END_REF]. Moreover, NPM followed linear directions in designing services from public sector organizations but changes in of public sector services is often dynamic and unpredictable. Changes in public sector organization take place through dynamic relations between technology and organizational contexts. Therefore, NPM has failed to integrate its tools and processes into the practice relating to technology and public sector organizations [START_REF] Dunleavy | New Public Management is dead-long Live Digital-Era Governance[END_REF]. Electronic governance (E-governance) emerged with the expansion of IT in public sector organization. Therefore, gradually NPM has been replaced by E-governance.

E-governance has become a catchphrase, a discourse and a catalyst to ensure better service delivery to citizens through employing IT in public sector organizations [START_REF] Yildiz | E-Government Discourses: An Inductive Analysis[END_REF]. E-governance refers to interactions between government, citizens, business processes and actors using electronic means with a view to achieving citizens' easy access to public services and ensuring transparency and efficiency in public sector organizations [START_REF] Dunleavy | New Public Management is dead-long Live Digital-Era Governance[END_REF], [START_REF] Lips | E-Government is Dead: Long Live Public Administration 2.0[END_REF], [START_REF] Yildiz | E-Government Research: Reviewing the Literature, Limitations, and Ways Forward[END_REF], [START_REF] Yildiz | E-Government Discourses: An Inductive Analysis[END_REF]. However, E-governance focuses on governance that refers to the act of governing which include role and interactions between government, private sector and civil society for enhancing service delivery, increasing participation, accountability and transparency. Further, governance is just interstices across private, public and civic sectors and aims to steer the processes that influence decisions and actions across the sectors [START_REF] O'leary | Introduction to the Symposium on Collaborative Public Management[END_REF]. E-Governance seeks to provide public services for the ease and option of citizens, keep citizens informed, and solicit their voice in the functioning of government. The ultimate goal is to ensure citizens' stake, to put citizen at the heart of public administration, without any exclusion. However, E-governance cannot harness the advantages of IT implementation without organizational change, legal reforms, participation of staff and resources and citizens' preparedness and engagement. Consequently, the rate of failures of E-governance initiatives is very high [START_REF] Heeks | Most E-Government for Development Project Fail: How can Risk be Reduced?[END_REF], [START_REF] Heeks | Information System in Developing Countries: Failure, Success and Local Improvisations[END_REF].

Furthermore, since inception E-governance has been suffering with maintaining the balance between designing organizational processes and employing information technology. Until now, the main focus of E-governance has remained on IT implementation instead of designing and redesigning the organizational processes for effective service delivery. As a result, E-governance failed to take into account the role of organizational contexts. Similarly, Yildiz [START_REF] Yildiz | E-Government Research: Reviewing the Literature, Limitations, and Ways Forward[END_REF] asserts that E-governance research suffers with oversimplifying of organizational contexts and processes.

Designing E-service in public sector organizations requires understanding of organizational contexts and processes. Since public sector organizations carry thicker bureaucratic processes and complex organizational contexts, E-service cannot be designed in public sector organization rationally, predictably, straightforward and as a linear process, rather it is unpredictable, dynamic and complex [START_REF]System error: Fixing the flaws in government IT[END_REF]. Thus, Egovernance is incapable of tracing dynamic change because it predominantly focuses on technological capabilities and leads with a linear perspective on the usage of Eservice and its impacts and outcomes [START_REF] Lips | E-Government is Dead: Long Live Public Administration 2.0[END_REF]. Consequently, Lips [START_REF] Lips | E-Government is Dead: Long Live Public Administration 2.0[END_REF] argues that it is inevitable to think of an alternative stream in E-government [START_REF] Lips | E-Government is Dead: Long Live Public Administration 2.0[END_REF].

Thus, success and failure of E-governance mainly relies on the design and redesign of organizational processes (legal statutes, regulations, organizational behavior, attitudes, alliances, networks, readiness and participation) along with the technological design. In order to understand organizational processes and contexts of public sector organization, particularly public sector information systems (PSIS) offers potential lens. Designing E-service is not only technological design rather it requires taking into account the organizational processes and context. This paper, thus, seeks relevance of public sector information systems (PSIS) in designing E-service. PSIS is not new but so far it is also not well established. Thus this paper has identified the potential benefits of PSIS in designing and implementing E-service in public sector organizations.

Designing E-services in Public Sector Organizations and PSIS

Inherently, IS focuses on public sector organization from a holistic view that captures contexts, nature, dynamism and unpredictability in technology and organization. Although information systems (IS) emerged in the 1950s; as a distinct field it developed in the 1970s but it has 'exploded' in the 1990s and it is increasingly expanding with the use of IT in organizational applications [START_REF] Davis | Management information systems: Conceptual foundation, structure and development[END_REF], [START_REF] Heeks | Public Sector Management Information Systems[END_REF]. The core of IS is that it acts as the interface between organizational the contextual relations and the use of IT. Thus IS seeks human behavior and technology in relation to understand multifaceted interactions between changing technologies and changing human tasks, goals, preferences and dynamics [START_REF] Niederman | Design Science and the Accumulation of Knowledge in the Information Systems Discipline[END_REF]. Thus, IS can be seen as a bedrock of using IT in public sector organization [START_REF] Heeks | Public Sector Management Information Systems[END_REF]. The centrality of the IS discipline is to deal with IT in everyday life rather than deeply engaging with purely technical aspects of information technology [START_REF] Orlikowski | Research Commentary: Desperately Seeking the 'IT' in IT Research--A Call to Theorizing the IT Artifact[END_REF]. Evidently, IS deals with IT and organizational contexts with equal emphasis. More importantly, IS reveals organizational culture, contexts, norms and process that play a trivial role in designing technology for public sector organizations and service delivery for public sector organization [START_REF] Sahay | Implemenation of Information Technology: A Time-Space Perspective[END_REF], [START_REF] Sahay | Organizational Context, Social Interpretation, and the Implementation and Consequences of Geographic Information Systems[END_REF]. Similarly, Walsham [START_REF] Walsham | Interpreting information systems in organizations[END_REF] finds that there is strong link between technological processes and contexts of public sector organization in developing countries. However, there is little of agreement on how the technology interacts with organizations [START_REF] Orlikowski | The Duality of Technology: Rethinking the Concept of Technology in Organizations[END_REF].

Since the inception of IS discipline, public sector information systems (PSIS) has focus on public sector organizations with inherent characteristics: continuous monitoring, controlling and evaluating (reporting), intervening on the basis of evaluation and applying operational and management [START_REF] Heeks | Public Sector Management Information Systems[END_REF]. Thus PSIS deals with public sector accounting, human resources, taxation, and public service delivery. In order to manage and monitor public services from public sector organizations, PSIS plays a vital role. For example, while the NHS in UK tries to control costs and simultaneously improve service delivery standards, it does so though PSIS. The role of PSIS is remarkable to accelerate of public service in the UK. Consequently, although in the UK E-government program ended in 2006; the expenditure behind PSIS has been increased [START_REF] Jones | Social Dimension of IT/IS Evaluation: Views from the Public Sector[END_REF].

Identifying the significance of PSIS, Rocheleau [START_REF] Rocheleau | Evaluating Public Information Systems: Satisfaction Versus Impact[END_REF] suggests that although public sector organizations spend much money on IT, it might appear that the organization suffers from a lack of motivation while IS in the public sector organization plays a vital role in identifying the factors underlying this. Heeks [START_REF] Heeks | Public Sector Management Information Systems[END_REF] identified the role of PSIS in dealing with four important aspects: monitoring and controlling information about what has happened and what happening instead of what will happen; evaluating through simple techniques; feeding evaluation reports into decision making processes and focusing on operational and tactical aspects. Thus, although PSIS is an underutilized field, it has the potential to deal with organizational contexts and service delivery design [START_REF] Cordella | Information Systems in the Public Sector: The e-Government Enactment Framework[END_REF]. Evidently, a large volume of E-service design relied on E-service framework or models for private sector. Rosacker and Olson [START_REF] Rosacker | Public Sector Information System Critical Success Factors[END_REF] note that PSIS have more distinctive features than private sector information systems and therefore while designing information system for public sector organization the role of PSIS is inevitable.

