Non-Muslim Communities and State Control in the late Ottoman Empire. Administrative Practice and Decision-making within the Greek Orthodox Parishes of Istanbul Meropi Anastassiadou-Dumont

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Since the period of the conquest, the Ottoman administration distinguished the Sultan's subjects into categories of Muslims and Non-Muslims. This demarcating line did not change until the end of the Empire. In the course of the centuries, despite multiple intercommunal conflicts which they faced, Muslims, Christians and Jews managed to develop an art of living together in a spirit of respecting their differences. Cultural differences persisted, despite transgression and negotiation. The Ottoman state's tolerance toward the conquered people, the leading principle in the contemporary historiography of the Sultan's Empire, allowed for non-Muslim autonomy in the fields of education, health, and charity. Throughout long periods, Christians and Jews were able to organize the social life of their co-religionists more or less autonomously. One has to wait until the reforms of the 19 th century (Tanzimat) to see these customary practices become codified. It was at this time that the non-Muslims were integrated into the institutional framework of common rules worked out in consultation with the State.

Since a lot of ink has been spilled on the issue of the millet system, 1 it will not be treated in this short study. It is, however, useful to recall here that beginning in the 1860s, when the Internal Regulations of the principal non-Muslim communities (Greek-Orthodox, Armenians, Jews) were developed and enforced, 2 the Muslim judge no longer had power to judge family-law matters of the non-Muslims. 3 Henceforth, the interested parties did not have the choice as before, and they were confined to use the courts 4 of their proper confessional community (ecclesiastical courts, rabbinical courts). In this way, the State not only validated parallel judicial systems which existed, but also imposed an isolation in the field of private law between the spheres of jurisdiction of the different millet. This isolation significantly reduced the Ottoman intervention into the affairs of their non-Muslim subjects.

The creation of the institutional framework in the 1860s is one manifestation among others of the State's tendency to exercise a centralizing and bureaucratic power in order to better control its territories and populations. In the wake of the Tanzimat, the millet were endowed with administrative bodies responsible for internal affairs, namely those linked to the cult, the education and the civil status of the their members. The existence of these structures considerably limited interaction between ordinary people and Ottoman authorities. From then on, a large number of practical issues could be resolved within the community. So, for instance, the muhtar of the community, who was authorized to issue various certificates (birth, baptism, marriage, death, burial, and even real estate transactions), functioned as an intermediary between the Ottoman administration and his co-religionists. 5 The following paragraphs present a synthesis of a research largely drawn from the archives of some of the Greek Orthodox parishes in Istanbul. In the 19 th century, the Orthodox Greeks of the city and the surrounding area maintained close to 70 parishes: to the 42 attached to the Archbishopric of Constantinople we should add at least 25 others constituting the neighboring bishoprics of Derkos, Chalcedon and Princes' Islands. The present article is based on material from the parishes of Pera 6 (Beyoğlu), Kadıköy, the Golden Horn (Fatih) and -to a lesser extent-of Bosporus. It is important to note that the parishes of Pera were, at the end of the Ottoman period, the most populous of the city. According to the 1906/1907 (Ottoman) census, the Orthodox Greek community of Beyoğlu counted about 35,000 members.

Before delving into the field of powers of the Greek parish institutions in Istanbul, a terminological clarification is in order. Within the Istanbul context, at least as far as the One can cite, as example, the cases of Salonica or Veroia (Karaferye). Generally, it concerns persons with relatively loose links to their confessional community. It is in the berat (imperial diploma) of the enthronement of Patriarch Ioakeim II (October 1860), preserved in the Library of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, that it is specified, for the first time, that henceforth the Patriarch and the bishops have exclusive power to judge litigations relating to family law and concerning members of the millet-i Rum. It should be noted that the text of the 1860 berat was repeated exactly in all the following ones issued by the imperial authorities for the enthronement of each successive Patriarch until the end of the Ottoman period.

5 Muhtar: it is a term difficult to translate. In the rural areas, the muhtar presided over the Council of the Elders and, in the absence of other representative of authority, he also played the role of the chieftain of the village. In the towns, he served as an intermediary between the State and the constituents of the district (neighborhood) or a part of the district. In the case of the Orthodox parishes of Istanbul, according to all evidence, he was an individual responsible only for the Greek population of the sec-tor. The office of muhtar started in 1829 in Istanbul, and it was an elected one. See a brief history of this institution in CADIRCI Musa, 1991, pp. 38-40. 6 Pera, Beyoğlu et Stavrodromi are three toponyms which correspond, with few exceptions, to the same space, at least from the point of view of the Orthodox Greek parish administration.

Orthodox Greeks are concerned, the parish was a distinct administrative unit, which we, usually, find also under the name of "community". The two terms, however, can lead to confusion at times: "parish" and "community" do not have exactly the same meaning and do not always correspond to the same space. Although the words may often be interchangeable, a community can also be formed from more than one parish (but not the reverse). Such is the case of the community of Beyoğlu (Ελληνική ορθόδοξος Κοινότης Σταυροδρομίου), formed by a mother parish and two daughter parishes federated into a single unit. 7 In Kuzguncuk (Χρυσοκέραμος), a small site north of Üsküdar on the Asiatic coast of Bosporus, the Greek community was made up of two parishes and churches dedicated to Saint Pantaleon (Aghios Pandeleimon).8

An administration entrusted to lay bodies

In theory, according to the statues that most of the parishes/communities adopted from the 1870s onward, in each riding decision-making power rested with the general assembly of the parishioners. The latter determined, by voting, the composition of the various administrative bodies of the community. In principle, the elected members of these bodies are but simple executors of the decisions of the general assembly. In practice, however, it often happened that they overstepped their designated mandate, or that they took initiatives of which the general assembly was informed only after the fact.

In small and medium-size parishes, the executive was reduced to a single body, designated by the name eforo-epitropi (εφοροεπιτροπή) and charged with the surveillance of the schools and churches located within the geographical limits of the parish. In populous parishes (such as the cases of Pera and Kadıköy), the school installations and the temples were placed under the responsibility of distinct bodies: the ephorates (εφορίες) supervised the function of the former, while the committees (επιτροπές) monitored the latter. Committees and ephorates were required to provide, at regular intervals, a report on their activities and to submit, annually, their financial records for verification. This task was carried out by the Auditing Committee, specifically elected by the general assembly of the parishioners.

Communities such as those of Beyoğlu or of Tatavla, densely populated and covering quite large areas, were endowed with a considerable bureaucratic apparatus to manage collective affairs. But, in these cases, the complexity of the mechanisms was the result of demographic weight. In reality, the bodies designated to execute the will of the community merely expanded in size. The modes of administration, the principles and the structures are the same as those observed in the other Orthodox parishes of Istanbul: general assembly, executive, auditing committee.

The principal duty of the ecclesiastical committees was the maintenance of the churches. Essentially, this consisted in planning and executing building repairs, for which the commissioners were dipping into the church coffers. For major renovation projects, exceptional funds were sought. The committees were also responsible for the maintenance and the replacement of equipment, namely the icons, the vestments and other items of the cult. They were also the closest contacts of the people employed in the churches. The majority of the consulted archives revealed that churches kept rigorous accounts, producing a financial report at the end of every month.

The school ephorates functioned according to the same model. Firstly, they looked after the smooth operation of the installations (state of the buildings, management of teaching and service personnel, establishing of libraries, mess hall organization, etc.). When they were the only institutions responsible for education, their members developed new programs, provided new teaching posts, transformed the premises, and participated in curriculum design. Both committees and ephorates lacked legal recognition. They could not, therefore, have contractual relations with third parties. The banks, which managed their accounts, only recognized physical persons as holders, even if they accepted, in some respects, modifications every time that there were new elections (and new elected officers).

In the majority of the Istanbul parishes, the representatives of the Church (i.e. the Phanar) organized the life and activities of the clergy. Their internal regulations made no provision, as a general rule, regarding the religious personnel put in the service of the parish. In practice, far from being an "omission", this silence gave free hand to the Church to define its action. Implicitly, lay members of communal structures were very careful not to interfere in the religious sphere. Whether in the capital or in the provinces, it was a member of the clergy who had the honorific function of presiding over the community bodies.

It is, thus, rare to find references to the local clergy in the statutes, which governed the administrative operation of the parishes. The opposite case, i.e. when the activities of the priests are regulated in great detail, occurred in parishes where the laity ruled without sharing its power. For instance, this was the case in Pera/Beyoğlu. Here, too, there were church committees and school ephorates, which constituted the executive power. Nevertheless, unlike the great majority of parishes/communities, Pera had an additional level known as the Central Ephorate. Charged with supervising and coordinating of the actions of the committees and ephorates, it exercised a strong centralizing authority. It derived legitimacy from the founding regulations (1876, 1904), which accorded to it a wide margin of manoeuvring.9 To judge from these texts, but also using the rich correspondence of this body, the clergy of Beyoğlu played a subaltern role relative to the institutional point of view.

The clergy depended, in fact, on the Central Ephorate. It was the latter who chose and recruited deacons and priests. It also ratified the nomination of the episcopal supervisor (αρχιερατικώς προϊστάμενος),10 contesting thus the Phanar's right to unilaterally appoint the prelate of its choice. At the end of the 19 th century, the Orthodox clergy in Pera numbered fourteen priests and five deacons. At least three of them should have had a theological education and six a confessor's permit. Placed under the charge of the episcopal supervisor, they had almost no autonomy in the organization of their work; even the times of the mass were fixed in consultation with the Central Ephorate! Their financial dependence however, was small. Only the salaries of the deacons were paid by the community. The episcopal supervisor and the priests earned their livelihood essentially from the offerings of the faithful. They received one-fifth of the annual contributions of the parishioners and a percentage on the religious acts conducted. They also received the cemetery offerings, as well as all the offerings collected after any religious act, the product of the collection on 14 September (feast of the Elevation of the True Cross) and the one on Palm Sunday, the benediction (φώτισμα) on the day of the Epiphany. All of these revenues were gathered in one common coffer before being redistributed in equal parts among the relevant persons. For any service to a parishioner, the priests were obliged to provide a receipt and keep a copy. The details for the sharing of the collected sums were so meticulously described that they left no opportunity for temptations of cupidity. Finally, in Stavrodromi, the members of the clergy did not have the right to hold any other occupation (remunerated or not) with the exception of the theologian priests, who could, upon authorization by the Central Ephorate, teach the religion course in the schools of the district.

