Yvonne Treis

Similarity and equality demonstratives in Kambaata

Introduction

Typological profile

-Morphological type: agglutinating-fusional; strictly suffixing -Head-and dependent-marking: elaborate case system; subject agreement on verbs -Constituent order: consistently head-final -Open word classes: nouns, adjectives, verbs, ideophones, interjections; closed word classes: pronouns, numerals & quantifiers, demonstratives; very few conjunctions and adverbs

Nouns: GENDER: feminine vs. masculine; CASE: see 2 example declensions below Adjectives: case/gender agreement with head noun; CASE (as modifiers): nominative, accusative, oblique; GENDER: feminine, masculine; as NP-head: full case-marking potential Verbs: fully finite main clause verbs vs. various types of dependent clause verbs, marked inflectionally for subject agreement, mood, aspect, subordination, switch reference

Comparison

-Comparison of relative superiority (comparative) -Comparison of absolute superiority (superlative) -Comparison of similarity (similative) -Comparison of equality (equative)

Comparison of relative superiority

-Source schema [START_REF] Heine | Cognitive Foundations of Grammar[END_REF]) / Separative comparative [START_REF] Stassen | Comparison and Universal Grammar[END_REF] (2) Buttu'll-a-sí hagár-u {garad-d-a-sí=hann-íichch} cubs-fGEN-DEF colour-mNOM adult-PL1-fGEN-DEF=NMZ2-mABL gambáll y-áano black.IDEO say-3mIPV 'The colour of the (civet) cubs is darker than that of the adults (lit. The colour of the cubs is dark {from that of the adults}).' (K89: 6.56)

Comparison of absolute superiority

-Source schema: 'C is P from all (S)'

(Absolute Comparison Superlative in [START_REF] Gorshenin | The crosslinguistics of the superlative[END_REF] typology) (3) -Location schema: 'C is P among S'

(see Type S[cope] in [START_REF] Gorshenin | The crosslinguistics of the superlative[END_REF] typology) (4)

(3) {Hór-aa=r-íichchi-n} abbíshsh all-mOBL=NMZp-mABL-N exceed.3mPCO kichche'-ishsh-o-'ée-hu m-á agújj-ee-he? be_sad-CAUS-3mPVO-1sO.REL.VV-mNOM what-mACC seem-3mPVE-2sO 'Which incidence do you think has made me saddest? (lit. {From all things}, the one that has made me very sad seems (to be) what to you?)' (K89: 6.124) (4) {Haqq-áan} fárr-u tontóon-a-a, wood-mLOC bad-mNOM plant_species-mPRED-mCOP2 {cii'-áan} fárr-u hagas-óo-t, birds-fLOC bad-mNOM wattled_ibis-mACC.VV-COP3 {mann-áan} fárr-u ebal-óo-t people-mLOC bad-mNOM PN-mACC.VV-COP3 (Context: Speaker A mentions the creeper tontoona in a conversation, which makes Speaker B recite a mock poem) 'The worst tree is the [smelly] tontoona-creeper, the worst bird is the wattled ibis, [and] the worst person is So-and-so.' [overheard] Excursus on the function =g: The enclitic can be attached to any type of modifier phrase and thus generates nominalised phrases that are translatable as 'manner/way of [(pro)noun]' (8), '[adjective] manner/way', or 'manner/way that [relative clause]'. The resulting manner phrases can assume any syntactic function and any semantic role in the clause. Ex. (8) contains two manner-nominalised phrases, the subject noun phrase Sabir-ó=g-u 'Sabiro's way' and the ablative-marked adverbial noun phrase Shaameeb-í=gíichch 'from/than Shaameebo's way'.