PSIS for E-Service in Public Sector Organization

With the expansion of IT in citizens' expectations about services from public sector organization have increased in terms of quality i.e. convenience, accessibility and affordability; and it terms of quantity i.e. more services within a short span of time and at a 'one stop shop'; and in terms of availability i.e. 24/7. To meet citizens' expectations, every public sector organization has been designing IT applications known as E-service initiatives with view to citizens' easy access [START_REF] Lofstedt | E-Government -Assessment of Current Research and some Proposals for Future Directions[END_REF], [START_REF] Scholl | Introduction to the Electronic Government Cluster of Minitracks[END_REF]. Thus E-service has emerged as a potential field, focusing on designing and redesigning IT and organizational processes of public sector organization. Although every government is striving to deliver E-services successfully, many developing countries have failed to provide effective and efficient E-service for their citizens [START_REF] Alam | Action Design Ethnographic Research -in Search of a Rigorous Methodology for IS Research[END_REF], [START_REF] Alam | Action Design Ethnographic Research (ADER): Vested Interest Networks and ICT Networks in Service Delivery of Land Records in Bangladesh[END_REF], [START_REF] Lofstedt | E-Government -Assessment of Current Research and some Proposals for Future Directions[END_REF], [START_REF] Sleeman | Recent Literature on Government Information[END_REF].

In the main, E-service in public sector organization aims to provide citizens' with easy access to services, reduce costs and time and make the service more convenient. It is not merely a technological issue; rather it is closely connected with organizational, social, economic and user contexts [START_REF] Gronlund | Managing electronic services: A public sector perspective[END_REF]. Thus, designing E-Service applications in public sector organizations is complex and involves many phases, processes, actors, roles and practices [START_REF] Gronlund | Managing electronic services: A public sector perspective[END_REF], [START_REF] Liikanen | Backflap[END_REF], [START_REF]OECD: Service Delivery in Fragile Situations : Key Concepts, Findings and Lessons[END_REF]. Consequently, technological design alone cannot ensure effective and efficient public services [START_REF] Donnelly | Electronic Delivery of Public Services in the United Kingdom: The Case of the Merseyside Fire Service and Fire Service Direct[END_REF].

The range and nature of E-services is very wide, including unidirectional broadcasting to highly interactive communication involving clients, staff, workflow systems, data-bases and specially designed interaction software [START_REF] Gronlund | Managing electronic services: A public sector perspective[END_REF]. E-services include kiosks, telecentres, call centers, web portals and front offices or other means. However, designing and managing E-services requires citizens' familiarity with the services, convenient, flexibility in choices; easy accessibility; equality between e-service and non e-services and effective use of information [START_REF] Donnelly | Electronic Delivery of Public Services in the United Kingdom: The Case of the Merseyside Fire Service and Fire Service Direct[END_REF]. Taken together, this paper argues that PSIS offers potential as a lens to understand organizational processes, contexts, users' capability and attitude of organizational staff in order to design E-services for public sector organizations. Therefore, this paper applies PSIS to designing E-service for land records in Bangladesh public sector organizations.

E-service for Land Records in Bangladesh

Bangladesh is a least developed country located between India and Myanmar. It is the most population dense country in the world with a total of 160 million people; it has high rates of illiteracy, very low electronic literacy and access to technology. It is mainly agro-based country with a visible land scarcity; an average land per person is 0.22 acre only. In addition to, its 80% of people live in rural areas; a total 70% of people agriculturists and agriculture contributes to 60% of total GDP. Thus land and land records related services are significant. Land records services are delivered from public sector organizations. Land records are inevitably needed for legal, financial, welfare services, development planning, and transfer of land ownership, determination of ownership and size of land parcels and resolving of land litigations. Thus service delivery of land records has become a core service to citizens from the public sector organizations.

Service delivery of land records refers to issuing a certified copy of a land records from the District Record Room (DRR) to citizens. Daily about 20,000-30,000 applications are received by public sector organizations, the DRRs, for service delivery of land records. The district under study receives about 300-400 applications per day.

This service has been identified as ineffective, corruptive, cause of public sufferings and middlemen dependent. Consequently, designing and implementing E-service has been identified as an important mechanism for making this service effective, bringing this service at the citizens' door step and removing complicacy and middlemen from this service.

Organizational Context for Land Records E-service

Although Bangladesh gained independence from Pakistan in 1971, it had previously been under British Colonial Rule from 1757 to 1947. The land records and its service delivery was introduced by the Colonial government in the country, thus it inherited and to some extent still relies on the colonial rules, regulation and statues in particular related to land services. In addition, land records services has been identified as the top ranked sector for corruption; a major source of litigation and a sector for intolerable public suffering [START_REF] Imran | Vested Interests Obstructing Information Systems use: Land Administration in a Least Developed Country[END_REF]. Further, this service follows archaic service delivery processes, dilapidated conditions of the printed land records and registers; complicated systems land records and this service delivery is controlled by strong bureaucratic processes. Together, these have given rise to rampant rent seeking vested interests of staff and middlemen's corruption network for mediating this service. Thus with a view to ensuring easier access for citizens to the land records service, the government of the day has launched E-service for land records. The government designed a flagship program, 'Access to Information (A2I)', directed from the Prime Minister's office. A2I has designed three electronic access points to ensure citizens easy access to the land record service. These are telecentres known as Union Information Service Center (UISC), front desk known as E-service Center (ESC) and District Web Portal (DWP) (See figure -1). Thus, the E-service for land records has designed a country wide technological network comprising 4501 telecentres, 64 front desks (one in each district) and district web portal (one in each district), aiming to ensure citizens' easier access this service. However, the organizational contexts and processes, merely accepts the technological design of the E-service of land records.

The land records service evolved from printed land records, which appeared during the British colonial regime at the end of the 20th century. The DRR is entrusted with the responsibility for preserving land records and providing service delivery of land records. In 1950, the feudal system (Landlords -Zamindars) was abolished. Thereafter, the tenants, the cultivators, became the land owners. Consequently, land records turned into valuable documents for the citizens. A certified copy of a land record is required proof of ownership and land records become a compulsory element for related services: land purchase, sales, mortgages, taxation, land litigation, infrastructural planning and development.

From the colonial regime to now, there are up to three versions of land records for each plot of land. The first version was prepared by the British colonial rulers in 1920s. When land ownership changed from landlord to tenants in the 1950s during Pakistan's regime, another version of land record was prepared. Bangladesh gained its independence from Pakistan in 1971. Thereafter the third version of land records preparation started and it is not completed yet. As a result, each plot of land may have three versions of records and surprisingly, all of the versions are active records for proof of ownership of a plot of land. Notably, the majority of the population is illiterate. So they do not know their land records ID numbers and the versions of land records. Consequently, citizens cannot submit their application through the E-service access points. During the interviews one staff member mentioned, "The E-service has designed this E-service which can be compared with a nice garden with several entrance points but its visitors are blind".

As a result, out of the three access points, telecentres and DWPs remain underutilized (see figure -1). The front desk, the ESC was designed to receive online application, but as citizens could not submit their online application, the ESC has turned to paper based applications, similar to the previous systems. Consequently middlemen and corruption network between staff and middlemen remain same. Eventually the Eservice has increased corrupt processes.