All of these arrangements underline the considerable power wielded by the lay bodies of the Pera community (i.e. the general assembly of the parishioners and the Central Ephorate) against the Church. If the case of Pera remains exceptional, it is equally significant because the Beyoğlu community was by far the most prosperous and populous of all the Empire's Greek Orthodox communities.

A limited space of manoeuvring: the State control and central bodies of the millet

In the Ottoman administrative system of Tanzimat, the parish/community was the basic unit to which befell the task of ensuring compliance to the rules. It was endowed with a certain measure of liberty in order to organize the social life of its members, namely in the fields of education, health, charity, cultural and -of course-religious activities. But its actions unfolded within a clearly defined framework and, in any event, were subject to control by the millet's central bodies and by the State. Those who participated in the parish administration were extremely careful about the strict application of the community regulations and of the Ottoman law, if only to guarantee the legitimacy of their own function and social rank.

As for religious affairs, as long as the Muslims of their district were not inconvenienced in the exercise of their faith, the Greek commissioners did not have to render account to anyone except the Phanar. The correspondence of the church committees with the Patriarchate does not reveal the Ottoman State's interference in religious expression. Even the necessary authorizations for building repairs or a fortiori for the construction of a new religious building (a frequent occurrence in the second half of the 19 th century) were obtained through the Phanar, which made the application in the name of the parishes/communities.

In reality, this absence of direct contact between the smallest unit of the millet and the authorities was also observed in all aspects of community life -education, culture, welfare, health, etc. The communication was carried out through the religious institution which represented the entire millet on the level of the Empire (in the case of the Greeks, the Ecumenical Patriarchate). It is the latter that communicated to the interested parishes the various directives and decisions of the State or of the central bodies of the "nation". In general, the same path of communication was also followed in reverse order. The parish documentation gives the impression of a velvet-glove control over most of the initiatives taken within the community. With the constant exception of activities relating to education and the school, which were more closely supervised.

Until around the mid-19 th century, the landscape of schooling in Istanbul was characterized by a great heterogeneity. Each parish maintained its school (or even many schools in the case of rich districts), which it operated according to the financial means and the aspirations of its "notables" (responsible). Radical changes to this system began in the 1860s. From then on, the academic affairs of the capital as well as of the entire Empire were followed up and, in the case of the millet-i rum ("Greek Orthodox nation"), coordinated by three bodies. They were, first, the Permanent Mixed National Council 11 (created in 1862) and the Patriarchal Central Education Committee (1873). Both enjoyed full institutional recognition by the State. Next to these structures, the Greek Literary Syllogos of Constantinople (1861) also featured as an important player in the fields of culture and education. But in this case, we are dealing with an association without legal personhood 12 and forced, for this reason, to act in an informal way, yielding more and more ground to the Patriarchal Committee after the 1880s. The shadow of the state was perceptible behind the supervision of these three bodies.

11 Permanent Mixed National Council: a body equally constituted of 12 members, eight lay and four prelates of the Holy Synod. It supervised the operation and insured the financial management of schools and hospitals of the entire millet-i Rum of the Empire.

12 The Syllogos paid the price of its founders' negligence, who seem to not have undertaken all the necessary formal steps with the authorities so that their association would operate according to Ottoman law. This omission caught up with them, when in 1890, through the Ministry of Justice and Religious Affairs, the Porte contested the legality of associations the foundation of which had not been approved by imperial firman. After this date, the Syllogos was obliged to put itself under the protection of the patriarchal institution: Cf. ΑNAGNOSTOPOULOU Sia, 1997, note 68. For the work of GLSC, see: ΕXERTZOGLOU Haris, 1996, p. 194; STAVROU Tatiana, 1967, p. 301. Both Exertzoglou and Stavrou, however, are based only on the journal of the Syllogos, which has been preserved in many libraries. The archives of the association, closed by the Turkish authorities in 1925, were transferred to Ankara and remain hence inaccessible.

The centralization which has been observed in the non-Muslim communities (the situation was in fact identical with the Armenians or the Jews) was the means to which the Ottoman power resorted in order to preserve the control of its populations. The legislative vibrancy of the second half of the 19 th century served the same objective. The administrative bodies instituted within the millet in the beginning of the 1860s played the role of guardians of Ottoman law in the sense that they functioned as an integral part of the state mechanism. The files relating to the education in the parish archives are very clear on this issue.

At the turn of the 20 th century, the school ephorates were bombarded with instructions from the Patriarchate and the Permanent Mixed National Council. In most cases, there are recommendations issued by the Ministry of Instruction (Maarif Nezareti) that the central bodies of the millet were called upon to deliver to their constituents. Such is, for instance, the case of a directive dated on 25 April 1914 and addressed to the ephorates and school director of the Archbishopric of Constantinople. 13 Noticing that, despite repeated incitements, the hygienic conditions in the school premises left much to be desired, the Great Vicar of the Patriarchate issued a series of directives for improving the situation to all interested persons. Even if this is not expressly stated, there is no doubt that the Phanar acted as a guarantor of the Ottoman law, whose provisions regarding public health had been increasing since the mid 19 th century.

Another more eloquent example: on 17 December 1915, the same Great Vicar solicited the assistance of the school ephorates in helping the Patriarchate to establish "the statistical tables of the schools of the archbishopric of Constantinople" for the years 1913-1914 and 1915-1916. 14 He demanded the setting up of an organization chart of the teaching personnel based on the archives and records maintained by the schools. For the year 1915-1916 more specifically, the Phanar also required the teachers' identity cards and residence permits, as well as the professional licenses of all the persons employed by the schools of the district. These documents, the Great Vicar emphasized, should be written in Ottoman Turkish language. If necessary, these documents were translated by certified translators. 27 April 1915: this time, with similar detail and precision, the directive of the Patriarchate's Central Committee concerned the conduct of the exams planned in May. 15 The examples of such missives can easily multiply. This is certainly true for the turbulent period of WW I, during which the Ottoman state considerably reinforced its control over the non-Muslim populations. But in reality, by the 1910s the state had been trying to put the complex and delicate issue of school education in order for decades.16

13 Archives of the Greek Orthodox Community of Stavrodromi, Letters of the Ecumenical Patriarchate, file no 053, 1914-1922. 14 Archives of the Greek orthodox community of Stavrodromi, loc. cit.

The creation of a Ministry of Instruction in 1857 was followed in 1869 by a "Regulation of Public Instruction", which aspired to creating the foundations of a school system consistent with the spirit of the Tanzimat. In practice, it prepared the ground for the segregation of the communities. The network of public schools put in place by the application of this text was destined exclusively for Muslims. Christians and Jews were left "free" to manage their academic affairs. Since their schools were considered "private" (hususi), they did not receive any financial support. Nor did they have a free hand in organizing the transmission of knowledge! The school programs and the teaching staff were subject, in the same way as in the Muslim schools, to approval by the Ministry. The same process was required for the textbooks, which also had to have the imprimatur by the Central Education Committee of the Patriarchate. The latter published its list of authorized works every year.17

During the reign of Abdülhamid II (1876-1909), state control over academic activities was heightened. Starting in 1886 especially, date of the foundation of an "Inspection of non-Muslim and Foreign Schools" [sic], 18 directives and cautions multiplied considerably. It should be noted that the non-Muslims -namely the Greeks-did not miss the opportunity to argue the "private" character of their establishments in order to stall implementation and to minimize as much as possible the compliance of their operation with the Ottoman law. The attitude toward the teaching of Turkish in the Greek community schools is very eloquent in this respect.

The issue of whether it was useful to introduce this subject into the school curricula was already raised in the 1850s and became the topic of a very lively debate within the Greek community of the Ottoman capital. Exceptionally, some secondary schools for boys did propose Turkish as a foreign language from an utilitarian perspective (i.e. since the good knowledge of this language would be suitable in increasing the competitiveness of their students in the labor market). This applied only to boys; girls never had access to such education. In total, until the end of the Ottoman period, the Greek school ephorates remained frigid (and at times even hostile) on the subject. Every time the authorities demanded it, they maintained that they did not have sufficient financial means to cover the salary of a Turkish language teacher. In short, as long as the state did not pay anything to the non-Muslim schools, it should not meddle in their decision making. The Greeks of Istanbul would, thus, turn a deaf ear to these demands even after 1909, when the law on Public Instruction (Maarif-i Umumiye Kanunu) was voted, making the teaching of Turkish compulsory in all non-Muslim schools of the Empire. 19 It took until 1915 amidst a highly charged climate that the Greek community finally decided to respect the law. This resistance makes think that the ephorates were successful in preserving some of their prerogatives. In reality, it was nothing of the sort. They were administering rather than "piloting" the academic life within the parishes. The formed the base of a control pyramid at the top of which was the Ottoman ministry. Half-way there, the Patriarchate and the Permanent Mixed National Council ensured the communication and verified the enforcement of the legislation.