Comparison of similarity

(8) {Shaameeb-í=g-íichch} {Sabir-ó=g-u} wóyy-a-a PN-mGEN=G-mABL PN-mGEN=G-mNOM better-mPRED-mCOP2 'Shaameebo's way (of doing things) is better than Sabiro's way (lit. {From Sabiro's way}, {Shameebo's way} is better).' [Elicited] (11) Riyéen-u {haarr-í oddishsh-á=g-a} al-éen-ta-nne rayon-mNOM silk-mGEN clothes-fGEN=G-mACC/OBL body-mLOC-L-1pPOSS laaf-áno-ba'a be_soft-3mIPV-NEG 'Rayon is not soft like/as soft {as silk clothes} on our body.' (K89: 6.45)

Comparison of equality

Equative construction with qax-á 'extent'

-Less common equative construction -Especially for measurable equality (size, amount) -Expression of non-measurable equality only in elicited qax-á-constructions, as in (13)

(12) Ā'ā́'ā Caakkís-u {Da'llis-ó qax-á} 1 qeráa'rr-u-a-ba'a no PN-mNOM PN-mGEN extent-mACC tall-mPRED-mCOP2-NEG 'No, Caakkiso isn't as tall {as Da'lliso}.' [DW_Dialogue_2014-12-10] (13) Siggis-í-i {isé qax-á} bíishsh-a-ta PN-fNOM-ADD 3fGEN extent-mACC red-fPRED-fCOP2 'Siggise, too, is as light-skinned (lit. red) {as she (is)}.' [Elicited]
-If parameter not overtly expressed: implicit parameter always size or amount2 (14) Ku bóos-u hikkánni-a qáx-a DDEM1mNOM water_pot-mNOM IDEM2mGEN-mCOP2 extent-mPRED 'This water-pot is as (implicit parameter: big) as that one.' [Elicited] 1 A native speaker noted that Da'llis-ó qax-á could here be replaced by Da'llisó=g-a without any apparent change in meaning.

(15) Kan boos-í wó'-u qakkíchch-u-a DDEM1mOBL water_pot-mGEN water-mNOM tiny-mPRED-mCOP2 ka [n] isí=biihú-u kánni-anka DDEM1mOBL 3mGEN=NMZ1.mNOM-ADD IDEM1mGEN-mCOP2<N> qáx-a extent-mPRED 'The water in this pot is very little, and the one in this (one) here is as (implicit parameter: much/little) as the (first).' [Elicited] Qax-á 'extent' is an independent masculine noun with full case-marking potential (Table 2).

ACC qax-á NOM qáx-u GEN qax-í DAT qax-íi(-ha) ~ qax-ée(-ha) ABL qax-íichch ~ qax-éechch ICP qax-íin LOC qax-áan OBL qáx-a PRED (with COP2) qáx-a

Catephoric use [introducing direct speech] (24) […] qamál-ch-ut maccoocc-itán egér-t hitt-íta y-itóo'u: "_" monkey-SG-fNOM hear-3fICO

stay-3fPCO like_this-fACC say-3fPVO '[…] The monkey listened and (then) said like this (i.e. as follows): "…"' (K89: 4.77)

Influence of the "emphatic" -n-morpheme on the meaning of manner deitics

The manner deictics are often combined with a morpheme -n. The functions of this (often pragmatically determined) ubiquitous morpheme are still a mystery to me. In the description of related languages, it is labelled an "emphatic" morpheme. The addition of -n to manner deictics trigger the following regular changes in meaning:

hittíta 'like this' + <n> = hittínta 'simply, without doing anything, without any use, without having been finished' [German einfach so] (25) -hittigúta 'like this' + <n> = hittigúnta 'also, too, and' [Dt. sowie], very common discourse particle (~ equally frequent as German also) (26) -hittínta and hittigúnta are not synonymous (while the manner deictics without -n, hittíta and hittigúta are synonymous, see above)

(25) Kú'nn! xuud-daantí=g-anka minu-sí-i PTV.DEM1m see-2fIPV.REL=G-mACC<N> house-m.NOM-DEF-ACC hitt-ínta uurr-ée=g-anka beet-u-'í-i like_this-fACC<N> stand-3mPVE.REL=G-mACC<N> child-mNOM-1sPOSS-ADD ammóo mesel-aakk-áta aag-is-ú'nna-n yóo'u but girl-PL2-fACC enter-CAUS-3mNCO-N COP1.3 'Here we go! As you see, the house is not yet finished (lit. is standing like this = simply, without any use), and my son is not yet married.' [Text_unreal_sit] (26) Lal-í maal-á beess-áammi-a. Hittig-únta cattle-mGEN meat-mACC cover-1sIPV.REL-mCOP2 like_this-fACC<N> gid-iichchí-i wól-o daaf-iichchí-i ka'mmam-áan-sa cold-mABL-ADD other-mOBL danger-mABL-ADD protect[.REC]-1sIPV-3pO (A leather skin speaking in a story:) 'I cover the cattle's flesh. And I protect them [= the cattle] from cold and other dangers.' (K89: 3.47)