1. E-service contexts and processes in the District Record Room (DRR) -a public sector organization On the other hand, although each rural local Union Council has telecentres that are connected to the DRR and citizens could submit their applications from the telecentres to the DRR. However, citizens rarely accessed to the land records service to the telecentres. Because of, citizens found that traditional middlemen who are based at district headquarters have strong network with the DRR staff to expedite this service delivery.

Thus, setting multiple access points for citizens' easy access to this service is technologically possible. However, the organizational contexts interpreted the technological design of the E-service its own way. The E-service of land records in the organizational contexts every application requires printed copy of online application along with adhesive stamps as fees. Therefore, after electronic submission of applications from a telecentre or citizens needs to print online submitted application form and send it to the DRR along with appropriate fees. Consequently, although from technological point of view, telecentres are easy accessible to the E-service of land records, it has become most difficult due to organizational processes and contexts.

In addition to, citizens have no middlemen network to pay 'bribes' or 'speed money' to the DRR staff to expedite this E-service while they submit applications through the telecentre and the DWP. Moreover, DRR staff do not take 'bribes'/ 'speed money' except from the middlemen networks. Thus without a 'bribe' or 'speed money' applications submitted by citizens through a telecentre or DWP for the E-service land records are either delayed or are found to be missing from the DRR. It is open secret that without a 'bribe' or speed money, this service will not be processed. Furthermore, the organizational processes and required information for submitting application for Eservice of land records are so complex that citizens must rely on middlemen to mediate the land records E-service.

Implications for PSIS in Designing Records E-service

From the case discussed above, the following implications can be drawn for designing E-service for land records whereby the role of PSIS is inevitable.

Absence of Organizational Contexts

This E-service has been designed without taking into account of the organizational contexts. The land records are complicated and have many different versions. Citizens are often not aware about the ID numbers for land records and the differing versions of land records. Consequently, it is difficult for citizens to apply for land records through E-service.

Statutes and Practices

Legal statutes and practices cannot be designed and changed overnight, but it is possible to design IT. In this case, the E-service has been designed without changing legal statutes. Although this service has designed online application submission process, it requires manual fees submission process i.e. stamps. Besides, for the auditing purpose it needs printed copy of online applications. Moreover, this design also has failed to account behavioral resistance from the staff and middlemen. Thus without removing the middlemen and corruption network between the middlemen and the staff, the E-service network has been deployed.

Furthermore, the staff have been receiving bribes or speed money for this service for a long time. Consequently, only setting of E-service network cannot remove their relations with the middlemen who manage the 'speed money' (bribes) from citizens. Thus, without excluding the processes that provide opportunities for speed money, designing the E-service is practically worthless. Although the telecentres and the DWP have been designed for citizens' access to this service, citizens found that these are not effective to receive 'speedy service'. Thus, they return to the traditional processes, which is the middlemen network. Finally middlemen have adapted themselves through submitting citizens' application through the 'Front Desk' known as E-service Center (ESC) to continue mediation of this service. It has become possible because the organizational processes are in favor of the middlemen and any other methods of submissions are resisted by the staff.

Users' Capability and Organizational Reality

The users of the E-service are mostly farmers who are mainly illiterate. Thus filling online applications with appropriate land records ID numbers, understanding different versions of land records and the jurisdiction number for land records are difficulties for them. Besides, setting of website, DWP, for submitting online land records applications is unrealistic where only 0.35% of the population has internet access. In addition, the low literacy and electronic literacy and limited connectivity and accessibility computer and internet are prevalent across the country. Consequently, the E-service has hardly made any improvement in citizens' access to this service. This E-service has been designed from technological viability any change in organizational contexts. As a result, although electronic access points have been setup, they did not remove the organizational problems; rather the organizational problems have reshaped the Eservice.

Monitoring and Evaluation

Although the DWP has failed to ensure citizens' easier access to the DRR, the advantages of this access point has been harnessed by the organizational staff and middlemen to provide better services to their clients who provide bribes. Because of, the staff have good internet connections and printers, so they use it for submitting online applications via DWP on behalf their middlemen. On the other hand, unsurprisingly, although the aim of the E-service centers (the front desk) was to be an access point for those citizens visiting the district headquarters. However, instead it has become the access point for middlemen who submit paper based application via this service. Thus, the underlying organizational contexts and practices have been continuously redesigning the E-service. Finally, this Eservice has no means continuous monitoring and evaluation.

Conclusion

This paper has illustrated the case of E-services in public sector organizations in a developing country. Successful implementation of E-services in general is difficult and in developing countries is a great challenge. The failure rate for E-service projects in developing countries is very high and existing E-governance approaches have largely failed to address the problems. Many scholars have already looked at finding alternative streams or alternatives to E-governance for designing and implementing Eservices in public sector organizations. This paper has argued that there is need for public sector information systems (PSIS), as a dedicated field of IS for designing and evaluating E-services for public sector organizations. One of the defining characteristics for this is the strong emphasis on taking into account the organizational context during the design and implementation process.

In conclusion it can be said that E-service in public sector organization cannot succeed without taking into account the organizational contexts, statutes and practices. PSIS has become an inevitable part of the design, monitoring and evaluation of Eservice in public sector organizations. More recently public sector E-service organizations are modelling themselves on private sector E-services. Since the context of the public sector organization is significantly different from private sector organizations, a public sector information systems (PSIS) offers the potential to deal with the contexts, practices, users, organizational reality, resources, rules, regulations and statutes of the public sector organization in designing E-service.


Riccardo Cognini
email: riccardo.cognini@unicam.it

Flavio Corradini
email: flavio.corradini@unicam.it

Andrea Polini
email: andrea.polini@unicam.it

Barbara Re
email: barbara.re@unicam.it

Modelling Process Intensive Scenarios for the Smart City

des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

Introduction

The smart city foresees the efficient integration and usage of resources and services in order to improve quality of life [?]. Smart city is a complex eco-system where enabling infrastructure supports application scenario such as mobility, energy, health, etc. In such a context each application scenario can be implemented starting from resources and services that are strictly related to city characterization (i.e. number of inhabitants and weather forecast). It also means that the same system can be implemented in different ways according to specific needs (i.e. the bus transportation system can be integrated or not with rail transport solutions). In such a context citizens and companies expect that Public Administrations provide added value services to be used in many different scenarios. The supporting IT infrastructure and related organizational aspects have to be conceived to be flexible in order to be aligned, with laws, the overall smart city policies, and objectives. These aspects are submitted to continuous changes in order to make the smart city idea more and more effective.

In response to such dynamic scenarios each smart city can implement different variants of the same Business Process (BP) to support a large set of interactive services. As a result BP variability becomes an important characteristic of any smart city initiative, in particular when IT systems are considered, and they need to be kept aligned with emerging requirements. In such line of research this paper intends to illustrate how a complex system, typical of a smart city scenario, can be modelled and represented taking into account possible variability points. In particular variability is represented thanks to a novel modelling approach that integrates BP notations and techniques used within the software product line community. The proposed approach has been validated according to a real scenario such as the Bike Sharing System (BSS).

The paper is organized as follows. Section ?? presents some background material, and then Section ?? gives an overview of smart city services characteristics exemplified on the BSS. Section ?? describes the proposed approach and then Section ?? introduces more details on the application to BSS. Finally, Section ?? presents relevant related works, while Section ?? draws some conclusion and opportunities for future work.

Background

Business Process Management and Business Process modeling

Business Process Management (BPM) "includes concepts, methods, and techniques to support the design, administration, configuration, enactment, and analysis of Business Processes" [?]. "A BP is a collection of related and structured activities undertaken by one or more organizations in order to pursue some particular goal" [?] with or without an electronic/digital support. In the smart city, BPs have to consider operations across services and organisations. Process model provides a horizontal view of the business focusing on connections, handovers and the responsibility for what happens between organisations. Starting from such integration and confirming the role of technology, it is important to take the point of view from the perspective of those who will use the service or of those will participate to its provisioning. Smart city public-private services structure, their input and output, the interdependencies among different elements can be supported by notations and tools supporting the BP abstraction.