The powers of the community bodies in civil status affairs

Centralization and delegation of powers are not contradictory. As long as it maintains the control of the apparatus, a state can demonstrate its trust toward players in the periphery of the decision centers by transferring some of its prerogatives to them. This is more or less the attitude that the Ottoman authorities adopted toward demographic reality. Until the mid 19 th century, the criteria which were privileged in approaching issues regarding the population were almost exclusively fiscal and/or military. Dozens among thousands of records preserved in the archives of the Council Presidency in Istanbul (Başbakanlık Osmanlı Arşivi) were produced for the purpose of identifying and numbering individuals liable to taxation or military service. For many centuries, only the men drew the attention of the administration. With the exception of widows, subject to certain taxes when there was no support by a male family member, women are totally absent in the Ottoman documentation. Furthermore, as a general rule, in this material, which often has the form of names' lists, we rarely find jumbled inventories of Christians, Muslims and Jews.

In the same period, the parish/communities also produced administrative information. A part of it was destined for the Ottoman authorities. This is particularly the case with the population lists, which, although drafted in Greek, presented many similarities with those released, in Ottoman Turkish, by state agencies: the same vocabulary, syntactical forms, types of data, etc. Another part of the community materials was most likely destined for internal use and is characterized by great disparity both in their external aspect as well as in their content (lists of parishioners, baptism acts, death certificates, cadastral inventories, etc.).

Although distancing itself from earlier practices and considered as the first "modern" initiative as far as population is concerned, the 1831 census was not any less useful for military purposes. 20 It was the same for the 1844 census, carried out at a time when the state was seeking to reorganize the army. Both remain of limited value, since a number of provinces could not be visited by the census officers. In spite of some population listings (1856) or attempts of listing (1870) on a large scale, 21 it was only in the 1880s and 1890s that the first census organized according to the principles of modern demographic science and including women were carried out in the Ottoman Empire. 22 A centralized civil status service, attached to the Ministry of Interior was created in 1881, 23 the date when the "Regulation on Population Records" came into force. Within the framework of this law, the non-Muslim communities were endowed with institutional powers which they did not have in the past or which they were exercising unofficially. In this respect, the muhtar's field of powers in the Istanbul parishes was important, so was the authorization given to the communities to grant them the responsibility of listing their members for the Empire's electoral lists or census records.

Elected by the parishioners' assembly for a two-year mandate, renewable once, installed in his office by the religious leader (in the case of the Greeks by the Patriarch) and the mayor of Istanbul (şehr emini), the muhtar was a key-person in the parish administration. 24 Being the only legal representative of the parish, he was the keeper of its seal and signature. The documents submitted to him were various. All the parish certificates relating to vital statistics of the individuals passed through his office: documents required for the issuing of an identity card or a passport, attestations for the people applying for marriage permits, burial permits which the parish had to transmit to health authorities and inheritance certificates. The muhtar also signed attestations of real estate transactions (and especially property sales).

In spite of the legal weight of his signature, it was, nevertheless, rare for the muhtar to issue documents directly destined for the Ottoman administration. More frequently, his documents were addressed to the appropriate offices of the Phanar, the only authority for producing official documents, in the Ottoman Turkish language, and addressed to the State services. In other words, the office of the muhtar constituted the first level of bureaucratic procedure. The information that he provided and certified -by his seal and signature-were later taken over. Being "first hand", the result of detailed verification and gathered during an "on the ground" investigation, his information is almost impossible to contest. The active implication of the community bodies in the population census conducted for the whole Empire and the setting up of electoral lists signals a transfer of powers to the non-Muslim communities. This transfer, however, was not explicitly provided for in legislation. According to the law (for instance, the one on civil statue of 1902), the census was conducted by committees constituted by state agents and servicemen. They travelled through the relevant districts and collected the declarations of the residents. Accompanied by two 22 BEHAR Cem, DUBEN Alan, 1991, p. 15. 23 Cf. BEHAR Cem 1996, p. 105;BEHAR Cem, 1998, pp. 135-145. 24 On the powers of the muhtar in the Greek parishes of Istanbul, cf. Κανονισμός των μουχτάρηδων των ενοριών Κωνσταντινουπόλεως (Regulation of the muhtars of the Istanbul parishes), Κωνσταντινούπολις, τύποις Ανατολικού Αστέρος, 1880, p. 8. One of the objectives of this regulation published by the Patriarchate, was to distinguish between the muhtar sent by the imperial government in the provinces to preside over the councils of demogerontes (ihtiyar meclisi), and the muhtar attached to the parishes of Istanbul with totally different duties.

witnesses, the latter appeared before the committee and orally attested to their identity. A first inventory was thus established, which was co-signed by the religious leaders and the community councils, who kept a copy of it. In areas with mixed population, each community drew up its own inventory, following which the census committee consolidated the lists. This procedure does not seem to have been respected in the Greek Orthodox parishes of Istanbul. The available archival material hardly shows the presence of state agents, especially during the census. All the abundant documentation which was kept during those operations is in the Greek language. There is no trace of any officer of the Ministry of Interior. Furthermore, in general, the order to proceed with a census came from the Patriarch and not the Ottoman authorities. This allows us to think that the Ottoman authorities gave free hand to the non-Muslim communities to organize based on the listing. In obvious discrepancy to the letter of the law, the community archives bring parish priests to the fore. In actual practice, they were the ones keeping the voluminous census records in both 1885 and 1907, and even later. The correspondence files contain numerous witnesses to this effect. 25 This power, which, according to all evidence, was tacitly recognized by the priests, should be explained by the trust which the Ottoman authorities placed in religious persons and persons of clerical office.

* * * Should we see in these various procedures the signs of a certain autonomy granted to non-Muslim communities, at least as far as administrative practices are concerned? The powers of parish services, particularly on the question of population, are sufficiently broad to consider them as reflecting a very liberal conception of the relationship between the Empire and the communities. Within a context clearly marked by the emergence of nationalisms and the proliferation of separatist movements, but also by the excesses of an authoritarian political regime, such flexibility is surprising. In reality, the trust enjoyed by the administrative bodies of the millet were entrenched in the distinction between "faithful" and "infidels", distinction upon which the entire Ottoman Imperial edifice had been constructed since the conquest. Paradoxically, in a period full of reform promises, the old principle of differentiating between Muslims and non-Muslims retained its force. Under these circumstances, it is not surprising -neither for the imperial administration nor the communities-that, regarding questions of civil status, the subjects of the Sultan continued to be divided into two categories and subject to different procedures. And it goes without saying that foreign citizens (ecnebi) were also treated separately under the law.

Cult, education and population are, therefore, the main fields of power that the non-Muslim bodies, created after the 1860s, had to administer. The parish archives make abundantly clear the role of "management". According to this material, the community bodies were part of the Ottoman administrative machine, like any other element of the state mechanism. In other words, from a strictly regulatory point of view, this autonomy, so often attributed to the communities in the period of Reforms, was, in reality, extremely limited. At least this is what the documentation of the Greek parishes suggests.

Sources

  Archives of the Greek-Orthodox Community of StavrodromiΚανονισμός της εν Σταυροδρομίω ελληνικής ορθοδόξου κοινότητος (Regulation of the Greek Orthodox Communitiy in Stavrodromio), Κωνσταντινούπολις, 1904. Κανονισμός της ελληνικής ορθοδόξου κοινότητος Χρυσοκεράμου (Κουσγουντσουκίου) επαρχίας Χαλκηδόνος (Regulation of the Greek Orthodox Communitiy in Chrisokeramo of Chalkedon), εν Κωνσταντινουπόλει, 1922. Κανονισμός της ελληνικής ορθοδόξου κοινότητος (Regulation of the Greek Orthodox Community in Constantinople), εν Κωνσταντινουπόλει, 1876. Κανονισμός των μουχτάρηδων των ενοριών Κωνσταντινουπόλεως (Regulation of the Muhtars of the Istanbul Parishes), τύποις Ανατολικού Αστέρος, Κωνσταντινούπολις 1880.

Κανονισμός της εν Σταυροδρομίω ελληνικής ορθοδόξου κοινότητος (Regulation of the Greek Orthodox Community in Stavrodromio),Κωνσταντινούπολις, 1904, p. 76.

Κανονισμός της ελληνικής ορθοδόξου κοινότητος Χρυσοκεράμου (Κουσγουντσουκίου) επαρχίας Χαλκηδόνος (Regulation of the Greek Orthodox Community of Chrisokeramo in Chalcedon), εν Κωνσταντινουπόλει, 1922, p. 24.

Κανονισμός της ελληνικής ορθοδόξου κοινότητος (Regulations of the Greek Orthodox Community), εν Κωνσταντινουπόλει, 1876, p. 52 ; Κανονισμός της εν Σταυροδρομίω ελληνικής ορθοδόξου κοινότητος (Regulation of the Greek Orthodox Community in Stavrodromio), Κωνσταντινούπολις, 1904, p 76.

Member of the clergy, having the rank of archimandrite, responsible for a geographically precise electoral district.

Archives of the Greek Orthodox Community ofStavrodromi, loc. cit.

Regarding school education in the second half of the 19 th century, see mainlyKODAMAN Bayram, 1980, p. 277.

The annual list was published under the following title: Κατάλογος των υπό της Πατριαρχικής Κεντρικής Εκπαιδευτικής Επιτροπής επιθεωρηθέντων και ως μη επιληψίμων εγκριθέντων διδακτικών βιβλίων, εν Κωνσταντινουπόλει, εκ του πατριαρχικού τυπογραφείου. The collections of the Patriarchal library preserved the majority of the editions from

on.18 Mekâtib-i Gayrimüslime ve Ecnebiye Müfettişliği. See:[START_REF]Osmanlı Devletinde Gayrimüslim Tebaanın Yönetimi (The administration of non-Muslim subjects within the Ottoman State)[END_REF], p. 175. 19 KOCAK Cemil, 1985, pp. 485-494, 488.

A few years after the abolition of the Janissary Corps (1826) and in the aftermath of the Treaty of Adrianople, which put an end to war against Russia, it was important to know in the most precise way possible the male population of the Empire in order to set up the new army. Summary results of the 1831 census have been published by the Turk historianKARAL Enver Ziya, 1943, p.