Similative demonstrative quality modifiers hittigoon-á(ta) and hittigaam-ú/-íta 'such'

Hittigoon-á(ta) and hittigaa-ú/-íta 'such' -quality deictics, express similarity between the target of the demonstration and the referent of the demonstrative phrase -used as modifier of a head noun (28) (case/gender agreement), or: -used without head noun if head noun understood from the context ( 27) -used as a predicate in the same way as other adjectival modifiers (cf. German Er ist so.)

[example still to be added] -so far no meaning difference known between hittigoon-á(ta) and hittigaam-ú/-íta -interesting formal relation: directly derived from the similative demonstrative pronoun hittig-úta 'like this'

o

Equative demonstrative modifier kank-á(ta) 'this many, this much'

Kank-á(ta)

-See ex. (29) above -degree deictic and quantity deictic -used as modifier of a head noun (case/gender agreement) (30) -unknown if used without head noun if head noun understood from the context (to be explored) -used predicatively in the same way as other adjectival modifiers of the language -used as adverbial modifier of adjectives (32) and verbs (33) (invariantly mACC) -paraphrased as ka qax-á /DDEM1mACC amount-mACC/ 'this amount' in a monolingual Kambaata dictionary (Alemu 2016) -but as the examples below show, this paraphrase is not an adequate paraphrase of kanká(-ta) in all its uses -not always used deictically (see ex. 34ff below)

Deictic use

Use as modifier in NP (quantity deictic) (exophoric and endophoric) (30) Án kank-á buur-ú ass-áamm 1sNOM this_much-mACC butter-mACC give-1sIPV (a) Exophoric use (speaker indicates amount with his/her hands): 'I give this much butter.' (b) Use as a placeholder for a quantitative expression: 'I give so-and-so much butter.' (31) Kánk-ata haraarim-áan kaas-amm-ó bún-u this_much-fOBL width-fLOC plant-PASS-3mPVO.REL coffee-mNOM bobir-is-aqq-iihá-a ih-ano-sí arriichch-ó wind-CAUS1-MID-mDAT-ADD be_enough-3mIPV-3mO.REL sun.SG-fGEN caakk-á daqq-iihá-a dand-áno light-mACC find.MID-mDAT-ADD be_able-3mIPV Endophoric use: (Context: One digs rows at a distance of five span.) 'Coffee (plants) that are planted at such a distance (lit. width) can receive air and enough sunlight.' Degree adverbial:

(38) Kank-á abb-is-áno-ba'a this_much-mACC be_big-CAUS-3mIPV-NEG (Context: I asked someone: "Do the Alaaba people celebrate the masaala-holiday?" -The person answered:) 'They don't celebrate it that much/very much.' [Overheard] (39) Án he'-aammí=b-eechch-u kank-ánka 1sNOM live-1sIPV.REL=PLACE-SG-mNOM this_much-mACC<N> cúlu ass-úmb-u-a beautiful do-3mNREL-mPRED-mCOP2 'The place where I live is not very (lit. this much) attractive.' [Qakkichchu Laaha: §15] Non-deictic negative use: 'not very (much/long)' -Negation by inference [!] when used as predicate -Negation not overtly expressed (unlike in ex. ( 37)-( 39)) (40) Gíir-at katam-í mann-íi aass-itáa tám-it fire-fNOM town-mGEN people-mDAT give-3fIPV.REL use-fNOM kánk-aa-n-ta this_much-fPRED-N-fCOP2 (From a right/wrong exercise in a schoolbook:) 'Fire is not that useful/only little useful for townspeople.' (K89: 4.56)

Possible re-phrase of (36):

(41) Yam-ée gén-it kánk-aa-n-ta mice-mGEN harm-fNOM this_much-fPRED-N-fCOP2 'The damage (caused by) mice is not that much.' [DW2016-09-21] (42) Wáag-u-s kánk-aa-n-ka price-mNOM-DEF this_much-mPRED-N-mCOP2 'The price is not that high.'