The accuracy of the BP modeling phase is critical for the success of an organization in particular in scenarios in which it is necessary to adapt to changing requirements. In order to design a BP different classes of languages have been investigated and defined. In our work we refer to BPMN 2.0, an Object Management Group standard [?]. It is the most used language by domain experts due to its intuitive graphical notation. We have mainly used process diagrams, focusing on the point of view of system users. The following BPMN 2.0 elements (Fig. ??) are the core elements of the language and those we will use on the approach.

-Events, which are used to reppresent something that can happen. An Event can be a Start Event, representing the point in which the BP starts, while an End Event is raised when the BP terminates. Events are drawn as circles. -Activities, which are used to represent a generic work to perform within a BP. An Activity can be atomic -Task -or not -Sub-Process. Activities are drawn as rectangles with rounded corners. -Gateways, which are used to manage the flow of BP both for parallel activities and choices. Different types of gateways are available, the most used are reported in the following. A Parallel Gateway has to wait all its input flows to start and then all the output paths are started in parallel; it can behave as a fork respects to output paths or as a merge respects to input paths. An Exclusive Gateway gives the possibility to describe choices both in input and output, it is activated each time the gateway is reached and, when executed, it activates exactly one output path. An Inclusive Gateway gives the possibility to select among multiple output paths each time they are reached, it can behave also as inclusive merge. Gateways are drawn as diamonds.

-Data Objects, which permit to model documents, data, and other artifact used and updated during the BP, in most of the cases activity take data objects in input and give them back in output. Data objects can also be characterized by a state. A Data Object is represented by a portrait-oriented rectangle that has its upper-right corner folded over. States are represented using text within squared brackets located under the object name.

In order to model variability we combined the BPMN 2.0 standard with an approach based on features modeling, that is illustrated in the following section.

Software Product Line and Feature Modeling

Feature Model (FM) is a modeling approach emerged in the context of Software Product Lines (SPL) in order to support the development of a variety of products from a common platform. The approach aims at lowering both production costs and time in the development of individual products sharing an overall reference model, while allowing them to differ with respect to specific features in order to serve, e.g., different markets [?]. FMs are suitable to represent a family of software products, nevertheless in the last years they have been used also to represent commonality and variability in Business Information Systems, introducing the concept of BP family.

In a basic FM a tree representation is used to express relationships among features. Features constraints can be: mandatory when characteristics have to be available in each product (Fig. ??-A), optional when characteristics can be available or not in each product (Fig. ??-B), and alternative when characteristics cannot be present together in the same product (Fig.

??-D) [?].
Basic FM models are too restrictive to represent all the relationships between features which are useful to characterize a family of products [?]. As a result several FM extensions are currently available (e.g. to define feature cardinality).

Adopting richer notations it is possible to include: OR features used to express that at least one feature in a set must be included in a product (Fig. ??-C), include relationship used to express that a feature selection implies the selection of another feature, this can be a mono or bidirezional relationship (Fig. ??-E), and exclude relationship used to express that a feature selection implies to discard another one that is in another part of the tree (Fig. ??-F). As it is shown in the next sections we adopted a enricher FM notation to model BPs variability. 3 Bike Sharing Systems: a Smart City Scenario BSS has been chosen as application scenario of our work since it can be easily understood, and at the same time it is sufficiently complex to show the potentiality and needs of process based flexibility. Nonetheless it represents an interesting smart city system where a BSS is typically integrated with other "city functionalities". Within a smart city one of the main objective is to promote the dynamic combination of public service functionalities. New public services are created through pooling and sharing of resources, data and most importantly BP. This results in the need of managing flexibility starting from relevant and common characteristics of a BP.

Around the world the number of cities that have deployed, or plan to deploy, a BSS is continuously raising. Even though at a first glance BSSs could appear rather fixed, they present many variability points. The Oliver O'Brien portal 1 reports, at the time of writing, 104 cities around the world deploying a similar BSS for a total of 9.895 docking stations (i.e. points in the city where bikes can be taken and are generally returned). Nevertheless the characteristics of the listed cities are quite heterogeneous. As it can be imagined, completely different cities will employ variants of a BSS, where variability can relate both to structural characteristics, and to the modality used to provide the functionality to the users. Therefore even though all BSS look similar to each other, in reality the BSS are implemented in many different ways mainly in relation to the requirements of the smart city in which they are deployed. For instance, in case the city is mainly a touristic destination, it is important that the authentication mechanisms are simple and quick, since tourists will not like to waste their time in complex registration procedures. On the other hand, in case the city is not a major touristic destination registration mechanisms can be integrated with a general identity mechanisms, so that the identity card of the citizen can be used to access to the many services made available by the city. Obviously in some case more than one authentication mechanism is necessary.

A BSS typically embeds many different BPs. In particular a BSS will include BP families to support the rental and usage of a bike (called Bike Travel ), the technical maintenance of bikes (called Bike Maintenance), the monitoring of the bikes position (called All Bike Now ), the user registration (called User Registration), the user un-registration (called User Un-Registration), and finally to support the users while they are using the bike (called User Assistance Request). Each different set include BPs that can be implemented according to many different variants depending for instance on the physical device that are incldued in the concrete system. The following basic architectural requirements/variants can be identified and than used in term of modelling.

Req1 Most BSSs provide users registration mechanisms to access the service.

BSS registration can be done on the fly, using a docking station located near the bike and credit card payment method, or via dedicated form resulting in the delivery of pre-paid smart card (generally called bike card). Req2 All BSSs provide a way to unlock bikes from the bike station, take the bike and travel. Existing BSSs implement two different locking mechanisms: (i) bikes can be unlocked using a dedicated device (i.e. smart card or credit card) and (ii) bikes can be unlocked automatically calling a number or asking via Short Message Service for the unlocked code. Req3 Some BSSs provide tracking mechanisms to know the position of the bikes in the city, this can be done via Global Positioning System (GPS) or Radio Frequency IDentification (RFID) technologies; no BSS support both. Req4 Some BBSs provide rewarding mechanisms that contribute to facilitate the distribution of bikes in different docking station. Req5 All the BSSs are maintained thanks to specific agreements with supporting staff to repair bikes when they are at docking station. Req6 Few BSSs are maintained thanks to specific agreements with supporting staff to repair bikes in the city during users travel. Req7 Some BSSs provide to BSS staff the service "all bike now". It shows the position of all the bikes in the city, eventually in a map.

Variability Modeling Approach

FM Extension. In order to model variability of BPs for the smart city scenario we propose an extended version of FM, named business process Feature Model (bpFM), and then a set of mapping rules from bpFM to BPMN 2.0 fragments, permitting the derivation of a BP skeleton, according to a specific feature selection (configuration) from which a detailed BP can be successively defined. In bpFM features are BP activities and feature constraints express if an activity must or can be inserted in a BP variant, and if it must or can be included within an execution path. It is also possible to add information concerning the input To express input and output data object related to activities, bpFM use the BPMN 2.0 graphical representation including the possibility to associate states to data objects. Incoming and outgoing arrows are used to represent the input and output of the data object from activities. Furthermore our modelling approach supports the guidelines defined in [?] where a semantic for data object is provided. When two different data objects are input or output of the same activity, this means that both are needed or generated to process the activity. A data object cannot be in two different states at the same time. If the same object is linked to the same activity with two different states, it means that the activity execution needs the data object in one of the available states.

Mapping Rules from bpFM to BPMN 2.0. According to the feature constraints defined above we have defined a set of mapping rules that permit to automatically derive a BP fragments once a set of features is selected for configuration. For the sake of space we report the textual description of the mapping rules. In Fig.