 21 KARAL Enver Ziya, 1943, p. 10.

This role of the clergy is mentioned in black and white in a letter sent by the episcopal supervisor of Pera to the president of the Greek community of the same district: Archives of the Greek Orthodox Community of Stavrodromi, Correspondence of the Central Ephorate, 1909-1910; the episcopal supervisor Elaias Agathangelos to Eftstathios Evgenidis, president of the Central Ephorate, 6 February 1909.


Cecilia Berlin

Caroline Dedering

Guðbjörg Rist Jónsdóttir

Johan Stahre
email: johan.stahre@chalmers.secarded

Social Sustainability Challenges for European Manufacturing Industry: Attract, Recruit and Sustain

Keywords: Social sustainability, manufacturing industry, demographic change, human resources, recruitment, retention, shared values

The purpose of this paper is to link social sustainability challenges to manufacturing companies, focusing on the upcoming recruitment crisis caused by demographic changes in Europe. The findings are based on literature studies that were validated and reflected upon as the study progressed. The conclusion is that diversity within the manufacturing industry has to be increased in order to expand the pool of possible employees by focusing on three main improvements: providing interesting jobs, work flexibility and an improved image of the industry.

Introduction

Manufacturing industries need to take action. The demographic prognosis of Europe for the next two decades will result in an aged population [START_REF] Dobbs | The world at work: Jobs, pay and skills for 3.5 billion people[END_REF], which most likely will mean a recruitment and skills crisis for the industry. In 2020, there will also be a skills gap within the recruitment pool for manufacturing industry [START_REF] Dobbs | The world at work: Jobs, pay and skills for 3.5 billion people[END_REF]2]. Manufacturing companies are essential to economic growth and sustainability of nations [START_REF][END_REF][START_REF] Mohan | must revive manufacturing[END_REF], therefore it is crucial that they, in time, become aware of the challenges and take action.

Judging by the current demographic trends in Europe, as shown by the black columns in Figure 1, the current working population (20-55 years) will most likely be replaced by about 20-30 % fewer people. In addition, the health care industry will increasingly be demanding more employees for the caretaking of Europe's aging population [START_REF] Christopherson | Childcare and Elderly Care: What Occupational Oppurtunities for Women?[END_REF].

The lack of people to fill the work force will be drastic for manufacturing companies since their recruitment reaches out to a small part of society with limited diversity [START_REF] Rübsamen-Waigmann | Women in industrial research: A wake up call for European industry[END_REF][START_REF] Donkin | Employers ignore skills shortages at their peril. The failure to invest in vocational education and training will damage British productivity[END_REF][START_REF] Giffi | Untapped resource; How manufacturers can attract, retain, and advance talented women[END_REF]. An illustration of the recruitment pool of possible employees, currently overrepresented by men aged 35-65 [9-12], is presented in gray in Figure 1. It becomes interesting to examine what other groups in society could be targeted in recruitment, in order to expand the pool. Top-level industry management mission (via the growth strategy known as growing problems and the need to them. This paper presents preparatory efforts Coordination and Support Action (CSA) facturing for the Factorie Commission in 2013. explored in relation to nies.

The term Social Sustainability, and the defined. However, most on Environment and Development "development which meets the needs of the prese future generations to meet their own needs This definition describes sustainability in economic and social sustainability associated with equity among people and equal opportunities Griessler have defined social sustainability "the freedom to choose at any stage in life between different forms of work (wo arrangements, field of work) al social security" [START_REF] Littig | Social sustainability: a catchword between political pragmatism and social theory[END_REF] That is, all individuals should have the same opportunities for accepted in all fields of work, regardless of among manufacturing industry whole, resulting in a socially unsustainable industry

The question that needs to be asked is therefore bility should manufacturing companies the demographic challenges

Method

To better understand the concept of Social Sustainability and what it means for man facturing companies, a 0 10 20 30 40

Millions

Age distribution of countries in the European Union [START_REF]Population on 1 January by five years age groups and sex[END_REF] -the gray field illustrates the pool of possible employees for manufacturing companies. management as well as societal leaders like the European Co the growth strategy known as Europe 2020) have acknowledged these growing problems and the need to formulate socially sustainable strategies to tackle presents preparatory efforts (primarily a literature study) Coordination and Support Action (CSA) "SO SMART" (Socially Sustainable Man facturing for the Factories of the Future), which will be funded by the European . In this paper, different aspects of social sustainability explored in relation to what the demographics crisis means for manufacturing comp Sustainability, and the many dimensions it includes, are still being . However, most sustainability definitions spring from the World Commission on Environment and Development's (WCED) definition of sustainable development: "development which meets the needs of the present without comprising the ability for rations to meet their own needs" [START_REF]World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our common future[END_REF] . This definition describes sustainability in broad terms and applies to environmental sustainability. The social aspect of sustainability has often equity among people and equal opportunities [START_REF] Littig | Social sustainability: a catchword between political pragmatism and social theory[END_REF]. Littig Like other aspects of Sustainable Development, Social Sustainability has connotations to the classic inter-generational definition of "Sustainable Development" mentioned earlier [START_REF]World Commission on Environment and Development (WCED), Our common future[END_REF], but needs further clarification since it has historically been the least defined of the sustainability dimensions. Therefore, the initial search phase used broad terms, e.g. social, sustainability and manufacturing. As searches progressed, new keywords and keyword combinations were identified (including Corporate Social Responsibility, attractive jobs, and employees + wants/expectations/demands etc.) and used to refine the literature search towards addressing demographics forecasts and the prognosticated skills gap, and to determine what has been written about the impacts on manufacturing industry. Once collected, literature was categorized into emergent topics and themes in an inductive, qualitative process involving periodic internal validation and reflection by the authors.

This paper reports on a subset of data from the literature search. Starting from the question at the end of the Introduction, the main theme is how manufacturing industries may approach the challenges of the future European demographics, from the perspective of how to recruit and retain personnel. The topics reported on are:

• Social sustainability within companies • Factors that attract employees to a company and/or job • What manufacturing companies can improve to attract people • Examples of social sustainability practices in companies

3

Results and Analysis

Results from the literature study are presented in this chapter organized by identified themes, along with strategies that manufacturing industry may adopt in order to address the upcoming challenges of 2020. The strategies, as identified by the authors, spring from topics listed earlier and include three aspects: starting in the core business; attractive jobs; and the manufacturing industry's image.

Gaps in the Literature

One aim of the literature study was to identify ways to increase the diversity, and thereby the size, of the recruitment pool for manufacturing industries in Europe, for example by targeting underrepresented groups. Literature was found on a limited range of society groups -primarily young, elderly, women and disabled. Other groups expected by the authors, such as foreign-born, were not represented in the found literature but may still deserve attention. Furthermore, a limited amount of literature was found that was specific to manufacturing industry in Europe. Therefore, the authors have also used literature from the United States on manufacturing industries, as well as literature on other industry types that face similar challenges within Europe.

3.2

Start in the Core Business

For companies to be socially sustainable they have to directly associate social sustainability with their core business [START_REF] Porter | Creating shared value[END_REF], thus focusing on their employees instead of e.g. charity work outside the business, which is not value adding for the company [START_REF] Porter | Creating shared value[END_REF][START_REF] Lovins | Employee Engagement is Key to Sustainable Success[END_REF]. The long-term social impact is the largest when successful social sustainability action is closely associated with core business gains. The company's objective is to create shared values, where both the company and the surrounding society benefit [START_REF] Porter | Creating shared value[END_REF]. This is a complicated task, requiring long-term thinking.

Attractive Jobs

Different societal groups have different "wants", i.e. needs and expectations, when it comes to jobs, as shown in the literature summarized in Table 1. In addition, the table indicates which of those "want-factors" are relevant to manufacturing companies in a contemporary perspective. Some "wants" which were found in available literature can be considered less pressing for manufacturing companies to act upon, since those wants are already fulfilled.

Table 1. What do different societal groups want from a job and is it relevant to manufacturing industry?

Societal Group

Wants identified in literature Relevant to manufacturing?

Overall

Interesting work [START_REF] Lewis | Lean production and sustainable competitive advantage[END_REF] Work flexibility [START_REF] Bond | Workplace Flexibility in Manufacturing Companies[END_REF] Relevant: There is little work flexibility in manufacturing industry [ The literature revealed two main challenges when it comes to attracting workers to manufacturing companies: to offer interesting jobs and to provide work flexibility.

Interesting job. People want a challenging job that involves interaction with people and a feeling of importance in their working role [START_REF] Kovach | What motivates employees? Workers and supervisors give different answers[END_REF][START_REF] Zukin | Talent Report: What Workers Want In[END_REF][START_REF] De Lange | Should I stay or should I go? Examining longitudinal relations among job resources and work engagement for stayers versus movers[END_REF]. In addition, they want opportunities to develop [START_REF] Lewis | Lean production and sustainable competitive advantage[END_REF] as well as variety, meaning different work tasks. According to the literature, women associate success with having an interesting job according to the definitions above [START_REF] Linkedin | What do Women Want at Work?[END_REF].

Flexible job. Flexibility in the workplace means letting employees have some control over when, where and how much they work [START_REF] Bond | Workplace Flexibility in Manufacturing Companies[END_REF]. Work-life balance is also about flexibility, but on a higher level, where the job enables parents to take care of their children, by means of flexible work hours [START_REF] Accenture | Defining Success -2013 Global Research Results[END_REF] but also through parental leave, vacation, and access to child care [START_REF] Bond | Workplace Flexibility in Manufacturing Companies[END_REF].