[DW2016-09-21]

Equative demonstrative modifier hibank-á(ta) / habank-á(ta) / hiwank-á(ta) 'this many, this much'

-seems functionally equivalent to kanká(-ta): used as modifier in the noun phrase (43) and used adverbially -but: only few examples in the database -meaning and phonological variation still to be explored further (43) Án ammóo j-eechch-ú-s hibank-á gizz-á 1sNOM but time-SG-fACC-DEF this_much-mACC money-mACC baat-íi dand-im-bá' íkke pay-mDAT be_able-3mNIPV-NEG INACT (Preceding sentence in the dialogue: The amount of money that he requested for the land lease was three-fold higher than he had asked for the same plot in the years before.) 'But I was not able to pay that much money by then.'

Conclusion

Unlike German (so), Kambaata spread the tasks of a deictic degree modifier, quality modifier and manner modifiers (at least) across three types of demonstratives (some of which have formally closely related synonyms).

-Verbal manner: hittíta and formally related synonyms (hittigúta, hítt y-/a'-) ( §6.1) used as adverbial manner modifiers of verbs or as predicates o Form: verbal manner deictics are based on the (feminine) medial demonstrative; one of the verbal manner deictics, hittigúta, contains (historically) the manner morpheme =g o Non-deictic use: In combination with the ubiquitous (albeit still unanalysed) "emphatic" -n-morpheme the verbal manner pronouns are used non-deictically (hittínta 'simply, without any use …' and hittigúnta 'likeweise, and') -Nominal quality: hittigoon-á(ta) and hittigaam-ú/-íta ( §6.2), used as nominal modifier, as head of a noun phrase if referent understood from the context, or as a predicate (similar to English such)

o Form: nominal quality deictics are derived (in a transparent way) from one of the verbal manner deictics, namely hittigúta -Adjectival degree: kank-á(ta) used as a degree modifier, i.e. adverbial modifier to an adjective or property verb/ideophone ( §6.3), but also used as a nominal quantity/extent modifier o Non-deictic use: kank-á(ta) is not used deictic in all contexts but it is also used to express a (non-deictic) high degree (elative degree, 'very') or a (nondeictic) high quantity ('much'); in its non-deictic use it often occurs in negative contexts, if there is no overt negation, kanká(-ta) can be negative by inference o Form: The degree deictic seems formally related to the (masculine) proximal demonstrative Kambaata has a four-degree/dimension demonstrative system (proximal, medial, distal, contrastive). These deictic dimensions are neutralized in the manner, quality, degree demonstratives.

NMZ

  Afro-Asiatic > Cushitic > East Cushitic > Highland East Cushitic (HEC) South of Ethiopia; immediate neighbours: speakers of other HEC languages (Hadiyya, Alaaba) and Ometo languages of the Omotic family (Wolaitta, Dawro) Number of speakers: 615,000 (2007 Ethiopian census) Database: narratives, conversational data and elicited data, yearly fieldtrips 2002-2007 and 2016; in addition: written corpus (schoolbook texts, Gospel of John, Little Prince etc.)

  like_this-fACC squat-2sPCO stand-2sPVE.REL.NMZ.VV.mNOM what-fDAT.VV-COP3 (Context: The tired horse just stopped on the road, let its ears hang down and rested. A fox came along and asked:) 'Why are you squatting (here) like this?' it like this.' (Exophoric: Speaker shows how he did it.) [DW2016-09-21] Endophoric [anaphoric] use (21) (…) hanaqal-í=g-u ikkodáa hittíg-u-ta-ba'a type_of_food-mGEN=G-mNOM however like_this-fPRED-fCOP2-NEG '(…) but the preparation (lit. way) of hanqalú is not like this [= as mentioned earlier in the text].' [TH_Hanaqalu2007] (22) Tah-íchch-u dángo {hitt-íta afuu'll-ít zug-gáni-yan} fly-SG-mNOM suddenly like_this-fACC sit-3fPCO lie_in_ambush-3fICO-DS waall-ó=da […] come-3mPVO.REL=COND (Context: Speaker describes how a chameleon lies in ambush.) 'When a fly comes suddenly while she (= the chameleon) is lying in ambush like this, ó=hann-íichch zakk-íin, […] like_this do-3mPCO get_up-3mPVO.REL=NMZ2m-mABL after-mICP (Context: The horse lied down like the fox had advised him.) 'After he (= the horse) had done like this, […].'(K89: 6.123-131)