?? we report the mapping for the case of Inclusive Multi-Activities and XOR Selection Activities.

-Mandatory Activity is always selected and it is mapped as an activity included in the execution path. -Optional Activity if selected it is mapped as a combination of an activity and a gateway condition, so that two execution paths are possible, one including the activity and the other one not. When it is not selected it results with no mapping. -Domain Activity is mapped as a combination of an activity and an exclusive gateway condition, so that two execution paths are supported one including the activity and the other one not. -Special Case Activity is mapped as an activity but differently from the Mandatory Activity could not be selected, in this case no mapping is given. -Inclusive Multi Activities are mapped as combination of an activities and an inclusive gateway condition, so that multiple paths are supported considering selection. In case only one activity is selected it is mapped as an activity (Fig. ??-A). -One Optional Activity is mapped as an activity and an exclusive gateway condition, so that two paths are supported, one including the activity and the other one not. -One Selection Activity is mapped as an activity.

-XOR Activities are mapped as a combination of the activities and an exclusive gateway condition, so that alternative paths are supported. -XOR Selection Activities are mapped as activities and an exclusive gateway condition, so that alternative paths are supported; in case only one activity is selected it is mapped as an activity (Fig. ??-B).

The mapping we have defined is also influenced by the presence of data objects. Activities will keep the data object relation considering the state if available also in the generated fragments (Fig. ??).

Using the Approach. To model a BP from bpFM the designers follow three main steps. The first step foresees the features selection in the bpFM model to be included in the BP variant. At this stage the designer chooses the features representing the activity she considers necessary to reach the objectives pursued by a BP family. Selected activities, and their relationships, result in a configuration (activities in grey in the bpFM figures) this is the input for the second step where BP fragments are automatically generated thanks to the mapping rules we defined. In particular, for each configuration BP fragments are generated. Fragments can also be already partially ordered depending from the fact that data object dependencies are present in the derived fragments. The final step concerns the modelling of BP variants. At this stage the designer will add control flow among the generated BP fragments. It is worth mentioning that the definition of different control flows, result in different BP variants starting from the same set of generated fragments.

Modeling Bike Sharing System Supported Variants

According to the application of the proposed approach to the BSS many different BPs families can be defined. Each BP can be implemented differently taking into account the city characteristics. For each BP family we have defined a bpFM model and then according to the configurations we derived BP fragments and related BP variants.

-Bike Travel -This is the BP family in which a user (citizen or tourist) registers and accesses a BSS to pick up a bike from a bike station, then she uses the bike to go around the city, and at the end she will return the bike to the same or different bike stations. -Bike Maintenance -This is the BP family in which a bike repairer (staff assigned to the maintenance of the BSS as a whole) checks the components of the bike in order to find damages. In case are damages she has to repair the bike. -All Bike Now -This is the BP family that allow the BSS administrator to retrieve real time positions of the bikes. -User Registration -This is the BP family in which a user (citizen or tourist) registers himself to the BSS in order to use a bike (this BP is optional because registration mechanisms are not always needed).

-User Un-Registration -This is the BP family in which a user (citizen or tourist) aims to unregister himself from the BSS (this BP is optional because registration mechanisms are not always needed). -User Assistance Request -This is the BP family in which a user (citizen or tourist) asks for assistance in case the bike breaks during the travel.

For the sake of space we provide here some details about the application of the approach just to the Bike Travel BP family. Fig. ?? reports the bpFM model derived in cooperation with domain experts for the Bike Travel BP family (boxes in grey are those selected in a specific configuration, see below). The users registration functionality is included in the bpFM model using the feature called Registration. This is specified as an Optional Activity, to mean that the registration is considered optional in the Bike Travel BP since the activity can be inserted (or not) in one BP model variant. The consequence is that the user registration can be available or not in different instances of the BSS, so that in some systems registration has to be completed before taking a bike, whereas in other instances the user does not need to register. The activity (feature) could also be included within an execution path, in particular, if users are not already registered, the activity has to be performed, otherwise it can be skipped. Moreover, when registration is an available feature, it can be done in two different ways represented by the Credit Card Registration and Bike Card Registration features. This features are linked to the Registration feature via a XOR Selection Activities constraint. Therefore, if registration is chosen in a configuration, at least one of this two features has to be available, nonetheless users can choose only one mechanism to register to the system. The model is then completed with information concerning the other activities foreseen by the Bike Travel family to represent the system access, the usage of the bike, the bike tracking and the rewarding functionality. In addition to the modelling of the activities and their relations it is also possible to include in the bpFM model information about data and their usage. In the Bike Travel BP family the following data have been modelled.

-Credit Card is related to user registration and system access. States are: Not Enabled when registration has not been done, Accepted when registration has been successfully done, and Rejected when registration has failed. -Bike Card is related to the registration and it is used to access the BSS.

-Mobile Device is used to access the BSS.

-SMS Code is used together with the mobile device to access the BSS. States are: Active before the access has been performed and Deactivated as soon as the system is accessed. -Bike Token is used to take the Bike. States are: Active before the bike unlock and Deactivated as soon as the bike is taken. -Bike is the representation of the bike in the BSS. States are: Active after the bike unlock, and in this case we can use the Bike related data to know its position, and Deactivated as soon as the bike is returned.

Starting from Bike Travel bpFM model we can generate a large set of bike traveling BPs. For instance, in case the designer includes activities to register and to access the system, BPs can be based on Credit Card and/or Smart Card. This configuration results in the selection of the features as represented in the bpFM model of models for the other BP families so to fully define the Bike Sharing System and its possible variants. The modelling experience resulted to be useful to express BPs variability in real cases studies such as the BSSs. The main advantage is that each BP family can be modelled starting from the bpFM model reducing the complexity of the modelling activity. Moreover, the explicit representation of variability points permits to improve the understanding scenario. In particular the proposed approach permits to BP managers to have a global view of all the possible BP variants. In addition the approach supports the representation of those data objects considered an important aspect to define needed BP variants. Finally, the variant, automatically derived from BP fragments, permits to introduce a further level of customizability which is particularly useful in order to better fit to different smart city scenarios.

Related Works

BP flexibility is a hot topic that has been broadly considered during the last years [?] [?]. Considering a smart city context, the most interesting contribution has been given in defining multi perspective BP models variability focusing on BP, and representing separately people and things [?].

With reference to a more static scenario, when an administration has to modernise internal organization structures mainly address organizational changes and we realize that BPM starts to be a suitable tool in order to support innovation strategies. Several initiatives can be reported in such direction in Germany, in Switzerland and in Italy. Worth to be metioned are the eCH framework2 , where a standardization for public service based on BP concepts has been given, and the PRODE project3 where a reference framework for documents dematerialization involved in service delivery was given. Unfortunately, such contributions aim to create model reference for public sector without considering a way to change BP according to changing legislation, customers needs and environment changes. Other contributions aim to face such needs from different point of views and applying different techniques [?] [?].

Finally, one of the most closed approach to model variability in administration is the configurable BP mode presented in [?]. The authors recognize that many BP in administration are mainly driven by legislation, but they also address some level of freedom regarding BP implementation in different municipalities considering different level of IT system implementation or size. For each BP the authors identified variations among municipalities and integrated them into a single, configurable process model, which can be also executed.

Conclusions and Future Work

Variability is an aspect that needs to be more and more taken into account when defining systems in changing and evolving context. This is certainly the case for systems to be deployed within a smart city ecosystem. This paper presented an approach to model variability of BP permitting to define in a single model many different variants of the same BP. The defined model can be successively instantiated into a concrete process taking into account the specific characteristics of the running context. Adopting the approach it is possible to reduce the complexity of managing many different variants of a BP and to share experiences between different smart city initiatives. We plan to extend our modeling effort to other systems and to study the relations and influences among different systems available within the same smart city. At the same time we plan to augment the modeling notation with non functional aspects in order to permit their usage in planning the needed effort to deploy a system in a smart city context. Finally, we intend to investigate the adoption of the notation to drive run-time adaptation, in particular exploring the use of fragment in knowledge BP where a clear BP control flow is not given a priori.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. BPMN 2.0 Core Elements.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Feature Models Constrains.