The Manufacturing Industry Image

An important part of attracting a larger recruitment pool is to present a desirable image of working within manufacturing industry. As for today, manufacturing industry has an undeservedly negative reputation, where people understand the importance of the jobs but are not interested in those jobs for themselves. Especially young people have low interest in the jobs since the common perception is that manufacturing is dirty and not well paid, although it is simultaneously considered to be high-tech and require high-skilled workers [START_REF] Giffi | Made in America? What the Public thinks about manufacturing today[END_REF]. Giffi and McNelly [START_REF] Giffi | Untapped resource; How manufacturers can attract, retain, and advance talented women[END_REF] argue that high-skilled women working within manufacturing do consider the jobs interesting but other literature [START_REF] Aulin | Issues confronting women participation in the construction industry[END_REF] suggests that women are struggling with (social) acceptance in male dominated industries, mainly due to a lack of role models. Therefore, to overcome the problem, "good practice" companies ensure that their image is modern and open, by providing real role models and having a female-friendly working environment [START_REF] Rübsamen-Waigmann | Women in industrial research: A wake up call for European industry[END_REF].

Examples From Different Industries

There are many companies that have already recognized that employee well-being is the key to retaining competent workers within the company, as well as attracting the best ones. Google is famously noted as the most wanted employer in the world today [START_REF] Light | Google Is No.1 on List Of Desired Employes[END_REF], which focuses on keeping work interesting both by adapting tasks to the workers' skills and by encouraging the workers to take on new challenges [START_REF] Sullivan | A case study of Google recruiting[END_REF]. Another company that has realized the importance of letting workers develop is Rio Tinto Alcan Iceland (ISAL), an aluminum producer in Iceland. This company has initiated upper secondary level schooling for those of their workers who have only completed primary education. The school is part-time where classes are both during and outside work hours, so the students are still working full time. The aim is to increase the competence, confidence and leadership skills of the workers [START_REF] Guðfinnsdóttir | [END_REF]. Citigroup, an American bank, has seen the benefits of working with internal job mobility [START_REF] Buning | Solving the skills crisis[END_REF]. They have therefore created an internal talent market, so when there is a job opening they recruit internally for the right talent, since employees with a broad skillset will make it easier for the company to adapt to changes.

To increase the involvement of women in the manufacturing workforce, companies have to enable their workers -both men and women -to combine work and family life. For example, the global company Siemens is working with career-and-children combination by offering on-site childcare, support for workers returning from parental leave and elderly care to create a more flexible and attractive workplace [START_REF] Siemens | How to balance family and career[END_REF].

For manufacturing companies it will not be enough to change the work tasks to attract a broader workforce pool; the work environment and industry image need to be changed with it. Modern manufacturing has come a long way from the stereotypically ., dirty and noisy factories -the Volkswagen "Glass factory" in downtown Dresden, Germany, an automotive assembly factory with glass walls and wooden floors [START_REF] Manufaktur | A Car Factory in the Centre of Town[END_REF], is an extreme example of that intentional image change.

When companies have less diversity among their employees than there is in society, they should look into which societal groups are not being represented, and target them especially when recruiting. Deloitte has created a step-by-step approach, summarized below, that is targeted especially at recruiting women, but the steps can be adapted to other groups as well:

Discussion and Conclusion

To overcome the foreseen labor crisis due to the rapidly changing demographics of Europe, manufacturing companies need to expand their pool of potential employees.

In order to do so, this paper suggests that industry should focus on increasing diversity within their workforce, by reaching out to the societal groups that are currently described as in minority within the industry; primarily women and young people. In order to do so, the image of manufacturing needs to change, to become an attractive career option. A way of approaching this is shown in Figure 2. The authors would like to stress the importance of starting by improving and integrating Social Sustainability in the core business, before working on improving the image. When it comes to attracting workers, work environment and work content has to be improved first, with interesting jobs, more flexibility and more family-friendly working conditions. By anticipating what potential workers want and changing the organization accordingly, companies will attract all groups of society and thereby become more socially sustainable. In this process, long-term thinking is the key, i.e. to always start within the walls of the company by actively supporting, developing and retaining the already recruited workforce. After internal stability has been achieved, it has to be clearly and inclusively communicated to society in order to improve the industry's image (Figure 2).

Interesting

job? yes Sustainable core -keep the existing workforce Increased Social Sustainability no Today's situation Unsustainable core -attractive, but not keeping workforce negative positive Industry image Fig. 2. Matrix of approach for companies; the arrows suggest a progression from today's situation to an ideal, socially sustainable solution to the recruitment challenges.

Gaps were also found in the literature regarding societal groups that should be attracted to increase diversity; also, there is a lack of research that specifically examines the European context. The authors see great potential for the aforementioned SO SMART-project to address many of these research and analysis gaps. When manufacturing has become an attractive career option for people from all groups of society, the manufacturing companies of Europe can commence their journey of social sustainability. Even more importantly, they can then become a sustainable business able to withstand the crisis and remain an attractive source of employment, development and stability for the European labor force.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Age distribution of countries in the European Union pool of possible employees for manufacturing companies.

and have defined social sustainability in relation to work and lifestyle as: "the freedom to choose at any stage in life between different forms of work (wo arrangements, field of work) or lifestyles, while being at all times entitled to individ

  To better understand the concept of Social Sustainability and what it means for manuliterature study was carried out. Literature was sought out on many levels, including scientific literature, but since the term Social Sustainability is still taking shape in the common understanding among Europeans, other contemporary popular literature formats, surveys and reports were included if these added relevant perspective, medial representations or provided statistical figures.

	Age group
	y field illustrates the
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	social sustainability will be
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	World Commission
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	among manufacturing industry employees is lesser than the diversity of society as a than the diversity of society as a
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	that needs to be asked is therefore: which aspects of social sustain social sustaina-
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Sven Rogalski
email: sven.rogalski@kit.edu

Hendro Wicaksono
email: hendro.wicaksono@kit.edu

Konstantin Krahtov
email: konstantin.krahtov@kit.edu

Resource-Efficient Production Planning through Flexibility Measurements in Value Creation Systems

Keywords: Flexibility Measurement, Manufacturing Systems, Resource Efficiency, Production Planning and Control

For years, manufacturing companies have faced an increasingly complex and rapidly changing market environment which is the result of, if nothing else, higher customer individualization. This particularly concerns SME's, whose competitiveness is increasingly dependent on the early identification of new customer and market requirements and their ability to dynamically respond to these in an adequate fashion. In order to meet the high standards demanded of the planning quality and planning safety with ever increasing complexity and the continuous reduction of the planning time available, SMEcompatible IT technologies are needed for the simulation of complex manufacturing relations. The following article addresses this problem and in-troduces the method set ecoFLEX, which enables the simulation of targeted and dynamic alignment of existing plant structures, resources and value-added processes with new production requirements. Unlike digital factory planning tools, a complete picture of the specific plant situation is not required, as will be illustrated by selected case studies from the medium sized production sector.

Introduction

The transition of modern industrial nations from a post-industrial to an information orientated society has gained considerable momentum in recent years. Global integration due to the explosive spread of modern communication technologies, especially with the advent of the Internet in the early 90s, resulted in an unprecedented level of transparency and integration of national and international markets. This led on the one hand to the development of new markets, while on the other hand, pushed competitors from low-wage countries into the established markets of developed countries, whose influence in their own markets is slowly disappearing [START_REF] Ehrlenspiel | Integrierte Produktentwicklung: Denkabläufe, Methodeneinsatz, Zusammenarbeit[END_REF]. This places new demands on the flexibility and adaptability of companies to successfully master the everchanging, complex strategic and operational requirements in this turbulent market environment [2] [3].

One approach to dealing with the increased requirements of this environment is the product-and resource-based networking of companies in the form of individual value-creation systems, attuned to manufacturing targets. Their goal is to balance the high uncertainty in planning, induced by the turbulent operational field, on an intercompany level through the appropriate configuration of the network. However, the information acquisition and processing of value-creation planning is already very time consuming and complicated, even at a corporate level [START_REF] Reinhart | Bewertung von Kunden-Lieferanten-Beziehungen in der Automobilindustrie[END_REF] [START_REF] Rogalski | Factory design and process optimisation with flexibility measurements in industrial production[END_REF].

In this climate it is apparent that a company's information management is gradually becoming a key competitive advantage and its importance will undoubtedly continue to increase significantly. While the CIO was once purely responsible for the technical provision of data, it now holds the most responsibility for an enterprise's innovation. The effective and efficient management of information is thus largely codecisive in the quick and effective performance of innovation processes and thus crucial for economic success [6] [7].

Despite the rapid increase in importance and value of information, the IT landscapes of many companies are still stuck in the past. While large companies struggle to align their systems and processes with the new conditions, small and medium-sized enterprises often lack integrated systems. This applies particularly to the production, which must actively contribute to securing long-term corporate success. The use of IT takes over the tasks of planning, design, monitoring and controlling of information throughout the product manufacturing. However, there is a lack of effective and efficient information management, especially for SME, which collects and evaluates information from existing ERP, CRM, SCM or digital factory planning systems, in order to integrate the flexibility and adaptability requirements for its own value creation while taking into account the customer and supplier processes [START_REF] Rogalski | Handling Resource Efficiency in Production of Small and Medium sized Enterprises[END_REF] [START_REF] Rogalski | Factory design and process optimisation with flexibility measurements in industrial production[END_REF].

To master the complexity of the competing requirements of the demanded flexibility and adaptability along with the cost, time and quality goals in the product manufacturing, new information technology tools are needed. These must ensure the integration of existing IT solutions in the production environment of companies in order to allow the systematic and mutually manageable information processing for both strategic planning and operations. Such tools can be grouped under the generic term "Digital Factory" and allow the planning, simulation and optimization of products, processes and their associated use of energy, material, personnel and equipment [5] [8]. However, companies make different demands on the degree of detail of the simulations, the expense for the construction of simulation models, the evaluate options and depth of integration with other systems to avoid redundant work. It is particularly difficult for companies to incorporate the system and product life cycle aspects into their economic goals within their product, process and resource planning, to find the best possible degree of flexibility and resource efficiency for its own value creation [START_REF] Kunst | Wirtschaftlichkeit der Virtual Reality Technologie[END_REF] [4] [START_REF] Rogalski | Factory design and process optimisation with flexibility measurements in industrial production[END_REF].