( 28 )

 28 Hannó hittigáam-u / hittigóon-u háww-u yoo-sí please such-mNOM problem-mNOM COP1.3-3mO.REL man-ch-í=tannée xuundáamm men-SG-mGEN=about look.1pIPV 'Let us look at a person who has such a problem [= problem to speak in public, as described earlier in the text].' (K89: 4.41 [correction DW]) Not to be confused with (see next section): (29) Hannó kánk-u háww-u yoo-sí please this_much-NOM problem-mNOM COP1.3-3mO.REL man-ch-í=tannée xuundáamm men-SG-mGEN=about look.1pIPV 'Let us look at a person who has an equally difficult problem/serious problem/problem of the same dimension.' [DW2016-09-21]

[

  EK2016-02-23, meaning (b) in the recording]

  -la? that_much-mACC strong-mACC where-mOBL hide-1sIPV-MIT 'Where can I hide such a big/strong (leopard as you are)?' (K4: 76) (33) M-íihaa-t kank-á kichche'-áyyoontii? what-mDAT.VV-COP3 that_much-mACC be_sad-2fPROG.NMZ.VV.mNOM (Context: The woodcutter stood at the bank of the river and cried, a water spirit called Meerkure appeared and asked him:) "Why are you so sad?"'

Table 1 . Case paradigms of a masculine and a feminine noun.

 1

	dum-á (masculine)	gat-í-ta (feminine)
	'back room'	'backyard'

-Manner schema: 'C is P (in) S's manner' (cf. similative construction) -Amount schema: 'C is P (to) S's amount/extent'

  Amount schema: standard marker qax-á 'amount' used as an independent noun -Manner and amount schema are syntactically parallel: Comparee = nominative subject;Standard Phrase = genitive modifier plus 'manner' (ACC/OBL) or 'amount/extent' (ACC), adjunct to parameter; Parameter = adjective, property verb/ideophone

	-Constructions differ with regard to frequency as well as origin, multifunctionality and degree of grammaticalisation of standard marker o Manner schema more frequent than amount schema o Manner morpheme =g highly multifunctional (cf. Treis in press): manner nominaliser, similative standard marker, marker of complement, temporal, purpose clauses etc.; =g is phonologically enclitic, case-marked but not used as an independent noun (9) Án {tees-ó caf-í doo'll-ó=g-a} 1sNOM now-fGEN swamp-mGEN type_of_bird-fGEN=G-mACC/OBL dan-aam-íta m-íi ih-áam-ba'a y-itóo'u beauty-AAM-fACC what-mDAT be-1sIPV-NEG say-3fPVO '"Why am I not beautiful like/as beautiful {as that flamingo}?" she said.' [TD2016-02-11_001] (10) {Zoobb-ée=g-a} xalig-á ik-kumbóochch lions-mGEN=G-mACC/ACC strong-mACC be-2sNREL.ABL urr-ú-' kad-dókkoont frontyard-fACC-1sPOSS step-2sPREV 'Unless you are strong like/as strong {as lions}, don't dare to step into my front o 5.1. Equative construction with =g 'manner' yard!'

(K89: 6.124; corrected by DW)

Table 2 .

 2 Because the price of fuel is rising, the price of medicine is rising at the (same) rate as that one (= the fuel).'

	(16) Kánn	qax-íichch	m-á	aass-áan-ke-la?
	DDEM1.mOBL amount-mABL what-mACC give-1sIPV-2sO-MIT
	'What can I give you from this amount? (i.e. It is too small to share.)'	[Elicited]
	(17) Halaalis-amm-óochch		zakk-íin	qah-ú	qax-á
	cut_throat-PASS-3mPVO.REL.ABL after-mICP small-mACC while-mACC
	egérr	fóol-u-s		fúlli-yan	reh-ee'íichch (…)
	wait.3mPCO soul-mNOM-3mPOSS leave.3mPCO-DS die-3mPVE.REL.ABL
	'After (the bull's) throat has been cut, one waits a little while, and when the soul has
	left (the bull) and it has died […].'		[TH_Tä2003-09-26]
	(18) Gaaz-í	hír-at	ammóo abbís-s	barg-itán
	fuel-mGEN price-fNOM but	exceed-3fPCO add-3fICO
	gal-táyyoo=bikkíiha		zabb-i-sí	hir-atí-i
	spend_time-3fPROG.REL=REAS medicine-mGEN-DEF price-fNOM-ADD
	hikkanní	qax-ánka		le'-áyyoo'u
	IDEM2m.GEN degree-mACC<N> grow-3fPROG
	'(K89: 7.155)