Fig. 3 .

 3 Fig. 3. bpFM Constraints.

Fig. 4 .

 4 Fig. 4. Examples of Mapping Rules

Fig. 6 .

 6 Fig. 6. Features selection in the BSS bike travel bpFM

  Fig. ??. Such selection are in gray in the figure. Using the defined mapping rules, considering the given configuration, a set of BP fragments are generated. The designer can then derive a fully defined BP variants, for instance (i.e. the one shown in Fig. ??). Similar activities have been carried out to derive

Fig. 7 .

 7 Fig. 7. A Bike Travel BP variant.

http://bikes.oobrien.com/global.php

http://www.ech.ch/

http://www.progettoprode.it/

Acknowledgements This research has been partially founded by EU project LearnPAd GA: 619583 and by the Project MIUR CINA -2010LHT4KM.


Claudio Sonaglio Albano
email: claudio.albano@unipampa.edu.br

Nicolau Reinhard
email: reinhard@usp.br

Claudio Sonaglio Albano¹

Nicolau Reinhard²

Open Government Data: Facilitating and Motivating Factors for Coping with Potential Barriers in the Brazilian Context

ou non, émanant des établissements d'enseignement et de recherche français ou étrangers, des laboratoires publics ou privés.

INTRODUCTION AND RESEARCH QUESTION

According to the [START_REF] W3c | The Open data Handbook[END_REF], open government data (OGD) is the publication and dissemination of public sector information on the Internet, shared in a logically understandable format, to allow its reuse in machine-readable form.

The potential advantages arising from the participation in OGD initiatives, have to be seen in conjunction with the difficulties for the realization of these benefits. According to [START_REF] Prince | Análisis de La cadena de valor del ecosistema de Datos Abiertos de La Ciudad de Buenos Aires. Conferencia Regional de Datos Abiertos para América Latina y el Caribe -junio de 2013[END_REF], it should not be expected that simply by opening their data, governments will be able to generate the expected benefits for administrations and society.

The success of OGD initiatives requires an extensive interaction between governments and society [START_REF] Davies | The Promises and Perils of Open Government Data[END_REF][START_REF] Espinoza | Datos Abiertos: oportunidades y desafíos para Centroamérica con base en una cadena de valor. Conferencia Regional de Datos Abiertos para América Latina y el Caribe -2013[END_REF][START_REF] Robinson | Government data and the invisible hand[END_REF]. According to these authors, governments are not able to follow technology changes with the desired agility, due to excessive bureaucracy and regulations. The private sector or non-profit organizations manage to be more competent to deliver information to citizens and enable them to better use the public information available.

The challenges in the implementation of OGD projects are due to the multiple interactions among players, information flows, technologies and the interests involved in these initiatives, resulting in a dynamic process of interactions between governments and society, building networks between the organizations. According to [START_REF] Helbig | Modeling the Informational Relationships between Government and Society[END_REF][START_REF] Helbig | The Dynamics of Opening Government Data[END_REF], this understanding is not yet fully available in guides, tools, techniques and theories to deal with open government data, motivating the present study's research question: Can a greater understanding of users' network and the motivating and facilitating factors to cope with the potential barriers and inhibiting factors, seeking potential benefits and advantages, help public administrators to achieve better results with their OGD projects?

The survey was conducted with Brazilian users and government suppliers of OGD and is aimed at providing a contribution to public administrators by enabling a greater understanding of the factors that may support their OGD projects. It must be noted that Brazil, despite the enacted legislation mandating OGD at all levels of government, is still at an early stage of OGD supply and use.

LITERATURE REVIEW

POTENTIAL BENEFITS AND ADVANTAGES

According to [START_REF] Kalampokis | A classification scheme for open government data: towards linking decentralised data[END_REF] the their first stage of ODG maturity, the goal of governments initiatives is to allow transparency and control of government actions. Society is then able to create products and services, useful both for society and governments, with the possibility of generating new economic activities, among other social benefits and advantages. [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Dataand Open Government[END_REF] classifies these possible benefits into three major groups political and social, economic, and technical and operational. Political and social benefits are related to issues involving transparency, democracy, promotion of citizenship, among others.Promoting a greater stimulus to innovation, the ability to generate new products and services, the integration between government and society, among others, are associated with economic benefits.The possibility for governments and society to work in cooperation to improve processes, through the use of knowledge (and collective capabilities) is related to potential operational and technical benefits and advantages.

According to [START_REF] Solar | A Model to Assess Open Government Data in Public Agencies[END_REF] some countries have progressed beyond the mere access to data, where the Open Datahas shown that it not only produces significant changes in the public sector, but it generates synergies in innovation and entrepreneurship. In the Brazilian context, authors [START_REF] Craveiro | Assessing Open Government Budgetary Data in Brazil[END_REF], argue as key benefits that can be achieved through OGD projects: greater promotion of citizenship, ability to develop new products and services from governments to society, greater efficiency for governments, among others.

POTENTIAL BARRIERS AND INHIBITING FACTORS

There are, however, challenges, barriers and inhibiting factors to OGD initiatives. [START_REF] Dawes | Information Strategies for Open Government: Challenges and Prospects for Deriving Public Value from Government Transparency[END_REF] suggests as challenges: technical problems in information processing, information collected in different ways and for different purposes, work overload to make this information available, heterogeneity of users and their inability to work with the information, among others. Other factors that may be regarded as potential barriers and inhibiting factors involve the "understanding" of the data by society (discussed in the topicquality and usability of the content available, in addition to structural and technological issues of public organizations [START_REF] Sayogo | Exploring the Motive for Data Publication in Open Data Initiative: Linking Intention to Action[END_REF][START_REF] Zuiderwijk | Socio-technical Impediments of Open Data[END_REF].

[12] classifies the potential barriers and inhibiting factors into six major groups, which are as followsinstitutional, complexity of the tasks, use and participation, legislation, quality of information and techniques.Institutional factors are associated with cultural and structural issues of public entities.Likewise, Government's internal problems, but related to technical issues, are associated with the complexity of the task.

The uneven motivation of society to participate in OGD initiatives, as well as their capacity to use these data are related to the factor use and participation. There are also legal issues on which information may be made available, as well as their use. The quality of information is related not only to the quality of the information available, but also to the relevance of the information to its users, and finally, technical issues are related to the information technology tools that support the provision of information. [START_REF] Craveiro | Assessing Open Government Budgetary Data in Brazil[END_REF] in their respective studies developed in the Brazilian context, identify as major barriers and inhibiting factors in the context of OGD projects: the low capacity of society to access and use the information; this fact generates lack of interest and low interaction.Technical issues, involving the quality and format of the information available, and finally, aspects related to legislation.

FACILITATING AND MOTIVATING FACTORS -INTERORGANIZATIONAL NETWORKS

Networking is essential for an organization to be able to integrate the new requirements in a scenario marked by the importance of technology, information and knowledge. An OGD project is established by government, but it may involve several entities of a single government or several governments, such as websites that accept data from other governments. Analysing the relationships between organizations is a complex task, especially in environments of heterogeneous relationships (that is, involving public and private organizations).