State of the Art

Leading digital factory planning and simulation tools offer an extensive range of functions for simulation, which can calculate complex and especially dynamic busi-ness processes in order to make mathematically safe business decisions. They are also suitable for the geometric and functional planning of factory layouts, whose production processes can also be planned and optimized in 2D and 3D. This allows for the visualization, simulation and analysis of the technical elements of production with their respective space requirements, but also physically available production area, the prescribed height and weight loads as well as the material and transportation flows in conjunction with the required manufacturing manpower [START_REF] Rogalski | Factory design and process optimisation with flexibility measurements in industrial production[END_REF] [10] [START_REF] Westkämper | Digital Manufacturing in the Global ERA[END_REF]. Significant obstacles are in particular the high acquisition costs for the usage of such systems which threaten a positive cost-benefit ratio. Also their high training costs, due to their high complexity mean that they find little acceptance. Smaller factory planning tools are indeed cheaper than the market leader, but generally inadequately cover many specific planning problems. Further simulations are therefore mainly performed manually and are supported by self-developed software extensions or often by MS Excel.

Especially critical here is the dependence of the planning results on the subjective factors involved in planning which often only restrictedly survey the impact of decisions and their consequences. Thus, there are significant weaknesses in the design, dimensioning and personnel allocation of production facilities, based on economic uncertainty and the current overcapacity [START_REF] Rogalski | Factory design and process optimisation with flexibility measurements in industrial production[END_REF].

In the relevant literature there are various approaches that are isolated from the typical digital factory planning tools, through which attempts are made to evaluate flexibility and adaptability of production [START_REF] Rogalski | Factory design and process optimisation with flexibility measurements in industrial production[END_REF]. The disadvantage of these approaches and assessment procedures, however, is their lack of prevalence in industry as they relate to restricted areas of concern and do not allow cross-analysis. Reasons for this are on the one hand, the unsolved problem of a generally applicable measurement and evaluation of the flexibility and adaptability.

Flexibility Measurements with ecoFLEX

Against this background, the flexibility assessment toolbox ecoFLEX was developed. This, thanks to its generically built interface, allows for easy integration with existing IT systems for strategic and operational production planning. This enables extensive information gathering and data processing, through the integrated evaluation methods and analysis algorithms for various planning and control tasks (Figure 1). Via the provided functionality for flexibility analysis, existing weaknesses in the design, dimensioning and staff assignment of production assessed in the context of economic uncertainty and potential capacity fluctuations can be evaluated, so that an economic balance between the prevailing planning uncertainties and the required degree of flexibility in production can be assured. Quantifiable parameters can be calculated with ecoFLEX by using existing resource information and their cost-, time and application dependencies, as for example from ERP-systems. Beyond the state of the art and research, this enables objective flexibility analysis on different levels of value creation systems (Network, factory, workplace, etc.). Due to the fact that calculation parameters, which can be determined for different types of production systems, form the basis of the flexibility evaluation methodology, it can be applied in different sectors. Its customization to different evaluation challenges requires little effort and thus contributes most to the user acceptance of SME. The reason for this is the production network model, which allows the presentation of evaluation-relevant and existing production objects in an abstracted way and that ensures the logical, level-related gathering and structuring of the needed flexibility parameters. This enables the identification of flexibility-related dependencies between single production objects, so that flexibility deficits can be allocated to the responsible unit. The conceptual set-up is graphically represented in the figure 1.

Application Experience with ecoFLEX

The usefulness of the Flexibility Assessment Toolbox ecoFLEX has already been proven many times in practice. The basis for this was the previously presented implementation of the evaluation mechanisms as a software tool. An example of the associated benefits and advantages will be shown using the example of a mediumsized automotive supplier for assembly technology. There, two assembly lines, together with workplaces have been investigated, where a total of nine different products for roof mounting are manufactured for the automotive industry. One of these products is available in two variants.

Due to the remarkable scope of analysis and the emerging findings, only the findings obtained with ecoFLEX in Assembly Line 1 will be discussed in this paper. Through the analysis with ecoFLEX, the production volume that allows the production to run economically was determined for the first time. This corresponded to the production numbers of at least 1,286 pieces (break-even amount) and a maximum of 5,596 pieces (maximum production), based on a work week and a defined product mix ratio (see Figure 2, top left).

All deviations above or below this volume range will inevitably lead to a loss of revenue. Such a break-even analysis was not possible before, because despite a directed material flow, this was discontinuous, which meant that there was a buffer in the form of crates and rolling racks at each work station. In addition, the personnel were not necessarily tied to a specific workplace, but could change between different ones (but not all). This allowed for buffers upstream the product stage to be depleted and replenished to a certain degree. In addition, there were also scattered cycles in the material flow that occurred whenever intermediate products did not meet the prescribed quality standards and were therefore sent back to workplaces upstream for rework. This resulted in a very high complexity and consequently a lack of transparency in production-related dependencies in the production planning of the company, so that resource planning was dependent on a so-called "gut feeling".

This "gut feeling" was also of great importance in the strategic planning of resources. Similarly so for the consideration of the conversion of Assembly Line 1, where the company's production planning found "suspected" flexibility deficits and thus wanted to improve the corresponding sub-optimal work processes. The focus was on the manual riveting workplace of the line (see figure 2, workplace 0060), which could be occupied by up to two operators and which processed the intermediate products from the Assembly Line. According to planning, this workplace should be replaced with an automated workplace (a riveting robot), where the necessary investment costs would be € 100,000. The analysis of this proposed line reconstruction was done by calculating the so-called ecoFLEX index. This index, which represents a flexibility index for a particular factory object, gives information about the manufacturing flexibility in a value-creation system in a simple form. It is not very useful when considered in isolation, but only when compared with the ecoFLEX indices of other factory objects in the scenarios to be examined. Thus, with larger deviations in the indices in the form of "outliers", existing flexibility discrepancies in a value creation system can be detected very quickly and the corresponding factory objects can be classified. This confirms the aforementioned example of the proposed procurement of a riveting robot to replace the manual workplace 0060. This led, as shown in the flexibility investigation, to a significant increase in the ecoFLEX index from 79.95% to 94.38%, due to a significant increase in productivity, resulting from reduced scrap and reduced process times. Although this looked very promising at first glance, such a measure would have led to a local flexibility surplus which could not be totally exhausted by the assembly line. Worse still, from the perspective of the assembly line, this measure would have resulted in flexibility losses as a result of high investment costs for the conversion of the line, which would've increased the break-even volume to 1,441 units per week, whereas the maximum production rate could only be able to be increased to 48 units per week. These new findings led to the procurement of the planned riveting robot being discarded. Unexpectedly for the production planner, the real flexibility bottleneck in line 1 was at the workplace 0065, which emerged from the ecoFLEX index calculated (see Figure 2, left side).

Fig. 2. Analysis of manufacturing flexibility with ecoFLEX

It was found that the operations carried out at this workplace did not have to be exclusively done by specially trained workers, but instead there was the possibility to decouple work operations to allow for different tasks to be done by semi-skilled personnel. This resulted in the skilled work force being freed up for other tasks. To achieve this, only the existing workplace 0065 had to be extended by an additional work bench and buffer storage. Through this an increase in the ecoFLEX index from 77.03% to 80.18% resulted for the entire line 1, which brought a clear improvement of manufacturing flexibility for the line. Expressed in terms of production numbers, this means a reduced break-even quantity of 1,220 pieces, as well as an increased maximum production of 6,156 pieces per workweek (see Figure 2, top right).

As part of these studies it was also found that the dimensioning of the workplaces 0050 and 0085 were chosen as too big in the former planning phase. This is illustrated by the ecoFLEX indices of over 94%, which as op-posed to workplace 0065 deviate greatly from the average of all ecoFLEX indices (see Figure 2, left panel). The result is a flexibility surplus, which causes avoidable additional costs through the acquisition of both workplaces. This finding was surprising for the production management, which made it clear that it can sometimes be useful to check the so-called "gut feeling" with the appropriate IT tools.

Another consideration made in this context with the ecoFLEX analysis was the assessment of potential outsourcing in order to be able to meet, if necessary, short-term demand spikes that exceed the maximum possible production rate of 6,156 pieces per week. The production management was clear in this case that the work done at workplace 0065 could be outsourced to a production supplier, but lacked a clear overview of the associated chances and risks for Assembly Line 1. In this way, in-house, operations-related production costs of 6.31 € occur for the carrying out of special assembly process at workplace 0065 (see Figure 3, right panel). The outsourcing of the process to an external third party would mean an increase in the company operations-related costs to 7.35 € (see Figure 3, right panel), which are based on the production service costs and logistics costs. Due to the increased variable production costs within the Assembly Line 1, the break-even volume increased to 1,573 pieces per work week, but thereby also increasing the maximum production volume to 7,920 pieces per week.

Fig. 3. Outsourcing Analysis with ecoFLEX

The ecoFLEX investigations provided important insights for the production planning of the company, as it was now clear that workplace 0065 represented a flexibility bottleneck that could be solved as described above by the easily accessible process improvement measures, significantly increasing the total flexibility and output rates (6156 units per week) of the assembly line (see Figure 2, top right). To meet sudden demand levels that exceed the existing capacity of the line, there is the possibility of using a production service provider, creating an additional flexibility buffer of 1,764 pieces per week, which can be retrieved when needed with a lead time of approximately three weeks.