Case paradigms of qax-á (m.) 'extent'

Polysemous noun qax-á: 'amount, quantity, number' (16), 'volume, contents', 'size, height, length, circumference', '(spatial) distance, limit', and '(temporal) distance, period of time, while' (17).

Similarity and equality demonstratives 6.1. Similative demonstrative manner pronoun hittíta 'like this' and its variants

	Hittíta 'like this'
	-deictic element expressing similarity in manner
	-used adverbially in a verb phrase (19)-(20) or predicatively (21)
	-looks formally like a feminine accusative noun (hitt-íta) but no other case/gender form
	possible
	-formally related to feminine medial demonstrative modifier ('that'): ACC hítta, NOM
	hítt, OBL hítta ~ hittán ~ hittánn (NB: Kambaata has a 4-degree/dimension
	demonstrative system: proximal, medial, distal, contrastive)
	-hittíta largely synonymous with
	o hittigúta 'like this' (which contains manner morpheme =g) (20)
	Exophoric use
	(19) Hitt-íta	qumucc-ít	uurr-iteentíi	m-íihaa-t?

o adverbial form of hítt y-'do (intr.) like this' / hítt a'-'do (tr.) like this' (23) [demonstrative ideophone] -hittíta, hittigúta, hítt y-/ a'form a triplet with interrogative pronouns hattíta / hattigúta 'how?' and the interrogative ideophone hátt y-/ a'-'do (intr./tr.) how?'

  Snake claims that it is stronger than the finger of the king. The Little Prince doubts that and says:) 'You are not that strong, as (strong) as you said.'

	(35) Át	kank-á	y-itaantí	qax-á	maqáam-u-a-ba'a
	2sNOM this_much-mACC say-2sIPV.REL extent-mACC strong-mPRED-mCOP2-NEG
	(Context: [Qakkichchu Laaha: §17]
	Non-deictic use: 'very (much/long)'
	In many contexts, kank-á(ta) is not deictic, it rather has expresses an heightened (absolute)
	degree and is then best translated with 'very'. [To be explored: How cross-linguistically
	common is it for degree and quantity deictics to be used non-deictically?]
	Quantitative modifier in NP:
	(36) Yam-óo	kánk-at	gén-it	yóo-si-ba'a
	mice-mNOM this_much-fNOM harm-fNOM COP1.3-3mO-NEG
	'Mice are not that/not very harmful (lit. Mice, there is not this much harm to them).'
	(Meaning: They are a bit harmful, but not much.)	(K89: 3.32)
	(37) Án	kank-á	dooll-á	ki'nne'éen barg-ámm	he'-áni-yan […]
	1sNOM this_much-mACC time-mACC 2pICP	add-PASS.1mPCO live-1sICO-DS
	'I have lived together with you for such a long/for a very long time [but yet you haven't
	recognized me].'				(John 14, 9)
						(NJ 4.16)
	Adverbial use as degree deictic (endophoric)
	(34) Anshéeb	lam-ú	meetir-á		qeráa'rr-u-a.
	PN.mNOM two-mACC meter-mACC	tall-mPRED-mCOP2
	Shaameeb-i-sí-i	kank-ánka			qeráa'rr-u-a.
	PN-mNOM-DEF-ADD this_much-mACC<N>	long-mPRED-mCOP2
	[or:]		hikkann-í		qax-ánka	…
			DDEM2m-mGEN amount-mACC<N>
	'Ansheebo is two meters tall.'
	'Shaameebo, too, is that/as tall / (or:) tall to that extent.'	[DW2016-09-21]

Note that size/amount polysemy is also observed in the adjectives qah-ú(-ta) 'small (size); little (amount)' and abb-á(-ta) 'big; much'.

Abbreviations