The complexity is further enhancedwhen each participant organization has diverse interests and bonds and is able to simultaneously participate in several networks. It is important to identify which factors sustain the relationships established in interorganizational networks. In this sense basically, two main aspects are seen as able to sustain these relationships, the motivating aspects and the facilitating aspects. According to [START_REF] Oliver | Determinants of interorganizational relationships: integration and future directions[END_REF] the motivating aspects refer to needs of organizations to participate in networks to achieve commercial advantages, legal advantages, or advantages from other sources. Other motivating aspects include: the power that an organization has over the others; the possible gains when cooperating with third parties; obtaining legitimacy and stability through the established partnerships.

For [START_REF] Cox | The art of the possible: relationship management in power regimes and supply chain[END_REF][START_REF] Grandori | An organizational assessment of interfirm coordination modes[END_REF][START_REF] Williamson | The Economics of Governance[END_REF], the facilitating factors are related to the governance that can be sought on networking, the search for reliability (especially in unstable environments), and establishing a greater reputation, are examples of facilitating factors. Obtaining advantages through the exchange of information, as well as the investments made by an organization (through training, tools, etc.) can help organizations to establish relationships in complex environments. Concepts of the Gift Economy, like reputation, reciprocity, communities, etc., can be recognized in the motivations of OGD users and should be considered by governments to promote OGD [START_REF] Benkler | The Wealth of Networks[END_REF][START_REF] Lathrop | Open Government: Collaboration, Transparency, and Participation in Practice[END_REF].

OPEN GOVERNMENT DATA IN BRAZIL

In 2011, Brazil became a member of the Open Government Partnership (OGP), making a commitment to encourage and promote public policies of transparency and publish data in open format. As a result of this commitment, on November 18, 2011, the Law No. 12527 was enacted, which entered into force on May 16, 2012, regulating the constitutional right for citizens to have access to government data at all levels. Special situations had already been regulated by laws and decrees between 2009 and 2010. The effective implementation of these regulations, however, is still a challenge, specially at the municipal level, as demonstrated by the nationwide survey on Electronic Government 2010 [START_REF] Cgi | Brazilian Internet Steering Committee, Survey on the use of Information and Communication Technologies in Brazil ICT Electronic Government[END_REF]. Government initiatives include the 2012 conference for open data, organized by the Office of the Comptroller General (CGU), who is also responsible for monitoring the compliance with the law.

REFERENCE MODEL

The paper's research questions are: a) identify the benefits expected by users and government from the use of open government data (OGD), and its barriers and inhibiting factors; b) identify the network of players (individuals and organizations), their roles and motivations in the use of OGD. [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Dataand Open Government[END_REF] provided the concepts for the OGD benefits and barriers. The resulting categories for analysis are displayed in Table 1. [11] provided the conceptualization of primary and support activities for the open data value chain, with Organizational Network Theory providing the rationality of members participation in the network [START_REF] Oliver | Determinants of interorganizational relationships: integration and future directions[END_REF] and the reference network model is displayed in Figure 1.

METHODOLOGICAL PROCEDURES

The research used an interpretative approach, based on qualitiative data from surveys of a convenience sample. Data collection was performed in two stages. First, we conducted semistructured interviews, consisting of questions regarding the respondents OGD activities, expected benefits, facilitators and motivators, barriers and inhibiting factors, with a sample consisting of authors' contacts from events related to the subject, internet directories and search in websites for open government data projects, resulting in: seven government representatives (employees of government entities/agencies with open data projects); five developers (professionals working with software based on open data); two professors from public universities; one investigative journalist and three representatives of civil society organizations, totaling 18 respondents. These respondents indicated the sample for the second data collection (open interviews): a journalist; one member of each: a state government; a municipal government (also a journalist); a non-governmental organization with mainly technical activity; a private for-profit organization that develops tools for the provision of open data; two nongovernmental and non-profit organizations that operate by integrating other organizations; a federal government agency; a private for-profit company that operates in healthcare with open data, and alsotwo scholars and a software developer (who develops applications based on open data).

The research also included documentary:Brazilian legislation on the provision of public data, in particular, the Law No. 12527 (Access to Information Act -AIA), regulations and decrees of the federal government that formalized the National Infrastructure for Open Data (INDA), minutes and action plans of INDA. Content analysis was used to analyse the transcriptions of interviews and documents, using an a priori categorization of concepts.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS

First, we present the potential benefits and advantages that can be achieved in OGD initiatives, as perceived by the respondents (members of governments and society), followed by the barriers and inhibiting factors. The benefits and advantages, as well as the barriers and inhibiting factors are separated according to the interviews and documents, following the opinions of members of governments and society, as further analyses will make reference to these two groups separately. The survey's results indicate that the respondents views correspond to the very initial stage of Open Government of [START_REF] Kalampokis | A classification scheme for open government data: towards linking decentralised data[END_REF]. Their expectations of OGD provided by public administration are limited to the first stage of [START_REF] Kalampokis | A classification scheme for open government data: towards linking decentralised data[END_REF].

Our research aimed at a) verifying the possibility of a network of non-governmental agents also realizing the functionalities of stages 2 and 3 [START_REF] Kalampokis | A classification scheme for open government data: towards linking decentralised data[END_REF], depending on the public agents providing the data in a form that allows those agents to select integrate and recombine the data according to their specific needs; and b) Identifying required infrastructure (legal, technical, etc.) to support these network activities.

Engaging users in these activities would, of course, not preclude public agents from also performing these activities. Non-government agents, however, could be more motivated to do it, since they would perceive more directly the value of the activity, therefore increasing the sustainability of the value chain.

As an example of government action, one local government agency in our sample provides the users with private working spaces, where they can store their queries and data sets. This space, however, in order to benefit from the network, would have to allow also importing and combining data from external sources, providing also analysis and display tools and allow sharing and collaboration among different users.

This would be particularly important for the use of statistical, georeferenced and text data that may require specialized resources for analysis and manipulation, differing from the use of individual transaction data. This is also a response to the "Specific Assets" facilitating factor, the most cited. (INDA as a framework was heavily cited).

BENEFITS AND ADVANTAGES, BARRIERS AND INHIBITING FACTORS

This section firstly presents the results and analyses of the benefits and advantages found for governments. Political and social factors are mentioned as major benefits. Among these factors, transparency and processes that generate greater integration and reliability between government and society stand out. The second group of potential benefits and advantages refers to operational and technical aspects, which include the optimization of internal processes and the greater possibility to use data through the collaboration of various stakeholders, even among several governments. Possible benefits and economic advantages received little emphasis, but respondents stated that they may be achieved through a greater collaboration and incentive to innovation.

For society, political and social factors are also mentioned as possible benefits and advantages, including issues related to greater transparency and citizenship. Operational and technical factors are mentioned, including the possibility of offering new products and services to society and to generate greater integration between society and government. New functionalities with greater provision of information allow the development of new capabilities, especially through the networked collaboration between different segments of society, with a reference to the use of collective knowledge as a source of benefits. For government, benefits and economic advantages are mentioned with lower frequency.

The major inhibiting factors and barriers for governments are related to technical factors, especially the format and quality of information made available. Institutional factors, such as structural and political issues are the second group of factors mentioned as potential barriers. Legislation comes shortly after, indicating the lack of clarity about privacy as the most mentioned factor. Finally, mentioned as possible barriers within governments are issues related to the low interest of civil servants to cooperate with these initiatives.

Members of society, similarly to government members, understand the same technical issues as the biggest barriers, mainly, the format and quality of information. However, the lack of interest in the use of the information provided is mentioned as the second biggest barrier among the members of society. Issues related to legislation are mentioned as the third group of barriers, once again the clarity about which information can be made available is mentioned with emphasis.

FACILITATING AND MOTIVATING FACTORS

The first group of respondents mentioned as facilitating and motivating factorsthe network of other players (or organizations).In the interviews of the second round of interviews, the researchers aimed a identifying the activities of each user category. Table 2 displays the answers grouped according to the occupations or backgrounds of the respondents. Collect data among the various entities of their agency for publication.There are basically two data sources:dataconsidered of interest by internal governmetmembers or that have been demanded by society.They work along with governmental organizations formally to regulate the OGD operations of other organizations.Performtechnical activities to enable the publication of these data.