Summary

The ecoFLEX investigations provided important insights for the production planning of the company, as it was now clear that workplace 0065 represented a flexibility bottleneck that could be solved as described above by the easily accessible process improvement measures, significantly increasing the total flexibility and output rates (6,156 units per week) of the assembly line (see Figure 2, top right). To meet sudden demand levels that exceed the existing capacity of the line, there is the possibility of using a production service provider, creating an additional flexibility buffer of 1,764 pieces per week, which can be retrieved when needed with a lead time of approximately three weeks. On this basis, cost-driven flexibility and capacity weaknesses in the complete plant structure are quickly identified and solved through both operational and strategic measures. Taking into account the total efficiency of the production, strategic production changes can be quickly simulated by a simple integration of existing expertise of the company's own production planning and control. Thus, unnecessary additional costs due to inefficiencies in resource usage or senseless adjustments to the production infrastructure, such as construction and reconstruction of production facilities are avoided, creating financial flexibility for future investments.

A recent coupling of ecoFLEX with a 3D Visualisation and simulation solution allowed an immersive virtual reality of the production facilities. Production planners now have the opportunity to examine in detail the inefficiencies in resource allocation identified with ecoFLEX in the virtual plant models and to develop alternative solutions that would otherwise only be possible using a real object. With the help of the virtual image of the production and the simulation of processes, it is possible to test different strategies of dealing with their impact on the entire system.

Fig. 1 .

 1 Fig. 1. Overview of the ecoFLEX approach (according to [2])


Hyun Woo

Vittal Prabhu
email: prabhu@engr.psu.edu

The Harold

Inge Marcus

Modeling Energy Performance of Manufacturing Systems using Gi/M/1 Queues

Keywords: Energy Aware Model, Gi/M/1, Queueing, Distribution Fitting

Energy expended in a discrete manufacturing system can be saved by turning idle machines off. Utilizing this idea, previous research has contributed preliminary models in which mainly M/M/1 machines are considered. To generalize existing approaches, this paper proposes a new energy model based on a Gi/M/1 queueing network. To start, a simulation model is built with Gi/M/1 machines. The proposed model is then built by fitting each GED (Generalized Erlang Distribution) to the observed first two moments of simulated interarrival times of all machines. Consumed energy is calculated separately by the proposed and simulation models, and, in the comparison between two estimations, the proposed method shows at most 4% different energy estimation from simulated values, suggesting that the proposed approach is promising for the energy analysis about a Gi/M/1 queueing network.

Introduction

Motivation and Previous Research

Energy demand by the U.S. industrial sector accounted for more than 30% of the total U.S. energy demand, and electricity consumption of the sector took up about 10% of the total demand in 2010 [START_REF] Marcus | Energy Information Administration: Annual Energy Outlook 2012 Early Release Reference Case[END_REF]. The American electricity price for industrial consumption has continuously increased since 1990, and there remains an acute need to monitor industrial/manufacturing facilities to find a way of saving energy [START_REF] The | Energy Information Administration: Average retail price of electricity[END_REF]. In the light of this observation, one noteworthy research contribution implies that 30-85% of energy in machining is spent at a constant rate [START_REF] Dahmus | An Environmental Analysis of Machining[END_REF]. Since it suggests that the significant amount of energy is wasted for machine idling, research works have been conducted to save energy by turning idle systems off especially in the DPM (Dynamic Power Management) field [START_REF] Benini | A Survey of Design Techniques for Systemlevel Dynamic Power Management. Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems[END_REF]. Thus DPM is grounded in theory, but there are inherent limitations in their applicability to manufacturing: First, each microprocessor state in DPM does not correspond well to that of a machine [START_REF] Benini | A Survey of Design Techniques for Systemlevel Dynamic Power Management. Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) Systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Frigerio | Modeling Energy States in Machine Tools: An Automata Based Approach[END_REF]. Second, while electrical signals in DPM can be freely created and discarded among processors, physical parts in manufacturing cannot. Hence there has been difficulty in applying DPM theories directly to manufacturing. On the other hand in manufacturing research, power and energy analysis has relied on the approaches which focus on a short span of time in machining. The traditional method has limitations in observing long run properties of energy consumption by machines [START_REF] Kalpakjian | Manufacturing Engineering and Technology[END_REF]. One analysis, to address the problem, takes the idle state into consideration, but it still depends on coarse textbook tables for important parameters [START_REF] Overcash | Unit Process Life Cycle Inventory (UPLCI)-A Structured Framework to Complete Product Life Cycle Studies[END_REF]. In more recent literature, the focus is on energy optimization of a unit machining process, but the methods are still unable to analyze energy consumption of yearlong machining [START_REF] Yan | Multi-Objective Optimization of Milling Parameters -The Trade-Offs between Energy, Production Rate and Cutting Quality[END_REF], [START_REF] Calvanese | Analysis of Energy Consumption in CNC Machining Centers and Determination of Optimal Cutting Conditions[END_REF]. Queueing theory models, in consideration of described problems, can be alternatives to previous research since they can include working and idling states in the long run [START_REF] Prabhu | Simulation Modelling of Energy Dynamics in Discrete Manufacturing Systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Prabhu | Modeling green factory physics-An analytical approach[END_REF]. However queueing based models in [START_REF] Prabhu | Simulation Modelling of Energy Dynamics in Discrete Manufacturing Systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Prabhu | Modeling green factory physics-An analytical approach[END_REF] also have limitations in that they assume only M/M/1 systems or the restricted machine states. As a consequence, we need to improve existing queueing models in order to take more general types of manufacturing systems into accounts.

Contribution and Organization

The main contribution of this paper is the development of an extended energy aware model of machining. A machine network, in this paper, consists of multiple machines, and each machine has renewal arrivals and exponential processing times (Gi/M/1) to allow more generality. Dealing with renewal interarrivals, we assume that the first two moments of the arrival distribution are known, and the distribution fitting is performed to generate the arrival flow following the two moments. For machine states, total five states are included: setup, tool change, cutting, nominal power idling, and low power idling. Thus this research aims to provide a more general energy analysis than previous models described earlier in [START_REF] Prabhu | Simulation Modelling of Energy Dynamics in Discrete Manufacturing Systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Prabhu | Modeling green factory physics-An analytical approach[END_REF].

The rest of this paper is organized as follows: After the machine states and the energy control policy are defined, a brief experiment is introduced to measure energy/power parameters of a milling machine in Section 2. Then in Section 3, the distribution fitting method with two moments is described. Section 4 introduces simulation experiments, and examines the comparison between the result by the proposed method and that by the simulation experiments. The conclusion and future research directions are detailed in Section 5.

Energy Performance Model

Machine States, Power Consumption Levels, and Energy Policy

Generally, machine states are defined as working, nominal power idling, and low power idling states [START_REF] Prabhu | Simulation Modelling of Energy Dynamics in Discrete Manufacturing Systems[END_REF], but this research regards the working state as the combined state of setup, tool change, and cutting. Thus we define five machine states, and power consumption level of each state is as follows:

x Setup: Generic machine state of waking-up with x Tool Change: State for tool (cutter) changing with

x Cutting: State of air or material cutting with x Nominal Power Idling: Idle state whose duration is less than with x Low Power Idling: Idle state whose duration is greater than or equal to with For the energy policy, machines are assumed to enter the low power idling state if the current idle duration is greater than the time threshold . Otherwise machines stay in the nominal power idling state during idling [START_REF] Prabhu | Simulation Modelling of Energy Dynamics in Discrete Manufacturing Systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Prabhu | Modeling green factory physics-An analytical approach[END_REF].

Power Data and Experiment

Power data was collected in the experiment with a Haas VF3 milling machine. Six cuts were made on the steel block in 6 x 4 inches size, and depth of cut and contact surface (full/half) in each pass varied. Power and processing times were collected as in Figure 1 and Table

Theoretical Model of Consumed Energy Amount

The consumed energy for a unit time under the energy policy is written as [START_REF] Prabhu | Simulation Modelling of Energy Dynamics in Discrete Manufacturing Systems[END_REF], [START_REF] Prabhu | Modeling green factory physics-An analytical approach[END_REF], of the arrival process are important parameters in our energy analysis since the two parameters are used in calculating and in (1) [START_REF] Prabhu | Modeling green factory physics-An analytical approach[END_REF]. Thus we need to have the probability distribution function from which the two probabilities can be calculated, and the distribution has to be fitted to the first two moments. For this approach, any single machine in a network is decomposed as an independent system, and GED (Generalized Erlang Distribution) is fitted to each machine's arrival flow [START_REF] Whitt | Approximating a Point Process by a Renewal Process, I: Two Basic Methods[END_REF], [13], [START_REF] Kuehn | Approximate Analysis of General Queueing Networks by Decomposition[END_REF], [START_REF] Tijms | Stochastic Models -An Algorithmic Approach[END_REF]. Using GED for fitting has two advantages: First, it allows us to consider relatively regular interarrivals with less coefficient of variation . Second, GED is easier to treat than other probability distributions as seen in its probability density distribution:

(2)

(3)
where and are the variance and mean of observed data samples. More details of GED are found in [START_REF] Whitt | Approximating a Point Process by a Renewal Process, I: Two Basic Methods[END_REF], [START_REF] Tijms | Stochastic Models -An Algorithmic Approach[END_REF], and literature therein.