Make data available

Software developers

Work in software development through projects and events called Hackatons.At these events participants develop short projects.This action can be casual, highly driven by the occurrence of these events. Organize the OGD content to be published, supportorganizations in their search for financial and technical resources for OGD activities.

Develop applications based on OGD

Promote the participation of civil society and government entities on the subject.

Nongovernmental organizations (for-profit) without technical expertise.

Acts as intermediary between government and society, helping citizens to find and access specific government services Add products and services to their portfolio of solutions.

State organization with technical expertise

Offer access to raw data and elaborated information. Provide metadata, tools for query, analysis and presentation of data. Can act in partnership with other organizations. Offer products and technical tools.

FACILITATING AND MOTIVATING FACTORS FOR COPING WITH POTENTIAL BARRIERS AND INHIBITING FACTORS

In Table 3, the barriers are confronted with the respective facilitating and motivating factors, which can support the reduction or even the elimination of these barriers.

Table 4 shows how the facilitating and motivating factors confronting the barriers can provide better conditions for the benefits and advantages to be effectively achieved. Based on tables 3 and 4, it is possible to see how the players and organizations, mentioned as facilitating and motivating factors, through their activities, may face the aforementioned barriers and how they can contribute to the benefits (also mentioned by the respondents) to be achieved.

There are some players, such as journalists and scholars, who clearly have activities aimed at fostering greater activities from this context, because they seek to monitor the information available and verify their usefulness and importance to society. These activities contribute to the dissemination of the subject, and it could generate a greater interest from society on the subject, so that society can then require higher quality from governments when undertaking these initiatives, mitigating some barriers and enabling some benefits.

Other players, such as developers, public servants, organizations of society perform activities with technical bias. Barriers related to technical issues were the most cited by the respondents (between governments and society), so the presence of these players is important as they can require from the governments the provision of information with higher quality or develop products that support this activity.

Finally, organizations of society, non-profit and with no technical purposes, may indicate to the players (with technical expertise), being supported by journalists and scholars, possible niches of operation based on OGD.This activity may impact the context, causing a greater interest in the use of this information.

FINAL CONSIDERATIONS

One result of the study is the confirmation by the Brazilian study of previous studies [START_REF] Janssen | Benefits, Adoption Barriers and Myths of Open Dataand Open Government[END_REF] regarding the benefits and advantages expected from OGD initiatives. Respondents perceive OGD important to promote greater government efficiency and develop citizenship. Barriers are related to technical aspects (quality and format of information), legal issues and the still reduced interest of society in the subject.

A contribution of our paper is the recognition by the players of the importance of the network of users to facilitate and motivate OGD use. Concepts from Interorganizational Network Theory are helpful in systematizing these perceptions, but also, onn its more prescriptive side to guide government agents in its participation and support of these networks.

The main contribution of this study, especially for the Brazilian context, is to identify the facilitating and motivating factors, as a way to cope with the potential barriers.Players and organizations identifiedother players and organizations as possible facilitating and motivating factors, enabling a greater and better participation of everyone.

The results of the study may help governments to develop OGD initiatives with greater effectiveness, since by being awareofthe factors that can help coping with the barriers and inhibiting factors, they will beable to formulate strategies to integrate them into their initiatives, aiming atachieving greater and better results. Among these strategies, the integration of these facilitating and motivating factors in their initiatives should surely be included, thus providing better conditions for the development of their activities and consequently that all participants of these initiatives are able to achieve better results.

To Future Research, the OGD user network should, by its nature, be very dynamic and global. Our survey did not consider the business use of OGD, that should involve different networks, value chains and user motivations, therefore requiring a possibly different research approach. The importance of this research is increased by the economic potential of OGD use by companies [START_REF] Mckinsey | Open data: Unlocking innovation and performance with liquid information[END_REF].

  activities.References or citations to the activities and their goals.

Figure 1 -

 1 Figure 1-Reference Network Model: Authors of work.

  to facilitate (support) the supply of data in an open format.

Table 1 -

 1 Categories defined for data analysis

		Category		Category characteristics
	Benefits and advantages Source: [12] Topic -2.1		Items:political, social, economic and operational or technical.
	Barriers	and	inhibiting	Items:Institutional, complexities of the task, use and participation,
	factors.Source [12] Topic -2.2	legislation, quality of information and techniques.

Table 2 -

 2 Facilitating and Motivating Factors (I)

	Players and organizations	Activities developed	Goals
		Disseminate information among their peers and society in
		general, train other colleagues (teaching courses) and supervise
	Journalists	the compliance with the LAI, in addition to supporting non-governmental entities (with technological activity) that operate	Generate a greater demand for OGD
		with the subject.Encourage the publication of open data and
		"evangelize" society on OGD.
	Public
	Servants

Table 2a -

 2a Facilitating and Motivating Factors (II)

		Their activities are motivated by
	Scholars	their interest in some specific area (health, budget, etc.), and they seek to have these data used	Promote greater interest in the subject.
		by society.
	Players and organizations	Activities developed	Goals
	Non-governmental organizations (for-profit) with technical expertise.	Develop technical tools to facilitate (support) the supply of data in an open format.	Offer products and technical tools.
	Non-governmental organizations
	(non-profit) without technical
	expertise.

Table 3

 3 barriers, facilitating and motivating factors

	Barrier		Who faces it?	Facilitating and motivating factors.
	Technical factors	Government	Civil servants, whose job is to develop activities that can
	Technical factors	Society	technically facilitate the access to information;
				Software developers demand enhanced quality information for
				their applications
				Nongovernmental organizations (for-profit) with technical
				expertise, developinghigh quality applications (platforms)
				International organization promoting the dissemination of
				ODG use and standards.
	Institutional factors Governments	Journalists, scholars and the international organization
				working with OGD. They can pressuregovernmentfor
				increased effort, agility, quality in informationprovision.
	Legislation		Governments	Journalists, as watchdogs of government compliance with
	Legislation		Society	legislation and promoting society's interest in OGD. Scholars,
				civil servants contribute to improvement and solution of
				problems with the legislation.
	Use	and	Governments	Journalists, scholars, non-governmental organizations (non-
	participation			profit), international organization working on the
	Use	and	Society	dissemination and increasing society' awareness and interest
	participation			in OGD.

Table 4 -

 4 benefits X facilitating and motivating factors

	Benefit		Who seeks it? Facilitating and motivating factors.
	Political and social	Government	Journalists,	scholars	and	non-profit	non-governmental
	Transparency,			organizations, promoting the subject tosociety.Mayhelp in the use
	integration	and		of data by improving the interaction between government and
	reliability			society.
	Political and social	Society	Scholars, by conducting research (and studies) in specified areas
	Transparency	and		also contribute to the achievement of these advantages.
	greater exercise of
	citizenship
	Operational	and	Government	Public servants, by promoting greater use of the data, with higher
	technicalOptimization		quality, provide greater collaboration between governments.
	of internal processes
	and increased use of
	data
	Operational	and	Society	Software developers and organizations that develop tools for the
	technicalSupply	of		provision of data, by creating the technical conditions for these
	new products and		activities.Journalists, scholars and nongovernmental non-profit
	services.			organizations without technical expertise, by suggesting possible
				niches or opportunities for the development of new products and
				services.
	Economic		Government	Public servants, by disseminating the subject internally, are able to
	Greater collaboration		allow greater collaboration, and possibly the development of our
				products and services to governments.
	Economic		Society	All players (and organizations) by integrating their activities and
	use of collective		objectives.
	knowledge