Simulation and Analysis

Simulation is performed to see how precisely the distribution fitting method can estimate and . Important parameters and assumptions are as follows:

x Scenario 1: Two machines in a row x Scenario 2: Typical COMS manufacturing fab. [START_REF] Jaeger | Introduction to Microelectronic Fabrication[END_REF] x Utilization of Machine : 0.5 or 0.8 x Cutting, Setup, and Tool Change Rates: Table 1 x Arrival Rate of Machine : Number of arrivals per a time unit x Processing Rate : Reciprocal of total sum of cutting, setup, and tool change time x Arrival Distribution: Normal distribution with parameters in Table 2 and3 x Processing Distribution: Exponential for Cutting, Setup, and Tool Change x Queueing Model: Gi/M/1 as approximation x Power Consumption (kVA) : , , , , from Table 1 x Simulation Software: Simio V4.68

Scenario 1: Two Machines in Serial Line

Table 2 gives good estimations of and by fitting. Since the method is based on first two moments, normal arrivals would have been ideal subjects with symmetry and unimodal in their density. This also explains the smaller difference (F-S) of Machine 1 than of Machine 2 since arrivals to Machine 1 appear more normal than Machine 2's. It seems that there is no apparent relationship between F-S and utilization . Contrary to the previous result in Table 2, and of Etching in Table 3 show slightly larger difference with the max F-S of 0.16 than those of Deposition and Lithography. In the next subsection, it is shown and analyzed how different energy estimations are made between simulation and proposed models based on probabilities in Table 2 and3.

Analysis and Discussion

From simulated parameters, expected energy demands for a unit time are calculated in this section by [START_REF] Marcus | Energy Information Administration: Annual Energy Outlook 2012 Early Release Reference Case[END_REF]. Since these demands are the product of power consumption levels and the time proportion at each state , the resulting energy consumption between fitting and simulation depends on and as given in 4 and 5. Energy demands of Scenario 1 are shown in Table 4. As and of fitting and simulation show quite close values, the largest difference is less than 3% in energy consumption. This agreement is also observed in Table 5 of Scenario 2. Although the largest difference 3.17% between simulated and estimated values is seen with Etching process, this value does not seem to be very large in that we just used the first and second moments and of observed arrival times to estimate the arrival flow. Since the difference of and in Table 3 between simulated and estimated values is relatively greater than others, this is also expected difference. As a consequence, both tables are suggesting that the proposed method provides quite accurate estima-tions about the total spent energy on the machine network. In order to show the good fits between observed and fitted interarrival times, Figure 4 and 5 are added below. Both figures illustrate the histogram of observed data and pdf (probability density function) for Deposition and Etching processes respectively when the machine utilization 0.8 is considered.

Conclusion and Future Research

This research proposes the method of estimating the energy amount of a manufacturing facility with machines in a network under the energy policy. Especially this approach aims at Gi/M/1 machines rather than M/M/1 systems for allowing more generality. To validate estimated values by the method, simulation is conducted, and the simulated result is compared with that of our approach. Consequently, it is shown that the proposed method gives, even at the worst case, only 4% different estimation. For

Histogram

Fitted GED further research, other queueing models such as the Gi/G/1 need to be investigated with the percentile fitting method for considering more general distributions, since the proposed strategy of fitting is based on exponential service times.

Fig. 2 .

 2 Fig. 2. Scenario 1 (Two Machines in Serial Line)

Fig. 4 .Fig. 5 .

 45 Fig. 4. Simulated Interarrival Histogram and pdf of Deposition (Scenario 2, Rho = 0.8)

Table 1 .

 1 1, and data values of Table 1 are averaged during each machine state. Averaged Power Data (kVA)

		Fig. 1. Power Data (Haas VF3 Milling Machine)
	Pass No.	Off	Idle	Machine State Cutting (time)	Setup (time)	Tool Change (time)
	1	0.63	0.99	5.24 (57 secs)	1.89 (5 secs)	3.25 (1 sec)
	2	-	-	2.78 (58 secs)	-	-
	3	-	-	3.81 (59 secs)	-	-
	4	-	-	3.72 (57 secs)	-	-
	5	-	-	2.54 (57 secs)	-	-
	6	-	-	2.56 (58 secs)	-	-

Table 2 .

 2 Probabilities of Nominal / Low Power Idling States (Scenario 1)

				Prob.(Low)		Prob.(Nominal)		Prob.(Low)		Prob.(Nominal)
	M		Fit	Sim.	F-S	Fit	Sim.	F-S	Fit	Sim.	F-S	Fit	Sim.	F-S
		0.7	0.48	0.47	0.01	0.02	0.03 -0.01	0.19	0.18	0.01	0.01	0.02 -0.01
		1.4	0.37	0.37	0.00	0.13	0.13	0.00	0.15	0.14	0.01	0.05	0.06 -0.01
	1	2.1	0.22	0.23	0.00	0.28	0.27	0.01	0.09	0.08	0.01	0.11	0.12 -0.01
		2.8	0.11	0.11	0.00	0.39	0.39	0.00	0.05	0.04	0.01	0.15	0.16 -0.01
		3.5	0.05	0.03	0.01	0.45	0.47 -0.01	0.02	0.01	0.01	0.18	0.19 -0.01
		0.7	0.43	0.47 -0.04	0.06	0.03	0.04	0.15	0.20 -0.05	0.04	0.01 0.03
		1.4	0.31	0.40 -0.09	0.18	0.10	0.08	0.11	0.17 -0.06	0.08	0.04 0.04
	2	2.1	0.21	0.30 -0.09	0.29	0.20	0.09	0.08	0.13 -0.06	0.11	0.08 0.03
		2.8	0.13	0.20 -0.07	0.36	0.29	0.07	0.05	0.10 -0.05	0.14	0.11 0.03
		3.5	0.08	0.13 -0.05	0.42	0.37	0.05	0.03	0.08 -0.04	0.15	0.13 0.02

4.2

Scenario 2: CMOS Manufacturing Fab.

Fig. 3. Typical CMOS Manufacturing System

Table 3 .

 3 Probabilities of Nominal / Low Power Idling States (Scenario 2)

				Prob.(Low)		Prob.(Nominal)		Prob.(Low)		Prob.(Nominal)
	M		Fit	Sim.	F-S	Fit	Sim.	F-S	Fit	Sim.	F-S	Fit	Sim.	F-S
		0.44	0.43	0.48	-0.04	0.07	0.03	0.04	0.17	0.19	-0.02	0.03	0.01	0.02
		0.88	0.31	0.40	-0.08	0.19	0.10	0.08	0.12	0.16	-0.04	0.08	0.05	0.03
	D	1.31	0.21	0.29	-0.09	0.29	0.21	0.08	0.08	0.12	-0.04	0.12	0.09	0.03
		1.75	0.13	0.19	-0.06	0.37	0.31	0.06	0.05	0.08	-0.03	0.15	0.13	0.02
		2.19	0.08	0.10	-0.02	0.42	0.41	0.02	0.03	0.05	-0.02	0.17	0.16	0.01
		0.44	0.41	0.44	-0.03	0.08	0.04	0.04	0.15	0.18	-0.03	0.04	0.02	0.02
		0.88	0.30	0.36	-0.06	0.19	0.12	0.07	0.11	0.15	-0.04	0.08	0.05	0.03
	L	1.31	0.20	0.29	-0.09	0.29	0.19	0.10	0.07	0.11	-0.04	0.11	0.08	0.03
		1.75	0.13	0.22	-0.09	0.36	0.27	0.10	0.05	0.09	-0.04	0.14	0.11	0.03
		2.19	0.08	0.16	-0.08	0.41	0.33	0.08	0.03	0.07	-0.03	0.15	0.13	0.02
		0.88	0.69	0.72	-0.03	0.05	0.03	0.03	0.48	0.56	-0.08	0.11	0.03	0.08
		1.75	0.51	0.61	-0.10	0.23	0.13	0.10	0.35	0.50	-0.15	0.24	0.09	0.15
	E	2.63	0.32	0.44	-0.12	0.42	0.30	0.12	0.24	0.40	-0.16	0.35	0.19	0.16
		3.50	0.18	0.25	-0.07	0.57	0.49	0.07	0.16	0.30	-0.15	0.43	0.28	0.15
		4.38	0.09	0.13	-0.04	0.65	0.62	0.03	0.10	0.22	-0.12	0.49	0.37	0.12

Table 4 .

 4 Expected Energy Consumption for a Unit Time (Scenario 1)

			Machine 1 (kVA*min)			Machine 2 (kVA*min)
		Fit	Sim.	Diff.(%)	Fit	Sim.	Diff.(%)
		2.793	2.805	-0.41	1.714	1.692	1.30
		2.832	2.841	-0.30	1.755	1.717	2.20
	0.5	2.886	2.892	-0.21	1.793	1.753	2.30
		2.926	2.933	-0.25	1.821	1.788	1.88
		2.949	2.962	-0.44	1.840	1.813	1.47
		4.084	4.100	-0.40	2.342	2.283	2.56
		4.099	4.117	-0.42	2.356	2.294	2.70
	0.8	4.121	4.137	-0.39	2.368	2.307	2.66
		4.137	4.153	-0.38	2.377	2.317	2.56
		4.146	4.162	-0.37	2.383	2.327	2.40

Table 5 .

 5 Expected Energy Consumption for a Unit Time (Scenario 2)

		Deposition (kVA*min)	Lithography (kVA*min)	Etching (kVA*min)
		Fit	Sim.	Diff.(%)	Fit	Sim.	Diff.(%)	Fit	Sim.	Diff.(%)
		2.811	2.790	0.75	1.720	1.722	-0.16	1.429	1.413	1.11
	0.5 (D, L) 0.25 (E)	2.853 2.892 2.920	2.817 2.855 2.893	1.27 1.27 0.95	1.760 1.795 1.821	1.750 1.776 1.803	0.58 1.07 1.01	1.492 1.561 1.612	1.451 1.511 1.581	2.74 3.17 1.93
		2.939	2.926	0.44	1.838	1.824	0.77	1.643	1.625	1.08
		4.092	4.058	0.85	2.343	2.313	1.29	1.917	1.885	1.66
	0.8 (D, L) 0.4 (E)	4.109 4.124 4.135	4.070 4.084 4.099	0.97 0.97 0.87	2.357 2.368 2.377	2.325 2.337 2.346	1.39 1.36 1.33	1.963 2.002 2.031	1.909 1.942 1.977	2.76 3.00 2.68
		4.142	4.110	0.77	2.383	2.353	1.26	2.052	2.008	2.11